emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, psychological well-being and ...

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(3), 2010 


ISSN 1946-6331 

© 2010 Ozean Publication 

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, SELF-EFFICACY, PSYCHOLOGICAL 

WELL-BEING AND STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES: IMPLICATIONS FOR QUALITY 

EDUCATION 

SAMUEL O. SALAMI, 

Department of Guidance and Counselling, 

Kampala International University, Kampala, Uganda 

E-mail address for correspondence: drsosalami2002@yahoo.co.uk 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

Abstract: This study examined how emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and psychological well-being contribute to 

students’ behaviours and attitudes. Two hundred and forty-two students from a college of education, in Kwara State, 

Nigeria responded to a set of questionnaires consisting of measures of emotional intelligence (EI), self-efficacy, 

psychological well-being (i.e. happiness, life satisfaction and depression) and students’ behaviours and attitudes 

Hierarchical regression analyses conducted for each dependent variable showed that emotional intelligence, selfefficacy, 

happiness and life satisfaction over and above depression predicted students’ behaviours and attitudes. 

This research indicates the need to emphasise positive psychology in improving the positive elements in students 

proactively rather than retroactively trying to solve problems that emerge in order to improve the quality of higher 

education. 

Keywords: Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, psychological well-being, students’ behaviours, attitudes. 

_____________________________________________________________________________________________ 

INTRODUCTION 

Students in higher educational institutions are viewed as leaders of tomorrow. They have academic success as their 

major goal. For this goal to be achieved, it requires dedication, sacrifices, self-discipline, motivation and cordial 

relationship between students and lecturers. Students at this level are saddled with a lot of responsibilities and 

challenges (Imonikebe, 2009) which may sometimes result in stress. They need good mental health to be able to 

succeed in their academic pursuit. As academic demands increase and new social relations are established, students 

become uncertain of their abilities to meet these demands (Dwyer & Cummings, 2001). Difficulties in handling the 

ensuing stressor often lead to decreased academic performance, increased psychological, distress, and negative 

attitudes toward learning Dwyer & Cummings, 2001; Salami, 2006). All these invariably pose challenges to the 

much sought quality in education. 

Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and psychological well-being (happiness, life satisfaction and depression) are 

important resources for enhancing students’ learning, success and quality in education. Emotional intelligence 

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(Adeyemo & Adeleye, 2008; Salami, 2004; Salami & Ogundokun, 2009; Tagliavia, Tipton, Giannetti & Mattei, 

2006; Wong, Wong & Chau, 2001), self-efficacy (Adeyemo & Adeleye, 2008; Faulkner & Reeves, 2009; Hagger, 

Chatzisarantis & Biddle, 2001; Salami 2004; Salami & Ogundokun, 2009; Schwarzer or Fuchs,2009;Yalcinalp 

;2005),and psychological well-being (Khramtsova, Sarrnio, Gordeeva, & Williams, 2007; Salami, 2008) have been 

shown to predict students’ attitudes and academic performance in higher educational institutions. Thus, the overall 

question of interest in this study was how changes in emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and psychological wellbeing 

(happiness, life satisfaction and depression) are related to students’ behaviours and attitudes. 

Little attention have been paid to how emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, psychological well-being (happiness, life 

satisfaction & depression) differentially predict various facets of students’ behaviours and attitudes. One way of 

filling the gap created in knowledge in this area is to examine the predictors of students’ behaviours and attitudes 

and their implications for enhancing quality in education. In this study, I examined the extent to which emotional 

intelligence, self-efficacy, and psychological well-being (happiness, life satisfaction & depression) jointly and 

separately contribute to the prediction of students’ behaviours and attitudes. 

In the academic life of students in tertiary institutions especially universities, colleges of education and polytechnics, 

students’ intrinsic motivation, self- discipline and attitudes toward their lecturers or professors are perhaps the three 

most important domains to consider in students’ behaviours and attitudes. Intrinsic motivation is the desire to study 

based on personal interest and satisfaction rather than for a grade. Self discipline is having self-control over ones 

behaviours and attitudes (e.g. studying, getting to class on time). Attitude towards lecturers and professors refers to 

thinking highly of lecturers’ professional level and showing them respects (Khramtsova, Saarnio, Gordeeva & 

Williams, 2007). 

Trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) refers to individual differences in the perception, processing, regulation and 

utilization of emotional information. It is a constellation of emotion-related self-perceived abilities and dispositions 

located at the lower levels of personality hierarchies (Petrides & Furnharm, 2001). Individuals with high trait EI 

scores believe that they are in touch with their emotions and can regulate them in a way that promotes well-being 

(Bar-On, 2005). These individuals should enjoy higher levels of happiness (Furnham and Petride, 2003). 

Emotional intelligence has been related to several factors such as life satisfaction, psychological well-being, 

occupational success and job performance, (Adeyemi & Adeleye, 2008; Bar-On, 1997 & 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 

1990). Emotional intelligence has also been found to be related to students’ academic achievement, behaviours and 

attitudes (Salami, 2004; Salami & Ogundokun, 2009; Tagliavia, Tipton, Giannetti & Mattei, 2006; Wong, Wong & 

Chau, 2001). However, few studies have related trait EI to students’ behaviours and attitudes. 

According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), emotional intelligence involves abilities that are categorized into five 

domains,self-awareness, managing emotions, motivating oneself, empathy, and handling relationship which have 

implications for students’ performance in tertiary institutions. It is likely that emotional intelligence will assist 

students having low happiness and low satisfaction and high depression in developing appropriate behaviours and 

attitudes in respect of their academic work. It is, therefore, expected that emotional intelligence will moderate the 

relationship of psychological well-being with students’ behaviours and attitudes. 

Self-efficacy refers to a person’s is belief in his/her ability to organise and execute a required course of action to 

achieve a desired result (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy has been found to be related to academic achievement, 

behaviours and attitudes (Faulkner & Reeves, 2009; Hagger, Chatzisarantis & Biddle, 2001; Yalcinalp, 2005; 

Schwarzer & Fuchs, 2009; Salami, 2004; Salami & Ogundokun, 2009). It is, expected that self-efficacy will be 

related to students’ behaviours and attitudes. However, there is scarcity of research that examined the self-efficacy 

of stressed students in relation to their attitudes. 

Self-efficacy determines an individual’s resiliency to adversity and his/her vulnerability to stress and depression 

(Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino & Pastorelli, 2003). General self-efficacy aims at a broad and stable sense 

of personal competence to deal effectively with a variety of stressful situations (Adeyemo, 2008; Schwarzer, 1994). 

Perhaps for an individual who has low happiness and life satisfaction and high depression, having high self-efficacy 

will help him/her in displaying appropriate behaviours and positive attitudes as regards his/her academic work. 

Therefore, it is expected that self-efficacy will moderate the relationship of psychological with students’ behaviours 

and attitudes. 

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Psychological well-being is defined as states that emerge from feeling of satisfaction with one’s close interpersonal 

relationships and with one’s occupation and financial situation (Bar-On, 2005). In this study, it is defined as a 

combination of happiness, life satisfaction and depression. Happiness is an emotional state whereas life satisfaction 

addresses a more global cognitive evaluation of one’s life (Compton, 2005; Khramtsova et al, 2007). Whereas 

happiness and life satisfaction are positive affects, depression is a negative affect. Both affects tell us the well-being 

of the individual. At present much more is known about negative effects of depression on student success than about 

the benefits of happiness and life satisfaction (Khramtsova et al, 2007). For example, depression is negatively 

related to students’ success, grade point average and less time spent on homework (Field, 2001). 

According Isen (2003), positive affect correlates positively with processes that contribute to college successcognition 

and motivation. Thus the objective of this study is to bring positive and negative characteristics into a 

context and find their differential influence on students’ behaviours and attitudes. It is expected that the positive 

characteristics (emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, happiness and life satisfaction) will account for variation in 

students’ behaviours and attitudes over and above negative characteristics of students (depression). 

Theoretical framework 

This study is based on positive psychology theory by Seligman and Csikszentmihaly (2008) which states that 

happiness promotes success across various arenas of human functioning. According to Erez and Isen (2002), 

inducing positive emotional states in people facilitates flexible, effective problem solving, decision making and 

evaluation of events. Therefore, positive emotions have a potentially adaptive and interactive nature and might 

moderate the relationship between stress or depression and college students’ behaviours and attitudes that lead to 

success. According to positive psychology, it is more important to focus on developing positive characteristics rather 

than on avoiding or diminishing negative ones such as depression after they have occurred. 

Statement of the problem 

Given the paucity of research that investigated the relationship of psychological well-being (happiness and life 

satisfaction), self-efficacy and emotional intelligence with students’ behaviours and attitudes, there is need to fill the 

gaps in knowledge by examining the mentioned predictors of students’ behaviors and attitudes. The study 

investigated the relationship of psychological well-being, self-efficacy and emotional intelligence with students’ 

behaviours and attitudes. This study also examined the moderating roles of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy 

in the relationship. 

Hypotheses 

It was hypothesised that depression (H1), happiness (H2), life satisfaction (H3), emotional intelligence (H4) and 

self-efficacy (H5) will predict students’ behaviours and attitudes. It was further hypothesised that emotional 

intelligence (H6) and self-efficacy (H7) will moderate the relationships of psychological well-being (happiness, life 

satisfaction and depression) with students’ behaviours and attitudes (Intrinsic motivation, self discipline and respect 

for lecturers). 

METHOD 

Research Design 

This study adopted a survey research design to obtain data from the participants in order to investigate the 

relationship between the dependent and the independent variables. 

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Participants 

The participants were 242 students (male =140 (57.85%), female = 102 (42.15%)) randomly selected from a college 

of education in Kwara State, Nigeria. The mean of age the sample was 27.30 years (S.D. = 6.35). 

Measures 

Trait Emotional Intelligence Scale by Law, Wong and Song (2004) known as Wong and Law EI Scale (WLEIS).The 

WLEIS is a 16-item scale consisting of 4 sections: Self emotions appraisal, others emotions appraisal, Use of 

emotions and regulations of emotions. It adopted a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree= 1, to 

strongly agree= 5. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the sections range from .72 to .89 for this study. 

Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES) developed by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995). The GSES is a 10-item 

scale that assessed self-efficacy based on personality disposition. It is measured on a 4-item Likert scale ranging 

from 1= Not at all true to 4= Exactly true. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of GSES range from 75 to 90 for this 

study. 

Life satisfaction: Life satisfaction was measured by means of life satisfaction scale by Khramtsova et al. (2007). It 

consists of 24 items that asked participants to rate their satisfaction with various aspects of their life (e.g. material 

well-being, family, having a purpose in life etc). On a 5-pointa Likert scale ranging from 0= not satisfied to 4= 

completely satisfied. The items formed a composite measure of life satisfaction with a Cronbach’s alpha of .92. For 

this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .90. 

Depression: Depressive symptoms were assessed with a 20-item Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale 

(CES-D; Radloff, 1977). The items of the CES-D scale asked about the ways the respondents have felt or behaved 

during the past week (e.g. I felt bothered by things that usually don’t bother me). CES-D adopted a four –point 

Likert-type scale that ranged between 0= None of the time to 3= All of the time. Higher scores indicate greater 

reported symptoms of depression. For this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .87. 

Happiness: The Lyubomirsky’s Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS, Lymbomirsky & Lepper, 1999) is a 4-item scale 

of global or enduring happiness. It measures global Oren during happiness using a seven-point scale ranging from 1 

= not at all to 7= a great deal. For this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.82. 

Student Behaviours and Attitudes: Student Behaviours and Attitudes Scale consist of 15 items that measure basic 

classroom behaviours and attitudes. It uses a seven-point scale that ranged from 1= absolutely disagree to 7= 

absolutely agree. The scale was based on Illiina’s Motivation for Learning Instrument published by Illiin (2000). 

Students were asked how much they agreed or disagreed with the statements about their attitudes toward classes and 

about common behaviours. The scale consists of three variables named intrinsic motivation (6 items) with factor 

loading ranging from .43 to .74; self-discipline (4 items), with factor loadings ranging from .65 to .74; and respect 

for college professors (2 items) with factor loading ranging from .81 to .82. For this study, the Cronbach’s alpha 

coefficient for the whole scale was 0.83. 

Procedure 

The participants were administered the questionnaires which consisted of the measures described above in their 

college. Informed consents of the students and the college authorities were obtained. Of the 300 questionnaires, 250 

were returned and 242 were properly filled and were used for data analysis. 

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Data Analysis 

Data collected were analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression analysis in order to establish the relationship of 

the independent variables (Happiness, life satisfaction, depression, self-efficacy and emotional intelligence) with the 

dependent variables (students’ behaviour and attitudes). 

RESULTS 

Correlation analyses 

Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for the variable studied and the bivariate correlations emotional between 

intelligence, self-efficacy, happiness, life satisfaction, depression and students’ behaviours and attitudes (intrinsic 

motivation, self-discipline and respect for lecturers). The correlations on Table 1 showed that emotional intelligence, 

depression, self-efficacy and life satisfaction significantly correlated with intrinsic motivation, self discipline and 

respect foe lecturers (correlations ranged from r= -.19 to r= .24, p< .05). Happiness significantly correlated with 

intrinsic motivation and respect for lecturers but not with self discipline. (See Table 1). 

Regression analyses 

A series of hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to examine the relative contributions of the predictor 

(independent) variables-emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, depression and life satisfaction to the prediction of 

students’ behaviours and attitudes- intrinsic motivation, self-discipline and respect for lecturers. Results are shown 

on Tables 2 and 3 in 3 models in accordance with the hypotheses. (See Table 2 and 3). It was hypothesised in H 1 that 

depression will predict students’ behaviours and attitudes. Results on Table 2 model1 showed that depression 

predicted intrinsic motivation (F (1,240) =9.70, R 2 =.23, Beta= -.12, p


affective variables influenced students’ achievement, behaviours and attitudes (Field, 2001; Khramtsova et al. 2007; 

Lyubomirsky, 2001; Salami, 2004; Wong, Wong & Chau, 2001). Students who had high self-efficacy, high 

emotional intelligence and who were happy were motivated to participate in relevant academic activities and 

developed positive attitudes that led to success in college. That psychological well-being (depression, happiness and 

life satisfaction) predicted students’ academic behaviours and attitudes- intrinsic motivation, self-discipline and 

respect for lecturers- support the findings of previous researchers who reported similar results (Berrollo, 2003; Field, 

2001; Fredrickson, 2002; Isen, 2003; Khramtsova et al. 2007; Lyubomirsky, 2001). Happy students with high 

satisfaction scores were found to be flexible and efficient in problem solving and were more committed to their 

academic goals and pursued success rather than focus on avoiding failure. They were more intrinsically motivated to 

learn, had more self control over studying and had more respect for and appreciation to their lecturers. Depressed 

students had been reported to have lower grade point averages and spent less time on their homework (Field, 2001). 

Depressed students usually are less intrinsically motivated to learn, they lacked self control over their studies and 

were not motivated to show respect for and appreciation to their lecturers. 

The hypothesis that emotional intelligence will predict students’ behaviours and attitudes (intrinsic motivation, self 

discipline and respect for lecturers) was supported by data from this study. Findings from this study reinforce prior 

evidence linking emotional intelligence with students’ behaviours and attitudes (Salami, 2004; Salami & 

Ogundokun, 2009; Tagliavia, Tripton, Giannetti & Mattei, 2006; Wong, Wong & Chau, 2001) by showing the 

salutary effects of emotional intelligence on students’ attitudes. Students who had high emotional intelligence i.e. 

could perceive and understand their own emotions and emotions of others and could manage their emotional 

behaviour performed well in their academic work and developed more positive attitude toward learning. That selfefficacy 

predicted students’ academic behaviours and attitudes corroborates the work of prior researchers who found 

that self-efficacy was a predictor of students’ academic achievement, behaviour, study habits and attitude toward 

learning (Faulkner & Reeves, 2009; Hagger, Chatzisarantis & Biddle, 2001; Yalcinalp, 2005, Schwarzer & Fuchs, 

2009; Salami, 2004; Salami & Ogundokun, 2009). Students with high self-efficacy were likely to interpret academic 

problems as opportunities to succeed and were thus eager to gain the skills necessary to go on to the next level to 

solve any academic problem that might come their way. Such students were likely to perform well in their academic 

work and to develop more positive attitude toward learning. 

The hypotheses that emotional intelligence and self-efficacy will moderate the relationship between psychological 

well-being (depression) and students’ behaviours and attitudes were confirmed by the data from this study. These 

results can be explained on the basis that students who were stressed or depressed as a result of inability to meet 

academic demands but had high self-efficacy and high emotional intelligence, showed intrinsic motivation, selfdiscipline 

and appreciated their lecturers’ skills and efforts. Therefore, they developed an appropriate attitude toward 

learning and participated in activities that could bring academic success. 

Implications of the findings 

Results from this study have implications for counselling practice and assessment. That emotional intelligence and 

self-efficacy predicted students’ behaviours and attitudes- intrinsic motivation, self-discipline and respect for 

lecturers demands that counselling psychologists and lecturers should focus on teaching emotional intelligence as a 

strategy to develop academic behaviours and attitudes of students in tertiary educational institutions. When students 

are educated to be emotionally and socially intelligent, their general performance can be improved. 

Based on the findings from this study, it is feasible to enhance appropriate behaviours and attitudes of students, in 

short, quality in education, by encouraging them (i) to be aware of their emotions (ii) manage their emotions (iii) use 

emotions to motivate themselves (iv) develop interest (v) recognize the emotions of other people (vi) manage 

relationship (vii) set and achieve personal goals and develop their potentials (viii) to be realistically positive and 

optimistic. To achieve these objectives, counsellors and lecturers with the cooperation of college managements and 

parents, should design appropriate intervention strategies to enhance the above mentioned emotional intelligence 

and self-efficacy factors related to students’ behaviours and attitudes. Research is needed in this area to examine 

what can achieve the best and most lasting effects for increasing emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and students’ 

behaviours and attitudes. 

Because psychological well-being is a strong predictor of students’ behaviours and attitudes it demands that school 

psychologists and counsellors should design intervention programmes to foster psychological well-being of students 

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and use them to enhance students’ behaviours and attitudes thereby improving quality of education. In conclusion, 

the study has shown that emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, happiness and life satisfaction predict students’ 

behaviours and attitudes beyond depression. Also emotional intelligence and self-efficacy moderated the 

relationship between depression and students’ behaviours and attitudes. 

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Table 1: Intercorrelations between Emotional Intelligence, self-efficacy, Psychological well-being and Academic 

behaviours and Attitudes. 

Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

1 EI 1.00 

2 GSES .08 1.00 

3 LS .18 .19* 1.00 

4 CES-D -.21* -.19* -.20* 1.00 

5 Happiness .32* .28* -.42* -.40* 1.00 

6 Intrinsic 

Motivation 

7 Self 

Discipline 

8 

Respect for 

lecturers 

.20* .21* .20* -.22* .30* 1.00 

.24* .22* .19* -.19* .12 .38* 1.00 

.23* .20* .21* -.23* .22* .34* .23* 1.00 

Mean 65.22 28.72 85.70 9.76 24.73 38.40 21.45 8.76 

S.D 6.30 5.63 3.64 4.56 5.34 3.70 3.80 4.20 

Note: N=242, EI= Emotional Intelligence scale, GSES= Generalised Self-Efficacy Scale, LS=Life Satisfaction, 

CES-D= Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale. 

*P


Table 2: Regressing Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, Life Satisfaction, happiness and depression on intrinsic 

motivation and self-discipline 

Independent 

variables 

Model 1 

Beta (t) 

Intrinsic motivation 

Model2 

Beta (t) 

Dependent variables 

Model 3 

Beta (t) 

Model 1 

Beta (t) 

Self-discipline 

Model2 

Beta (t) 

Model 3 

Beta (t) 

CES-D -.12 (2.40)* -.11 (1.98)* -.12 (2.00)* -.15 (2.34)* -.14 (2.23)* -.13 (1.97)* 

Happiness . 21 (3.60)* .19 (2.10)* .08 (1.00) .08 (.09) 

LS .28 (4.00)* .25 (4.25)* .13 (1.96)* .12 (1.96)* 

EI .16 (3.60)* .15 (3.22)* .17 (2.00)* .16 (2.00)* 

GSES .14 (2.74)* .17 (3.70)* .18 (2.43)* .17 (2.30)* 

CES-D X EI .24 (4.82)* .19 (3.22)* 

CES-D X 

GSES 

Happiness x 

EI 

Happiness x 

GSES 

.22 (3.76)* .18 (3.43)* 

.05 (.08) .07 (1.00) 

.10 (.09) .03 (.05) 

LS X EI .07 (.05) .05 (.05) 

LS X GSES .04 (.06) .05 (.07) 

F 9.70* 10.65* 8.76* 7.60* 9.54* 7.30* 

Df 1/240 5/236 11/230 1/240 5/236 11/230 

R 2 /Adjusted .23/.24 .35/.34 .42/.40 .20/.18 .28/.27 .33/.30 

R 2 

R 2 change - .12 .07 - .08 .05 

Note: CES-D = Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, LS= Life Satisfaction, EI= Emotional 

Intelligence, GSES= Generalised Self-Efficacy Scale. 

*P< .05 (2-tailed test). 

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Table 3: Regressing Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, life satisfaction, happiness and depression on Respect for 

lecturers 

Independent variables 

Model 1 

Beta(t) 

Dependent variables 

Respect for lecturers 

Model 2 

Beta (t) 

Model 3 

Beta (t) 

CES-D -.07(.50) -.08(.67) -.07(.60) 

Happiness .17(1.96)* .18(1.98)* 

LS .16(1.98)* .16(1.96)* 

EI .14(2.10)* .13(1.98)* 

GSES .15(2.03)* .17(2.36)* 

CES-D X EI .15(2.20) 

CES-D X GSES .19(3.72*) 

Happiness X EI .08(1.54) 

Happiness X GSES .05(1.22) 

LS X EI .12(1.70) 

LS X GSES .09(1.34) 

F 1.70 8.84* 9.76* 

df 1/240 5/236 11/230 

R 2 /Adjusted R 2 .21/.20 .28/.26 .32/.30 

R 2 change - .07 .04 

Note: CES-D= Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, LS= Life Satisfaction, EI= Emotional 

Intelligence, GSES= Generalised Self-Efficacy Scale. 

*P< .05 (2- tailed) 

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emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, psychological well-being and ...

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