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16 Enhancing China’s Competitiveness Through Lifelong Learning Table 1.6. A brief comparison of occupational classifications United States (2001) China (1999) 1 Management occupations 2 Business and financial operations 3 Computer and mathematical occupations 4 Architecture and engineering 5 Life, physical, and social science 6 Community and social services 7 Legal occupations 8 Education, training, and library 9 Arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media 10 Healthcare practitioners and technical occupations 11 Healthcare support 12 Protective service 13 Food preparation and serving–related occupations 14 Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance 15 Personal care and service 16 Sales and related occupations 17 Office and administrative support 18 Farming, fishing, and forestry 19 Construction and extraction 20 Installation, maintenance, and repair 21 Production occupations 22 Transportation and material moving 23 Military specific occupations 1 Managers of state and party agencies including state-owned enterprises and research institutes 2 Various professional and technical personnel 3 Administrative and officer clerks 4 Retail, wholesale, and service personnel 5 Workers in farming, forestry, husbandry, fishery, and irrigation–related areas 6 Factory and transportation workers 7 Military personnel 8 Miscellaneous Source: U.S. Department of Labor; China Ministry of Labor and Social Security. the future (figure 1.6). By 2020 China will be a more industry- and service-oriented economy, requiring a labor force with new skills and qualifications geared to a knowledge-based economy. China’s education system needs to adapt to this change and face up to the challenges, with multiple pathways and providers, flexible but sound qualification recognition systems, and new curricula and pedagogies. With this structural change, about 12–15 million people move each year from agricultural activities to nonagricultural activities and cities, resulting in about 300 million more by 2020 (Cooper 2004). And with industrial restructuring and stateowned enterprises reform, millions of workers have been laid off, and the unemployment rate is skyrocketing. The need is urgent for large retraining and reskilling programs for rural migrants and those laid off. Technical workers now account for only one-third of total industrial workers, most of them junior technicians. Engineers and advanced engineers account for only 4 percent of the technical workers, a bottleneck for China’s industrial upgrading. The Chinese government listed vocational education as one of its strategic priorities in addition to universalizing compulsory education and improving the quality of higher education. A recent conference defined the principles and objectives for developing vocational education in the next few years (box 1.1).
Challenges to China’s Education and Training System and the New Global Context 17 Figure 1.6. Massive changes in the structure of output and employment a. China’s output structure (1980–2020) b. China’s employment structure (1980–2020) 100 100 Percent of GDP 80 60 40 20 Percent 80 60 40 20 0 1980 1990 2000 2004 2010 Year 2020 0 1980 1993 2002 2010 Year 2020 Agriculture Industry Services Sources: World Bank DDP database; World Bank 2003a; China Statistic Yearbook 2005. Note: Figures for 2010–20 are projected based on authors’ estimation. Box 1.1. Promoting China’s vocational education Vocational education has been defined as the strategic focus of future education work, and a cross-ministerial joint vocational education working conference has been set up to tackle the issue. Principle The Chinese vocational education system should serve the needs of a market economy. A modern system with Chinese characteristics should have flexible models and autonomy for development, with close links to the labor market and enterprises. Objectives The main objective is to establish a sound operational mechanism and management system for vocational education. The development of vocational education should be “government taking leading role, depending on enterprises, involving industries, encouraging the participation of society, and promoting both the public and private sectors.” The mechanism for management is “under the leadership of the State Council, with each level of government accountable while local government takes the major role and encourages the involvement of the whole society.” Specific goals include the following: • By 2010 enrollment in secondary vocational education will reach around 8 million (now about 6 million), and enrollment in higher vocational education will account for more than half of entire higher education enrollment. • In the next five years, graduates of secondary vocational programs will reach 25 million and tertiary programs 11 million. • Vocational training with various modalities will be promoted, the number of trained labor force members will reach more than 100 million, and the quality of the labor force will be improved. • The conditions of vocational education will be upgraded, overall quality of teachers will be strengthened, and the effectiveness and efficiency of vocational education will be enhanced. Sources: China State Council 2005a; Wen 2005a; and MOE 2005b.
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Instrument Description Main Variabl
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Tecnológico de Monterrey Virtual U
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References and Other Sources Adey,
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