Prospects for Coal Briquettes as a Substitute Fuel for Wood and ...

3 4456 000Ltb4’7 5
77
b

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ORNL/T&977 0
IN U. S.
PROSPECTS FOR COAL BRIQUETTES AS A
SUBSTITUTE FUEL FOR WOOD AND CHARCOK
AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
ASS IS TED COUNTRIES
R. D. Per1 ack
G. G. Stevenson
R. B. She1 ton
Energy Division
Oak Ridge Nati mal Laboratory
Date of issue - February 1986
Prepared for the
Office @If Energy
Bureau of Science and Technology
U. S. Agency for International Devel opment
under Contract No. E6T-57 26-P- ER-4257 -01
Interagency Agrement No. 40-1485-84
as part of the Energy Pol icy Development and
Canservati on Project
Prepared by the
Oak Ridge Nati mal Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831
operated by
Marti n Mar? etta Energy Systems, Inc.
for the
U. S. DEPARTMINT OF ENERGY
under Contract No. DE-AC05-84OR21400
3 4456 0004b47 5

TPBLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TPB LES ..................................................
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................
ABSTRACT ........................................................
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...............................................
I. INTRODUCTION ...............................................
11. FUELWOOD DEFICIENCIES AND COAL AVAILABILITY IN A. I. D.
ASSISTED COUNTRIES .........................................
111. SMOKELESS COPL BRIQUETTES AS A POSSIBLE SUBSTITUTE FOR
FUELWOOD................ ....................................
IV. INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES W IW CDPC BRIQUETTING :
INDIA AND KOREA.............................................
V. THE POTENTIAL FOR COAL BRIQUETTE SUBSTITUTION
IN A. I.D. ASSISTED COUNTRIES., ..............................
V
vii
ix
xi
1
6
13
16
21
VI. STRATEGIES FOR REALIZING M E POTENTI& FOR COPL
BRIQUETTING IN A. I.D. ASSISTED COUNTRIES... .................
APPENDIX A: COAL BRIQUETTING AND CARBONIZATION PROCESSES,. ......
APPENDIX B: POTENTIAL HEKM EFFECTS OF BURNING RPW COAL. .......
24
A-1
B-1
APPENDIX C:
REVIRJ OF COR. BRIQUEITTING POTENTIAL
IN A. I.D. ASSISTED COLJNTRIES. .......................
c-1
REFERENCES.......................................................
Rl
iii

LIST OF TPBLES
Tabl e 1. FA0 qualitative fuelwood deficiencies in A. 1.0.
assisted countries ............................... 8
Tabl e 2. Coal avail abil ity in A. 1:. D. assisted countrfes
with fuelwood deficiencies e ....... ................ 11
Table 3. Cooking fuel costs in Peru .............. ............. 17
Table 4.
Tabl e C. 1.
Table C.2.
Table 6.3.
Table C.4,
Tabl e 6.5.
Table C.6.
Table C.7.
Table 6.8.
Potentf a1 of A. I. 0. assi sted count r I es for
coal briquetting ...................................
Fuel wood energy bal ance for Botswana (1961) . . . . . . . . .
Fuel wood energy bl ance for Morocco (19Bl.l ...... .....
Fuel wood energy bal ance for Niger (19811 ... ...*... .
Fuel wood energy bal ance for Tanzania (1981) .. .....
Fuel wood energy bal ancf for Zambia (1981) ... ..... .
Fuel wood energy bal ance for Zimbabwe (1981) ... .....
Fuelwood energy balance for Haiti (19791 ...........*
Fuelwood energy balance for the Sierra of
Peru (1981) .......................................
23
C-2
c-3
@-4
C-6
c-7
C-9
C-13
C-15
V

LIST OF 'IG
URES
Fig. 1. Percentage of traditional fuels in total energy
consunption .............................................. 2
Fig. 2.
Total rural and urban populations affected by acute
fuelwood scarcities and fuelwood deficits in
1980 and 2000 ............................................ 7
vi i

AB STR ACT
Fuel wood shortages and potonti a1 shortages are widespread
throughout the devel oping world, and are becoming increasingly more
prwal ent because of the cl easi ng of 1 and for subsi stence and pl antati on
agriculture, excessive and ineffici snt commerci a1 timber harvesting for
domestic and export construction, and charcoal production to meet risi ng
urban demands. It is estimated that three billion people w i l l live in
acute wood scarcity and wood deficit regions by the year 20QQ. Further,
the env iromental and socioeconomic consequences of the resulting
deforestatdon are both pervasive and complex. There are three energy
policy options for mitigating the onslaught of deforestatjon and the
1 nev itabl e and perni ci ous effects of fuel wood scarcities --
conservation, reforestation, and substitution. This report focuses on
the substitution of coal briquettes for fuelwood. Coal briquetting is a
process by which raw coal is compacted into uniform, usually hardr and
impact res4 stant aggl omerations. A1 though substantial adverse heal th
effects could be expected from burning non-anthracite coal or coal
briquettes, a we1 1-devel oped technique, carbonization, exists to convert
coal to a safer form for combustion. The costs associated with
brfquetting and carbonizing coal indicate that 8fsmokel esstV coal
briquettes can be produced at costs competitive with fuel wood and
charcoal. Coal briquetting and carbonization have bean practiced
extensively in India, and this experience is instructjve because of the
wlde range of technologies and coal types uti1 ized. The U. S. Agency for
International Development (USAID) is working on imp1 emanling this energy
option in Haiti and Pakistan by (1) evaluating resources, (2) assessing
markets, (3) analyzing techno7 ogi esr (4) studying government pol icy and
plannings and (5) packaging the idea for the private sector to
implement. A prel iminary exarninatjcn of other USAID assisted countries
Indicates that an additional fifteeii countries have the necessary coal
reserves to become candidates for sonikel ess coal briq uetti ng.
ix

I.
INTRODUCTION
WE U.S. KiENCY FOR INTERNATION D ~ V ~ O ~ ~ ~ N ~
WORKING ON A PRCBLEM TI-%A"- IS CRITICAL IN D
DEV El OPING GO NTRIES. TF.IAT PROBLEM IS F11ELWOOD SHORTPGES.
IMPLEMENTATION OF OWE PQTENTIAL SauTrm IS OCCURRING IN
HAITI AND PAKISTAN--SMOKEL ESS COAL BHIQLIETTES.
EA. I. D. 1
TRADITIONAL ENERGY SOURCES ,@E A SIGNIFICANT FRACTION OF
ND IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. THESE TRADITIONAL
SOURCES, ESPECIALLY FIREWOCO AND CHARCOEV., WAVE BECOME
INCREASINGLY SCARCE BECAUSE OF THE CLEARING OF LAND FOR
ffi RI GULTU REI WAhiCQpL PRODUCT ION D EXCESSIVE TIlirE1ER
WARV ESTING.
IS
WERE ARE MREE PQLICY OPTIONS FOR MITIGATING ME FUELWOOD
CRISIS CONSERVATIQN> REFORESTATIONI AND SUBSTITUTING COAL
BRIQUETTES. THIS PROSPECTUS ADDRESSES THE LAST OF THESE
OPTIONS -- USE OF SWKELESS COPL BRIQUETTES.
RESWRCE AND MARKET NDITIONS ARE EXCELLENT IN SOME
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES FOR THE SUBSTITUTION OF COAL
BRIQUETTES FOR F ~ ~ 7H€ ~ POTENTIAL ~ O ~ FOR * SUBSTITUTION IS
GREATEST IN UWW AREAS, WHEkE FUR CHOICE IS LAFGELY BASED
ON RELATIVE FUEL PRICE.
COAL BRIQUETTING PROVIDES AN EXCELLENT OPPORTUNITY FOR THE
PRIVATE SECTOR TQ CONTRIBUTE TO SOLVING A DEVELOPING WORLD
PRCBLEM. ST ASPECTS OF RESGLlRCE SUPPLY
PRQ5UCTION CAN BE HANDLED BY PRIVATE ENTREPRENEURS.
11.
F U DEFICIENCIES ~ ~ AND COPL ~ WAIL ~ ILITY ~ IN A. I. 13.
AS S IS
TED COU NTRIE S
IF NO CORRECTIVE ACTIONS A9E TAKEN, AN ESTIMATED THREE
BILLION PEOPLE WILL LIVE IN PCXlTE WOOD SCARCITY AND DEFICIT
REGIONS BY THE YEAR 2000, PL ST ALL A. 1.5. SUPFQRTED
COUNTRIES PRE EXPERIENCIMGI OR WILL EXPERIENCE, ACUTE OR
DEFICiT FLSECWOQD SITUATIONS.
LBUNTRIES REPORT
TELY 50 Q E V ~ ~ ~ ~ G
GE
COAL RESQURCES. ENTY A.~,D. COUNTRIES REPORT COAL
RESERVES. WERE ARE 1-8 A.I.D. COUNTRIES THAT ESPECIALLY
APPEAR TO BE CAND ATES FOR I ~ T ~ ~ Q COPS, U C I BRIQUETTES ~ ~ --
EIGHT IN AFRICA, S EN IN ASIA, AND TWO IN LATIN AMERICA.
Xi

111"
KELESS COAL BRIQUETTES AS A POSSIBLE SUBSTITUTE FOR
FUELWOOD
SQME CON BRIQUETTING TECHNIQUES MAKE COAL AN ATTRACTIVE
FUELWOOD SUBSTITUTE BY CONVERTING IT INTO A SMOKELESS,
COMPACT, STABLE, AND INEXPENSIVE FORM OF FUEL.
COK BRIUUETTING HAS BEE3 SH N WORLD-WIDE TO BE A
TECHNOLOGY CAPABLE OF USING COAL OF VARIOUS GRADES AND
PRODUCING BRIQUETTES WITH DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS FOR
DIFFERENT USES.
OR UNTREATED BRIQUETTED COAL PRODUCES EMISSIONS
THAT CAN HAVE SERIOUS HEPLTH EFFECTS.
HWEVER, CON CARBONIZATION SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCES THE
ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECTS FROM BURNING COAL OR COAL
BRIQUETTES. THE RESULT OF CAFa88NIZATION IS A "SOFT
SMOKELESS COKE. WHILE TESTING IS CURRENTLY IN PRGRESS,
EMISSIONS FROM SMOKELESS COAL ARE PREDICTED TO BE NO WORSE
MCVJ 'THOSE EMANATING FRON THE CURRENT FUELS OF CI-lARCOK AND
F I REW OOD.
IV .
THE COSTS ASSQCIATED WITH BRIQUETTING AND CARBONIZING CON
INDICATE A SELLING PRICE FOR SMOKELESS COAL BRIQUETTES IN
SOME UWAN AREAS THAT MAKE THEN COMPETITIVE WITH FUELWOOD
AND WARCONL.
INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES WITH COAL BRIQUETTING:
KOREA
INDIA AND
COAL CARBONIZATION HAS BEEN PRACTICED EXTENSIVELY IN INDIA.
THE INDIAN EXPERIENCE IS INSTRUCTIVE BECAUSE A WIDE RANGE
OF TECHNOLOGIES AND CO TYPES HAS BEEN UTILIZED. INDIA
HAS DEWSITS OF BITUMINOUS# SUBBITUMINCUSt AND LIGNITE
COALSa AND ALL HAVE BEEN USED FOR CARBONIZATION.
TECHNOLOGIES RANGE FROM ONE-PERSON, "VILLAGE COPe PILES" TO
ADV AFlCED TECHNOL CGY CARBONIZATION hz. ANTS.
INDIA HAS DEVELOPED A SMOKELESS COOKING STOVE WHICH CAN USE
COAL AS A FUEL SOURCE WITH NO SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE
HEKM EFFECTS.
KOREANS HAVE USED R ANPH RACITE COAL BRIQUETTES
EXTENSIVELY FOR COOKING AND HEATING. THE KOREANS STARTED
CQPL BKIQUETTING IN 1930s AND THERE ARE NW APPROXIMATUY
20 LARGE BRIQUETTING RANTS IN ME CQUNTRY.
xi i

V. TBE KITENTI& FOR COAL BRIQUETTE SUBSTITUTION IN A. I. D.
ASSISTED COUNTRIES
. SIGNIFICANT OPPORTUNITIES EXIST TO MITIGATE THE FUELWOOD
CRISlS AROUND THE WORLD. A PRELIMINARY E ~ ~ I OF N THE A ~ ~ ~ ~
SEVENTEEN A. I. D. COUNTRIES XIENTIFIED AS HAVING BOTH COPL
RESERVES AND A FUELWOOD SHOR’f&E INDICATES THAT FOUR APPEAR
TO HAVE AN IMMEDIATE POTENTIAL: BOTSWANA, HAITI8 INDIA,
AND PAKISTAN. ANOTHER EIGHT COUNTRIES APPEAR TO HAVE A
NEAR-TERM (3 TO 5 YEARS) POTENTIAL: INDONESIA, MOROCCO,
NIGER$ PERU3 PHILIPPINES, TWANIA, THAILAND, SWAZILAND,
ZAIRE8 ZAM3IAp AND ZIM3ABWE.
VI.
STRATEGIES FOR REALIZING M E POTENTIAL FOR COFL BRIQUETTING
IN A. I. D. ASSISTED COUNTRIES
. IblPLEMENTING SMOKELESS COAL BRIQUETVING IN A. I. D ASSISTED
COUNTRIES WILL BE BASED ON EXPERIENCES GAINED BY A. I.D. IN
HAITI AN5 PAKISTAN.
. FIVE STEPS ARE NECESSARY TO SUCCESSFULLY IMPLEMENT
SMOKELESS COAL BRIQUETTING AND MARKETING IN A. 1.0.
OOUNTRIES. THESE INCLUDE A RESOURCE EVALUATION, A MARKET
ASSESSMENT, A TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT, A STUDY OF GOVERNMENT
POLICY AND PLANNING# AND PACKAGXNG THE IDEA FOR THE PRIVATE
SECTOR TO IMFLEMENT.
. USAID/WASHINGTON, OFFICE OF ENERGY8 WILL PROVIDE TECHNICAL
ASSISTANCE TO MISSIONS IN IMPLEMENTING THE SMOKELESS COAL
BRIQUETTE TECHNCLOGY.
xiii

I.
A. A.I.D. IS ~~R~~~~ ON A F5RCBLEF MAT IS ITICAL IN DOZENS OF
5EVEbOPING COUNTRIES. THAT PRCX3.LEW I FU ELWOOD SHQRTPC; ES.
~ ~ E ~ N OF ~ A ONE ~ POTE I O TIAL ~ samm IS OCCURRING EN
HAITI AND ~A~ISTAN--S~~~~
ESS IXAL BRIQUETTES,
Fuelwood shortages and potenti al shortages are pervasqve ~ ~ r the ~ ~ g
developing world, as the following sections document. One proposed
solutfon is the substitution of a mokeless, coal-based cookTng fuel
where coal resources are available. The idea is even movlng towards
realization ln two developing countriesa Hait! and Pakistan. Phls
prospectus descri bes the probl m oi' fuel wood shortage, the mokel css
coal a1 ternative, and A. I. D. s active ro't e in bringing the alternative
solution to fruition.
B. TRA51TIONAL ENERGY S FXES AliE A SIGNIFICA T FRACTION OF
ENERGY DEMAND I DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. IHESE TRaDITIONPk
SOURESr ESPECI LY FIRBJOOD AND CHARCOALI HAVE BECOME
INCREASINGLY SCARE BECAUSE OF THE CLEARING OF L
FGRIQXILTURE, CHARCB PRODUCTIONI AN5 EXCESSIVE
H MV ESTING n
The traditional energy sources, firewood, charcoal $ animal dungt and
agricultural residues account for nearly all of the rural household
energy demand, and a significant portion of the energy demand among the
urban poor, In Africa, it has been estimated that traditional faiels
account for about 65 percent of total per capita energy consumption; in
Asia they account for nearly 30 percent; and in Latin America
tradi tl anal energy cmpri ses appraxi matel y 25 percent of total per
caplta energy cons~~~pti~n (see Figure l.l~~I.41 In many of these
countri 8s the percentage of traditional energy cansumpti on is expe&ed
to increase concomitantly with expanding popul atlonsr particularly in
urban areas. As stated In the A. 1.B Pol icy Paper on Energyp Wssurlng
uate domestic energy suppl ies far cooking presents a signiffcant
chal i enge in the years aheado 99 E221
1

2
64
29.7
25.4
8.1
Africu
Latin ,Am
Asia
1.3
*-
Developed World
Fig. 1. Percentage of traditional fuels in
total energy consumption

3
The priincipal causes of deforestatdon in developing countrjes usual 7y
can be attributed to three factors: (1) the clearing of land for
subsistence and pl antatian agriculture; (2) the production of charcoal
to meet rapidly rising demands by urban populations; and (3) excesslve
and inefficient commerci a1 timber harvssti ng for domestic and export
construction and manufacturing IndJstries. The demand for fisewoood by
rural populations is generally not the maJw cause of deforestation.
Rural firewood demand is often characterized by the cuttfng of branches
from live trees, shrubsr and bushesI and gathering of seed wood and does
not always require the destruction of whole trees. In HaitSr for
exampl er studies indicate that househol d caoki ng is done most often with
scavenged deadwood, On the other hand, mal 1 industri a1 and cmmerci al
fuelwood consumer^ in Haiti do cut 1 ive trees.
C, THE ENVIRONMENTAL PND S0CIOEC:ONQMIC IMPACTS OF DEFORESTATION
ARE BOTH PERVASIVE MD CQIU(PLEY.
The rate of deforestation has been esttmated at about 7.3 rnilll’an
hectares per year for tropical forasts and about 4 mill ion hectares per
year in semi-arid regions.C81 New wood suppl ies frm reforestation
programs have had 1 ittle real impact to date. The Food and Agriculture
Organization (FA01 estimates that for every ten hectares of cl eared
forest there is only one hectar.9 reg1 anted, C 63 The environmental
impacts of land clearance are cumulative and usually begin with reduced
i nf il trati on ratesl increased w ater runof fl and i ncreased soi 1
temperatures. Water and w ind erosion quickly sets In motion an al most
Irreversible process of soil degradation. In West Africap soil loss
from cultivated fields is as much as 6300 times greater than that for
forest land; in Senegal8 soil loss from grounanut cultivation is nearly
750 times greater than that for dry forest.LJ.51 Deforestation also
reduces up1 and water storage and Intensifies sll tati on of reservoi rs and
rivers resultfng in higher fncidences of seasonal flooding, whr”ch leads
to additional soil erosion. Mareoverl the removal af bush vegetation in
arid and semi-arid regions contributes to the onslaught of
deserti f icati on. In some areas8 particul arl y the Indi an subcontl nent,
the rural population has turned to the burning of‘ dung and agricultural
residues, The use of these fuels deprives the land of crucially needed
nutrients and soil condittoners. The end result is a dramatic decline
in agricul tural product-ivity--the backbone of a1 1 devel oping countries.
Reduced agrdcul tural productivity sets i n motion a cycl e of unempl oyment
and underemployment that serves only to accelerate the mlgrall’an of
rural populations to overly crwdad urban centers. The scarclty of
fuel wood al so means that wood gatherersr primarily wmen and chS1 dt-en,
must now spend consdderably more time in search of feaelwaod, For
exampl el in up3 and areas of Nepal househol ds are spendfng fr
workdays per year on firewood col‘~lec-tian, and up to 300 workdays pes
year l”n some parts of Tanzania hay& been abserved.Cl 1 The scarcity of
wood hasr in most urban areass resulted in the creation of markets for
fuelwood. These markets have placed a heavy burden on the cash
resources of the rural and poor urban populations. In the capital of

4
Burundi, househol ds are spending as much as 30 percent of thei r income
for fuel. As prices rise for woad and charcoal8 populations begin to
cut back on thei r consumption, and in some cases are reduced to cooking
only once per day. In acute scarclty regions.. fuelwood disappears
altogether frm the urban markets.CZ1 The fuelwood crisis can become so
severe that In sme African towns the cost of fuelwood exceeds the costs
of commercial fuels such a5 kerosene and el ectricity.
D. WERE ME THREE POLICY OPPIQNS FOR MITIGATING WE FUELWOOD
CRISIS : CONSERVATION, REFORESTATION, AND SUBSTITUTING COAL
BRIQUETTES. THIS FWSPECTUS ADDRESSES THE LAST OF THESE
OPTIONS -- USE OF SMOKELESS COAL BRIQUETTES.
There are three energy policy options that have been advanced for
mitigating the onslaught of deforestation and the inevitable and
perni ci ous effects of fuel wood scarci ti es, a1 1 of which are consi stent
with A.I.D.1s Policy Paper on Energy. They include: (1) conservation
through improvements in fuel wood end-use efficiencies, speci f ical ly the
di ffusi on of fuel -ef f ici ent cooki ng stoves and reducti on i n conversi on
1 asses i n charcoal production w ith use of earthen, transpartabl e metal
and masonry kilns; (21 increasing the supply of fuelwood through
refsrestati an, agroforestry, and improved forest management; and (3)
sukstituti ng other sources of energy for fuel wood. This prospectus
concentrates on opt1 on (3).
E. RESWRCE AND MARKET CONDITIONS ARE EXCELLENT IN SOME
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES FOR THE SUBSTITUTION OF COAL BRIQUETTES
FOR FURWOOD. ME POTENTIAL FOR SUBSTITUTION IS GREATEST IN
AN AREAS# WHERE FUEL CHOICE IS LARGELY BASED ON RELATIVE
FUEL PRICE.
As the real costs of using fuelwood increaset the substitution of other
fuels for firmcmd and charcoal w i l l become more favorable. Because of
fuelwood scarcities, the costs af traditianal fuels are, in some
1 acati oris, higher than cornmerci a1 substitutes. C13 In other 1 ocationsr
such as Peru and Indonesia, cornmerci a1 substitutes 1 ike kerosene are
heavily subsidized to help the poor or -to reduce deforestation.Cl8, 191
Yet, despite higher fuelwood prices substitution often does not take
p? ace untll fuelwood suppl ies have been virtually depleted for as much
as 100 kilometers or more surrounding urban areas.Cl1 In rural areas,
high di stri buti an costs do not favor cornmerci a1 fuel substitutes, and
besides the psopls in these areas often 1 ive outside the commercial
ectan~my which makes the penetratlon of cmmerci a1 substitutes less
1 ikely. Stil’s8 cmrnerci a1 substitutes do have potenti a1 where the costs
ood and charcoal have risen suffjciently8 particularly in
concentrated urban markets.

5
F. COAL BRIQUETTING PROVIDES Ah1 EXCELLENT OPPORTUNITY FOR THE
PRIVATE SECTOR TO ONTRIBUTE TO SOLVING A DEVELOPING WON0
PRB L EM. M3ST ASPECTS OF RESOURCE SUPPLY AND PRODUCT
PRODUCTION CAN BE HANDLED BY PRIVATE ENTREPRENEURS.
On the supply side, virtually all aspects of coal briquetting
manufacture and distribution can be controlled by the prfvate sector.
Under agreement with the government, which most often has ownership
rights to coal in developing countries, private enterprises can mIne the
needed coal. Whether this means expandi ng exi sti ng mini ng operati ons or
establ ishing new ones, significant new employment is possible. Private
manufacturers can briquette and carbonize the coal--especi a1 ly if an
intermediate level of technology wlth reasonable capital costs is used.
In some countries, the needed machfnery can be manufactured locally, as
is the case in India. Finally, the distribution network can easily
consist of private deal ers. Indeed, in many countries where fuel wood or
charcoal is traded as a commercial item in urban areas., the potential
private distributors already exist in the form of wood and charcoal
deal ers.
The substitution of coal briquettes for fuelwood, including the reasons
for it, a nontechnical dfscusslon of the technologies involved, and some
possible market strategiesr is the focus of the remainder of thls
Prospectus.

A. IF NO CORRECTIVE ACTIONS ARE TAKEN, AN ESTIMATED THREE
BILLION PEOPLE WILL LIVE IN ACUTE WOOD SCA CITY AND DEFICIT
REGIONS BY ‘THE YEAR 2000. AL ST ALL A.I.D. SUPFSORTED
COUNTRIES ARE EXPERIENCINGI OR WILL EXPERIENCE, ACUTE OR
REFICIT FUELWOOD SITU ATIQNS.
The traditional energy crisis in developing countries is in part a
consequence of utilizs’ng wood resources over many years at a rate much
faster than they can be renewed naturally or by afforestation. In
accordance with a recommendation by a United Nations Technical Panel on
Fuelwoo& the FAO identified regions wdth fualw od shortagesP the
severity of the shortages in these regions, and the affected population
involved. The FAQ concluded that some 96 mil 1 ion rural people and 16
million urban people now live in acute wood scarclty situations (see
Figure 2) .C111 These acxk wood scarcity regions are defined as
negative woad energy bal ance areas where existing resources have been
depl etecl through overeutti ng to the poi nt where popul ations cannot
obtal n suf f Ici ent fuel wood.
Acute fuelwsod scarcity areas include the arid and semi-arid regions
south of the Saharal East and Southeast Africa, the Himalayas and
mountainous regions of South Asia, the Andean Plateau, the arid areas in
western South Americap and in many of the densely populated urban areas
in Latln America. Furtherp the FA0 estimates that over one billion
rural people and 230 mlllian urban people 1 ive in wood deficit
situations (see Figure 2). Wood deficit areas are defined as regions
where populations are still able to meet minimu fuel wood needs, but
only by harvesting in excess of the sustadn le fuelwood supply.
Deficit areas include the Af rican savannah regions, the Indo-Gangetic
Plains in southern Asiar the plains and islands in Southeast Asia, and
the populated semi-arid areas and Andean zones of South herfca. The
FA0 study goes on to project that -if no Immediate correctlve actlons are
taken3 then sane three billion people w i l l live in acute wood scarcity
and deficit regions by the year 2000. Mor err the prices of firewood
and charcoal w i l l continue to increase h the scarcity and only
exacerbate an a1 ready i ntol erabl e situation.
Current fuel wood d@f ici enci OS in A. I. D. assi sted countries are
summarized in Table h. This tabulation shows that nearly all of the
A. I. D. supported countries are now experiencing acute or deficit
fuelwood scarcities or w i l l have fuelwood problems by the year 2000.
The pervasiveness and severity of the probl underscores the urgency
w1t.h which it should be handled.
6

7
R u ra I
pop u I uti o n s
Year
t;
d.
c
198E
R 200c
-
Africa
Ma/Pacific
Near East/No. Africa Latin Ametica
Source: FAC
Urban populations
"T Year
El 1980
I I
237
2000
Africa
ksia/Pacific
Near East/No. Africa Latin Amerlca
I
Source: FA0
fuelwood scarcities and fuelwoad deficits in
1980 an3 2000

8
Table 1.
FAQ qualitative fuelwood deficiencies in A.1.D
assisted countrl es
Go u n t ry
AFRICA
ana (Nestern)
Burundi
Cameroon (Northern 8 Western)
Cape Yerde
Chad (North)
(Southern 8 Central 1
Dj i bouti
Gambia
Ghana
Gui nea (Northern)
(Southern)
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya (Northern)
(Coastal 8 Central)
Lesotho
Libes-ia
Ma daga scar
Mal aw i
Mal i ( Northern)
(Southern)
Mauri tan1 a
Niger (Southwest)
(Southern 8 Eastern)
(Northern)
Senegal (Central West a River Plain)
Sierra Leone
Smal ia
Sudan (Northern)
(Central 1
Sw az il and
Tanzani a (Northern)
(Southern)
Togs North ern 1
(Southern)
Uganda
Upper Vol ta (Central 1
Zai re (Northern)
(Southern)
Zarnbi a (Eastern)
Z irnbabwe
(Eastern & Western)
NORTH AFRICA 8 NEAR EAST
Pt
Jordan
L @Sa non
Marocco
Deficiency
Acute
Acute
Def ici t
Sat1 sf actory
Acute
Prospective
Acute
Deficit
Prospective
Deficit
Prospect i v e
Satisfactory
Acute
Deficit
Ac ut e
Sa ti sf act ory
Deficit
Def ici t
Acute
Prospective
Acute
Def i ci 2:
Prospectdve
Acute
Ac ut e
Deficit
Prospective
Acute
Acute
Prospect i ve
Acute
Def ici t
P r os pect i v e
Prospect i v e
Deficit
Befici t
Def .ici t
Prospective
Prospective
Def Ici t
Deficit
Prospective
Deflci "t
Def -I ci t
Def Ici t
Deficit

9
Table 1. (Continued)
Oman
Tuni si a
Yemen
LATIN AMERICA
Barbados
Bel ize
Bo1 ivia (Western)
Costa Rica
Dominican Republ i c
Ecuador (Central 1
El Salvador
Guatemal a (Southern)
Guy ana
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
N i ca ragua
Pa nam a
Paraguay (Eastern)
Peru (Coastal 1
(Central 1
ASIA & FAR EAST
Bang1 adesh
Burma (Southern)
Fiji
India (Western Himalayas)
(Remainder)
Indonesi a (Java)
(Sumatra, Sul awesis Timar)
Nepal (Hi11 s)
(Foothills)
Paki stan
Phil ippines (Luzon)
(Central 1
Sri Lanka
Thai1 and (Coastal 1
(Central 1
Sati sf actory
Deficit
Deficit
Satisfactory
Sati sf actory
Acute
Sat1 sf actory
Deficit
Deficit
Acute
Deficit
Sati sf actory
Acute
Sati sf actory
Acute
Sati sf actory
Satisfactory
Prospective
Acute
Dsf ici t
Def id t
Prospective
Sati sf actory
Acute
Deficit
Deficit
Prospect i ve
Acute
Dof ici t
Deficit
Prospective
Def ic4 t
Def fci t
P r os pect i v e
Deficit
Acute scarcity = Fuelwood resources have been so reduced that the
popul ation is no 1 onger ab1 e to obtain a minimal supply.
Deficit = Present fuel wood resources are bel ow requi rments, ob1 igi ng
the popul ati on to overexpl oi t.
Prospective deficit = Present fuelwoDd resources are higher than
requirements, but situation evolving toward a crisis in 2000.
Sat1 sfactory = Resources considerably exceed present and foreseeabl e
needs.
.Devel opi w, Food and AgricJl ture Organization of the United
Nations, Rme, 1983.
Source: M. R. de Montalembert and J. Clement, f m w w

€3. APPROXIMATELY 50 DEVELOPING COUNTRIES REPORT GEGLOGICAL COAL
RESOURCES. TWENTY-QNE A. I. D. COUNTRIES REPQRT COAL RESERVES.
WERE ARE 17 A.I.D. COUNTRIES THAT ESPECIALLY APPEAR TO BE
CANDIDATES FOR INTRODUCING COAL BRIQUETTES -- EIGHT IN
AFRICA9 SEVEN IN ASIA? AND WQ IN LATIN AMERICA.
Exploration of coal in developing countries has been very limited to
date, and only began in earnest sfnce the second major 011 price
increase in the late 1970s. Despite the lack of exploration, about 50
developing countries now report geol ogical coal resources and 19 have
technically and econ ically-recoverabl e reserves. C253 The di stribution
and size of proven coal reserves arer hwever, skewed and are
concentrated in a few developing countries. To be sure, coal resources
are broadly distributed throughout the world, and the reported
occurrences of coal in the developing countries are widely recognized to
be vast1 y understated.
The availability and current production af coal in A. I.D. assisted
countries is reported in Table 2, The data indicate that 21 A.I.D.
countries have coal reserves. These coal reserve data are very
encouragi ng, but devel opment of coal reserves has high f ront-end costs
and long lead times. Consequently, the countries that have ongoing
production or the potential for immediate development are 1 ikely to be
the best candidates for coal briquetti ng.
The A. I. D. assisted countries that appear to have the requisites for
coal briquetting techno1 ogy ( i. e. , fuel wood deficiencies and
availability of coal) are:
Bots ana Bang1 adesh Haiti
Morocco Burma Peru
Niger
Indi a
Swaz 11 and Indonesi i9
Tanzani a Pakistan
Zad re
Phil ippines
bambi a
Thai 1 and
Z i mba bw e

11
Table 2. Coal availability ‘ln A.I.D. assisted countries with
fuel wood def ici enci es
Resources
Country ( MMtonnes) *
Re se rv e s
( MMtonnesIY
Production
MMton nes 1 *
AFRICA
Botswana (1)
Burundi (3) (1)
Cameroon (3)
Chad
Dj ibouti
GambSa (1)
Ghana
Gui nea
Kenya (1)
Lesotho (1)
Ma daga sca r ( 21
Malawi (3)
Mal i
lclaur i tani a
Niger (1)
Rwanda (1)
Senegal (1)
Sierra Leone (3)
Somalia (3)
Sudan (1)
Swaziland (3)
Tanzania (1)
Togo
Uganda (1)
Upper Vol ta
Zaire (3)
Zambia (1)
Zimbabwe (1)
100,000
n. a.
500
--
--
n. a.
I-
n. a.
n. a.
92
14
--
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
5 9 000
1,900
I-
--
n. a.
73
228
29,000
17,000
n. a.
n. a.
--
--
n. a.
--
--
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
--
--
12
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
1,620
304
--
--
n. a.
n. a.
58
2,200
0.415
n. a.
n. a.
--
--
n. a.
--
2-
n. a.
n. a.
L-
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
n. a,
n. a.
0.100
0.010
--
n. a.
*...
0.108
0.610
3.20
NORM AFRICA 8 NEAR EAST
Egypt (3)
Jordan
Lebanon
Morocoo (1)
Oman
Tunisia (3)
Yemen
80
--
-I
96
e-
-..
n. a.
n. a
--
--
--
--
0.750
n. a.
LATIN AMERICA
Bo1 iv .la (1)(2) Dominican Republ ic n. a.
--
Eucador (3) 22
n. a.
--
n. a.
--
n. a.
n. a.

12
El Salvador (2)
Guatemala (21
Haiti (51
Jamaica (2)
Paraguay ( 1)
Peru (1)
n. a.
n. a.
-...
n. a.
n. ae
9 97
n. a.
n. a.
4.2.
n. a.
n. a.
126
n. a.
n. a.

A. SONE COAL BRIQUETTING TECHNIQUES MAKE COAL AN ATTRACTIVE
FUEL-MOOD SUBSTITUTE BY CONVERTING IT INTO A SMOKELESS,
COMPACT, STABLE, AND INEXPENSIVE FORM OF RIEL.
Coal is often described as a 'tdirtyfl fuelr emitting smoke that is
offensive and contai ni ng constituents that are harmful to human health.
Moreover, sune raw coals are highly friable and are not easily handled
or distributed in their natural state. However, by briquetting and
carbonizing when necessary, coal can be put into a relatively clean,
compact, and stable form for use. The resulting fuel is also not
expensive.
B. COAL BRIQUElTING HAS BEEN SHCWN WORLD-WIDE TO BE A TECHNCLGY
CAPABLE OF USING COPL OF VARIOUS GkADES AND PRODUCING
BRIQUETTES W IM DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS FOR DIFFERENT USES.
Coal brlquetting is a process z~y which raw coal is compacted into
uni form, usual 1 y hard, and 1mpac:t- res1 stant aggl omerati ons, maki ng it
more suitable for use? transport, and/or further processing. It has
been practiced for many years, at least since the beginning of this
century.Cl21 It is also a technology that ha5 been researched
worldwide, in such widely dlspersed places as Germany, USSR, Austral ia,
Korea, India, and the United States. The wide extent of the research
has several reasons. First, all coals are not a1 ike, and often research
has been aimed at developing aF" improved brfquetting process for a
particular coal. Second, briquetting can be done with or without an
additive (binder) to help in agglmerating and giving cohesive strength
to the briquette. Much research has gone into suitable binders, as well
as into processes by which briquetting can be performed without a
binder. Third, same research has been directed at improving the
properties of the briquettes, such as maintaining ignitabil ity while
keeping volatile matter low as well as reducing smoke and sulfur
cmissians upon burning.
It should be emphasized that there is not just a single briquetting
technologyr nor wen a set of two or three or a half dozen well-defined
technologies for coal briquetting. Rather, a set of parameters for the
briquetti ng of coal such as tc-mperature, pressure, pressing time,
binderr type of coalp type of press, pretrealnent, etc., can be varied
to produce unique briquetting processes.
Coal briquetti ng can be performed on 1 ump coal or on coal fjnesr the
latter appl Ication often being an attempt to salvage an otherwise wasted
product of coal handling. The usual process of coal briquetting
1 3

14
consists of crushing, sizing, drying, poss-ibly mixing wfth a binder,
often heating, pressing in molds, cool ing, and packagdng or loadlng.
[See Appendix A for a more detailed description of coal briquetting
process. 1
In the United States in recent yearsp coal briquetting research has been
di rected mai nl y at manufacturing an aggl ornerate sui tab1 e for coal
gasification. Because this is an industrial application and not one
aimed at domestic user properties such as mokiness or sulfur emissions
have rece?ved secondary attention. A domestic 1 ndustry in %charcoal It
briquettes supplying the “backyard barbeque market9! al so exists, and the
producers of this product use some coal as a csnstltuent. However, it
may be mixed with true charcoal in the production process. The amount
of coal used varies, depending upon the location of the plant relative
to a coal source and the type of coal available. Bituminous and 1 ignite
coals must be carbonized, as described In a later section, before they
can be used in the ?!backyard barbeque briquette.” Anthracite coal does
not need to be carbonized in the manufacture of the Ifcharcoalst
briquette.
In other parts of the world, coal briquettes play other roles. In
Europe and the Soviet Union, they continue to be used for domestic
purposesI especially home heating$ and some attention has been paid to
the smokiness of the product. In India, where briquettes ders’vec! frm
coal are used not only in space heating but a1 SO coaki ng, emissions are
a primary concern.
C. BURNING R N OR UNTREATED BRIQUETTED COAL PRODUCES EMISSIONS
7HAT CAN HAVE SERIOUS HEALTH EFFECTS.
Whether raw or briquetted, the burning of coal produces emissions that
can be harmful to human health. This is especially relevant to the
substitution of a coal-based product for fuelwaoch since the latter is
used extensively in developing countries for cooking, often in
unventll ated situations. Depending on the composition of the coal and
the compl eteness of combusti on, burning coal re1 eases vol atil e organ1 c
matter, sul fur compoundsp nitrogen oxide5, particul ates, and trace
elements. Each of these has potential adverse effects on human health,
and are discussed in more detail in Appendix B.
EVER8 COAL CARBONIZATION SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCES ME ADVERSE
HEALTI1 EFFECTS FROM BURNING COAL OR COAL BRIQUETTES. THE
RESULT OF CARBONIZATION IS A 50FT SMOKELESS COKE. Is WHILE
TESTING IS CURRENTLY IN PR(XRESS9 EMISSIONS FROM SMOKELESS
COAL ARE REDICTED TO BE NO WORSE WAN THOSE EMANATING FROM
THE CURRENT FUELS OF CHARCOAL AND FIRENO0D.
A1 though substanti a1 adverse heal th effects coul d be expected f ran
burning coal or coal briquettes for cooki ng purposes~ a we1 l-devel oped
technique exists to convert coal to a safer form for combustion. This

15
is coal carbonization, converting it to a "'soft coke" by pyrolysls.
This is simllar to the conversion of wood to charcoal. During the
heating of the coal without its combustion, vol atile content is reduced,
and gases and tars containing some of the other harmful constituents are
glven off. The result is a product high in fixed carbon, which can be
burned with 1 ittle or no smoke and missions no worse than the present
practice of burning coal and firewood. Carbonization can be performed
before or after briquetting -- or wen without briquetting, if irregular
"soft coke" lumps and loss of the coal fines are acceptable. [See
Appendix A,] Because the soft coke is vlrtually smokeless9 it w i l l be
referred to often as ?"smokeless coal" in the remainder of this document.
One of the important aspects of the coal carbonization process is that
many of the potentially harmful constituents of coal are removed. As
mentioned, most of the volatiles are driven off during pyrolysis fnto
the off-gases, tars, or liquors. A certain level of volatiles is left
in the soft coke (approximately 1% to 20%) to promote its easy ignition
C61, but this level is deemed safe and does not allow the fuel to smoke
significantly. Many of the potentially carcinogenic and other organic
constituents, such as benzo(a1pyrene (BaP), to1 uener benzene, etc. , cane
out in the tar.
The sulfur content is also reduced as the sulfur is converted to
hydrogen sulfide gas. Actually, several steps can be taken for sulfur
removal to make the final smokeless coal lump or briquette rather clean
with respect to sulfur oxide emissions. Washing the coal with water
prior to pyrolysis is a simple, inexpensive, and effective step. More
sulfur is removed during the carbonization process. Finally, if the
coal is a higher sulfur coal, lime or limestone can be added to the
final briquette so that any remaining sulfur combines with it and
remains in the ash upon combustion. The cost of 1 ime, if needed, Is
also very lowp representing only 1% of the price of a soft coke
briquette in a model plant scenario constructed by Fabuss and Tatm.C63
Particulates are considerably reduced by the process of carbonization.
Only minor fly ash results from combustion of the carbonized fuel.
Also, while the temperature of carbonization is not high enough to
remove many of the trace elements by volati~ation~ neither is the
temperature of combustion of the smoke1 ess coal. Thus, without
particulates to which to adsorb, the trace elements remain in the ash
when the smokeless coal briquettes are burned. This keeps the level of
human exposure to trace elements at an insignificant level.
One remaining health effect shoul d be mentioned. The production of soft
coke can expose workers to dangerous conditions unless strict control s
are imposed. Coal dust in coking plants is often very high and
difficult to suppress. The potential carcinogens in the coal tarsr such
as BaP, suggest careful hand1 ing of these by-products. In developing
countries, attention to worker safeTy in carbonization plants Is not
a1 ways given due attention. [I61
It should be noted that Carbonization is only needed for coals below the
rank of anthracite, that is, for bituminous, subbituminous, and 1 ignite
coals. Anthracite in its natural state is sufficiently low in volatile

16
and ash contents and high in fixed carbon that carbonization is
unnecessary for a ,smoke1 ess fuel. Hwever, anthracites are re1 atively
rare.
E. THE COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH 3RIQUETTING PND CARBONIZING COAL
INDICATE A SELLING PRICE FOR SNOKELESS COAL BRIQUETTES IN
SOME URBAN AREAS THAT MAKE THEM CX)MPETITIVE W I T H FUELWOOD AND
CHrnCQK.
Fabuss and Tatm C6l estimate the costs of constructing a 100 metric ton
par day (coal input) briquetting and carbonization plant for Pakistan.
Whdfo this is a moderately sized plant and to a certaln extent tied to
conditions found in Pakistanr a review of their estimates can give an
idea of the econmic viabil ity of the coal brlquetting/carbonization
techno1 ogy.
The plant viwed in thelr scenario takes the path of an "intermediate
technology." It would be capable of recovering the coal tar and oil,
but none of the U~QUS liquors. The process off-gas would be used to
generate 100% of the power rquirements for the plant. Uti1 izing
Pakistan's high sulfur lignite coal, the briquettes would be formed
without a binder, but 1 ime would have to be added prior to briquetting
to reduce sul fur missions. The plant would have 66 tons per day output
of mokel ess coal briquettes. The ratio of 100 tons per day coal input
to 66 tons per day output of smokeless coal briquettes was figured for a
ticular Pakistani coalr and other coals would give varying yields.
ever, the PO0 to 66 ratio is In the middle of a range of about 55% to
75% that might be expected from various coals.
Total investment costs, including the cost of installed equipment, site
preparation, bui 1 di rigs, engi neeri ng and conti ngenci esa are put at
2,130,000 U.S. dollars (1982$). About half of this amount would be
rqui red tn foreign exchange. Operating co~ts, including coalr 1 ime,
1 abor, mai ntenancep 1 oan reti r ent, a 25% prof it on these manufacturing
costs, and transportation brlng the price of smokeles 1 briquettes
to 1528 Pakistani rupees (Rs.) per metric ton of oil ival ent (TOE)
anywhere within a one hundred mile radius of the plan By varying
the scale of the plant, Fabuss and Tatcxn further estimate that the cost
of smokeless coal briquettes per TOE would be Rs. 1622, Rs. 1466, and
Rs. 1407 for plants with coal inputs of 25, 300, and 1,000 metric tons
(tonnes) per dayr respectively. 3y c parison, fir ood costs a87
average of Rs. 2117/TOE. Thusl the coal briquetti ng/carbonination
operation appears to be econcmical ly competitive, Moreover, this is the
case without even considering the potential value of the coal tar byproduct.
If a market for this can be found, wen if used only as boiler
fuel, either plant profits could be raised or the price of the mokeless
1/ In 1982 when the cost estimates were mader 1 US$ equalled
approximately 12 Rs. In 1985, the exchange rate is approximately 1
US$ t o 16 Rs.

17
coal briquettes could be subsi dized w 4th the by-product i ncme and
brought to a yet lower level.
Favorable economics for coal briquettes a1 so appear 1 ikely for two urban
areas in Peru, namely Lima and Puancayo. brewer, this country
provides an example where heavily subsidized kerosene might be displaced
by smokeless coal briquettes. As smmarized in Table 3, the UNDP/World
Bank estimate that coal briquettes a:; a cooking fuel would cost US$ 9.30
- 13.30 per capita per year.C1812/ By comparison, fuelwood used in an
open fire costs US$ 10.80 - 15.00 per capita per year in Wuancayo and
US$ 27.58 - 31.70 in Lima. Although the cost of a stove is not included
in these estimates, the coal briquettes appear economically competitlve
with fuelwood on an operating cost basis. With respect to kerosene,
Table 3 indicates that it is cheaper than coal briquettesl but only
because of a large subsidy. If the subsidy on kerosene were 7 ifted,
coal briquettes could displace It as a cooking fuel, at least on a costof-fuel
basis. Since kerosene is subsidized in other countries as well,
this conclusion might be general.
Table 3. Cooking fuel costs in Peru
(US$ per capita per year)
FUR- H U ANCA YO
L LMA
Wood
used in open fire
use in improved stove
10.80 - 15.00 27.50 - 31.70
5.40 - 11.20 13.80 - 23.70
C h a rcoal 33.90 5 8.50
Coal Briquettes 9.30 - 13.30 9.30 - 13.30
Kerosene
w ith current subsidy
unsubsi dized
7.70
21 .oo
7.70
18.50
Source:
UNDP/Worl d Bank C181
- 2/ This translates into US$ 139 - 1!39 per TOE. Costs of other cooking
fuel s are not trans? ated into dol'lars per TOE because the method used
by the UNDP/World Bank to estimate their costs per capita per year
involved different uti1 ization eff Iciencies for the different fuels.
Giving a cost per TOE for all fuels would be misleading.

IV.
A. COAL CARBONIZATION HAS BEEN PRACTICED EXTENSIVUY IN INDIA.
WE INDIAN EXPERIENCE IS INSTRUCTIVE BECAUSE A WIDE RANGE OF
TECHNOLOGIES AND COAL TYPES HAS BEEN UTILIZED. INDIA HAS
DEPQSITS OF BITUMINOUSI SUB-BITUMINWS, AND LIGNITE COALS,
AND ALL HAVE BEEN USED FOR CARBONIZATION. TEWNQLGIES RANGE
FROM ONE-PERSONS "V1LLPl;rE CO PILES!' TO ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY
CARBON IZ ATION PL ANTS.
The advanced technol ogy coal carbonization pl ants .B n India demonstrate
several di fferent technol ogies. The mast advanced, which are either
government pi1 ot pl ants or comrnerci a1 pl ants model ed on government
projects aractice full by-product recovery. The smokeless coal (soft
coke) is &ten produced in a continuous process with crushed and sized
coal or briquetted coal entering the top of carbonlzing retorts and soft
coke issuing at the bottom. The gas may be used to cool the soft coker
and, having been heated, reenter the carbonizing section as a fuel. If
the cleaned gas is not immeddately recycled as fuel, it can be used for
electricity generation or for town gas? the latter use being planned for
the city of Calcutta. Similarly, the tars and 1 iquors are retainedr and
may be (1) used as fuel in the carbonizing operation or sold for boiler
fuel or (2) be refined into fine chemicals. The scales of the pilot
plants run from 20 to 25 tons per day (TPD) of coal input, whereas the
full scale plants can have design input of 1500 to 2700 TPD. The plants
at the upper end of this range do not generally run at full capacity.
Intorrnedi ate technol ogy pl ants a1 so exi sL in Indi a, Agai n, crushed or
briquetted coal travels through retorts or possibly on chain grates
through a kiln for carbonization. The intermediate technology pl ants,
however, practice limited or no by-product recovery. If no by-product
recovery is pursued, these plants can be heavy polluters. Often, the
off-gases aro passed through a scrubber, but then vented to the
atmosphere. Tars and liquors also are not recovered. Still, it is
possi bl e to construct i nterrnedi ate technol oyy pl ants which, while not
recxwering every chemical fraction separately, retain useful by-products
such as soad-surfaci ng material, bail er fuel , and off-gas fuel. Fabuss
and Tatom indicate that such an operation "can be accornpl ished
re1 atlvely easily and yet w ithcrut great cost . . . . srC61 Additional
capital costs can be expected to run on the order of 5% to lmr and it
wok11 d reduce the pollution problem. In Indda, the scale of the
intemedi ate technol ogy pl ants runs f ran 25 to 100 TPD coal input. c161
The stvillage coal pile'! is the simplest technology of all9 and the
heaviest polluter. A pile of coal and coal fines is ignited and when
the smoking stopss it is nates quenched. By rmoving outer ashr an
18

19
inner char is found that can be used as a smokeless fuel.
such a process can be seen for miles.
Smoke frm
The major difference introduced by -:he different types of feed coal used
in the industrial carbonization plants has to do with briquetting. The
bituminous and subbltuminous coals may only be crushed and sized, but
not briquetted prior to carbonlzation. Hwever, briquetting of the coal
or smokeless coal .fines may occur. Coal fines are briquetted with
molasses, bentonite (clay), or an inorganic binder by the Indians. Soft
coke fines may be briquetted with a starch binder. With the lignitic
coal sp briquetting prior to carbonization is performed. The producers
take advantage of the property of 1 ignite that allows it to be
briquetted without a binder. The briquetted form of the smokeless coal
output gives it a distinctive appearance. This allows it to be easily
distinguished from lump coalr so that it cannot be adulterated by
di shonest deal ers.
Profitability of the village coal pile and intermediate technology
producers is positive, if only marginal at times. Costs are reduced by
avoiding capital investment to recover by-products. The high technol ogy
producers must often operate unprofitably for seven, eight, or ten years
before reaching the break-even poi nt. The di ff icul ties that pl ague the
larger operations, in addition to higher costs, are irregular coal
suppl ies, transportation difficulties, power outages, labor probl cans$
and the inabil ity to sell by-products. A1 though high technol ogy
appl ications may be more prof itable in the long-run, Schwartz and Tatom
C161 recommend appl ication of intermed-l ate 1 eve1 s of technol ogy with
some by-product recovery for other developing countries. In this
fashion, sane of the risk of high technology plants as well as the
pol 1 ution probl ems of vent? ng by-products can be avoided.
B. INDIA HAS DEVELOPED A SMOKELESS COOKING STOVE WHICH CAN USE
RAW COAL AS A FUEL SOURCE WITH NO DETRIMENTAL HEALTH EFFECTS.
Finally, a technology unique unto itself has arisen fran the Indian
experience. Thls is the %smokeless cooking stove,'! which u5es raw coal
rather than smokeless coal as its initial fuel. It therefore cmpletely
avoids the cost of coal carbonization plants. Developed by the Indian
Central Fuel Research Institute (CFRI), the stove can be manufactured
for about 50 rupees (soft coke stoves cost approximately 30 rupee+--1982
rupees). Based on the savings of buying coal rather than smokeless
coal, the cost of the stove can be rfxovered in only a few months. This
Is based on a 1982 retail coal price in India of about 180 rupees per
tonne and the soft coke cost of about 720 rupees per tonne. Assuming a
family of five, which would use about a tonne of soft coke per year., a

20
net savings of 490 rupees could be realized by the family in the flrst
yeas of operation on coal-C1613/
The stove consists of two cylindrical, concentrlc compartments, the
inner one being a smokeless coal combustion zonep and the outer one
being an air-tight coal carbonization mane. Sized or briquetted coal is
loaded in the outer zone to be carbonized fran the heat of burning
smokeless coal in the inner zonep which al SO suppl ies cooking and space
heating needs. The off-gases are mixed with air below the mokeless
coal bed and thus consumed. The next day, the carbonized coal from the
outer zone is consumed in the inner zone, while ne# coal is added to the
outer compartment. The only disadvantages appear to be that the coal
must be sized carefully, the optlmal stove design depends on the type of
coal burned--a1 though a1 1 types are candi dates--and no by-product
recovery is possi bl e. Thus, the CFRI smoke1 ess stove potenti a1 ly
represents an extradordi nary innovation, being "a cl ean-burning, sel f-
sustaining system in which tmorrewts [soft] coke is produced today,
whilo the Csoft3 coke made yesterday is bafng consumed~~.C161
C. KOREANS HAVE USED RM ANTHRACITE CBfik BRIQUETTES EXTENSIVELY
FOR COOKING AND HEATING. THE KOREANS STARTED CON
BRIQUETTING IN 1930, AND THERE AF?E NCW APPROXIMATELY 20 LARGE
BRIQUETTING PLANTS IN ME COUNTRY.
Korean briquettes are comprised of 90% Korean anthracite and 10% Chinese
coking coal, They are very large? by comparison to other coal
briquettes, weighing approximately 8 to 16.5 pounds each. They are
pressed at only 170 to 240 psi, and do not meet normal briquette
compression strength criteria: they can be broken with the fingers,
they crush when dropped, and probably would not stand up to weathering.
They really art3 only Ita well compacted coal that is in a convenient form
for hand1 iny. rlC61
It is important to note that the Korean experience could not be
transferred to many other countries. First, anthracite (along with a
mall amount of coking coal) is used to manufacture the Korean
briquettes. As mentionedr anthracite can be used as a smokeless fuel
for cooking without carbonization. However, anthracites are rare, and
thus the Korean method of briquettl ng without carbonization cannot be
transferred to many other countries. Second, the size of the Korean
briquettes is abnormally large. Thls is because they use than for both
cooking and heatingr involving a 24-hour operation. This would not be
rqui red in most A. I. D. countries.
In this examples Schwartz and Patm E161 have obviously assumed that
a family using one tonne of soft coke per year would also use about
one tonne of coal pet- year in the smokeless stove. Since there may
be heat losses in converting from coal to soft coker thts nay not be
compl etely accurate. Still, the econ ic advantage of the makeless
cooking stove is large enough that thls should not change the
concl usi on of quick cost recovery.

V. THE POTEl!UILLFOR CCEAL.B.RIQUETTETITU.TION
JN A. I.D. ASSLSIED C m
A. SIGNIFICANT OPPORTUNITIES EIST TO MITIGATE THE FUELWOOD
CRISIS AROUND THE WORD. A PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF THE
SEVENTEEN RE3 IOUSLY IDENTIFIED COUNTRIES INDICATES THAT FOUR
APPEAR TO HAVE AN IMMEDIATE POTENTIN: BOTSANA, HAITII
INDIA, AND PAKISTAN. ANOTHER ELEVEN COUNTRIES APPEAR TO HAVE
A NEAR-TERM (3 TO 5 YEARS) POTENTIAL: INDONESIA, MIROCCO,
NIGER, PERU, PHILIPPINES, ‘TANZANIA, THAILAND, SWAZILAND,
ZAIRE, ZAIUBIA, AND ZIMBABWE.
The pervasiveness of the fuel wood crisis among A. 1.5. assisted countries
is exemplified by the fact that wily two African, one Near Eastern,
seven Latin American, and one Asian country have satisfactory wood
energy suppl ies. The reserves and production of coal in A. I. D. assisted
countries were a1 so determined. Of the twenty-one previously identified
countries sixteen have sane measure of current coal production and one
country, Haiti has the potenti a1 for immedi ate coal devel opnent.
Although the availability of coal is, of course, a necessary
prerq ui site for substi tuti ng a smoke1 ess coal-derived fuel far f i rwood
and charcoalp other factors are equally important. Among these are:
(1) the nature of fuelwood use ard supply, (2) the location of coal
deposits re1 ative to demand centers, (3) demographics, (4) the extent
and adequacy of distribution systms, (5) markets, (6) the extent of
government involvement in energy pl anni ngO and (7) the compati bil ity of
fuel use with social custcxns.
The examlnation of these seventeen countries is based solely on
secondary data sources. The uniformity and consistency of information
varies considerably among countries, and for saner information is not
available. To be sure, sane countr;ies have a higher immediate potential
for coal brlquetting techno1 ogy. Countries that have especially
favorable ci rcwnstances are briefly discussed bel ow. Appendix C
provides a more detailed examinatlon of the seventeen identified
count r i es.
In Africa, Botswana appears to have an immediate potential for coal
briquetting. Botswana has large coal reserves and relatfvely lw coal
extraction and transportation costs. Further, the population is
concentrated in the eastern thirc of the country and is favorably
located to railroads and roads. Bec:ause there is no charcoal productlon
in the country, smokeless coal briquettes would have to substitute
directly for firewood. Hwever, the diffusion of coal briquettes could
be coordinated with the USAID program to develop and demonstrate fuelef
f ici erst stoves. Morocco, Niger, Tanzani a, Zambial and Zimbabwe a1 1
have a nearterm potential that depends largely on the additional
development of coal reserves. Information is not available on two
21

22
countriesr Swaziland and Zalrep with which to make an evaluation.
However, the UNDP/World Bank w i l l have completed an energy assessment in
both of these countries within the next six months.
Coal carbonization and briquething has been ongoing in India for a
number of years as has been reported by Schwartz and Tatm C161. The
issue in India is not whether coal briquetting has any potential, but
whether thei t" experience can be transferred to other devel opi ng
countries. Pakistan is one country that shares many similarities to
Indiar incl udiny pervasive fuel wood deflcits and major deposits of coal e
An investigation by Fabuss and Tatom E61 concluded that the carbonizing
and briquetting of coal and/or the briquetting and di rect uti1 Ization of
coal in a smokeless stove is both technically and economically feasible
in Pakistan. Two other countries in the region appear to have a near
term potential, the Phil ippi nes, and Thai1 and. Indonesia a1 so has the
potential from the perspective of having large coal deposits and
fuelwood shortagess although the location of coal reserves1 a heavy
subsidy on kerosene, and the potential avail abil ity of an al ternative
fuel in 1 iquid propane gas compl icate Indonesia's prospects.
In L.atin America, Halti stands out as a country with an immediate
potenti a1 for coal br iquetti ng. The country has acute f us1 wood def lci ts
throughout the island and large deposits of 1 ignite. Because of low
estimated 1 ignite extraction COStsJ adequate transportatlon networks,
and a dense urban populationd the costs of coal briquettes should easily
prove to be competitive wa'th charcoal in spite of the lack of
enforcement of stumpage fees and low Wood severance taxes. In the near
tern Peru has a potential far coal briquettingJ although high subsidies
an kerosene present an impediment to the price competitiveness of the
coal briquettes.

23
Tab1 e 4. Potenti al of A. I. D. ass1 sted countries
for coal br iq uetti ng
---
. Four countries appear to have immediate potential :
Botswana
Haiti
. India
. Pakistan
. Eleven countries appear to have near-term potenti a1 :
.
. Indonesi a
Morocco
Niger
Peru
Phjl ippi nes
Tanzania
Thai 1 and
Sw az i 1 and
Zai re
Zambi a
Z imbabw e
Source: Table 1 and 2.

24
VI.
A. IMPL EKNTING SWKEL ESS COAL BRIQUETTING IN A. I. D ASSISTED
COUNTRIES WILL BE SASED ON EXPERIENCES GAINED BY A.I.D. IN
HAITI AND PAKISTAN.
A. 1. D. Wash i ngton/Of fice of Energy w i l l be gaining experiences on
smokeless coal briquetting technology and market potential in two wldely
dispersed and different developlng countries Wait1 and Pakistan. Prior
work in Haiti has confirmed the existence of a substantial lignite
resourcer and the need for a fuelwaod/charcoal replacement has been
demonstrated. In January 1985, pl annlng began to sampl e and analyze the
coal define the technical aspects of carbonization needed, perform
market studies, define the need for a pilot plant, look at potential byproduct
recoveryr and investigate other aspects of imp1 menting
smokel ess coal briquetti ng.
In Pakistan, the A. I.D, Mission provided plans in October 1904 for
i ni ti a1 steps to i mpl ment moke? ess coal br iq uetti ng there. These
i nvol ve assessi ng the capabi 1 iti es of 1 oca1 market research f i rms,
surveying consumers and retail ers, identifying the potential market
segments, undertaking a %eedg8 market with private di stri butors using
smokel ess coal briq uettes prov ided by A. I. D. /GOP, and expl ori ng the
possi bil ity of amy procur en% of the briquettes.
As the work goes on in these first two countrfes to implement smokeless
coal briquette manufacturing and rnarketi ng, the experience gai ned by
ashington w i l l prove highly useful in application to other
A.I.D. countries. In advance of these experiencesr many ideas have been
presented to help insure the success of smokeless coal briquetting, and
they have been organized in this sectfon into an action pl an or set sf
strategi es for real izing the potenti sal far coal briquetti ng i n A. I. D.
assi sted countries,
8. FIVE STEPS ARE NECESSARY 79 SUCCESSFULLY IMPLEENT SMOKELESS
COAL BRIOUETTING AND MARKETING IN A. I.D. @BUNTRIES. THESE
INCLUDE A RESOURCE EVALUATION, A MARKET ASSESSMENT, A
TECHNOLEY ASSESSMENT, A SNDY OF GOVERNMENT POLICY AND
PLANNING, AFID PACKAGING INWE IDEA FOR ME PRIVATE SECTOR TO
IMPLEMENT.
1. . This prospectus has ecl to pull together
i nf resources in A. I. D. co to demonstrate the
promise of this idea, Howeverl more detailed work on deposits
necessary in individual countries planning to implement the strategy.
The sims and workabil ity of coal deposits frm a geological standpoint

25
must be ascertained. The location of coal deposftsr economic vdabil ity,
and proximity to existing transportation systems and markets must a1 so
be defined. The coal deposits' location and their proximity to existing
Infrastructure w i l l affect the cost of the coal briquetting technology.
2. -W&KFT ASS-T. In order to determine the best candidate
communities and users8 a market feasibil ity study should be undertaken.
Where feasible, a prel iminary step to carrying out the market study
would be to assess the capabilities of local market research flrmsj one
of these firms could implement the actual study. The market assessment
i tsel f shoul d i ncl ude examinati on of the target popul ati on8
socioeconomic and cultural characteristics (particularly with respect to
cookinglr urban fuel user fuel prices, and obstacles to acceptance of
the new coal-based fuel, etc.
The ma.rket study should begin with a thorough assessment of current
fuels used, their sourcesI their prices, and the quantities used per
year. The assessment w i l l in most cases occur in selected urban
centers for reasons noted below. The fuel types and quantities will
affect the volume of coal and bricuettes that can pstentlally penetrate
the market. The prices of alternative fuels w i l l be a primary
determinant of the potential of smDkeless coal briquettes. Not only the
current pricer but a near-term fcirecast of fuel prices and quantities
would be helpful in determining the necessary entry price for coal
briquettes. A1 so, determining the current sources of firwood and
charcoal supply would help evaluate the potential for smokeless coal
briquettes to penetrate the fuel use market and reduce deforestation.
An assessment of the country's demographics and a particul as examination
of the target populationfs socioeconomic and cultural make-up are a
second part to the market study. Examination of the proportion of
people in cities versus those in rural areas and the distribution of the
inhabitants in these settings w ill affect the market potentlal of
briquettes. It seems clear that in most countrfes, the initial
introduction of smoke1 ess coal briquettes w 111 take pl ace in urban
areas? both to take advantage of a concentrated market and because the
fuelWood deficiencies are most acute in cities. Also9 the rural
population may not be in a commercial firewood market, and generating a
commerci a1 market for briquettes coul d be di fficul t.
The market assessment should examine energy use by fuel type in
different economic Sectors, incl udi ng househol dsr commerci a1
establ ishments, small industries, and pub1 ic institutions. The:
potenti a1 for substitution of smoke1 ess coal briquettes in each of these
sectors must be eval uated. Besides pricer one highly significant factor
for substitution possibil ities is consumer acceptance. What
characteristics must the briquette have to obtain acceptance, e.g.
sizet shapet ignitibil ity, packagiEg, distribution points, needs for new
equipment? How does the user feel about using smokeless coal relative
to the current fuel used? One approach is to conduct surveys of certain
sectorsp say the househol d and commerci a1 sectors. These surveys
assessi ng the potenti a1 acceptance of smoke1 ess coal briquettes cou7 d be
tied together with the information gathering on current fuel use and
prices.

26
3. J. The technol ogical assessment shoul d
include an analysis of coal characteristics, an engineering study of the
appropri ate type and scai e of br iy uetti ng and ca rbonl z ing operat1 6ns~
and capital avail abil ity.
The grade of coal and its sul fur and ash contents w i l l affect the type
of briquetti ng and carbonizaticn operation that is appropriate.
Therefore, a representative sample of coal must be obtained, shipped to
a laboratoryr and assayed. Behavior of the coal under briquetting and
carboniaati on conditions must be ascertai ne& e. g. , re1 ati on hetween
time/tmperature conditions and residual volatile contentr ignitabil ity
vs. vol ati 1 B matter content, suppressi OD of resi dual sul fur content
during combustion, the optimal type of binder for briquette strength and
durabil ity, etc.
In addition, an engineerfng study is necessary to design the type of
plant appropriate to the coal and the size of plant that is appropriate
to the market. Which of the many carbonization and briquettiny
processes should be used? Should off-gases be recycled or be used offsite?
Shou? d by-product el ectricity by produced? kJ ill the correct
bi nder be re1 iably avail ab1 e? Where shoerl d the p1 ant be si ted--taki ng
into conslderation coal supplyp labor supply, availabil ity of uti1 ities,
transportati on, and proximity to markets. How 1 abor i ntensfve shoul d
the mini ng and briq uetti ng/ca rbonizati on operati ons be? What measures
are: needed to protect health, safety, and the enviroment?
As part af the technological assesmesrt, a survey of the domestic
capital available is also needed. It is possiblep as in India, that.
domestic equipment for the briqwettlng and carbonization operations w i l l
be adequate and cheaperr even though not as durable as imported
equipment, This caw save on foreign exchange costs. The amount of
qui gment avail ab1 e for briquetti ng operations of di fferent scal es and
1 eve1 L; of technol oyy shoul d be determined.
Whll e only an examination of individual country ci rcurnstances can
ascertain thisl an inte ediate 1we1 of technology in the briquettlng/
carbonization operation may prove best for fmpl mentation in many
countries. An intermediate techno1 ogy approach to produci ng the
smoke1 ess coal briquettes is cheaper than the high techno1 ogy approach,
whll e a1 so prov ldi ng the oppostuni ty for sane by-product recovery. This
he1 ps reduce pol 1 ut1 on prabl ems. Also, the by-products mlght be
recycl ed into the briquetti ng/carbonization operation, as in the case of
the off-gases as a fuel, or sold, as in the case of the tars and 1
for boiler fuel or asphalts for road surfacing (if a market for th
be establ ishedl Artisanai manufacture a6 the mokel ess coal briquettes
is a second possibil ity9 if no by-product recovery is desired and
pollution probla~s can be avoided. Such questlions need to be answered
during the tech no1 agi cal assessment.
4. GOVF RNMENT POLIC YAMD-WNIN G ASSESSMENT . While coal carbonization
and briquetting provides an excel lent opportun~ty for eventual control
largely by the private sector, the roles of the host country government
and A.E.D. in start-up operations must be assessed. For the host

27
country government, this involves assessi ng
di rectly aimed at coal briquetting and other
have indi rect impacts on the new technology.
both pol dcies that are
government pol ici es that
In general, it must be emphasized that government acceptance of the coal
briquetting technology Is important if it is to succeed. Not only is
government backi ng necessary for promotion of the smokel ess coal
briquetting itself, but seemingly unrelated government priorities can
hamper the success of the new technology. For instance, if rail cars
are in short supply and coal del ivery to electric power plants receives
priority, a re1 iable supply of briquettes w i l l be endangered by an
i rregul ar coal supply. Another exampl e of an existing pol icy providing
a hindrance is where a state-wned electric uti1 ity has monopoly rights
to produce electricity. In this case by-product electricity from coal
carbonization would not be a1 lowed without a pol icy change.
The government role also must be assessed when it owns rishts to the
coal, as it does in many developing countries. Who w i l l do the mining?
This, of course, Is a task that the private sector can take onr but the
issues of whether it should be done under concessions or under joint
ventures or by sane other arrangemeits must be faced.
Other direct and indirect effects w i l l result fran current government
pricing pol icies, The extent to which smokeless coal briquettes w i l l be
accepted in the market place w i l l be affected by such pol icies as
subsidization of alternative fuel:;, as is the case for kerosene in
Indonesia and Peru. Differential taxation or price controls on energy
products woul d have similar effects. While not general ly advised, the
government might reverse the ro? os just mentioned by subsidizlng
smokeless coal prices and promoting their use Over fuelwood.
In addition, there are a number of actions that the host government may
plan to undertake to promote the use of smokeless coal briquettes
di rectly. The government might prcvide information on use to potentla1
users and i nf omati on on production and markets to potenti a1 producers.
The government might support a mal1 pilot plant or intermediatesized
dmonstrati on pl ant. This would indicate the viability of the
technology, its costs, and the potential market acceptance to
entrepreneurs. A1 SO, the output woul d provide sarnpl es for market
testing, woul d demonstrate to consuniers the advantages of smokel ess coal
briquettesr and coul d establ Ish a 'lseedl' market.
The government might assist in overcoming sane of the market
uncertai nti es facing producers by imp1 ementi ng such programs as 1 oan
guarenties and purchase agreements. Market uncertainties can affect the
ab11 ity of private individual s to obtain f inanci ng, and 1 oan guarantees
are one method to offset these obstacles in the market. This, however,
would depend upon the scale and relative capital scarcities in the
country. An additional way the government might help in overcoming
market uncertainties would be to provide a ready market so that
producers would be assured that they can sell at least some portion of
their output. For example, the government could enter into long-term
contracts for buying coal briquettss for use in public facilities, or
for use in the military.

28
The government can diminish market uncertai nties to consumers by
minimizing 1 nterruptions in smokeless coal briquette suppl ies. Because
re1 iabil ity of supply is important to consumer acceptance, the
government may want to ensure that. availabdl ity is not interrupted in
the marketpl ace. One way to do this is to ensure that government pol icy
puts priorl’ty on del iveri ng inputs to smoke1 ess coal briquetti ng and
carbonizing operations. Another way is for the government to provide a
stockpile of coal briquettes which could bo distributed to the
population if in fact there should be an interruption in manufacture
during the initial stages of market develo
Fi nal ly, government standards can assist the success of the coal
briquetting/carbonizat~o~ technology. To assure a qual it) product that
the pub1 ic w i l l acceptp the government may wlsh to set standards on such
things as ash content, vol atil e material contentr sul fur missions, a
shatter index, and a1 lowabl e sizes. The standard for val at11 e material
content would be important both for health reasons and for ignitabilityy.
Also) the government may find in necessary to regulate briquetting to
make sure that it meets environmental health and safety standards for
both production Nsrkers and the users.
5 * -l3uuEss-.-. E D N . Coal briquetting is an
excellent technology for private sector initiative, since all phases
frm mining to manufacture to distribution can be undertaken by private
entrepreneurs. 5@yond a pilot plant and some of the pol icies mentioned
in the previous section, the goal is for the role of the government to
rmain minimal. Thus, there should be an assessment of technical talent
and potential entrepreneurs for getting production and distribution
started. A1 so9 capital markets must be assessed for thei r sufficiency
to finance the ventures,
To involve private individuals who have the expertise, the financial
attractiveness of the venture must be well documented. Does the
financial attractiveness match the econ ic attractiveness from a
soci eta1 standpoi nt7 Have processi ng ri sks been cons1 dered and
solutions proposed? Are these mining risks that affect the costs
estimated? A full descrfption of the des-ign and oporatians must also be
prov i ded.
In imp1 menti ng di stri buti on of the make1 ess coal briquettes, the
current dealers of firewood and charcoal might provide a ready
distribution system. The examination of sources and aistribution of
fuel wood made under the market asses ent can provide valuable
i nf ormati on i n setti ng up briquette di stri buti on. The exi sti ng deal ers
should be encouraged to take on the new product.
Finally, initial marketing to consumek~ is extremely important in
assuring the success of the briquettes. It may be advantageous in sme
locations to concentrate on a certain sector of the market in initial
efforts to sell smoke1 e5s coal briquettesQ such as the commerci a1
sector. Restaurantsr hotel sp and street vendors currently making use of
fuelwood and charcoal may be a ready-made market for the smokeless coal
briquette. They are often a smallp well-defined group that uses a

29
significant amount of fuel, and they could be instrumental in
establ ishing a market. They also provide free demonstrations for the
new product to purchasers of their food products. Moreover, they may
have the financial capacity to continue to buy the product once they
deci de to sw itch to i t.
Special efforts to attract attention in the household market, such as
advertising and demonstrations, should a1 so be made. The ordinav
household user can be reached in many ways, which w j l l depend upon the
soci a1 env 1 ronment and 1 iteracy rate. However, sane a1 ternatives
incl ude radio announcements8 fl iersc newspaper adsI posters, billboards,
house-to-house canvasses, giveaways, fai ?-sis demonstrations, and bazaars.
Through one or more of these meansl information should be disseminated
about the attractiveness of the new product and its competitive price.
Finallyo one of the most important aspects of marketing is that users
must be assured of a re1 iabl e supply of the smokel ess coal briquettes.
?he price can be rightP the product can burn well and cleanly, and it
may even be packaged nicely, but if the briquettes are not suppl isd
reliably8 consumer acceptance is likely to be low.
C. USAIQ/WASHINGTON8 OFFICE OF ENERGY, WILL ROV IDE TECHNICAL
ASSISTPNCE TO MISSIONS IN IMREMENTING THE SPOKELESS COAL
BRIQUET?E TECHNOLCGY.
In those A.I.D. countries where a fuelwood shortage exists and the
necessary coal supplies can be found, the Office of Energy,
USAID/Washington stands prepared to of fer technical ass1 stance in
imp1 mentiny the smokel ess coal techno1 ogy. This means support with
personnel in implementing the five steps out1 ined above to brdng the
smokeless coal briquettes to market. A. I. Q. missions in those countries
w i th present or pendi ng fuel wood shortages and deforestation probl ems
shoul d consi der whether the coal briquetti ng techno1 ogy coul d he1 p
a1 1 ev iate the probl ems.

i
APPENDIX A
COAL BRIQUETTING AND CARE3ONIZATION IPROCESSES
The particul ar steps of the coal briquetting process are described
below. Depending upon the qual ities of the coal used, not all of them
are always required. Howeverr the sequence described gives a general
impression of how coal briquetting and carbonization occurs.
JXE&LKQ* Crushing fs performed to obtain a fairly uniform particle
size for 1 ater pressing. In bi nderl ess briquettl ng the particl e sizes
are 4 mm and Smaller, with 60 percent below 1 mm. In briquetting with a
binder, they are much smaller: 93 percent less than 0.88 nm and 80
percent less than 0.5 mmC61 When fines are briquetted, crushing does
not need to be performed. Sizing occurs by screening? and is performed
to remove particles too large and sometimes those that have become too
small for optimal briquetting.
Drying. The extent of drying nemssary depends on the type of coalr
whether a binder is used or not, the type of binder -If one is used, the
amount of pressure applied, whether the coal undergoes some type of
pretreatment or not, and other parameters of the process. According to
Fabuss and Tatcan* binderless briquetting requires the coal to be dried
to 12 percent to 18 percent moistiJre content. (However, one process
reported by Ellison and Stanmore, which uses a hlgh temperature for
bi nderl ess briquetting and is perhaps an anomaly, requi res a molsture
content of only 1 percent.) In contrast, briquetting with a binder
rqui res the feed coal to have a lorr moisture content of 2 to 4 percent.
It should be noted that bfnderless briquetting is often successful for
certain coal typesl particularly lignites, while briquetting with
binders works for others.
Binw. If a binder is used, it is next added to the coal particles in
either solid or liquid form. The two are mixed in a tcpugtt or mixing
mill. There are two main classes of binders: organic and inorganic,
Among the organic binders there are two subtypes: (1) tars, pitches,
and asphalts, and (2) Industrial waste and byproduct binders.Cl21 To
the first group of organlc binders belong coal tar pitch, asphalt,
petrol eum bitumen, mal tha, producer-gas tar, coke-oven tar, coal-tar
creosote and similar products. To the second type of organic binders
belong 1 ignosul fonate (a waste product f rcm paper producti on) corn
starch, wheat starch, vegetable pulpr and rosin. Among the inorganic
bi nders are sodi um si1 lcateJ 1 ime, niagnesi a (magnesi urn oxide) dol orniter
cl ayJ brine, and cement.
A- 1

A-2
Organic and inorganic binders each have their advantages and
disadvantages. E121 The advantages of the organic binders are:
1) being combustible, they add 1 ittl8 to the ash produced;
2) they add heat unlts per given welght of the agglmerate;
3) they have been used extensively as a coal binder in the
past.
The di sadv antages of orya nl c bi riders are:
1) they tend to produce a greater quantlty of foul-smelling
overa this is unimportant if the coal is
carbonized after brdquetti ng;
2) sane are difficult to handle and present a health hazard;
in particular, sme of the tars, pitches, and asphalts
contai n carci nogeni c consti tuents.
The advantages of the inorganic binders are:
1) being non-vsl atil e$ they produce an agglomerate that w i l l
stand up we1 1 upon heati ng w ithout disintegration;
2) they prmote a slowerr more complete combustion of the
aggl merate;
3) they produce much less smoke than organic binders when
burned; and
4) certain inorganlc binders (lime, dolmite, magnesia) are
sul fur-captur-ing; the cal ci urn or magnesi urn in the binder
reacts with the sulfur in the coal, and less sulfurcontaining
gas 1s given off during combustion; this is an
important property for coals that are to be used for
smoke1 ess coal brrlquetti ng, par-tdcul arly hish sul fur
coal s,
The disadvantages of inorganic binders are:
1) they produce more ash on the grate;
2) they add additional wedght to the agglomerate without
adding heat value; thls adds to transportation costs and
less heat returned per unit weight;
3) the aggl merates contai ni ng i noryanics are general ly weak
inrrrrsediately after preparation and require drying to add
strength; this i ncreases costs; and
4) the agglsmerates formed using inorganic binders often do
not weather well, since the binder is often water soluble.
BrSquetting of lignites and brown coals can often be successful without
a binder because they have built-in binders such as moisture, humic
compoundso resinss and waxes. Addition of heat, edther directly or as a
result of applying pressures can cause the resinoid materials to exude
and act as binders C121. It is bel iwed that the moisture content may
also work. to reduce fricta’un and strengthen the briquette bond.

A-3
l a u p ! . Whether a binder is used or not, the temperature of the
material is adjusted to a certain range prior to pressing. In the case
of briquetting with a binder, heating he1 ps soften the binder and
assures more complete coating of the surfaces of the coal partlclos.
surfaces. In blnderless briquetting, the coal might actually have to be
cooled after having been dried by heat; orr for a coal with low moisture
content, steaming might be r ui red. Even though the initial binding
temperature may be lower in binderless briquettingt the heat rise durfng
pressing can be considerable. This brings the coal constituents near
their softening point, pranoting a more cohesive bond in the briquette,
In the standard briquettfng procedure the initial temperature is raised
to 95 to 100 degrees C for briquotting.C61 HOweverr experlmental
processes uti1 ize much higher temperatures, ranging f ran 130 degree to
170 degree C, for briquetting both with and without a binder.C3,4,111
F m . Pressing can be performecl either in extrusion presses or mold
presses. The latter are probably more prevalent, and are of two types:
the rotary table press and the double roll press. The rotary table
press develops pressures of 720 to 3600 psi for 0.25 to 0.4 seconds.
The double roll press uses pressures at the upper end of the same range
for 0.05 seconds. C61 Other processes described in the 1 iterature
indicate much higher pressures beiqg used. Miller, et ales found an
optimum pressure for their process of briquetting bituminous coal flnes
without a binder to lie in the range of 10,000 to 12,000 psi.
Crossinore, et al., used pressures of 20,000, 25,000, and 30,000 psi for
a brfne-binder briquette. Some commercial I binderl ess briquetting
operations in Europe standardly use pressures of 30,000 to 8OP0Q0
psi. C 121 A1 so, 1 onger pressi ng times are sometimes practiced, at 1 east
In briquetti ng techno1 ogy research. El 1 ison and Stanmore reported "full
curing" of binderl ess, Austral iari brown coal brtquettes after 30
secondsI although 8 to 10 second pressing times were adequate for
strength. Miller, et al., used experimental pressing times between 20
and 300 seconds for thei r bi nderl ess briquette.
a and Cooling. After press"ng8 the briquettes are drfed for
curing. If they are to be used as raw coal briquettes, they are cooled
before packaging and loadfng for transpart, The cool ing stage is
especi a1 ly important for raw coal brlquettes produced by high pressure
and/or temperature (e.g. I in Europe), s4nce they have been knwn to
combust spontaneously if piled too high after manufacture. If the
briquettes are to be carbonized, they enter this stage after drying.
l&jxmizc.xtA~~. Carbonization is the step by which the coal is converted
to a charr which when burned produces little or no snoke and is safe
with respect to the health hazards of burning raw coal [see Appendix 131.
Carbonization is accompl lshed by heating coal in a controlled atmosphere
to a temperature at which it decompcses chemically and/or physically to
simpler compounds.Cl61 The outputs are the residual sol id charl gasP
tar, and aqueous liquors. When coal is heated to 120 to 150 degrees CI
moisture is driven off. At 480 degrees to 600 degrees C, most of the
volatiles are driven off. This is low temperature carbonization, and
the resulting char is the the "soft coke" that can be used for a
smokeless domestic cooking fuel. Enough of the volatiles are left at

A-4
thi5 tmpsrature to assure fairly easy ignits’on. If the carbonization
temperature Is raised higher, to between 800 degrees and 1100 degrees 6,
essentially all of the volatiles are driven off and a resldue that is
h‘lghly carbonaceous and difflcult to ignite is left. Using certain
coal s w lth the right propertl es9 high temperature carbonization can
produce (hard) coke, which is used far metal 1 urgical purposes,
Techniques to produce soft coke are variations on a packed bed process
in which coal is carbonized a5 it passes downwards through a vertical
retort, Moisture comes off first, and then other constituents are
driven off as the coal is heated on its downward path. Off-gasp which
contalns a number of cornbLiStIb1 e coal by-products, is r oved at the top
of the retort. The gas can be used for fuel or for fine chgnical
production. Tars and 1 iquors that can be used for fuel or for chm-ical s
are also removed. Hot gases to heat the coal can be produced by burning
either the off-gas or some of the soft coke.
Briauetting of soft coke f bes. Soft coke (sismokel ess coal fines may
a1 so be briquettedo to salvage this useful product. Schwartz and Tatm
C161 report that soft coke fines are briquetted in India with the use of
molassesd clayb or starch binders--although this may not be an
exhaustive 1 ist of the binders used. In the formation of mokeless coal
briquettes from fines, it would be important to avoid the tars, pitchesr
and asphalt binders. The resulting briquette is not to be carbonfzed
again, and these binders would produce a foul-smelling smoke as well as
present a heal th hazard upon cambusti on.

APPENDIX B
POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF BURNING RAW
COAL
Introductim. This appendix reviews some of the potential Ill health
effects of coal burning. It should be emphasized that the adverse
health effects described here are based upon studies of the effects frcm
large scale coal burning, such as in electric utilities. Still, the
same combustion products would result from burning coal in a domestic
situation, so a look at the effects of coal burning on the larger scale
can be indicative of dangers. It should also be emphasized that the
adverse health impacts out1 ined here are largely mitigated by
carbonization of the coal as described in Appendix A. Thus, the ill
heal th effects recounted bel ow underscore the necessity of carbonizing
some coal s to make than useful as a domestic cooking fuel.
Yo1 atil es. Pol ynucl ear organic matter (POMI is one product formed
during the combustion or pyrolysis of fossil fuels.C231 Compounds in
this class originate from volatile organic matter in coal, and some of
the POM species are carcinogenic. One is the potent carcinogen
benzo(a1pyrene (EaP).
Good evidence on the ill effects of POMs exists. Exposure to POMs by
workers in occupations utilizing coal tar, coal tar pitch, creosote,
asphalt and petroleum products has led to nonallergic and allergic
dermati tus, phototoxici ty and photoall ergic reactions, fol 1 icul iti sI and
acne and pigment disturbances. 81 so acute eye effects, including
inflammation, conjunctivitis, and reduction in visual acuity have been
observed. Finally, skin carcinomas are found more prevalently in
workers of these industrtes.CZ31 It should be noted that not only are
POMs produced from the coal itself, but also fran some of the products
just mentioned which are common coal briquetti ng binders.
BaP is the most prevalently measured POM In ambient air, and urban
concentrations in the U. S. have been decl ining: 6 nanograms/cubic
meter in 1950, 3.2 nanograms/cubic meter in 1%6, and 0.5 nanogramsy
cubic meter in 1975.C231 The declinc is connected with the decreases in
residential coal combustion and open burning. This inda'cates the
serious effect that coal as a fuel can have on ambient air qual ity.
The amount of POMs that reach the ambient air during coal burning
depends upon the compl eteness of combustion. Quoting Wal sh, et a1 :
"The concentrations of 6aP associated with coal combustion can
vary by a factor of 10,000, depending on the efficiency of the
system in question; the BaP emission factor for efficient,
B-1

B-2
modern ut11 ity plants is 20-400 mlcrograms/MFk3tua while the
corresponding figure for hand-stoked resi denti a1 coal furnaces
is 1,709,000-3,300,000 micrograrns/M
coal burni ng for cooki ng and heati ng purposes in devel oping
where the efficiency of combustion is unllksly to be
control 1 ed and ventil ation is unsurer runs the risk of exposing peopl e
to undesi rabl e amounts of unhealthy vol atil e matter and cancer risk.
This is not the case far anthraciteJ however.
Sul fur..sgm~.W. Upon the combust1 on of coal, the sul fur content forms
sulfur oxidesI which can have ill health effects. The m~re complete is
combustion, the more sul fur oxides are formed. Long-term, elevated
exposure to sul fur oxides has been imp1 icated in chronic respiratory
di sease, changes in pul monary function, and acute 1 mer respi ratory
tract I1 1 nesses. E231 Health probl 5 are not caused by sulfur oxides
alone, but by their oxidation products as well, including sulfates and
sulfuric acid. Exposure to sulfates increases the rate of asthma
attacks, increases respi ratory disease, and is associated with chronic
bronchitis. As though the effects of sulfur oxides and their oxidation
products were not enough, the results of incompl ete combustion are a1 so
undesi rabl e. Under incomplete combustion, acid gases (mainly hydrogen
sulfide) are given off. Hydrogen sulfide is poisonous.Cl73 The
undesi rabl e results of incompl ete combustion are noteworthy in
considering domestic uses of coal, since the efficlency of coal burning
cannot be guaranteed in simple stoves. Hwevvr, sane of these same
effects apply to the incompl ete cambustion of biunass.
The sulfur in coal is of two typesr organic and inorganic. The
inorganic component is malnly pyritic sul fur, but sane sul fate sul fur is
also present. Standard coal washing techniques can remove much of the
pyritic and sulfate sulfur, but the organic sulfur remains. Attempts to
remove organic sulfur by chmical means have not been extremely
successful. One reference indicates that processes can now remove 50%
to 95% of pyritic sulfur and 2 'to 65% of organic sulfur C131. Singh,
ever, indicates that the processes to remove organic sulfur are still
devel apmental in nature.
BElitr~cqen oxides. Nitrogen oxides are also produced by combustion of
coal. These produce respiratory problems, The amount known about the
effects of nitrogen oxide poisoning is less than for other pollutantsP
because a critical concentration must be reached before a reaction in
humans is observed. Alsol it is usually associated with other
pollutants, and not much work has been done on the effects of this
compound.
Pa rti cul at e5 a nd trac 8 el w ienlrs. Respi rabl e particulates are
crystal 1 ine or amorphous forms, fibers, spheres, or aggregate meshes
with a diameter of less than 5 microns, on which transformation
productsl toxic el mentss and organic mal ecul es can adsorb. E231 They
are associated with both sulfur compounds and trace elements.
Approximately 50% of total sulfur release is associated with fine
particulates. Many trace elments and other elements are also found in
association with particulates. These include lead, thallium, antimony,

B-3
cadmiumr sel eni urn., arsenic, nickel# chrCmiurnr zinc, manganese, vanadi urn,
magnesiumt beryl 1 imp fluorine, mercuryI uranium, branine, copper,
gal 1 i um, iodi ne, i ri di urnr mol ybdenuml ti n, ti tan1 urn, radon, and thori urn.
Some of these are toxic. Some are suspected carcinogens.
Fine particulates (less than 2.5 microns) can be deposited in the
alveoli of the lungs, in the range of 15 to 25%. Very small
particulates (less than 0.5 micron:;) can even. be transported across
membranes by diffusion. Given this fact and the number of noxious
elements associ ated w ith particul ate$, this pol 1 utant f rm coal presents
a danger to all bodily functions and not just pulmonary function.

APPENDIX C
REVIEW OF CON BRIQUETTING POTENTIAL
IN A. I. 0 ASSISTED COUNTRIES
The purpose of this Appendix Is to briefly summarize sane of the salient
characteristics of countries identified as possible candidates for coal
briquetting. Most of the informat'on was gleaned from UNDP/World Bank
Energy Issues and Options Reports.
Africa
Eight African A. I.D. assisted countries appear to have the requisites
for coal briquetting. These countries are Botswanar Morocco, Niger,
Swaz il and, Tanzani ar Zai re, Zambi a, and Zimbabwe.
Jotswam" Located in South Centr31 Africa, Botswana has one of the
highest per capita GNPfs (US$910) .in Africa. The traditional economy,
agriculture and cattl e ranchfng, pr-ovides income for about 80% of the
population. The modern sector is composed principally of mining for
diamonds copper, nickel, and coal. The country is mostly semi-arid and
arid and is generally unsuitable for agriculture. Consequently, about
75% of the population 1 fves in the eastern section of the country on 10%
of the land area. The population is considered predominantly rural
(87%11 and is increasing at a ratu of 3% per year. The mal1 urban
population is growing rapidly at 5.M per year.
Firewood is the main energy source in rural and low-income households
in the urban centers of Botswana. Charcoal is not produced
domestically, and there are only very small quantities imported. Total
annual firewood consumption has nst been adequately surveyedc but is
crudely estimated at 0.35 million TOE (or 1 million tonnes) based on a
per cap1 ta consunpti on of 1.5 tonnes per year. C201 Fi rewood consmption
is expected to increase at an average annual rate of 2 percent per year
for the remainder of the decade. Table C.l summarizes the fuelwood
energy bal ance for Botswana.
There are acute firewood scarcities in western sections of the country
and growing deficfts in the major eastern villages and urban areas of
Gaborone and Lobatse. Reforestation efforts have been disappointing
because of high establ ishrnent costs and inadequate technical support.
The difficult growing conditions and, in particular, recurring droughts
have resulted in low productivity cln reforested hectares. All of the
c-1

c-2
ood demand in Batswana is consmaned in the residential sector, which
accounted for 45 percent of total energy demand.CZ01
Tab1 e C. 1 e Fuel wood energy bal ance for Botswana ( 1981)
(Tannes of oil quivalent)
SUPPI Y
Producti on
Imports
Transformati on
Demand
Househol ds
Eial ance
Fi rwood
350,000
0
0
350,000
0
C h a rcoal
0
-17
0
"17
Q
Source:
UNDP/Worl d Bank La9841
Total coal reserves are estimated at 17 bill ion tonnes and are located
in ten areas of the country. The caal qual ity is variabl e frm one
fjeld to anothei- but, in general, calorific value is about 6100 kcal/kg,
ash content is 16 to 1 volatil ity ranges from 24 to 34%# and sulfur
content ranges from 1 t 2.5%. Approximately 90% of the country's coal
ents come fram the Msrupule coal field. Production is currently
about 0.415 MNt;onn%s and there are plans for expansion of output. The
coal field is linked by railroad to the major demand centers, Gaborone
and Labatse, and other towns in eastern Botswana. The selling price of
coal in Gaborone is about US$20 to 2Ytonne including transportation
charges of US$7/tonne.
The proximity of villages and twins in eastern Botswana to the railroad
and road corridor provides a number of options to alleviate fuelwood
deficits. One option is to substitute charcoal produced frm loggfng
residues and/or from northern forest reserves. The UNDP/Worl d Bank
bel ieves that despite favorable transporatian rates (US$O.OWtonne km),
the long haul distances (e.g, Kasane to Gaborone -- 1170krn) would
preclude economic del ivery of charcoal to eastern demand centers.
Transportation charges a1 one f ran Kasane to Gaborone woul d be
US$92/tonne. Based on favorabl e coal extraction and transportation
costs and the proximity of populations to railways and roads, the
eval uation of coal briquettes shoul d be undertaken, Currently,
firewood prices in Gaborone are about 9 thebe/kg or US$DOQ/Toe
(US$O.OB/kg), while the selling price af coal is only US$4O/Toe.
Morocco. The economy of Morocco is based on the export of mineral
resources, principally phosphate and to a lesser extent iron ore, leads
zinc, and manganese. By African standards it has a relatively high per
capita income (US8876, 1982). Howeverr a considerable fractlon of its
mineral export earnings (50%) is far payment of imported oil? which is

c-3
creating severe probl ems for the Moroccon econany.Cl93 In the
tradi tional energy sector, a sizable fraction of the population re1 ies
on fuelwood as its energy source. In 1981 it accounted for 35% of
total energy consumpti on. The population is estimated to be growing at
an annual rate of 3X, about 41% of this is considered urban; and is
concentrated a1 ong the northwestern coast.
The UNDP/World Bank estimates that about 11 million cubic meters of
fuel wood are harvested, yet only 3 mill ion cubic meters are regenerated
each year. Consequently, deforestdtion is occurring at the rate of
20,000 ha/yr. Reforestation efforts are lagging and are currently at
10,000 hdyr. Some 50,000 ha/yr w i l l be rqui red to meet the firwood
demand in the year 2000. The fuelwood energy balance for Morocco is
reported in Table C.2. Approximately 16% of wood production is lost in
charcoal conversi on.
Tab1 e C. 2 e Fuel wood energy bal ance for Morocco( 1981 1
(Tonnes of of1 equivalent)
Fi rewood
SUPPI Y
Production 2 725,000
Tr an sf arm a t i on
Charcoal product1 on (79,000)
Losses (363,000)
Demand
Househol ds
2r2m too0
Bal ance 0
Charcoal
79,000
0
79,000
0
Source:
UNDP/Worl d Bank C19841
The coal resources of Morocco are significant, but according to the
UNDP/Worl d Bankr mining conditions are di ff icul t and new investments
w i l l be necessary to maintain existing (0.73 MMtonnes/yr) and proposed
levels of production (1.0 MMtonnes in the first stage and 2.0 MMonnes
in the second stage). Further, the revision of government controlled
prices w i l l be required to stimulate coal substitution and new
investments.Cl.91 The market for an annual production of 1.0 MMtonnes
is assured, and the market for production above 1.0 MMtonnes is not
establ ished.
The potential of coal briquette technology in Morocco depends on a
number of factors including the relative costs of charcoalt coal
extract on costsI the concentration of fuel wood consumers and
transportation networks among others. The existence of a 1 arger
concentratedr charcoal-dependent urban popul ati on is the risht
rq ui rement for the df f f usi on of coal briquettes. The costs of
charcoal c incl udi ng di stri buti on systems and coal prici ng pol ici esr
needs further eval uati on.

c-4
Aligm. Located in the Sahel, Niger has one of the lowest per capita
incomes (US83301 and energy intensities in Africa. The country is
mostly desert with only 12% of the land base arable. In recent yearsI
recurring droughts, decl ining sol1 fertil ity, and increasing
desertification have created severe hardships for the population. The
rate of grawth of the population has, in factr declined over the last
decade. HoWeverr rural migration is increasing, and the urban
population now accounts for lQ% of the total. A sizable proportion,
about 16%, of the rural populatlon is still nmadic.
The country's principal export commodity and primary source of foreign
exchange is uranium. In 19816 Niger was the fourth largest supplier of
uranium in the world. The prospects for further developnent of this
export commodity are not favorable. The developnent of other mineral
resources is a1 so unl ikely because of depressed world prices and
remoteness of the deposits.
Firwood 1s the traditional fuel in Niger accounting for Over 85% of
total energy consumptfon. In 198lS there were 74Z9155 Toe consumed in
the household sector and 82,460 Toe consumed by small industry.
Additionally, scme charcoal was used by small industry (2,245 Toe).
Because the popul ati on i s concentrated, there i s consi derabl e
overexpl oi tation and scarcities of the woad resources around major
papulation centers. The wood energy balance far Niger is summarized in
Table C.3.
Table C.3. Fuelwood energy balance for Niger (19811
(Tonnes of 011 equivalent)
Fi rew ood
SUPPl Y
Production 83 B,5 90
Transformati on
Charcoal production ( 294 25 1
Conversion Losses (11,550)
Demand
Small industry 82 J46 0
Househol ds 74~155
Bal ance 0
Charcoal
0
2,425
0
0
Source:
UNDP/Worl d Bank C19841
Reforestati on, substi tuti on of kerosene and butane, and fuel ef fici ent
stove programs have been or are under consi deration as possi bl e options
for alleviating fuelwood scarcities. The developnent of indigenous coal
resources for household use is also under consideration. There are
significant coal reserves (9.4 MMannes) located in the northern Niger
that are now under production to generate electricity for uranium

C-5
mining. Coal deposits of higher quality of unknown mounts are located
about 30 km farther north. The location of these reserves relative to
the populated areas, and hence the high transportation costs, makes
their use for production of coal briquettes doubtful. However, there
have been discoveries of lignite deposits much closer to populated
areasI which would be useful for briquetting. Probable reserves of
lignite have been estimated at some 2.6 MMtonnes. The calorific value
of the coal is 4000 kcal/kg. The UNDP/World Bank C19841 estimates that
these l5gnite reserves could suppl] 20% of the cook-lng needs in Niger
for about 8 years.
The recommendations of the UNDP/Worl d Bank regarding tradi tlonal energy
are (1) to pursue cook stove programs to provide 5ome immediate
alleviation of the fuelwood crisis, and (2) to pursue the development of
1 ignite as a possible substitute for fuel wood by further reconnaissance
and drilling to determine the extent of reserves and costs of mining.
Swazilm. The Kingdom of Swazilandr landlocked between South Africa
and Mozambique, ha5 a re1 atively hisih per capita GDP !US$890) by African
standards. The country is we1 1-encowed with natural resourcesI but is
experiencing rapid population growth, low productivity in agriculture,
and acute fuelwood deficits, The population is 85% rural and grading at
2.4% per year. The urban population is rapidly expanding at nearly 6%
per year.
Sixty percent of total energy consumption Is derfved from fuelwood. In
1980, 5508000 cubic meters (or 126~000 Toe) of wood were produced.
Information on the extent of the fuelwood crisis was Linavailable, but it
is known that large quantities of land have been denuded.
Coal reserves are estimated at almost 2,000 MMtonnes includlng 200
MMtonnes of good-qual ity steam coal. At present, about 9m of total
production is extracted from the Mpaka colliery. Seventy percent of
the coal fs used domestically with the remainder exported to Kenya,
Mozambique, and the Republ ic of Korea. The development of an 6001000
tonnes/yr anthracite mine is presently under consideration. The rail
system for coal is under modernization, and overall, the transportation
infrastructure is i n good condition.
The potential for coal briquetting depends on a number of factors for
which there is no available informationl particularly with regards to
charcoal production and costs and selling prices of coal. On the basis
of existing information, further evaluation is clearly warranted. An
energy sector assessment by the UNDP/World Bank is planned or 1s to be
cornpl eted within the next six months,
Tanzania. The economy of Tanzania 1s primarily agricultural, prwiding
80% of export earnings and 90% of total mployment.C211 Approximately
8% of the population is considered rural and the rmaining 1Ei is
scattered in mal1 towns. The rate of population growth is 3.0% per
year in rural areas and 6.1% in urban locations.
Tanzania is one of the most h-ighly dependent countries on traditional
energy in the African continent, with Over 90% of the population

C-6
relying almost exclusively on firwood and charcoal for basic energy
needs. Fuelwood accounts for approximately 87% of total energy
consumptlon, Current consumption of fuelwood is placed at 39.1
cubic meters per yearl while total available supply (mean annual
incremental grawth) is just 15.6 million cubic meters per year. The
annual fuelwood deficit in Tanzania is thus sane 23.5 million cubic
meters per year. The cl earing of 1 and for agricul turer the erosion and
nutrlent depletion of soils, and the duelwood deficit is responsible
for the destruction of 500,000 hectares of forest each year, The fact
that 17 out of 20 regions in Tanzania are in a fuelwood deficit shws
the pervasiveness of the crisis. The UNDP/World Bank C19841 estimates
that an annual fuel wood plantation program of 75,000 hectares per year
would be necessary to alleviate the crisis over the next 20 years.
Current plantation efforts are about 6,200 hectares per year.
Tab1 e C.4. shows the energy ball ance for fuel woad among the househol d and
i ndustsial sectors f n Tanzani a for the year 1981. C21l Hausehcsl d
f i rwood consumpti on accounts for most of total fuel wood demand. Losses
from charcoal production are about 16% of total wssd supply. The demand
for fuelwood is projected to increase at the current rate of population
th over the next ten years or so.
Table C.4. Fuelwood energy balance for Tanzania (1981)
(Tonnos of oil equivalent)
Fi rwood
SUPPl Y
Product i on 9~400,000
Transf ormati on
Charcoal production (350,000)
Conversion Losses ( 1,100~0001
Demand
I:ndust ry
Househol ds
600,000
7 r3 50,OOO
Bal ance 0
Charcoal
350,000
150,000
200,000
0
Source:
UNDP/Worl d Bank C19841
In Tanzania, coal resources are estimated at 1,900 million tonnes
including 304 million tonnes of proven reserves. Although the
occurrences of coal are widespread throughout the country, production is
currently about 10,000 tonnes per year and is 1 imited to one f le1 d. The
coal is classifjed as bituminous and is low in sulfur, has an ash
content of 25 to 30%, and has a calorific value of 59500 kcal/kg.
Production is expected to increase to 50,000 tonnes per year by 1988.
This coal field has been given some priority for further development
based on its close locat'ion to transportation and potential urban
markets. The development of another mine in this general area is
expected to add 15Or000 tonnes per year of production capacity by 1988.

c -7
The availability of coal for domestic production of briquettes does not
appear to be an obstacle.
Lai. There is little information on the fuelwood crisis9 extent of
coal reserves, and other characteristics re1 want to assessing the
potential of coal briquetting. It; is known that there 1s a fuelwood
deficjt, and it Is relegated to tiqe southern regions of the countryI
principally Shaba. The coal reserv~s of the country are located in
Shaba -- the central and northeast sections. The UNDP/World Bank has
completed its energy sector assessn,ent for the country, but it has yet
to issue a completed report. The results of their assessment should
provide a first step in ascertaining the potential of coal briquetting.
Zambia. In Zambia, per capita income is about US8530, wlth copper
mining the major source of foreign exchange. The fall in export prices
of copper along with increasing costs of extraction has disrupted the
economy in recent years. The population of the country is growing at
3.3% per year and is increasingly being concentrated in urban areas
(40% of the total 1. The country has abundant energy resources incl uding
hydropower, coal, and wood, which ,account for 3E, 6%, and 45% of total
energy consumption, respectively. C191 Imported oil and coke account for
the rmai Rder of the energy consumed.
The supply of fuelwood in Zambia is adequate, particularly for the rural
popul ati on. Hwevw, there are i ncreasi ng scarcities of charcoal in the
towns located in the copperbelt and surrounding provfnces of Lusaka.
Widespread deforestation in these areas is a matter of concern. The
fuelwood energy balance for the country is reported in Table C.5.
Information on the extent of charcoal consumption and losses in
productl on i .si not avail ab1 e.
Table C.5. Fuelwood enersy balance for Zambia (1961)
(Tonnes of o-il equivalent)
Fi rewood
SUPPI Y
Product1 on 2,000,000
Transformati on
Demand
Mini ng 120 P 000
Househol ds
1 Bt30,OOO
Bal ance 0
Charcoal
n. a.
n. a,
n. a.
n. a.
Source:
UNDP/Worl d Bank E19843
The Government of Zambia attempts to control wholesale prjces of
charcoal. In real terms controlled charcoal prices have decl ined
considerably in recent years fran US$2.45/40kg in 1974 to US$le!32/40kg

c-8
in 1982, The actual market price was US$4.80/40kg in 1982. The higher
actual prices reflect the realities of supply and demand.
Proven coal reserves in the only existing mine, the mid-Zambezi basin at
hambar are estimated at 58 MMonnes. Current production is about 0.61
MMtonnes/yr. The major consumers of this coal are the copper miness the
cement industry, and the fertll izer pl ant. Coal production 1 s current1 y
only about 50% of its deslgn rate. The costs of production at Mamba
are unnecessarily high (US$47/tonne) because of mining inefficiencies,
lack of foreign exchange to replace and maintain equipment, and poor
management. C191 The UNDP/Worl d Bank estimates that investments of the
order of US30 million w i l l be required to rehabilitate the mine,
otherwise costs w i l l continue to increase and production w i l l lag. The
rail transportatlan system linking the mine with consumers is also In
need of rehabil itatlon. Transportation costs are high and are about
US$13/tonne from minemouth to the copper mines.
Despite the inefficiencies in coal minfng, the costs of coal compare
quite favorably with charcoal. Assuming 5600 kcal/kg for coalP the
delivered price of coal converts to US$33/Toe. Charcoal at 7000 kcal/kg
is nearly two and one-half tonnes more expensive at USdWToe. The
carbonization and Sriquetting of coal could be a viable substitute for
charcoal in urban centers. Furtherl it is likely that some capital
investmmts w i l l be required to rehabilitate the coal mine and
transportation system.
a The energy problems of Zimbabwe are similar to those of
Most of its energy demand is met with indigenous supplies of
coal hydropower, and noodf uel s. The country imports comparatl
little commercial energy, Oil and electricity each account for 11.
total energy needs.Cl91 A fuelwood crlisis is8 hcwwer, beglnni
manifest itsel f in a number of densely populated eastern and middl e vel d
rural areas and in and around the major towns and cities. The communal
lands in the middle and low veld show advanced signs of deforestation
and soil erosion. The population of the country is predominantly rural,
. However, the urban population is expanding at an annual rate
as opposed to 2.7% in the rural areas. The fuelwood energy
bal ance is sh n in Table (2.6. Industry and agriculture use 16% of the
total fuelwood supply. Data on the consumption of charcoal were not
av ai 1 ab1 e.

Tab1 e C.6. Fuel woad energy bal ance for Zimbabwe (1981)
(Tonne5 of 011 quivalerrt)
Fi rwoood
SUPPI y
Product1 on P 9645 D 080
Transformati on n. a.
Demand
Industry 5 8,000
Agriculture
175 p O Q O
kXJ5ehOl dS
1 s41211100
Bal ance 0
Ch arcoal
0
n. a,
n. a.
n. a.
n. a.
8
Source: UNDP/Worl d Bank [19843
Total proven recoverable reserves of coal in Zimbabwe have been
estimated at 2,200 NNtonnes. Receqt production frm the mine is about
3.2 MMtonnes, and this suppl ies 27% of total energy. The Wankie
colliery also generates 2 MMtonnes of hlgh ash, self-igniting steam coal
each year. This coal is planned for the proposed WankSe thermal pwer
pr oj ect
The country is well-endowed with reserves af coal and the deforestatlon
that is taking place suggests that the country is a prospective
candidate for coal briquetting technology. Information on the re1 ative
costs of coal and fuelwood was not available, but it is known that the
Government does regulate the prices of coal and coke, Energy pricingo
the spati a1 characteristics of coal supply and demand, and the extent of
shortf a1 1 s 1 n fuel wood supply and daforestati on req ui re more eva7 uati on.
hsi a
The Seven Asian countries i denti fied are: Bang4 adesh9 5urma, Iwd7 a>
Indonesia, Pakistan, Ph l’l ippl neso and Thad1 and. Indi a and Pakistan have
been eval uated previously for coal briquetting techno1 ogy. Informatdon
on the availabiliity and production of coal was derived fsmi a report by
the Econanic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Reports by
the UNDPiWorld Bank and the coal feasjbqljty studies for India and
Pakistan were also used.
e The country is unquestionably one of the poorest in the
world havlng a per capfta GDP of only US133 {19801. The econmy is
primarily agricultural, with Over 92% of the population ldving in sural
areas. The country also has the misfortune of being the most densely
populated in the nsrld. hrewer9 the population is grwing at ala
annual rate of 2.7%. The Ganges-Brahmaputra River dl’vides th
into two sections--the aastern and western, The east section
cost nat.ura1 gas reserves, while the est: section is highly dependent on
imported oil. On a countrywide basis9 071 accounts far one-thlrd sf

c-10
total energy consumption and 6 of its f ore1 gn exchange, the remai nder
of its energy use is largely derived f rm traditional sources--crop
residues, fir ood, and cow dung.
The wood resources of the country are rapidly belng overexploited to
meet i nereasi ng demands. Ai si ng popul at1 on and shifting cultivation are
creatilng massive deforestation? the effects of which are soil erasionr
reduced agricultural productivity? and siltation of reservai rs. The
growing scarcity is reflected in the fact that fuelwood prices in the
period from 1971 to 1978 increased at an annual rate of 40X.Cl91
Bang1 adesh has si gni f icant coal reserves. e53 Prw ed and possi bl e
reserves of hard coal are about 1,053 MMtonnes, with 3 MMtonnes of
brown coal. The hard coal reserves aro located in the northwest of the
country and 1 ie in two major deposits. These coals are found at depths
of about 900 meters, and the econcmic recovery of this coal is
questionable. Brown coal is being mined in the Sylet area (Northeast)
at a rate of about 0.2 MMtonnes per ysar.C51 The coal has 2
high sul fur, and a calorific value of approximately 6900 kcal/kg.
The possibility of uti1 izing coal briquettes to re1 ieve the fuelwood
def id
ts woul d need considerably more eval uati on. ESCAP reports that
brwn coal is being produced at an annual rate of 0.2 MMtonnesp yet the
UNDP/World Bank notes that there is no economically exploitable coal in
Bangladesh. Existing brown coal production rates and cost needs to be
i nvesti gated.
m a . According to the FAO, fuelwoad scarcities are limited to the
lower central regions of the country. Estimates of coal resources in
Burma are pl aced at approximately 200 MFsrtonnes 1 ncl udi ng 8Q MMionnes of
brawn coal. Proved reserves are only 4.5 MMtonnes.CSI The coal
resources are scattered throughout the country and possess varied
propertles. In the Kalaw areap there are mal1 deposits that are
suitable for coking.C63 The largest brown coal deposits are in Kalewa.
These coals are of varying calorific content but contain about 13.4%
moisture, 58% volatiles9 3.3% ashp and a lw percentage of sulfur.
A1 though the coal reserves are numerous9 coal production is re1 ativel y
ranging from 0.013 to 0.031 MMtonnes per year during the 3970s.
The UNDP/World Bank has completed Its energy assessment missdon to
Burma, but a report has not been issued.
aaaFs. Firewood is the main energy source of rural populations
accounting for 44% of total traditional and cmanerclal energy demand.
Currently? there are fuelwood deficits In all regions of India. It has
been estimated that the country would require a minimum of 25 million
hectares of land in intensive wood producttors to meet its need for
firewood in the year 2000.E53 Recognlming its fuelwood deficits, the
country embarked about 20 years ago on a program af carbonizing and
briquetting its vast reserves of coal to serve as a domestic fuel. The
Indian coal briquetting program has been the focus of an USAID
investigation to assess whether thel’r experience can be transferred to
other devel opi ng countsi es. The Indi an experi @nee i s mare f ull y
described in the main body of this prospectus.

c-13
-. The country is an oil exporter that heavily subsidizes the
domestic consumption of energy, particul arly oil-based products. In
fact, the subvention of domestic use of kerosener diesel fuel, and fuel
oil now absorbs 20% of the total national budget. The most praninent
exampl e of these subsidies involves kerosene2 which accounts for about
50% of the government outlays for fuel price reductions.[l91
The subsidy of kerosene was initiated to help the poor and displace
fuelwood use for cooking and 1 Sghting on Java and Bal i, These is1 ands
are heavily popul ated, and deforestation woul d result if fuel wood were
used heavily in these appl ication!;. The subsidized price on kerosene
has been 1 argely successful in its purpose of 1 imiti ng fuel wood use.
Only wood from backyard woadlots can still be burned more cheaply than
kerosene. The subsidy has had the side effects of d-lverting kerosene to
some industrial uses in which it Is cheaper to burn than fuel oil;
givlng more aid to affluent households that still use kerosene than to
the poorer househol ds; and bal I ooni ng the payments that the government
makes to support the subsidized prfce.
On the other is1 ands besides Java and Bal 1, fuel w~0d is in plentiful
supply. Taking the country as a whole, nearly 64% of the land area is
covered by forest. Indeed, the UNGP/Worl d Bank suggests the possi bil ity
of developing wood-based thermal power plants on some of the islands
besi des 3 ava/Bal i. Neverthel ess a situation of fuel wood shortage
prevails on these latter two, densely populated islands.
Indonesia harbors large and to a great extent, unexplored reserves of
coal. Proved reserves amount to about 300 MMtonnes. However, total
reserves, incl uding und'iscovered reserves2 are estimated to be in the
neighborhood of l0,OOO MMtonnes. 'These reserves exist in the provinces
of Sumatra and Kal imantan, and are expected to play an increasing role
in industrial and electric power generation. In fact, there may be a
domestic shortfall in coal supply for a period because of a lack of
investment in coal development to cate.
The place for a coal briquetting schme to ease fuelwood us8 In
Indonesi a would need thorough eval uatlon. Kerosene has a1 ready largely
supplanted fuelwood use in thox areas where fuelwood is in short
supply. However, the government of Indonesi a and 5 nternatf onal
agencies are in favor of gradually reducing the substantial price
subsi di es on petrol eum-based fuel st incl uding kerosene. Coal
briquettes might provide a substitute cooking fuel without the
distortions of subsidization. Another al ternative to kerosene for
cooking that has received emphasis elsewhere is Lffi; cost studies of its
use have been suggested.Cl93 Due to the high population density on
J ava/Bal i, whose increase ha5 made rural areas on these is1 ands a1 most
indistinguishable from urban areas, electrification may be the most
viable alternative for 1 ighting pur-poses. Thus, the viabil ity of coal
briquettes in Indonesia is caught up in a complex web of whether
kerosene subsi dies w ill be reducedr whether fuel wood w ill thereby
become attractive to certain wers again, whether Lffi would be
econanically superior as a cooking fuel, and whether electrification
w i l l soon reach most segments of the Java/BaI i population.

c-12
j?&k&&@. The fuelwood crisis 1s pervasive in Pakistan. The coal
deposits of Pakistan are located in three different basins -- Kvetta
twno Salt Range, and west of Hyderabad. Hard to brain coal types are
mined in Kvetta town and annual production ranges frm 0.50 to 0.88
MMtonnes. Sub-bituminous coal s are mined at Salt town with annual ouput
of 0.10 to 0.12 MMonnes. Numerous other deposits are a1 so found in
this basin. Smaller amounts of coal are produced in various ather
mines. Total coal production for the country has been as high as 1.50
MMtonnes. About 90% of thls production is used by the brick industry.
The feasibil ity of using coal for household energy use has been
previously studied by USAID. C6l The results of this investigation
suggest that coking and briquetting of coal is indeed feasible. The
development af a smokeless stave and a 25 tonne/day pilat plant for
briquetti ng/carbonizlng was recommended by the assessment team.
* .
Philippines. The country has a relatively high GNP (US$710) by
developing country standards and a host of energy supply options
including reserves of oil and gas. Approximately 32% of total energy
consumptian in %be Philippines is derived frm fuelwood. The fuelwood
crisis in the Philippines is largely concentrated on the central
islands. A prospective fuelwood deficit exSsts on LUZG~ and a
sati sfactory fuel woad bal ance exists on Mi ndanao. C9J To me1 iorate the
fuel wood cri si s, the Government emba rked on a massive reforestation
program in the late 1970s.
Proved and possible reserves of coal are estimated at 170 MMtonnes of
sub- bituminous and 1 ignite and 100 MMtonnes of hard coal. Resources of
all types of coal may exceed 1,000 MMtonnes.CS1 There are ten kncwn
coal basins in the country, four of which have current commercial value.
On Cebu Island, located among the central fuelwood deficit islands,
bituminous and sub-bituminous coals are being mined. These coals have
7.5 to 12.5% moisture, 3 to 4,5% ash, 38 to 44% volatiles, and calorific
values of 5770 to 6800 kcal/kg. Annual production on the island is
about 0.20 Mmonnes.
Total coal production in the Phil ipines was 0.310 MMonnes in 1980 and
was extracted from 36 different mines. American, Japanese, and South
Korean companies are actively involved in the exploration and
development of coal. C53 Coal for carbanizati on and brlquetti ng in the
Phil ippines appears to be readily avail ab1 e.
w. The country boasts considerable deposits of brwn coal.
Proved reserves are estimated at 246 MMtonneso with some 120 Mbttonnes
recoverabl e under exi sti ng econmfc and technical conditions. C51 There
are ten known brown coal basins in the country, three of which are in
active production. In Lampang Province, the coal is transitional
between brown and sub-bituminous, In Larnphon Provinces the coal is of
high-qual ity brown gradeseC5I Both of these basins are located in
northern Thailand. In the south, the coal is located in Krabi Province
where there are 10 MMonner; of recoverabl e reserves and annual output
of 0.3 MMtonnes.CS1 On a countrywide basis the coals in Thailand are
used almost excluslvely ta generate electricity. To a lesser extent
coal is used in fertil izer production, tobacco curing, rail road

c-1s
transportation, and for metal 1 urg-ic processes. Clearly, the technology
for extracti ngr processing, carbonizing, and briquetting coal is a1 ready
we1 l-establ ished in Thai1 and.
Lati ti America
Two Latin American countries are examined for coal briquetting
technology -- Haiti and Peru. Other countries that had the requisite
coal production and fuel wood def ic i ts, Bra il Col ombi a, and Mexico were
not examined. A country that was not listed as having available coal
production, but has an acute fuel wood deficit is the Dominican Republ ic.
The fact that the Dominican Republ ic shares the same island with Haiti
is cause for further investigation for coal reserves or importation of
coal briquettes fran Haiti.
Haiti. The dichotomous economy of Haiti is characterized by a large and
unproductive agricultural sector and a mal 1, modern urban sector. Soil
erosion f rm the indiscriminate cutting of trees for agrlcul ture and
charcoal productfon is a major cause for the decline in agricultural
productivity. These factors largely account for the lowest per capita
income of any country in the Western Hemisphere. Moreover, the
UNDP/Worl d Bank estlmates that three- fourths of the popul ati on subsists
on incomes below US$lO0.
Firewood, charcoalr and bagasse provide nearly 81% of total domestic
energy requirements. Approximately 17% of the remaining energy bill is
derived from imported oil products,, The details of the fuelwood energy
bal ance are summarized in Tab1 e ‘2.7. The fuel wood energy bal ance shows
that over 17% of wood production is 1 ost in conversion to charcoal. The
energy bal ance a1 so shaws that the industrial, commerce and service, and
household sectors consume 24.9%? 28.8Xr and 46.31 of fuelwood supply,
respect i vel y .
Table C.7. Fuelwood energy balance for Haiti (1979)
(Tomes of ctil equivalent)
Fi rewood
SUPPI Y
Production
9 80 so00
Transformation ( 16896 00)
Demand
Industry 202,000
Commerce 4, service 203,000
Househol ds 405,400
Bal ance 0
Charcoal
--
61,000
-I
30,500
308600
0
Source:
UNDP/Worl d Bank C19841

c-14
The UNDP/Worl d Bank estimates that current fuolnood consumption is about
twice as much as natural growth. A factor in this overexploitatlon is
the treatment of the wood resource base as a virtually free good. There
are nonenforced stumpage fees for the harvesting of trees for fir
and a tax of only LJS$1,65/tanne is levied on charcoal producers for
cutting trees. C193 Increasing taxes to reflect scarcityr reducing
charcoal production, and improv ing end-use efficiency w i l l be rqui red.
In addition to these demand si de optforis, masslve ref orestation w ill be
necessary to reduce soil erosion, to malntain soil productivity, and to
reduce sedimentation to protect the mal 1 but vital hydropower resource.
Substitution of coal (lignite) briquettes is an energy supply option
that needs to be eval uated a5 a means for rep1 acing charcsal. Coal in
the form of lignite is found in the Central Plateau and in two
locations in the South est Pen1 nsul a. E191 The Central PI ateau 1 ignite
reserves are estimated at 6.2 MMtonnes. This lignite is high in ash and
sulfur, and has a lw calorific content of 2500 kcallkg. The cast of
mining has been estimated at US$35/tonne, Phs low energy content of the
lignite does not justify Its us8 for generation of electricity; hweverp
it may be suitable for carbonization and briquetting. Lwying
appropriate taxes on charcoal production could further improve the
economics of coal briquetti ng. The 1 ignite deposits in the Southwest
Peninsula are estimated at 0.10 MMonnes and further reconnaissance of
these deposits is needed.
mu. Due to a uns’que topographyr Peru is a country of regional
disparitiesr not the least of which lies in the area of fuelwood use.
There are three major regions. The Costa is the narrow desert strip
between the Pacific ocean and the Andes Mountains which contains Lima
and 46% of the population. The high plateau/mountain country called the
Sierra, with 24% of the populatlon, is the cantral third of the country.
The Selva is the sparsely populated, forested portion of the country in
the Amazon basin. In spite of abundant Forests in the Selva, acute
fuel wood shortages ex1 st in the Costa and prospective shortages exi st in
the Sierra, Distance and topography make trade betHeeen the regions far
an itm 1 ike fuelwood prohibitively tztxpensive.
ass energy ( fuel w~od, charcoal animal dung, and agricultural
residues) met 32% of the total ruva’as? energy demand in 1981, and in
the residentlal sector, it was of energy consumption (53% woodr 6%
other bimass and 2% charcoal 1 .E181 The Sierra is an area of special
concern for fuelwoad and other bimasas energy. The regfont in which
heavy deforestation has occurred, has only 0.2% of the country! s forest
resources yet consumes 85% of the estimated 5.3 million cubic meters of
fuelwood each year, Seventy-flve percent of the wood consumed in the
Sierra exceeds annual grwth there. The wood balance for the Sierrat
shcrwsl in Table C.Br depends on the inclusion of 5.2 million cubic meters
of wood from unknown sources. Thus, the fuelwood deficit in the Sierra
could already be considered to be 5.2 million cubic meters per year.
orld Bank si ply considers this wood a residual, whlch ra;lll
likely became less available by the year 2000. If less than half of
thls residual is available by %OOQ, the region w i l l go Into acute
fuelwood deficit, given present projections of use in that year.

c-15
Table C.8. Fuelwood energy balance for the Sierra of Peru (1981)
(Tonnes of ail equivalent)
Fuel wood
SUPPl Y
Production
Transformati on
Demand
Househol ds
Industry and construction
Bal ance
3,53 8,000
(3 83,000)
2p7 10,000
445 P 000
0
Source:
UNDP/Worl d Bank E19841
Coal deposits exist in 16 of Peru's 24 departments, with existfng
production in the Sierra. Total reserves are estimated to be
approximately 1,000 MMtonnes, with proved reserves amounting to 126
MMtonnes and inferred reserves put at 871 MMtonnas. Production in 1981
was 0.106 MMonnes. Due to the t*emoteness and the geology (seams of
variable thickness and continuity; some almost vertical)r the coal of
the Slerra is often difficult to mine. Still, significant production
could be brought forth by many small, private producers. Much of the
Sierran coal is anthracite, so carbonization may not be necessary to
produce a smokeless cooking fuel. Because large portions of this
particular coal degenerate into coal dust and fines (as much as 80% of
production In sane cases), coal fines a5 well as Imp coal could be
used 1 n a briq uetti ng operati on.
Fuelwood is also in critically short supply In the Costa reglon of Peru,
to such an extent that poor urban dwellers in this reglon have
substantially substituted heavily subsidized kerosene. The possibil ity
exists of transporting coal briquettes f ran the Sierra, a1 though
transportation costs have not been cl arif fed, or briquetting and
carbonizing 1 ignitic coal found in the North Costa.
Both in the Sierra and in the Costa, coal brfquettes apppear to be an
econonilc a1 ternative to fuel wood. The briquettes used for cooking fuel
would cost between USp19.30 to $13.30 per capita per year (based an
200,OOQ kcal of cooking energy per capita per year). Fuelwood in an
open fire, the most prevalent cooking method in Perur costs US810.60 to
$15.00 per capita per year in Huancayo (Sierra) and US$27.50 to $31.70
In Lima (C0sta). The cost of a stove is not included in these
estimates. (By comparison, an efficient, wood stove would reduce wood
burning costs to US5.40 to $11.20 per capita per year in Huancayo and
US$U.80 to $23.70 in Lima. Subsidized kerosene costs US87.70 per
capita per year, but unsubsidized costs are US$21.00 in Huancayo and
US$18.50 in Lima.)

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ORNL/TM-9770
IN TERN PL D I S TR IB UT ION
1. V. D. Baxter
2. V. M. Bo1 inger
3. M. A. Brown
4. T. R. Curlee
5. S. Das
6. W. Ful kerson
7. L. J. Hill
8. E. L. Hillman
9. R. B. Honea
10. S. I. Kaplan
11. R. Lee
12. R. S. Loffman
13, F. C. Plaienschein
14, L. N. McCold
15. J. W. Michel
16-26, R. D. Perlack
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33
34.
35.
36.
37.
3 8-40.
41.
42-43.
C. H. Petrich
H. Perez-81 anco
S. Rayner
G. Samuels
R. A. Stevens
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44. R. H. Bonezek, Krannert Graduate School of Management, Purdue
University, West Laf ayette, Indi ana 47907
45. P. L. Baldwin, U. S. Agency for International Development,
Office of Energy, Roan 509, SPrlB, Washington, DC 20523
46. S. Malcolm G ill is, Professor, Pub1 ic Pol icy and Economics, Duke
University, Durham, NC 27706
47. A, Jacobs” U. S, Agency for International Devel opnent, Off ice of
Energy, Fbn. 509, SA-18, Washington, DC 20523
48. D. H. Jhirad, U.S. Agency for, International Developnent, Office
of Energy, Rm. 509, SPr18, Washington, DC 20523
49. Fritz R. Kal hammer, Vice President, Electric Power Research
Institute, P. 0. Box 10412, F’alo A1 to, CA 94303
50. Roger E. Kasperson, Graduate School of Geography, Clark
Unfversi ty, Worchester, MA 01610
51. Martin Lessen, 12 Country Club Drive, Rochester, NY 14618
52. Office of Assistant Manager for Energy Research and
Development, Oak Ridge Operations, P. 0. Box E. U.S. Department
of Energy, Oak Ridge, TN 37831

53. 3. E. Sull ivan, U. S. Agency for International Devel open%,
Off Ice of Energyp e 509, SA-lBr ashington, QC 20523
54. S. Toth, U.S. Agency for Internatdonal Develop~ent, Office of
Energy, h. 509# SA-18, ashingtanr DC 20523
55-56 a Uni ted Nations Di strl butt on, #I Uni ted Natf ons P1 aza, Ram
DCX/876, NEW 'fork, NY 10017
5741. World Bank Distribution-World Bank 1818 H. StreetP NW,
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