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3. Signaling Aggression 39 A Darkness of face (pixel darkness) 220 210 200 190 180 170 160 4 Non-escalated encounter 6 8 10 12 14 16 C B Darkness of face (pixel darkness) 220 210 200 190 180 170 160 4 Escalated encounter 6 8 10 12 14 16 Time (s) D Percentage of losing males 100 80 60 40 20 0 Intense Zebra Extended 4th arm Winners Losers First encounter Second encounter (no copulation) Second encounter (after copulation) Figure 3.3. Cuttlefish signal intent to escalate a fight with a dark face component to their Intense Zebra Display. (A, B) Differences in facial darkness during a non-escalated versus escalated encounter. (C) Two males in Intense Zebra Display with different degrees of facial darkness. (D) When males that lost a fight copulated with a female, they became more aggressive in the successive fight. From Adamo and Hanlon (1996). bluffed (i.e., gave a dark-faced Intense Zebra Display but had little fighting motivation and/or ability) could withdraw at the next stage of agonistic behavior with little penalty. In the same study, the authors allowed losing males to copulate with a female after a bout, and retested them with the male each had lost to. The former losers increased facial darkness dramatically in those encounters, showed a longlasting Intense Zebra Display, and did not withdraw from an opponent (Fig. 3.3D), thus supporting the contention that facial darkness signals the animal’s motivational state (i.e., tendency to attack).
40 van Staaden et al. B. Squid agonistic bouts Male–male fights in Loligo plei are complex visual displays that include up to 21 behaviors. There is a hierarchy of agonistic signals that sometimes culminates in an aggressive physical lateral display and fin beating (Fig. 3.4A and B), which are then followed by chase or flee. DiMarco and Hanlon (1997) tested whether dominance was based upon the duration or frequency of these behaviors, but it was not. Instead, they found that certain visual features such as the lateral flame markings (Fig. 3.4B, top squid) could be expressed with high contrast and that this was a visual factor in escalation of the agonistic bout. Two distinct tactics were exhibited by fighting males in this set of laboratory experiments: (1) long bouts with slow escalation from visual signaling to chasing and fleeing, or (2) short bouts with very rapid escalation from visual signaling to lateral displaying, aggressive physical fin beating, followed by chasing and fleeing (Fig. 3.4C). It is noteworthy that the second tactic occurred when a female was present (i.e., when a potential resource value was present). As shown in Fig. 3.4D, the presence of a female in various combinations had a dramatic effect on the nature and duration of the agonistic interactions. Longest bouts (mean 14 min) occurred when only two males were present. Bouts became progressively shorter when either two males and one female were assembled simultaneously, or two males were interacting and a female was then added (mean 9 and 3 min, respectively). But when a male and female were put in a tank and allowed to pair, and then a nonpaired male was added, tactic 2 was used and the highly aggressive interaction lasted only 30 s (a 28 difference over the simple two male scenario). As a control, when females were added to male/ female pairs, there were no agonistic interactions (Fig. 3.4D). In this squid species, the lateral display represents an escalation of aggression because it involves parallel posturing and the simultaneous expression of many high-contrast visual signals, which collectively give the impression of making the squid look larger (e.g., the mid-ventral ridge of the mantle protrudes vertically as in the dewlap extension of geckos). Fin beating is a physical, robust contest of pushing that can transmit information about strength and size of the competing individuals. C. From molecules to aggression: Contact pheromone triggers strong aggression in squid In the squid Loligo pealei, which conducts visual agonistic bouts similar to L. plei (above), it was found recently that females deposit a contact pheromone in the outer tunic of egg capsules that they lay on the sea floor. When males see the egg capsules (even in the absence of females), they are visually attracted to them and then physically contact the eggs, which leads to extremely aggressive fighting
Page 2 and 3: Aggression Volume 75
Page 4 and 5: Volume 75 Aggression Edited by Robe
Page 6 and 7: Contents Contributors ix 1 Aggressi
Page 8 and 9: Contents vii Acknowledgments 140 Re
Page 10 and 11: Contributors Numbers in parentheses
Page 12 and 13: 1 Aggression Robert Huber* and Patr
Page 14 and 15: 1. Aggression 3 These exhibit fight
Page 16 and 17: 1. Aggression 5 destruction, humans
Page 18 and 19: 2 Evolutionary Aspects of Aggressio
Page 20 and 21: 2. Evolutionary Aspects of Aggressi
Page 32 and 33: References 2. Evolutionary Aspects
Page 34 and 35: 3 Signaling Aggression Moira J. van
Page 36 and 37: 3. Signaling Aggression 25 Such agg
Page 38 and 39: 3. Signaling Aggression 27 Table 3.
Page 40 and 41: 3. Signaling Aggression 29 Performa
Page 42 and 43: 3. Signaling Aggression 31 II. BIRD
Page 44 and 45: 3. Signaling Aggression 33 the evid
Page 46 and 47: 3. Signaling Aggression 35 The use
Page 48 and 49: 3. Signaling Aggression 37 predict
Page 52 and 53: A B Escalation Miscellaneous visual
Page 54 and 55: 3. Signaling Aggression 43 0.1 Huma
Page 56 and 57: 3. Signaling Aggression 45 Alexande
Page 58 and 59: 3. Signaling Aggression 47 Hughes,
Page 60 and 61: 3. Signaling Aggression 49 Searcy,
Page 62 and 63: 4 Self-Structuring Properties of Do
Page 64 and 65: 4. Self-Structuring Properties of D
Page 68 and 69: One common type of study of fish ex
Page 94 and 95: 5 Neurogenomic Mechanisms of Aggres
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5. Neurogenomic Mechanisms of Aggre
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C. Aggression outside the breeding
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6 Genetics of Aggression in Voles K
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6. Genetics of Aggression in Voles
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7 The Neurochemistry of Human Aggre
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7. The Neurochemistry of Human Aggr
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8 Human Aggression Across the Lifes
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8. Human Aggression Across the Life
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Table 8.2. Effect Sizes (Correlatio
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Missouri twins (Hudziak et al., 200
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Ad-Health (Cho et al., 2006) Colora
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items such as: “some people think
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9 Perinatal Risk Factors in the Dev
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9. Perinatal Factors in the Develop
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1. Amygdala 9. Perinatal Factors in
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10 Neurocriminology Benjamin R. Nor
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10. Neurocriminology 257 evident in
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10. Neurocriminology 259 Another qu
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10. Neurocriminology 261 frontal co
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10. Neurocriminology 263 found to h
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10. Neurocriminology 265 low attent
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10. Neurocriminology 267 self-repor
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10. Neurocriminology 269 MAO-A acti
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10. Neurocriminology 271 birth comp
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10. Neurocriminology 273 We have no
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10. Neurocriminology 275 Alexander,
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10. Neurocriminology 277 Evseef, G.
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10. Neurocriminology 279 Langevin,
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10. Neurocriminology 281 Raine, A.
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10. Neurocriminology 283 Streissgut
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Index Adoption study, human aggress
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Index 287 receptors, 132-133 regula
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Index 289 N Neural circuits aggress
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Index 291 R Reactive and Proactive
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Index 293 forms of, 191-193 G x E i
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0.1 Human (Homo sapien) Other prima
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