CULTURE AND CONCEPTIONS OF HAPPINESS: INDIVIDUAL ...

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278LUO LU AND ROBIN GILMOURThis evidence supports our assertion that individualist andcollectivist cultures produce different meanings for SWB, andthrough active participation of the individual, subjective conceptionsof happiness are systematically varied across cultural systemsthrough the world. Striving for personal happiness and the recognitionof such striving are the defining features of individuallyoriented conceptions of SWB, whereas role obligations and dialecticalreservation are defining features of socially oriented conceptions.The former is more prototypical of Euro-Americanculture, whereas the latter is more prototypical of Asian culture.THE EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE: THE CHINESE CONCEPTIONS OFHAPPINESSThe number of studies of SWB from a cultural psychologicalperspective is still small, and we very much need hard data derivedfrom testing theoretical propositions. In addition, the literatureon SWB has so far been largely based on surveys and self-reportmeasures. The cultural perspective however, suggests that culturalmeanings are often tacit, normative, taken-for-granted, densedescriptions of the lived world of people, and that people’sspontaneous accounts may be more effective ways to unravel thecultural construction of SWB.In the rest of this article, we will present data and analyses fromAmerican students’ spontaneous accounts of happiness. Thesedense descriptions of the lived world of the American people will becompared to those of the Chinese people, and related to the abovetheoretical analysis. Such interplay of theory and empirical datawill, we hope, be of benefit to research on SWB in general, as wellas to the application of a cultural psychological approach to thefield.As space does not allow detailed elaboration of our previousstudy regarding Chinese conceptions of SWB (Lu, 2001), only asketch of the empirical findings is presented below for the purposeof later comparisons with those of the American students. Onehundred and forty-two undergraduate Chinese students wrote freeformatessays in response to a simple question, ‘‘What is happiness?’’Using thematic analysis, four main themes were found:
CULTURE AND CONCEPTIONS OF HAPPINESS 279(1) Happiness can be defined in terms of (a) a mental state ofsatisfaction and contentment; (b) positive feelings/emotions; (c) aharmonious homeostasis; (d) achievement and hope; and (e)freedom from ill-being.(2) Happiness is a harmonious state of existence, under thefollowing conditions: (a) the individual is satisfied or content; (b)the individual is the agent of his own happiness; (c) spiritualenrichment is emphasized more than material satisfaction; and (d)the individual maintains a positive outlook for the future.(3) The relationship between happiness and unhappiness isdialectical. These two distinct entities are locked in a never-endingrelationship of interdependence: each depends on the other forcontrast and meaning. Moreover this relationship between thetwo opposites is also dynamic and constantly changing.(4) Happiness can be achieved, provided that one has the followingabilities: (a) the wisdom of discovery; (b) the wisdom ofcontentment and gratitude; (c) the wisdom of giving; and (d) thewisdom of self-cultivation.THE EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE: AMERICAN CONCEPTIONS OFHAPPINESSParticipantsA total of 202 undergraduate students participated in the study.To minimize the impact of cultural fusion, only data on the 97white Caucasian Americans aged 17–25, with both parents beingAmerican citizens were reported below.ProcedureTo reflect the exploratory nature of the present study, a qualitativeapproach was adopted. Participants wrote free-format essaysin response to a simple question, ‘‘What is happiness?’’ There wasno restriction on perspectives, topics, materials, formats, length,and time of completion. However, it was stressed that participantsshould freely and fully express their views and thoughts abouthappiness. Data were collected in early 2002.All the essays were then coded using thematic analysis. The firstauthor independently analyzed all the transcripts and developed a
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