Enhancing China's Competitiveness Through Lifelong Learning ...

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18 Enhancing China’s Competitiveness Through Lifelong Learning Financial constraints on government to address lifelong learning Coping with the world’s largest education and training market, China still faces serious financial shortages in various levels and types of education. Total education expenditure as a share of GDP was about 4.8 percent in 2001, and 5.4 percent in 2002 (including private spending), far below that in the developed countries, and even below that in many developing countries. China has about 22 percent of the world’s students, but public spending is only about 4 percent of the world total. According to Ministry of Education statistics, in 2000 the financial appropriation for primary and high schools was not enough to pay the teaching staff salaries, with a shortage of RMB14.1 billion. The shortage of public funding for nearly 200 million primary and high school students was about RMB25.6 billion. For schools in rural areas, the situation is much more severe. Some of the key issues follow: What part of the education and training system should the government finance and how How can the private willingness to pay for education and training be tapped most effectively And how can equity be dealt with while relying more on private financing for education
2 Developing a System of Lifelong Learning for China and the New Role for Government Why focus on lifelong learning Education and training should be treated as a lifelong learning system to improve efficiency, performance, and equity (box 2.1). A comprehensive view will make clear the interrelationships necessary for the system to work well and to avoid duplication. It will force closer cooperation of different stakeholders. It will help to avoid wasteful duplication of courses. It will also help to identify problems that foreclose further advancement opportunities, such as for those caught up in dead-end lower vocational tracks with no opportunities to switch to higher education or specialization tracks. A lifelong learning system encompasses learning throughout the life cycle, from early childhood to retirement. It includes formal learning (schools, training institutions, universities), nonformal learning (on-the-job and household training), and informal learning (skills learned from family members or people in the community) (World Bank HDNED 2002). 1 • Formal education and training includes structured programs that are recognized by the formal education system and lead to approved certificates. • Nonformal education and training includes structured programs that are not formally recognized by the national system. Examples include apprenticeship training programs and structured on-the-job training. • Informal education and training includes unstructured learning, which can take place almost anywhere, including the home, community, or workplace. It includes unstructured on-the-job training, the most common form of workplace learning. The lifelong learning system is characterized by the following: • The comprehensiveness of its coverage, from early childhood to retirement • The need for new skills, not just traditional literacy and numeracy but also scientific and technology skills; foreign language skills; and problem-solving skills, creative thinking, communication skills, and the ability to work in a team and to learn on one’s own 1. See also EC (2000), which sets out a similar definition. 19
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Making China’s Lifelong Learning
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Annex 1 China’s Changing Populati
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The Bologna Process: Creating a “
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Instrument Description Main Variabl
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Annex 9 Competitive Grant Funding C
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Annex 12 Cisco Learning Institute:
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Annex 13 Tecnológico de Monterrey
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Tecnológico de Monterrey Virtual U
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Annex 14 CIBT School of Business an
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CIBT School of Business and Technol
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Annex 17 The Challenge of Massive I
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The Challenge of Massive Industrial
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References and Other Sources Adey,
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