The Levant Basin Offshore Israel: Stratigraphy, Structure, Tectonic ...

The Levant Basin Offshore Israel: 

Stratigraphy, Structure, Tectonic Evolution 

and Implications for 

Hydrocarbon Exploration 

Michael Gardosh, Yehezkel Druckman, 

Binyamin Buchbinder and Michael Rybakov 

Revised Edition 

GSI/4/2008 

GII 429/328/08 

April 2008


Stratigraphy, Structure, Tectonic Evolution 

and Implications for 

Hydrocarbon Exploration 

Michael Gardosh 1 , Yehezkel Druckman 2 , 

Binyamin Buchbinder 2 and Michael Rybakov 1 

1 

- Geophysical Institute of Israel, P.O.B. 182, Lod 71100, Israel, miki@gii.co.il 

2 - Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel St., Jerusalem 95501, Israel, 

ydruckman@gsi.gov.il, b.buchbinder@gsi.gov.il 

Prepared for the Petroleum Commissioner, 

Ministry of Infrastructure 

Revised Edition 

GSI/4/2008 

GII 429/328/08 

April 2008

Abstract 

Contents 

Page 

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...... 5 

2. Tectonic Setting………………………………………………………………………… 9 

3. Data Sets………………………………………………………………………………… 13 

3.1 Well data……………………………………………………………………………. 13 

3.2 Seismic data…………………………………………………………………………. 14 

3.3 Gravity and magnetic data sets…………………………………………………….... 15 

4. Stratigraphy…………………………………………………………………………….. 15 

4.1 General……………………………………………………………............................ 15 

4.2 The Permo-Triassic section………………………………………………………..... 16 

4.3 The Jurassic section………………………………………………………………..... 21 

4.4 The Cretaceous section……………………………………………………………… 29 

4.5 The Tertiary section………………………………………………...……………….. 35 

5. Interpretation of Seismic Data………………………………………………………..... 43 

5.1 Seismic horizons…………………………………………………………………….. 43 

5.2 Time and depth maps………………………………………………………………… 58 

6. Interpretation of Gravity and Magnetic Data…………………………………………. 67 

6.1 Gravity maps…………………………………………………………………………. 67 

6.2 Magnetic maps……………………………………………………………………..... 70 

6.3 Gravity and magnetic modeling (2D)………………………………………………… 71 

6.4 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………….. 73 

7. Tectonic Evolution of the Levant Basin and Margin………………............................. 74 

7.1 Rifting stage……………………………………………………….............................. 74 

7.2 Post-rift, passive margin stage…………………………………….............................. 80 

7.3 Convergence stage…………………………………………………………………… 83 

8. Erosion and Mass Transport on the Levant Slope……………………………………. 89 

8.1 Rifting and passive margin stage…………………………………………………….. 89 

8.2 Convergence stage…………………………………………………………………… 94 

9. Hydrocarbon Potential…………………………………………………………………. 100 

9.1 Trap typs and hydrocarbon plays…………………………………............................. 100 

9.2 Source rocks and petroleum systems………………………………………………… 103 

10. Summary……………………………………………………………………………….. 105 

Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………… 107 

References……………………………………………………………………………….. 108

List of Figures 

Page 

Fig. 1.1 Main physiographic and tectonic elements of the Levant region……………………...6 

Fig. 1.2 Offshore drilling history and main hydrocarbon occurrences…………………………7 

Fig. 1.3 Location of seismic lines, wells, and stratigraphic cross-sections……………………..8 

Fig. 2.1 Schematic section across the Levant Basin and margin, from the Eratosthenes 

Seamount to the Dead Sea Rift………………………………………………………...10 

Fig. 4.1 Triassic stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel………………………………………..18 

Fig. 4.2 Jurassic stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel………………………………………..22 

Fig. 4.3 Cretaceous stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel…………………………………….30 

Fig. 4.4 Tertiary stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel………………………………………..36 

Fig. 4.5 SE-NW cross-section from the Gevim-1 to the Yam West-1 well…………………….37 

Fig. 4.6 N-S cross-section from the Asher Yam-1 to the Yam West-1 well……………………38 

Fig. 5.1 Interpreted seismic profile showing the correlation of seismic horizons to the 

Yam-2 and Yam-West-1 wells…………………………………………………………44 

Fig. 5.2 Synthetic seismograms of the Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 wells…………………...45 

Fig. 5.3 Interpreted, E-W oriented seismic profile through the Yam-2 and 

Yam West-1 wells………………………………………………………………...........47 

Fig. 5.4 Interpreted, composite seismic profile, generally oriented in a N-S direction along 

the shallow part of the basin…………………………………………………………...48 

Fig. 5.5 Interpreted seismic profile, oriented in a NE-SW direction showing the correlation 

of seismic horizons in the deep part of the basin……………………………………….49 

Fig. 5.6 Interpreted seismic profile showing the transition area from the elevated 

Mesozoic thrust belt to the deep Tertiary basin………………………………………..51 

Fig. 5.7 Interpreted composite seismic profile through the Hannah-1 well……………………..52 

Fig. 5.8 Interpreted, NE-SW regional seismic profile showing extensional and contractional 

structures in the central part of the basin…...…………………………………………...53 

Fig. 5.9 Interpreted NW-SE seismic profile from the Eratosthenes Seamount to the 

Levant margin……….…………………………………………………………………55 

Fig. 5.10 Interpreted E-W seismic profile showing extensional and contractional structures 

in the northeastern part of the basin…………………………………………………..56 

Fig. 5.11 Interpreted SW-NE seismic profile showing the southern part of the Jonah Ridge…..57 

Fig. 5.12 Depth map of the near top basement, Brown horizon………………………………....59 

Fig. 5.13 Depth map of the Middle Jurassic, Blue horizon……………………………………...60 

Fig. 5.14 Depth map of the Middle Cretaceous, Green horizon…………………………………61

Fig. 5.15 Depth map of the base Oligocene, Red horizon……………………………………...62 

Fig. 5.16 Depth map of the top Lower Miocene, Cyan horizon………………………………..63 

Fig. 5.17 Depth map of the base Messinian, Purple horizon…………………………………...64 

Fig. 5.18 Depth map of the top Messinian, Violet horizon……………………………………..65 

Fig. 5.19 Depth map of the sea floor……………………………………………………………66 

Fig. 6.1 Revised gravity anomaly maps of the Levant Basin………… ………………..……..68 

Fig. 6.2 Revised magnetic anomaly maps of the Levant Basin………………………………....69 

Fig. 6.3 2D Gravity and magnetic modeling of the Levant Basin………………………………72 

Fig. 7.1 Neotethyan rifting stage - inferred Triassic to Early Jurassic horst and graben 

system of the Levant region……………………………………………………………75 

Fig. 7.2 Neotethyan rifting stage - Early Mesozoic extensional structures in the 

Levant Basin (seismic examples)...……………………………………………………77 

Fig. 7.3 Passive margin stage- isopach map and geologic section through the Levant margin....81 

Fig. 7.4 Convergence stage - Syrian Arc fold structures of the Levant region………………….84 

Fig. 7.5 Convergence stage - contractional structures in the Levant Basin (seismic examples)...86 

Fig. 8.1 Convergence stage- the Tertiary fill of the Levant Basin...............................................91 

Fig. 8.2 Tertiary submarine canyon and channel system of the Levant margin 

(seismic examples)…………………………………………………..………..…….….93 

Fig. 8.3 Tertiary submarine incision and deposition of clastic sediments in the Levant Basin…97 

Fig. 9.1 Schematic section through the Levant Basin showing potential hydrocarbon 

traps in the Phanerozoic fill…………………………………………….…………….101 

List of Tables 

Page 

Table 3.1- Summary of well data used in the present study……………………………………..14 

Table 4.1- Summary of Jurassic formation tops and thicknesses in offshore wells…...………...29 

Table 5.1- Correlation of interpreted seismic horizons to chrono and lithostratigraphic 

unit tops……..……………………………………………………………………..….46

Abstract 

The Levant Basin is a deep and long existing geologic structure located in the eastern 

Mediterranean Sea. The southern part of the basin hosts a world-class hydrocarbon province 

offshore the Nile Delta. Recent discoveries of biogenic gas and various oil shows indicate that 

the central part of the basin, offshore Israel has significant hydrocarbon potential. To further 

investigate this area, which is generally under-explored, a basin-scale study was initiated by the 

petroleum commissioner in the Israeli Ministry of Infrastructure. In this study new geophysical 

data is integrated with regional and local geologic data to reconstruct the basin history and to 

identify favorable hydrocarbon plays. 

The reconstructed basin history shows that the Levant Basin was shaped in several main 

tectonic stages. Early Mesozoic rifting resulted in the formation of an extensive graben and 

horst system, extending throughout the Levant onshore and offshore. Late Jurassic to Middle 

Cretaceous, post-rift subsidence was followed by the formation of a deep marine basin in the 

present-day offshore and a shallow-marine, carbonate dominated margin and shelf near the 

Mediterranean coastline and further inland. A Late Cretaceous and Tertiary convergence phase 

resulted in inversion of Early Mesozoic structures and the formation of extensive, Syrian Arctype 

contractional structures throughout the Levant Basin and margin. The Tertiary convergence 

was further associated with uplift, widespread erosion, slope incision and basinward sediment 

transport. A Late Tertiary desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea was followed by deposition of a 

thick evaporitic blanket that was later covered by a Plio-Pleistocene siliciclastic wedge. The 

Phanerozoic basin-fill ranges in thickness from 5-6 km on the margin to more than 15 km in the 

central part of the basin 

A variety of potential, structural and stratigraphic traps were formed in the Levant Basin 

during the three main tectonic stages. Possible hydrocarbon play types are: Triassic and Lower 

Jurassic fault-controlled highs and rift-related traps; Middle Jurassic shallow-marine reservoirs; 

Lower Cretaceous deepwater siliciclastics; the Tertiary canyon and channel system and 

associated deepwater siliciclastics found in either confined or non-confined settings; Upper 

Cretaceous and Tertiary Syrian Arc folds; and Mesozoic and Cenozoic isolated, carbonate 

buildups on structurally elevated blocks. 

Shallow gas discoveries in Pliocene sands and high-grade oil shows found in the 

Mesozoic section indicate the presence of source rocks and appropriate conditions for 

hydrocarbon generation in both biogenic and thermogenic petroleum systems. The size, depth 

and trapping potential of the Levant Basin suggest that large quantities of hydrocarbons can be 

found offshore Israel.

1. Introduction 

The Levant Basin occupies the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Fig. 1.1). Its southern part, 

offshore Egypt hosts the prolific Nile Delta hydrocarbon province where extensive exploration 

and production activity is taking place. The increase in demand and rising price of oil in recent 

years has promoted a growing interest in the less known and under-explored, central and 

northern parts of the basin, offshore Israel, Lebanon and Cyprus. 

Petroleum exploration in the eastern Mediterranean has a long history and has so far yielded 

modest success. Offshore exploration started in the late 1960's and early 1970's with a series of 

wells drilled by Belpetco (Fig. 1.2). The seven Belpetco wells targeted structural culminations 

on the shallow shelf of Israel and northern Sinai, but all were found dry. These early wells, 

however, provided important information and established the initial geologic model of the 

eastern Mediterranean as a deep marine basin that was formed during the Early Mesozoic, and 

continued to develop west of an extensive shallow-marine shelf. 

The next exploration campaign during the mid 1970's to mid 1980's resulted in more 

success. Several wells were drilled on shallow structures offshore Sinai (Fig. 1.2). Light oil was 

found in Early Cretaceous sandstone in the Ziv-1 (drilled by Oil Exploration Limited) and the 

Mango-1 (drilled by Total) wells. Mango-1 initially produced 41-50 0 API gravity oil at a rate of 

about 10,000 Bbl/day; however, performance rapidly decreased and production was stopped. 

A series of four wells were drilled offshore Israel by Isramco during the late 1980's to 

late 1990's (Fig. 1.2). These boreholes that targeted structural culminations were typically 

deeper than earlier wells and most of them reached a Middle Jurassic stratigraphic level at depths 

of more than 5000 m. All the Isramco wells encountered various oil and gas shows. Yam-2 and 

Yam Yafo-1 tested 44-47 0 API gravity oil at a rate of 500-800 Bbl/day from Middle Jurassic 

limestone, although no commercial production was established. 

Exploration activity in the Levant Basin underwent a significant resurgence since 1999- 

2000 when several, large gas fields were discovered at a shallow depth within Pliocene sands 

west of the towns of Ashqelon and Gaza (Fig. 1.2). Gas reserves in the Noa/MariB/Gaza Marine 

fields are estimated at about 3 TCF. Gas is presently produced from the MariB field and is 

transported onshore to various Israeli consumers. 

The successful exploration campaign of the early 2000's promoted the acquisition of 

geophysical data throughout the entire eastern Mediterranean area. The new geophysical data 

sets include about 12,000 km of regional 2D seismic reflection lines (Fig. 1.3) and several, high 

resolution 2D and 3D surveys, as well as new gravity and magnetic measurements. 

The petroleum commissioner in the Israeli Ministry of Infrastructure initiated a regional 

analysis of the Levant Basin and margin. The study was carried out by professional teams from 

5

Eurasian Plate 

Cyprian Arc 

Palmyra 

Eratosthenes 

Seamount 

A 

Mediterranean 

Sea 

Levant Basin 

Study 

area 

Dead 

Sea 

Nile Delta 

Negev 

B 

Western 

Desert 

African 

Plate 

Sinai 

200 km 

- Main Fault 

Zone 

Fig. 1.1- Main physiographic and tectonic elements of the Levant region. A-B indicates the 

location of the schematic cross-section in Fig. 2.1. 

6

Mediterranean Sea 

Asher Yam-1 

Qishon Yam-1 

Foxtrot-1 

Drilling year 

1969-71 

1976-77 

~1985 

1989-99 

Delta-1 

Item-1 

Romi-1 

2000-03 

1999-2003 

Hana-1 

Yam Yafo-1 

Israel 

Gas Field 

Oil Field 

Noa-Or 

Yam W.-2 

Yam W.-1 

Joshua-1 

Echo-1 

Yam-1/2 

Bravo-1 

Mari 

Gaza 

Marine 

Nir 

Helez-Kokhav 

Mango-1 

Dag-1 

Aneb-1 

Til-1 

Gaza 

Ziv-1 

Gal-1 

Sinai 

Sadot 

Fig. 1.2- Offshore drilling history and main hydrocarbon occurrences. The Noa-Or, Marie, 

Nir and Gaza Marine fields are recent gas discoveries in Pliocene deepwater sands. 

7

the Geophysical Institute of Israel and Geological Survey of Israel. Its main emphasis was to 

integrate the vast amount of geological information from the Levant margin onshore with the 

high-quality geophysical data sets that were recently acquired in the basin offshore. The final 

results include depth maps of key stratigraphic horizons, stratigraphic cross-sections, and 

regional tectonic and paleogeographic maps. The results enabled the reconstruction of a regional 

geologic framework for the two areas, traditionally studied in different scales and techniques. 

2. Tectonic Setting 

Wide-angle deep refraction profiles show significant variations in seismic velocities and 

depth to the Moho from the inland part of Israel on the east to the Mediterranean Sea on the west 

(Makris et al., 1983; Ginzburg and Ben-Avraham, 1987, Ben-Avraham et al., 2002). The 

velocity variations (summarized in Fig. 2.1) are associated with a change from a ~30 km thick, 

low velocity continental-type crust inland, to a ~10 km thick oceanic- or intermediate-type crust 

offshore (Garfunkel, 1998, Ben-Avraham et al, 2002; Gardosh and Druckman, 2006). This 

fundamental geophysical observation and its interpretation are milestones in the research of the 

Levant area. They unequivocally demonstrate that the present-day marine basin is a deeply 

rooted geologic structure associated with large-scale plate motions. 

The Paleozoic section found in outcrops and wells in southern and central Israel 

comprises continental to shallow marine deposits. Evidence from adjacent countries further 

indicates that during most of the Paleozoic the Levant region formed part of the super-continent 

Gondwana and was located inland, several hundred kilometers south of the Paleotethys Ocean 

(Garfunkel, 1998, Weissbrod, 2005). The Paleozoic landscape was dominated by a series of 

region-wide swells and intervening basins that were hundreds of kilometers in diameter 

(Weissbrod, 2005). The area of the eastern Mediterranean formed part of this landscape and no 

deep marine basin was in existence at that time. 

The Late Permian, Triassic and Early Jurassic section of the Levant region is dominated 

by shallow-marine carbonate and occasionally siliciclastic rock. Significant thickness variations 

in the Triassic and Early Jurassic strata are identified in well and seismic data from southern and 

central Israel (Fig. 2.1) (Goldberg and Friedman, 1974; Druckman, 1974, 1977; Freund et al., 

1975; Druckman, 1984; Bruner, 1991; Druckman et al., 1995a; Garfunkel, 1998, Gelberman, 

1995). The Palmyra trough in central Syria (Fig. 1.1) contains an unusually thick Permian to 

Triassic section. This range of phenomena indicates extensive vertical motions, continental 

9

km 

0 

10 

20 

Eratosthenes Seamount Levant Basin 

Dead Sea 

Basin 

A B 

Coastline 

Messinian Evap. 

Paleocene to Miocene 

Cret.-Jur. 

Cretaceous 

6 km/s 

Volcanic 

Oceanic/Intermediate 

crust 

6.7 km/s 

7 km/s 

8 km/s 

Plio-Pleistocene 

Dead Sea Transform 

10 

Upper Continental 

crust 

Continental 

crust 

Precambrian 

Trias-Perm 

6.15 km/s 

6.5 km/s 

10 

Jurassic and older 

20 

30 

75 km 

30 

Moho 

Moho 

Fig. 2.1- Schematic section across the Levant Basin and margin, from the Eratosthenes Seamount to the Dead Sea Rift. The section shows 

the main structural elements, stratigraphic units and crustal seismic velocities (after Garfunkel, 1998). See Fig. 1.1 for location.

eakup and rifting of the Gondwanian shallow-shelf (Freund et al., 1975; Garfunkel and Derin, 

1984, Garfunkel, 1998). 

A series of horst and graben structures (Fig. 2.1) evolved in several pulses during the 

uppermost Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic periods, accompanied by widespread magmatic 

activity. These regional extensional pulses resulted in separation of the Tauride and 

Eratosthenes continental blocks from the Gondwanaland craton and the formation of a deep 

marine basin in the area of the present-day eastern Mediterranean (Bein and Gvirtzman,1977; 

Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; Garfunkel, 1998; Robertson, 1998) (Fig. 2.1). The basin was 

connected to the extensive Neotethys Ocean that developed at the same time further to the north 

and west. 

The Early Mesozoic rifting activity is considered by most authors to be the cause of the 

thinner crust identified within the Levant Basin (Fig. 2.1). The composition of the crust in the 

southeastern Mediterranean Sea is still under debate. Some researchers postulate an oceanic 

lithosphere that was formed when the initial rifting evolved into full scale sea-floor spreading 

(Makris et al., 1983; Ginzburg and Ben-Avraham, 1987; Ben-Avraham and Ginzburg, 1990). 

Others assume only stretched and intruded crust of continental origin that was formed during 

intra-plate rifting (Cohen et al., 1988, 1990; Hirsch et al., 1995; Gardosh and Druckman 2006). 

Rifting was followed by post-rift cooling and subsidence of the newly formed or 

modified lithosphere in the Levant Basin (Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; ten Brink 1987; Garfunkel 

1998). Starting from the Middle Jurassic a paleo-depositional hinge belt developed along the 

eastern margin of the basin. The hinge belt that was originally identified in deep wells along the 

present-day Israeli coastline (Gvirtzman and Klang, 1972; Bein and Gvirtzman ,1977) separated 

a vast shallow-marine platform on the east from a deep marine basin on the west. Several 

studies suggest that the Mesozoic shelf-edge extended near the entire southeastern Mediterranean 

coastline from northern Egypt to western Lebanon (Figs. 1.1, 2.1) (Walley, 1998, 2001). 

The Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary section is dominated by hemi-pelagic to pelagic 

sedimentation, marking the termination of the extensive, shallow-marine carbonate deposition on 

the Levant margin. The lithologic transition reflects a major drowning event and ecological 

changes associated with plate re-arrangement and the beginning of the closure of the Neotethys 

Ocean (Sass and Bein, 1982; Almogi-Labin et al., 1993). 

The Late Cretaceous convergence of the Eurasian and Afro-Arabian plates initiated a 

northward-dipping subduction zone in the southern Neotethys Ocean, in the present-day areas of 

Cyprus and southern Turkey (Fig. 1.1) (Robertson, 1998). Far-field stresses related to the onset 

of subduction may have caused compression of the Levant passive margin and triggered the 

formation of anticlines and synclines throughout the Levant region, known as the 'Syrian Arc' 

11

(Krenkel, 1924) or 'Levantide' (Picard, 1959) fold belt. Well and seismic data suggest that the 

Syrian Arc deformation is generally associated with reactivation of Early Mesozoic normal faults 

in a reverse motion (Fig. 2.1) (Freund et al., 1975; Druckman et al., 1995). Evidence from Israel 

and Lebanon further indicates that the Syrian Arc deformation that started in the Late Cretaceous 

continued through the Tertiary (Eyal and Reches, 1983; Walley, 1998, 2001). 

The continued plate convergence during the Oligocene and Early Miocene resulted in the 

formation of a subduction zone along the present Cypraen Arc plate boundary (Fig. 

1.1)(Robertson, 1998). In the Levant region plate motion was associated with uplifting east of 

the Levant coast and updoming of the Arabian Shield south of it. This activity is reflected by a 

regional unconformity surface that is identified at the upper part of the Eocene strata, which 

separates the older carbonate section from the overlying Oligo-Miocene siliciclastics of the 

Saqyie Group (Picard, 1943; Ball and Ball, 1953). The deposition of Oligo-Miocene, coarsegrained 

clastic units is associated with widespread erosion and basinward transport of sediments 

through an extensive subaerial and submarine drainage system that developed on the Levant 

slope (Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978; Druckman et al., 1995b). 

A thick, Upper Miocene series of halite and anhydrite (Fig. 2.1) is associated with a huge 

sea-level drop and desiccation of the Mediterranean Sea known as the Messinian Salinity Crisis 

(Hsu et al., 1978, Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978). The Messinian evaporites filled a 1-2 km 

deep topographic depression located west of the Levant coast (Tibor et al., 1992). Gradual sealevel 

rise during the Plio-Pleistocene resulted in renewed sediment transport and basinward 

progradation of a fine-grained siliciclastic wedge on the Levant shelf. 

The breakup of the Arabian Craton by the end of the Oligocene brought into existence the 

Dead Sea plate boundary. This transform fault is several thousands of kilometers long, 

connecting the spreading center of the Red Sea with the Taurus collision zone in southeastern 

Turkey (Fig. 1.1)(Freund et al., 1970; Garfunkel, 1981). The Israeli segment is characterized by 

several, deep continental depressions, such as the Dead Sea basin, in which thick (up to 8-10 km) 

Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene sections accumulated (Fig. 2.1) (Kashai and Crocker, 1987; 

Gardosh et al., 1997). 

12

3. Data Sets 

3.1 Well Data 

The well data used in this study are from 43 wells located within the basin or on its 

margin (Fig. 1.3). Stratigraphic subdivisions of these wells were taken from the lithostratigraphic 

data base of oil and gas wells drilled in Israel, compiled by Fleischer and Varshavsky (2002) 

(Table 3.1). Formation tops were used as control points in the construction of seismic depth 

maps (Table 3.1, Figs. 5.11-18). Synthetic seismograms and time-converted wireline logs of 14 

wells, most of them located offshore and some near the coast, were used for correlation of well 

and seismic data (Table 3.1, Figs. 5.1, 5.2). The lithostratigraphy and biostratigraphy of selected 

wells were thoroughly reviewed and were used to construct two, detailed stratigraphic crosssections 

(Figs. 4.5, 4.6). Additional well and outcrop data from the Levant margin were 

analyzed and were integrated into four composite sequence stratigraphic schemes of the Triassic, 

Jurassic, Cretaceous and Cenozoic (Figs. 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4). 

Chronostrat. 

Top 

Precamb. 

() 

Basement 

In Middle 

Jurassic 

Albian to 

Turonian 

Senon. 

to 

Eocene 

Lower 

Miocene 

Upper 

Miocene 

(Base 

Messin.) 

Upper 

Miocene 

(Top 

Messin.) 

Seismic 

horizon Brown Blue Green Red Cyan Purple Violet 

Well names: 

Well 

Abbrv. 

Andromeda-1 AND1 

2149/Ziqim 2127/Mav 

Asher Yam-1 ASYM1 ~7800 ~2100 479/Yagur 

479 

479 479 479 

Ashqelon-2 ASHQ2 3900/Barnea 2234/TY 

2040/Av 1303/BG 


Ashqelon-3 ASHQ3 3400/Barnea 2098/TY 

1955/Av 1245/BG 


Atlit-1 Deep ATLT1 ~8500 1850/ in M. 45/Negba 

45 45 

Haifa 

45 45 

Bat Yam-1 BYAM1 2432/TY 

2197/Av 2087/BG 

1479/AshCl 1479/NPVulc 

Bravo-1 BRV1 2939Daliyya 

2197/Av 1627/BG 


Cesarea-3 CSR3 2750/in M. 304/Bina 

184 

Haifa 

184/MtSc 184 184 

Canusa-9 CAN9 

885/Av 730/BG 


Canusa-10 CAN10 

192/Av 132/BG 

132 132 

Delta-1 DLT1 1416/Negba 

1133/Av 1062/BG 

1062 1062 

Echo-1 

ECO1 

1972/BG 

1972 1807/Mav 

Foxtrot-1 FXT1 ~7800 2100/in M. 247/Negba 

247 

Haifa 

247 247 247 

Gaash-2 GSH2 ~6100 2950/in M. 772/Daliyya 

772 

Haifa 

772 772 772 

Gad-1 GAD1 2503/BG 1926 1848/Mav 

Gaza-1 GAZ1 1657/TY 

1631/Av 1367/BG 

Gevim-1 GEV1 4588 2177/ 

567/Daliyya 

Shederot 

102/Av 32/BG 

Hannah-1 HAN1 3933/ 

Gevar'am 3933 2900 

1367 1255/Mav 

32 32 

2763/ 1917/Mav 

13

Hadera-1 HAD1 

878/Av 477/BG 

416/Ziqim 416 

Haifa-1 HAIF1 ~6800 1670/in M. -40/Yagur 

Haifa 

-40 -40 -40 -40 

HLZD1 

1918/ 

Helez Deep-1 

5916 Shederot 393/Yagur 393 393 393 393 

Hof Ashdod-1 HASD1 2560/TY 

2351/Av 2178/BG 

1849/Ziqlag 1729/Mav 

Item-1 ITM1 1007/Daliyya 

777/Av 727/BG 

687/Ziqim 687 

Jaffa-1 JAF1 2315/TY 

2057/MtSc 1472/BG 


Joshua-2 JOSH1 

2502/Av 2305/AshCl 


Mari-3 MARI3 2021/Ziqim 1924/Mav 

Netanya-1 NAT1 1223/Bina 

1053/MtSc 1053 1053 

1053 

Netanya-2 NAT2 1315/Negba 

1315 1187/AshCl 


Nir-1 NIR1 2053/Afridar 2004/Mav 

Nissanit-1 NIS1 ~6200 3065/ 1642/TY 

919/Ziqim 919 

Shederot 

1602/Av 1035/BG 

Noa-1 NOA1 1960/Mav 

Noa South-1 NOA1S 1936/Mav 

Nordan-4 NORD4 

1320/BG 


Or-1 OR1 1973/Mav 

Or South-1 OR1S 1984/Mav 

QishonYam-1 QISHY1 ~1850 

1596/ 1590/BG 

1550/ 1180/Mav 

Romi-1 ROM1 1428/Mav 

Shiqma-1 

SHQ1 

Yam-2 YAM2 ~5500 2717/Negba 

Yam West-1 YAMW1 4900/ 

2848/TY 

Shederot 

Yam West-2 YAMW2 2495/ 

Yam Yafo-1 YAMY1 5350/Jr 

Undivided 

Time converted, used for 

calibration of seismic data 

~xxxx= not penetrated, depth is estimated 

1960/Av 

2123/Av 

2395/Av 

1352/BG 

2095/Lakhis 

2216/BG 

Gevar'am 2438/Av 2028/BG 

2380/Daliyya 

1774/Av 1694/BG 

1352 1192/Mav 

2096 1772/Mav 

1731/Ziqim 

1714/Ziqim 

1557/Ziqim 

1657/Mav 

1663/Mav 

1524/Mav 

Table 3.1- Summary of well data used in the present study. The depth of chronostratographic 

and lithostratigraphic tops in the wells is in meters below MSL. These depth values were used 

for calibration of seismic data and depth maps. Abbreviations of lithostratigraphic units are: TY- 

Talme Yafe Formation, Mt Sc-Mount Scopus Group, AV-Avedat Group, BG- Bet Guvrin 

Formation, AshCl- Ashdod Clastics, Mav- Mavqiim Formation. 

3.2 Seismic Data 

The seismic data set used in this research includes two, large marine surveys (A and B) 

that were carried out during the year 2001in the framework of hydrocarbon exploration activity 

offshore Israel (Fig. 1.3). 98 multi-channel, 2D seismic reflection lines, totaling 12,000 km were 

interpreted (Fig. 1.3). 

14

The A survey covers most of the Levant Basin from the Israeli shallow shelf to the 

submarine Eratosthenes Seamount, some 200 km northwest. The B survey extends in a more 

densely spaced grid from near the coastline to about 120 km offshore (Fig. 1.3). The long cable, 

small group interval and high-energy source used in the two surveys resulted in high-quality 

seismic data sets that display better vertical resolution and deeper penetration than older, 

offshore seismic vintages. 

Two onshore Vibroseis lines, extending along the coastline from Haifa in the north to the 

Gaza area in the south, were also incorporated into the seismic data set (Fig. 1.3). Time-migrated 

profiles were interpreted on a seismic interpretation workstation using Paradigm-Epos3 software. 

Four seismic lines of the A survey were reprocessed in the GII. The primary purpose of 

the reprocessing was to produce pre-stacked depth-migrated profiles and to extract seismic 

interval velocities that were used in depth conversion of time maps. 

3.3 Gravity and Magnetic Data Sets 

Gravity and magnetic data were acquired in the B seismic survey (Fig. 1.3). A total of 

320,000 stations were measured along the seismic lines at intervals of about 20 m. The accuracy 

of the data (estimated on the crossing locations) is about a few nanoTesla for magnetic 

measurements and 0.1mGal for the gravity measurements. 

The raw gravity data were filtered and Eotvos, Free Air and Bouguer corrections were 

applied. The IGRF was subtracted from the magnetic data. Both data sets were incorporated in 

the regional gravity and magnetic grids of the Levant area compiled by Rybakov et al, (1997) 

(Figs. 6.1, 6.2). 

4. Stratigraphy 

4.1 General 

The Levant area is located on the northwestern margins of the Arabo-Nubian Shield. 

This shield was shaped during the Late Precambrian Pan-African Orogeny at about 850-700 Ma. 

It underwent cratonization at ~630-600 Ma and was uplifted and peneplaned at 532 Ma 

(Garfunkel, 1980; Beyth and Heimann, 1999). The overlying sedimentary cover forms a 

northwest-thickening wedge, ranging from about 2 km in southern Israel through ca 7.5 km 

along the Mediterranean coastal plain and to ca 15 km in the eastern Mediterranean basin. 

Throughout the Phanerozoic the Levant area formed a transitional zone between the 

continental domain in the southeast and the marine domain of the Tethys and Neotethys oceans 

15

to the west. The dominant sedimentary facies east and south of the present-day Mediterranean 

coast were thus epicontinental, consisting of alternating, shallow-marine carbonate, shale, and 

sandstone, with abundant coarse-grained components in the south. Slope and basinal 

sedimentation was dominant in the west, across the coastal plain and in the marine basin at times 

when this area subsided. 

The Phanerozoic sedimentary section of the Levant is characterized by abundant coastal 

onlap-offlap cycles of different orders (Figs. 4.1 to 4.4). These cycles reflect recurring 

transgressions and regressions of the Tethys and Neotethys oceans onto the Arabian Craton. 

Relative high and low sea-level stands were controlled both by global eustatic changes and by 

local, vertical tectonic movements. The latter are evident by the substantial gaps in the 

sedimentary records in the Paleozoic, Early Jurassic and Early Cretaceous successions. 

4.2 The Permo-Triassic Section 

The earliest Phanerozoic sediments in the central and southern part of Israel are of Early 

Permian age (Weissbrod, 1969b, Eshet, 1990). Late Carboniferous to Early Permian uplift of the 

Negev and central Israel led to the erosion of the older Paleozoic section down to the 

Infracambrian Zenifim Formation (Garfunkel, 1988). Pre-Permian sections that escaped this 

erosion may have been locally preserved, e.g., the 300 m thick section of Cambrian sandstones 

and carbonates that are found in the southernmost tip of the country (Elat region; Weissbrod, 

1969b). No Paleozoic section was penetrated in any wells in northern Israel. 

The Permo-Triassic shallow-marine section accumulated in a large, N-S oriented 

embayment, roughly coinciding with today's Judean highlands. The section thickens gradually to 

the north and thins to the east and west (Weissbrod, 1969a; Druckman, 1974; Druckman and 

Kashai, 1981; Druckman et al., 1995a; Korngrin, 2004). 

The western flank of this embayment is delineated by a 'basement high' that was penetrated 

in the Helez Deep-1, Gevim-1, and the Bessor-1 boreholes, located in the southern coastal plain 

(Fig. 4.5). Its position in the southern coastal plain may explain the thickening of the Permo- 

Triassic north and east of it. This 'basement high' was fractured and downfaulted to the west in 

several pulses, during the Late Triassic to Middle Jurassic times (Fig. 4.5). The Permo-Triassic 

stratigraphy was not penetrated, and is therefore unknown west of the ' basement high'. 

Gvirtzman and Weissbrod (1984) termed this feature the 'Helez High' and considered it as part of 

a regional 'geoanticline.' 

The Lower Permian Sa'ad Formation overlies the Precambrian basement and 

Infracambrian section and is found in wells in the Negev area and southern coastal plain. Its 

northernmost occurrence is in the David-1 borehole, in central Israel. The Sa'ad Formation 

16

consists of a 70-180 m thick fluvio-deltaic section (Weissbrod, 1969a). The deltaic sandstones 

may provide favorable reservoir properties. 

The Upper Permian (Thuringian) consists of the Arqov Formation. The formation is 

found in wells in the Negev area and southern coastal plain where it comprises a 110-250 m 

thick section of shallow-marine carbonate, sandstone and shale. The unit has source, reservoir 

and seal potential. Noteworthy is its great petrographic similarities with the gas producing Khuff 

Formation in the Arabian Gulf area (Derin and Gerry, 1981; Weissbrod, 2005). 

The Permian-Triassic boundary is marked by an hiatus of the Induan (lowermost Triassic 

stage). The boundary is marked by red clay, a characteristic fungal spike and reworked Lower 

Paleozoic microfossils (Eshet, 1990; Benjamini et al., 2005). 

The Triassic section accumulated in a large, shallow-marine embayment oriented in an N-S 

direction. The section thickens from about 1000 m in the Negev to over 2600 m in the northern 

part of the country (the Devorah-2a well; Druckman and Kashai, 1981). The thickness of the 

Triassic section in the Helez Deep-1, Gevim-1, and Bessor-1 wells located on the ‘Helez High' is 

reduced to a few tens to several hundred meters (Fig. 4.5) (Druckman, 1974, 1984; Druckman et 

al., 1994, 1995a); whereas the Gaash-2 and Atlit-1 deep wells located 70 and 130 km north of 

Helez Deep-1, respectively, penetrated over 1150 m of the Middle and Upper Triassic sections 

(Derin and Gerry, 1981, Korngrin, 2004). The thickness variations in the Triassic section reflect 

a regional northward dip of the basement and local vertical motions. 

The Triassic section comprises a series of onlaps reflecting ten, stacked depositional 

cycles, which are described in the following sub-sections and are shown in Figure 4.1. 

4.2.1 The early Olenekian cycle (Yamin Formation) 

The Yamin Formation represents the first cycle. The cycle consists of some 120 to 155 m 

of nearshore and shallow-marine shale and carbonates and its time of deposition spans ~ 5 m.y. 

4.2.2 The early Scythian to early Anisian cycle (Zafir Formation) 

The Zafir Formation represents the second Triassic cycle. The cycle consists of some 

175 to 320 m of shallow marine carbonate, calcareous shale and sandstone and its time of 

deposition spans ~ 3.5 m.y. 

4.2.3 The early Anisian cycle (Ra'af Formation) 

The Ra'af Formation represents the third cycle. This cycle consists of carbonate 

mudstones, packstones, and oolitic and oncolitic grainstones. Its thickness ranges from 80 m in 

the south to 170 m in northern Israel (Devora-2a well), and its time of deposition spans ~1.5 m.y. 

17

Ma 

205 

Jurassic 

201.9 

HETTANGIAN 

205.7 

L MID. U 

offshore 

inland 

Sea level (m) 

0 50 

Haq et al. 

1987;1988 

RHAETIAN 

210 

209.6 

SEVATIAN 

ALAUNIAN 

10 

215 

220 

225 

230 

235 

240 

245 

TRIASSIC 

LOWER MIDDLE UPPER 

SCYTHIAN 

NORIAN 

220.7 

CARNIAN 

227.4 

LADINIAN 

234.3 

ANISIAN 

241.7 

OLENEKIAN 

244.8 

INDUAN 

LACIAN 

TUVALIAN 

JULIAN 

LONGO- 

BARDIAN 

FASSANIAN 

ILLYRIAN 

PELSONIAN 

BITHYNIAN 

AEGEAN 

SPATHIAN 

SMITHIAN 

DIENERIAN 

GRIS- 

BACHIAN 

Erez cgl. 

Zafir Saharonim Mohila 

Shefayim 

Ra’af 

Yamin 

Upper Mbr. 

Lower Mbr. 

Limestone Mbr. 

Lst. Gypsum Mbr. 

Lst. Marl Mbr. 

Fossiliferous Lst. Mbr. 

Gevanim M. - U. Mbrs. 

Gevanim L. Mbr. 

2 

1 

6 

5 

4 

9 

3 

8 

7 

Figure 4.1-Triassic stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel 

18

Late diagenetic dolomitization affected the carbonates, mainly in the south. In the southernmost 

occurrence at Har Arif, the carbonates are sandy towards the top of the Ra'af Formation, 

probably representing the highstand progradation stage. 

4.2.4 The late Anisian to early Ladinian cycle (Gevanim and Saharonim formations) 

The lower member of the Gevanim Formation reflects a lowstand wedge. This clastic 

wedge, was deposited in the Negev area only within a time-span of less than 1 m.y. It is 

composed of fluvial to fluvio-deltaic coarse- to medium-grained sandstone and shale with 

abundant plant remains. The unit thins from 160 m in the Makhtesh Ramon area, to 25 m in the 

Sherif-1 well, 40 km northwards (Druckman, 1974). The thinning of the unit marks the onset of 

vertical movements related to the Early Mesozoic rifting (Freund et al., 1975). 

Several tens of thousands of barrels of medium to high grade oil were produced from the 

lower Gevanim sandstones and the Raaf carbonates in the Zuk Tamrur-3 and Emmunah-1 wells, 

located in the western margins of the Dead Sea. 

The Late Anisian - Early Ladinian middle and upper members of the Gevanim Formation 

mark the transgressive systems tract of the cycle. The maximum flooding stage was reached 

during the deposition of the burrowed carbonate mudstones topping the Fossiliferous Limestone 

Member at the lower part of the Saharonim Formation (found in outcrop in Makhtesh Ramon in 

southern Israel). The unit consists of fluvio-deltaic and nearshore sandstone and shale passing 

upward into alternating, meter thick, marlstone and storm beds of molluscan limestone. This 

part of the cycle spans ~3.5 m.y. (Druckman, 1974, 1976; Benjamini et al., 1993). 

4.2.5 The Ladinian to early Carnian cycles (Saharonim Formation) 

The middle and upper parts of the Saharonim Formation comprises the fifth, sixth and 

seventh depositional cycles. Their deposition lasted some ~3.8 m.y. These units consist of 

ammonite bearing limestones, shell beds, oncolitic and oolitic grainstones, stromatolite beds, 

burrowed mudstones, flat-pebble conglomerates, dolostones, marls and gypsum beds, all 

deposited in tidal to shallow marine environments (Druckman, 1969, 1976; Benjamini et al., 

1993). The maximum flooding stage of each cycle is marked by a burrowed carbonate mudstone 

that can be traced throughout the entire Negev. The Saharonim Formation displays a significant 

thickness change, from 260 m in the south (Ramon-1 well) to 760 m in the northern part of Israel 

(Devorah-2 well). 

19

4.2.6 The Carnian cycles (Mohilla Formation) 

The Mohilla Formation comprises the eighth and ninth cycles. The lower boundary of 

the eighth cycle is identified by a sharp transition from the marine burrowed mudstone of the 

Saharonim Formation to the supratidal dolomicrites at the base of the lower member of the 

Mohilla Formation. The onset of the ninth cycle is marked by evaporite deposition in the upper 

member of the Mohilla Formation. The termination of the cycle is marked by the upper Carnian 

skeletal and stromatolite limestone. 

The Mohilla Formation displays a substantial northward thickening from 200 m in the 

Ramon outcrop to 1000 m in the Devora-2a well (Druckman and Kashai, 1981). During its 

depositional time span (~ 5 m.y.) a marked differentiation in lithologies took place, i.e., thick 

accumulations of anhydrites (150 m in the Negev and 800 m in the northern part of Israel) were 

deposited in distinctive basins trending in a SW–NE direction. The basins were separated by 

dolomitic sections of reduced thickness (50 m in the Negev and 200 m in the north), indicating 

elevated swells between the basins. These facies and thickness changes indicate differential rates 

of subsidence apparently caused by vertical movements (Druckman, 1974; Druckman and 

Kashai, 1981). Normal faulting of several hundred meters during Carnian times resulted in the 

accumulation of the Erez Conglomerate on the foot-wall of the Helez fault (Druckman, 1984; 

Eshet, 1990). The Carnian vertical movements mark the second onset of extensional tectonics of 

the Early Mesozoic rifting phase. 

4.2.10 The Norian cycle (Shefayim Formation) 

The Shefayim Formation represents the last Triassic cycle. The unit was recognized only 

in the Atlit-1 and Gaash-2 wells in the northern coastal plain (Gvirtzman, 1981). The duration of 

the Shefayim cycle is estimated to be ~8.5 m.y. It is characterized by a reef facies consisting of 

sponges and other encrusting organisms, unidentified corals, and oolite beds (Derin et al., 1981; 

Korngrin and Benjamini, 2001; Korngrin, 2004). In the Atlit-1 well the Shefayim section reaches 

1150 m (including about 270 m of Jurassic magmatic intrusions). 

The Norian sequence was probably eroded in most of Israel during the latest Triassic to 

earliest Jurassic sea-level drop (Fig. 4.1). This global lowstand is marked by a notable 

unconformity surface of low relief, representing a matured peneplain surface. The hiatus 

between the Norian Shefayim Formation and the Pliensbachian Ardon Formation spans ~15 m.y. 

This unconformity is known throughout the Middle East. It is associated with complete 

exposure of Triassic terrain to karstic dissolution, laterization and the development of a thick 

paleosol referred to as the Mishhor Formation (Goldberg and Friedman, 1974). 

20

4.3 The Jurassic Section 

In southern Israel, the Jurassic succession consists of ~1200 m of continental to nearshore 

sandstone, shale and carbonate. It gradually thickens to over 3700 m of shelf carbonates in 

central Israel and thins to ~2200 m in northwestern Israel. South of Makhtesh Ramon the 

Jurassic section is entirely truncated by the Valanginian erosive unconformity. Significant 

thickness variations, mainly in the Lower Jurassic sections, have been related to normal faulting 

associated with rifting that eventually opened the Neotethys Ocean and established the 

continental margin of the Arabian Craton (see chapter 7). Accretion of reefs and carbonate 

platforms mark the shelf edge, located close to the present-day Mediterranean shoreline. In the 

offshore, more than 1,650 m of shelf, slope and basinal sediments accumulated. 

The Jurassic section was partially penetrated in six wells only in the Mediterranean 

offshore: Delta-1A, Yam-2, Yam Yafo-1, Yam West-1, Foxtrot-1 and Asher Yam-1(Fig. 1.3, 

Table 3.1). Correlations between these wells and the onshore wells are displayed in the two cross 

sections (Figs. 4.5, 4.6) and in the seismic profiles. The biostratigraphy of the Jurassic section 

offshore has been a source of confusion: Different fossil groups used for dating the samples (e.g., 

pollen and spores, dinoflagelates versus benthic foraminifera) often produced contradicting 

results. Additional difficulties arose from the lack of core samples and from the occurrences of 

allochthonous rock constituents associated with mass-transport. 

The description of the Jurassic succession presented in the following chapters is largely 

based on the well-sampled section found in outcrops and wells in the Negev area. The Jurassic 

section comprises a series of onlaps reflecting seven, stacked depositional cycles that are shown 

in Figure 4.2. 

4.3.1 The Pliensbachian cycle (Ardon Formation) 

The Ardon Formation is the earliest of the Jurassic cycles (Maync,1966; Derin and 

Reiss,1966; Goldberg and Friedman, 1974, Perelis-Grossowicz et al., 2000). The cycle overlies 

the Mishhor paleosol and consists of shallow marine, peritidal carbonates with minor amounts of 

evaporites. Its time of deposition spans ~ 5 m.y. (Buchbinder and leRoux, 1993). The unit 

thickens from a few tens of meters in Makhtesh Ramon to nearly 800 m in the Hilal well in 

northeastern Sinai, and almost 1000 m in the Helez Deep-1A well in the southern coastal plain. 

These thickness variations are associated with an Early Jurassic faulting episode that 

occurred simultaneously with extensive volcanism found in the subsurface in the Carmel area. 

There, a thick 2500 m pile of basalts and pyroclastics, termed the Asher Volcanics, accumulated 

in a fault-controlled depression oriented in a NW-SE direction (Gvirtzman and Steinitz, 1983; 

Garfunkel, 1989; Gvirtzman et al. 1990). These volcanics have an intraplate basalt affinity 

21

Ma 

140 

150 

160 

170 

180 

190 

200 

210 

CRETACEOUS 

JURASSIC 

TRIASSIC 

UPPER 

MIDDLE 

LOWER 

UPPER 

(NEOCOMIAN) 

MALM 

DOGGER 

LIAS 

KEUPER 

Valanginian 

137.0 

Berriasian 

144.2 

Tithonian 

150.7 

Kimmeridgian 

154.1 

Oxfordian 

159.4 

Callovian 

164.4 

Bathonian 

169.2 

Bajocian 

176.5 

Aalenian 

180.1 

Toarcian 

189.6 

Pliensbachian 

195.3 

Sinemurian 

201.9 

Hettangian 

205.7 

Rhaetian 

209.6 

Norian 

Middle L Mid. Upper L Upper 

M. L L Upp. 

Delta Yam 

Low. Gevar’Am 

A r s u f 

L M. U Lower Upper Lower Upp. Lower Middle Upper L Mid U Lower Upper L M. Upp. Lower M. U L Upp. Upp. 

Undivided Kidod 

allocthonous section 

Offshore Inland 

Haifa 

Bay 

H a i f a 

Nirim 

Nirim 

Haluza 

Be’er Sheva, Bikfaya 

Nir Am 

eroded 

eroded 

Brur 

Shederot 

Barnea 

Kidod 

Matmor 

Zohar 

Sherif 

Rosh Pinna Upp. Inmar 

Qeren 

Low. Inmar 

A r d o n 

4 

Daya 

S h e f a y i m 

N a h a 

Karmon 

Mish’hor 

Salima 

l 

eroded 

3 

r 

S a ’ a 

5 

Tayasir 

Ramon Laccolith 

Ardon dykes 

1 

6 

7 

2 

Asher Volcanics 

133 

140 

150 

160 

170 

180 

190 

200 

210 

0m 50 100 150 

Sea level 

Haq et al. 

1987;1988 

Fig. 4.2 - Jurassic stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel. 

The blue bar denotes theTop Bathonian seismic horizon. 

22

(Dvorkin and Kohn, 1989). The Asher Volcanics range in age from 206 to 189 Ma (Steinitz et al, 

1983; Segev, 2000) 

4.3.2 The Aalenian to early Bajocian cycle (Inmar Formation) 

The Inmar Formation comprises the second Jurassic cycle (Perelis-Grossowicz et al., 

2000). The Lower Member of the Inmar Formation consists of fluvial and shoreface sandstone 

with minor amounts of mudstone, passing upwards to the shallow-marine, inner-shelf carbonate 

of the Qeren Member. The latter marks the maximum flooding surface of the cycle. The Upper 

Member of the Inmar Formation consists of fluvial and fluvio-deltaic sandstone, siltstone and 

mudstone, marking a highstand, progradational systems tract. This part of the cycle passes into 

the Rosh-Pinna Formation (Derin, 1974), which represents the distal part of the highstand 

progradation wedge in the coastal plain and northern part of the country. In the coastal plain and 

central and northern Israel the Inmar and the Daya formations merge distally to form a ~1500 m 

thick carbonate platform of the Nirim Formation. This thick platform is built of mudstones, 

peletal and oolitic packstones, wackestones and grainstones. The unified cycle lasted ~5 m.y. 

The Aalenian-Lower Bajocian sequence displays significant thickness variations in the 

Negev, ranging from 0 in the NE to over 900 m in the NW (Goldberg and Friedman, 1974; 

Druckman, 1977). These variations indicate the most significant vertical movement related to 

the Early Mesozoic rifting phase that is identified in southern. 

4.3.3 The late Bajocian cycle (Daya and Barnea formations) 

The Daya and Barnea formations form the third Jurassic cycle. The cycle begins with 

transgressive, shallow-marine carbonate and sandstone of the Daya Formation. The thickness of 

the unit changes gradually from ~100 m in Makhtesh Ramon to nearly 250 m in the coastal 

plain. In several wells near the present coastline the Daya Formation either passes laterally to or 

is overlain by the deeper-marine Barnea Formation. The latter unit consists of thinly bedded 

sponge rhaxes, spicules and radiolarian packstones, interpreted to reflect the maximum flooding 

conditions of the cycle. The duration of the Daya-Barnea cycle is ~5.5 m.y. 

4.3.4 The Bathonian cycle (Sherif and Shederot formations) 

The Sherif and Shederot formations and an 'Undivided' Middle Jurassic unit found in the 

offshore, comprises the fourth cycle. This cycle probably represents the smallest Jurassic onlap. 

In the Negev the unit consists of nearshore sandstones and peritidal and subtidal carbonates of 

the Sherif Formation. These may denote the lowstand to transgressive systems tracts of the cycle. 

In the central and northern coastal plain it comprises the oolitic shoals of the Shederot 

23

Formation, which probably correspond to the highstand systems tract. The inland part of the 

Shederot-Sherif cycle thickens from ~100 m in the south to about 500 m in the coastal plain (Fig. 

4.5). 

In the offshore wells, the fourth Jurassic cycle is found only in the lower part of Yam 

West-1 (4829 m to T.D.) and Yam Yafo-1 (5033 m to T.D.). The presumed Bathonian 

succession in Yam West-1 consists of more then 421 m (bottom not reached at the T.D.) of 

oolitic pelletal and intraclast grainstones and skeletal grainstones. The grainstones are stacked in 

20-50 m thick packages separated by a few meters of thick gray shale. On the Gamma Ray and 

Resistivity logs a total of 14 such packages were defined. At the base of the section three 

coarsening upward cycles (40-50 m thick) were detected. These are followed by five finingupward 

(bell shaped), small-scale cycles (10-30 m thick). The upper part of the succession 

consists of five coarsening-upward cycles (25-40 m thick). The oolitic grainstones are interpreted 

as shoals, deposited in a platform setting that existed during the Bathonian in the Yam West-1 

area. 

In the Yam Yafo-1 well, the lowermost 752 m is dominated by siltstones and shale, 

interlayered with carbonates . The carbonate beds consist of skeletal and oolitic grainstones and 

packstones. Microconglomerates composed of all the above lithologies were detected in ditch 

samples. A 60 m thick mudstone interval rich in poriferan spicules and rhaxes was recorded 

between 5260 and 5320 m. Following Conway (written comm., 2006) a Bathonian age is 

assigned to this interval. The lithologic characteristics are different from the Shederot Formation 

found in the Yam West-1 well or in the onshore. The strata in the lower part of the Yam Yafo-1 

well are therefore considered as an 'Undivided' Middle Jurassic unit of a presumed Bathonian 

age. The existence of microconglomerates and the large amounts of clastics suggest that the 

'Undivided' unit in Yam Yafo-1, unlike the Shederot Formation in Yam West, may represent an 

allochthonous section derived in part from the nearby shelf (Druckman et al., 1994; Gardosh, 

2002). 

The Bathonian unconformity marked by the Blue horizon is correlated to the top of the 

Shederot Formation in Yam West-1 and to the middle part of the 'Undivided' unit in the Yam 

Yafo-1 well. The age definition of these offshore sections and their relation to the Shederot 

cycle onshore is problematic due to contradicting biostratigraphic ages obtained from different 

fossil groups. 

An age of Aalenian to Early Bajocian in the Yam West-1 well is indicated by the 

occurrence of the fossils Gutnicella gr. cayexi between 5080 and 5180 m and Timidonella sarda 

between 5180 and 5250 m. A similar age is indicated in the Yam Yafo-1 by the fossils 

“Mesoendothyra” sp. between 5338 and 5368 m and a badly preserved specimen of Timidonella 

24

sarda at 5770 m (Perelis-Grossowicz, 2006, written comm.). In the Yam West-1 well Perelis- 

Grossowicz further inferred a Late Bajocian-Early Bathonian hiatus of ~6-7 m.y. at a depth of 

4910 m. The ostracode Fabanella ramonensis, which is known from the Pliensbachian Ardon 

Formation in the Negev, was found at the very bottom of the Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 wells 

together with Gomphocythere sp. known from the Bathonian of the Paris basin. 

In contrast to the biostratigraphic ages described above, Conway (written comm., 2006) 

assigned an age of "not older than Bathonian" to the lower 200 m in the Yam West-1 and Yam 

Yafo-1 wells. Conway based his age determination on the occurrence of the dynocyst 

Systematofora penicillata. 

The mixed occurrence (Pliensbachian and Aalenian –Bajocian) of foraminifera and 

ostracoda faunas in the Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 wells suggestes that they are reworked in 

younger strata of Bathonian age, as indicated by the dynocyst assemblage. The correlation of the 

oolitic offshore interval in Yam West-1 with the onshore Bathonian Shederot Formation is 

further supported by the fact that the Bajocian Barnea Formation which underlies the Shederot 

Formation onshore was not encountered in the Yam West-1 well, as would be the case if the 

oolitic succession in this well were indeed of Aalenian –Early Bajocian age (Fig. 4.5). 

4.3.5 The early Bathonian to Callovian cycle (Karmon, Zohar, Matmor and Brur 

formations) 

The Karmon, Zohar, Matmor and Brur formations comprise the fifth cycle. The Karmon 

shale is a terrigeneous unit several tens of meters thick found in wells of the southern coastal 

plain below the Zohar limestone. It is interpreted as the lowstand systems tract of the cycle that 

was deposited following a sea-level drop and exposure of the underlying Shederot shelf (Fig. 

4.5) (Gardosh, 2002). The base of the Karmon shale is an upper Bathonian unconformity surface 

that is correlated to the Blue seismic horizon (Fig. 4.2). The overlying Zohar and Matmor 

formations in the Negev area consist of shallow-marine, low-energy carbonate interlayered with 

minor amounts of shale and sandstone. In the coastal plain the equivalent strata are the oolitic, 

oncoid, skeletal grainstones of the Brur Formation. The three shallow-marine units are 

interpreted as the highstand systems tract of the cycle. The strata of the fifth cycle attain 

thicknesses of 160-180 m in the northern Negev and ~ 100 m in the coastal plain. An 

unconformity surface associated with karst phenomena found at the top of the Brur Formation 

marks the end of the cycle (Buchbinder, 1979). 

In the offshore Yam-2, Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 wells the Zohar Formation ranges 

in thickness from 119 to 138 m. It consists of oolitic, pelletal and intraclast and skeletal 

grainstones, mudstones and packstones made of poriferan spicules, and a few intercalations of 

25

dark gray shale with radiolaria. The Zohar Formation conformably overlies the 'Undivided' 

Middle Jurassic unit in the Yam Yafo-1 borehole and the Bathonian Shederot Formation in the 

Yam West-1 borehole. 

Based on a revision of the foraminiferal biostratigraphy in the three offshore wells, 

Perelis-Grossowicz (written comm., 2006) updated the age of the Zohar to uppermost Bathonian 

to lower Callovian. Conway (written comm., 2006) assigned a Callovian age, similar to the age 

assigned to the Zohar and Matmor formations onshore (Hirsch, 2005). 

Over 2 Bcm of thermogenic gas was produced from fractured limestone of the Zohar 

Formation in the Dead Sea area (Zohar, Kidod and Qanaim fields). Sub-commercial quantities 

of high-grade oil were also recovered from oolitic grainstones of the Zohar Formation in the 

offshore Yam Yafo-1 and Yam-2 wells. 

4.3.6 The Haifa Formation 

The Haifa Formation is a thick and uniform carbonate succession of Bajocian to 

Callovian age (Derin, 1974) that is found in wells in the northern coastal plain and offshore area 

(Fig. 4.6). This succession is equivalent to the 3 rd , 4 th and 5 th cycles of the central and southern 

parts of Israel. The Bathonian unconformity marked by the Blue horizon is correlated to the top 

of the Lower Haifa Member (Fig. 4.6) 

4.3.7 The Oxfordian cycle (Kidod Formation) 

The Kidod Formation forms the sixth depositional cycle. The unit consists of dark gray to 

black shale, with minor intercalations of carbonate mudstone and packstone. It ranges in 

thickness from 0 to 200 m and its deposition spans ~2.6 m.y. Its maximum thickness is found 

along a NE-SW trending belt, extending from Mt. Hermon towards the northwestern Negev. In 

most of the Negev the unit was entirely truncated by the Valanginian unconformity. In the 

northern coastal plain and northern Israel it is entirely absent. In the offshore Yam West-1, Yam- 

2 and Yam Yafo-1 wells the unit reappears and ranges in thickness from 170 to 340 m. In these 

wells it consists of gray, green and reddish shale and a few interlayers of poorly sorted 

grainstones containing intraclasts, pellets, forams, and echinoids. The Kidod shale is generally 

barren of fauna, though a few radiolaria, foraminifera, molluscs, echinoids and ostracodes were 

found. In the offshore the unit conformably overlies the Zohar Formation and underlies the Delta 

Formation. This predominantly transgressive unit marks the termination of the Middle Jurassic 

carbonate platform offshore Israel, while onshore, carbonate platform conditions were later 

reestablished. 

26

An Oxfordian age was assigned to the Kidod Formation (Druckman et al., 1994; Gill et al., 

1995; Conway, 2006, written comm.). Perelis-Grossowicz (2006, written comm.) attributed a 

Middle Callovian – Oxfordian age to the Kidod Formation, whereas Derin et al. (1990) assigned 

it an Oxfordian –Kimmeridgian age. In the Hermon and Maghara outcrops an early to middle 

Oxfordian age was assigned, based on ammonite zonation (Hirsch, 2005). 

The distribution pattern of the Kidod Formation in the offshore wells and in central Israel 

and its absence along the coastal area may be attributed to submarine erosion or non deposition 

along the upper slope during late Oxfordian times. However, subaerial erosion cannot entirely be 

ruled out. This interpretation differs from that proposed by Derin, (1974), who related the 

absence of the Kidod Formation in the coastal plain to interfingering with carbonates of the Nir 

Am Reef. Derin (1974) further attributed the thick accumulation of the Kidod in the NE-SW 

trending belt to backreef lagoonal conditions. The proposed model herein indicates open marine 

conditions, which accords better with the rich ammonite fauna found in the Hermon and 

Maghara outcrops. The widespread distribution of Oxfordian shale in the Middle East better 

supports an open marine model for the Kidod shale rather than a shelf lagoon as proposed by 

Derin (1974). 

4.3.8 The late Oxfordian to Tithonian cycle 

The upper Oxfordian to Tithonian strata comprise the seventh cycle. This cycle, which 

lasted about 12 m.y., is assumed to represent the maximum onlap extension of all Jurassic cycles. 

It corresponds to the highest Jurassic global sea-level stand (Haq et al., 1988). The cycle 

comprises the Beer Sheva, Haluza, Nahal Saar, Haifa Bay , Bikfaya and Salima formations 

onshore Israel and southern Lebanon, and the Delta and Yam formations in the offshore wells. 

In the onshore it consists of 200 to 400 m of shallow marine carbonate mudstones, packstones, 

coral and stromatoporid reefs, and oolitic and oncolithic shoals (Nir Am, Be'er Sheva, Nahal 

Saar, Bikfaya formations). These carbonates are overlain by peritidal sandstones, siltstones and 

shales interlayered with low–energy, subtidal carbonates and numerous, locally developed oolitic 

shoals (in the Haluza and Salima formations). These Upper Jurassic units have escaped 

truncation by the Valanginian unconformity due to their low structural position (Eliezri, 1964). 

In the offshore wells the Oxfordian to Tithonian sequence is represented by the Delta and 

Yam formations. The Delta Formation varies in thickness from 148 to 240 m. It consists of 

redeposited reefoidal limestones, oolitic and pelletal grainstones, skeletal grainstones, burrowed 

shale and minor amounts of fine to medium-grain, moderately sorted quartz sandstone. Twelve 

meters of the Delta Formation were cored in the Delta-1A well. The cores contain mainly 

burrowed black shale and rip-up clasts, with occasional 10-20 cm thick layers consisting of 

27

centimeter-scale redeposited, oolitic and skeletal grainstones with fine to coarse lithoclasts. A 

few fining-upward cycles several centimeters thick were also observed. Three distinct volcanic 

bodies, 15-20m thick are found within the Delta Formation, in the Delta-1 well. 

Friedman et al. (1971) interpreted a depositional slope environment for the Delta 

Formation. In the Yam-2 and Yam West-1 wells, three stacked fining-upward cycles are 

observed on the Gamma Ray and Resistivity logs that possibly represent submarine, migrating 

mid-fan channel fill. These fining-upward cycles are poorly developed in the Delta-1A well and 

absent in the Yam Yafo-1 well. An Oxfordian to Kimerridgian age was assigned to the Delta 

Formation offshore (Derin et al., 1988, 1990; Moshkovitz, in Derin et al., 1988; Druckman et al., 

1994; Gill et al., 1995; Perelis-Grossowicz and Conway, 2006, written comm.). The unit 

conformably overlies the Kidod Formation and underlies the Yam Formation. 

The Yam Formation ranges in thickness from 100 to 387 m. It consists of dark, finely 

laminated shale and siltstone generally barren of faunal elements but occasionally containing 

some foraminifera and ostracodes, skeletal, oolithic and pelletal packstones and fine to coarsegrained 

grainstones, subangular to subrounded quartz sandstone, poorly sorted (Druckman et al., 

1994; Gill et al., 1995). In the Delta-1 well volcanic fragments were also recorded (Derin et al., 

1990). The Yam Formation conformably overlies the Delta Formation and underlies the Arsuf 

Formation. Its age was determined as Tithonian, however a Kimmeridgian age for its lower part 

is possible (Derin et al., 1988, 1990; Moshkovitz in Derin et al., 1988; Druckman et al., 1994; 

Gill et al., 1995; Perelis-Grossowicz and Conway, 2006, written comm.). 

During the Late Jurassic a distinct shelf-edge was established separating the shallow shelf 

to the east from a slope and basin to the west. The Delta and Yam formations are thus interpreted 

as slope and basin deposits that were deposited during Late Jurassic lowstands. The absence of 

these units west of the shelf-edge is related to either: (a) non deposition on the Late Jurassic 

upper slope; or (b) erosion of both the upper slope and shelf deposits during the Valanginian 

unconformity. 

Onshore, there is a hiatus of ~ 23 m.y. above the Upper Jurasic strata, from the Berriasian 

until the lowermost Aptian. Offshore, however, continuous sedimentation took place across the 

Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary. It is possible that Berriasian sediments were deposited onshore 

and were later eroded during latest Berriasian to Early Valangian sea-level drop (see next 

chapter). 

28

Delta 1A 

Yam 2 

Yam Yafo 1 

Yam West 1 

Formation 

Top 

Thickness 

Top 

Thickness 

Top 

Thickness 

Top 

Thickness 

m. 

m. 

m. 

m. 

m. 

m. 

m. 

m. 

Arsuf 

3905 

200 

4263 

171 

4127 

63 

3953 

109 

Yam 

4105 

100 

4434 

263 

4190 

387 

4062 

210 

Delta 

4205 

218+ 

4697 

198 

4577 

148 

4272 

240 

Kidod 

4895 

340 

4725 

170 

4512 

198 

Zohar 

5235 

135+ 

4895 

138 

4710 

119 

Shederot/Undefined 

5033 

752+ 

4829 

421+ 

Total Jurassic 

518+ 

1107+ 

1658+ 

1297+ 

Table 4.1- Summary of Jurassic formation tops and thicknesses in offshore wells. 

4.4 The Cretaceous Section 

4.4.1 Berriasian to early Valanginian cycle (Arsuf Formation) 

A global sea-level drop started in the Berriasian and culminated in the early Valanginian 

(Fig. 4.3) (Haq et al., 1988). At the same time, a large-scale uplift of the landmass took place, 

east and south of the present-day shoreline. This uplift was caused by heating related to an 

upwelling of a mantle plume associated with the Tayasir Volcanics and the shallow Ramon 

intrusions (Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; Gvirtzman et al., 1998). Consequently, intensive and 

widespread erosion took place. The intensity of the erosion increased from north to south, 

eventually resulting in the removal of most of the Phanerozoic section in the southern Negev 

(Eliezri, 1964; Weissbrod, 1969a; Druckman, 1974; Garfunkel and Derin, 1984). 

The Arsuf Formation (a new formation name proposed herein) ranges in thickness from 

63 to 200 m. (Table 4.1). It consists of carbonate debris interbedded with thin shale 

intercalations. The carbonate debris is apparently allochthonous, representing reworked 

carbonate platform sediments, e.g., skeletal, oolitic, pelletal, grainstone or packstone, 

occasionally sandy. The formation is characterized by a 'bow' shaped gamma ray pattern, 

reflecting a gradual decrease of mud content towards the crest of the 'bow' and an increase of 

mud again towards its top. This pattern characterizes waxing and waning of sedimentation on a 

mixed sand-mud fan (Emery and Myers, 1996). The sandy component of the Arsuf fan, however, 

is made of carbonate debris. 

The age of the Arsuf Formation is latest Tithonian to Berriasian. However, an early 

Valanginian age cannot be ruled out (Fig. 4.3) (Derin et al., 1988, 1990; Moshkovitz, in Derin et 

al., 1988; Druckman et al., 1994; Gill et al., 1995). Reworked Jurassic faunal elements are 

29

LOWER CRETACEOUS UPPER CRETACEOUS 

85.8 

Coniacian 

89.0 

Turonian 

93.5 

Cenomanian 

98.9 

Albian 

112.2 

Aptian 

121.0 

Barremian 

127.0 

Hauterivian 

132.0 

Valanginian 

137.0 

Berriasian 

144.2 

Upp. Lower Mid. Upper L Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Middle Upper Lower M Up Low Mid Up L M Up L 

Item Yagur Kamon 

Kefira 

Glauconite horizon 

Uza 

T a l m e - Y a f e 

G e v a r ’ a m 

A r s u f 

Offshore 

Daliyya 

Negba 

Y a k h i n i 

R a m a 

Coarse Cgl, 

Yavneh Shale 

Helez 

Telamim 

Upp. Hidra 

Hevyon 

Couches a Knemiceras 

Qatana 

En Qinya 

“Zumoffen” 

Tamun 

L.C.-3 

Deragot 

Low. Hidra 

Ein el Assad “Blanche” Zuweira 

Nebi Sa’id 

Top Jurassic 

Gres de Base 

H a t i r a 

Inland 

Senonian drowning 

Upper Nezer Zihor 

Gerofit, up. Bina 

Shivta “Vroman” 

“Clastic 

Drowning 

Low. Ora Unit” 

Mukhraqa Sakhnin, Tamar Up. Ora 

Avnon 

N. Oren 

Deir Hanna 

Zafit 

En Yorqeam 

Distal slope 

fan sands 

Continental 

Kesalon 

event 

Kohal, Chouf 

Hermon 

Tayasir, Hermon 

Carmel 

Ramon 

Ramon 

Judea Gr. 

K u r n u b G r . 

85 Sea level (Haq et al., 1987, 1988) 

0 50 100 200 

90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 

120 

125 

130 

135 

140 

145 

Fig. 4.3 - Cretaceous stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel. 

Selected continental deposits are delineated by dotted lines 

The green bar denotes Top Turonian seismic horizon. 

30

occasionally present. This unit conformably overlies the Yam Formation and underlies the 

Gevar’am Formation. The redeposition of Jurassic microfauna in the Berriasian to early 

Valanginian sediments supports the interpretation that the main erosion phase took place during 

this lowstand (Druckman et al., 1994). 

4.4.2 Valanginian to Aptian cycle (Gevar'am Formation) 

The pronounced uplift and related sea-level drop of late Berriasian - early Valangian 

times resulted in intensive erosion and transportation of the erosional products towards the sea. 

The transportation conduit persisted along the sea floor, eventually resulting in the incision of a 

large submarine canyon (Gevar'am Canyon), which in the coastal plain area, reaches a width of 

ca 30 km and depth of ca 1000 m (Cohen, 1976). The canyon is filled by marine shales 

(Gevar'am Formation) of Valangian to Barremian age with a few conglomerate and sandstone 

intercalations. 

Sandstone intercalations up to 15-20 m thick were encountered in the Yam-2, Yam West- 

1 and Yam West-2 offshore wells. They are referred to as "Lower Sand" of Hauterivian age and 

"Upper Sand"of Barremian age (Fig. 4.3) (Isramco Report ). Most of these intercalations display 

a serrated log motif, indicating sand/clay interchange, which characterizes a 'channel levee' 

system of proximal slope fan (Emery and Myers, 1996). The lower sand in the Yam West-1 well 

displays a blocky gamma-ray motif that probably represents a sand lobe that breached the 

channel's levee (crevasse splay). The interpretation the offshore sand beds further suggestes that 

the basin floor should have been located westward of the Yam wells. 

4.4.3 Hauterivian to early Aptian cycle (Helez and Telamim formations) 

The (siliciclastic-rich) Helez Formation (up to 240 m thick) represents a gradual 

encroachment of sea onto the shelf, probably in Barremian times (Fig. 4.3). This rise culminated 

in the Lower Aptian and is reflected by the oolite-rich Telamim (270 m)/Ein el Assad (Muraille 

de Blanche) carbonate platform and the Zuweira marine intercalation within the largely 

continental Hatira sandstone of the Negev (Fig. 4.3) (Weissbrod et al., 1990; Lewy and 

Weissbrod, 1993). In the offshore, the Helez -Telamim cycle is represented by the Gevar'am 

Formation, especially by its upper part (Fig. 4.3). Inland, the base-level rise during deposition of 

the Helez Formation resulted in the proximal accretion of continental, fluvial deposits of the 

Kohal Formation (up to 400 m thick; Shilo and Wolf, 1989), the sandstones below the Nabi Said 

Formation in the Qiryat Shemone (Galilee) area and the Gres de Base or Chouf Formation 

(Walley, 1998) in Lebanon. 

31

The time span of the Helez -Telamim deposition was ca 10 m.y., thus encompassing a 

second-order depositional cycle. The cycle terminates abruptly and is replaced by a pelagic shale 

interval (Yavneh Shale, ca 50 m thick) marked by the LC-3 electrolog marker (Fig. 4.3). This 

change reflects a drowning phase which hampered platform growth. In northern Israel the 

platform carbonate of the Ein el Assad Formation shows a pronounced deepening towards the 

uppermost part of the formation (Bachmann and Hirsch, 2006), presumably paralleling the L.C.- 

3 drowning phase. A global ecological event responsible for the demise and drowning of 

carbonate platforms in the Mediterranean area at the end of the lower Aptian (Castro and Ruiz- 

Ortiz, 1995; Wissler et al., 2003) could have been also responsible for the termination of the 

Telamim/Ein el Assad platform (Bachmann and Hirsch, 2006). 

The overlying Hidra Formation in the Galilee proximal area begins with oolitic marls of 

open lagoon environment (Bachmann and Hirsch, 2006). It is portrayed as a late highstand 

progradation stage of the Telamim - Ein el Assad cycle (Fig. 4.3). In the middle part of the Hidra 

Formation, 10 m of recurring intercalations of fluvial sediments and ferruginous crusts signal a 

pronounced sequence boundary and lowstand systems tract deposits. 

A notable sandstone horizon overlain by a dolomite bed was identified by Grader and 

Reiss (1958), directly above the Yavneh Shale. In their composite log of the Lower Cretaceous 

in the Helez area this horizon is termed the "Main Shale Break" (M.S.B. electrolog marker). A 

correlation is proposed between this sandstone bed and the coarse conglomerate at the base of 

the Aptian-Albian Talme Yafe-Yakhini cycles (see below). This lowstand event is also 

responsible for the prominent erosion surface, which the Talme Yafe sediments overlie. 

4.4.4 Late Aptian cycle (upper Hidra to top Limestone Member of the Rama Formation) 

The next cycle (in proximal areas of northern Israel and the Negev) includes the upper 

Hidra, the "Zumoffen" Limestone Member and the Deragot marine intercalation within the 

Hatira sandstone in the Negev (Fig. 4.3). Its time span is ca 7 m.y. Along the coastal Hinge Belt 

it is represented by a carbonate platform facies of the Yakhini Formation (Fig 4.3). West of the 

Hinge Belt it is represented by the Talme Yafe prism of carbonate debris. The Talme Yafe 

Formation unconformably overlies different units from the Aptian Telamim Formation to Middle 

Jurassic formations, with coarse conglomerate breccia at its base (Bein and Weiler, 1976). The 

reasons for this intense erosion are not clear. Unlike the truncation by the Gevar'am Formation, 

which was associated with a tectonic uplift, the truncation at the base of the Talme Yafe 

Formation could have been caused by the pronounced sea-level fall in middle Aptian times, 

which is clearly displayed in Haq's curve (Fig. 4.3). 

32

4.4.5 Albian cycle 

The restricted environment at the top of the "Zumoffen" Limestone Member of the lower 

part of the Rama Formation reflects a sequence boundary (Fig. 4.3) (Bachmann and Hirsch, 

2006). The next cycle in proximal areas includes the Rama Formation (Couches a Knemiceras) 

of mixed platform and basinal carbonate and the Yagur Formation, representing the highstandprogradation 

stage (Fig. 4.3). A parallel section was also found in the Judea Mountains 

(Ramallah area; Shachnai, 1969). The time range of this cycle is ca 13 m.y. In the more proximal 

areas of the Negev, the well-known sandy glauconite zone just below the Late Albian carbonate 

of the Hevyon Member (Judea Group) signifies the maximum flooding interval of the Albian 

cycle. In the coastal plain and the offshore distal areas the sedimentation of the Yakhini and the 

Talme Yafe formations continued. 

4.4.6 Cenomanian cycle 

An erosional unconformity at the top of the Yagur Formation (Fig. 4.3) (Folkman, 1969; 

Kafri, 1986; Lipson-Benitah et al., 1997) is marked by conglomerates and breccia, calcrete and 

dedolomitization, indicating aerial exposure (Folkman, 1969) and is thus designated as a 

sequence boundary. Extensive volcanism products overlie this surface in the Carmel and Umm el 

Fahm (Segev et al., 2002). In the northern Negev, this surface truncates the rudistid buildup at 

the top of the Hevyon Member, which contains the foraminifer Preaealveolina, thus indicating 

an early Cenomanian age (Lewy and Weissbrod, 1993). The overlying cycle begins with a thin, 

ca 0.5 m glauconitic carbonate bank with Pycnodonte vesiculosa and with early Cenomanian 

ammonites, representing part of the transgressive systems tract of the En Yorqeam – Zafit subcycle 

(Fig. 4.3). In the Jerusalem and Hebron hills the top of the Kesalon Formation represents 

the same phase (Fig. 4.3) (Braun and Hirsch, 1994). 

The substantial abnormal thickness (2700 m) of the Cenomanian Item Formation in the 

Item-1 well offshore (reexamination by S. Lipson Benitah, 2006) is attributed to a submarine 

canyon incised into the Albian sediments of the Talme Yafe Formation as a result of the Kesalon 

lowstand event (Fig. 4.3). Cenomanian, mixed planktic and benthic foraminifera were found in 

the Item Canyon fill. Notably, both the Kesalon event and the younger Mukhraqa channeling 

events (see below) are associated with volcanic eruptions in the Carmel, at the base of the Isfiye 

Chalk (=Negba Formation) and the Mukhraqa Formation (Segev et al., 2002). 

This early Cenomanian erosional surface was also described in Jordan by Abed (1984) 

and by Schulze et al. (2003) as sequence boundary CeJo1 at the top of Member b of the Naur 

Formation. The time span of the emergence which caused the unconformity was brief and was 

33

soon followed by extensive sea level rise (represented by the chalky Negba Formation), 

suppressing carbonate platform development, except in the Judean hills (partial drowning). 

The strata of the Cenomanian cycle are mostly basinal, pelagic sediments such as chalks 

with chert beds, e.g., the Deir Hanna Formation in the Galilee, the chalk complex of the Carmel 

and the Negba Formation of the coastal plain and the offshore areas (Fig. 4.3). This chalk event 

indicates a drowning phase suppressing and eventually replacing the Albian carbonate platform. 

Inland, the cycle terminates with the prograding platform carbonate of the Sakhnin, Weradim 

and Tamar formations. In the Negev, the cycle is divided into two transgressive-regressive 

cycles: (1) En Yorqeam/Zafit, (2) Avnon/Tamar (Fig. 4.3). 

Bet Oren– Atlit incised canyon of Middle/Late Cenomanian age- In the Carmel region, 

pelagic distal ramp deposits of the upper Cenomanian (Junediya Formation) are overlain by the 

lower part of the Late Cenomanian Mukhraqa Formation (age emendation by Buchbinder et al., 

2000). Various types of transport phenomena characterize the latter unit, and are interpreted as 

distal bioclastic material shed off the prograding highstand deposits of the Late Cenomanian. 

‘Reefal’ sediments of this unit were reported in an E-W trending erosive channel 10 km long 

which breaches the shelf edge near Atlit (Bein, 1977, figs. 2, 3). This channel may have been 

initiated as a large-scale slope failure. The erosion cuts down to early Cenomanian sediments. 

The age of the "reefal" Mukhraqa facies was emended to Late Cenomanian (instead of 

Turonian), based on the presence of caprinids (Buchbinder et al., 2000). The time of incision of 

this channel should, therefore, be late Middle Cenomanian to pre or early Late Cenomanian. 

Presumably, it is related to Haq's (1988) major sequence boundary Ce3/Ce4 at 94 m.y. 

(recalibrated to Gradstein et al., 1995) following a 60 m sea-level fall. 

4.4.7 First Turonian cycle 

This cycle begins with a major Late Cenomanian drowning phase which resulted in the 

demise of upper Cenomanian platforms (Tamar, Weradim, Sakhnin) followed by different time 

durations of condensation and hiatuses (Fig. 4.3) (Buchbinder et al., 2000). Sedimentation was 

later resumed in hemi-pelagic facies (Fig. 4.3) (Ora, Yirqa and Daliyya) and finally carbonate 

platforms were reestablished in proximal areas: Shivta; "Vroman" (Fig. 4.3). The cycle was 

abruptly terminated by a pronounced sea-level fall, resulting in the exposure of the shelf and the 

development of a system of rivers and overbanks, depositing quartzose sandstone and shale of 

the "Clastic Unit" (Fig. 4.3) (Sandler, 1996). In distal areas (coastal plain and Mediterranean 

offshore) basinal sediments of the Daliyya Formation either accumulated, or were replaced by 

condensed sections and hiatuses. 

34

4.4.8 Middle Turonian to late Coniacian cycle (upper Bina, Gerofit and Zihor 

formations) 

The cycle begins in proximal areas with platform carbonate of the Gerofit and upper 

Nezer formations (Fig. 4.3). A deepening trend developed towards Early Coniacian times and in 

late Coniacian the platform facies was abruptly replaced by pelagic-rich beds. 

4.4.9 The Santonian to Paleocene basinal sediments (Mount Scopus Group) 

Basinal-type sedimentation started in the late Coniacian and persisted inland throughout 

the Santonian to Paleocene times. These sediments are represented by the Mount Scopus Group 

(Flexer, 1968) and are dominated by pelagic chalk both in far proximal areas and in the offshore. 

They contain also marl, chert and phosphate. Sedimentation took place in the framework of an 

upwelling system that affected the southern coasts of the Tethys Ocean along a belt 

encompassing today's North Africa and the east Levant margins (Almogi-Labin et al., 1993). The 

widespread pelagic sedimentation reflects a major drowning of the shallow-marine Judean 

platform that occurred due to oceanographic, ecological change, probably as a consequence of 

re-arrangement of the plates bordering the Mediterranean Tethys. Several eustatic lowstands at 

that time (Flexer and Honigstein, 1984; Gardosh, 2002) did not effect the extensive penetration 

of the sea far inland and thus could not be expressed in the onlap curve (Fig. 4.3). 

The Mount Scopus section contains organic-rich carbonate intervals. These bituminous 

rocks were deposited in the highly productive environment of small morphotectonic basins 

(Syrian Arc type synclines) and contain up to 20% of Type II kerogen (Tannenbaum and 

Aizenshtat, 1985; Gardosh et al., 1997). The Senonian bituminous rocks show geochemical 

correlation to asphalt, oil and gas accumulations found near the Dead Sea Lake and are 

considered to be the source of hydrocarbons that were generated within the Dead Sea Basin 

(Tannenbaum and Aizenshtat, 1985; Gardosh et al., 1997). 

4.5 The Tertiary Section 

4.5.1 General 

Facies patterns of the Lower and Middle Eocene are predominantly pelagic. Although 

seemingly they contain shallower neritic interludes of nummolitic carbonates, the mixture with 

pelagic elements indicates a mass transport origin in a deeper basinal setting (Benjamini, 1993) 

beginning in latest Early Eocene times (Buchbinder et al., 1988). 

Remarkably, the drowning conditions that started in the Sennonian persisted during most 

of the Tertiary; for about 70 m.y. and a true carbonate platform was re-established for a brief 

time span (ca 1 m.y.) only in Middle Miocene times (the Langhian Ziqlag Formation). 

35

Ma 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

SERIES STAGES 

PLIOCENE 

MIOCENE 

OLIGOCENE 

EOCENE 

Mid.L. 

Early 

Zancl. 

MIDDLE UPPER 

LOWER 

UPPER 

LOWER 

UPPER 

MIDDLE 

Piace. G 

2.13 

3.22 

3.95 

MP3 

4.50 MP2 

Tortonian 

11.20 

Serravallian 

14.80 

Langhian 

N9 

N8 

16.40 

N7 Gl. insueta 

17.3 

N6 Cx. stainforthi 

18.8 

Burdigalian 

20.52 

Aquitanian 

23.8 

Chattian 

41.3 

Lutetian 

BIOSTRATIGRAPHY 

MP6 

MP5 

MP4 

5.11 MP1 

5.33 

Messinian 

7.12 N17 

N16 

N15 

N14 

N11-13 

N10 

P22 

N3 

Bet Guvrin 

Shoreline 

4.37 

Judean Hills 

Slumped complex 

Turbidite sands 

Cgl + sandstones, offshore 

Canyons’ incision Bet Nir cgl. 

Gr.f.peripheroronda Bet Ziqlag 

Pb. glomerosa Guvrin 

Catapsydrax 

dissimilis 

21.5 

Pr. kugleri 

Gg. ciperoensis 

ciperoensis 

27.1 

Lakhish + 

b 

Ashdod clastics 

28.5 

a Pr. opima opima 

LS prograding wedge 

P20,N1 

30.6 

Rupelian 

P19 Gg. ampliapertura 

32.0 Canyons’ incision 

P18 Cg. chipolensis/ Bet Eroded 

Guvrin 

Fiq+ L. Ha’on 

Ps. micra 

33.7 

P17 33.8 Canyons’ incision 

Gr. cerroazulensis 

Priabonian P16 

Mostly eroded 

35.3 

Har Aqrav 

37.0 P15 Gk. semiinvoluta 

Bet Guvrin 

38.4 

Qeziot 

Bartonian P14 T. rohri 

P13 O. beckmannii 40.5 

Maresha 

P12 M. lehneri 

P21,N2 

N5 

N4 

Gt. inflata 

Gt. Crassaformis 

Ss. Seminolina 

Gt. puncticulata/margaritae 

Gr. margaritae 

Ss. Seminolina acme 

Gr. humerosa 

8.30 

Gr. acostaensis 

Gr.menardii 

Gr.mayeri 

Gs. ruber 

Y a f o 

Upp. 

Ziqim 

 

Mavqiim Evap. 

Pattish Reef 

Lower Ziqim 

Submarine canyons fill 

Mid. Ziqim 

Gaza Sands 

(Turbidites) 

Eroded 

Upp. 

Ha’on 

SEA LEVEL 

Miller et al. 2005 

-50 0 50 m 

Haq et al., 1977, 1978 

0 50 100 m 

Ma 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

Fig. 4.4 - Tertiary stratigraphy and marine onlaps, Israel. 

The colored bars denote seismic horizon. 

36

Rosh Pinna 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Report GSI/4/2008, GII Report 429/328/08 

Jerusalem, April 2008 

10500 m 

 

0 5 10 km 

Top Basement 

revised edition 

10500 m 

Hiatus, erosional unconformity, fault Mid. Miocene 

Top Bathonian 

10000 

Undivided Permo-Triassic 

 

Formation contact 

Base Mavqiim 


Stratigraphy, Structure,Tectonic Evolution 

and Implications for Hydrocarbon Exploration 

Top Turonian 

10000 

Sea floor 

Base Yafo 

Base Oligocene 

Gardosh M., Druckman Y., Buchbinder B. and Rybakov M., 

9500 

Basement 

9500 

9000 

 

Seismic Horizons 

The Ministry of National Infrastructures 

Geological Survey of Israel 

The Geophysical Institute 

of Israel 

LEGEND 

 

9000 

8500 


 

8500 

8000 

 

Undivided Early Jurassic 


 

 

Basement 

 

8000 

7500 

 

 

 

 

7500 

7000 


 


 

7000 


6500 

Barnea (Bajocian) 



 

 

6500 

Shederot (Bathonian) 

6093 m 

6000 

Karmia (Permian) 

6000 

Dorot Schist 


Triassic 

Erez Cgl. 

U. Triassic 

Karmia Shale 

(U. Perm.-L. Triass.) 

Gevim Qz.Porph. 

184 m.y 

6000 

Kidod (Oxfordian) 

Zohar (Callovian) 


Barnea 


5500 

Delta (Kimmeridgian) 

Shederot 

5370 m 


5500 

5500 

5250 m 


 


Arsuf (Berriasian-Valanginian) 

Yam (Tithonian) 

5000 

Zohar 

Arsuf 

Yam 

Delta 

Kidod 

5000 



5000 



Mishhor 

5000 

Mohilla 

(Carnian) 

Erez Cgl. 

U. Triassic 

5000 




4500 

Mishhor 

Basement 

4500 

4620 m 

Sa’ad (L. Perm.) 

4500 

Gevar’am (Haut.-Aptian) 

4204 m 

4076 m 

Arqov (U. Permian) 

4000 


4500 

4500 

37 

Sand 

4500 

Sa’ad 

Sand 

Arqov 

4000 

Sand 

Sand 

4000 


4000 

4000 

Nirim 

(Pliensbach. 

-L. Bajoc.) 

Mohilla 

Arsuf 

Nirim 

(Pliensbachian-L. Bajocian) 

4000 

Saharonim (Ladinian) 

4000 

Saharonim 

4000 

Sand 

3500 

(Pliensbach.) 

(Pliensbach.) 

Sand 

TalmeYafe (Albian) 

En Zetim (Senonian) + Taqiye (Paleocene) 

Sand 

Talme Yafe (Albian) 


Mishhor 

3500 

3500 

3500 

3500 

3500 

Ardon 

Ardon 

3500 


3500 

En Zetim (Senonian) + 

Taqiye (Paleocene) 

Lower Inmar 

Lower Inmar 

3000 

3000 

TalmeYafe (Albian) 

3000 

3000 

3000 

3000 

Bet Guvrin (U. Eocene - M. Miocene) 

En Zetim + 

Taqiye 

Talme Yafe 

Daya 

Qeren 


Daya 

Qeren (Aalenian-L. Bajocian) 

3000 

Avedat Grp. (L.- M. Eocene) 

En Zetim (Senonian) + Taqiye (Paleocene) 

3000 


Upper Inmar (Bajocian) 

Upper Inmar 


2500 

Daya (Bajocian) 

Daya 

2500 


2500 

2500 

2500 

2500 

2500 

Ziqim (M.-U. Miocene) 

T.Y. Conglomerate 

Shederot 

Mavqiim (Messinian) 

Ziqim (M.-U. Miocene) 


Ziqim (Mid.-U. Miocene) 



2500 

Shederot (Bathon.) 

Shederot 

2000 

2000 

2000 

2000 

2000 

2000 

Zohar 

Kidod (Oxf.) 


Karmon 

2000 

Kidod 

Zohar 

2000 

Beer Sheva 


Gevar’am 

1500 

1500 

1500 

1500 

1500 

Telamim 

Noa 


1500 

Telamim (U. 

Helez (U. Haut.-Barrem.) 

Barrem.-Aptian) 

Helez 

1500 

1500 

Yakhini 

Telamim 

Yakhini (U. Apt.- Albian) 

1000 

1000 

1000 

1000 

1000 

1000 

Yagur 

1000 

Yafo (Pliocene) Yafo (Pliocene) 

Yakhini 

1000 

Yagur (Albian) 

K.B. 26.0 m 

coast line 

K.B. 13.2 m 

K.B. 14.9 m 

K.B. 51.3 m 

K.B. 62.2 m 

R.T. 138.4 m 

GR Acoustic 

GR Acoustic 

Acoustic 

SP Acoustic 

SP Acoustic 

GR Acoustic 

A’ 0 

Datum m.s.l. 

0 m A 

Bet Guvrin 

Yafo (Pliocene) 

Adulam Adulam 

500 

500 m 

500 

500 

500 

500 

500 Yagur 

500 

Negba (U. Cenomanian) 

Dalyya (Turon.) 

En Zetim+Taqiye 

(Sen.-Pal.) 

Yam West 1 

Yam-2 

Ashqelon-2 

Talme Yafe-4 

Helez Deep-1A 

Gevim-1 

NW SE

(Tithonian) 

Negba 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

B’ 

0 

500 

1000 

1500 

2000 

2500 

3000 

3500 

4000 

4500 

5000 

5500 

6000 

6500 







0 10 20 km 

Hiatus, erosional unconformity, fault Mid. Miocene 

Top Bathonian 


Formation contact 

Base Mavqiim 

Top Turonian 



The Geophysical Institute 


Sea floor 

Base Yafo 

Base Oligocene 

Seismic Horizons 

LEGEND 

 

Mohilla 

Mohilla (Carnian) 

6531 m 

(Carnian) 

6000 m 

5787 m 

 

Shefayim 

Barnea 

 

 

(Norian) 

6000 


Shefayim (Norian) 

Barnea 

Shefayim 

Shederot 

Barnea 

(Bajocian) 

Barnea 

(Bajocian) 

5500 

Undivided (Aalenian-Bathonian) 

Kidod Zohar 

5500 

Shederot 


 


5500 

5250 m 

Kidod 

(Oxfordian) 

Delta 

Delta 

Kidod 

Zohar 

Zohar 

Delta 

Kidod 

Zohar 

Kidod 

Shefayim (Norian) 

 


Yam 


5000 


5000 


5000 

5000 

Arsuf 





Yam 

Arsuf 

(Berriasian-Valanginian) 

Arsuf 

Yam 

Delta 


Nirim 

Mohilla 

Yam 


Delta 

(Kimmeridgian) 

4500 

4500 

4423 m 

4500 


4500 

Yam 



Asher V. 

Arsuf 

Arsuf 


Shefayim 

(Norian) 


4000 

4000 

4000 

Shefayim 

4000 

Gevar’am 

(Hauterivian 

Sand 

4000 

Gevar’am 

(Hauterivian-Aptian) 

 

Gevar’am (Hauterivian-Aptian) 

-Aptian) 

Nirim 


Sand 

3500 

Sand 

3500 

3500 

Item (Cenomanian) 

3500 

Nirim 

3500 

En Zetim (Senonian) + Taqiye(Paleocene) 

Sand 

Talme Yafe 

Negba 

Talme Yafe 

(Albian) 

Talme Yafe 

T.Y. 

En Zetim+Ghareb 

+Taqiye 

3000 

3000 

3000 

Nirim 

3000 

 

 

Negba (U. Cenomanian) 

Negba 

Yaqum (U. Hauterivian-Barremian) 


Dalyya (Turonian) 

Dalyya 

Avedat 

2500 

2500 

2500 

Yakhini (U. Aptian-Albian) 

Telamim (U. Barremian-Aptian) 

Haifa 

2500 


Item (Cenomanian) 


Nirim 

(Aalenian-L. Bajocian) 

3000 


 

Ni 


Sand 

(Bajocian-Callovian) 


Haifa 

Haifa 

38 

E.Z.+Taq. 

En Zetim+Ghareb+Taqiye 

Sand 


Ziqim 


2500 

(M.-U. Miocene) 

Haifa 

Haifa 

2153 m 



2020 m 

Ziqim (M. Miocene) 

2000 

2000 

En Zetim (Senon.)+Taqiye (Paleocene) 

Bet Guvrin 

2000 

Negba 

2000 

2000 

En -Zetim 

2000 

1800 m 

Negba 

Telamim 

Yaqum (Up. Haut.-Barrem. 

Yaqum 

YAFO (Pliocene) 

Ziqim (M. Miocene) 

1500 

1500 

1500 

Avedat (L.-M. Eocene) 

(Senonian) 

Bet Guvrin 

Telamim 

1500 


En Zetim+Ghareb+Taqiye (Senonian-Paleocene) 

Yakhini 

(Up. Barrem.-Aptian) 

Yaq 

1500 

1500 

(Oligo.-L. Mio.) 

Ziqim 


Yakhini 

1000 

1000 

1000 


(Up. Apt.-Albian) 

Te 

Mavqiim 

(debris 

flows) 

(U. Cenomanian) 

Dalyya 

1000 

1000 

Ya 

YAFO 


1000 

Dalyya 

Talme Yafe 

T.Y. 


500 

500 

Bet Guvrin 

(Oligo.-L. Mio.) 

500 

Negba 

500 

500 

(Pliocene) 

500 

YAFO 

(Pliocene) 


Datum m.s.l. 

0 

K.B. 26.0 m 

GR Acoustic 

GR Acoustic 

K.B. 11.0 m 

GR Resisitivity 

SP Acoustic 

K.B. 26.0 m 

K.B. 12.7 m 

SP Acoustic 

K.B. 12.7 m 

K.B. 21.0 m 

GR Resistivity 

K.B. 21 m 

GR Acoustic 

B 

Yam West-1 

Yam Yafo-1 

Delta-1A 

Asher Atlit Deep- 1 

Foxtrot-1 

Qishon Yam-1 

Asher Yam-1 

S N

4.5.2 Late Middle Eocene to Late Eocene cycle 

In proximal areas of the northern Negev a major unconformity was found between the 

Middle Eocene chalks of the Maresha Formation and the hemi-pelagic marls of the Qeziot 

Formation (Fig. 4.4). Benjamini (1979, 1984) indicated that the maximum hiatus between the 

two formations spans the P10 to P14 biostratigraphic zones. The Qeziot and the Bet Guvrin (its 

equivalent in the coastal plain and the Shefela areas, Fig. 4.4) formations are included in the 

Saqiye Group (Gvirtzman, 1970.). The latter signify the "Upper Clastic division of Ball and Ball 

(1953). Occasional mass transported conglomerates are found especially in distal areas. In the 

Shefela, the Bet Guvrin Formation is of the Upper Eocene semiinvoluta zone (P15). The latest 

Eocene (P16) zone is missing. Siman-Tov (1991) reported on the rare occurrence of the latest 

Eocene T. cerroazulensis zone in Ofaqim and in Tel-Nagila. In other Upper Eocene locations 

this zone was truncated by the following major Early Oligocene unconformity. The Har Aqrav 

limestone (Fig. 4.4) which overlies the Qeziot Formation in the western Negev (Benjamini, 

1980) apparently represents the highstand progradation phase of the Late Eocene cycle. 

Markedly, the hemi-pelagic facies of the Late Eocene is primarily uniform, both inland and far 

offshore. 

Unlike other locations, the Eocene succession in the synclinorial area of Ramat Hagolan 

(Michelson and Lipson-Benitah, 1986) shows an uninterrupted Early to Late Eocene 

biostratigraphic succession from P9 to P15. Therefore, Michelson and Lipson-Benitah (1986) 

regarded the Upper Eocene (P15) chalk of the Ramat Hagolan as the Maresha Formation (Fig. 

4.4). 

4.5.3 Latest Eocene - earliest Oligocene erosion phase 

A major unconformity is found between the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene 

depositional cycles (Fig. 4.4). It could have been related to eustatic sea-level fall at 34 m.y. 

(shown by Haq et al., 1988 and Miller et al., 2005). Local uplift movements associated with 

Syrian Arc contraction (see chapter 7) or with doming of the Arabian Shield prior to the rifting 

of the Red Sea (Garfunkel, 1988) further intensified the erosional processes. A regional 

unconformity surface (peneplain) developed in the Negev and the Judea Mountains (Picard, 

1951; Garfunkel and Horowitz, 1966). Zilberman (1992, 1993) named this feature “the upper 

erosion surface” and pointed out that it postdates Upper Eocene deposits and predates Miocene 

continental deposits of the Hazeva Formation. The presence of this erosion surface in the Judean 

hills indicates that the anticlinorial backbone of the country had already emerged at that time. 

39

Buchbinder et al. (2005) matched the first incision of canyons on the Levant margin to 

the Early/Late Oligocene boundary (Fig. 4.4). Druckman et al. (1995b) matched it to the pre P19 

– ampliapertura Zone (Fig. 4.4). The main incision in the Ashdod-1 well (Buchbinder et al., 

2005, fig. 7) may be located at the bottom of the "Lower Sands", i.e., either between P19/P20, or 

within the P20, P21 zones (Fig. 4.4). Alternatively, it may be put at the base of the Lower 

Oligocene (P18) conglomerates. Obviously, the biostratigraphic resolution is not refined enough 

to determine the precise age of this erosion event because of intense contamination and 

redeposition in the cutting samples. However, for the sake of convenience and simplicity in 

interpretation of the seismic data the initial phase of the canyon's incision was placed at the base 

of the Oligocene sedimentary package, and this surface is represented as the Red horizon in the 

seismic profiles (Fig. 4.4, see chapter 5). 

4.5.4 Early Oligocene cycle 

Patchy outcrops of lowermost Oligocene sediments (Zone P18, Fig. 4.4) are scarce and 

are sparsely spread from the Golan to the northern Negev. They are more common in boreholes 

along the Mediterranean coastal plain and offshore areas. They invariably consist of deepwater 

pelagic, marly chalks, and their aerial distribution largely follows the distribution of the Upper 

Eocene deposits, except for their absence in the southern Negev (Buchbinder et al., 2005). They 

thus indicate that most of Israel except the southern and central Negev was covered by sea in 

earliest Oligocene times. 

4.5.5. Late Rupelian-earlyChattian lowstand wedge and transported clastics 

Sediments of P19-P21 zones (ampliapertura to opima opima, Fig. 4.4) have a limited 

inland distribution, especially the P19 Zone. Both are of hemi-pelagic facies, however, sediments 

of the opima opima Zone penetrate more inland to the Lower Shefela region (Lakhish 

Formation), displaying slumped blocks, debris flows and occasional sandy calcareous turbidites 

(Lakhish outcrops). In the Lakhish Formation the mass transported sediments are covered by a 

few meters of in situ large-foraminifera limestone representing a lowstand prograding wedge 

(Buchbinder et al., 2005). More than 300 m of sand and conglomerates of this age were 

penetrated in the Ashdod wells in the coastal plain. It is most likely that coarse-grained clastics 

could have been transported several tens of kilometers further to the west into the Levant Basin. 

40

4.5.6 Late Oligocene (P22) – Early Miocene (N4) cycles 

These cycles represent the last major inland transgressions (Fig. 4.4). They are separated 

by an erosional unconformity of moderate magnitude. The onlap of the Early Miocene cycle 

reached across the rift valley to the Golan area (Fig. 4.4, upper Ha'on Member, Buchbinder et al., 

2005). However, their hemi-pelagic sediments were largely eroded in the hilly backbone of the 

country in later periods. The facies is ubiquitously pelagic or hemi-pelagic (Bet Guvrin type), 

except in the most proximal outcrop in the Golan. 

4.5.7 The Burdigalian lowstand (N5-N7) 

Sediments of this interval are limited to the coastal plain and offshore area. Canyon 

incision was renewed and mass transported deposits occasionally accumulated, e.g., the Gaza 

sands (Fig. 4.4; Martinotti, 1973). 

4.5.8 Early Middle Miocene cycle (Ziqlag Formation) 

This cycle is unique in the sense that it shows a development of a carbonate platform 

(Ziqlag Formation, Fig. 4.4) unconformably abutting the western flank of the Judean anticline, 

in times of dominant muddy deposition (Buchbinder et al., 1993; Buchbinder and Zilberman, 

1997). However, its life span was short (ca 1.5 m.y.). The high sea level at that time facilitated 

the development of the carbonate platform by curbing siliciclastic supply. Hemi-pelagic 

deposition of the Bet Guvrin facies, however, persisted in the basin (Fig .4.4). On the other hand, 

a thick (250 m) succession of conglomerate, consisting of limestone, chalk and chert pebbles 

apparently derived from Cretaceous to Tertiary formations, was found in the Nahal Oz-1 well in 

the Afiq Canyon (Druckman et al., 1995b). Its distribution probably spread towards the offshore 

continuation of the Gaza Canyon. 

4.5.9 The Middle Miocene Seravallian crisis 

The Ziglag episode terminated abruptly when the sea level dropped and erosion and 

canyon incision resumed, leaving behind their products: conglomerates and overbank deposits 

(Bet Nir conglomerate, Buchbinder et al., 1986). This happened despite the relatively high global 

sea level. Apparently there is evidence for a climatic, ecological and salinity crisis in the 

Mediterranean during Serravallian times, and as a result, the Mediterranean sea-level curve 

departed from that of the global sea level (see Martinotti, 1990; Buchbinder et al., 1993). This 

lowstand episode produced a distinct seismic reflector in the basin, namely the Cyan horizon 

(Fig. 4.4, chapter 5). Small onlap episodes of limited landward penetration are indicated by the 

lower and middle Ziqim "mini" cycles (Fig. 4.4). 

41

4.5.10 Late Miocene – Tortonian to Messinian cycle (N16-N17) 

Although of limited inland penetration, sediments of this cycle are relatively common in 

outcrops (Buchbinder and Zilberman, 1997) and especially in boreholes in the coastal plain (e.g., 

the Ashdod wells, Fig. 4.4). The cycle is marked by the development of coral (mostly Porites) 

and algal reefs of the Pattish Formation (Fig. 4.4). However, in the offshore extension of the 

Afiq (Gaza) Canyon, hemi-pelagic muds are found, interbedded with mass transported sands, 

conglomerates of chert pebbles. 

4.5.11 The Messinian Mavqiim cycle 

The Messinian cycle is composed of a thick evaporitic series found throughout the 

Mediterranean region (Hsu et al., 1973a,b; Neev et al., 1976; Ryan, 1978). The deposition of 

Mavqiim evaporites (Fig. 4.4), which are composed mainly of halite and some anhydrite, 

followed a major sea-level drop associated with the closure and desiccation of the Mediterranean 

Sea (Hsu et al.1973a,b; Hsu et al., 1978, Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978). The area of 

evaporite accumulation extended throughout the Levant basin to about 20-40 km west of the 

present-day coastline (Gardosh and Druckman, 2006). The Messinian evaporites most likely 

filled a pre-existing topographic depression (Tibor et al., 1992) and are not associated with 

significant, local tectonic movements. However, during short highstand episodes the brine 

covered the slope and penetrated through deep canyons further inland. Remnants of the 

Messinian brine in the form of a few tens of meters of thick halite and anhydrite beds were 

encountered in various wells in the coastal areas of Israel (Druckman et al., 1995b). On the 

seismic data the base of the Messinian cycle is marked by the Purple horizon (Fig. 4.4) 

4.5.12 Plio-Pleistocene cycles 

The abrupt sea-level rise in the Early Pliocene terminated the evaporite deposition and 

resulted in the deposition of hemi-pelagic clays and marls of the Plio-Pleistocene Yafo 

Formation (Fig. 4.4) reaching over 1000 m in thickness. The unconformity surface at the top of 

the Mavqiim evaporites and the base of the Yafo Formation is marked on the seismic data by the 

Violet marker (also known as the M seismic marker; Neev et al. 1976) (Fig .4.4, chapter 5). 

Sedimentation during the lowermost Pliocene succession was highly condensed. After 

deposition of a few tens of meters of hemi-pelagic marl in a period of ca 1 m.y., a significant 

sea-level drop occurred, estimated to correspond with the 4.37 m.y. sequence boundary of 

Hardenbol et al. (1998) (correlated with Haq et al.'s (1988) 4.2 m.y. sequence boundary). This 

lowstand resulted in the deposition of gas-bearing sands of turbidite origin in a basin floor or 

lower slope setting (Druckman, 2001; Oats, 2001). On land, this lowstand event is correlated 

42

with a boulder conglomerate separating between the Pliocene sequences I and II of Buchbinder 

and Zilberman (1997) in the Beer Sheva area. 

Hemi-pelagic deposition was resumed during the following highstand and the rate of 

sedimentation gradually increased, eventually resulting in a progradational topset-clinoform 

pattern, clearly portrayed in the seismic sections (Figs. 5.1, 5.3). 

The next significant events expressed in the seismic records are chaotic intervals of 

slump deposits of Late Pliocene and Pleistocene times (Frey-Martinez et al., 2005). Most notable 

is the large scale-slumping zone, ca 150 m thick, of Late Pliocene times, which may also be 

related to a lowstand phase. 

5. Interpretation of Seismic Data 

5.1 Seismic Horizons 

The regional, 2D seismic profiles of the A and B surveys show a continuous series of 

seismic reflection that is 5 to 6 sec thick near the Israeli coast and reaches up to 10 sec (15-17 

km) in the far offshore (Figs. 5.1, 5.3, 5.8, 5.9). This series comprises the entire sedimentary 

rock section that accumulated and was preserved within the Levant Basin during the 

Phanerozoic. The Phanerozoic basin-fill is subdivided into eight distinct seismic units that are 

separated by seven seismic horizons (Fig. 5.1, Table 5.1). Each of these horizons is interpreted 

as an unconformity surface that bounds a regional, basin-scale depositional unit. All the 

interpreted surfaces mark significant changes in seismic character within the basin-fill (Fig. 5.1). 

Some are recognized also by truncation or onlapping and downlapping reflections (Figs. 5.1, 

5.3). The interpreted seismic markers extend throughout the entire basin; therefore they are not 

correlated to individual seismic reflections but rather to the tops (or bottoms) of separable 

seismic packages. 

Well control on the seismic interpretation is possible only in the relatively shallow, 

eastern part of the basin. In this area the horizons show good fit to the tops of lithostratigraphic 

units identified in the wells (Figs. 5.1, 5.2). The correlation of seismic units from the shallow to 

the deep part of the basin, particularly for the deeper Brown, Blue, Green and Red horizons, is 

hampered by extensive faulting and tilting and is therefore somewhat speculative. 

43

44 

W 

Yam West-1 (proj. 2km SW) Yam-2 E 

AC. AC. 


Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 

Oligocene-L. Miocene 

TWT (ms) 

Senonian-Eocene 

M. Jurassic-Turonian 

 

Permian- M. Jurassic 

 

Precambrian () 

Crystalline 

Basement 

5 km 

Fig 5.1- Interpreted seismic profile showing the correlation of seismic horizons to 

the Yam-2 and Yam-West-1 wells, in the southeastern part of the basin. 

The lithologic column below the TD of the Yam West-1 well is inferred.

Yam Yafo-1 Yam West-1 

AC. 

AC. 

TWT(ms) 

Fig 5.2 - Synthetic seismograms of Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 showing the correlation of the seismic reflections to 

lithostratigraphic tops in the wells. The synthetic seismograms were prepared from acoustic (AC.) and density logs, 

and a zero-phase, normal 25 Hz Ricker wavelet 

45

Seismic Horizon Chronostratigraphic Top Lithostratigraphic Top 

Violet Late Messinian (Late Miocene) Mavqiim (M horizon) 

Purple Early Messinian (Late Miocene) Ziqim/Ziqlag/AshdodClst.(N horizon) 

Cyan Langhian (early Middle Miocene) Bet Guvrin/Lakhish 

Red Eocene Avedat 

Green Albian to Turonian Talme Yafe/Yagur/Negba/Daliyya 

Blue Bathonian Shederot/ within 'undivided' M. Jurassic 

Brown Precambrian Crystalline basement 

Table 5.1- Correlation of interpreted seismic horizons to chrono- and lithostratigraphic unit tops. 

5.1.1 The Brown horizon 

The brown horizon is the deepest seismic marker interpreted in this study. It is correlated 

throughout the basin with the transition from a chaotic and reflection-free seismic character 

below to a continuous, parallel to divergent, high-amplitude reflection series above (Fig. 5.1). 

No direct well control is possible for this deep marker in the offshore. We interpret the transition 

as characterizing a major acoustic boundary between non-layered, magmatic and metamorphic 

complexes and the overlying, layered Paleozoic-Mesozoic sedimentary interval. The Brown 

horizon is therefore considered as the 'near top of the crystalline basement' of an assumed 

Precambrian age. 

The transition in seismic character is more evident in the southeastern corner of the study 

area, near the Yam West-1 well, where it is found at a relatively shallow depth of about 5-6 sec 

(Figs. 5.1, 5.3). In this area the seismic boundary possibly correlates to the top of the 

Precambrian to Infrcambrian basement rocks, penetrated by the Helez Deep-1 and the Gevim-1 

wells, located about 15 km east of the coastline (Fig. 1.3). The resolution of the seismic data in 

the offshore generally decreases below 7-8 sec due the reduction of the seismic energy. 

However, the transition between the chaotic seismic character and the overlying, high-amplitude 

partly continuous reflection series is identifiable at the bottom of many seismic profiles that 

cross the central, deep part of the basin (Figs. 5.8, 5.9). 

5.1.2 The Blue horizon 

The Blue horizon is correlated to a distinct change in seismic character from highamplitude; 

continuous reflection series below to discontinuous, low-amplitude occasionally 

shingled reflections above (Fig. 5.1 at 4500 ms between Yam-2 and Yam West-1 wells). The 

change in seismic character is most evident in the southeastern area, though it is observed also in 

46

TWT(ms) 

W 

AC. AC. 


Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 






Crystalline Basement 

Fig 5.3- Interpreted, E-W oriented seismic profile through the Yam-2 and Yam West-1 wells, 

showing the area of transition from the elevated, Mesozoic thrust belt on the east 

to the deep, Tertiary basin on the west. 

E 

47

48 

W E S N W 

E 


Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 



TWT(ms) 





Fig 5.4- Interpreted, composite seismic profile, generally oriented in a N-S direction along the shallow 

part of the basin, showing the continuity of seismic horizons from Yam West-1 (south) to 

Yam Yafo-1(north).

S N 


Messinian 

TWT(ms) 

M.-U. Miocene 







Fig 5.5- Interpreted seismic profile, oriented in a NE-SW direction showing the correlation of 

seismic horizons in the deep part of the basin. 

49

the central and western parts of the basin where the horizon is found at the top of a relatively 

continuous high-amplitude seismic event below less continuous and lower amplitude reflections 

(Figs. 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.8, 5.9, 5.11). 

The correlation of the Blue horizon from Yam West-1 to Yam Yafo-1 presents some 

difficulty. At Yam West-1 well it is correlated to a high-amplitude event found at the lower part 

of the well near the top of the Bathonian Shederot Formation (Fig. 5.2). At the Yam Yafo-1 well 

it is correlated to a high-amplitude event within an undivided Jurassic section of poorly defined 

age (probably Aalenian to Bathonian) (Fig. 5.2). Furthermore, there is a significant difference 

between the two wells in the lithology of the Middle Jurassic section. It is therefore unclear 

whether the seismic event represents the same chronostratigraphic unit in this area. 

The change in character below and above the Blue horizon is, however, identifiable and 

most likely signifies a basin-wide seismic boundary. According to our stratigraphic analysis of 

the Jurassic section (chapter 4.3) the Blue horizon may correlate to the transition from a Lower 

Jurassic, shallow-marine carbonate section to a Middle-Upper Jurassic deep-marine section that 

was deposited during the passive margin stage. 

5.1.3 The Green horizon 

The Green horizon corresponds to the top of a distinct high-amplitude reflection package 

below lower-amplitude reflections, chaotic and reflection-free zones (Figs. 5.1 to 5.8). At the 

eastern part of the basin the marker is an onlapping surface (Fig. 5.1). Well control shows that 

the Green horizon correlates to the tops of several Middle Cretaceous units. These are the 

Albian Talme Yafe and Yagur formations, the Cenomanian Negba Formation and the Turonian 

Daliyya Formation (Fig. 5.2) (See also Table 3.1). In most wells of the study area the marker is 

overlain by strata of the Upper Cretaceous Mount Scopus Group (Figs. 5.1, 5.2, Table 3.1). 

Throughout inland Israel a Middle Cretaceous unconformity is evident by a depositional 

hiatus and an abrupt lithologic change between shelf and slope carbonates of Albian to Turonian 

age (Judea and Talme Yafe formations) and pelagic marl and chalk of Senonian to Paleogene age 

(Mount Scopus and Hashefela groups) (Gvirtzman and Reiss 1965; Flexer 1968, Flexer et al., 

1986). The change in seismic character corresponds to this well-recognized regional surface that 

is associated with drowning of the Middle Cretaceous carbonate platform (Sass and Bein, 1982; 

Almogi-Labin et al., 1993). 

The correlation of the shallow, eastern part of the basin to the deep, western part requires 

a certain degree of jump-correlation across conspicuous sets of reverse faults (Figs. 5.3, 5.8). No 

well control is available in the far offshore. However, the identification of the Green marker at 

the top of a continuous, high-amplitude reflection series in the deep basin (Fig. 5.5) is well 

50

NW SE 

AC. 


M.-U. Miocene 

Messinian 

TWT(ms) 







Fig 5.6- Interpreted seismic profile showing the transition area from the elevated 

Mesozoic thrust belt to the deep Tertiary basin. The Red horizon is a base 

Oligocene unconformity (correlated to the Yam West-2 well) that truncates the 

Senonian-Eocene section at the tops of Syrian Arc fold structures. 

51

52 

NW SE SW 

NE 


Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 

TWT(ms) 





Fig 5.7- Interpreted composite seismic profile through the Hannah-1 well. The Red horizon 

is a base Oligocene unconformity that truncates the Cretaceous, Senonian and Eocene section. 

In the Hannah-1 well the Oligo-Miocene fill overlies the Lower Cretaceous Gevar’am Formation.

NE SW 

AC. 


TWT(ms) 

Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 







Jonah 

Ridge 

Fig 5.8- Interpreted, NE-SW regional seismic profile showing extensional and 

contractional structures in the central part of the basin. 

53

supported by the overall continuous seismic character of this unit as well as by the assumed 

vertical offsets on the reverse faults. 

5.1.4 The Red horizon 

The Red horizon is an unconformity surface that is characterized throughout the eastern 

part of the basin by truncation, incision and onlapping (Figs. 5.3, 5.6, 5.7). Well control shows 

that the Red horizon correlates to an Early Oligocene unconformity at the top of the Eocene 

Avedat Group or older stratigraphic units (Fig. 5.2, Table 3.1). In most of the wells of the study 

area the marker is overlain by strata of the Oligo-Miocene Saqiye Group. 

The correlation of seismic profiles to the Yam West-2 and Hannah-1 well further 

demonstrate the amount of erosion associated with this seismic marker. In Yam West -1 the Red 

horizon is found at the top of an eroded, 30 m thick Eocene section (Fig. 5.6). At the Hannah-1 

well the marker is correlated to the base of a deep canyon, incised within the Lower Cretaceous 

Gevar'am Formation, filled with Oligocene to Lower Miocene strata (Fig. 5.7). From these two 

wells the marker is carried across the top of several eroded structures down to the deep basin, 

where it merges with a series of high-amplitude, continuous seismic reflections at a depth of 

about 5-6 sec (Figs. 5.6, 5.7). 

It should be noted that the present interpretation of the Red horizon within the deep basin 

is a revision of the results presented by Gardosh and Druckman (2006). This revision was made 

following the integration of the critical information from the Hannah-1 well that was not 

available at the time of the previous interpretation. The revised interpretation suggests that a 

significant part of the basin-fill is younger than was assumed. 

The base Saqiye unconformity is recognized throughout the inland part of Israel. It is 

associated with an Oligocene uplift event that resulted in erosion and the development of an 

extensive drainage system and transport of sediments into the Levant Basin (see chapter 4.5). 

The incision and truncation on the Levant slope associated with the Red horizon comforms with 

the Early Oligocene paleogeography. The conformable, high-amplitude Red event within the 

basin is probably a condensed section at the top of the Upper Cretaceous to Eocene strata. 

5.1.5 The Cyan horizon 

The Cyan horizon is an unconformity surface that is characterized by a minor degree of 

truncation, incision and onlapping (Figs. 5.1, 5.3, 5.6). At the Yam West-1 and Yam Yafo-1 

wells the marker is a low-amplitude event that is correlated to the top of the Oligocene-Lower 

Miocene Bet Guvrin Formation (Fig. 5.2, Table 3.1). The correlation is carried from the wells to 

the deep part of the basin where the Cyan horizon is identified as the top of several continuous, 

54

NW SE 


Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 

TWT(ms) 







Jonah 

Ridge 

Leviathan 

High 

Eratosthenes 

High 

Fig 5.9- Interpreted, NW-SE seismic profile from the Eratosthenes Seamount to the Levant margin. 

The profile shows a series of horst and graben structures, associated with Early Mesozoic rifting. 

55

56 

W E 


Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 

TWT(ms) 





Jonah 

Ridge 

Carmel- Caesarea 

Block 

Fig 5.10- Interpreted E-W seismic profile showing extensional and contractional structures in the 

northeastern part of the basin. The bordering fault of the Carmel-Caesarea block may 

have originated as a normal fault during the Early Jurassic and was reactivated in a 

reverse motion during the Tertiary.

SW NE 


Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 

TWT(ms) 


c 

b 

a 




Jonah 

Ridge 

Fig 5.11- Interpreted SW-NE seismic profile showing the southern part of the Jonah Ridge. The ridge 

is composed of three units: (a) an Early Jurassic horst block, (b) a chaotic seismic package 

interpreted as a volcanic cone with highly dipping slopes, of Late Cretaceous to Early 

Tertiary age and, (c) a series of parallel, high-amplitude reflections interpreted as a carbonate 

buildup of Lower Miocene age. 

57

high amplitude reflections below less reflective zones at a depth of about 4 to 5 sec (Figs. 5.5, 

5.8, 5.9). In the deep basin the Cyan event is probably a condensed section at the top of the 

Oligocene to Lower Miocene strata. 

5.1.6 The Purple horizon 

The Purple horizon is the base of the Messinian evaporites. In wells at the eastern part of 

the basin it is correlated to a high-amplitude event near the top of the Ziqim Formation (Fig 5.2). 

Throughout the deep basin it is clearly recognized by the conspicuous change in seismic 

character from the underlying finely layered Middle-Upper Miocene strata to the overlying 

chaotic salt layer (Figs. 5.5, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10). The base Messinian unconformity, also known as the 

N horizon, is an Upper Miocene erosion surface associated with the huge drop of the 

Mediterranean sea-level and subsequent deposition of the Messinian evaporites (Hsu et al., 

1973a,b; Finetti and Morelli, 1973; Ryan, 1978). 

5.1.7 The Violet horizon 

The Violet horizon is the top of the Messinian evaporites. In the deep basin the surface is 

clearly recognized by the conspicuous change in seismic character from the underlying chaotic 

salt layer to the finely layered Plio-Pleistocene strata (Figs. 5.5, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9). In the eastern part 

of the basin it is correlated to a high-amplitude event near the top of the Mavqiim Formation or 

to an erosion surface at the base of the Plio-Pleistocene section. In this area the Messinian 

evaporite layer is either very thin or completely missing and the Purple and Violet horizons 

merge (Figs. 5.3, 5.6). The top Messinian unconformity, also known as the M horizon, reflects a 

major lithofacies boundary associated with marine transgression and deposition of the hemipelagicYafo 

Formation. 

5.2 Time and Depth Maps 

The seven seismic markers described above were interpreted on the seismic profiles of 

the A and B surveys throughout the study area (Fig. 1.3). A set of two-way-time maps was 

initially produced. These were converted to depth maps, layer by layer (layered cake method), 

through the multiplication of time and interval velocity grids (Figs. 5.12 to 5.19). 

The reliability of time-to-depth conversion is commonly dependent on the quality of the 

velocity data. The main source of velocity information is check-shot surveys measured in wells. 

Well information in the study area is limited to the eastern part of the basin. Therefore, in a 

previous study Gardosh and Druckman (2006) applied a simplistic approach, using single 

interval velocity values. 

58

3480000 3500000 3520000 3540000 3560000 3580000 3600000 3620000 3640000 3660000 3680000 

N 

Legend 

Seismic Lines 

GEV 1 

Cross sections 

Well (used for time & depth calibration) 

Well (used for depth calibration) 

Fault 

A’ 

Depth Contours (m) 



The Geoph ysical Institute 


B’ 








0 50 Km 

A 

460000 480000 500000 520000 540000 560000 580000 600000 620000 640000 660000 680000 

Fig 5.13- Depth map of the Middle Jurassic, Blue horizon (meters below MSL). 

B 

0 

(m) 

600 

2130 

2840 

3550 

4260 

4970 

5680 

6390 

7100 

7810 

8520 

9230 

9940 

700000 

60

460000 480000 500000 520000 540000 560000 580000 600000 620000 640000 660000 680000 

A 

B 

N 

0 (m) 

670 

1340 

2010 

2680 

3350 

4020 

4690 

5360 

6030 

6700 

7370 

8040 

700000 

61 

Legend 

Seismic Lines 


GEV 1 



Fault 


A’ 












0 50 Km 

B’ 

3480000 3500000 3520000 3540000 3560000 3580000 3600000 3620000 3640000 3660000 3680000 

Fig 5.14- Depth map of the Middle Cretaceous, Green horizon (meters below MSL).

B 

N 

0 (m) 

600 

1200 

4800 

3480000 3500000 3520000 3540000 3560000 3580000 3600000 3620000 3640000 3660000 3680000 

62 

Legend 

1800 

Seismic Lines 

GEV 1 



2400 

3000 


Fault 

A’ 

3600 


4200 












0 50 Km 

B’ 

A 

5400 

6000 

6600 

7200 

7800 

460000 480000 500000 520000 540000 560000 580000 600000 620000 640000 660000 680000 

Fig. 5.15- Depth map of the base Oligocene, Red horizon (meters below MSL). 

700000

B 

N 

0 (m) 

440 

3520 

3480000 3500000 3520000 3540000 3560000 3580000 3600000 3620000 3640000 3660000 3680000 

63 

Legend 

880 

Seismic Lines 

1320 

GEV 1 



1760 


Fault 

A’ 

2200 

2640 


3080 












0 50 Km 

B’ 

A 

3960 

4400 

4840 

5280 

460000 480000 500000 520000 540000 560000 580000 600000 620000 640000 660000 680000 

Fig 5.16- Depth map of the top Lower Miocene, Cyan Horizon (meters below MSL). 

700000

460000 480000 500000 520000 540000 560000 580000 600000 620000 640000 660000 680000 

B 

N 

350 

(m) 

2800 

700000 

3480000 3500000 3520000 3540000 3560000 3580000 3600000 3620000 3640000 3660000 3680000 

64 

0 

Legend 

700 

Seismic Lines 

1050 

GEV 1 



1400 


Fault 

A’ 

1750 

2100 


2450 












0 50 Km 

B’ 

A 

3150 

3500 

3850 

4200 

Fig 5.17- Depth map of the base Messinian, Purple horizon (meters below MSL).

460000 480000 500000 520000 540000 560000 580000 600000 620000 640000 660000 680000 

B 

N 

0 (m) 

210 

1470 

1680 

700000 

3480000 3500000 3520000 3540000 3560000 3580000 3600000 3620000 3640000 3660000 3680000 

65 

Legend 

420 

Seismic Lines 

630 

GEV 1 



840 


Fault 

A’ 

1050 


1260 












0 50 Km 

B’ 

A 

1890 

2100 

2310 

2520 

Fig 5.18- Depth map of the top Messinan, Violet Horizon (meters below MSL).

To improve the velocity control, in the present study we used two additional sources of 

velocity information: (a) stacking velocities that were extracted from the time processing of 

selected, regional lines from the A survey; and (b) horizon velocity analysis performed during 

the process of Pre-Stack Depth Migration of four lines. An interval velocity map was produced 

for each of the interpreted seismic horizons by integrating these velocities with the available 

check-shot data from the wells. Most of the interval velocity maps show east to west variations 

that are associated with increased depth of burial and degree of compaction from the margin into 

the basin. The resulting depth maps reflect these lateral velocity variations and are therefore 

considered more reliable than the previous versions of Gardosh and Druckman (2006). The 

depth maps were further controlled by the correlation of the various depth grids to the 

corresponding lithostratigraphic units in the 43 wells located within the study area (Fig. 1.3, 

Table 3.1). 

6. Interpretation of Gravity and Magnetic Data 

6.1 Gravity Maps 

The raw gravity data measured during the acquisition of the B seismic survey were 

filtered and corrected for Eotvos, Free Air and Bouguer correction. The data were incorporated 

in the regional grid of the Levant area previously compiled by Rybakov et al. (1997). The 

combined Bouguer gravity map (Fig. 6.1a) shows a good fit with the new and old data sets. 

Negligible inconsistencies observed close to the tie line (white polygon) are explained by the 

poor gravity coverage of the B survey area. 

The Bouguer gravity map (Fig. 6.1a) shows that a significant part of the area is occupied 

by high gravity values that reach up to 125 mgal. The composition of the crust underlying the 

Mediterranean is the subject of much discussion. Makris and Wang (1994) suggest an oceanic 

crust using seismic refraction, gravity and magnetic data, while Knipper and Sharaskin (1994) 

suggest that the crust is continental, based on their analysis of the tectonic history of the region. 

The high Bouguer gravity values are in agreement with the hypothesis that the crust underlying 

this part of the Levant Basin is dense. It is therefore either oceanic or intermediate in 

composition. Negative gravity values are typical for the continental crust of the African and 

Arabian plates. 

Within the positive Bouguer gravity province a local gravity high is noticeable in the 

northern part of the basin (Fig. 6.1a). It should be noted that this gravity high was not highlighted 

in the previous gravity maps (Makris and Wang, 1994), probably due to poor gravity coverage in 

67

Y 

X 

a 

b 

Fig 6.1- Revised gravity anomaly maps of the Levant Basin. New gravity data set acquired 

in the area of Survey B (white polygon) is compiled with the gravity map of the 

Levant region (Rybakov et al.,1997): (a) Bouguer gravity, (b) Residual Bouguer 

gravity-second order polynomial. X-Y is the modeled section in Fig. 6.3. 

68

Y 

X 

a 

b 

Fig 6.2- Revised magnetic anomaly maps of the Levant Basin. New magnetic data set acquired 

in the area of Survey B (white polygon) is compiled with the magnetic map of the 

Levant region (Rybakov et al.,1997): (a) total magnetic intensity, (b) total magnetic 

intensity after reduction to pole. X-Y is the modeled section in Fig. 6.3. 

69

this area. The positive province appears to be bounded to the SW and SE by two branches of 

relatively reduced gravity (zero Bouguer gravity close to the southern coastal plain of Israel) 

(Fig. 6.1a). The wide range of gravity values is probably associated with crustal changes; 

however the presence of the thick, light density sedimentary prism of the Nile River is an 

additional factor for the low gravity province in the south. The gravity steps and larger horizontal 

gradients in the southeastern part of the basin appear to represent a more complex pattern of 

near-surface density contrasts than in the southwestern area. 

The effect of the shallower anomalies was enhanced by removing the regional deep trend 

up to the third order polynomial. The second order polynomial, shown in Figure 6.1b, is almost 

free of the deep crustal heterogeneities and shows the distribution of several high and low 

density blocks. The northern anomaly is further enhanced and is interpreted as a NE-SW 

trending, high density, shallow crustal block. It is limited to the SW by a gravity low, possibly 

associated with the effect of the light Nile prism. An additional more complex, but generally 

NE-SW trending, shallow crustal block is interpreted in the southern part of the basin. The 

narrow, elongated gravity low along the Israeli coast may be associated with the effects of the 

Plio-Pleistocene prism, or with deeper crustal heterogeneities that at this stage are not well 

resolved. 

6.2 Magnetic Maps 

The pattern of the magnetic anomalies (Fig. 6.2a) shows they are distributed randomly 

throughout the region, rather than associated with distinct, large-scale features as in the gravity 

anomaly map. We therefore assume that the magnetic anomalies are associated with local 

magmatic features and not with the deep crustal structures. 

The low inclination of the Earth's magnetic field in the study area results in misplacement 

of the location and direction of the magnetic anomalies. An RTP (Reduction-To- Pole) 

calculation removes anomaly asymmetry caused by inclination and position of the anomalies 

above the causative magnetic bodies. It converts data which were recorded in the inclined 

Earth's magnetic field to what they would have been if the magnetic field was vertical. The RTP 

calculation was performed by the IGRF program (http://swdcdb.kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp/igrf/) 

assuming the midpoint of the area at 35E, 34N, the total intensity of the Earth's magnetic field is 

44,763nT, its inclination is 49.6° and declination 2.7°. We also assume that the remanent 

magnetism is small compared to the induced magnetism 

The RTP map (Fig. 6.2b) preserves the overall magnetic pattern of the area; however it 

shows a shift of the positive and negative magnetic anomalies towards the NW. The accuracy 

of the RTP map is supported by the good correlation between the small, circular positive 

70

anomaly found in the center of the area and a high density block of similar pattern observed on 

the residual gravity anomaly map (Fig. 6.1b). 

The large positive magnetic anomaly found in the NW corner of the map (Fig. 6.2b) is 

the edge of the pronounced Eratosthenes magnetic anomaly (Ben-Avraham et al., 1976) located 

further to the NW. A large positive anomaly located in the SE part of the map (Fig. 6.2b) is 

associated with the Hebron magnetic anomaly (Rybakov et al., 1995) located inland further to 

the SE. Both anomalies are considered to be associated with Mesozoic volcanic bodies 

(Kempler, 1998; Rybakov et al., 1995). 

An elongated NE trending positive magnetic anomaly intersects the NW trending Carmel 

magnetic anomaly near the coastline (Fig. 6.2b). The Carmel anomaly is associated with Jurassic 

basalts found in several wells near the coastline (Asher Volcanics) (Garfunkel, 1989; Gvirtzman 

et al., 1990). The NE trending anomaly in the center of the basin is possibly associated with a 

Jurassic or younger magnetic source. 

6.3 Gravity and magnetic modeling (2D) 

A regional geologic cross-section compiled from the seismic depth maps was used for 

modeling of the gravity and magnetic fields (Fig. 6.3). The section crosses the basin in a NW-SE 

direction more or less perpendicular to most of the anomalies observed in the gravity and 

magnetic maps (Figs. 6.1, 6.2). Calculation of the gravity and magnetic curves was carried out 

using Geosoft software. 

Figure 6.3a shows the results of gravity modeling. The observed curve is taken from the 

Bouguer gravity map in Figure 6.1b. The modeled depth to the Moho is based on Ben-Avraham 

et al. (2002). The densities used for modeling are taken from well data. The basement density 

assumed in the central and western part of the section is 2.9 gr/mm 3 , corresponding to an oceanic 

or transitional type crust, whereas at the southeastern part it is assumed to be 2.75 gr/mm 3 , 

corresponding to a continental type crust (Ben-Avraham et al., 2002). 

The good fit between the observed and calculated curves in the center of the basin 

supports the structural interpretation. A significant misfit is observed in the southeastern part of 

the section (Fig. 6.3a). The higher values of the calculated curve in this area can be explained in 

several ways: (a) the top of the crystalline basement is deeper than assumed; (b) the crystalline 

basement is either lighter; or (c) thicker than assumed (~22 km). The depth to the top of the 

crystalline basement in this area is relatively well constrained by the seismic data. Furthermore, 

in the Helez Deep-1 well located several tens of kilometers south of the edge of the section, the 

basement rocks were encountered at a depth of about 6 km, in agreement with the present 

structural interpretation. The density of the basement rocks in this well is 2.77 gr/mm 3 , similar 

71

Y 

X 

a 

b 

c 

Fig 6.3- 2D Gravity and magnetic modeling of the Levant Basin (see Figs. 6.1 and 6.2 for location 

of the section): (a) observed and calculated Bouguer gravity, (b) observed and calculated 

magnetic intensity assuming continuous magnetic basement (light blue line), and 

(c) observed and calculated magnetic intensity assuming separate magnetic bodies (blue polygons). 

72

to the value used for modeling. The most likely explanation for the misfit is therefore a thicker 

basement in the southeastern part of the section (Fig. 6.3a). This explanation is supported by a 

new deep refraction test (Netzeband et al., 2006), suggesting that the depth to the Moho near the 

coastline is 27 km, about 5 km more than previously assumed by Ben-Avraham et al. (2002). 

A misfit between the observed and calculated curves is found also in the northern edge of 

the section (Fig. 6.3a). The higher calculated values may suggest a shallower basement than 

interpreted from the seismic data. However, it should be noted that the reliability of the 

observed gravity data in this area is reduced due to the smaller number of measurements. 

Figures 6.3b and 6.3c show the results of the magnetic modeling. The observed curve is 

taken from the total magnetic anomaly map in Figure 6.2a. Two calculations were made. In the 

first one we assumed a magnetic basement extending along the entire basin (Fig. 6.3b). An 

optimal fit for this curve is reached when the top of the magnetic basement modeled is 

significantly shallower than the structural one (Fig. 6.3b). Additionally, the regional data 

suggests that the crystalline basement in the area is generally non-magnetic (Rybakov et al, 

1999). Therefore, we consider the model in Figure 6.3b as unrealistic. 

An alternative option is presented in Figure 6.3c. In this calculation we assume the 

presence of several highly magnetized bodies at a shallow depth within the sedimentary section. 

The southeastern body may correspond to the northern edge of the Hebron anomaly, which is 

assumed to be associated with Jurassic volcanics (Fig. 6.3c). A shallow magmatic body in this 

area may correspond to the Tertiary National Park Volcanics. A second magnetic body, located 

in the center of the basin is possibly associated with extrusive igneous rocks at the top of the 

Jonah Ridge (Fig. 6.3c). Several small bodies in the northwestern part of the section may 

correspond to the Eratosthenes high located nearby (Fig. 6.3c). It should be noted that the 

geometry and properties of these bodies as presented in Figure 6.3c are only tentative. 

6.4. Discussion 

The gravity and magnetic anomaly maps (Figs. 6.1, 6.2) and the modeled section (Fig. 

6.3) shed new light on the deep structure of the Levant Basin. The high Bouguer gravity values 

in the central and northern part of the basin (Fig. 6.1a) indicate the presence of a dense crust, in 

the range of 2.9 gr/mm 3 . The residual map (Fig. 6.1b) suggests that the distribution of the 

positive gravity anomalies is related to several distinct blocks oriented NE-SW. These blocks 

are interpreted as fault-controlled basement highs (Fig. 6.3a) that were formed during Early 

Mesozoic rifting (Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; Gardosh and Druckman, 2006). Rifting was 

probably associated with extrusive volcanism as well as with intrusion of mafic rocks at a lower 

73

crustal level. The combination of extension and magmatic intrusion resulted in the modification 

of the old continental crust and the formation of a thinned and heavy crust in the Levant Basin. 

The NE-SW negative anomaly extending along the coastline is related to the transition 

from the intruded, heavy crust of the basin into the lighter (~2.75 gr/mm 3 ), continental crust of 

the margin of the Arabian plate (Ben-Avraham et al., 2002). It is possible that the depth to the 

Moho at the eastern edge of the basin is deeper than previously assumed and is in the range of 27 

km, as recently proposed by Netzeband et al. (2006). 

The magnetic anomaly maps (Figs. 6.2a, b) and the modeled section (Fig. 6.3a, b) reveal 

the presence of several highly magnetized bodies. The distribution the magnetic anomalies is not 

directly related to the deep crustal structure of the Levant Basin indicated by the gravity anomaly 

maps. The modeled section suggests that these bodies are found within the sedimentary section 

and they are interpreted as extrusive volcanics. The Carmel anomaly at the northeastern edge of 

the basin is most likely associated with the Early Jurassic Asher Volcanics (Gvirtzman et 

al.,1990) found in the Atlit-1 well and other boreholes in the Haifa area. An Early Jurassic age is 

also assumed for the Hebron anomaly (Rybakov et al., 1995) at the southeastern edge of the 

basin and the Eratosthenes anomaly at its northwestern edge. 

The origin of the elongated, NE-SW oriented anomaly in the central part of the basin is 

less well understood. Its northeastern edge intersects the Carmel magmatic anomaly. Its 

southwestern edge is correlated to a positive gravimetric anomaly and a Mesozoic basement 

high, known as the Jonah structure (Folkman and Ben-Gai, 2004). The modeled section shows 

that the Jonah magnetic anomaly is found at a relatively shallow depth within rocks of 

Cretaceous to Tertiary age (Fig. 6.3c). It is speculated that this feature is related to Cretaceous 

and Tertiary eruptive episodes that are probably associated with a deeply rooted magmatic 

chamber. 

7. Tectonic Evolution of the Levant Basin and Margin 

7.1 Rifting Stage 

7.1.1 Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic extensional structures inland 

Rifting activity in the Levant region started in the Late Permian and continued in several 

pulses through the Triassic and Early to Middle Jurassic. Significant vertical movements and 

differential block motions took place during this period in northern Sinai, Israel and Syria (Fig. 

7.1)(Goldberg and Friedman, 1974; Druckman, 1974,1977; Freund et al., 1975; Druckman, 

1984; Gelberman and Kemmis, 1987; Bruner, 1991; Druckman et al., 1995a; Garfunkel, 1998). 

74

75 

Fig 7.1- Neotethyan rifting stage- inferred Triassic to Early Jurassic horst and graben system of the Levant region. Inserted section 

shows the structural relations across the Helez fault, on the southern coastal plain (after Gardosh and Druckman, 2006).

Attesting to these motions are the thickness and facies changes of the Late Paleozoic and 

Mesozoic strata found in wells and outcrops in the region (for details see chapter 4). 

The structural configuration revealed by this wide range of phenomena is an extensive 

graben and horst system extending east of the Mediterranean coastline (Fig. 7.1). Some of the 

faults that bound these structures are identified in seismic reflection lines (Gelbermann, 1995; 

Druckman et al., 1995b), while others are inferred from well data. 

A major structural low extends in a NW-SE direction from northern Sinai to central Israel 

(the Hilal and Judea grabens)(Fig. 7.1). Towards the north this structure splits into two 

segments, the Asher graben trending to the NW and the southern edge of the Palmyra Trough 

trending to the NE. The Judea-Asher graben system is bounded on the west by three 

downstepping horst blocks: the Gevim high in the south and the Gaash and Maanit highs in the 

north (Fig. 7.1). The Helez fault is the eastern boundary of a structural low extending near the 

coastline west of the Gevim high (Fig. 7.1). Other, smaller scale structures are found in the 

southern Dead Sea area (Hemar and Massada highs) and probably also below the Syrian Arc 

structures of the northern Negev (Fig. 7.1)(Freund et al., 1975). 

The timing of activity of this horst and graben system is broadly defined. Part of the 

system was active during the Permian (Garfunkel, 1998). Evidence for this initial stage in the 

inland Levant area is sparse due to limited well data. A significant tectonic phase took place 

during the Middle and Late Triassic (Anisian and Carnian) followed by a relatively quiet period 

during the latest Triassic (Garfunkel, 1998). A third and possibly the most extensive phase took 

place during the Early to Middle Jurassic (Liassic to Bathonian). The large amount of vertical 

offset during this phase is evident on the Helez fault (Fig. 7.1insert) (Gardosh and Druckman, 

2006), and abrupt thickness changes in the Liassic Ardon and Inmar formations (Goldberg and 

Friedman, 1974; Druckman 1977; Buchbinder and le Roux, 1992). 

The Early Jurassic tectonic phase was followed by extensive extrusive magmatism in 

northern Israel (Asher Volcanics). Evidence for magmatic activity during this time, probably of 

more intrusive nature, is found also in various wells in central and southern Israel (Garfunkel, 

1989; Rybakov et al., 1955). It is estimated that parts of the inland rift system were active at 

different rates during different times. 

7.1.2 Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic extensional structures in the Levant Basin 

The horst and graben system identified inland is observed on the seismic data of the 

Levant Basin offshore. The details of this system are more easily recognized in the central and 

western part of the basin than in the eastern part, where the sedimentary section was strongly 

affected by younger, contractional deformation (Figs. 5.8, 5.9). 

76

W 

E 

TWT(ms) 



a 



Jonah Ridge 

W 

E 

TWT(ms) 



b 



Yam High 

Fig 7.2- Neotethyan rifting stage- Early Mesozoic extensional structures in the 

Levant Basin; (a) the northeastern part of the Jonah Ridge and (b) the 

southern part of the Yam High (see Fig. 7.1). Normal faults found east 

and west of the Yam High were reactivated as reverse faults. 

77

The most prominent structures are two basement highs, the Jonah Ridge (Folkman and 

Ben-Gai, 2004) and Leviathan High (Figs. 5.8, 5.9, 7.1). A third structure, the Eratosthenes 

High, is partly covered by the seismic data and only its southeastern part is observed (Figs. 5.9, 

7.1). The Jonah and Leviathan highs are structures 15 to 30 km wide and 80 to 100 km long 

trending in a NE-SW direction (Figs. 5.11, 5.12, 7.1). In the two structures the near-topbasement 

Brown horizon and the Middle Jurassic Blue horizon are markedly elevated from their 

surroundings. The identification of these horizons within the structures is somewhat tentative 

due to the correlation of seismic events across faults. However, the depth to the top of the 

basement level as derived from the seismic interpretation and depth maps is supported by the 

results of the gravity modeling presented in Chapter 6 (Fig. 6.3a). The Leviathan basement high 

is also observed as a large positive anomaly on the residual Bouguer gravity map (Fig. 6.1). 

The two structures are bounded by sets of high-angle normal faults with vertical offsets 

in the range of several hundred meters to a few kilometers. The structural lows on the two sides 

of the structures are characterized by dipping events, forming asymmetric grabens (Figs. 5.9, 

7.2a). The grabens are filled with 4-8 km thick sections of Permian to Middle Jurassic strata. 

Several smaller basement highs, about 10 km wide and 20 km long trending in a NE-SW 

direction are identified south and north of the Jonah and Leviathan ridges (Figs. 5.12, 5.13, 7.1). 

A larger structure is partly revealed by the seismic data in the southeastern part of the basin. The 

Yam High is identified by a series of deep-seated normal faults found west of the Yam-2 and 

Bravo-1 wells (Figs. 7.1, 7.2b). The near-top-basement level is downfaulted to the west, forming 

a set of down-to-the-basin fault blocks. The thickness of the Brown to Blue interval shows a 

marked increase from about 1 km in the east to about 3 to 4 km in the west (Fig. 7.2b). The Yam 

High probably extends several tens of kilometers to the NE (Fig. 7.1). Its eastern boundary is 

marked by a series of faults located near the Yam-2 and Bravo-1 wells (Fig. 7.2b). These are 

interpreted as normal faults that were later reactivated in a reverse motion. 

Unlike the situation inland, the timing of activity of the horst and graben system within 

the basin is only broadly defined due to the uncertainty associated with the age of the seismic 

markers. The asymmetric grabens near the Jonah and Leviathan ridges suggest syntectonic 

deposition through the Late Paleozoic to Middle Jurassic periods. Some of the faults bounding 

these structures appear to have been active also during post Middle Jurassic time (Fig. 7.2a), 

however, it is assumed that this late activity was only minor and during the Late Jurassic the 

structures were well developed and formed submarine topographic highs. The faults on the 

western edge of the Yam High do not offset the Middle Jurassic horizon, thus suggesting a Late 

Paleozoic to Triassic age of this structure (Fig. 7.2b). 

78

The near-top-basement to Middle Jurassic interval shows significant thickness variations 

across the basin. It is about 3 km thick near the Mediterranean coastline and the Eratosthenes 

and Leviathan highs and about 5 to 8 km thick in the central part of the basin (Figs. 5.8 to 5.10). 

The middle part of the basin termed here the Central Levant Rift (Fig. 7.1) is interpreted as the 

main depocenter associated with the Late Paleozoic to Middle Jurassic rifting activity. Intra-rift 

highs such as the Jonah Ridge were formed within this large depocenter. Localized lows may 

have been partly filled with a thick volcanic series (Asher Volcanics), as suggested by Gardosh 

and Druckman (2006). 

7.1.3 Neotethyan rifting in the Levant area 

The onshore and offshore horst and graben system was formed under an extensional 

regime associated with major plate motions and the opening of the Neotethys Ocean in the 

Levant area and north of it (Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; Garfunkel, 1998). The Levant rift 

system was bounded by the Arabian Massif to the southeast and the Eratosthenes continental 

block to the west and thus was probably separated from the main body of the Neotethys Ocean 

that extended north of the Eratosthenes Seamount and was later consumed underneath Cyprus 

and southern Turkey (Garfunkel, 1998, 2004; Robertson, 1998). Four main rifting episodes are 

recognized: during the Permian; early Middle Triassic; Late Triassic; and Early to Middle 

Jurassic. The amount of extension during each of these phases is not well established 

The general strike of the normal faulting in the Levant Basin is NE-SW; accordingly, we 

interpret an extension in a NW-SE direction perpendicular to the strike of the faulting. The 

extension may have been accommodated by NW-SE trending transform faults within the basin 

(Fig. 7.1). Garfunkel and Derin (1984) and Garfunkel (1998) postulated a similar strike-slip 

fault along northern Sinai to explain the separation and northward motion of the Tauride and 

Eratosthenes blocks. An apparent lateral offset in the northern edge of the Jonah ridge and the 

southern edge of the Leviathan High (Fig. 7.1) may be explained by strike–slip faulting. 

The structural scheme presented above for the Neotethyan rifting is not in accord with 

extension and spreading of the eastern Mediterranean in an N-S direction accompanied by a 

transform fault along the eastern Mediterranean shoreline, as proposed by Dewey et al. (1973), 

Bein and Gvirtzman (1977), Robertson and Dixon (1984) and Stampfli et al. (2001). 

An important question regarding the nature of the Neotethyan rifting processes is whether 

emplacement of new oceanic crust took place in the Levant area. Apart from faulting no 

pronounced disruption or conspicuous lateral variations in the seismic properties of either the 

upper part of the basement or the Late Paleozoic to Middle Jurassic interval are observed in the 

seismic data set. The basement layer in the central part of the basin does not show any 

79

characteristics of oceanic crust such as described in other passive continental margins (Klitgord 

and Hutchinson, 1988) or in the central part of the Mediterranean Sea (Finetti, 1985; Avedik et 

al., 1995). The normal faults and basement highs associated with the rifting stage are well 

preserved. Although a considerable amount of Triassic and Jurassic volcanics may exist within 

the basin, their equivalent units in the onshore area (Asher Volcanics) do not show MORB 

characteristics associated with sea-floor spreading. Thus, the occurrence of spreading and 

introduction of new oceanic crust cannot be supported by the present data. 

In view of the above discussion, it is suggested that the Early Mesozoic rifting that 

started on the northern edge of Gondwana may not have reached the spreading phase in the area 

of the present Levant Basin (Gardosh and Druckman, 2006). A recent analog for this scenario is 

the northern part of the Red Sea. There, the rift is continental with only a nucleation of an 

oceanic spreading center and an early magmatic phase. An oceanic spreading center has 

developed only in the southern and central parts of the Red Sea (Martinez and Cochran 1988; 

Bohannon and Eittreim 1990; Cochran, 2001). 

The thinned crust in the center of the Levant Basin (Fig. 2.1) may be explained in two 

ways: (a) extension and stretching on basement-involved sets of normal faults; (b) magmatic 

underplating and thermal erosion at the base of the crust (Hirsch et al., 1995). It should be noted 

that the amount of extension on the Early Mesozoic faults appears to be limited as most of them 

are high-angle normal faults and lack the listric character that is often observed in other rifted 

continental margins. The high-density of the thinned crust that is interpreted from seismic 

velocities (Fig. 2.1) (Ben-Avraham et al., 2002) and is indicated by the modeling of gravity data 

in the present study (Fig. 6.3c) may be associated with intrusion of mantle material into the old 

Pan-African continental crust of northern Gondwana (Hirsch et al., 1995). 

7.2 Post-Rift, Passive Margin Stage 

Rifting and normal faulting activity in the Levant by and large ceased during Middle to 

Late Jurassic (Garfunkel, 1998). A post-rift, passive margin stage was initiated at this time as a 

result of crustal cooling and thermal subsidence (Garfunkel and Derin, 1984; Garfunkel, 1989; 

ten Brink, 1987). A faster rate of subsidence in the central part of the basin compared to that on 

its margins may have initiated the formation of the 'Mesozoic depositional Hinge-Belt' along the 

Mediteranean coast. 

The Hinge-Belt is characterized by a pronounced facies change in the Mesozoic section, 

from shallow water carbonates and sandstones in the east to fine-grained, pelagic and hemipelagic 

carbonates and siliciclastics in the west (Derin, 1974; Bein and Gvirtzman, 1977; Flexer 

et al., 1986). This pronounced facies change, which was detected in many onshore and offshore 

80

UP. 

LO. MIDDLE 

LOWER MIDDLE 

UP. 

Carbonate Platforms 

PLIOCENE - PLEISTOCENE 

MIDDLE -UPPER TERTIARY 

UPPER CRETACEOUS 

TO LOWER TERTIARY 

MID JUR.- 

MID CRET. 

LOWER 

JURASSIC 

TRIASSIC 

PALEOZOIC 

Fig 7.3- Passive margin stage- (b) isopach map of the Middle Jurassic to 

Middle Cretaceous interval, and (a) geologic section through the 

Levant margin showing the two dominant depositional styles: 

backstepping and aggrading, shallow marine carbonate platforms 

on the east; and deepwater, siliciclastic and carbonate turbidite 

systems on the west (from Gardosh, 2002). Blue and green lines 

denote seismic horizons. 

TRIASSIC 

PERMIAN 

PRECAMBRIAN 

Deepwater Turbidites 

a 

b 

81

wells (Fig. 7.3), indicates the development of a deep marine basin in the Levant area, bordered 

by a slope and a shallow-marine shelf. 

There is some ambiguity regarding the time of initiation of this passive margin-type, 

depositional profile. Our stratigraphic analysis shows that all the Triassic as well as the first four 

Jurassic depositional cycles (Pliensbachian to Bathonian) are generally dominated by shallowmarine-type 

rocks. However, the allochthonous Bathonian section in the offshore Yam Yafo-1 

well (Fig. 4.2) contains mass flows that were obviously deposited in a deeper marine 

environment (see chapter 4.3). It is therefore assumed that the allochthonous succession in the 

Yam Yafo-1 well indicates an initial stage of basin evolution within a predominantly platform 

setting. 

A deep marine depositional environment was well established throughout the Levant 

basin since Oxfordian to Kimmeridgian times. The corresponding rock interval in the offshore 

Yam Yafo-1, Yam-2 and Yam West-1 well (Delta Formation) is composed of carbonate mud of 

deep marine origin with transported material (Fig. 7.3) (Derin et al., 1990; Druckman et al., 

1994, Gardosh, 2002). 

The deepening of the basin and the change in depositional environments is further 

indicated by the change in seismic character delineated by the Blue horizon. A relatively 

continuous high-amplitude reflection series, interpreted as shallow-marine strata below the Blue 

horizon changes upward to a discontinuous, low-amplitude, occasionally shingled seismic facies 

(between the Blue and Green horizons). The latter is interpreted as fine-grained strata of deepmarine 

origin with mass transported components (Fig. 5.1). 

The strata architecture along the passive margin was significantly affected by eustatic 

changes. Gradual sea-level rise resulted in backstepping and aggradation of the carbonate 

platforms, whereas fast sea-level rise resulted in drowning of the carbonate platforms. Sea-level 

drops were associated with bypass of the shelf and deposition of siliciclastic and carbonate 

gravity flows on the slope and in the basin. These are remarkably demonstrated by the 

siliciclastic, turbidite system of the first two Cretaceous depositional cycles (Berriasian to 

Hauterivian and Hauterivian to Lower Aptian; Fig. 4.3). 

The passive margin succession reaches a thickness of 2500 to maximal 3500 m (Fig. 

7.3a). Its depocenter extends from the present coastline area to about 70 km westward. In the 

central part of the basin and near the Eratosthenes High the thickness of this succession is 

reduced to several hundreds up to 2000 m (Fig. 7.3a). In this distal part of the basin the rate of 

accumulation of deepwater sediments was significantly slower than near the margin. 

Thick accumulations of the passive margin stage (between the Blue and Green horizons) 

are located adjacent to the Early Mesozoic horsts (east and west of the Jonah Ridge in Fig. 7.2a). 

82

It is assumed that these areas continued to act as localized depocenters, accumulating clastic 

material that was shed from the nearby submarine topographic highs. The tops of the Jonah, 

Leviathan and Eratosthenes structures may have reached shallow water level and hosted isolated 

carbonate buildups of Middle-Late Jurassic and Middle Cretaceous age. 

7.3 Convergence Stage 

7.3.1 Late Cretaceous to Tertiary contractional structures inland 

The termination of post-rift, passive margin stage coincides with the onset of a regional 

contractional deformation phase associated with the formation of the 'Syrian Arc' (Krenkel, 

1924) or the 'Levantid' (Picard, 1959) fold belt. This structural element is an 'S' shape mountain 

belt extending from the Palmyra Mountains in Syria to the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon 

Mountains; through the Judea Mountains and Negev anticlines and into the northern Sinai 

anticlines (Fig 7.4) (Picard, 1943, 1959; Ball and Ball, 1953; Bentor and Vroman, 1954, 1960; de 

Sitter, 1962; Gvirtzman, 1970; Bartov, 1974; Neev et al., 1976; Horowitz, 1979; Eyal and 

Reches, 1983; Lovelock, 1984; Beydoun, 1988; McBride et al., 1990). The fold belt extends 

further to the southwest below the thick Mio-Pliocene sediments of the Nile Delta (Aal et al., 

2000) and into the Western Desert of Egypt (Said, 1990). 

The Syrian Arc belt consists of a series of surface and subsurface anticlines that strike in 

an ENE, NE and NNE direction. Most of the structures are open flexures and folds, in some 

areas forming broad anticlinorial upwarps. Several characteristic geometries are identified: the 

folds of the central and northern Negev are all strongly asymmetric with steep flanks on the 

southeast, while the Hebron anticline is strongly asymmetric on the west (Fig. 7.4). Other 

structures, such as the Fari'a anticline (Fig. 7.4), are roughly symmetric box folds with steeply 

dipping flanks on both sides (Flexer et al., 2005). 

The Syrian Arc folds are frequently associated with reverse faulting. The concept of 

reverse faults at depth, as first suggested by de Sitter (1962), was substantiated by several deep 

oil wells in southern and central Israel in which strata repetitions were discovered. Freund et al. 

(1975) suggested that these reverse faults originated as normal faults during the Early Mesozoic 

rifting stage. Compelling evidence for inversion of the older extensional structures has been 

supplied from various parts of the Syrian Arc fold belt in onshore Israel and Syria (Davis, 1982; 

Gelbermann and Kemmis, 1987; Bruner, 1991; Best et al., 1993, Chaimov et al., 1993; 

Druckman et al., 1995a). 

The timing of the Syrian Arc deformation inland is debated, but the main range of ages 

given by various authors is Turonian to Neogene (Picard, 1943; Bentor and Vroman, 1954, 1960; 

Freund, 1965; Bartov, 1974; Eyal and Reches, 1983). Walley (1998), who summarized 

83

84 

Fig 7.4 – Convergence stage-Syrian Arc fold structures of the Levant region. Combined depth map of the Middle Cretaceous level: 

onshore after Fleischer and Gafsou (2003) top Judea map; and offshore depth map of the Green horizon in present study. Note Syrian Arc 

I and II folding phases. The Syrian Arc II structures offshore are projected from the top Lower Miocene level.

NW 

SE 


Senonian- 

Eocene 

Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 

Oligocene- 

L. Miocene 

2 

1 

TWT (ms) 

M. Jurassic- 

Turonian 

a 

12.5 km 

NW 

SE 


Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 

Oligocene- 

L. Miocene 

2 

1 

TWT(ms) 

Senonian- 

Eocene 

b 

M. Jurassic- 

Turonian 

85

NW 

SE 

TWT(ms) 

Plio- 

Pleistocene 

Messinian 

M.-U. Miocene 

Oligocene- 

L. Miocene 

2 

1 

Senonian 

-Eocene 

c 

M. Jurassic- 

Turonian 

NW 

SE 

Plio- 

Pleistocene 

Messinian 

TWT(ms) 

M.-U. Miocene 

Oligocene- 

L. Miocene 

2 

Senonian 

-Eocene 

M. Jurassic- 

Turonian 

d 

Fig 7.5- Convergence stage- contractional structures in the Levant Basin: (a) profile from the 

southeastern part of the basin showing two folding phases, 1= Syrian Arc I (Senonian) and 

2=Syrian Arc II (Oligo-Miocene); (b) profile from the southeastern part of the basin showing 

Syrian Arc I+II folds, note the onlapping of the Oligo-Miocene strata on the tilted, faulted and 

folded block apparently deformed during Syrian Arc II folding phase; (c) profile from the eastern 

part of the basin showing Syrian Arc I+II folds; (d) profile from the northeastern part of the basin 

showing Syrian Arc II folds 

86

observations on the Syrian Arc system from Lebanon and other parts of the Levant, suggested 

two main episodes of deformation: Syrian Arc I during Coniacian to Santonian times; and Syrian 

Arc II during Late Eocene to Late Oligocene times. Mimran (1984) found a 'post Neogene' age 

for the latest folding phase in the Fari'a anticline (Fig. 7.4), while Freund (1965) infers a post 

Pliocene continuation of folding in some structures. Eyal (1996), who studied the properties of 

Syrian Arc folds and related structures throughout Israel and Sinai, suggested that the Syrian Arc 

stress field in the Levant area may have persisted into the Miocene and possibly to the present. 

7.3.2 Late Cretaceous to Tertiary contractional structures in the Levant Basin 

Syrian Arc type contractional deformation is observed in the offshore seismic data 

throughout the Levant Basin and margin. Two folding episodes are identified, and following 

Walley (1998, 2001), these are termed here Syrian Arc I and II (Fig. 7.5a). 

Syrian Arc I structures are predominant in the eastern part of the basin some 50 to 70 km 

west of the coastline (Fig. 7.4). The dominant deformational style in this area is of highamplitude 

and short wave length anticlines and synclines accompanied by high-angle thrust 

faults (Figs. 5.3, 7.5a). The deformation affects the Middle Cretaceous unconformity (Green 

horizon) and older strata; therefore a Senonian age for this folding is inferred (Figs. 5.3, 5.6, 

7.5a). 

The time and style of deformation of the Syrian Arc I structures offshore appear to be 

similar to the folds of the northern Negev inland. The size of the folds ranges from 10 to 30 km 

in length and 5 to 10 km in width. Their height ranges from several hundred to more than 1000 

m and their flanks dip 10 0 -30 0 . Many of the folds are asymmetric with steep flanks on the east or 

southeast (Fig. 7.5a, b). 

The thrust faults dip 65-75 0 and are traced down into the basement. Most of the faults 

offset up to the Middle Cretaceous unconformity (Green horizon), although rarely, they also 

penetrate the overlying Tertiary strata (Figs. 5.3, 5.6, 7.5a, b). In some areas evidence for 

inversion of the older, extensional structures is observed. For example, the reverse fault west of 

the Yam West-1 well may have been a normal fault associated with down-to-the-basin, Early 

Mesozoic faulting (Figs. 5.3, 7.2b). Many of the faults resemble positive flower structures and 

contain supporting limbs; thus a certain amount of wrenching or transpression is inferred. 

Syrian Arc II contractional deformation in the offshore is more complex and contains two 

elements. The first element is a series of low-amplitude long wave folds that are in some places 

superimposed on the older Syrian Arc I structures (Figs. 7.5a, c). The deformation affects the 

Lower Miocene unconformity (Cyan horizon) and older strata; therefore a Middle Miocene age 

of this folding phase can be inferred. Syrian Arc II folds are found throughout the basin and also 

87

in its deep part east of the Eratosthenes high (Fig. 7.4). Reverse faulting and inversion are 

generally not associated with this style of deformation; however, some of the structures in the 

deep part of the basin are located above deep-seated basement highs, possibly suggesting some 

reactivation of the Early Mesozoic horst and graben system (Fig. 5.9). The time span of the 

Syrian Arc II deformation phase is not well constrained. Folding could have started in the Late 

Eocene, as proposed by Walley (1989, 2001), and could have continued through the Early to 

Middle Miocene. The base Messinian unconformity (Purple horizon) is generally not affected or 

very mildly deformed (Figs. 7.5a-d). Therefore an upper age limit for the Syrian Arc II 

deformation in the Levant Basin is the latest Miocene. 

A second element associated with the Syrian Arc II deformation is uplifting and tilting. 

Figure 7.5b shows an uplifted block at the western end of the Syrian Arc I fold belt (Fig. 7.4). 

The Middle Cretaceous unconformity (Green horizon) is tilted westward and the uppermost part 

of the structure is elevated some 3000 m from the basin floor (western part of the profile in Fig. 

7.5b). The Oligocene to Lower Miocene section onlaps the elevated structure on the east; thus 

indicating filling of a negative relief (Fig. 7.5b). Uplifting and onlapping of Neogene strata 

characterize the entire western edge of the Syrian Arc I fold belt in the eastern part of the basin 

(Fig. 7.4 and seismic examples in Figs. 5.3, 5.6, 5.8,). The age of this event is estimated as 

Oligocene to Upper Miocene (pre-Messinian). 

At the northeastern part of the basin a younger deformation is observed. In the Carmel- 

Cesarea area the Mesozoic and Cenozoic section is uplifted near the coastline and the thin Plio- 

Pleistocene section on top of the structure thickens significantly west of it (Fig. 5.10). It is 

therefore suggested that in this area the uplifting continued through the Plio-Pleistocene. 

7.3.3 Neotethyan convergence in the Levant area 

It is widely accepted that the Syrian Arc contractional deformation of the Levant area is 

associated with the collision of the African-Arabian and Eurasian plates (Reches and Eyal, 1983; 

Garfunkel, 1998; Walley, 1998, 2001; Flexer et al., 2005). A late Early Cretaceous convergence 

initiated a northward-dipping subduction zone within the southerly Neotethys oceanic basin 

(Robertson, 1998) that eventually progressed to collision and accretion in the present-day area of 

Cyprus and southern Turkey. This activity is manifested at a lower intensity by the Syrian Arc 

contractional structures of the Levant. 

Reches and Eyal (1983) and Eyal (1996) described the Syrian Arc stress field (SAS) 

associated with this deformation. According to these authors the SAS regime has been active 

from the Turonian to the present. This suggestion is generally supported by the data from the 

Levant Basin. The long-term contraction is marked by phases of more intense deformation. 

88

The Senonian Syrian Arc I phase is characterized by localized folding, partly controlled by the 

location of the deep-seated, Early Mesozoic normal faults. Walley (1998) proposed that this 

phase reflects an ocean-ocean collision in the southern Neotethys. Thickness and facies 

variations of the Senonian strata in the Levant area are relatively limited, therefore it is 

speculated that no significant relief was formed between the Levant margin on the east and the 

deep basin on the west during the Syrian Arc I deformation. 

The Syrian Arc II phase that started in the Paleogene is possibly related to the 

progression of convergence and to a continent-continent collision on the southern Neotethys 

margin (Walley, 1998, 2001). The wide extent of this deformation that was previously identified 

only in several locations inland is revealed in the offshore data (Fig. 7.4). It is assumed that 

many of the older, Syrian Arc I folds onshore and offshore were reactivated while new structures 

were continuously being formed. The offshore seismic data further indicates that the Syrian Arc 

II contractional deformation continued through the Miocene (Eyal, 1996) and did not end in the 

Late Oligocene as proposed by Walley (1998, 2001). 

An important element of the Syrian Arc II deformation shown by the offshore seismic 

data is uplifting and tilting on the Levant margin (Fig. 7.5b). Walley (1998) proposed that the 

main uplifts of the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon mountains occurred during this phase. It is 

assumed that uplifting of the mountainous backbone of Israel also took place during the Oligo- 

Miocene and resulted in erosion, westward transport of clastic sediments and huge 

accumulations within the deep part of the Levant Basin. Uplifting continued locally in the 

Carmel-Caesarea area during the Plio-Pleistocene, possibly in conjunction with the activity on 

the nearby segment of the Dead Sea Transform (Yagur fault) (Ben-Gai and Ben-Avraham, 

1995). 

8. Erosion Processes and Mass Transport on the Levant Slope 

8.1 Rifting and Passive Margin Stages 

Erosion and transport of sediments from elevated areas in the south and east to the basin 

in the west and northwest have been taking place throughout the Mesozoic and Cenozoic history 

of the region. The earliest evidence for coarse, clastic sediment accumulation is found in the 

Helez Deep-1 well in the southern coastal plain of Israel (Fig. 1.3). The Erez Conglomerate 

(Druckman, 1984) is a few hundred meters thick, built of polimictic carbonate breccia of lower 

Late Triassic age (Fig. 4.1). Druckman (1984) described this unit as a fault breccia that was 

eroded from a nearby horst block (Gevim High, Fig. 7.1) and accumulated on the downthrown 

side of the Helez fault. The Triassic to Middle Jurassic horst and graben morphology could have 

89

accommodated a well-developed drainage system, transporting fine and coarse siliciclastics. 

During lowstands, e.g., between the Jurassic cycles 3 and 4 (Fig. 4.2), the Inmar sands may have 

been transported from the distal Sinai and Negev hinterland toward the basin in the north and 

west 

During the passive margin stage deepwater turbidities accumulated on the slope and 

within the basin, west of the shallow-marine shelf (Fig. 7.3)(Gardosh, 2002). Thin oolitic and 

micro-conglomerate beds found in the Upper Jurassic cycle offshore (Yam-2, Yam West-1 and 

Yam Yafo-1 wells; Derin et al., 1990; Druckman et al., 1994) are the products of submarine, 

mass transport processes. The distribution and paleogeographic extent of these units are not fully 

resolved. 

The Lower Cretaceous Gevar'am Formation reflects an extensive deepwater turbidite 

system that developed on the Levant slope during a prolonged lowstand (Fig. 4.3). This unit 

comprises a thick series of hemi-pelagic dark shale found in various onshore and offshore wells. 

In the southern coastal plain it fills a 1 km deep canyon, incised within the Jurassic shelf (Cohen, 

1976). The Gevar'am Canyon was the main conduit for submarine turbidite flows that 

transported significant amounts of quartztoze sands into the basin from the elevated area on the 

southeast. Several sand beds up to 20 m in thickness, found within the Gevar'am shale offshore 

(Yam-2 and Yam West-1 wells, Fig. 7.3), are interpreted as distal slope fans and questionably 

basin floor fans that are associated with the Gevar'am Canyon and channel system (Gardosh, 

2002). Lower Cretaceous deepwater slope and basin floor fans are likely to be found in other 

parts of the southern and central Levant Basin (e.g., Mango-1 well, Fig. 1.2). 

The Middle Cretaceous section of the Levant margin and basin, although dominated by 

carbonate strata, show evidence of clastic sediment transport. The Aptian-Albian slope deposits 

of the Talme Yafe Formation contain coarse-grained carbonate breccias found in various wells in 

the coastal plain (Cohen, 1971; Bein and Weiler, 1976). These were probably eroded from the 

shelf and deposited by gravity flows on the slope during short term Aptian –Albian lowstands 

(Gardosh, 2002). 

Another Middle Cretaceous erosional feature of the Levant slope is the Item Canyon. 

The Item Formation is a 2000 m thick carbonate series of Cenomanian age (Fig. 4.3), found in 

the Item-1 well (Fig. 1.3). The origin of this unit was previously not fully understood. The new 

offshore seismic data provides evidence for erosion at the base of the unit, indicating deposition 

within a deep submarine slope canyon (Fig. 4.6). The geometry of the Item Canyon is at present 

not well resolved because of the later Syrian Arc deformation. 

A pronounced middle Turonian lowstand associated with karstic phenomena and 

quartztose sandstone deposition is well documented in the shallow-marine platform from the 

90

Pliocene-Pleistocene 

Messinian 

(Evaporites) 

M.-U. Miocene 




Permian-M. Jurassic 


a 

Fig 8.1- Convergence stage-the Tertiary fill of the Levant Basin: (a) Stratigraphic 

section through the Levant Basin and Margin, and (b) isopach map of the 

Oligocene to Upper Miocene interval. The great thickness of the 

Tertiary section in the basin (more then 3 km) resulted from tectonic 

uplift, eustatic sea-level falls and intense erosion and mass transport 

across the Levant slope. See location of the section on the isopach map. 

b 

Yam Yafo-1 

91

-Long distance transport of 

Nubian sandstone 

a 

- Long distance transport of 

Nubian, Hazeva and 

Hordos sandstone 

b 

92

- Short distance transport of 

Hazeva and Hordos sandstone 

c 

- Short distance transport of 

Hazeva sandstone 

- Long distance transport of 

Nilotic sands 

 

d 

Fig 8.2- The Tertiary, submarine canyon and channel system of the Levant margin, shown on the 

depth maps of: (a) base Oligocene, (b) top Lower Miocene (c) base Messinian and (d) top 

Messinian. The main directions of siliciclastic sediment supply are marked with black arrows. 

93

Negev to the Galilee area (Fig. 4.3) (Sandler, 1996). It is possible that Turonian sands bypassed 

the shelf and were transported westward by submarine turbidite flows to the slope and basin 

areas, although these rocks were not encountered yet in any offshore wells 

8.2 Convergence stage 

8.2.1 Submarine canyon morphology 

Extensive erosion and incision on the Levant slope, followed by the accumulation of 

several kilometers thick Tertiary fill within the basin took place during the convergence stage 

(Fig. 8.1). These phenomena reflect the combined effects of tectonic uplifting and tilting of the 

Levant margin and the mountainous backbone of Israel, the uplifting of the Arabian Shield and 

eustatic sea-level drops (Fig. 4.4). A highly developed submarine canyon and channel system 

evolved during the Early Oligocene and persisted till the Late Pliocene (Figs. 8.2, 8.3). The 

system included several main conduits generally oriented in NE-SW and E-W directions. These 

are, from south to north: the Afiq, Ashdod, Hadera, Caeserea, Atlit and Qishon canyons (Fig. 

8.2). Some of these erosional features were previously identified in onshore wells (the Afiq and 

Ashdod canyons, Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978; Druckman et al., 1995b; Buchbinder and 

Zilberman, 1997). The offshore seismic data reveal the extent of the Tertiary drainage system 

along the entire eastern part of the Levant Basin up to 70 km west of the present-day coastline. 

The system is built of superimposed canyon incisions revealed by the topography of the base 

Oligocene, Lower Miocene, base Messinian and top Messinian unconformities (Figs. 8.2a-d). 

The major canyons are more or less vertically stacked and are straight to slightly 

curvilinear. Secondary, subsequent channels confined by the morphology of pre-existing fold 

structures flowed into the main canyons. The Afiq and Ashdod canyons are deeply incised. The 

depth of the Afiq Canyon is up to 1500 m onshore (Druckman et al., 1995b) and several hundred 

meters offshore (Fig. 8.3b). The Ashdod Canyon cuts a 700 m-deep gorge into Mesozoic strata 

some 40 km offshore (Fig 8.3a). The incisions in the northern channels (Hadera, Caesarea, Atlit 

and Qishon) are limited to the upper slope, near the present-day coastline. 

8.2.2 Oligocene to Lower Miocene canyon system 

The Oligocene tectonic activity and sea-level falls resulted in considerable shedding of 

clastic material into the Levant Basin. Denudation was extensive, exposing Nubian sandstone 

terrain in far proximal areas. Widespread transport of clastic material initiated a system of 

submarine canyons, depicted by the Red seismic horizon (Fig. 8.2a). Oligocene continental 

deposits are absent in Israel. Apparently, clastic material was not stored inland but was directly 

transported to the basin. 

94

Approximately 250 m of Oligocene coarse-grained clastics (sandstones and 

conglomerates, named "Ashdod Clastics" ) were penetrated in the Ashdod wells, located in the 

southern coastal plain where the Ashdod Canyon meets the present-day shoreline (Fig. 8.2a) 

(Buchbinder and Siman-Tov, 2000; Buchbinder et al., 2005). The age of the Ashdod Clastics is 

not strictly defined. It may range from upper Rupelian to Lower Chattian (zones P19 to P21 in 

Fig. 4.4; Buchbinder et al., 2005). Core #2 from the Ashdod-2 well reveals a conglomerate 

consisting of boulders, imbricated pebbles (mostly of Cretaceous limestones and dolostones) and 

bioclastic sandstones of turbidite origin. Two intervals of highly porous sandstones, 20 m to 50m 

thick, were detected in the Ashdod Clastics section. Their Spontaneous Potential (SP) and 

Gamma-Ray (GR) log response exhibit blocky to fining-upward patterns. Other parts of the 

section show a serrated log motif, reflecting interbded conglomerates, sandstones and marls 

(Buchbinder et al., 2005). The clastic succession is interpreted as canyon fill or proximal slope 

fan, deposited within the submarine, Ashdod Canyon that was formed during the lower 

Oligocene (Figs. 4.4, 8.2a) 

Although no significant sandy deposits were encountered in onshore wells along the Afiq 

Canyon (Fig 8.2a), Martinotti, (1981) reported a Cretaceous boulder within hemi-pelagic middle 

Oligocene sediments in the Gaza-1 well. Apparently, sands either bypassed the present-day, 

onshore part of the Afiq canyon and were deposited offshore, or were eroded during the repeated 

canyon entrenchments in the Miocene. 

According to new findings from the Qishon-Yam-1 well (Fig. 1.2) (Schattner et al. 

2006), the Qishon-Yizrael valley in the north part of the country was formed already in 

Oligocene times. Therefore, clastic sediments from the Damascus- Ein Gev Basins could have 

been transported through the Qishon and Atlit Canyons to the Levant Basin (Fig 8.2a) (see 

below). 

In the offshore area, high-amplitude, discontinuous seismic events that were identified 

within Oligocene canyons may be interpreted as stacked, migrating channel systems (Fig 8.3a,c). 

This seismic pattern probably indicates transported, coarse clastic material. It is highly probable 

that clastic material was further transported into the basin and was deposited as sandy basin-floor 

fans. On the seismic data these may correspond to high-amplitude seismic events, which were 

identified above the Red horizon near the distal outlets of the main canyons (Fig. 8.3d). 

The Lower Miocene is characterized by a prolonged lowstand (~6 my) indicated by the 

absence of marine Burdigalian sediments inland (Fig. 4.4). This lowstand occurred during a 

period of global eustatic rise of sea-level (Haq et al., 1977; 1978, Fig. 4.4) and may thus indicate 

a tectonic uplift (Syrian Arc II phase). The lowstand was accompanied by intensive erosion and 

transportation of clastic material into the basin. A Lower Miocene sand interval, 17 m thick, was 

95

SW 

NE 

Ashdod Canyon 

TWT(ms) 

a 

SW 

NE 

Afiq Canyon 

TWT(ms) 

b 

96

W 

E 

TWT(ms) 

1 

c 

SW 

NE 

TWT(ms) 

2 

2 

d 

Fig 8.3- Tertiary submarine incision and deposition of clastic sediments in the Levant Basin: 

(a) the incised Ashdod Canyon; (b) the incised Afiq Canyon; (c) high-amplitude, 

discontinuous seismic reflections within the Hadera channel (1), interpreted 

as stacked, migrating channel systems; and (d) high-amplitude seismic reflections 

near the mouth of the Ashdod Canyon(2), interpreted as basin-floor fan lobes. 

97

encountered in the Gaza-1 well, in the southern coastal plain (Figs.1.3, 4.4). It may represent the 

proximal tail of much more extensive accumulation in a distal basin position. The seismic data 

shows high-amplitude events in the upper part of the Oligocene to top Lower Miocene interval, 

below the Cyan horizon (Figs. 8.3b,d). These seismic events may correspond to clastic 

accumulations in a distal basin position. 

Notably, continental clastic sediments of the Hazeva and Hordos formations started to 

accumulate in proximal inland areas in Early Miocene times. The Hordos sedimentation in the 

Galilee initiated before 17 my (Shaliv, 1991) and the Hazeva Group in the Negev started to 

accumulate before 20 my (Calvo and Bartov, 2001). The Hazeva continental deposition was 

occasionally interrupted by Syrian Arc or other tectonic movements which may correspond to 

the significant erosional truncation event of the Zefa Member (Calvo and Bartov, 2001). This 

event could have resulted in a long distance transportation of clastic material from southern 

Israel into the basin through the Afiq and Asdod Canyons (Fig. 8.2a,b). 

In the north, the Nukev, En Gev and Hordos sands (of the Golan area) could have also 

been remobilized and transported through the Qishon Valley to the Levant basin. According to 

Shaliv (1991) the similarities between the En-Gev sands and the continental sediments of the 

Damascus basin suggest that the two sites are, in fact, parts of the same basin. This indicates the 

existence of extensive source for siliciclastics in the north (Fig. 8.2.a,b) 

In summary, the Oligocene to Lower Miocene period is characterized by widespread 

transport in submarine canyon and channel system along the entire Levant margin. The 

provenance of the clastic material was long distance sites of Nubian sandstone (which was 

already exposed in Sinai, Negev, and Trans-Jordan) during the early Oligocene phase, and both 

Nubian sandstone and remobilized Hazeva and Hordos sands during early Miocene times (Fig. 

8.2a,b). 

8.2.3 Middle to Upper Miocene canyon system 

The Serravallian to early Tortonian time is characterized by a long term lowstand 

(Serravallian crisis). This lowstand is associated with the Bet Nir Conglomerate found in 

outcrops inland; and probably also with 250 m thick conglomerate interval found in the Nahal 

Oz-1 well, located in a proximal part of the Afiq Canyon, at the southern coastal plain (Fig. 

8.2b). Druckman et al. (1995b) described in this part of the canyon erosion and slumping event 

of Langhian to Serravallian age (2 nd erosion; Druckman et al., 1995, figure 4). Further updip, the 

Beer Sheva Canyon was excavated at this time and later filled by Late Miocene sediments of the 

Pattish cycle (Fig. 4.4) (Buchbinder and Zilberman, 1997). 

98

The Serravallian lowstand is associated with submarine incision on the Levant slope, 

depicted by the Cyan seismic horizon (Fig. 8 2b). The canyon pattern closely followed the older, 

base Oligocene system although the degree of incision was reduced (Fig. 8.3a,c). Coarse clastic 

material was transported basinward through the Middle to Upper Miocene canyon system (Fig. 

8.2b). Discontinuous, high-amplitude seismic events found above the Cyan horizon (Fig. 8.3b) 

may be associated with channel-fill deposits and basin floor fans. Evidence from several wells 

recently drilled in the Afiq Canyon offshore support this interpretation. The provenance of the 

siliciclastic material was long distance sites of Nubian sandstone and remobilized Hazeva and 

Hordos sands (Fig. 8.2b). 

8.2.4 The Base-Messinain-evaporite canyon system 

Substantial subaerial and submarine denudation of the North African and Levant 

continental margin took place during the Messinian salinity crisis and lowstand (Fig. 4.4) (Ryan, 

1978; Gvirtzman and Buchbinder, 1978). On the Levant slope the base Messinain canyon 

system is depicted by the Purple seismic horizon (Fig. 8.2c). The degree of incision at the base 

of the evaporite section is smaller then previous erosion phases (Fig. 8.3a,c) possibly due to 

reduced runoff during this arid period. 

The mountainous backbone of Israel was well developed at this time forming a 

topographic barrier for long distance transport. A possible source for siliciclastics could have 

been the Hazeva and Hordos sands that where eroded from elevated areas near the coast (Fig. 

8.2c). There is no indication for clastic accumulation at the base Messinain level inland. 

However, evidence from several wells recently drilled in the Afiq Canyon offshore indicates 

some coarse clastic deposition. 

8.2.5 The top-Messinian-evaporite canyon system and the Pliocene gas-bearing sands 

A latest Miocene to Early Pliocene lowstand, associated with erosion of the Messinian 

evaporites is identified in the proximal part of the Afiq Canyon inland (Druckman et al., 1995b, 

5 th erosion in figure 4). Druckman et al. (1995b) noted that this lowstand is followed by fluvial 

erosion and flooding of the entire Mediterranean with fresh and brackish water during the socalled 

'Lago Mare' event (Rouchy and Saint Martin, 1992). In the Levant Basin the top 

Messinian erosion is depicted by the Violet seismic horizon (Fig. 8.2d). 

A short-term episode of marine deposition of the lowermost Pliocene was followed by 

another significant lowstand at 4.37 m.y. (Fig. 4.4). Deepwater sands that are found above the 

Mavkiim Formation in the offshore distal part of the Afiq canyon are separated from the 

99

evaporites by several tens of meters thick layer of hemipelagic marl; and are therefore related to 

the second, Early Pliocene lowstand of 4.37 m.y. 

The thick accumulations of deepwater turbiditic sands, termed the Lower Member of the 

Yafo Formation or the "Noa Sand" form the reservoir of the biogenic gas in the Noa, Mari and 

Gaza Marine fields (Fig. 1.2). These prolific gas sands represent a basin floor fan environment 

within the Afiq and El Arish Canyons. Some of the sands form large mounds up to 250 m in 

thickness. The formation of the mounds is related to postdepositional, remobilization of the 

deepwater sand, due to fluid injection in overpressure conditions (Oats, 2001; Frey-Martinez et 

al., 2007). 

A likely source for the Lower Pliocene siliciclastics is the Miocene Hazeva sandstone 

that was exposed at that time and was eroded and transported to a short distance from the Negev 

and northern Sinai area (Fig. 8.2d). Another possible source is 'Nilotic' sands that were 

transported from the Nile Delta by longshore currents and eventually trapped and transported 

offshore in the Afiq canyon (Fig. 8.2d). The Yafo sands were so far encountered only in the 

southern part of the basin. This may be explained by the lack of adequate source of siliciclastics 

in the northern area during Pliocene times. 

9. Hydrocarbon Potential 

9.1 Trap Types and Hydrocarbon Plays 

The integrated analysis of the Levant Basin presented in this report indicates a high 

potential for hydrocarbon accumulation. Each of the main stratigraphic intervals described and 

mapped in this report contains various types of potential structural and stratigraphic traps. 

Suggested hydrocarbon plays within each interval are shown in Figure 9.1 and are briefly 

described at the following sub-sections. 

9.1.1 Permian to Middle Jurassic interval 

This period is characterized by shallow-marine deposition and the formation of extensive 

graben and horst systems across the Levant region. The main hydrocarbon plays suggested for 

this interval are Triassic and Jurassic fault-related traps (Fig. 9.1). Alluvial fans (Erez 

Conglomerate type) and other coarse-grained clastic deposits may be found near the main faults 

or within the Triassic and Jurassic grabens. Buried hill-type traps or carbonate buildups may be 

found at the tops of the Triassic- Lower Jurassic highs, sealed by fine-grained Upper Jurassic and 

100

W Biogenic gas 

discoveries 

E 


Messinian 

M.-U.Miocene 



Permian-M. Jurassic 

High-grade 

Oil shows 

Trap type: 

Alluvial fan Buried-hill 

Channel-fill 

Turbidite lobes and sheets 

Carbonate buildup 

Fig 9.1- Schematic section through the Levant Basin showing 

potential hydrocarbon traps in the Phanerozoic fill. 

Pliocene gas discoveries in the southern part of the basin 

and high-grade oil shows in the Mesozoic section 

indicate the existence of biogenic and thermogenic 

petroleum systems. 

101

Cretaceous strata. These features, which are deeply buried within the basin, are located at a 

shallower depth (5-6 km) near the eastern margin. 

9.1.2 Middle Jurassic to Turonian interval 

This period is characterized by shallow-marine conditions during its early part, followed 

by the deposition of carbonate platforms on the margin and deepwater turbidites in the basin 

during the passive margin stage. The main hydrocarbon plays suggested for this interval are 

Lower Cretaceous deepwater fans (Fig. 9.1). The Early Cretaceous Gevara'am canyon was part 

of a submarine canyon and channel system incised on the continental slope in the southeastern 

Levant margin. Several sand layers that where deposited as deepwater fans at the distal part of 

this system were penetrated by offshore wells (e.g. Yam-2 and Yam West-1) (Gardosh, 2002). 

Similar sand bodies can be expected in other parts of the basin. It should be noted that Early 

Cretaceous sand bodies pre-dated the Syrian Arc deformation stage and therefore, are equally 

distributed on highs and lows. 

The early Middle Jurassic period is characterized by the accumulation of oolitic shoals 

and fine-grained carbonate debris. These may be considered as an additional play type for this 

interval. Light oil shows were discovered in the Yam-2 and Yam Yafo-1 wells in shallowmarine, 

Middle Jurassic reservoirs trapped within Syrian Arc folds. Likewise the Lower 

Cretaceous fans, the distribution of Middle Jurassic porous intervals is not controlled by Syrian 

Arc deformation. 

9.1.3 Oligocene to Lower Miocene interval 

This period is characterized by contractional deformation and uplift that was followed by 

intense erosion and transport of clastic sediments into the basin. An extensive canyon and 

channel system developed during the Oligocene throughout the eastern part of the Levant Basin 

(see chapter 8.2.1). The main hydrocarbon play suggested for this interval consists of Oligocene 

channel-fill and deepwater fans (Fig. 9.1). Potential taps are channel-fill units interpreted on the 

seismic data in up-dip position (confined setting), and basin floor fans interpreted on the seismic 

data at the distal end of the canyons (non-confined setting) (Fig. 8.3). Some of the fans may be 

found in structurally favored locations within Syrian Arc II type folds. 

A unique feature that developed during this period is found at the southern part of the 

Jonah Ridge (Figs. 5.11, 9.2). The seismic data show a large, layered mound located above a 

chaotic package interpreted as a Cretaceous to Early Tertiary volcanic cone, which is 

superimposed on a Triassic-Jurassic high (Fig. 5.11). This mound is interpreted as an atoll of 

possibly upper Early Miocene age, equivalent to the Ziqlag reef and shelf carbonates found on 

102

the margin. This and other Miocene carbonate buildups that may be found in the basin, are 

suggested as an additional play in the Oligocene to Lower Miocene interval (Fig. 9.1). A similar 

carbonate buildup was likewise interpreted by Aal et al. (2000) in the ultra-deepwater of the Nile 

Delta, offshore Egypt. 

9.1.4 Middle to Upper Miocene interval 

This period is characterized by the continuation of contractional deformation, erosion and 

sediment transport into the basin (see chapter 8.2.1). The main hydrocarbon play suggested for 

this interval consists of Miocene channel-fills and deepwater fans similar to the above described 

Oligocene play (Fig. 9.1). Combinated, stratigraphic and structural traps are expected to be 

found. Deepwater channels at the base of the Messinian salt are an additional play that should be 

considered in this interval (Fig. 9.1) 

9.1.5 Pliocene interval. 

Sediment transport into the basin through a submarine canyon and channel system took 

place during the Early Pliocene (see chapter 8.2.1). Pliocene deepwater fans charged with 

biogenic gas were discovered in the Afiq Canyon. This play should be further explored in other 

Pliocene canyons, particularily in the southern part of the basin (Figs. 8.2d, 9.1). 

9.2 Source Rocks and Petroleum Systems 

An important aspect of the Levant Basin hydrocarbon potential is the distribution and 

maturation level of source rocks. Producing fields and hydrocarbon shows found in the basin 

and on its margins indicate the existence of two types of petroleum systems: biogenic and 

thermogenic. The organic rich shales of the Plio-Pleistocene, Oligo-Miocene and Eocene all 

have biogenic gas potential (McQuilken, 2001). The Middle Miocene Qantara Formation is 

considered by Dolson et al. (2002) as a major Tertiary source in the offshore Nile Delta. The 

Sadot and Shiqma gas fields (Fig. 1.2) found in the southern coastal plain are probably 

associated with an Oligo-Miocene source of biogenic gas. The origin of the gas found in the 

Noa, Mari and Gaza Marine fields is considered to be Miocene and Pliocene organic rich shale, 

although a particular source rock for the Pliocene biogenic gas could not be explicitly established 

(Feinstein et al., 2002). The great thickness and wide distribution of the hemipelagic Tertiary 

section, however, suggest good potential for biogenic gas generation throughout the Levant 

Basin. 

Mesozoic source rocks comprise theromgenic petroleum systems. The Upper Cretaceous, 

organic rich marl of the Mount Scopus Group have excellent source properties in the inland part 

103

of Israel and generate oil and thermogenic gas in the Dead Sea basin (Tannenbaum and 

Aizenshtat, 1985). Thermal maturity modeling shows that the Upper Cretaceous section reaches 

maturation within the Levant Basin at depths greater than 4 km (Gardosh, 2002). Therefore, 

Senonian strata should be considered as a potential source for oil and thermogenic gas in the 

deep part of the basin. 

The Lower Cretaceous Gevar'am shale has source rock properties and may have 

generated oil and thermogenic gas where maturity is reached (McQuilken, 2001). The Middle 

Jurassic Barnea Formation is the source of oil in the Helez field, onshore (Fig 1.2) (Bein and 

Soffer, 1987). The organic rich limestone of the Barnea Formation was so far penetrated in the 

southern coastal plain. If the organic facies of the Barnea Formation extends into the basin (Fig. 

4.5) it may serve as an important source of hydrocarbons. 

Lower Jurassic and Triassic continental to shallow-marine rocks were deposited 

throughout the Levant area during the Neotethyan rifting stage. Bein et al.(1984) found source 

properties in this section in various deep, onshore wells. It is assumed that the organic content in 

Lower Jurassic and Triassic strata was higher in the paleograbens offshore, where lacustrine to 

deeper marine conditions may have prevailed. High-grade oil shows found in the Middle 

Jurassic limestone in the Yam-2 and Yam Yafo-1 well are probably related to these source rocks. 

The timing of oil generation of the Early Mesozoic rock units is not well established. 

McQuilken (2001) estimated that Lower to Middle Jurassic source rocks are presently in the 

peak oil window to just within the gas window offshore. However, Gardosh (2002) estimated 

that the Triassic rocks reached the maturity window in Late Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous time. 

The later results further suggest that the primary migration of Early Mesozoic hydrocarbons may 

have taken place prior to the onset of Syrian Arc folding phase, and therefore they should be 

found in Early Mesozoic fault blocks and stratigraphic traps. 

Recently discovered oil in the onshore Meged wells, located northeast of Helez (Fig. 1.2), 

was related to Silurian source rocks (www.givot.co.il). This is the first occurrence of such oil in 

the Levant region. It may be hypothesized that Silurian source rocks have been preserved, and 

generated hydrocarbons within Neotethyan rift structures such as the Judea Graben onshore and 

the deep-seated grabens offshore (Fig 7.1). 

In summary, a wide spectrum of biogenic and thermogenic petroleum systems, ranging in 

age from Paleozoic to Plio-Pleistocene is found in the Levant Basin. The situation offshore 

Israel is probably similar to that offshore the Nile Delta where deep structures serve as focal 

points for vertical hydrocarbon migration, resulting in a mix of biogenic and thermogenic gases 

in shallow structural levels (Dolson et al., 2002, Feinstein et al., 2002). 

104

10. Summary 

Modern, geophysical data yielded new information on the structure and stratigraphy of 

the Levant Basin, offshore. The integration of these data with the vast amount of information 

from the Levant margin and inland part of Israel enables the reconstruction of a regional 

geologic scheme. Three distinct tectonic stages in the evolution of the region are documented: 

(a) Rifting stage 

(b) Post-rift passive margin stage 

(c) Convergence stage 

Rifting in the Levant region is related to the breakup of the Gondwana plate and the 

formation of the Neotethys Ocean system. Four extensional pulses are postulated: in the latest 

Paleozoic; Middle Triassic; Late Triassic; and Early Jurassic. These pulses resulted in normal 

faulting in the range of several kilometers, magmatic activity and the formation of NE-SW 

oriented graben and horst systems. Four basement structures associated with the Early Mesozoic 

extension are found in the deep parts of Levant Basin (from east to west): the Yam, Jonah, 

Leviathan, and the Eratosthenes highs. The main structures inland are the Gevim, Gaash and 

Maanit highs and the Hilal, Judea and Asher grabens. The rifting in the Levant area reached an 

early magmatic stage. Although magmatic intrusion and stretching of the crust took place, no 

indications for sea-floor spreading and emplacement of new oceanic crust are found. Continental 

to shallow-marine depositional environments were dominant in the Levant region during the 

rifting stage. 

The post-rift stage is associated with cooling and subsidence that was probably more 

intense within the basin than on the eastern margin. The Late Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous 

section records the gradual formation of a passive-margin profile and the subsequent 

development of a deep marine basin bordered by a shallow-marine shelf. The passive-margin 

stage is characterized by recurring cycles of marine transgression and regression associated with 

relative sea-level changes. These are reflected by marine onlaps, numerous unconformity 

surfaces, accumulation of carbonate platforms on the margin and mass transported deposition in 

the basin. 

The convergence stage is related to the closure of the Neotethyan Ocean system and the 

motion of the Afro-Arabian plate towards Eurasia. In the Levant region this motion is 

manifested by large-scale contractional deformation of the Syrian Arc fold belt. Two 

contractional phases are observed. A Late Cretaceous Syrian-Arc I phase is characterized by 

inversion of older normal faults and the development of asymmetric, high-amplitude folds that 

are found mostly near the eastern margin and further inland. An Oligo-Miocene Syrian-Arc II 

105

phase is characterized by the formation of low-amplitude folds throughout the basin, and 

uplifting and tilting of marginal blocks, at the eastern part of the basin and further inland. 

Teriary tectonic activity and eustatic sea-level falls scaused intense erosion and 

accumulation of several kilometers thick basin-fill. Fluvial systems flowed on the exposed shelf 

from elevated areas in the east. Submarine turbidity currents incised the upper slope and 

transported siliciclastics further into the basin. The Oligo-Miocene and Pliocene drainage 

system includes, from south to north, the Afiq, Ashdod, Hadera, Casarea, Atlit and Qishon 

canyons. The Afiq and Ashdod canyons are highly erosive and are incised several hundred 

meters in the continental slope. Other canyons are less erosive and their flow pattern was for the 

most part controlled by the topography of the paleoslope. The Tertiary drainage system was shut 

off temporarily during the Messinian salinity event and turned on again during post-evaporites, 

latest Miocene to Early Pliocene lowstands. 

The variety in tectonic styles and depositional patterns may provide favorable trapping 

conditions for hydrocarbons in the Levant Basin. Potential structural traps are associated with the 

extensional rift structures and the contractional Syrian Arc folds. Stratigraphic traps are 

associated with Triassic-Middle Jurassic shallow-marine, carbonate and siliciclastic reservoirs 

and Cretaceous and Tertiary deepwater turbidite systems. 

Shallow gas discoveries in Pliocene sands and high-grade oil shows found in the 

Mesozoic section indicate the presence of source rocks and appropriate conditions for 

hydrocarbon generation in both biogenic and thermogenic petroleum systems. The size, depth 

and trapping potential of the Levant Basin supports the conclusions that large quantities of 

hydrocarbons can be found offshore Israel. 

This study was focused on the stratigraphy, structure and tectonic evolution of the Levant 

Basin. It is recommend to conduct specific studies on the following topics: (a.) further analysis 

of the Tertiary drainage systems in wells, outcrops and 3D seismic data; (b) further analysis of 

the Middle Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous reservoir rocks and depositional environments, (c.) 2D 

and 3D structural reconstruction of the basin; (d.) modeling the thermal history and migration 

paths for hydrocarbons; and (e.) study of Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators (DHI) in 2D and 3D 

seismic data. 

106

Acknowledgments 

The authors would like to thank B. Conway, L. Perelis-Grossowicz , R. Siman-Tov and 

S. Lipson-Benitah for reviewing paleontological data of selected Jurassic, Cretaceous and 

Tertiary intervals. We thank B. Cohen and N. Almog for drafting maps and geologic sections, 

and B. Katz for editing the manuscript. The help of R. Calvo in data organization is much 

appreciated. We thank Y. Ben-Gai and A. Sneh for fruitful discussions and P. Weimar for 

helpful remarks on the Tertiary drainage system. 

107

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