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an explicit setter method, the setter must be an abstract method and its return type must be the value trait type. See Section 10.3 for a discussion of updating fields of value objects. 76
Chapter 10 Objects An object is a value object, a reference object, or a function object: It is a function object if it has an arrow type, a reference object if it has an object trait type that is not declared with the value modifier (see Section 10.3), and a value object otherwise (i.e., if it has a tuple type, the type (), or an object trait type declared with the value modifier). Value objects cannot have mutable fields, and they are completely determined by their type, environment and their fields: Value objects with the same type, environment and fields are indistinguishable. Thus, an implementation may freely copy value objects. Most objects with simple standard types, such as booleans, numeric literals, IEEE floatingpoint numbers, and integers are value objects. In contrast, reference objects are thought to “reside in memory”, and are identified by an object reference. A new object reference is created whenever a reference object is constructed, so that reference objects constructed separately are always distinct. Reference objects include arbitrary-precision numbers and aggregates such as arrays, lists and sets. Function objects are immutable and have no fields. Identity is not welldefined for function objects, and attempting to check whether two functions are equivalent returns an approximate result. Section 10.4 describes object equivalence in further detail. 10.1 Object Declarations Syntax: ObjectDecl ::= ObjectHeader (MdDef | FldDef | PropertyDecl) ∗ end ObjectHeader ::= ObjectMod ∗ object Id [StaticParams] [([ObjectParams])] [Extends] FnClauses ObjectMod ::= TraitMod ObjectParams ::= ObjectParam(,ObjectParam) ∗ | [ObjectParam(,ObjectParam) ∗ , ] ObjectVarargs | [ObjectParam(,ObjectParam) ∗ , ] [ObjectVarargs,] ObjectKeyword ( , ObjectKeyword) ∗ ObjectVarargs ::= transient Id : TypeRef ... ObjectKeyword ::= ObjectParam=Expr ObjectParam ::= FldMod ∗ PlainParam | transient PlainParam FnClauses ::= [Throws] [Where] [Contract] Throws ::= throws MayTraitTypes Object declarations declare both object values and object trait types. Object declarations extend a set of traits from which they inherit methods. An object declaration inherits the concrete methods of its supertraits and must include a definition for every method declared but not defined by its supertraits. Especially, an object declaration must not include abstract methods (discussed in Section 22.3); it must define all abstract methods inherited from its supertraits. It is also allowed to define overloaded declarations of concrete methods inherited from its supertraits. 77
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The Fortress Language Specification
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4 Evaluation 36 4.1 Values . . . .
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12 Functions 85 12.1 Function Decla
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17.7 Coercions for Tuple and Arrow
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IV Fortress for Library Writers 214
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40.10The Trait Fortress.Core.Binary
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Chapter 1 Introduction The Fortress
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A note on the presented libraries i
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component HelloWorld export Executa
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foo:String → () baz: String → S
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fortress upgrade Gary with Ralph No
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halve(x : R64) : R64 = x/2 Predicta
Page 25 and 26: while x < 10 do print x x += 1 end
Page 27 and 28: It is also possible to convert a me
Page 29 and 30: factorial(n) = ∏ i←1:n i This f
Page 31 and 32: In both methods cons and append , t
Page 33 and 34: default distributions will provide
Page 35 and 36: Chapter 3 Programs A program consis
Page 37 and 38: Chapter 10), a literal (see Section
Page 39 and 40: (discussed in Section 13.13) to a s
Page 41 and 42: Chapter 5 Lexical Structure A Fortr
Page 43 and 44: U+0021 EXCLAMATION MARK ! U+0023 NU
Page 45 and 46: If a character (or any other syntac
Page 47 and 48: BIG SI unit absorbs abstract also a
Page 49 and 50: escape sequences are useful for ASC
Page 51 and 52: 5.14.1 Multicharacter Enclosing Ope
Page 53 and 54: Note: the elegant way to write Avog
Page 55 and 56: • top-level variable declarations
Page 57 and 58: declares id to be a mutable variabl
Page 59 and 60: several new variables. This syntax
Page 61 and 62: Chapter 7 Names Names are used to r
Page 63 and 64: 7.3 Qualified Names Fortress provid
Page 65 and 66: Fortress also allows coercion betwe
Page 67 and 68: • element types of a tuple type c
Page 69 and 70: TypeAlias ::= type Id [StaticParams
Page 71 and 72: ‘}’. If such a clause contains
Page 73 and 74: Note that a trait declaration inher
Page 75: the parametric trait WrappedDiction
Page 79 and 80: FldDef ::= FldMod ∗ Id [IsType] (
Page 81 and 82: Chapter 11 Static Parameters Trait,
Page 83 and 84: 11.5 Operator and Identifier Parame
Page 85 and 86: Chapter 12 Functions Functions are
Page 87 and 88: swap(x :Object, y : Object) = (y, x
Page 89 and 90: A function declaration may be separ
Page 91 and 92: Chapter 13 Expressions Fortress is
Page 93 and 94: Negating the literal 0 produces a s
Page 95 and 96: the function is evaluated with the
Page 97 and 98: 13.10 Assignments Syntax: Expr ::=
Page 99 and 100: treeSum(t : TreeLeaf) = 0 treeSum(t
Page 101 and 102: Several common mathematical operato
Page 103 and 104: The body of each iteration is run i
Page 105 and 106: to the value of the condition expre
Page 107 and 108: An atomic expression consists of th
Page 109 and 110: 13.26 Try Expressions Syntax: Flow
Page 111 and 112: 13.27.2 Static Expressions and Valu
Page 113 and 114: A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] then A 1,
Page 115 and 116: evaluates to the set {0, 4, 16} Map
Page 117 and 118: ignore(f x) is equivalent to: f x;
Page 119 and 120: trait CheckedException extends { Ex
Page 121 and 122: Chapter 15 Overloading and Multiple
Page 123 and 124: e called with. In other words, we e
Page 125 and 126: Chapter 16 Operators Operators are
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• “ordinary” operators: + −
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left context whitespace operator fi
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The rules below are designed to for
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16.8.3 Enclosing Operators When use
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16.8.9 Intersection, Union, and Set
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Chapter 17 Conversions and Coercion
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17.3 Coercion Invocations One may i
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arguments nor with variable number
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trait B extends A end trait C exten
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a new coercion in a subexpression
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for tokens. For readability, plural
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Chapter 19 Tests and Properties For
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19.5 Test Suites In order to allow
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Chapter 20 Type Inference Type infe
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3. If a i is a functional applicati
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21.2 Programming Discipline If Fort
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Here the call f(a, a) ends up setti
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2. Ancestors, dynamically ordered b
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The ways in which fortresses are ac
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Component equivalence is determined
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22.5 Type Inference for Components
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Fortress.IO Fortress.Crypto IronLin
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execute(componentName:String, args:
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3. If the replacement does not expo
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This method runs all test functions
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Fortress.IO Fortress.Crypto Fortres
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Part III Fortress APIs and Document
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23.1.3 hash(maxval: N64): N64 23.1.
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opr =(self,other: Boolean):Boolean
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24.1.20 getter hashCode(): N64 24.1
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False: BooleanInterval Uncertain: B
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24.2.11 opr ∧(self,other: Boolean
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24.2.19 possibly(self): Boolean 24.
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Chapter 25 Numbers 25.1 Rational Nu
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opr ⌈self ⌉: N realpart(self):
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25.1.11 opr (self,other: Q):Boolean
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25.1.26 floor(self): Z 25.1.27 opr
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Chapter 26 Negated Relational Opera
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26.1.26 opr ⊀T extends BinaryPred
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27.3 The Trait Fortress.Standard.Un
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Chapter 29 Dimensions and Units 29.
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unit secondOfAngle secondsOfAngle:
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Chapter 30 Tests 30.1 The Object Fo
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31.2 Convenience Types An optional
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Chapter 32 Parallelism and Locality
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y evaluating the two elements of th
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There is a DefaultDistribution whic
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v = spawn at a.region(i) do a i end
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expr ∑ type wrapper ∑ body R,
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32.8.3 Using Overloading to Adapt G
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Chapter 33 Overloaded Functional De
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coercions: T U ⇐⇒ T ♦ U ∧
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The More Specific Rule for Function
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An infix/multifix operator declarat
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may be so defined except ordinary p
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and here some of these computed dim
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unit name 1 name 2 name 3 : . . . u
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Chapter 36 Support for Domain-Speci
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Because syntax expanders are define
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Part V Fortress APIs and Documentat
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property ∀(a:T) ¬(a ∼ a) end A
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trait PartialOrderOperatorsT extend
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The HasMinimalElement trait specifi
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The trait Commutative requires the
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A value e is a left identity for a
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trait ApproximatelyHasInverses T ex
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end extends { ApproximateCommutativ
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A default definition is provided fo
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trait RationalQuantityunit U absorb
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(self,other:RationalQuantityU,ninf
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38.2.4 getter hashCode(): Z64 38.2.
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Chapter 39 Components and APIs We d
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Chapter 40 Memory Sequences and Bin
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updatenat k(j: IntegerStatick, v: T
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40.1.12 update(j:IndexInt, v: T): L
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40.3.2 opr nat m[r:RangeOfStaticSiz
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40.5 The Trait Fortress.Core.Binary
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40.5.5 bit(m:IndexInt): Bit The res
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40.6 The Trait Fortress.Core.Binary
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40.6.4 opr nat m[r:RangeOfStaticSiz
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40.6.16 opr ‖ nat m,bool bigEndia
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countLeadingZeroBits():IndexInt cou
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40.7.41 signedShift(j:IndexInt):T 4
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40.8.6 signedDivide(other: T,overfl
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littleEndian():BinaryEndianLinearEn
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40.9.16 opr ‖ nat m,nat radix,nat
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v: BinaryEndianWordb,bigEndianBytes
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40.10.9 opr nat m[r:RangeOfStaticSi
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40.10.24 splitnat b ′ () : Binary
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itAnd(selfStart: IndexInt,source:T,
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40.13.2 wrappingAdd(selfStart: Inde
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40.13.30 unsignedMax(selfStart: Ind
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40.13.55 gatherBits(selfStart:Index
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Appendix A Fortress Calculi A.1 Bas
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Values, evaluation contexts, redexe
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Expression typing: p; ∆; Γ ⊢ e
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α, β type variables f method name
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Function/method name lookup: Fname(
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One owner for all the visible metho
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Traits defining a method: defining
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Values, evaluation contexts, and re
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Valid function declarations: p ⊢
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Method definition lookup: visible p
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Values, intermediate expressions, e
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Field typing: p; ∆; Γ ⊢ vd ok
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Appendix B Overloaded Functional De
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Proof. We prove this for δ, but th
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Upgrade A predicate upg? takes two
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a is rendered as a foobar is render
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• If a portion is sub and another
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supercalifragilisticexpialidocious
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any alternative names, with undersc
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Appendix F Operator Precedence, Cha
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U+007C VERTICAL LINE | | U+2016 DOU
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The following two operators have th
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U+003D EQUALS SIGN = = EQ U+2243 AS
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U+22DD EQUAL TO OR GREATER-THAN U+2
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U+2289 NEITHER A SUPERSET OF NOR EQ
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F.4.8 Miscellaneous Relational Oper
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U+21A5 UPWARDS ARROW FROM BAR U+21A
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U+2224 DOES NOT DIVIDE ∤ U+2225 P
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U+27F8 LONG LEFTWARDS DOUBLE ARROW
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U+2960 UPWARDS HARPOON WITH BARB LE
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U+29ED BLACK CIRCLE WITH DOWN ARROW
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Appendix G Concrete Syntax In this
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Extends ::= extends TraitTypes Excl
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StaticParam ::= Id [Extends] [absor
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Value ::= Literal | fn ValParam [Is
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Appendix H Generated Concrete Synta
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-> fn_decl -> object_decl -> var_de
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-> id extends_opt absorbs_opt -> "n
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-> w "excludes" w type_ref_list com
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-> obj_decl_body_elem br obj_decl_b
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-> op wr op_follows_op_w -> op wr e
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-> no_space_op_expr_result no_space
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id_opt -> -> w id with_opt -> -> w
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-> unpasting_elem rect_separator un
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-> "}" comprehension -> set_compreh
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-> do_expr -> for_expr -> spawn_exp
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-> type_ref -> "(" w type_ref w ","
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enc -> enc_literal op_or_enc -> op
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Bibliography [1] O. Agesen, L. Bak,
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