WEPA Outlook on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Background to the PublicationRecognizing the critical situation of water quality in Asia, the Water Environment Partnership in Asia (<strong>WEPA</strong>) wasproposed by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan at the 3rd World Water Forum in 2003. <strong>WEPA</strong> aims tostrengthen water environmental governance in Asia through the collection and dissemination of information andcapacity development of relevant stakeholders in partnership with thirteen partner countries in the region, namelyCambodia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Philippines, Sri Lanka,Thailand and Viet Nam. <strong>WEPA</strong> is a forum which allows partner countries to discuss their experiences and identifypotential solutions to improve the water environment.Considering the importance of extracting information on water environment and management, “<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> onWater Environmental Management” has been designed to provide basic information on the status and management ofthe water environment in each <strong>WEPA</strong> partner country, and to make this information available to the public in oneplatform as a source of knowledge to promote good water quality governance in the region. The <strong>Outlook</strong>, which wasfirst published during the 5th World Water Forum in 2009, may also serve as a useful reference for those who arestriving to solve water quality issues in other countries in the world.“<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management 2012”, which is the second edition of the series, consists ofthree main chapters. Chapter 1 presents the result of the analysis of institutional frameworks for water environmentmanagement in each country. Chapter 2 summarizes the discussions and studies conducted on the two priority issuesof “domestic wastewater treatment” and “climate change and the water environment”. The third chapter providesupdated country profiles on water environmental management in the <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries. It also presents <strong>WEPA</strong>’smessage which introduces the key actions identified and future commitments made in discussions held at <strong>WEPA</strong>annual meetings and dialogues.The report, a major output of the <strong>WEPA</strong> activities by all partner countries, intends to stimulate dialogue around theissues on water environment. The <strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> 2012 is published at the 6th World Water Forum, which is held inMarch 2012 in Marseille, France, and where <strong>WEPA</strong> was registered as one of the “Solutions for Water.” We wish the<strong>Outlook</strong> to serve as a useful reference for those interested in the issues in Asia including the participants of the 2ndAsia Pacific Water Summit, and in other parts of the world to accomplish our mutual goal of sustainable waterenvironment.March 2012Ministry of the Environment, JapanInstitute for Global Environmental Strategies (<strong>WEPA</strong> Secretariat)5

Message from <strong>WEPA</strong>:Water Quality Challenges in Asia for a Sustainable FutureSignificant pressure and risks to the water environment in the region1. While diverse, Asian countries also share similarities in climatic andnatural conditions and cultural backgrounds. In general, people in theregion enjoy many of the benefits provided by water. Nevertheless, theyalso suffer from seasonal fluctuations in water volume at both ends ofthe spectrum, such as from floods and droughts.2. Over the past few decades, Asia has been a focal point for the world’srapid growth, demonstrating a 120% increase in GDP in the region andaccounting for 60% of the world’s population growth. Rapid urbanizationand the swift increase in population and economic development that are associated with unsustainabledevelopment practices have resulted in intense pressure on water resources both in quantity and quality, as wellas on aquatic ecosystems in the region.Accelerate water environmental management to safeguard the water environment3. Significant time and resources must be invested to improve waterquality and restore aquatic ecosystems once destroyed. Therefore, it isof the utmost importance to strengthen water quality management inareas where water environmental deterioration has been observed, andto promote and ensure development and implementation of waterenvironmental management at regional, national and local levelswithout delay in order to minimize the impacts of human activities onthe water environment. The key to our sustainable future is ensuring asound water environment.Water Environment Partnership in Asia (<strong>WEPA</strong>)4. Considering the critical situation of the water environment in the region, the Water Environment Partnershipin Asia (<strong>WEPA</strong>) was proposed by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan at the 3rd World Water Forumin 2003. The programme, launched in 2004 with the participation of 11 Asian countries: Cambodia, China,Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Viet Nam,is a forum which allows partner countries to discuss their experiences and identify potential solutions toimprove the water environment. In 2009, <strong>WEPA</strong> membership expanded to include Nepal and Sri Lanka.5. Reaffirming that the sound management of the water environment isnecessary for the sustainable development of Asia, as well as to achievethe Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and recallingdiscussions within <strong>WEPA</strong> for better water environment, <strong>WEPA</strong>partners hereby deliver the following key messages to those residing inthe region and to stakeholders worldwide to promote a sustainablewater environment in Asia and the Pacific, and commit to upholdingefforts to improve the condition of the world’s water environmentthrough <strong>WEPA</strong> activities.6

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Key messages6. Between 1980 and 1990, in particular, most <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries established frameworks for soundwater environmental management, set goals for water environmental management and implemented variousmeasures to improve water pollution. Thanks to these efforts, a number of <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries were ableto observe significant improvement in water quality.7. Despite this, organic pollution in rivers located in populated areas and eutrophication in enclosed waterbodies such as lakes, reservoirs and estuaries continue to require special attention. Considering economicdevelopment, population growth and urbanization observed in the region and the possible impacts of climatechange, further intensified efforts are necessary to guarantee the implementation of water environmentalpolicies to secure human health, sustainability of ecosystems, and promotion of sustainable development inthe region.Key action areas in water environmental management8. <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries identified the following common action areas to be promoted in eachcountry to set and/or attain the water quality goals of each country.a) Review laws, regulations, and setting of standards in consideration of socio-economicconditions and the current state of the water environment, such as effluentstandards taking into account the structure of industries and quality of effluents.b) Strengthen local management of the water environment such through theestablishment of water environmental management strategies and actionplans at the basin level.c) Improve/strengthen the scientific basis for policy making such as theestablishment of effective monitoring systems within limited budgets andthe improvement of data storage systems.d) Strengthen the control of water pollution sources such as through thepromotion of adequate domestic wastewater treatment and theintroduction/implementation of total pollution control load systems.e) Stipulate polluter pays principle in water quality management and utilizemarket-based instruments as an incentive for compliance.f ) Promote institutional and technical capacity building of organizations in chargeof water environmental management at national and local levels.g) Promote participation of the private sector, civil society and communities in watermanagement and improve environmental awareness.Preparation for the potential impacts of climate change9. The impacts of climate change to the water environment is one of the myriad mid- and long-term challengesfacing the region, although there is as yet little scientific proof on which to base actions. To prepare forpotential impacts, however, “no-regret responses” should be taken such as ensuring regular water qualitymonitoring and improving data collection and exchange systems. At the international and regional level, it isalso important to share scientific knowledge and possible adaptation options.7

Strengthen domestic wastewater management10. All <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries made significant efforts to improvesanitary conditions to achieve the sanitation goals set out by theMDGs, and therefore, treatment of black water has been promotedin the region. However, the pollution load of grey water is alsoconsiderable and therefore the treatment of black water should besupplemented with the promotion of grey water treatment.11. <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries plan to construct or have developedcentralized wastewater treatment plants especially in urban areas.However, many countries now face various challenges in the development and operation of such large-scale,centralized systems, including land acquisition for the construction of plants and financial constraints in thedevelopment stage, as well as low household connection rates and cost recovery issues in the operation andmaintenance stage.12. In areas without centralized treatment systems, septic tank treatment is a typical option. However, septictanks do not always adequately treat wastewater and itself can become a source of pollution. There are two keyquestions that arise when discussing the improvement of domestic wastewater treatment in the region: howto promote construction and improve the operation and maintenance of central wastewater treatmentsystems, and how to promote treatment of domestic wastewater in areas with little to no access to adequatetreatment systems.13. <strong>WEPA</strong> countries have developed the knowledge to promote domestic wastewater treatment within their ownindividual socio-economic constraints. Such knowledge includes the prioritization of areas that need treatmentin consideration of local conditions, such as population density or variability of the water environment;development of small-scale treatment facilities; upgrade or utilization of existing infrastructure and unutilizedspace; and promotion of community or private sector involvement in the operation and maintenance oftreatment plants. It is imperative for <strong>WEPA</strong> countries to share and learn from such good practices and discusspossible applications to other areas of the region.Future <strong>WEPA</strong> activities14. Keeping the key policy areas mentioned in our message in mind,<strong>WEPA</strong> will continue to facilitate the exchange of lessons andknowledge among <strong>WEPA</strong> member countries through existing<strong>WEPA</strong> schemes such as the <strong>WEPA</strong> database and policy dialogues.In addition, to strengthen experience and knowledge sharing amongpartner countries, <strong>WEPA</strong> will introduce new schemes such asthematic group meetings among <strong>WEPA</strong> countries which havesimilar policy challenges, in addition to twinning programmesbetween partner countries. Furthermore, to highlight theimportance of river basin management, <strong>WEPA</strong> will strengthen relationships with other like-minded networksand programmes, such as the Network of Asian River Basin Organizations (NARBO).8

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012AcknowledgementsThe <strong>WEPA</strong> secretariat is grateful to the focal persons and the collaborators of the following <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countriesfor their contributions and constructive input, as well as their support in the preparation of this publication. We alsoextend our appreciation to the <strong>WEPA</strong> advisory committee for their guidance and invaluable input.CambodiaSokha Chrin*, Deputy Director General, GeneralDirectorate of Technical Affairs, Ministry ofEnvironmentChinaChen Gang*, Senior Engineer, China-JapanEnvironmental Protection CenterGuo Jinlong, Deputy Director, Department ofPollution Prevention and Control, Ministry ofEnvironmental ProtectionLi Ruijuan, Project Manager, China-JapanEnvironmental Protection CenterXie Yufeng, Assistant Researcher, Nanjing Institute ofEnvironmental Science of Ministry of EnvironmentalProtectionIndonesiaDionysius Johny Kusmo*, Assistant Deputy Ministerfor Environmental Data and Information, TheMinistry of EnvironmentMaulyani Djajadilaga, Head of Data ManagementSection, The Ministry of EnvironmentHarimurti, Sub-head of Data Collection Section, TheMinistry of EnvironmentLao PDRSouphasay Komany*, Acting Director, Nam NgumRiver Basin Committee Secretariat, Department ofWater Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironmentPhengkhamla Phonvisai, Director, Department ofPollution Control, Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironmentJapanNobuo Yoshida, Director, Water EnvironmentDivision, Environment Management Bureau,Ministry of the Environment* Focal PersonTakatoshi, Wako*, Deputy Director, WaterEnvironment Division, Environment ManagementBureau, Ministry of the EnvironmentOsamu Oyama, Section Chief of Sewerage, WaterEnvironment Division, Environment ManagementBureau, Ministry of the EnvironmentRepublic of KoreaTaegu Kang*, Senior Researcher, Water EnvironmentInformation Center, Water Environment ControlResearch Division, Water Environment ResearchDepartment, National Institute of EnvironmentalResearch (NIER)MyanmarTint Zaw*, Deputy Director General, IrrigationDepartment, Ministry of Agriculture and IrrigationKhon Ra, Directior, Hydrology Branch, IrrigationDepartment, Ministry of Agriculture and IrrigationMu Mu Than, Assistant Engineer, Planning andWorks Branch, Irrigation Department, Ministry ofAgriculture and IrrigationMalaysiaBaba Bin Hassan, Division Secretary, WaterResources, Drainage and Hydrology Division,Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment(NRE)Ahmad Jamalluddin Shaaban*, Director General,National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia(NAHRIM)Pauziah Hanum Abdul Ghani, Senior ResearchOfficer, Research Centre for Water Quality &Environment, National Hydraulic Research Instituteof Malaysia, Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironmentWan Abd Rahim Bin Wan Abdullah, DeputyDirector General (Planning & Development),Sewerage Services Department, Ministry of Energy,Green Technology and Water Malaysia9

Hoo Huey Ching, Research Centre for WaterQuality & Environment, National HydraulicResearch Institute of Malaysia, Ministry of NaturalResources and EnvironmentBashirah binti Mohd Fazli, Research Officer,Research Centre for Water Quality & Environment,National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia(NAHRIM)NepalGautam Rajkarnikar*, Chief, Koshi River BasinManagement Cell, Water and Energy CommissionSecretariatPhilippinesVicente B. Tuddao Jr., Executive Director, RiverBasin Control Office, Department of Environmentand Natural ResourcesMarcelino N. Rivera Jr., Chief, Water QualityManagement Section, Environmental ManagementBureau, Department of Environment and NaturalResourcesErlinda A. Gonzales*, Technical Officer,Environmental Management Bureau, Department ofEnvironment and Natural ResourcesMark Mulingbayan, Manager, EnvironmentalDepartment, Manila Water Company Inc.Sri LankaR.M.S.K. Ratnayake*, Director (EnvironmentalPollution Control), Central EnvironmentalAuthorityHimali Karunaweera, Assistant Director(Environmental Pollution Control), CentralEnvironmental AuthorityThailandWijarn Simachaya, Inspector General, Ministry ofNatural Resources and EnvironmentThiparpa Yolthantham*, Director of Inland WaterDivision, Pollution Control Department, Ministry ofNatural Resources and EnvironmentViet NamNguyen The Dong*, Deputy Director General,Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry ofNatural Resources and EnvironmentDo Nam Thang, Deputy Director, Institute ofScience for Environmental Management (ISEM),Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry ofNatural Resources and EnvironmentPham Thi Nguyet Nga, International Cooperationand Science & Technology Department (ISD),Vietnam Environment Administration, Ministry ofNatural Resources and Environment<strong>WEPA</strong> Advisory Committee MembersMotoyuki Suzuki, Chair of Central EnvironmentCouncil, Japan, Auditor of Tokyo Institute ofTechnology, Professor emeritus at the University ofTokyoMitsumasa Okada, Professor, the Open University ofJapanKaoru Takara, Professor, Disaster PreventionResearch Institute (DPRI), Kyoto UniversityKensuke Fukushi, Associate Professor, IntegratedResearch System for Sustainability Science, TheUniversity of TokyoSo Kazama, Professor, Graduate School ofEngineering, Tohoku UniversityThe secretariat would also like to express our gratitude tothe following experts who have also provided valuableinputs to this publication.Kazuo Yamamoto, Professor, Environmental ScienceCenter, The University of TokyoTakahiko Hiraishi, Senior Consultant, IGES, (Co-Chair, IPCC Inventories Task Force Bureau)10

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012AbbreviationsADBAsian Development BankIETSIndustrial Effluent Treatment SystemsAMDALEnvironmental Impact Assessment StatementIGESInstitute for Global Environmental StrategiesASERAnnual Regional Environment StatementIMFInternational Monetary FundBODBiochemical Oxygen DemandIPCCIntergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeCBSCentral Bureau of StatisticsISESIndustry-Specific Effluent StandardsCEACentral Environment AuthorityIWKIndah Water KonsortiumCNMCCambodia National Mekong CommitteeLGUsLocal Government UnitsCODChemical Oxygen DemandLLDALaguna Lake Development AuthorityCRMPCoastal Resource Management ProjectLSGALocal Self Governance ActCWTPsCombined Wastewater Treatment PlantsMBASMethylene Blue Active SubstancesDAODENR Administrative OrderMDGMillennium Development GoalDADepartment of AgricultureMENRMinistry of Environment and Natural ResourcesDDADepartment of Development AffairsMEPMinistry of Environmental ProtectionDDCsDENRDHMDKIDODoEDoEPCDoNREDistrict Development CommitteesDepartment of Environment and NaturalResourcesDepartment of Hydrology and MeteorologySpecial Capital City DistrictDissolved OxygenDepartment of EnvironmentDepartment of Environmental Pollution ControlDepartment of Natural Resources andEnvironmentMLITMoAIMDMoCTMoEMoEJMoNREMoSTIMoUMinistry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport andTourism of JapanMinistry of Agriculture, Irrigation and MahaweliDevelopmentMinistry of Construction and TransportationMinistry of EnvironmentMinistry of the Envrionment of JapanMinistry of Natural Resources and EnvironmentMinistry of Science, Technology and InnovationMemorandum of UnderstandingDWSSDepartment of Water Supply and SewerageMoWRAMMinistry of Water Resources and MeteorologyEIAEnvironmental Impact AssessmentsMPPAMarine Pollution Prevention AuthorityEMBEnvironmental Management BureauMPWTMinistry of Public Works and TransportationEPAEnvironment Protection ActMRCMekong River CommissionEPLEnvironmental Protection LawMWQCSMarine Water Quality Criteria and StandardsEQAEnvironmental Quality ActMWRMinistry of Water ResourcesEQSEnvironmental Quality StandardsMWSSMetropolitan Water Works and Sewerage SystemFAOFood and Agriculture OrganizationNAANon-Attainment AreasGBNational StandardsNCEANational Commission for Environmental AffairsGB/TRecommended StandardsNCSDNational Council for Sustainable DevelopmentGDPGross Domestic ProductNEBNational Environmental BoardICIMODInternational Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopmentNGONISNon Governmental OrganizationNational Institute of Statistics11

NLMANational Land Management AuthorityTNTotal NitrogenNREMinistry of Natural Resources and EnvironmentTOCTotal Organic CarbonNSDWNational Standards for Drinking WaterTPTotal PhosphorusNSONational Statistics OfficeTPLCsTotal Pollutant Load Control SystemNTNCNational Trust for Nature ConservationTSSTotal Suspended SolidsNWPNational Water PlanTSGLTonle Sap Great LakeNWQSNWS&DBONEPPCAsPCBPCDNational Water Quality StandardsNational Water Supply and Drainage BoardOffice of Natural Resources and EnvironmentalPolicy and PlanningPollution Control AreasPolychlorinated BiphenylPollution Control of DepartmentUKL-UPLUNDESAUNDPUNEPUNESCOEnvironmental Management Effort andEnvironmental Monitoring EffortsUnited Nations Department of Economic andSocial AffairsUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUnited Nations Environmental ProgrammeUnited Nations, Educational, Scientific andCultural OrganizationPCEPDpHPPPPRCRARBIMSPerchloroethylenePresidential DecreePower of Hydrogen (hydrogen-ionconcentration)Polluter Pay PrincipalPeople’s Republic of ChinaRepublic ActRiver Basin Integrated Information ManagementSystemsUNICEFVATVDCsVEAVOCWCPWDIWECSUnited Nations Children’s FundValue Added TaxVillage Development CommitteesVietnam Environment AdministrationVolatile Organic CompoundsWastewater Charge ProgrammeWorld Development IndicatorWater and Energy Commission SecretariatROKRepublic of Krea<strong>WEPA</strong>Water Environment Partnership in AsiaSEPASLSSMEsSOEsSSDTCEState Environmental Protection Administration,ChinaSri Lanka Standards (test method)Small and Medium EnterprisesState Owned EnterprisesSewerage Service DepartmentTrichloroethyleneWHOWQCWQIWQMAWQMAPWREAWorld Health OrganizationWater Quality CriteriaWater Quality IndexWater Quality Management AreasWater Quality Management Action PlanWater Resources and EnvironmentAdministrationTCVNNational Environmental StandardsWRUDWater Resources Utilization DepartmentTMDLsTotal Maximum Daily Load SystemWWFWorld Wide Fund for NatureTMSTele-Monitoring systemYCDCYangon City Development Committee12

Chapter1<strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in<strong>WEPA</strong> countries

Chapter 1<strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in<strong>WEPA</strong> countries1. BackgroundThe Water Environment Partnership in Asia (<strong>WEPA</strong>) wasformed to address issues related to the water environmentin the 13 countries that it covers. Despite measures taken todate to combat pollution and improve the quality of water,low water quality still sits among the most pressingenvironmental problems for these countries and is stillcritical in some areas, particularly urban areas, as aconsequence of socio-economic growth. The partnercountries have each developed policies and measuresdesigned to both combat the growing threat of waterpollution in critical areas, and to avoid future outbreaks inother areas.Certain aspects of water environmental managementdiffer across the partner countries–due to factors such asthe duration, gravity, cause and level of socio-economicdevelopment forming the backdrop to the problems—butsome, such as pollution source control, are common to allas basic measures. Providing a review, therefore, wasdeemed useful in order both to illustrate what progress hasbeen made and to identify common managementchallenges. It is hoped that this will in turn lead to moreknowledge-sharing for future <strong>WEPA</strong> activities.To this end, this chapter summarises the state of waterenvironmental management in <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countriesbased on the country profiles in Chapter 3 and attempts toidentify common challenges.2. Overview of Water EnvironmentalManagement Framework in <strong>WEPA</strong>Partner CountriesThis section gives a snapshot of the current waterenvironmental management frameworks existing in the<strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries, from the following fourperspectives:1) Legislation, policies and strategies for water environmentalmanagement, related to policy goal/target setting;2)Measures to ensure implementation and compliance,focusing on wastewater management;3)Monitoring of ambient and effluent waters necessary toaccess the efficacy of 1 and 2 above;4)Other factors contributing to enforcement andimprovement measures.Given that the problems faced by each country differ inboth type and scale we set out to solely provide a countrybasedoverview of the progress made in the policies andmeasures related to the water environment, and tried toavoid any inter-country comparisons or evaluations ofprogress. The measures themselves and their status ofimplementation are not dealt with here in detail and will becovered at a later date by <strong>WEPA</strong>.Legislation, policies and strategies for waterenvironmental management1) Objectives of water environmental managementMost countries have set out a basic environmental lawstipulating protection of human health, ensuring a safehuman environment and protection of the environmentas a basis for sustainable development, and these objectivesalso apply for water environmental management.Myanmar has various laws and regulations related toenvironmental protection, but no environmentalconservation or pollution control specific ones.More detailed definitions of water environmentalmanagement objectives are given by such as laws or actsspecific to water pollution control in some countries.2) Ambient water quality standards as theadministrative targetAmbient water quality standards show the basic levels ofwater quality that need to be maintained and act asadministrative targets.- Most <strong>WEPA</strong> countries set ambient water qualitystandards for rivers are established, while less number ofcountries has the one for groundwater.- Drinking water quality standards are used to evaluatewater quality in countries that have not set ambientquality standards.- No ambient water quality standards set out in Myanmar14

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 1 <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in <strong>WEPA</strong> countriesand Sri Lanka (as of December 2011), but bothcountries are currently formulating them.- Sri Lanka’s Central Environment Authority (CEA) hasset proposed water quality standards, which are alsoused for water quality evaluation.Some countries have more than two types of standardsdue to different conservation objectives; others haveuniform standards. The following table shows the state ofambient water quality standard-setting in each partnercountry.Table 1.1. Type of ambient water quality standardsFor surface water*Ambient water quality standardsFor groundwaterFor marine andcoastal watersNoteCambodiaChinaThere are additional parameters for surface water servingas drinking water sources.IndonesiaJapan* 1* 1 A parameter for the aquatic ecosystem conservation isincluded under the living environmental stamdard.* 2 15Republic of Korea* 3etc.* 2 Water quality by grade & biological features of aquaticecosystem.* 3 Groundwater standards are set for agricultural water,industrial water.Lao PDRMalaysiaMyanmarNepalPhilippinesNepal sets water quality standards for different water useobjectives. Standards for recreation and those for aquaticecosystems were established.There are two types of standards for surface waterstandardsfor toxins and other conventional parameters.Sri LankaAwaiting for approval of ambient water quality standards.ThailandViet NamLegend:Human healthLiving environmentEcosystem/BiodiversityOne typeetc.Others* Rivers and lakes and reservoirs

3) Strategies or plans for water environmentalmanagementUse of time-bound specific targets as a tool to accuratelyevaluate policy objectives, as practiced in China,Indonesia, Republic of Korea, and Viet Nam.Use of national water environmental plan/strategies withspecific time periods (Sri Lanka and Thailand), withoutnumerical targets.Use of time-bound specific targets established for specificwater bodies under a total pollution load control system(as in Japan, which has no specific plans or strategies forwater environmental management).Successful implementation relies on the availability offinancing.Measures to ensure implementation andcompliance1) Effluent standardsAll countries have set national effluent standards (withthe exception of Myanmar, where national effluentstandards are now under consideration and YangonSpecial City has set its own effluent standards).- China, Lao PDR, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and VietNam set industrial effluent standardsaccording to the type of industry.- In Cambodia, different effluent standards can beestablished in accordance with proximity of pollutionsources to sensitive environmental/ecosystemconservation areas.- Since 2000, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia andSri Lanka* have introduced or revised effluent standardsto strengthen effluent management.- Japan and Republic of Korea introduced a system tocontrol total pollution loads in specific water bodies inaddition to effluent control via pollutant concentration.2) Inspections and penalties for non-complianceSystems for inspection, governmental guidance andpenalties are in place in countries which set effluentstandards.Measures to counter non-compliance in effluentmanagement (such as violations of effluent standardsand effluent quality recording obligations) have beenbeefed-up in Indonesia, Japan and Viet Nam.Monitoring of ambient and effluent water1) Ambient water quality monitoringAmbient water quality is monitored on a project basis orfor a specific benefit (e.g., irrigation and drinking water)such in Nepal, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. Other countrieshave regular monitoring systems which differ in numberof monitoring points, parameters, and frequency.- According to the <strong>WEPA</strong> survey in 2009, the followingcountries have collected water quality data of riverwaters for over 10 years: Japan, Republic of Korea,Malaysia, and Thailand (see Chapter 2.2, Figure 2.2.6).2) Effluent quality monitoringDespite obligations on the owner of the pollution sourceand wastewater treatment facility to monitor effluentquality, this is not comprehensively done in all countriesand monitoring results sometimes do not reach theintended authorities.- In Cambodia and Sri Lanka the central governmentconducts monitoring at sites suspected of discharginghigh concentrations of effluents.- In Republic of Korea, centralized monitoring of effluentusing a tele-metering system was introduced forpollution sources (industries and domestic wastewatertreatment facilities) with certain volumes of effluents.- In Malaysia, an on-line reporting system has beenintroduced under which industries can report theireffluent monitoring results through a website.- In Japan, recording of monitoring results becamemandatory under a revision to the Water PollutionControl Law in 2010.3) Recording, maintenance and evaluation ofmonitoring resultsResults of ambient water quality monitoring are recordedand maintained by the agencies conducting monitoring.However, the data is not maintained according to any setformat.* In Sri Lanka, another revision of effluent standards is now under consideration for approval.16

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 1 <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in <strong>WEPA</strong> countries- The <strong>WEPA</strong> survey on water quality monitoring datacollection in 2009 found that it is difficult to sharepooling of data maintained by different agencies amongthem (see chapter 2.2, p.48).Other factors contributing to enforcement andremoval of incorrect practices1) Disclosure of ambient water qualitymonitoring resultsThe results of monitoring are evaluated annually in manycountries for information disclosure and policyevaluation.- In many countries the state of water quality is mainlyreported to the general public via annually publishedenvironmental quality reports. The following countriesenable public access to environmental reports givingcomprehensive assessments of water quality onwebsites: China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia,Thailand, and Viet Nam.- The Water Quality Index (WQI) is used for evaluationof overall status of water quality in some countries, suchas China, Malaysia and Thailand. The method of WQIcalculation is decided by each country. Other countriesthat assess their water quality annually ( Japan, Republicof Korea, Philippines and Viet Nam) use specificparameters to represent water quality status (e.g., BODor COD for organic pollution).- In some countries, such as China, Republic of Koreaand Thailand, the public can view real-time monitoringdata on a website, which is uploaded from continuousmonitoring stations. Other countries such as Japan alsoutilise a website to publish details of water qualitymonitoring results.2) Review cycle of water environmental policyThe <strong>WEPA</strong> secretariat cannot obtain sufficientinformation on the review cycle of water environmentalpolicy as many countries have no fixed review cycle.- In countries utilising time-bound policy/strategies, theefficacy of mitigation measures is reviewed according tosuch policy/strategies.3. Recent Developments in WaterEnvironmental Management andChallengesDevelopments in water environmentalmanagement over the past 10 yearsAll <strong>WEPA</strong> countries have attempted to strengthen theirwater environmental management systems over the past10 years. Table 1.2 shows the major developments in waterenvironmental management in the partner countries.The key developments are as follows:1) Strengthening of effluent management, whichincludes set-up and revision of effluent standards andintroduction of charges for wastewater.2) Introduction of a framework for river basinmanagement which embraces aspects of water qualityconservation.3) Incorporation of concerns surrounding ecosystemconservation.Upgrading or restructuring of central governmentorganizations in charge of environmental managementis a common feature in <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries. Waterresource management departments and environmental/pollution management departments which used to beheaded by different government agencies are noworganized under the newly established Ministry ofNatural Resources and Environment in Malaysia,Thailand and Viet Nam. In 2011, the new ministries forenvironment were set up in Lao PDR and Myanmar.Many new developments for strengthening managementwere observed especially in the countries which initiatedwater environmental management in late 1980s. Suchcountries include Cambodia, Lao PDR, Sri Lanka andViet Nam.In the countries which initiated water environmentalmanagement at a relatively early stage, such as China,Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, and Thailand,policies and measures have become that much moredetailed, in order to improve the water environment.Some partner countries experienced significant disastersin 2011. Boxes 1.1 and 1.2 show water environmentalsector responses to disasters affecting Japan andThailand, respectively.17

Table 1.2. Major developments in water environmental management in <strong>WEPA</strong> CountriesYear Major development in organizational setting Major development in legislation2000 Revision of Environment Act (Sri Lanka)2001Establishment of Ministry of theEnvironment, upgraded from EnvironmentAgency (Japan)2002Establishment of Ministry of NaturalResource and Environment as a restructureof central government agencies (Thailand,Viet Nam)Revision of the Framework Act on Environmental Policy (ROK)Approval of National Environment Policy (Malaysia)200320042005Establishment of Ministry of NaturalResource and Environment as a restructureof central government agencies (Malaysia)Addition of zinc as a parameter of water quality environmental standards, inconsideration of protection of aquatic ecosystem (Japan)Establishment of Environmental Management Policy (Nepal)National Environmental Management Policy (Sri Lanka)Set up the National Strategy for Environmental Management until 2010 and visiontoward 2020 (Viet Nam)Introduction of environmental protection charge for wastewater (Viet Nam)Introduction of total maximum daily load system (TMDLs) (ROK)Revision of the Clean Water Act (Philippines)Decree on Licensing for exploitation, utilization, use and discharge of waste water(Viet Nam)Addition of chemical substance parameters to standards (ROK)Approval of the National Water Environment Master Plan (2006-2015) (ROK)Adoption of the National Water Policy (Nepal)Revision of Law on Environmental Protection (Viet Nam)200620072008200920102011Establishment of the Ministry of EnvironmentProtection (MEP), upgraded from the StateEnvironmental Protection Administration(SEPA) (China)Set up the Vietnam EnvironmentAdministration (VEA) (Viet Nam)Establishment of Ministry of Natural Resourceand Environment (Lao PDR)Establishment of Ministry of EnvironmentalConservation and Forestry (Myanmar)Inclusion of 16 water pollution projects in mid-term plan (China)Start of regular monitoring in 35 major rivers (Indonesia)Revision of the Lake Water Law (Japan)Approval of basin management project in three major basins (Viet Nam)Enacted the Law on Water Resources and Management (Cambodia)Revision of the Water Quality Conservation Act (renamed as the Water Quality andEcosystem Conservation Act) (ROK), which further emphasize conservation ofecosystemsRevision of Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation Act and its EnforcementDecree (ROK)Approval of national ambient and effluent water standards (Lao PDR)Approval of the National master Program for Natural Resource and EnvironmentMonitoring until 2020 (Viet Nam)Revision of series of effluent standards (2008-2011) (China)Start of regular ambient water monitoring conducted by the central government(Cambodia)Establishment of new effluent standards (Sri Lanka)Establishment of Marine Pollution Prevention Act (Sri Lanka)Revision of ambient quality standards for surface, coastal and underground waters(Viet Nam)Revision of series of effluent standards (2008-2010) (Viet Nam)Establishment of ambient quality standard for groundwater (Viet Nam)Approval of Decree 120/2008/ND-CP on basin management (Viet Nam)Revision of the National Environment Law, aiming to strengthen implementation,especially control of point sources (Indonesia)Revision of effluent standards (Malaysia)Approval of Bagmati Action Plan (Nepal)Approval of a new national environmental policy and its action plan (Sri Lanka)Start of classification of water bodies (Philippines)Adoption of the mid-term development plan (2010-2015), which states reduction targetsfor pollutants (China)Revision of the Water Pollution Control Law, which address water quality relatedaccidents and effluent management (Japan)Introduction of on-line wastewater registration system (Malaysia)Establishment of Wastewater Treatment System Effluent Standard (Thailand)12th Five-Year Plan (2011-2015) (China)Revision of the Water Pollution Control Law, which strengthen groundwater qualitymanagement (Japan)18

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 1 <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in <strong>WEPA</strong> countriesBox 1.1 Impacts of the Great East Japan Earthquake on the Water EnvironmentThe Great East Japan Earthquake and the accompanying tsunami that occurred in March 2011 wreaked large-scaledestruction, not least of which was the loss of many lives. Further, the disaster at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear PowerPlant precipitated by the tsunami brought about unprecedented environmental contamination due to the release ofradioactive materials into the environment, including the water environment. This box presents impacts of the Great EastJapan Earthquake primarily related to the water environment.Damage to domestic wastewater treatment facilities and prompt recoverySewage treatment plants along the coasts of Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima prefectures suffered considerable damagefrom the tsunami, and 48 plants were shut down. However, due to the subsequent prompt recovery response, as of Dec1, 2011 only 16 plants remained shutdown. At 14 of these plants, emergency treatment is being carried out. These plantswill gradually be upgraded to the level of primary treatment, followed by restoration of former capabilities. Completerecovery is aimed for as soon as possible with the objective of preventing disasters from occurring again.Results of a sampling survey conducted in the highly damaged regions of the three disaster-stricken prefecturesreveal that 3.8% of Jokasou units (a domestic waste water treatment facility) were written off and 28% requiredurgent repairs. The remaining 68% required no particular repairs. Jokasou units are also used for temporary housing;approximately 60% of domestic wastewater from temporary housing is treated by Jokasou units.Emergency survey on toxic materialsIn response to public concerns voiced over negative impacts on health and living environment due to seepage oftoxic substances into public surface water bodies and groundwater, the Ministry of the Environment of Japan (MoEJ)conducted emergency surveys from late May through late July in the rivers, coastal areas, and groundwater in areasthat sustained heavy damage from the earthquake and tsunami. The surveys covered items pertaining to environmentalstandard and dioxins.The results show that no instances of excess contamination have been confirmed. The MoEJ intends to closelymonitor sites where toxic substances were detected in excess of environmental standards, via regular continuousmonitoring by local governments.Additional surveys were carried out by the MoEJ covering groundwater and the vicinity of wells in accordance withenvironmental standards and toxins standards. Guidance on drinking water for owners of wells was issued via localgovernments.Monitoring of radioactive substancesMonitoring of radioactive fallout from the nuclear power plant disaster was carried out by the MoEJ from late May to lateJuly 2011 to check the concentrations of radioactive substances in the water environment (rivers, lakes and marshes,river-head areas, and coasts including bathing beaches) and groundwater. A Monitoring Coordination Conference wasestablished in August 2011 in order to coordinate and systematise the work.The water environment is to be monitored, including for radioactive substances, in public surface waters andgroundwater within a radius of approx. 100 km from the nuclear power plant. Also set to take place is offshore monitoringof the concentration of radioactive substances in the seawater from Fukushima to Iwate. Part of the survey was initiatedin late August.While no radioactive substances have been detected so far, high readings have been detected in sediment.Allied with the decontamination work for radioactive substances now in full-swing, concerns over high concentrationsof radioactive substances in the water environment still remain, thus it is critical to ascertain any trends that might emerge.(Source: Provided by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan)19

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 1 <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in <strong>WEPA</strong> countriesProgress in Water Environmental Managementin <strong>WEPA</strong> Partner Countries- short summary of the country profile -CambodiaState of water environmentIn general, the surface water quality of the country isgood. According to recent ambient water qualitymonitoring over the past few years, the BOD ambientwater environmental standards were met at all monitoringpoints (see Figure 3.1.4 in Chapter 3).Information on the quality of coastal water andgroundwater is insufficient. However, some reports statethat the coastal water quality is generally good.Contamination of arsenic was found in groundwater insome areas, which is a natural phenomenon.A lot of stresses on water quality were identified, such asuntreated industrial and domestic wastewater flowinginto public water bodies especially in the dry season,pollutants from urban areas and agricultural land andthose caused by development activities.Recent developments in water environmentalmanagementA water environmental management framework wasdeveloped in the 1990s and strengthened in the 2000s.In 2007, The Law on Water Resource Management wasestablished, which embraces water quality andconservation of aquatic ecosystems, as this was an area ofconcern. The law also stipulated a wastewater dischargelicence requirement for point sources. New acts oflegislation, the Law on Environmental ProtectionManagement and a Sub-decree on Water Quality, are nowbeing drafted.In 2008, regular monitoring of ambient water quality interms of basic parameters (water temperature, DO, BOD)begun, to assess the water quality.Current and future challengesStrengthening of the legal framework; more detailed rulesEnsuring water quality monitoring and improvements indata management through infrastructural development,capacity development of technical staff, and sufficientfinancial resourcesEnhancement of coordination with relevant organizations,especially industries, to promote compliance.ChinaState of water environmentThe state of surface water is still serious, especially in lakesand reservoirs.The state of coastal water is not serious yet.The quality of groundwater is subject to stress frominappropriately managed sewage, waste, pesticides andfertilisers.Progress in water environmental managementChina has strengthened its environmental management.Numerical targets for water quality improvements (e.g.,COD load reduction) were incorporated into thenational five-year plan for national economic and socialdevelopment.A series of standards for both domestic and industrialwastewater have been revised or established to strengtheneffluent management.Current water environmental management policyincludes cultural and ecological concerns and resourcesaving,in addition to pollution control.Current and future challengesProtection of drinking water sources continues to be apriority policy area.In line with this, quality management of groundwater,which represents 18% of drinking water sources, andcontrol of heavy metal pollution are also highlighted inthe latest Five-Year Plan (2011-2015).Reduction in ammonia nitrogen discharge and furtherenhancements in domestic wastewater treatment arenecessary for improved water quality.23

IndonesiaState of water environmentWater pollution in both and surface and undergroundwater remains serious, especially in densely populatedareas.Overall, signs of improvement in water quality in surfacewater were seen between 2004 and 2009. However, thereare regional differences. In Java and Kalimantan, waterquality has been deteriorating during the period.Recent developments in water environmentalmanagementThe nation’s basic environmental law, “Law concerningEnvironment Protection and Management”, was enactedin 2009, and is more comprehensive than the previous one.A new environmental permit system has been introducedin response to the revision of the law, and new regulationsfor water quality management and pollution control weredrafted and are awaiting approval.In 2001, effluent standards existed for 14 industrialactivities, which rose to 21 by 2005.The National Medium-term Development Plan (2010-2014) set numerical targets for water environmentalconservation (e.g., reduction in pollution levels by 50%).Current and future challengesImplementation of the new regulations awaiting approval.Improvements in the technical and financial capacity forimplementationDevelopment of incentives for compliance and promotionof public participation in water environmental managementJapanState of water environmentJapan has overcome water pollution problems, buteutrophication in enclosed water bodies remains anissue.There are also emerging concerns over soil andgroundwater pollution caused by toxic substances.Recent developments in water environmentalmanagementBased on the management framework developed inthe 1970s, Japan has been developing policies andmeasures to respond to the needs of society.The Total Pollutant Load Control System (TPLC)was introduced in 1979 for three enclosed waterbodies. In addition to COD, T-P and T-N becametarget parameters under the system in 2001. The 7thTPLC policy was set forth in 2011.A recent revision to water pollution control lawstrengthened measures in the event of accidents,record-keeping of effluent monitoring data, andpreventative measures against groundwater pollution.Current and future challengesStrengthening measures to mitigate deterioration in lakewater quality, the compliance ratio to environmentalstandards of which remains at around 50%.Creation of “Sato-Umi” which incorporates biodiversityconservation aspects and sustainability issues.Creation of better initiatives to improve/protect thewater environment in response to the diverse needs ofcommunities and recent social transitions, includingensuring an environmentally sound water cycle.Republic of KoreaState of water environmentWater quality in terms of BOD has improved as a resultof investment in wastewater treatment.However, water quality in terms of COD and T-P hasfallen short of expectations. Chemical substance use infactories and non-point sources are suspected.Eutrophication and groundwater pollution caused bychemical substances especially in the dry season is alsoan issue.Recent developments in water environmentalmanagementUnder a restoration project of the country’s four majorrivers, many projects have been implemented whichcontributed to raised water quality. Ensuringenvironmental flow is one of the measures to bepromoted under the project.The Total Maximum Daily Load system (TMDLs) wasintroduced in 2004 in three major rivers. The currenttarget parameter is BOD and T-P will be added as atarget parameter. TMDLs will be introduced in HangRiver.Control over water pollution caused by chemicalsubstances has been strengthened by adding morerelevant parameters to ambient water quality standards.Current and future challengesEnsuring and promotion of current efforts to reducepollution loads and promote conservation of ecosystems.Strengthening of non-point source and chemicalpollutant management.Development of an enhanced management system tocope with socio-economic changes.24

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 1 <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in <strong>WEPA</strong> countriesLao PDRState of water environmentSurface water quality in the country is considered good.However, the quality of urban rivers could worsen in thefuture due to the inflow of untreated wastewater thevolume of which will increase with urban growth.Recent developments in water environmentalmanagementA series of ambient water quality standards wereestablished in 2009.Measures to control effluent from industry have beenstrengthened, which included the introduction of effluentstandards in 2009.Currently the Environmental Protection Law is awaitingapproval of revision. The revision will includestrengthening water quality monitoring and inspection ofpollution sources and introduction of strategicenvironmental assessments.Establishment of the Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment in 2011.Current and future challengesStrengthening and implementation of preventivemeasures before serious pollution problems occur.Areas for action include development of domesticwastewater treatment facilities in urban areas, ensuringwater quality monitoring and development of a sharingmechanism of the monitoring results, and implementationof an effluent licence system.The newly established Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment is expected to promote and strengthenbetter management to prevent future cases of pollution.MalaysiaState of water environmentSerious water pollution problems have been mitigated as a resultof measures taken under the National Environmental QualityAct, but a recent assessment shows a slight increase in“polluted” or “slightly polluted” rivers. This is considered to becaused by an increase in number of pollution sources and ininadequately treated wastewater.The condition of coastal water quality differs by area, but TSSand oil are the common parameters measured.Total coliform is the common parameter used for groundwaterRecent developments in water environmentalmanagementA framework for water environmental management is wellestablished in the country.Effluent control has been improved/strengthened by revision ofeffluent standards, reinforcing recording and reporting ofeffluents from pollution sources. On-line reporting of effluentquality has been introduced.The Industrial Effluent Treatment System (IETS), whichaims to improve the process of wastewater treatment, wasalso introduced to strengthen effluent control.Current and future challengesFurther promotion of effluent control. In particular,encouragement and strengthening of the “self-regulationapproach” in which industry voluntarily implements pollutioncontrol measures.Promotion of water quality management at the basin level, whichmay include development of countermeasures that account forcapacity and water use in each basin.Further study on lake water quality to achieve better managementof lakes and reservoirs.MyanmarState of water environmentWater quality of surface water in the country isgenerally good.Anticipated social and economic developmentmay cause deterioration in water quality ifappropriate control measures are not introduced.Recent developments in waterenvironmental managementSince there are no significant pollutionproblems identified, there are no specific lawsand regulations to control water pollution.Water monitoring is conducted on a projectbasis or for each water use, such as drinkingand irrigation.Current and future challengesIntroduction/promotion of preventive andproactive measures against water pollution.Such measures can include coordination ofrelevant organizations, reduction in potentialpollution loads by promoting effective wateruse such as in irrigation and industrial sectors;strengthening of waste treatment; andprevention of erosion through forestconservation efforts.25

NepalState of water environmentThe water quality in the country is good except in someurban areas where water pollution is serious.Water quality in Kathmandu is serious due to untreateddomestic and industrial wastewater, dumping of wasteand unplanned development activities.Water pollution caused by pesticides and fertilisers areconcerns.Recent developments in water environmentalmanagementActs on environmental protection were established in1997. Regarding water resources management, theNational Water Policy and Water Resource Law wereestablished in 2002 and 2004 respectively.In 2000s, a series of water related standards wereestablished, including standards for ecosystemconservation in 2008.The Bagmati Action Plan was approved in 2009 in whichwater pollution in the Bagmati River is addressed.Current and future challengesImplementation and enforcement after establishment of apartial framework for environmental and water resourcemanagement.Detailed rules and a system to manage water pollution areabsent in the promotion of water pollution control.Monitoring and data sharing mechanisms need to beimproved, and the institutional arrangements, technicalcapacity and financial basis therefore should be addressed.PhilippinesState of water environmentSurface water quality deterioration needs to beaddressed especially in the urban areas, although animprovement trend has been observed based on theresult of water quality monitoring conducted underthe Sagip llong (Save the River) Program.In general, the quality of groundwater and marineand coastal waters is good.Recent developments in water environmentalmanagementA Clean Water Act was established in 2004. Underthe act, more proactive measures are planned.Water quality management in water qualitymanagement area is a key feature under the CleanWater Act. An effluent licence system as well ascharging system will also be introduced under theact.Effluent standards by type of industry are currentlyawaiting approval.Current and future challengesInfrastructure development and human capacitydevelopment to ensure implementation of waterquality monitoring. A data sharing mechanism isalso an important element to be addressed.Coordination with other sectors such as land useand waste management.Strengthening non-point sources, and coastal waterand groundwater quality improvements.Consideration of inclusion of water quality aspectsin basin level water management and database.Sri LankaState of water environmentWater quality information data is limited, but availablesources shows there is no serious water pollution.Concerns over water quality deterioration due tountreated/inadequately treated domestic and industrialwastewater exist.Organic pollution has been identified in some coastalwaters. Salinization is major issue for groundwaterquality, as is pathogen pollution caused by impropersanitation.Recent developments in water environmentalmanagementA framework on environmental management hasbeen developed since the 1980s.A revision of effluent standards and interim ambientwater quality standards are awaiting approval.The national environmental policy 2010-15 wasdeveloped, which includes certain pollution controlrelated measures.Current and future challengesCoordination of relevant agencies to take morecomprehensive measures.Setting national ambient water quality standards,which are now awaiting approval; this should befollowed by the classification of surface water bodies.A lack of baseline data, and the need for ambientwater quality monitoring to address the problem. Themeans the sharing of monitoring data across differentorganizations also needs addressing.Awareness-raising of conservation of the waterenvironment. Awareness-raising in the industrialsector is necessary to promote enforcement.26

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 1 <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in <strong>WEPA</strong> countriesThailandState of water environmentSurface water quality has been improved, but recentmonitoring data shows a slight rising trend in “polluted”points.Monitoring results of coastal waters over the past 5 yearsshow no significant changes in quality. However, thenumber of “polluted” waters is on the increase, especiallyin the inner gulf where polluted water flows.Groundwater is generally in good in quality, but in someareas high levels of fluoride, salinity and Volatile OrganicCompounds (VOC ) were identified.Recent developments in water environmentalmanagementWater environmental management has been implementedbased on the National Enhancement of EnvironmentalConservation Act 1992, which includes establishment ofpollution control area and environmental protection area.A priority area identified in the environmental Policy2010-14 includes improvement and enhancement ofdomestic wastewater treatment and stipulates thepolluter-pay-principle (PPP).In 2009, new effluent standards for wastewater treatmentfacility were introduced.Current and future challengesTo improve implementation, the following items shouldbe further addressed:- Further strengthening of domestic wastewater treatment;- Encouragement of public participation and promotion ofa voluntary approach in the industrial sector;- Further consideration on how to manage water quality atthe basin level.- A method of promoting the PPP principle, especiallyafter the establishment of the PPP law is currently underconsideration.Viet NamState of water environmentThe water quality of the upper stream is good, but seriouspollution was identified downstream. Most of the majorrivers and lakes/reservoirs in inner cities do not meet theenvironmental BOD standard.Coastal waters are also polluted, e.g., by untreated/inadequately treated wastewater and waste andwastewater from aquaculture. Oil pollution is one of thecommon issues in coastal areas.An increase in salinity has widely noted, partly due toexcessive groundwater extraction.Recent developments in water environmentalmanagementSince 2000, a framework development of waterenvironmental management has been accelerated in thecountry.Such developments include introduction of a wastewatercharging system, strengthening penal systems againstnon-compliance and revision of ambient and effluentstandards.River basin water quality management has beendemonstrated in three major river basins, namely Cau,Nhue-Day, and Don-Nai. Coordination of relevant localgovernments has been promoted.Current and future challengesEnsuring water environmental management policies andmeasures by- addressing duplication of rules across different areas oflegislation;- development of incentives for compliance;- strengthening of inspection and guidance by the governmentCoordination of relevant organizations.Promotion of water quality management at the basin level.27

Chapter2Discussion and Findings on Priority Topics2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia2.2 Climate Change and the Water Environment- Summary of findings based on <strong>WEPA</strong> discussions and surveys -

Chapter 2.1Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asia1. Growing Asia and Domestic Wastewater1.1. Socio-Economic Conditions<strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries are growing at an unprecedentedrate in terms of population and economic growth. They arealso facing dire consequences from the effects of rapidurbanization. Table 2.1.1 shows shifts in total populationand the proportion of the urban population since 1975.While the scale of population and rates of increase differ, itis evident that the population of each country is withoutquestion on the increase. In particular, China, Indonesiaand Japan are arresting, reporting populations of one billion,two hundred million, and one hundred million, respectively.The total populations in both Philippines and Viet Namhave risen to nearly one hundred million. The average forannual population growth rates in Malaysia, Nepal,Philippines and Lao PDR is more than 3%. The proportionof urban populations in Japan, Malaysia and the Republicof Korea (ROK) are more than 50%.Table 2.1.1. Population and proportion of urban population in <strong>WEPA</strong> countries (1975 and 2010)CountryTotal Population(thousand persons)1975 2010Proportion of UrbanPopulation (%)Total Population(thousand persons)Proportion of UrbanPopulation (%)Population Growth Rate(1975-2010)Average of annualpopulation growth rate (%)Cambodia 7,098 4 14,138 20 2.8China 915,041 17 1,341,335 47 1.3Indonesia 134,106 19 239,871 44 2.3Japan 110,808 57 126,536 67 0.4Republic of Korea 34,722 48 48,184 83 1.1Lao PDR 3,042 11 6,201 33 3.0Malaysia 12,313 38 28,401 72 3.7Myanmar 29,534 24 47,963 34 1.8Nepal 13,373 5 29,959 19 3.5Philippines 40,893 36 93,261 49 3.7Sri Lanka 13,811 22 20,860 14 1.5Thailand 42,399 24 69,122 34 1.8Viet Nam 49,896 19 87,848 30 2.2(Source: UNDESA 2011)30

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in AsiaFigure 2.1.1 shows shifts in per capita GDP since 1975.Although drops clearly coincide with the 1997 Asiancurrency crisis and the Lehman Shock of 2008, economiessubsequently recovered to continue on a path of steadygrowth. As a result of increasing population and economicgrowth, at present this region accounts for approximatelyone-third of the global population and approximately onefourthof the world’s GDP.Improvements in basic infrastructure have gainedground in line with economic growth. Figure 2.1.2 showsthe proportion of population using improved drinkingwater sources and the proportion of the population usingimproved sanitation facilities, which are among the targetsset out in the Millennium Development Goals adopted in2000. While improvements in basic infrastructure in ruralareas in some countries remain at low levels, the rate ofcoverage for improved sanitary facilities has clearly madeprogress, mainly in urban areas.GDP per Capita (Current USD)100,00010,0001,0001001019751980198519901995Year200020052010CambodiaChinaIndonesiaJapanRepbulic ofKoreaLao PDRMalaysiaNepalPhilippinesSri LankaThailandViet NamFigure 2.1.1. Change of GDP per capita in <strong>WEPA</strong> countries(1975-2010)(Source: World Bank 2012)MalaysiaRepublic of KoreaJapanViet Nam2008ThailandSri Lanka1995ChinaPhilippinesNepalIndonesiaCambodiaMyanmarLao PDR0 20 40 60 80 100 %Population using improved drinking water source (urban)Republic of KoreaJapanMalaysiaThailandViet NamSri LankaMyanmarLao PDRPhilippinesIndonesiaCambodiaChinaNepal0 20 40 60 80 100Population using improved sanitation (urban)%20081995JapanMalaysiaThailandViet NamSri LankaRepublic of KoreaPhilippinesNepalChinaIndonesiaMyanmarCambodiaLao PDR20081995JapanRepublic of KoreaThailandMalaysiaSri LankaMyanmarPhilippinesViet NamChinaLao PDRIndonesiaNepalCambodia200819950 20 40 60 80 100 %Population using improved drinking water source (rural)0 20 40 60 80 100Population using improved sanitation (rural)%Figure 2.1.2. Proportion of population using improved drinking water sources and improved sanitation facilities(Source: UNDESA 2012)31

1.2. Impact of Domestic Wastewater on WaterEnvironmentAlong with population increase and improvement in thequality of life, the sharp increase in the amount of waterwithdrawn for domestic purposes is noteworthy. Figure2.1.3 shows shifts in the per capita amount of waterwithdraw for domestic purposes. First, it is evident thatper capita water withdraw for domestic purposes differs bycountry. In the Asian region, while withdraw is modest inCambodia, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar and Lao PDR,withdraw in Japan, ROK and Malaysia is startling. Further,shifts show temporary drops in some countries, but mostcountries display a fixed or increasing trend. Whencoupled with increases in population, total water withdrawfor domestic purposes on the whole shows an increasingtrend. The amount of domestic wastewater generated,which accompanies increases in water withdraw fordomestic purposes, is also expected to rise.Figure 2.1.4 shows the distribution of BOD load bysector in <strong>WEPA</strong> countries. Data is limited, and the datayear and target area differ from country to country.However, if nothing else, this figure reveals that thedomestic sector accounts for the greater part of the BODload in selected countries and catchment areas of Asia.Figure 2.1.5 shows the distribution of pollution sourcesof BOD in domestic wastewater in Japan. Accordingly, theper capita daily amount of BOD load discharged as domesticwastewater is 40 g. Contribution of grey water dischargedfrom laundry and kitchen is approximately 70% of totalBOD load. It is evident that the impact of grey water onthe water environment is considerable—hence thedemand in the Asian region to prevent water pollutionthrough treatment of domestic wastewater.Municipal water withdrawal per persopn (m 3 /person/yr)160140120100806040200% of BOD Load100%80%60%40%20%0%Japan[Tokyobay/Tokyo](2004)Other 23%19751980198519901995200020052010Republic ofKorea[Han Riverand Paldangreservoir/Seoul]Indonesia[BrantasRiver Basin/East Java](1994)Philippines(1998-2000)County [area](Year)Viet Nam[DongNaiRiver/HCMC](2005)CambodiaChinaIndonesiaJapanLao PDRMalaysiaMyanmarNepalPhilippinesSri LankaThailandViet NamYearFigure2.1.3. Change of water withdraws per person fordomestic purpose(Source: FAO 2012)Republic ofKoreaOthersIndustrialDomesticFigure 2.1.4. BOD load by sector in selected countries andcatchment areas of <strong>WEPA</strong> countries(Source: See References)2. Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asiatotal BOD40g/dayKitchen45%2.1. Current Situation of Domestic WastewaterTreatment in AsiaTable 2.1.2 frames the confirmed treatment methods fordomestic wastewater in the Asian region. Treatmentmethods are divided into the following categories: notreatment, treatment of only black water, and treatment ofboth black and grey water, and grouped by individual orcentralized treatment. Treatment is further divided intoanaerobic and aerobic methods.Toilet 32%Figure 2.1.5. BOD load from different sources of domesticwastewater in Japan(Source: MoEJ undated)32

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in AsiaBOD removal rate of different treatment measures fordomestic wastewaterTable 2.1.4 summarizes BOD removal rates of differenttreatment measures for domestic wastewater. BODremoval rates of septic tank treatment are 30 to 60% basedon the results of different studies, which are smaller thanthe removal rate of sewerage with aeration.Table 2.1.4. BOD removal rates of different treatment measures for domestic wastewaterTreatment Methodologies Treatment Process BOD removal Rate (%)Septic Tank (USA) - 46-54Septic Tank (USA) - 31-32Septic Tank (Philippines) - 30-60Sewage Treatment Plant (Philippines) Rotating biological contactor 90-95Sewage Treatment Plant (Malaysia) Oxidation ditch 87-88Sewage Treatment Plant (Malaysia) Extended aeration 80-99Sewage Treatment Plant (Malaysia) Sequencing batch reactor 80-93Sewage Treatment Plant (Japan) Trickling filter 75-85Sewage Treatment Plant (Japan) Conventional activated sludge 85-95Sewage Treatment Plant (Japan) Conventional Activated Sludge 85-95(Source: See References)2.2. National Development Plan on DomesticWastewater Treatment FacilityTable 2.1.5 lists the national development plan fordomestic wastewater treatment of each <strong>WEPA</strong> country.The situation is similar to that of legal institutions in thecountries of Cambodia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Lao PDR andMyanmar, where sewage treatments plants are few innumber. Namely, while some countries have drawn upmaster plans for construction of domestic wastewatertreatment facilities in some regions, overall plans fordomestic wastewater treatment have not been drafted atthe national level.Japan’s Five Year Plans for Sewerage Developmentwere established in 1963, including sewage treatmentfacility provision objectives and budget allocations foreach period. This plan was completed in 2003. At present,a plan is drafted for each prefecture that establishesobjectives for maintenance of domestic wastewatertreatment facilities and budget, as well as an “Overall Planfor Provision of Sewers by Catchment Area.” The Republicof Korea also established a policy focusing on seweragedevelopment as one of the main measures for domesticwastewater treatment. According to the policy, the ROKplans to increase the sewerage treatment ratio to 92% until2015, and invest in the construction of sewage treatmentplants in rural areas, in particular, as urban areas havealready achieved high coverage rates. In China andMalaysia, national five-year plans have been drawn up, andprovision objectives have been established. In Thailand,priority regions that have been targeted for provision ofdomestic wastewater treatment facilities by 2041 havebeen compiled, and ideal provision methods for eachregion have been prescribed.Plans in Philippines have been drawn up thatdifferentiate between the Manila metropolitan area andother regions. In the Manila metropolitan area, the agencyin charge of construction and management of domesticwastewater treatment facilities, the Metropolitan WaterWorks and Sewerage System (MWSS), has concluded aConcession Agreement with Manila Water and MayniladWater Services for the construction and management ofdomestic wastewater treatment facilities in the eastern andwestern districts respectively of the Manila metropolitanarea. The term of the Concession Agreement is forty yearsfrom 1997 to 2037, and a 100 % sewerage treatmentcoverage rate is to be achieved in both districts by 2037.For regions other than the Manila metropolitan area, theNational Programme on Sewerage and SeptageManagement was drafted in 2010 with provision objectivesset up to 2020. Likewise, national domestic wastewatertreatment plans have been drafted in Indonesia and VietNam. Indonesia has set provision objectives through 2014,and Viet Nam has established provision objectives through2025. Sri Lanka established a development plan forsanitary facilities by 2015.While the contents of objectives differ for eachcountry, in the four countries of Thailand, Philippines,Indonesia and Viet Nam, where the need for domesticwastewater treatment facilities are urgent, plans focus onadvancing the provision of sewage treatment plants mainlyin urban areas.35

Table 2.1.5. Content of national plan for construction of domestic wastewater treatment plants in <strong>WEPA</strong> countriesCountry Name of Plan Prepared by Year of EstablishmentRepublic of Korea Comprehensive Clean Water Supply Countermeasures Ministry of Environment 1989Five-Year Plan for Sewerage DevelopmentMinistry of Land,Infrastructure, Transport andTourism1963(1st) - 1996(8th)JapanChina[Each Prefecture]Comprehensive plan for developing a sewage system for each river[Each Prefecture]Prefectural Plan for Development of Domestic Wastewater TreatmentPlantFive-Year National Plan for Environmental ProtectionLocal government -Local government -Ministry of EnvironmentalProtection-MalaysiaMalaysia Five-Year Plan - -National Sewerage Development Plan N/A N/AThailandPolicy and Target Area for Domestic Wastewater Management(Year 2010-2041)Ministry of NaturalResources and Environment2009IndonesiaNational Policy and Strategy for Development of Municipal WastewaterManagement SystemMinistry of Public Works 2008Philippines[Metro Manila]- Concession agreement- Manila Sanitation and Sewerage Project- Manila Second Sewerage Project- Manila Third Sewerage ProjectMetropolitan Water Worksand Sewerage System1997198019962007[Outside Metro Manila]- National Program on Sewerage and Septage ManagementDepartment of Public Worksand Highways2010Viet NamDevelopment Policy and Vision of Wastewater and Sewerage Treatment(Development Policy until 2025 and Vision until 2050)Prime Minister 2009Nepal[Bagmati River Basin]Bagmati Action PlanHigh Powered Committee forIntegrated Development ofthe Bagmati Civilization2009Sri Lanka[Greater Colombo Area]Greater Colombo Wastewater Management ProjectN/A 20092.3. Issues on Domestic Wastewater Treatmentin AsiaNeed for domestic wastewater treatmentThe preceding sections reviewed the present state andfuture plans for domestic wastewater treatment conductedin Asian countries. It is clear that in regions where domesticwastewater treatment is urgently required, diffusion ofcentralized sewage treatment system is the main measurebeing taken for domestic wastewater treatment. In fact,sewage treatment plants have been constructed since the1990s in many Asian countries. In addition, theconstruction of sewage treatment plants is planned in thenear future as one of the main measures for most urbancities in Asian counties with low coverage rates for seweragetreatment. However, the rate of coverage of seweragetreatment differs by country. As is shown in Figure 2.1.6,the ROK, Japan, Malaysia and the urban areas of Chinahave achieved high coverage rates, but levels remain low inother countries. In areas without access to sewage treatmentplants, treatment based on previously discussed septictanks is common, mainly in urban areas. However, theBOD removal rate of septic tank treatment is lower thanone of sewerage treatment with aeration.In addition, in some Asian cities, only black water istreated by septic tank, and grey water is discharged withouttreatment into the environment, which may lead to itsbecoming a pollution source for the water environment.Further, cases where septic tanks do not conform tonational guidelines or are not installed properly can befound in some areas of Asia.Issues on construction of domestic wastewater treatmentfacilitiesIn order to mitigate and prevent water pollution, domesticwastewater including both grey water and black watershould be adequately treated by highly performingtreatment processes with effective pollution removal rates,especially in areas without access to sewerage treatment.36

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in AsiaHowever, according to United Nations data (UNDP2006), the construction of sewage treatment plants is twoto three times more costly than the installation of septictanks. In fact, an examination of the relationship betweenthe coverage ratio for sewerage treatment in <strong>WEPA</strong>countries and per capita GDP (see Figure 2.1.8) reveals acertain positive correlation. In most Asian countries wherethe coverage ratio for sewerage treatment is still low, theper capita GDP remains under USD 4,000. Thus, theconstruction of large-scale sewage treatment plants, whichare more costly than septic tanks, is not an economicallyfeasible option in these countries.Issues on operation of domestic wastewater treatmentfacilitiesOperational issues of sewage treatment plants followingconstruction and entering operational stages have also beenreported in some Asian countries. Cases have been observedwhere residents dislike paying sewage treatment fees andtherefore do not connect to the service despite living in thecoverage area. Accordingly, inflow is less than the treatmentcapacity. Figure 2.1.9 shows the percentage of actual inflowaccounted for in the treatment capacity of plants in 17locations in Indonesia. Of the 17 locations, only sevenplants have an inflow of wastewater over 50% of treatmentSewerage Treatment ratio (%)100806040200China*ThailandMalaysia**Republic of KoreaJapanPhilippines, Indonesia, Viet Nam, Cambodia, Lao PDR,Myanmmer, Nepal, Sri Lanka10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000GDP per Capita (curent-USD)* Sewerage treatment ratio of China is only for urban area**Sewerage treatment ratio of Malaysia is except for Sabah and Sawawak provinceFigure 2.1.8. Relationship between sewerage treatmentcoverage ratio and GDP per capita in <strong>WEPA</strong> countries(Source: See References)capacity, and others are under 50%. The figure shows thatfor two locations in particular, inflow is less than 20%. Forthe country on the whole, wastewater volume at only 47%of treatment capacity is treated at sewage treatment plants.% of actual inflow/design capacity100806040200P.Brayan BengkelSewonSetiabudi(Phase1) (jakarta)BojongsoangAde IrmaPerumnas Utara/RPerumnas Selatan/EKesendenLambung MangkuratPekapuran rayaHasan BasriSuwungMojosongoSemanggiMargasariSebengkokSukasariSwerage Treatment FacilityFigure 2.1.9. Percentage of actual inflow to treatment capacity of plants in Indonesia (2011)(Source: Data provided by the Ministry of Public Works of Indonesia)Moreover, as mentioned in Table 2.1.6, the inability tocollect sewage treatment fees from most treatment plantusers in Thailand has resulted in the use of the publicfinances from local governments to cover operational costs.In recent years, more regional governments have called forthe collection of sewage treatment fees, and the centralgovernment is working on setting regulations on proceduresto establish sewage treatment fees. Nevertheless, manydifficulties remain in the actual collection of these fees. InMalaysia, sewage treatment fees are not levied according tousage, rather a fixed sewage treatment fee for ordinaryhouseholds has been established. Moreover, lower fees havebeen established for low-income groups. The Indah WaterKonsortium (IWK) that operates the sewage treatmentfacilities in Malaysia cannot operate on sewage treatmentfees alone. Thus, it receives funds from the Ministry ofFinance in order to operate.37

Table 2.1.6. Sewage treatment fees in AsiaCountryRepublic of KoreaJapanChinaMalaysiaThailandIndonesiaPhilippinesViet NamSri LankaNepalCambodiaLao PDRMyanmarSewage Treatment FeeSewage treatment fees are set based on the volume of water consumption.Sewage treatment fees are collected together with water charges. Basically, sewage treatment fees are set basedon the volume of water consumed. Operational costs of individual sewage treatment tanks including desludging,monitoring of water quality, etc. should be the owners’ responsibility.Sewage treatment fees are collected from users in urban areas. However, fees are not collected from users in mostrural areas. In this case, operational costs of sewage treatment plants are covered by local governments.Flat rate charging system is applied to domestic wastewater treatment. Monthly fees are 8 RM for each householdregardless of wastewater volume. Lower fees are applied to lower-income households or houses in new villages.Sewage treatment fees are collected from users of constructed sewage treatment plants.Sewage treatment fees are collected together with tapped water fees in east zone of Manila. In the beginning,sewage treatment fees were 50% of tapped water fees. In 2008, as the fee system was reviewed, the sewagetreatment fee was planned to be reduced every year to 20% of tapped water fee by 2012, regardless of whether usersare connected to sewage treatment facilities.In Viet Nam, a water environmental tax is charged to all households, regardless of whether users are connected tosewage treatment facilities.Sewerage fees are collected from households connected to the sewerage system.Sewerage service fees are collected together with tapped water fees in Kathmandu. The sewerage service fee is50% of the tapped water fee.Sewerage service fees are collected together with tapped water fees in Kathmandu. The sewerage service fee is50% of the tapped water fee.Sewage treatment fees are collected from users of constructed sewage treatment plants.N/AN/A(Source: Result of the interview conducted by the <strong>WEPA</strong> secretariat in 2010 and 2011)3. Good Practices for Sustainable DomesticWastewater Treatment in AsiaIn the previous chapter, the current state, future plans andissues surrounding domestic wastewater treatment in Asiawere reviewed. The result of review shows that it isimportant that the policies developed clearly set out theoptions available for domestic wastewater treatment inareas without access to sewage treatment under considerablefinancial and social constraints. In order to overcome theseissues, <strong>WEPA</strong> countries developed feasible strategies inconsideration of their own socio-economic conditions andimplemented these strategies in a sustainable manner. Inthis chapter, unique and useful practices are introduced.3.1. Focus on the Impact of Grey Water on theEnvironmentFrom the perspective of preventing water pollutioncaused by domestic wastewater, it is important to treatboth black and grey water. As mentioned previously, thepercentage of BOD load from black water does notexceed 30%, with the remaining 70% making up thepollution load from grey water discharged in Japan. Inthe past, most individual sewage treatment tanks treatedonly black water. However, the Japanese governmentfocused on the impact of grey water in order to mitigatewater pollution, and revised laws related to individualsewage treatment tanks in 2001, in which newinstallations of individual sewage treatment tanks thattreat only black water (Tandoku-shori johkaso) wereprohibited, and treatment of both black water and greywater is obligatory. As a result of the enforcement of thislaw, the percentage of individual sewage treatment tanksthat treat only black water has decreased dramaticallyand the number of tanks that treat both black and greywater has increased gradually.38

In order to increase coverage of sewerage treatment over ashort period of time in Manila (eastern area), theauthorities focused on existing community septic tanks.Because community septic tanks have already collecteddomestic wastewater via waste pipes, the socialfoundations were already in place to collect treatment feesfor domestic wastewater in the community. Thus, thecurrent system could be smoothly upgraded fromcommunity septic tanks to sewage treatment plants withtreatment under aerobic conditions. Accordingly, theconstruction of sewage treatment plants gained speed inthe decade since 2000, and most have a capacity of lessthan 10,000 m 3 per day. As a result of this approach, thesewerage treatment ratio in the eastern area of Manilaincreased from less than 3% in 1997 to 23% in 2011.Utilization of existing infrastructureIn Manila, efforts are being actively made to utilize theunderground spaces of existing buildings and merge withexisting storm drains. The construction of storm drainsfor removal of rainwater is taking precedence inSoutheast Asia where floods are frequent. Many cases ofmerging sewer pipes with existing storm drains have beenconfirmed in Cambodia and Viet Nam.Application of treatment process without use of electricityIn China, the constructed wetland system is applied fordomestic wastewater treatment without the use ofelectricity. According to a notice from Ministry ofEnvironmental Protection in 2011, of 2,738 urbantreatment plants, 86 operating domestic treatment plantsapplied the constructed wetland system. In Chongqingcity, there are two domestic wastewater treatment plantsconstructed through a Japan-China cooperative projectin 2008. The plants used a constructed wetland systemafter the contact aeration process and activated sludgeprocess in order to reduce electricity consumption. Thesefacilities achieved 43-98% and 62-97% of BOD removalrates respectively, based on monthly data for waterquality monitoring conducted over a one-year periodfollowing construction.3.3. Community or private sector’sinvolvement in construction andoperation of sewerage treatment plantCommunity involvementIn many regions of Asia, due to social conditions such aslow household income levels and little public awareness,the necessary conditions to accept domestic wastewatertreatment facilities are not in place. As such, issues suchas the previously mentioned low connection rates andsewerage service fee collection rates have manifestedthemselves. In order to address these problems, Indonesiahas attempted to improve public awareness by garneringparticipation from local residents from the planningstages in regions where provision of domestic wastewatertreatment facilities are planned. A programme entitledSANIMAS has been carried out since 2006. Participationfrom residents is elicited from planning stages, and theselection of project sites and technology is conductedalong with local residents, in addition to the drafting of acommunity action plan. Engaging in construction andoperational management based on this plan is designedto facilitate the voluntary participation of residents indomestic wastewater management. Communitiesparticipating in the project have steadily increased.Domestic wastewater treatment facilities have beenconstructed in 395 locations in 22 provinces over thefour-year period from 2006 to 2009, and are beingoperated and managed by residents.Private sector involvementPrivate companies in Philippines and Malaysia carry outthe operation of sewage treatment plants to ensure theyare operating efficiently. In 1997, the MetropolitanWater Works and Sewerage System (MWSS) inPhilippines, with jurisdiction over waterworks andsewerage projects in the Manila metropolitan area,Photo 2.1.2. Constructed wetland in Chongqing cityPhoto 2.1.3. Case of Community Involvement intoConstruction of Domestic Small Scale WastewaterTreatment Plant in Indonesia (SANIMAS) implemented byMinistry of Public Works in cooperation with BORDA(Source : BORDA)40

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 2.1 Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Asiaentered a concession agreement with the privatecompanies of Manila Water and Maynilad WaterServices for the construction and management ofdomestic wastewater treatment in the eastern andwestern districts of the metropolitan area.In 1993, the Sewerage Services Act was enacted inMalaysia to give jurisdiction to the central governmentfor sewerage services which had hitherto been managedby the state governments. Concurrently, the privatecompany of Indah Water Konsortium (IWK) wasestablished to operate the sewerage projects, and in thatsame year, the government entered a consignmentcontract with IWK for the operation of sewage treatmentplants in the country. Thus, nearly all public sewagetreatment plants on the Malay Peninsula are operated byIWK. Furthermore, a private company called MajaariServices was established in 2009 in the state of Kelantanon the Malay Peninsula to conduct operations of sewagetreatment plants. At this time, the operation of sewagetreatment plants by private companies in Manila andMalaysia has moved forward smoothly.At the time of its establishment in 1993, the IndahWater Konsortium (IWK) was a self-sustaining privatecompany. However, the company was unable to collectan adequate amount of sewage treatment fees to run thecompany. Thus, seven years later in 2000, the companywas nationalized and operations are presently conductedwith funds from the Ministry of Finance. The 2009financial report of IWK shows that of the MYR 723million annual income, income from sewage treatmentfees was limited to approximately 60% at MYR 434million. Funding from the Ministry of Financeaccounted for approximately 35% at MYR 250 million.In this manner, for other regions of Asia as well,considerable potential may exist in the option to operatesewage treatment plants with the involvement of privatecompanies. However, there is potential for dilemmas toarise that cannot be dealt with by private companiesalone, particularly in the grey area between establishmentof appropriate sewage treatment fees in general andestablishment of sewage treatment fees that take intoaccount the economic level of residents. As is evident inthe case of Malaysia, guaranteeing that sufficientoperational costs are covered and securing funding froma public institution is indispensable to the sustainableoperation of sewage treatment plants.4. ConclusionAll <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries made significant efforts toimprove conditions to achieve sanitation targets of theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) and thereforetreatment of black water has been promoted in the region.However, the pollution load of grey water is alsoconsiderable and therefore it is necessary to promotetreatment of grey water in addition to black water.Sewerage treatment systems, an option to treat bothblack and grey water, are typically observed in other regionsof the world. However, coverage rates for seweragetreatment systems remain low in all <strong>WEPA</strong> countries withthe exception of the ROK, Japan, Malaysia and China. Inareas without sewerage connections, septic tank treatmentis a typical option. However, domestic wastewatertreatment by septic tank shows less BOD removal ratiothan sewerage treatment. Moreover, septic tanks are able toreceive only black water in some areas. Because the greywater is discharged into the environment without treatmentin these areas, the impact of grey water on the environmentis significant. In order to prevent water pollution caused bythe domestic sector, domestic wastewater including bothgrey water and black water should be treated by treatmentprocesses with high removal rates for pollution load inareas without access to sewerage treatment. However,because large-scale sewage treatment plants require majorinvestments of time and money for construction,approaches that take the socio-economic situation of Asiainto account should be adopted.<strong>WEPA</strong> countries have amassed a vast array of experiencesin domestic wastewater treatment in sustainable ways undersocio-economic constraints. Of these, the following threeapproaches that are prevalent in the actions taken by <strong>WEPA</strong>countries are unique, as well as useful. Firstly, <strong>WEPA</strong>countries focus on the treatment of grey water consideringits impact on the environment. In addition, it is particularlyworth noting that feasible policy options on domesticwastewater treatment have been selected in order toovercome the issues that have arisen from socio-economicconstraints. Moreover, <strong>WEPA</strong> countries, through theirexperiences, are able to highlight good practices incommunity or private sector involvement in theconstruction and operation of sewage treatment plants.There is no one single pathway to sustainable domesticwastewater treatment. Different options for constructionand operation of domestic wastewater treatment facilitiesshould be adopted in order to overcome the unique issuesfacing the diverse countries in this region.<strong>WEPA</strong> supports this manner of learning from thesetypes of experiences, sharing useful knowledge and has anew appreciation of the importance of discussingapplications to other areas.41

Chapter 2.2Climate Change and the Water EnvironmentSummary of findings based on <strong>WEPA</strong> discussions and surveys1. BackgroundClimate change is one of the drivers of change in waterresources and poses challenges to existing watermanagement practices (Connor 2009). Climate changecan affect the water environment in complex ways (Figure2.2.1). Various direct and indirect impacts of climatechange to the water environment are expected, which willoccur in association with other socio-economic factors.The Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panelfor Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that “higher watertemperatures, increased precipitation intensity, and longerperiods of low flows exacerbate many forms of waterpollution, with impacts on ecosystems, human health,water system reliability and operating costs (highconfidence)” (Kundzewicz et al. 2007). The impacts ofhuman induced climate change include higher watertemperatures that affect the self purification capacities ofwater bodies by reducing the amount of dissolved oxygen(DO), which consequently disrupts indigenous aquaticbiological species. In addition to direct impacts on watertemperature, the potential increase of water use in theenergy sector for cooling purposes is also considered to bean indirect cause of higher water temperatures (Kunazewiczet al. 2007). An increase in water temperatures may resultin an oxygen-deficient environment in lakes by increase inthermal stability and altered mixing patterns (Bates et al.2008).In addition to water temperature, changes inprecipitation patterns, intensity and duration also affectwater quality. Intense rainfall over short periods increasesthe amount of suspended solids, sediment, nutrients andother toxins in water bodies due to run-off. In addition,unreliable supplies of surface water caused by changes inprecipitation patterns may increase dependency ongroundwater for potable use, resulting in overexploitationof the groundwater resource, as well as increased risks tohuman health from arsenic and fluorine where they exist ingroundwater. The rising of sea water levels due to climatechange is another threat, resulting in salt water intrusion tosurface and underground freshwater systems, consequentlycausing deterioration in water quality. The impact onhuman health and water quality due to flooding of pollutedwater is also identified as a potential risk. Combined withexcessive water exploitation, problems from salt waterintrusion would be more intensified in coastal cities.Increase of wastewater due to increased demand caused byatmospheric temperature rise such as in the irrigationsector, which may provide negative impacts to waterquality. These potential adverse impacts to water qualitymay aggravate water scarcity in the region.Aquatic ecosystems are also affected by higheratmospheric and water temperatures, the changes inprecipitation and sea level rise. A warmer climate mayincrease threats to wetlands, which are one of the importanthabitats of many species. Increases in water temperaturemay favor exotic aquatic species rather than indigenousspecies. Once ecosystems are destroyed, they cannot berecovered or require tremendous time and effort to restore.Considering that climate change may render greatimpacts on the water environment in a variety of ways, andalso recognizing that the Asia-Pacific region has alreadyobserved events that are presumed to be caused by climatechange, <strong>WEPA</strong> decided to initiate information exchangeand discussions on “climate change and the waterenvironment and possible adaptation options” as one of itspriority topics in the second phase activities that started in2009.<strong>WEPA</strong> found that information on the potentialimpacts of climate change on the water environments(water quality and aquatic ecosystems) is not sufficient tofacilitate discussion among partners. Therefore <strong>WEPA</strong>activities for this topic concentrated on information andknowledge-sharing through <strong>WEPA</strong> workshops, reinforcedby literature reviews and fact-finding and perceptionsurveys. This chapter summarizes these <strong>WEPA</strong> activities inthe Japanese fiscal years 2009 to 2011 and outlines futureactions for <strong>WEPA</strong> on this topic.2. Impact of Climate Change on WaterQuality and Aquatic Ecosystems in <strong>WEPA</strong>Countries<strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries demonstrate examples of changesin the water environment that are suspected to result fromor be escalated by climate change. Figure 2.2.2 shows suchexamples from relevant literature and news articles. Acomparative study conducted in East and Southeast Asiabetween 2007 and 2008 shows that changes in precipitationvolume and patterns can affect surface water quality in East42

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 2.2 Climate Change and the Water Environmentinc.dec.CO 2Seaacidificationoceancurrentvar.ClimateChangeCLIMATECHANGEEscalation ofTyphoon Damageinc.inc.var.windvar.var.inc.WATER USAGESea waterleverinc.dec.inc.Number ofdry dayEffect factorInput conditionseaweed bedSnowfallQuantitative predictionQualitative predictionOCEANdec.var.AirTemperatureSnowmeltingCoralsolar radiationdec.dec.var.acc.Tidelandinc.var.var.var.RainfallintensitylegendFish andshellfishdec.dec.dec.dec.Sea bed DOinc.dec.benthicspeciesThermoclineformationInvasion ofGround/Sea Waterinc.Evapotranspirationin river basinChloride damageHeavy MetalElutionEarthTemperaturegroundwater levelvegetationforestphysiognomyacc.dec. dec.inc.inc.inc.inc.dec.inc.var.inc.inc.dec.inc.inc.Snowfloodinc.dec.inc.Relationship between factorsinc. increasestr. strengtheningdec. decreaseacc. accelerationvar. variationFreshwaterlensOrganicsubstanceWaterPurificationNutrient saltsElutionWaterTemperaturedec.dec.dec.inc.dec.inc.BASINinc.dec.dec.str.var.var.var.inc.inc.inc.FishingBrackishwatersdec.NormalDischargeEvapotranspirationfrom water surfaceinc.FloodDischargeSedimentdischargeFreeze-upIn wintervar.NormalDischargedec.dec.var.inc.var.inc.inc.inc.NaturalpurificationRiver ChannelVegetationvar.inc.var.Water UsageTrouble (Volume)inc.inc.inc.ClarityIn winterDetentiontimeLake Waterleverdec.dec. Thermoclineformationstr.SaturatedDO Densityinc.OxygenConsumption ratedec.var.var.dec.toxicsubstanceOrganic substanceNutrient saltsvar.str.var.dec.dec.Fish andshellfishForm ofRiver Channelvar.var.inc.inc.inc.var.inc.var.Water UsageTrouble (Quality)Vertical circulationof lake waterRiver bedmaterialPlanktonWinterPlanktonSummer bluealgaeDenitrificationdec.dec.var.var.inc.dec.dec.var.dec.DO Densitydec.benthicspeciesdec.dec.var.dec.dec.inc.inc.Lake DOLake beddepositionNitrate leveldec.AttachedalgaeRiver TurbidityHeavy MetalElutioninc.inc.dec.inc.dec.Nutrient saltsSurfaceElutionNutrient saltsinc.dec.Lake bedDOdec.dec.dec.dec.dec. inc.dec.dec.dec.inc.dec.inc.RIVERinc.var.dec.inc.inc.inc.dec.LakeTurbidityFish andshellfishdec.dec.dec.dec.Clarityinc.inc.inc.Nasty Smelland tasteblue-greenalgaedec.nativespeciesdec.benthicspeciesdec.alienspeciesLAKEdec.WATERUSAGEFishingWater UsageTrouble (Quality)Water UsageTrouble (Volume)Figure 2.2.1. Casual relationship between climate change and the water environment(Source: Provided by Ministry of the Environment of Japan)43

To identify how water experts and governmentalofficials working in water sector see the issue of climatechange and the water environment, <strong>WEPA</strong> conducted aquestionnaire survey on perceptions of climate changeimpacts on the water environment in 2009. The survey wasdistributed to water experts who have participated in<strong>WEPA</strong> conferences over the past five years. Survey resultsshowed that most respondents were concerned withdisturbances within ecosystems, followed by the increase ofsedimentation. The respondents also chose intensificationof traditional water pollution issues, such as organicpollution, eutrophication and pollution by pathogens, asareas influenced by climate change. However, most haveconsidered that such changes in water quality could beattributed to increases in water use or other factors, and nota direct result of higher water temperature.3. Policy Responses: Adaptation policies/strategies of <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countriesPolicy responses to the potential impacts of climate changevary from country to country. To determine how eachpartner country has prepared or is preparing for potentialimpacts on the water environment in both climate changeadaptation policies and water resource/managementpolicies, the <strong>WEPA</strong> Secretariat conducted a survey to eachfocal point organization of <strong>WEPA</strong> to identify relevantpolicy documents in 2009. The <strong>WEPA</strong> Secretariat alsoreviewed policy documents available on the Internet thatare related to climate change adaptation and the waterenvironment. Table 2.2.1 is a summary of the survey andreview. Survey results are not exhaustive as informationthat could be obtained from partner countries as well asOrganicEutrophicationPathogensAcidificationSedimenationTurbiditySalinityHeavy metalChemicalEcosystemOthers0 545710 15 20 25 3010Figure 2.2.4. Results of 2009 questionnaire survey on areasimpacted by climate changethrough websites was limited.The result of survey and review shows that watershortage and natural ecosystems, including coastal andmarine ecosystems, are often addressed in national climatechange adaptation policies, strategies, and other relatedgovernment documents. However, water quality aspect isnot often mentioned in these policy documents. Thepotential impacts of climate change and adaptation actionsare also not included in policy documents related tomanagement of the water environment. At a <strong>WEPA</strong>international workshop, some participants pointed out alack of knowledge and scientific data to be a barrier in thedevelopment of policies for adaptation in the waterenvironmental management sector. Therefore exchange ofinformation and ideas among partner countries is necessary.111112132226Table 2.2.1. Climate change adaptation related responses/actions related to water at national levels in <strong>WEPA</strong> countriesCambodiaChinaIndonesiaMention of water environment sector in nationalclimate change adaptation strategies/plansNational Adaptation Programme of Action to ClimateChange (NAPA) (2006) identifies high priority adaptationactivities. Many of the identified priority activities are related towater resource/environment, and provision of safe water in highrisk malaria regions.China’s Policies and Actions for Addressing ClimateChange (2008) includes water resources as a priority sectorfor adaptation. Natural ecosystem conservation and coastalenvironments are also priorities. Wastewater reuse andconservation of coastal ecosystems are mentioned in thedocument.National Action Plan Addressing Climate Change (2007)supports the Indonesian Water Vision, namely “actualization ofstable water utilization in an efficient, effective, and sustainablemanner for the prosperity of all people.” However, no specificreference to water quality is made.Inclusion of climate change concerns in strategies/plansconcerning national water resources or water environmentMaster Plan of Integrated Water Resources does not includeclimate change adaptation aspects.National Water Vision does not mention specific concernsregarding climate change impacts and adaptation actions for thewater environment.The National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plan coveredactions for biodiversity and ecosystems in the country overall, butdoes not mention specific concerns regarding climate change.46

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 2.2 Climate Change and the Water EnvironmentJapanRpublic of KoreaNo national strategies/plans on adaptation exist. However, theMinistry of the Environment formed an expert committee onclimate adaptation, which drafted the report, “Wise Adaptationto Climate Change Impacts”. Water (both quantity and quality)is identified as a priority area for adaptation in the report.The Fourth National Plan for Climate Change (2008-2012)includes mitigation as well as adaptation actions. No sectorspecific adaptation actions are mentioned.The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourismorganized an expert committee to consider the potential impactsof climate change on water resource management in the countryand necessary adaptation actions.The Ministry of the Environment is conducting a three-yearstudy on climate change impacts on the water environment andadaptation actions from 2009. (The final report will be completedin 2012.)The four major rivers restoration program considers potentialclimate change impacts.Lao PDRMalaysiaThe National Adaptation Programme of Action to ClimateChange (2009) includes water as a priority action area foradaptation, but no statements related to water quality and waterecosystems are made in the section (flood and drought issuesbeing the main agenda). Adaptation actions for the public healthsector include the improvement of sanitation and ensuringpotable water quality.The Second National Communication (SNC) (2011) mentionspossible water quality deterioration due to reduced or excessiveprecipitation. Also, the SNC includes adaptation concerns forwater, health and biodiversity, which are closely linked with thewater environment.The National Water Policy (draft in 2010) identifies the needfor coordinated programs to reduce the impacts of floods,droughts and climate change. The Action Plan 2011–15 doesnot specifically point out climate change impacts, but doesidentify priority action areas.The National Strategy on Environment to 2020 and ActionPlan for 2006-2010 does not include climate change adaptationconcerns for water and water environmental managementsectors.The Tenth Malaysia Plan (2011-2015) does not clearly identifyclimate change adaptation as a challenge for water resourcemanagement, although flood and drought management isclearly indicated in the section on climate change adaptation(Chapter 6).National Policy on the Environment does not include climatechange concerns regarding the water environment.MyanmarThe National Strategies and Action Plan for BiodiversityConservation includes a reference to aquatic ecosystemconservation.NepalNational Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change(NAPA) (2010) does not include the water sector as an areafor adaptation actions. The focuses of adaptation actions arewater related disasters and the increased vulnerability of waterresources in the country. Biodiversity and health issues areincluded, but no statements mention the relationship betweenthese sectors and water.The National Water Plan points out the establishment ofinformation systems on water which may contribute to preparingfor climate change impacts.PhilippinesThe National Framework Strategy on Climate Change (2010-2022) (2010) includes ecosystem and water management askey result areas for adaptation of the country. Mainstreamingclimate change adaptation in water resource policies is one of thestrategic priorities under the key area of “water governance andmanagement”.The Integrated Water Resource Management Plan Framework(2006) includes concerns related to impacts on water supplydue to extreme events and rainfall variability. It also identifiesimpacts on coastal and marine ecosystems.Sri LankaThe National Climate Change Adaptation Strategies 2011-2016 identifies water as one of the most vulnerable resourcesto climate change impacts in the country. Acceleration of waterscarcity for irrigation and drinking purposes and exposure tofloods, droughts and salt water intrusion are mentioned. Theactions includes in the strategies cover those in the water sector,but there are no specific actions related to water quality.The Action Plan for the Haritha Lanka Programme (2008)includes actions related to the use of water resources, waterpollution and biodiversity, but does not include adaptationactions in those sectors.ThailandThe Second National Communication includes adaptationactions, but no statements are contained related to water quality.The National Policy on Environment (2007-2011) identifiesrehabilitation of watershed forests as an adaptation actionarea, but no specific references on water quality or ecosystemconservation.Viet NamThe National Target Programme to Respond to ClimateChange recognizes the high vulnerability of the country’s waterresources to climate change. The decline of water resources,salt water intrusion, and destruction of aquatic ecosystems dueto changes in water flow and temperature are mentioned in thedocument; however, the document does not address specificwater quality problems that may occur due to climate change(excepting increased salinity).The National Water Resources Strategies towards 2020includes climate change as one of the factors in the decline ofwater resources in the country.The strategies identify water pollution and water ecosystemconservation as priority areas, but concerns over climate changeimpacts on the water environment are not mentioned.47

4. Investigation on potential impacts of climatechange: potential for climate change impactstudy to lead to development of policies forthe water environmentIn 2009, the Ministry of the Environment, Japan initiateda three-year study to investigate climate change impacts onthe water environment and possible adaptation options. Asa part of the project, the relationships between atmospherictemperature, water temperature and organic waterparameters are being analyzed based on accumulatedmonitoring data of 30 years.Data for atmospheric and water temperature, as well aswater quality over the long term, are critical wheninvestigating potential climate change impacts. However,regular monitoring and maintenance of monitored dataare considered to remain a challenge in the promotion ofbetter management in some of <strong>WEPA</strong> countries (Chapter 1,p.21). Considering the need to strengthen water qualitymonitoring and the potential necessity to compile andstore scientific facts to assess climate change impacts in thefuture, the state of water quality related data collected ineach <strong>WEPA</strong> country was surveyed in 2009.The survey investigated the current status and datacollection status of two basic parameters: air temperatureand water temperature. In addition, the survey devised toidentify the status of data collected for water quality atmonitoring points where water temperature data thatexisted for more than 10 years. Tables 2.2.2 to 2.2.6 showthe results of the survey on atmospheric temperature andwater temperature .Table 2.2.2. Air temperatureCurrentNo. of monitoring pointsPoints with dataaccumulation ofmore than 10 yearsCambodia 11 20Japan* 157 157Republic of Korea 539 539Lao PDR 23 17Indonesia 139 109Philippines 56 56Malaysia 39 35Myanmar 114 113Nepal - -Thailand 124 124Viet Nam 176 176* Japan data is as of 2007. Data has been collected for more than 30 years ata number of monitoring points.Survey results reveal that <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries haveattempted to strengthen water quality monitoring in recentyears, but data collection is not sufficient to evaluate theimpacts of climate change on water temperature and waterquality. Water quality monitoring must be ensured toobtain the data to form a basis for policy making, not onlyto improve water quality but also from the perspective ofinvestigating the impacts of climate change. Below are thekey findings of the survey.Sufficient data for water temperature and water qualityhave not been collected in many <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countriesto allow a view of the trends and correlations in changesin water temperature and water quality, especially inlakes/reservoirs and estuaries/coastal areas.Water temperature and water quality monitoring is notconducted regularly in some countries.Not all <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries conduct regular waterquality monitoring for basic quality parameters such asDO, BOD, and COD. It is no surprise that long-term,quality data do not exist in most countries. In suchcountries, regular water quality monitoring systemsshould be established to gain an understanding of thestate of water quality on which to base current and futureactions.Data requested by the questionnaire exist in differentministries and organizations in some countries. Thus,<strong>WEPA</strong> partners face a barrier to the collection of relevantinformation, which is likewise a barrier to studies ofpotential climate change impacts on the waterenvironment.Table 2.2.3. Water temperature in riversCurrentMonthlyPointswith dataaccumulationof more than10 yearsTwice/year(dry and rainy seasons)Pointswith dataCurrent accumulationof more than10 yearsCambodia 17 19 0 0Japan 6,053 3,121 - -Republic ofKorea1482 521 0 0Lao PDR 0 0 0 0Indonesia - - 105 0Philippines 14 14 (14) -Malaysia 1063 908 0 0Myanmar - - - -Nepal 0 0 - -Thailand39(automatic) 4 0 0Viet Nam >100 >100 - -* Japan data is as of 2007. Data has been collected for more than 30 years ata number of monitoring points.* No data is available for China because of no response to the survey.48

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter 2.2 Climate Change and the Water EnvironmentTable 2.2.4. Water temperature in lakes/reservoirsMonthlyTwice/year(dry and rainy seasons)Table 2.2.5. Water temperature in coastal watersMonthlyTwice/year(dry and rainy seasons)CurrentPointswith dataaccumulationof more than10 yearsCurrentPointswith dataaccumulationof more than10 yearsCurrentPointswith dataaccumulationof more than10 yearsCurrentPointswith dataaccumulationof more than10 yearsCambodia 2 1 0 0Republic ofKorea189 150 0 0Japan** 529 265 - -Lao PDR - - - -Indonesia - - - -Philippines 14 14 (14) (14)Malaysia* 0 0 0 0Myanmar - - - -Nepal 0 0 - -Thailand 0 4 0 0Viet Nam - - - -* Lakes and reservoirs in Malaysia are managed and monitored by differentorganizations or owners.**Japan data is as of 2007. Data has been collected for more than 30 years ata number of monitoring points.Cambodia - - - -Japan* 2,174 1,091 - -Republic ofKorea0 0 0 0Lao PDR - - - -Indonesia - - - -Philippines 14 14 (14) (14)Malaysia 158 - 0 0Myanmar - - - -Nepal - - - -Thailand 0 4 0 0Viet Nam - - - -* Japan data is as of 2007. Data has been collected for more than 30 years ata number of monitoring points.Table 2.2.6. Water quality data accumulated more than 10 yearsWater quality monitoring dataRivers (DO and/or BOD)Lakes (DO and/or BOD/COD)Coastal waters (DO and/or BOD/COD)Name of country which has accumulated dataJapan, Republic of Korea, Thailand and MalaysiaJapan, Republic of Korea, Thailand and PhilippinesJapan, Philippines (only Manila Bay)5. Future Action of <strong>WEPA</strong>The above discussion has revealed that scientific knowledgeon climate change impacts on the water quality and aquaticecosystems of <strong>WEPA</strong> countries is very limited. Scientificstudies may require years to identify the impacts of climatechange on water quality and aquatic ecosystems due to thelack of time series data, lack of necessary facilities forscientific research, and lack of human resources indeveloping countries. However, it is important to continueefforts to promote scientific study in this field. As revealedby the <strong>WEPA</strong> survey, the lack of monitoring data on watertemperature and water quality can become a barrier toassess the impacts of climate change on the waterenvironment in the future. In this regard, it is important tostrengthen water quality monitoring and data storagesystems in each country.It is expected that water resources will be subject tonegative impacts than positive impacts at global level, andsuch negative impacts will affect other sustainable agendasuch as food security and poverty (Bates et al.(ed.) 2008).Therefore, it is crucial to continue efforts to promotestudies and actions by both the scientific community aswell as policy makers. In addition to water quality relateddata collection, perception surveys targeted at relevantcommunities (e.g. fishermen) in the region could provideadditional relevant information on climate change impactsand function as a way to gain empirical knowledge ofpotential impacts within a short time period. Thecombination of such studies may increase knowledge ofclimate change impacts related to the water environment inthe region.In addition, considering the flood that besiegedBangkok in 2011, it is imperative to deliberate on how toincrease the level of preparation and resilience against suchextreme events. This includes measures to minimize therisks of water pollution, which may be caused by an increaseof sediments and suspended solids caused by heavy49

precipitation, as well as measures to reduce health risks thatmay increase as a result of disasters, such as the overflow ofuntreated wastewater and temporarily nonfunctionalwastewater treatment facilities, and water supply systems.water treatment facilities.Clear-cut scientific evidence does not yet exist in termsof climate change impacts on the water environment. Asdiscussed in <strong>WEPA</strong> meetings, distinguishing between theimpacts on the water environment, as being from humanactivity or climate change, is very difficult. However, whileconsidering the importance of and difficulties in addressingthis issue, <strong>WEPA</strong> will take the following actions.To continue and enhance discussion and informationexchange open on this issue whereby <strong>WEPA</strong> partners canstrengthen water environmental management againstpotential/suspected climate change impacts.To strengthen <strong>WEPA</strong> activities and broaden theknowledge base to contribute to improvement of waterquality management in partner countries, recognizingthat strengthening and improvement of current waterquality management is an important adaptation action,especially in countries which face implementationproblems.As a knowledge base on this issue, an archive page on“Climate Change and the Water Environment” willcreated for the <strong>WEPA</strong> database.50

Chapter3Country Profiles of Water EnvironmentalManagement in <strong>WEPA</strong> Countries3.1 Cambodia3.2 China3.3 Indonesia3.4 Japan3.5 Republic of Korea3.6 Lao PDR3.7 Malaysia3.8 Myanmar3.9 Nepal3.10 Philippines3.11 Sri Lanka3.12 Thailand3.13 Viet Nam

Cambodia1. Country InformationTable 3.1.1. Basic indicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 181,035 (2008)Total Population (person) 14.1 million (2010)GDP (current USD) 11.2 billion (2010)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 795 (2010)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 1,904 (2009)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 476.1* (2009)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m 3 ) 2.2 (2006)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors* Estimated(Source: See References)ThailandAgriculture 94% (2006)Industry 1.5% (2006)Municipal(including domestic)2. Major Water Basins in Cambodia4.5% (2006)Lao PDR13,000km 2 with an average depth of 8-10m because of theincrease of water flow from the Mekong River.With this unique hydrological system, the country hasan ample supply of water mainly from the Mekong River,Tonle Sap River, Bassac River and other tributaries duringthe rainy season. That said, most parts of the countryencounter water shortages especially for domestic andirrigation uses during the dry season because of insufficientinfrastructure development such as for water storage,reservoirs, canals and irrigation systems. Water inCambodia remains regulated only in part, resulting in anoverabundance of water during the rainy season and adeficiency in the dry season.Groundwater availability is estimated to be 17.6billion m 3 , which is primarily used for household watersupply and for irrigation. A major emerging player ingroundwater extraction is the industrial sector, located inthe outskirts of the capital and provinces (Sokha 2005).The alluvial deposits of the Tonle Sap and Mekongfloodplain/delta are believed to be excellent shallowaquifers which have high recharge rates. Data andinformation about groundwater and its utilization is stillinsufficient, but shallow wells could be used in an estimated48,000km 2 of the country (Sokha 2005).4. State of Water QualityGulf of ThailandTonle SapGrate LakeTonle SapRiverPhnom PenhBassac River3. State of Water ResourcesMekongRiverFigure 3.1.1. Major rivers in CambodiaVietnamThe Mekong catchment makes up about 86% ofCambodia’s land area. Tonle Sap Great Lake (TSGL) hastwo flow directions: 1) In the dry season - water of TSGLdrains into the Mekong River, 2) In the rainy season -water of the Mekong River drains into the TSGL. The lakeis about 2,500km 2 in size and has a depth of 1-2m duringthe dry season. However, its size considerably changesduring the rainy season, swelling to approximatelyIn general, surface water in Cambodia meets the nationalambient water quality standards—meaning water in thecountry is not polluted. However, water quality has beenunder threat in some areas especially during the dry seasondue to the inflow of untreated effluents to public waterbodies from urban activities as well as agricultural run-off.Development activities also cause water quality todeteriorate—for example, conversion of wetlands andforest to agricultural lands increases the risk of waterpollution from agricultural run-off which contains agrochemicalresidues (MoE 2009). Various pollution sourcessuch as untreated wastewater from manufacturing andmining, service and tourism industries, solid and liquidwastes discharged from slaughterhouses and livestockfarms, as well as transportation by waterways, also have amajor impact on water quality in the country.River waterAccording to Cambodia’s Annual Environmental Report2010, the water quality in public waters has been assessed52

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.1 Cambodiaas good overall and water pollution is not considered to bea significant problem (MoE 2010). The officers of theDepartment of Environmental Pollution Control, Ministryof Environment (DoEPC/MoE) of Cambodia conductwater sampling each month at designated stations in theMekong River (e.g. Chroy Changvar, Phnom Penh Port,Stoung Chouv, and Kien Svay). Table 3.1.2 shows BODvalues observed by recent water quality monitoring results inthe Mekong River, which indicates that the river qualitysatisfies the ambient water quality standards of BOD (under10mg/L). Monitoring results of other parameters at differentmonitoring points are also shown in Figure 3.1.2 to 3.1.6.Table 3.1.2. Values of BOD in Mekong RiverYearBOD Value (mg/L)Max. value Min. value2006 3.62 1.772007 Not available Not available2008 3.43 0.532009 3.80 0.202010 4.80 0.27(Source: MoE 2010)Ambient Water QualityStandard for BOD01 – 10 mg/LpH8.287.87.67.47.2Standard: 6.5-8.5702004 2006 2008 2010Figure 3.1.2TSS (mg/L)700600Standard: 25-100 (mg/L)50040030020010002004 2006 2008 2010Figure 3.1.5DO (mg/L)8765432Standard: 2.0-7.5 (mg/L)102004 2006 2008 2010Figure 3.1.3Conductivity (μs.cm)100080060040020002004 2006 2008 2010Figure 3.1.6BOD (mg/L)7654321 Standard: 1-10 (mg/L)02004 2006 2008 2010Figure 3.1.4MK River Upstream (Chrouy Changvar)MK River Downstream (Kien Svay)Bassac River (Ta Khmao)PP Port (Tonle Sap River)Figures 3.1.2 to 3.1.6. Water quality monitoring results for different parameters at major monitoring points.(Source: Sokha 2011)53

Lakes and reservoirsAccording to various literatures, the general level ofpollution in lakes on average remains low, although waterpollution has been locally identified in and around floatingvillages. Since 2009, MoE has started taking water samplesto check water quality of lakes. The results of monitoring ofCOD show that the maximum value in 2010 exceedsambient water quality standards (Table 3.1.3).Table 3.1.3. Lake water quality in Tonle Sap Great Lake in2009 and 2010YearChhnok True(Tonle Sap Great Lake)Max.value (mg/L) Min.value (mg/L)2009 4.80 1.272010 8.57 1.0(Source: MoE 2009 and 2010)Ambient Water QualityStandard for CODUnder 8 mg/LCoastal waterCambodia’s coastal shoreline is 435 km long on the Gulf ofThailand, and the seaward boundary of the coastal zone hasbeen delimited as the outer limit of the country’s exclusiveeconomic zone with an area of 55,600km 2 . The landwardboundary of the coastal zone has not yet been satisfactorilydefined, but it is currently considered to be about 5 kmfrom the shore. The coastal zones are situated in the fourprovinces of Koh Kong, Kampot, Sihanoukville and Kepmunicipalities. In general, coastal water is considered to beof fairly good quality, but development activities such asthose in economic zones and seaports may exert a negativeinfluence on coastal water and coastal ecosystems withoutthe sound management of solid and liquid wastes generatedfrom those activities. According to the results of monitoringin 2005-2006, water quality had not deteriorated in termsof total suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, biologicaloxygen demand, total nitrogen, and total phosphorous(MoE 2006).GroundwaterThe data on groundwater quality is very limited, but arseniccontamination of groundwater was identified by a nationaldrinking water quality assessment in 2000 in someprovinces located in Mekong, Bassac and Tonle Sap Riverbasins (Arsenic Center of Cambodia 2010) wheredependency on groundwater as the source of domesticwater is as high as 62-100% (MoWRAM 2008).5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementLegislationThe current legislative framework for water environmentmanagement in Cambodia is shown in Figure 3.1.7. Theprotection and promotion of environmental quality andpublic health is the objective of natural resource managementincluding water (Article 1, Law on Environmental Protectionand Natural Resource Management). The Law on WaterResources and Management (2007) includes aspects ofwater quality management, such as requiring wastewaterdischarge licenses or permission for activities that could havenegative impacts on water quality and human and ecosystemhealth (Article 22), as well as designations for dangerous orrestricted zones for water use where the water quality,quantity and ecological balance are endangered (Article 23).The details on water environmental conservationmeasures are explained in the Sub-decree on WaterPollution Control, which was established in 1999 underthe Law on Environmental Protection and NaturalResources Management. The sub-decree aims to regulatevarious activities that could pollute and/or have alreadypolluted public water areas (e.g. rivers, lakes, groundwater,and sea water). Ambient water quality standards for humanhealth and bio-diversity (Article 7), as well as effluentstandards for pollution sources (Article 4) are set by thissub-decree. Other elements of the sub-decree includemonitoring of pollution sources and their effluents(Chapter 4), monitoring of public water areas (Chapter 5),and inspection rules (Chapter 6). Other sub-decrees underthe Law on Environmental Protection and NaturalResources Management, such as the Sub-decree on SolidWastes and the Sub-decree on Environmental ImpactAssessment Process, also contain articles related to waterenvironmental conservation.Currently, two new pieces of legislation are beingdrafted in relation to water quality management, namelythe Law on Environmental Pollution Management byMoE and the Sub-decree on Water Quality by the Ministryof Water Resources and Meteorology (MoWRAM). Thedraft Law on Environmental Pollution Management willstipulate the process related to monitoring and control ofwater, air and soil pollution.54

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.1 CambodiaDraft Law on Water Supply andSanitation of the Kingdom of CambodiaLaw on Environmental Protection andNatural Resources Management(December 1996)Law on Water ResourcesManagement (2007)Drinking Water Standard (2004)National Policy on Water Supply andSanitation (February 2003)National Water Resources Policy in theKingdom of Cambodia (January 2003)Policy Framework-Water Supply andSanitation of the Kingdom of Cambodia(February 2001)Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control(April 1999)Sub-Decree on Solid Waste Management(April 1999)Sub-Decree on Environmental ImpactAssessment Process(August 1999)Figure 3.1.7. Legislative framework on water environmental management in Cambodia(Source: MoEJ 2009)Institutional arrangementMoE is responsible for protection and management of theenvironment and natural resources* 1 in the country basedon the Law on Environmental Protection and NaturalResource Management (Article 9). Details of the ministry’sresponsibilities are described in Box 3.1.1 Under thenation’s environmental legislation, MoE issues orders tofactories which use chemical substances and otherpollutants to treat its wastewater prior to discharge toreceiving waters (MoE 2009). Local authorities such asprovincial and municipal environmental departments arein charge of water environmental management, such aswater quality monitoring.MoWRAM, established in 1999, also engages in waterenvironmental management and monitors water quality.In principle, MoE is responsible for tasks related to waterpollution and MoWRAM is responsible for tasks relatedto ambient water quality.Box 3.1.1. Responsibilities of Ministry of Environment of Cambodia under the Law on EnvironmentalProtection and Natural Resource ManagementResearch and assessment of the environmental impacts on natural resources (Article 9)Provide recommendations to other concerned ministries to ensure conservation and rational use of the naturalresources (Article 9)Develop inventories of pollution sources (Article 12)Develop sub-degrees to prevent and reduce pollution (Article 13)Monitor pollution sources and natural resource development activities (Article 14)Conduct inspection of pollution sources (Article 15) and order improvement in case of violations (Article 20)Provision of information of the activities of Ministry, as requested by the public (Article 17)*1 Natural resources include land, water, airspace, air, geology, ecological systems, mines, energy, petroleum and gas, rocks and sand, precious stones,forest and forest products, wildlife, fish, and aquatic resources (Article 8, The Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management)55

Ambient water quality standardsAmbient water quality standards for public water areas areset by the Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control. Thereare two kinds of water quality standards. The first is waterquality standards for biodiversity conservation designatedfor rivers (five parameters), lakes and reservoirs (sevenparameters), and coastal water (seven parameters),respectively. The second is water quality standards forpublic health, which designates standard values for 25parameters that have harmful effects on human health.There are no ambient quality standards for groundwater,but water quality is assessed by standards designated forspecific uses such as national drinking water qualitystandards.Monitoring of ambient water quality in public water bodiesMoE is responsible for the regular control and monitoringof water pollution in public water areas throughoutCambodia (see Box 3.1.2). The details of parametersmonitored are shown in Table 3.1.4. Althoughdecentralization has led to local governments anddepartments handling various tasks, the main constraint tothis process is a lack of experienced officials and laboratoriesfor water quality analysis. Therefore, central officials of MoEcontinue carrying out these tasks in conjunction with localcapacity building and institutional capacity development.Table 3.1.4. Current status of water quality monitoring byMoE (2011)ParametermonitoredSampling sitesFrequency(Source: MoEJ 2009)BOD, DO, pH, Temperature, TSS, ColiformEach of 10 public water body(Chroy Chang Var, PP Port, Ta Kmao, KienSvay, Prek Kdam, Stoeung Sangke, StoeungPorsat, Stoeung Sen, Stoeung Chinit and TonleSap Great Lake)Once a monthUnder the Water Quality Monitoring Network(Mekong River Commission (MRC) Program), MoWRMalso takes water samples monthly at designated stations inrivers and relevant tributaries for analysis and reports backto MRC via the Cambodia National Mekong Committee(CNMC). The parameters monitored are temperature,pH, TSS, Conductivity, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Alk, Cl, SO 4 , Tot-Fe, Si, DO, COD, Mn, NO 3 -N, NH 4 -N, PO 4 -P, andTot-P. The monitoring results are made public via databaseand upon request.Water quality samples are taken on an ad-hoc basis tocheck that groundwater quality satisfies standards fordrinking water and household use, as the country does notyet have a regular groundwater quality monitoring systemin place.Effluent StandardsAiming at managing effluents discharged from pollutionsources, the Effluent Standard for Pollution SourcesDischarging Wastewater to Public Water Areas of Sewerswas established under the Sub-decree on Water PollutionControl. Standard values are set for 52 parameters, such astemperature, pH, BOD, heavy metals, agricultural chemicals,and organic solvents. In principle, the standards are appliedto all industries and other pollution sources designated bythe sub-standards. For areas which require special treatmentfor protection of human health and biodiversity, MoE canestablish separate effluent standards for pollution sources inthe area (Article 5 of the sub-decree).Effluent MonitoringUnder the Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control, allbusiness operators must self-monitor effluent and submit aperiodic report of the results to MoE. However, someindustries do not comply with this regulation. Therefore,MoE regularly conducts on-site inspections to checkwhether the business operators are in compliance witheffluent standards by taking and analyzing water samples ofthe effluent and also treated water. There are two types ofmonitoring programs in place at pollution sources: (i)regular effluent monitoring at normal factories and hotelsthat is conducted within an interval period of 90 days; and(ii) regular effluent monitoring at factories that usechemicals and/or chemical compounds for production thatshould be conducted in an interval period of 45 days.Non-compliance MeasuresWhen violation of effluent standards is found, MoE issues awritten order to industries to correct current activities tocomply with the standards. Industries are fined andpunished for violations in the monitoring and reporting of,and compliance with effluent standards stipulated underthe Sub-decree on Water Pollution Control if they do notrespond to orders issued by MoE.56

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.1 CambodiaBox 3.1.2. Recent development of water quality management: strengthening water quality monitoringMany developing countries in the region pointed out that lack of data on ambient water quality and effluent frompollution sources are barriers to the promotion of water quality management; Cambodia is no different in this respect.The Cambodian government has worked to strengthen monitoring and assessment of ambient and effluent waterquality for more than 15 years to improve and build upon the scientific basis for better management of water quality.For example, MoWRAM started monthly water quality sampling at public water areas in 1993. MoE also conductsa routine monitoring programme at various areas and has conducted ambient water quality monitoring since 1999.Such monitoring practices form the scientific basis for improvement of water quality management policy and specificmeasures in the future.(Source: Sokha 2011)6. Existing and Future ChallengesBased on the current state of water quality management in Cambodia, a few key management challenges are identified asfollows. process related to monitoring and control of water, air and soil pollution.1. Weak legal framework such as lack of water qualitystandards for specific beneficial uses such as humanhealth and recreation.2. Insufficient equipment for laboratory and field testingwhich become barriers to the appropriate managementof water quality.3. Shortage of technical officers at both national andlocal levels with expertise who can carry out adequatewater quality management.4. Budget limitations of government, especially forimprovement of capacity of laboratories in terms offacility infrastructure/equipment and human resources.5. Weak coordination between stakeholders, especiallyindustries that are responsible for protecting andimproving water quality in Cambodia. Facilitation ofcommunication and data sharing must be promoted.6. Insufficient technical capacity both at national and locallevels, such as water quality monitoring and decentralizeddomestic wastewater treatment technologies, whichrequire international support.57

China1. Country InformationTable 3.2.1. Basic indicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 9,600,000 (2010)Total Population (person) 1,300 million (2010)GDP (current USD)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 4,428 (2010)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 645 (2009)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 2,840 (2009)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m 3 ) 554.1 (2005)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors(Source: See References)2. Seven Major River Basins in ChinaYellow RiverPearl River3. State of Water ResourcesYangtze RiverSonghua RiverLiaohe RiverFigure 3.2.1. Seven major river basins in China5,926.6 billion (2010)Agriculture 64.6% (2005)Industry 23.2% (2005)Municipal(including domestic) 12.2% (2005)BeijingHaihe RiverHuaihe RiverThe total volume of water resources in China ranks sixthamong all the countries in the world. The per capita volumeis low at about 2,100m 3 (World Development Indicator)because of the large size of the population, which isequivalent to only one-fourth of the world average. Inaddition, water resources in China are unevenlydistributed—rich in the southern areas and poor in thenorthern areas (MWR 2011). About two-thirds of China’scities are short of water, and in more than 110 cities, thesituation is dire (MWR 2011). Mega-cities such as Beijingand Tianjin are also facing serious water shortages (WorldBank 2008).4. State of Water QualityAccording to the State of Environment Report 2010published by the Ministry of Environmental Protection(MEP) of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), surfacewater pollution in the country remains serious, especiallyeutrophication in lakes and reservoirs (MEP 2011a).The state of surface water quality is evaluated andexpressed in grades for environmental standards forsurface water which range from Grade I to V (Table 3.2.2).The state of sea water and groundwater are evaluated andexpressed in grades for sea water quality standards andenvironmental quality standards for groundwater,respectively (Table 3.2.3 and 3.2.4).River waterBased on the results of national monitoring at 409 sectionsin 204 rivers, water quality categorized as Grade I to III was59.9%, that of Grade IV to V was 23.7%, and that ofinferior to Grade V was 16.4% (MEP 2011a). Water qualityof the seven major rivers (Yangtze River, Yellow River, PearlRiver, Songhua River, Huaihe River, Haihe River andLiaohe River) was evaluated as “slightly polluted” in general(MEP 2011a). Compared with figures in 2005, waterquality has significantly improved (Table 3.2.5).Figure 3.2.2 shows the details of the state of each of theseven major rivers in 2010. Specifically, the water qualityof the Pearl River and the Yangtze River was good, that ofthe Songhua River and the Huaihe River was slightlypolluted, that of the Yellow River and the Liaohe Riverwas intermediately polluted, and water quality of theHaihe River was heavily polluted. The main parameters ofpollution observed were total nitrogen and totalphosphorus (MEP 2011a).58

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.2 ChinaTable 3.2.2. Grades for Environmental Quality Standards forSurface WaterGradeIIIIIIIVVTable 3.2.3. Grades for Sea Water Quality StandardsGradeDescriptionSuitable for marine fishing, marine nature preserves andIprotected areas for rare or endangered marine organisms.(Source: MEP 2007)DescriptionMainly for headstream and the national nature preserves.Mainly for drinking water resources in first-class protectedareas, protected areas for precious fish, and spawning areasfor fish and shrimp.Mainly for drinking water resources in second-class protectedareas, protected areas for fish, and swimming areas.Mainly for industrial water resources and recreational use inwhich people do not contact water.Mainly for agricultural water resources and water areasrequired for landscape.(Source: Environmental Quality Standard for Surface Water)IIIIIIVSuitable for marine cultivation, bathing, marine sport orrecreation activities involving direct human contact with marinewater, and for sources of industrial use of water related tohuman consumption.Suitable for water resources for general industrial use.Suitable only for harbors and ocean development activities.Table 3.2.4. Grades for Groundwater Quality StandardsGradeDescriptionReflects the background low contents of nature chemicalIcomponents of groundwater.IIIIIIVV(Source: UNEP 2010)Table 3.2.5. Water quality of seven major rivers in2005 and 2010YearReflects the background contents of the nature chemicalcomponents of groundwater. It is applicable to variouspurposes.Based on the benchmark value of human health. It is primarilyapplicable to concentrative drinking water sources andindustrial and agricultural use water.Based on industrial and agricultural use water requirements.It is primarily applicable to industrial water and partialagricultural use water. After it is properly processed, it isapplicable to drinking water.Not applicable to drinking water. The selection of suchcategory of water depends on other purposes.GradeI-IIIGradeIV-V2005 41% 32% 27%2010 59.9% 23.7% 16.4%Inferior toGrade VNoteBased on surface water qualitymonitoring of 411 sections(source: SEPA 2006)Based on surface water qualitymonitoring of 409 sections(source: MEP 2011a)Water quality grade proportion (%)100806040200YangtzeRiverYellowRiverPearlRiverSonghuaHuaiheRiver RiverHaiheRiverLiaoheRiverFigure 3.2.2. State of river water quality of the sevenmajor rivers in 2010(Source: MEP 2011a)I-IIIIV, VVLakes and reservoirsTable 3.2.6 shows the state of water quality in 26 majorlakes and reservoirs based on the national water qualitymonitoring programme. Compared with monitoringresults in 2005, the state of water quality in lakes andreservoirs has also improved, although around 40% ofmonitored lakes and reservoirs are still classified as GradeV. Total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) are themajor pollutants. Of the 26 monitored lakes and reservoirs,Dianchi Lake in Yunnan Province is categorized as “underheavily eutrophication (nutrition index of more than 70)”and Dalai Lake in Inner Mongolia and Hongze Lake inJiangsu Province as “under intermediate eutorophication(nutrition index higher than 60)” (MEP 2011a). Waterquality in large reservoirs ranked higher than that of largefreshwater lakes or lakes in cities (ibid).Table 3.2.6. Water quality of major lakes and reservoirs in 2010Type of water bodiesNumber ofwater bodiesNote: Three lakes refer to Taihu Lake, Dianchi Lake and Chaohu Lake(Source: 2010 data from MEP 2011a; 2005 data from SEPA 2006)GradeI II III IV V >VThree lakes 3 0 0 0 0 1 2Large freshwater lakes 9 0 0 3 0 3 3Urban lakes 5 0 0 0 2 1 2Large reservoirs 9 0 1 5 4 6 10Total 26 0 1 5 4 6 10Percentage in 2010 (26) 0 3.8 19.2 15.4 23.1 38.5Percentage in 2005 (27) 0 7 21 11 18 4359

Coastal waterSeawater in China is slightly polluted. A total of 279,225km 2 of coastal area was monitored in 2010, with 62.7%classified under Grade I and II for national marine waterquality standards, which is a decrease of 10.2% from 2009,and 14.1% classified as Grade III, which is an increase of8.1% from 2009 (Figure 3.2.3). In terms of coastal seawaterquality of the four major areas, the Yellow Sea and SouthChina Sea demonstrated good water quality. Water in thecoastal sea area was slightly polluted in Bohai Sea, and theEast China Sea had poor water quality (MEP 2011a).GroundwaterResults indicate that the overall situation of groundwaterquality is far from reassuring. The outcomes of groundwaterquality monitoring in 2010 show that 40.4% of 4,110monitoring points in 182 cities were assessed as “poor” inquality and 16.8% as “very poor”* 1 (MEP 2011a) (Figure3.2.4). There is no information available on the types ofpollutants, but ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, nitratenitrogen, iron, manganese, and total hardness were themajor parameters identified by monitoring in 2009 (MEP2010a). According to the State Council, over-exploitation,pollution from sewage, domestic and industrial wastes,fertilizers and pesticides have been identified as the maincauses of groundwater pollution ( Jin 2011). There is aregional difference in water quality as well—while thequality of groundwater in cities in the north, northeast andnorthwest region of the country is poor, groundwaterquality down south is generally good overall (MEP 2011a).Wastewater and major pollutantsThe total discharge of wastewater from industrial anddomestic sources has increased, while COD and ammonianitrogen is on the decline. The total discharge of wastewaterin China in 2010 was 61.73 billion tons: 23.75 billion tonsfrom industries and 37.98 from domestic sources. Thedischarge is an increase of approximately 15% from 2006(53.68 billion tons) and 4.7% from 2009 (58.92 billiontons). Total discharge of COD was 12.381 million tonswhich is a decrease of 3.1% from 2009 (12.775 milliontons). Sixty-five percent of COD was discharged fromdomestic sources. That of ammonia nitrogen was 1.203million tons of which about 78% is domestic in origin. Theamount is a decrease of 1.9% from 2009 (1.226 milliontons) (MEP 2011a).Grade IGrade IIGrade IIIGrade IVGrade IVGuangxiHainanBeijingIanjinHebeiShandongJiargxiGuangdongAnhuiJiamgsuShanghaiFujianLiamingZhejiangTaiwanIslands in SouthChina SeaFigure 3.2.3. State of coastal water quality in mainlandChina in 2010(Source: MEP 2011a)Very poor 16.8% Very good 10.2%Poor 40.4%Good 27.6%Better 5.0%Figure 3.2.4. Groundwater Quality Monitoring Results of182 Cities in 2010(Source: MEP 2011a)*1 Criteria of “very good” to “very poor” are not equivalent to that of groundwater quality grade I to V. It is a qualitative assessment of groundwater quality using theevaluation method set out in Section 6 of the Quality Standard for Groundwater (GB/T 14848-9)60

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.2 China5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementLegislationProtection and improvement of both the ecological andliving environment as well as pollution control, is theresponsibility of the state according the Constitution of thePeople’s Republic of China. The Environmental ProtectionLaw of the People’s Republic of China stipulates theobjectives of water environmental preservation as “to ensurehuman health, maintain the effective use of water resourcesand the conservation of marine resources, maintain theecological balance, and enhance the development of modernsocialism.”Figure 3.2.5 shows the outline of legislation regardingwater quality control in China. The EnvironmentalProtection Law of the People’s Republic of China was putinto effect in 1989 as a basic environmental law. For surfacewater and groundwater quality control, the Law of thePeople’s Republic of China on Prevention and Control ofWater Pollution were formulated in 1984 under whichambient surface and groundwater quality standards andwater pollutant discharge standards were established. Forsea water, the Marine Environment Protection Law of thePeople’s Republic of China was established in 1982. Seawater quality standards were set up under the MarineEnvironment Protection Law. In addition to these laws,regulations and administrative decree/rules related to waterpollution control, such as Interim Measures on theCollection of Pollution Discharge Fee, also exist.Institutional arrangementsThe Ministry of Environment Protection (MEP), whichwas upgraded from the State Environmental ProtectionEnvironmental Protection LawConservation of Water Quality inSurface Water and GroundwaterLaw on Prevention and Control of Water PollutionWater Quality Standards– Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water– Quality Standard for GroundwaterConservation of Water Quality in Sea WaterMarine Environment Protection LawOther Water Quality Standards– Water Quality Standard for Fisheries– Standards for Irrigation Water QualityFigure 3.2.5. Legislative Framework for Water Quality(Source: MoEJ 2009)Administration (SEPA) in 2008, has a mission to prevent andcontrol environmental pollution in the country throughoverall supervision and coordination of environmentalprotection management. Provincial and municipalgovernments also play important roles in pollution controlwith local legislations and standards.Water environmental management policyThe national five-year plan for national economic and socialdevelopment is the country’s principle policy documentwhich also includes targets for water environmentalmanagement. In addition, a national five-year plan for waterpollution prevention and control in major river basins wasestablished as a key policy document for water environmentalmanagement (Figure 3.2.6).Huai, Hai, LiaoTaihu, Dianchi,Chahu9th Five Year Plan(1996-2000)10th Five Year Plan(2001-2005)Three Gorge &its upstreamSouth to NorthWater TransferSonghuaXiaolangdi reservoirand its upstream(Yellow River)11th Five Year Plan(2006-2010)Figure 3.2.6. Pollution prevention and control for key river basins in the National Five-Year Plan(Source: Gang 2011)61

Recent policy achievements in protecting waterenvironmentThe National 11th Five-Year Plan (2006-2010) has set anobligatory target of reducing COD emissions by 10% fromthat of 2005 levels. Since 2006, Environmental ImpactAssessments (EIA) for 822 construction projects failing tosatisfy water quality control regulations were rejected orsuspended. Also, more than 20,000 firms that havedischarged wastewater not meeting the requirements ofthe environmental protection law were closed down. As aresult, during the 11th Five-Year Plan, the amount ofCOD discharged decreased by 12.45% compared to thatof 2005 levels meeting the reduction target (Met 2011b).Furthermore, under the national monitoring programme,by the end of 2010, 80.9% of the river section has satisfiedthe national surface water quality standards. The averageconcentration of permanganate value of river sectionsdecreased by 31.9% compared to that of 2005, and theproportion of river sections of the seven big rivers whichmet Grade III water quality standards increased from 41%in 2005 to 59.9% in 2011 (MEP 2011d). The main measurestaken to meet the pollution reduction targets are explainedin Box 3.2.1.Ambient water quality standardsThe Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Waterstipulate standard values for 24 basic parameters in the fiveabove-mentioned grades. The Quality Standard forGroundwater stipulates standard values for 39 parameters,and 35 parameters in the Sea Water Quality Standard.Water Quality Standards for Fisheries and Standards forIrrigation Water Quality have been established as additionalwater quality standards.Monitoring of water quality in public water bodiesWater quality monitoring is conducted in stationsestablished across the country to check the water qualityof rivers, groundwater, lakes, and sea water. In 2010,monitoring was implemented in 409 stations for 204rivers, 182 cities with 4,110 stations for groundwater, 26lakes, and 279,225 km 2 of coastal area (MEP 2011a). Theanalytical methods for water quality are provided in eachwater quality standard (Environmental Quality Standardsfor Surface Water (GB3838-2002), Quality Standard forGroundwater (GB/T14848-93) and Sea Water QualityStandard (GB3097-1997)).Effluent standardsEffluent quality of domestic wastewater at the dischargepoints of urban wastewater treatment plants is regulated bythe Discharge Standard of Pollutants for MunicipalWastewater Treatment Plants (GB18918-2002). TheIntegrated Wastewater Discharge Standard (GB 8978-1996) regulates effluent levels for industrial wastewater.However, for various types of industries such as iron andsteel and meat packing industries which are not covered bythe above standard, individual standards were established.Different target values for specific pollutants are designedBox 3.2.1. Main measures taken to meet the pollution reduction targetsPollution control regulations such as stricter EIA process, total discharge pollution load control, and an examinationsystem for water quality of trans-boundary river sections of the main river basins, as well as the enforcement system forthese instruments, including performance appraisal methods of local governments, could be construed as one of themain effective measures behind China’s achievements to date.Specifically for the EIA process, MEP has reinforced stricter rules for construction projects that impact water quality.In the river basins and regions that have not met reduction targets, approvals for new investments and plant expansionwere restricted. As well, plants that did not meet water quality standards within a certain time frame were closed down.The process has gained legal validity as it was stated in the Article 18 of the revised Law of the People’s Republicof China on Prevention and Control of Water Pollution in February 2008, that for areas with total discharge of waterpollutants over the prescribed level, the government shall suspend the examination and approval of EIA documents forconstruction projectsIn addition, by replacing the previous pollution concentration based approach, the total discharge pollution loadcontrol approach was adopted to take into account the carrying capacity of the pollution receiving water bodies whendischarging wastewater. In its implementation, discharge load permits were issued to polluters, discharge fees foremissions above standards were levied, and enterprises violating the relevant regulations were closed down. Inorder to enforce and implement the above measures, the central government has signed an agreement with localgovernments. The agreement makes it obligatory for the local governments to meet pollution reduction targets and ifthey fail to do so, the responsible officials, including the head of the government, will not be promoted and may even bedemoted. This link between performance evaluation indicators and pollution reduction targets was the newest initiativetaken during the 11th Five-Year Plan.(Source: World Bank 2008)62

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.2 Chinafor industries constructed before 31 December 1997 andafter 1 January 1998 in the Integrated Wastewater DischargeStandard (GB 8978-1996). Since 2008, more than ten neweffluent standards have been added to the existing standards(as of October 2011) (MEP 2011c).6. Existing and Future ChallengesChina has strengthened management of the waterenvironment that serves a basis for the sound developmentof the country. Currently, water environmental managementin the country has incorporated additional strategicmanagement policies in which cultural and ecologicalaspects, as well as resource-saving aspects, are included.Drinking water source protection remains a priority, andgroundwater is taking off as a new priority area in waterquality management in China.As for pollution reduction, the 12th Five-Year Plan(2011-2015) set a goal of 8% reduction of COD dischargeand 10% reduction of ammonia nitrogen compared withthat of 2010. Prevention and control of agricultural nonpointpollution is also highlighted (MEP 2011d).COD monitoring in the 11th Five-Year Plan coveredmostly discharges from point sources, and monitoring ofnon-point sources will become necessary to comprehensivelyaddress the pollution of the water environment in China.According to the first national pollution source survey in2010, over 40% of water pollutants come from agriculturalsources such as run-off of fertilizers, pesticides and livestockwastes, and landfill leakage. Agricultural pollutantsaccounted for 57.2% of total nitrogen and 67.4% of totalphosphorous in water (MEP 2010b). These results have ledto the adoption of a new reduction target for ammonianitrogen. With the increase of water for domestic use alongwith economic growth, measures in the domestic sectorsuch as development of sewage treatment plants may beconsidered.In the 12th Five-Year Plan, reinforcement of environmentalprotection was identified as a focus. Specifically, reduction ofheavy metal pollution, air and soil pollution was highlightedto protect human health (MEP 2011d). From the perspectiveof the water environment, pollution from heavy metals isparticularly threatening to the safety of drinking watersources or groundwater supply in China. According to theState Council, 18% of water supply in China is fromgroundwater, and out of 657 cities, more than 40% usegroundwater as a major source of drinking water (ChineseGovernment’s Official Web Portal 2011). The pollution ofgroundwater remains a serious issue; within the past twoyears between January 2010 and May 2011, there were 21heavy metal pollution incidents including lead poisoningand damages to the protection zones (Wang 2011). Anational plan was adopted by the State Council in August2011 to protect the safety of groundwater sources andaddress pollution prevention. Under the plan, the localgovernment will be required to establish a groundwaterenvironment supervision system by 2015 and pollutionprevention mechanisms by 2020 ( Jin 2011).63

Indonesia1. Country InformationTable 3.3.1. Basic indicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 1,910,931 (2010)Total Population (person) 239.9 million (2010)GDP (current USD) 706.6 billion (2010)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 2,946 (2010)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 2,702 (2009)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 2,019 (2009)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m 3 ) 113.3 (2000)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors(Source: See References)BaritoKapuasAgriculture 81.9% (2000)Industry 6.5% (2000)Municipal(including domestic) 11.6% (2000)2. Major Water Basins in IndonesiaMahakamKalimantanSalo WalanaeSulawesi MalukuPapuaKamparCisadaneIndragiriSumateraSalo MarosBatanghariJakartaMusiCitarum Brantas Bali&NusatenggaraBengawan SoloIndian OceanAustraliaFigure 3.3.1. Water basins in Indonesia3. State of Water ResourcesWater resources in Indonesia account for almost 6% of theworld water resources or about 21% of total water resourcesin the Asia-Pacific region. There has been a significantupward trend in water consumption trends over the pastyears; in 2000, total water demand was approximately156,000 million m³/year. By 2015, it is predicted that thisfigure will double to 356,575 million m³/year. However,the country is facing a crisis of unprecedented proportionswith the decreasing availability of clean water resultingfrom environmental degradation and pollution. In 2006,the rate of water resource degradation accounted for 15-35% per capita annually (MoEJ 2009).The average amount of clean water used by householdsin Indonesia is estimated at 110 litres per capita per day.With an estimated population of around 230 millionpeople in 2009, the drinking water needs for the populationof Indonesia accounts for a minimum of 9.3 billion m 3 .Based on population distribution, the largest island of Javaaccounted for approximately 58% of the total waterdemand in 2009 (MoE 2011).4. State of Water QualityRiversThere are 5,590 major rivers in Indonesia. Most large rivershave experienced pollution due to pressure from varioussources (MoE 2011).In 2009, Environmental Impact Management Agenciesmonitored the water quality in 35 rivers in Indonesia. Theresults showed that, in comparison with 2008, more riverswere in compliance with water quality Class II criteria.However, about 56% water samples still failed to meet thecountry’s water quality criteria (excluding South EastSulawesi) (Figure 3.3.2).%9080706050403020100SumatraJawaBali and Nusa TenggaraKalimantanYearSulawesiMaluku and Papua2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009Figure 3.3.2. Percentage of river water samples not incompliance with Class II criteria(Source: MoE 2011)64

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.3 IndonesiaThe water quality of rivers that flow in big cities mainlyin Java and Sumatra is declining because the contaminants(pollutants) are increasing. Due to high pollution, most ofthe rivers in Java are already categorized as Class III or IV.Even the downstream of Ciliwung River ( Jakarta) wasworse than Class IV.A major source of pollution is untreated domesticwastewater and waste directly dumped into river bodies.The Statistical Year Book of Indonesia reported that upuntil 2010, only 55% of households had improved sanitationfacilities (Statistics Indonesia 2011). An additional cause ofwater pollution is wastewater from industrial activities ofsmall-scale industries such as agriculture, textiles, pulp andpaper, petrochemicals, mining, and oil and gas. Otherpollutant sources outside of Java and Sumatra include landerosion which has resulted in part from illegal logging andfarming (MoE 2011).In addition, the water quality of rivers in West Java arein critical condition. The results of research conducted onseven rivers, Cimanuk, Citarum, Cisadane, Kali Surabaya,Ciliwung, Citanduy and Cilamaya, showed that all riverswere categorized as Class D, which indicates extremelypoor water quality. At the Citarum watershed, not onesingle location meets the water quality criteria for Class IIwater quality. The high content of fecal coli, dissolvedoxygen, BOD, COD and suspended substances at alllocations, especially the parameters of dissolved oxygenwhich is an indicator of the health of a water body, were atvery low levels, with some readings even plunging to zero inlocations such as Sapan, Cijeruk, and Burujul Dayeuh.Water pollution in the many rivers was caused frompollution from industrial waste, domestic activities,hospitals, livestock and agricultural activities (MoE 2011).Water quality in Citarum River had moved into levelsof heavy pollution. Many key parameters exceed qualitystandards, from organic waste to heavy metal content.About 40% of waste in Citarum River is organic householdwaste. The rest is comprised of chemical or industrial wastesand livestock and agricultural wastes (MoE 2011).Lakes and reservoirsSimilar to conditions in rivers, there is significant pressureon water quality in lakes from various sources. The waterquality monitoring of lakes conducted by the ResearchCenter for Limnology at Lake Maninjau LIPI in 2008showed that lake waters are eutrophic or have remained atthe same trophic state as in 2007. The trophic status ofLake Batur Sendangkan improved slightly in 2008 tomesotrophic (MoE 2011).The results of research conducted by PT IndonesiaPower together with the Natural Resources ResearchCenter and Environment (PPSDAL) PadjadjaranUniversity, Bandung in 2004, indicate that the waterquality of Saguling reservoir was already above the normalthreshold. The content of mercury (Hg), for example,reached 0.236 mg/m 3 . In fact, the standard, safe rate is0.002 mg/m 3 (MoE 2011).The metal mercury, according to research PPSDALUniversity of Padjadjaran, can be extracted from fish foodand plastics industries. Other heavy metals are delivered towater bodies from textile mills through the fabric dyeingprocess. This large amount of heavy metals are a tickingtime bomb, ready to destroy the already fragile waterquality in the country. Currently, the water in Sagulingreservoir is no longer acceptable for consumption,agriculture and fisheries (MoE 2011).Coastal waterAccording to the State of Environment Report of Indonesia2007, monitoring data from four harbours in Java (TanjungPriok ( Jakarta), Tanjung Emas (Semarang), and TanjungPerak (Surabaya)) show excessively high concentrations ofphenol, which exceed the marine water quality standardsfor harbour areas (Decree of the State Minister of theEnvironment Number 51 of 2004 Concerning MarineWater Quality Standards). These high concentrations arecaused by antiseptic substances from ship wastewater (MoE2008).In the northern coastal areas of West Java, damagedareas are characterized by the destruction of mangroveforests, coastal erosion, and siltation of rivers that have animpact on boat traffic events. The level of abrasion thatoccurs on the south coast is around 35.35 ha/year andabout 370.3 ha/year on the north coast, with a seawaterpollutant index between 7.391 and 9.843, indicating heavypollution (MoE 2011).GroundwaterThe Decree of Health Minister No. 416 of 1990 concerningthe provision and control of water quality stipulates qualitystandards for groundwater. According to the Jakarta Stateof Environment Report 2006, about 39 percent ofmonitoring wells in the Jakarta area, which are mostlylocated in densely settled areas, have concentrations of E.coli that exceed standards (Environmental Management ofDKI Jakarta 2007).5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementThe objective of environmental management in Indonesiais to enable environmentally-sustainable development.Towards this end, water has been recognized as having animportant function in achieving this development and65

maintaining the well-being of humans and other creatures,and that it needs to be wisely managed for the benefit ofboth present and future generations, as well as to achieve anecological balance. Figure 3.3.3. shows the basic legislativestructure for water environment management.Environmental acts and regulations were introduced inthe 1980s in Indonesia, such as the Law No.4/1982 onEnvironmental Management. The successor of the firstenvironmental management law, the Basic Law concerningEnvironmental Management Law No. 23 of 1997, wasreplaced by the Law Concerning Environmental Protectionand Management Law No. 32 of 2009 (Box.3.3.1).Outlined in this law were the following goals (Article 3):(a) protecting the country from environmental pollutionand/or damage;(b) assuring human safety, health and life;(c) assuring the continuation of human, animal and plantlife and ecosystem conservation;(d) conserving environmental functions;(e) achieving environmental harmony, synchronization andbalance;(f ) ensuring justice for the present and future generations;(g) fulfilling and protecting the right to the environment;(h) controlling the utilization of natural resources;( i ) realizing sustainable development, and( j ) anticipating global environmental issues.Law Concerning Environment Protection and Management Law No. 32 of 2009Conservation of WaterQuality in Inland WaterConservation of WaterQuality in Marine WaterManagement of Water Quality and Controlover Water Pollution Government RegulationNumber 82 of 2001Water quality criteria (for inland water)Decree of the State Minister of theEnvironment Number 51 of 2004 RegardingStandard Quality of SeawaterWater quality criteria (for marine water)Decree of the Minister of EnvironmentNumber 51 of 1995 Concerning QualityStandard of Liquid Waste for Industrial ActivitiesDecree of the Minister of Environment Number112 of 2003 Concerning the Standard Quality ofWastewater for Commercial and/or Domestic ActivitiesOther DecreesEffluent standardsFigure 3.3.3. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)The National Medium-Term Development Plan (2010-2014) set the following numerical targets related toconservation of water environment:Reduction of pollution load from 680 industriesDecrease in pollution levels by 50%Cessation of environmental degradation in 11 prioritywatershedsAccording to the State of Environment Indonesia 2010report, the following rivers and lakes were specificallyprioritized for restoration:Rivers:(1) Ciliwung(2) Cisadane(3) Citarum (West Java); Solo (Central Java)(5) Progo (Yogyakarta)(6) Siak (Riau)(7) Kampar (Riau)(8) Batanghari (Edinburgh)(9) Musi (South Sumatra)(10) Barito (southern central)(11) Mamasa (South Sulawesi)Lakes:(1) Limboto (Gorontalo)(2) Toba (North Sumatra)(3) Tempe (South Sulawesi)(4) Tondano (North Sulawesi)(5) Maninjau (West Sumatra)(6) Singkarak (West Sumatra)(7) Poso (Central Sulawesi)(8) Matano (South Sulawesi)(9) Swamp Dizziness (Central Java)(10) Batur (Bali)The Management of Water Quality and Control overWater Pollution Government Regulation No. 82 of 2001 isthe principle law for water quality management whichfocuses on controlling water pollution. Under this law,water quality classifications were defined.66

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.3 IndonesiaBox 3.3.1. Recent Developments: Environmental Protection and Management Law No. 32 of 2009Environmental Protection and Management Law No. 32 of 2009 is more comprehensive than its predecessor,Environmental Law 23 of 1997. It introduces several new principles such as precautions, harmony and equilibriumof the environment, eco-regions, biological diversity, participation, local wisdom, good governance, and regionalautonomy (Article 2). To strengthen pollution source control, the law introduced new stricter provisions. Some examplesare as follows.Introduction of the environmental permit system and guaranteeing funds for restoration: Environmentalpermits have been introduced in addition to environmental impact assessment statements (AMDAL) orenvironmental management and monitoring efforts (UKL-UPL) (Article 36-41). All businesses and/or activities whichrequire AMDAL or UKL-UPL are required to obtain an environmental permit issued by the Minister of theEnvironment, governor and/or mayors (Article 36). In addition, the Environment Permit is a requirement to obtainbusiness operation permits. This means that businesses must stop operations if their environmental permits arerevoked. The permit can be recalled even if false statements are found in submitted documents. The environmentalpermit holder is required to “provide guarantee funds for the restoration of the environmental functions” (Article 55).Environmental risk analysis: All businesses and/or activities which may cause serious environmental impacts arerequired to conduct an “environmental analysis” which is composed of “risk assessment,” “risk management” and“risk communication.” Details of the analysis will be stipulated by government regulations in the future (Article 47).Environmental audit: Periodical environmental audits become a requirement for businesses and/or activitieswhich have high potential for negative environmental impacts. Personnel in charge of non-compliance business/activities are also requested by the Minister of the Environment to conduct environmental audits. Certifiedenvironmental auditors carry out audits (Article 48-51).Strengthened penalty for non-compliance: The new law stipulates stricter administrative and criminal penaltiesfor non-compliance with provisions stipulated in relevant laws, including environmental standards/criteria andeffluent standards.In addition to strengthening provisions related to businesses, the law also includes provisions to incorporateenvironmental concerns in development plans and economic activities by governments (Article 42 and 43) and promotepublic participation.(Source: Syarif 2010)Water quality standardsWater quality criteria (WQC) were set as the benchmarksfor water quality conservation under the Management ofWater Quality and Control over Water PollutionGovernment Regulation Number 82 of 2001. Thesecriteria are the minimum standards set by the nationalgovernment; local governments are free to set their owncriteria, even stricter values than those established by thenational government, using local settings as a base, and mayinclude additional parameters not included in nationalcriteria.WQC sets standard values for 45 parameters in fourclasses which are determined based on the type of waterusage (Table 3.3.2). However, rivers have not fully beencategorized into classes, and the state of water quality in thecountry is evaluated based upon whether values complywith values listed in Class II.For marine water quality conservation, seawater qualitystandards are used as the benchmark for water quality,under the Decree of the State Minister of the EnvironmentNumber 51 of 2004 Regarding Standard Quality ofTable 3.3.2. Classes of inland water qualityClassClass IClass IIClass IIIClass IV(Source: MoEJ 2009)UseWater that can be used as raw water for drinking water,and/or other usage that requires the same water qualityfor such usage.Water that can be used for water recreation, infrastructure/means, freshwater fish farming, animal husbandry, waterfor irrigating gardens, and/or other usage that requires thesame water quality for such usage.Water that can be used for freshwater fish farming, animalhusbandry, water for irrigating gardens and/or other usagethat requires the same water quality for such usage.Water that can be used for irrigating gardens and/or otherusage that requires the same water quality for such usage.Seawater. The three kinds of standard quality of seawaterare set based on the usage or characteristics of seawater:standard quality for harbour waters, marine tourism, andmarine biota. As with water criteria for surface water, localgovernments are permitted to set stricter standards. Oneexample is the Regulation of the Governor of DKI JakartaProvince No.93/2006, which applies stricter standards for67

capitals of provinces and special region of Jakarta (DKIJakarta Province).As of January 2012, the Ministry of Environment ofIndonesia is drafting a new Government Regulationrevising the existing Government Regulation No. 82 of2001 to reflect the more recent Regulation No. 32 of 2009.The draft has been completed and is awaiting approval. It isexpected to be issued in 2012 (Information from the focalperson of Indonesia).Monitoring of water quality in public water bodiesWater quality monitoring schemes are determined underthe Management of Water Quality and Control over WaterPollution Government Regulation as follows:(1) Monitoring of water sources in the regency/municipalregion is carried out by the regency/municipalgovernment(2) Monitoring of water sources in two or more regency/municipal regions within one province is coordinatedby the provincial government and is carried out by eachregency/municipal government(3) Monitoring of water sources in two or more provincialregions and/or water sources on the border with othercountries is observed by the national government.Water quality observation is carried out at least once everysix months and results are submitted to the Minister. Themechanisms and procedures for water quality monitoringare stipulated further in detail through a MinisterialDecree.Since 2004, 33 Regional Environmental ImpactControl Agencies in the provinces have monitored waterquality parameters in 40 rivers in Indonesia.Effluent standardsNational wastewater quality standards are specified with aMinisterial Decree by taking into account suggestions fromrelated government agencies (Management of WaterQuality and Control over Water Pollution GovernmentRegulation). As with water quality standards, the provincialgovernment can specify the same or tighter wastewaterquality standards than the national wastewater qualitystandard.In 2001, the government set up the first effluentstandards for 14 industrial activities. By 2005, this numberincreased to 21 by the Decree of the Minister of EnvironmentNumber 51 of 1995 Concerning Quality Standard ofLiquid Waste for Industrial Activities. The Ministerdetermines the values for wastewater quality standards byindividual regulations. Local governments such in DKIJakarta, West Java and Jogjakarta established stricterwastewater quality standards the national government.6. Existing and Future ChallengesTo achieve and promote better water environmentmanagement in Indonesia, several attempts will be requiredsuch as:Create incentives for industries to comply with theexisting regulationsEnsure implementation of waste management in riversDevelopment and implementation of water qualityrestoration policy instrumentsStrengthen database and information systems, andimprove capacity building activities in the laboratoriesIntroduce spatial regulations and promote theinvolvement of all stakeholders in the process of spatialplanning in a participatory manner68

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.3 Indonesia69

Japan1. Country InformationTable 3.4.1. Basic IndicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 377,947 (2008)Total Population (person) 127.5 million (2010)GDP (current USD)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 42,831 (2010)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 1,690 (2005)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 430 (2011)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m 3 ) 82.4 (2008)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors(Source: See References)Ishikari RiverJapan Sea Mogami RiverShinano RiverTenryu RiverKiso RiverLake BiwaYodo RiverSeto Inland SeaGouno RiverOta RiverChikugo RiverAriake BayKyushuOkinawaAgriculture 66% (2008)Industry 15% (2008)Municipal(including domestic) 19% (2008)2. Major Water Basins in JapanShikokuHokkaidoTokyoPacific OceanTokachi RiverHonshuKitakami RiverLake KasumigauraTone RiverAra RiverTokyo BayTama RiverFuji RiverIse BayFigure 3.4.1. Major public water bodies in Japan3. State of Water Resources5,458.8 billion (2010)Shimanto RiverWhile annual precipitation in Japan is high, fluctuationsin water volume of rivers varies greatly throughout theyear, increasing during the rainy and typhoon seasons, anddecreasing in other seasons.Due to rapid increases in population and economicgrowth, per capita water usage volume in the domesticsector has tripled between 1965 and 2008 (MLIT 2011).In recent years, the household sector has shown a decreasein water use and the reuse of industrial water by factorieshas increased. Accordingly, additional demands on riversand other water resources have decreased (MLIT 2011).While construction of dams and weirs has been carriedout to secure a stable water supply, years of precipitationanomalies have resulted in a rising frequency of watershortages across Japan. The municipal water supply servicecoverage rate (by population) of Japan exceeds 97%, butpublic concerns over safer and better tasting water haveincreased in recent years, making it imperative to improvethe water quality of the rivers, lakes and reservoirs whichfunction as the country’s main water sources.4. State of Water QualityThe two main objectives of protecting the waterenvironment in Japan are the protection of human healthand the living environment. In order to achieve bothobjectives, environmental standards for ambient waterquality have been established in the Basic EnvironmentLaw as the acceptable water quality levels that should bemaintained in public waters and groundwater. There aretwo kinds of environmental quality standards (EQS) forwater: those for human health which are uniformstandards applicable to all public water bodies throughoutthe country and those for conservation of the livingenvironment which are applied to all public water bodiesaccording to water use classifications.Rivers, lakes and reservoirs, and coastal waterIn most locations, EQS for human health have beenattained with a 98.9% compliance rate in fiscal year 2010.EQS for conservation of the living environment have beenachieved with an 87.8% rate of compliance for BOD orCOD, the representative water quality indicators oforganic contamination. Compliance rates by types ofwater bodies were recorded as 92.5% for rivers, 53.2% forlakes and reservoirs, and 78.3% for coastal waters.Although the compliance rate for rivers is high, the ratefor lakes and reservoirs remains low (Figure 3.4.2).The compliance rate for total nitrogen and totalphosphorus for lakes and reservoirs was low at 50.4%. Incontrast, the achievement rate for total nitrogen and totalphosphorus in coastal waters was 81.6%, maintaining anear sideways shift in recent years.70

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.4 JapanCompliance rate (%)100908070605040302010OverallLakes andreservoirsRiversCoastalareas01974197619781980198219841986198819901992Fiscal Year199419961998200020022004200620082010Figure 3.4.2. Shift in environmental standard compliance rate (BOD and COD)(Source: MoEJ 2011a)GroundwaterOf the 4,312 wells that were tested in 2009, 250 (5.8%)exceeded standards for some EQS. Among others, thevalues for nitrate nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen show ratesexceeding standards (Figure 3.4.3). The main causes areconsidered to be nitrogen load from fertilization, domesticanimal excreta and domestic wastewater.Environmental standard excess rate (%)76543210Nitrate nitrogen and nitrite nitrogenArsenicFlourineTetrachloroethyleneTrichloroethyleneLead197419901991199219931994199519961997199819992000200120022003200420052006200720082009Survey yearNote 1. Wells measured in general survey differ by year. (Surveys are not necessarily conducted on the same wells each year.)Note 2. Environmental standards related groundwater contamination wereestablished in 1997. Standards preceding this year are considered evaluation criteria. Moreover,in 1993, evaluation criteria for arsenic was revised from “under 0.05 mg/L” to “under 0.01 mg/L”, and for lead from “under 0.1 mg/L” to “under 0.01 mg/L”.Note 3. Nitrate nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen and fluorine were added to environmental standard items in 1999.Figure 3.4.3. Environmental standard excess rates for groundwater (by item)(Source: MoEJ 2011b)5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementLegislationThe purpose of environmental conservation in the countryis to “ensure healthy and cultured living for both thepresent and future generations of the nation as well as tocontribute to the welfare of mankind” (Article 1 of theBasic Environmental Law). EQS for Water has establishedby the Basic Environmental Law as the administrativetargets of ambient water quality.The Water Pollution Control Law, enacted in order toachieve the water quality targets sets provisions for waterquality conservation such as effluent regulations fromfactories and business establishments, ambient waterquality monitoring, measurement standards for publicwater bodies, and the total pollutant load control system.Other laws related to conservation of public water bodiesare shown in Figure 3.4.4.Ambient water quality standardsNationwide uniform standard values have been set for 27items as EQS for Water related to protection of humanhealth (environmental items). In 1997, EQS for Water were71

Conservation of WaterQuality in Public WaterGeneral MeasuresBasic Environment LawEnvironmental Quality Standards forWater PollutantsWater Pollution Control LawFactory effluent control, notification offactory establishment, monitoring orders,continuous monitoring.Measures for household wastewaterSewerage LawLaw for Johkaso (On-site packagedhousehold wastewater treatment plant)Prefectural governments carry out regular water qualitymonitoring in cooperation with relevant nationalgovernment organizations based on monitoring methodsspecified by MoE.Monitoring results at approximately 7,000 locations inpublic water bodies nationwide are publicly released on thewebsite of MoE (Figure 3.4.5).Special Measures in Enclosed Water BodiesLakes and ReservoirsEstuariesGroundwater QualityConservationOther Laws Related toWater EnvironmentLaw Concerning Special Measures forPreservation of Lake Water QualityPlanning of Plan for the Preservation ofLake Water Quality, Special RegulationsSeto Inland SeaThe Law Concerning Special Measures for Conservation of theSeto Inland SeaPotable Water SourcesLaw Concerning Special Measures for the Protection of WaterQuality in Water Resources Areas for the Purpose of PreventingSpecific TroubleGeneral MeasuresWater Pollution Control LawControl of total pollutant load, andcountermeasures against eutrophicationAriake Sea/Yatsushiro SeaThe Law Concerning Special Measures for the Restoration ofthe Ariake and Yatsushiro seasBasic Environment LawEnvironmental Quality Standards forGroundwaterWater Pollution Control LawRegulations for toxic substances fromfactories, purifying orders for pollutedgroundwater, and continuous monitoringLaw Concerning Special Measures against DioxinsRiver LawDrinking Water Sources LawWater Supply LawLaw Rrelating to the Prevention of Marine Pollution andMaritime DisasterFigure 3.4.4. Schemes of legal system for waterenvironmental management in Japan.(Source: MoEJ 2009)also established. Meanwhile, EQS for Water related to theprotection of the living environment (living environmentitems) include environmental standards set such for BOD,COD and DO. Total nitrogen and total phosphorus are alsoincluded in the living environment items as indicators ofeutrophication in lakes and reservoirs and coastal waters.Monitoring of public water bodies and groundwaterAccording to the Water Pollution Control Law, prefecturalgovernors are required to conduct regular monitoring ofpublic water bodies and inform the public of the state ofwater pollution in public water bodies and groundwater. Figure 3.4.5. Comprehensive information site on the waterenvironment(Source: MoEJ 2011c)Effluent standardsBased on the Water Pollution Control Law, uniformeffluent standards were established for 27 items related toprotection of human health, which are applicable tofactories and business establishments. Meanwhile, effluentstandards for 15 items related to the living environmenttarget only those factories and business establishments withdaily effluent volumes exceeding 50m 3 per day. Localgovernments (prefectures and ordinance-designated cities)may establish stricter effluent standards than the nationaluniform standards when the national standards areconsidered to be insufficient to achieve water quality targets.The Water Pollution Control Law stipulates monitoringand recording of the quality of effluent from factories andbusiness establishments. The factories and businessestablishments located in total pollutant load controltarget areas are required to measure and record pollutionloads in discharged wastewater. Governors of prefecturesand mayors of ordinance-designated cities can requirereports to be submitted and conduct inspections of72

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.4 Japanfactories and business establishments on wastewatertreatment methods and the quality/amount of wastewaterin order to prevent violations. They are also authorized totake administrative measures in the event that violationsare found, such as issuing orders for improvementsaccording to the outcomes of reports and inspections.Total pollutant load control system (TPLCs)The total pollutant load control system is a dischargecontrol mechanism to improve water quality by reducingtotal pollutant loads flowing into the selected enclosedcoastal waters, namely Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay, and the SetoInland Sea where it is difficult to achieve EQS for Water byregulating discharge based on only concentrations ofregulated substances. Under the system, the nationalgovernment sets targets for pollutant loads every five years(one phase for five years), and relevant prefectures establishreduction plans that set targets for each emission sourceand stipulate the methods necessary to meet targets.To date, COD loads has been steadily reduced in targetwater bodies since 1979 (Figure 3.4.6). Figure 3.4.7 showsthe improvement of COD concentration in Tokyo Bay, forexample. Nitrogen and phosphorus loads have also beenreduced since there items are covered by the system in2001. In July 2011, Japan set forth the basic policy of the7th phase total reduction of which target year is 2016.COD generated loads (tons/day)1,0008006004002000Others Industrial DomesticTokyo Bay47738 413115 40 35583 3630728628676 303727224735 24659 28 21134 22111952 25183 17729101 9727 18632429042 23 2283 22 158 1462433676362065 19197 57167 56144 124 119 151 150 141 134 118 99 81 7119791984198919942000200520092014(target)Ise Bay19791984198919942000200520092014(target)Note: Figures for 1979-2009 are actual. Figures for 2014 is the reduction targetFigure 3.4.6. Changes in pollution load and target value (in terms of COD)(Source: Provided by MoEJ)1,0129590089 8388274642972 672Seto Inland Sea36767356561309 55468 47228654 56245193 215488444400365319261221 20119791984198919942000200520092014(target)Osaka BayTokyo BayIse BaySeto Inland SeaOsaka Bay144118 1161032 9 1026 26102 83 80200520092014(target)Fiscal year3.86.15.2 5.4 4.5 4.84.46.2 5.0 3.95.27.34.6 3.95.33.6 3.84.5 4.44.14.24.03.74.33.54.3 3.4 3.3 3.55.23.8 3.3 2.84.13.33.4 3.24.03.4 3.03.3 2.92.93.12.72.53.1 3.72.92.42.42.32.7mg/L)1.5 - 2.02.0 - 2.52.5 - 3.03.0 - 3.53.5 - 4.04.0 - 4.54.5 - 5.05.0 - 6.06.0

6. Recent Development ofWater Environment ManagementFollowing the enactment of the Water Pollution ControlLaw in 1970, various revisions have taken place accordingto the times and demands of society. Major revisions madein recent years are summarized below.Expansion of the range of measures in the eventof accidents (2010 revision)The number of water pollution accidents has been on therise in recent years. While the chemical substancesdischarged by water pollution accidents are wide-ranging,the Water Pollution Control Law targets only pollutedwater containing toxic substances to be covered by theWater Pollution Control Law and oil in the event ofaccidents. To fill in the gaps between reality and themeasures stipulated in the Water Pollution Control Law,the 2010 revision of the law expanded the target substancessubject to emergency measures and reporting requirementsof factories and business establishments in the event ofaccidents. The revision added “specified facilities that useharmful substances” as target facilities which manufacture,store, use or process substances that are in danger ofdamaging human health or the living environment whenreleased into public water areas in large quantities.Establishment of penalties for unrecordedmeasurements for wastewater (2010 revision)In recent years, there have been a string of cases of inappropriatebehaviors such as businesses, including major corporations,falsifying records on measurements of effluent loads andquality. To mitigate this behavior, the revision requiresbusiness establishments to retain monitoring records for a setperiod of time. Additionally, new penalties have beenestablished for businesses that violate these requirements byfailing to record, retain or falsifying records.Proactive measures to prevent groundwaterpollution (2011 revision)Groundwater is an invaluable freshwater resource thataccounts for approximately 25% of municipal water supply.It is difficult to detect causes of pollution because of thecomplicated migration pathway of groundwater, andrecovering water quality is almost impossible as naturalpurification is not as prevalent.Each year, surveys have confirmed cases of groundwatercontamination due to leakage of toxic substances fromfactories and business establishments. The majority ofleaks are caused by the deterioration of production andFigure 3.4.8. Underground infiltration of hazardoussubstances from production facilities(Source: Provided by MoEJ)storage facilities or by operator error during use ofproduction facilities.Considering these facts, requirements to issuenotifications related to the installation of facilities wereexpanded to include the installation of facilities that not onlyrelease toxic substances, but also those that store them.Additionally, in order to prevent underground seepage beforeit occurs, compliance with standards related to structures andrequirements for periodic inspection of facility structures andmethods were newly imposed on businesses.7. Existing and Future ChallengesA more ideal form of initiatives to improve and protectthe water environment are called for when considering thediverse needs of residents and social transitions in recentyears, including ensuring an environmentally-sound watercycle. As a common idea behind the development ofpolicies to protect the water environment, four differentperspectives should be kept in mind when furtheringpolicy goals: the local perspective, global perspective,biodiversity and cooperation. The following is a selectionof examples of future initiativeImprovement of water quality of lakes andreservoirsAlthough the water quality of lakes and reservoirs isgradually improving, the actual achievement rate ofenvironmental standards is low at around 50%. Manyissues have emerged such as decreased native species andhaul of fish due to changes in ecosystems, impediments towater use due to the occurrence of foul odors and filtrationobstacles, as well as a weakening of the relationshipbetween people and lakes due to decreased contact. In thefuture, new water quality indicators that respond to the74

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.4 Japanactual needs of the country’s residents, as well as targetsthat reflect the natural conditions and purpose of eachwater body should be examined further. It is important topromote measures for both lakes themselves and catchmentareas that utilize natural purification mechanism,following efforts to elucidate contamination mechanismsof lakes and reservoirs.Creation of “sato-umi”A sato-umi, or “local seaside” is defined as “a coastal areawhere biological productivity and biodiversity haveincreased through human interaction.” It is an importantocean area that has supported not only marine anddistribution industries, but also the local culture andexchange with other areas for many years. In a healthy satoumi,the circulation function of materials is appropriatelymaintained due to the integrated comprehensivemanagement of land and coastal zones by human being.With the preservation of the rich and diverse ecosystemand natural environment, sato-umi provides the countrywith a wonderful legacy, and therefore, is a focal point inthe protection of the water environment.Initiatives on global water issuesJapan’s water environment is closely related to the globalwater environment. Thus, it is important to maintain aninternational perspective and contribute to the preservationand improvement of the water environment in othercountries. As such, we must utilize Japan’s technologies andexperience in water environmental preservation to promoteEcosystemDiversity and productivityResource managementfishing operationsActivityspheresSubstancecirculationAppropriate nutrient saltsHealthy substance circulationWater quality and bottomsedimentSATOUMIBiodiversity odiversityThree elements thatsupport preservationand restorationContactCoexistence with natureRegional cooperativeeffortEntities thatperform activitiesFishing villages and citiesFishermen and other coastalWatershed (mountains,rivers,residents Urban residentsfields and oceans)that use the oceanResidents ofwatersheds(mountains,rivers,fields and oceans)SustainabilityTwo elements that support hands-on actionFigure 3.4.9. The concept of “Satoumi”(Source: Provided by the focal person in 2012)initiatives in international cooperation and partnerships,such as institutional transfer and technology support.Additionally, in order to respond to both quality andquantity related water issues manifesting themselves inregions where increased water demand is predicted, such asAsia and the Middle East, we must endeavor to improvethe water environment overseas through the close andactive joint efforts of the private and public sector oninitiatives to enhance the international competitiveness ofJapan’s water-related industries.An “ordinance designated city” is a large city which is delegated some affairs and authorities of prefecture by cabinet order. The population of the ordinance designatedcity must be more than 0.5 million. As of April 2011, there are 19 ordinance designated city in Japan.75

Republic of Korea1. Country InformationTable 3.5.1. Basic IndicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 99,700 (2009)Total Population (person) 48.9 million (2010)GDP (current USD)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 20,757 (2010)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 1,274 (2009)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 69.7* (2009)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m 3 ) 25.5* (2002)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors* Estimated(Source: See References)Han RiverWest SeaGeum RiverYoungsan RiverKwangyang BayAgriculture 62%* (2002)Industry 12%* (2002)Municipal(including domestic) 26%* (2002)2. Major Water Basins in Republic of KoreaInchonSeoulSouth SeaPaldang LakeEast SeaNakdong RiverSumjin RiverFigure 3.5.1 Major water bodies in Republic of Korea3. State of Water Resources1,014.5 billion (2010)Republic of Korea is a thirsty country: the country’s percapita water availability is about 540m 3 (MoCT 2007)which is far lower than the world’s average and that ofsouthern and eastern Asia which are about 6,400 m 3 and3,100 m 3 , respectively (FAO 2012). Due to population andeconomic growth, total water use has rapidly increased 6.6times between 1965 and 2003 (MoE 2011). Seasonalvariations in water availability are also a challenge for thecountry’s water management. About two-thirds of annualprecipitation falls during June and September. Flood eventsduring the rainy season and droughts in months with lessrain, especially the spring, are critical issues facing thecountry. The trend over the past century shows an increasein fluctuations of annual precipitation and intensificationof floods and drought events (MoCT 2007).There are four major river basins in Korea, namely Han,Geum, Nakdong and Youngsan-Seomjin. Most of the lakesand reservoirs are man-made. The potential of groundwaterresources of the country is approximately 11.7 billion m 3 /year. The total amount of groundwater use is about 3.8billion m 3 /year which are mainly used for domestic (48%)and agriculture purposes (46%) (MoE 2011).4. State of Water QualityRiversAll streams nationwide are classified into 114 sectors andwater quality targets have been established for each. Waterquality in the country has improved overall since the late1990s. Figure 3.5.2 shows the improvement of water qualityin selected points in four major river systems (Han,Nakdong, Geum, and Youngsan-Seomjin) in terms ofBOD. On the other hand, COD values show an increasingtrend (Figure 3.5.3). An increase of chemicals and loadsfrom non-point sources are considered to be a reason behindthe lack of improvement for COD levels (MoE 2011).Total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN) valuesdecreased or did not show a big change (MoE 2012).However, algae bloom caused by high nutrients wasobserved in the Mulgeum such as during the droughtseason of March 2009 (MoE 2012).Lakes and reservoirsSimilar to river water quality, COD value concentrationsalso show an increasing trend in recent years in lakes andreservoirs. Figure 3.5.4 and 3.5.5 show water qualitytrends in terms of COD and TP in selected reservoirs.GroundwaterFigure 3.5.6 shows rates exceeding groundwater qualitystandards from 2000 to 2009. The major parametersshowing non-compliance are TCE and PCE, which isdetected in industrial and urban residence areas.76

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.5 Republic of KoreaBOD (mg/L)109876543210Han (Paldang)Nakdong(Mulgeum)Geum (Daecheong)Youngsan-Seomjin (Juam)1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010Figure 3.5.2. Changes in BOD values in the four major basins (1996-2009)(Source: MoE 2006, 2011, 2012 and the data provided by the focal person in 2012)COD (mg/L)10 Han (Paldang)Geum (Daecheong)9Nakdong(Mulgeum)Youngsan-Seomjin (Juam)8765432101996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010Figure 3.5.3. Change in COD values in the four major river basins (1996-2009)(Source: MoE 2012 and the data provided by the focal person in 2012)COD (mg/L)COD (mg/L)5432102000 2002 2004 2006 2008 201054321CODCODT-P02000 2002 2004 2006 2008 20100.080.070.060.050.040.030.020.01Figure 3.5.4. Change of water quality in Paldang Dam 2(Source: MoE 2011 and the data provided by the focal person in 2012)0.080.070.060.050.040.030.020.01Figure 3.5.5. Change in water quality in Daecheong Dam 1(Source: MoE 2011 and the data provided by the focal person in 2012)T-P00T-P (mg/L)T-P (mg/L)(%)1210864202000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010Figure 3.5.6. Changes in rates exceeding groundwater qualitystandards(Source: MoE 2011)Note: Number of monitoring sites differs from year to year,ranging 1440 -1522 sites)5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementThe basic law for the environmental management policyof the country is the Framework Act on EnvironmentalPolicy under which environment quality standards areestablished. The major objectives of water environmentalmanagement in Korea under the Water Quality andEcosystem Conservation Act are the protection of people’s77

health and the environment, as well as preservation ofclean water and aquatic ecosystems. The act outlines theframework for water environmental management of thecountry. Specific acts have been established for the fourmajor rivers, which forms the basis of the country’srestoration project for these rivers. Figure 3.5.7 shows thelegislative framework related to water environmentalmanagement in the country.Framework Act on Environmental PolicyConservation of Water Quality in Inland WaterGeneral MeasuresWater Quality and Ecosystem Conservation ActEnvironmental Standards for Water Quality Aquatic Ecosystem- Standards for protection of human health (Rivers and Lakes)- Standards for conservation of the living environment (Rivers)- Standards for conservation of the living environment (Lakes and Marshes)Special Measures in Specific RiversGroundwater Quality StandardsAct Relating to Han River Water Quality Improvement & Community SupportAct on Nakdong River Watershed Management & Community SupportAct on Geum River Watershed Management & Community SupportAct on Yeongsan & Sumjin River Watershed Manage-ment & Community SupportConservation of Water Quality in Coastal WatersPrevention of Marine Pollution ActCoastal Water Quality Standards- Standards for protection of human health- Standards for conservation of the living environmentOther Laws Related to Water EnvironmentWater Supply & Waterworks Installation ActSewerage ActManagement of Drinking Water ActFigure 3.5.7. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009 modified)Basic policy direction of the water environmentalmanagementThe recent policy direction of the country included thefollowing principles (Yu 2010):Creation of an ecologically healthy water environmentProtection of water quality against harmful substancesApplication of advanced water quality standards andassessment methodsReinforcing the national water quality policy for lakes,coastal areas and estuariesFull-scale implementation of the total pollution loadmanagement systemFocus on the management of non-point sources andpollutants from livestock farmsImprovement of the functions of water cycle andreinforcing water demand managementRationalizing investment in environmental infrastructureand efficient investmentThe Ministry of the Environment has set up objectivesand targets for the period of 2006-2015 under the WaterEnvironment Management Master Plan. Under theobjective to “create a clean water environment where ourchildren can swim with aquatic life,” the followingindicators are included in the master plan (Yu 2010).Increase water quality improvement (compliance ratio)from 76% to 85%Increase sewerage treatment coverage from 81% to 90%Restore 25% of non-natural stream to natural streamIncrease basic criteria of water quality from 9 to 30parametersConserve 30% of buffer zones which were purchased inthe upper stream as Riverine EcobeltThe Ministry of Environment is responsible for waterquality and ecosystem management at the central level.The ministry also develops and implements plans fordrinking water supply and wastewater treatment, as well asriver restoration.78

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.5 Republic of KoreaAmbient water quality standardsThere are two kinds of water quality standards for surfacewater. The first are standards for the protection of humanhealth (17 parameters such as Cd, As, and PCB), which isapplied to both rivers and lakes. The second are standardsfor the living environment which were set for rivers andlakes/mashes, respectively. The standards for the livingenvironment for rivers include six parameters; standardsfor lakes/marshes include nine parameters in sevencategories (MoE 2012).The Ministry of Environment plans to expand waterquality standards to thirty substances by 2015. Ecologicalrisk criteria were also developed and will be incorporatedinto water quality standards in the near future (Yu 2011).For groundwater, different standards are appliedaccording to water usage purpose. Drinking water standardsestablished under the Drinking Water Management Actare applied for drinking water use. For other purposes suchas residential, agricultural, and industrial uses, groundwaterstandards are used to evaluate groundwater quality. Thestandards consist of four general pollutants (pH, E-Coli,NO 3-N, Cl - ) and 15 specific hazardous substances (such asCd, As, and CN) (MoE 2011).Special metropolitan cities, metropolitan city or “Do”can establish more stringent or expanded environmentalstandards than the national standards where necessary inconsideration of local environmental conditions (Article10 (3) Framework Act on Environmental Policy).Monitoring of water quality in public water bodies andgroundwaterWater quality is monitored through a nationwidemonitoring network. Monitoring categories include 26items for rivers, 30 for lakes and marshes, and 15 forgroundwater. In particular, there are 52 automaticoperating monitoring stations for surface waters. Waterquality is monitored by measuring five common itemssuch as DO, TOC, pH and 17 optional items, includingVOC. For more efficient inspection, monitoring spots areclassified according to usage: river water, lake water,drinking water, irrigation water, industrial water, and riverwater flowing through cities.Effluent standardsEffluent standards are set by an Ordinance of the Ministryof Environment based on the Water Quality andEcosystem Conservation Act (Article 32). Currentlyeffluent standards have been set for discharged water fromboth public and private sewage treatment plants. Thegeneral outline of effluent standards is shown in Table3.5.2. Similar to environmental standards, cities or “Do”can set up local effluent standards where necessary.Table 3.5.2. Effluent standardsType of facilityPubic sewagetreatment facilityWastewater treatmentfacilityPublic treatment facilityfor human/livestockwaste(Source: MoE 2012)Outline6 parameters and 1 toxic unitDifferent values are applied to facilities withthe capacity of more than 50m 3 /day and thosewith less than 50m 3 /day6 parameters and 1 toxic unitDifferent values are applied according to“subjected zone” (4 categories). Wastetreatment facilities and agro-industrialcomplexes are subject to different standardsdetermined by MoE4 parameters (organic matters) and nutrients(TN and TP)Different values are applied to human wastetreatment facility and livestock wastewatertreatment facilitiesEffluent monitoringIn principle, effluent quality should be monitored by thosewho need to comply with effluent standards. A computernetwork of effluent monitoring measurement data wasrecently introduced (Box 3.5.1).In case that non-compliance of effluent standards isfound, the Minister of Environment shall give theimprovement order to the business establishments. If thebusiness establishments cannot comply with the requiredquality of effluent, they are subject to suspension ofoperations and penalties.79

Box. 3.5.1 Water Quality Tele-monitoring SystemIntroduction of a water quality tele-monitoring system (Water TMS) was decided in 2006 to monitor effluent dischargein a more systematic and scientific manner. Under Water TMS, monitoring data of effluent discharged from wastewatertreatment facility is collected at a “Water TMS Control Center” every three hours and checked for compliance witheffluent standards. By using this system, a scientific basis can be ensured for implementation of Total Maximum DailyLoad System (TMDLs) as well as appropriate charging systems for wastewater. It can contribute to improving theperformance of discharging facilities and preventing accidents.Figure 3.5.8 shows the framework of operation of Water TMS and parties involved in the system. The followingdischarging facilities are subject to installing Water TMS.- Public sewage treatment facilities of which treatment capacity is 2,000m 3 /day or more- Wastewater treatment facilities of which annual average discharge is 700m 3 /day or more- First to third class discharging facilities of which capacity is 200m 3 /day or more- Public prevention facilities of which capacity is 200m 3 /day or moreContrac with privateagenciesInstruction onpolicies/guidelinesReporting of resultsMESupervision of Water TMSEstablishment and Performanceof policiesConveyance of policies/guidelinesKECOInstallation and operation of theWater TMS Control CenterTechnical support dischargingfacilitiesProvision ofadministrative dataRequest forconfirmation of installationWatershed environmentaloffice and local GovernmentsMonitoring of the dischargerUtilization of administrative dataConfirmation ofInstallationTechnical supportRemote controlTransmission of dataDischarging facilitiesManagement/SupervisionInstallation and operation ofmonitoring facilitiesManagement of precision ofmonitoring facilitiesNotice of installationcompletionFigure. 3.5.8. Operational framework of Water TMSThe basic parameters to be monitored are pH, BOD/COD, SS, TN, and TP in addition to cumulative water flow.The facilities joining the network are exempt from on-site inspection with the introduction of this system. By the end ofDecember 2009, 588 facilities have installed the Water TMS.(Source: Chung 2010)Total maximum daily load system (TMDLs)The total maximum daily load system contributes toimprovement of ambient water quality by settingreduction targets for pollutant loads, in addition toconventional concentration-based regulations. Under thesystem, designated pollution sources must keep pollutantloads within a “total maximum daily allowable load,”which is decided based on scientific fact and inconsideration of local conditions of all target areas such asspecific beneficial water uses.Currently, TMDLs have been applied to three majorrivers, namely Nakdong, Geum, Yeongsan since 2004. Thecurrent target parameter is BOD, and T-P will be added asa target parameter in the near future. TMDLs will beenforced in the Hang River from 2013 (Yu 2011).80

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.5 Republic of KoreaMeasures for non-point source pollutionIt is projected that the contribution ratio to waterpollution from non-point sources will exceed that of pointsources and reach 68-75% by 2020 (MoE 2012). To copewith non-point sources, the Comprehensive Measures forNon-point Source Pollution Management in the FourMajor Rivers were established in 2004 under the leadershipof the Prime Minister’s Office and in cooperation withrelated ministries. The Comprehensive Measures containthree major policy fields: policy system improvements,pilot projects on the construction and management ofnon-point source pollution treatment facilities, andresearch and public relations. Under the measure, highlyvulnerable areas against non-point sources are designatedas non-point source control districts, which includesSoyang Lake, Doam Lake, Imha Lake, and Gwangjumetropolitan city (Yu 2011).The first phase (2004-2005) focused on policy systemimprovement and pilot projects; the second phase (2006-2011) focused on best-fit management projects for majorriver basins of the four major rivers. As of March 2011, 43non-point source reduction facilities have been installed ona pilot basis for different land use types including urbanareas, farmland, and parking lots (Yu 2011).Box. 3.5.2 Recent Development in Water Environmental ManagementIn addition to the developments mentioned in this section, recent developments in water environmental managementin Korea include:Investment for restoration of the “well-being of the freshwater ecosystem” and water quality, which includes theconstruction of wastewater treatment plants, installment of T-P treatment facilities, and creation of natural fish ways.Increase of water flow mainly by dredging has been promoted to ensure environmental flow, which contributes towater quality improvement.Establishment of the Water Pollution Response Center, which intends to strengthen the prevention and response towater pollution accidents. A 24-hour surveillance system is operated through the water quality automatic monitoringnetwork.Plan for the Restoration of Ecological Waterways was established in 2010 to restore ecological health of water ways.Consideration of eco-toxicity emission management system to address harmful substances in industrial wastewater.Introduction of water quality prediction system for algal bloom.(Source: MoE 2012)6. Existing and Future ChallengesAccording to the Environmental Review 2011published bythe Ministry of Environment, Korea, the following itemshave been tagged as challenges to improving waterenvironmental management:To ensure implementation of water quality improvementprojects which are conducted under the Four MajorRivers Restoration Project. Reduction of pollution load,especially that of nitrogen and phosphorous andmaintenance of water environment which reservoirsoriginally have.To strengthen non-point sources of which loads willincrease.To develop an enhanced water environmentalmanagement system, responding to socio-economicchanges such as the ongoing march of the aging society,enhancement of urbanization and increases in incomelevels. The co-existence of water and human beings is akey goal of the enhanced management system.81

Lao PDR1. Country InformationTable 3.6.1. Basic IndicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 236,800 (2005)Total Population (person) 6.2 million (2010)GDP (current USD) 7.3 billion (2010)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 1,177 (2010)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 1,834 (2009)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 333.5* (2009)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals (billion m 3 ) 4.3* (2005)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors* Estimated(Source: See References)Agriculture 93%* (2005)Industry 4%* (2005)Municipal(including domestic) 3.1%* (2005)2. Major Water Basins in Lao PDR3,700 mm and 1,300 mm in the northern valleys. Thenational population is approximately 6.2 million, and percapita annual water availability is approximately 54,500m 3 (FAO AQUASTAT 2011). This number is the highestamong the <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countries. However, because ofinsufficient development of water infrastructure, the watersupply capacity of the country remains limited.Similar to other Southeast Asian countries, seasonaldistribution of water resources is uneven in Laos—about80 percent of annual precipitation occurs during the rainyseason (May to October) and 20 percent in the dry season(November to April). In the Se Bang Fai, Se Bang Hiengand Se Done Rivers that flow through the central tosouthern parts of the country, river flow decreases in thedry season to 10-15% of annual average. Most of the riversin the country are Mekong tributaries, which is equivalentto 35% of the average annual flow of and 85% of the landarea of the Mekong basin (<strong>WEPA</strong> database undated).4. State of Water QualityNam ThaNam NgumThailandVientianeNam NgiepMekong RiverSedoneNam OuNan SuangNam MaNam KhanGulf ofTongkingNam KadingSebangfaySebanghiengSekongSurface water quality in Laos is considered good, althoughdeterioration is observed in the rivers/tributaries in urbanareas because of increasing untreated or insufficientlytreated wastewater and wastes. No urban centres, includingthe capital Vientiane, have comprehensive piped seweragesystems or wastewater collection, treatment and disposalsystems. At the Mekong River downstream of Vientiane,for example, low concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO)have been observed (MRC 2010).Mining activities and hydropower generation are themajor sources of degradation especially in terms ofsedimentation. Wastewater or water run-off fromagricultural activities are also potential sources of highnutrients and of toxic chemicals originating from fertilizerand pesticide use (MRC 2010).Figure 3.6.1. Water basins in Lao PDR3. State of Water ResourcesLao PDR has rich water resources. Average annual rainfallat higher elevations in the southern part of the country isRiversRiver water quality in Laos is good in principle. The resultsof periodic and longitudinal monitoring conducted from2009 to 2010 at the mainstream of the Mak Hiao Riverand its major tributaries of the Hong Ke and Hong XengRivers in Vientiane province show BOD figures rangingfrom 10mg/L to 35mg/L (Phonvisai 2011). The results ofmonitoring by the Mekong River Commission (MRC)show that water quality is polluted in urban areas. At themonitoring points near Vientiane, nutrients and82

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.6 Lao PDRphosphorus levels, as well as ammonium levels, increasedbetween 2000 and 2008 (MRC 2010). The report fromMRC (2010) pointed out that pollution levels may worsenif human activities in the upstream (e.g. dam operationsand irrigation projects) reduce river water flows.Sediment is the primary quality problem in thecountry, especially in the wet season. Figure 3.6.2 showsseasonable changes in sedimentation observed in LuangPrabang in the north region of the country.Suspended sediment concentration (mg/L)2500 16000140002000120001500100008000100060004000500200000Jan Feb mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecDischarge (m 3 s 1 )Lakes and reservoirsPerennial ponds, marshes and oxbow lakes are fairlycommon in the lowland-floodplains in Laos. These waterbodies are usually shallow and vary greatly in size duringthe year. They are habitat for many types of aquatic plants,molluscs, crustaceans, amphibians and reptiles. Currently,data on the water environment in lakes and reservoirs isavailable only on project basis in Lao PDR. For example,water quality monitoring was conducted in the reservoirsof the Nam Ngum dams (Nam Ngum 2 and Nam Ngum1) from 2006-2011 as a part of a hydropower developmentproject. The result of monitoring at the nine stations(Figure 3.6.3) illustrates that DO levels in some stationsshow a decreasing trend for DO levels (standard if below6mg/L) (Figure 3.6.4). Total phosphorus levels in somestations in 2009 also highly exceeded the national standardlevel of the country (0.05mg/L). Fertilizers and detergentsare suspected as one of the potential sources of pollution(Figure 3.6.5).DO (mg/L)Figure 3.6.2. Seasonal variation in water and sedimentdischarge of Mekong at Luang Prabang, Lao PDR(Source: MRC 2010)B.Phone KhanNam MuayB.Phone KeoB.Phone thongB.Houay XayHhanB.Vleng KeoB.Pha Yaeng TaiB.Pha Yaeng NeuaB.Lak 37B.Lak 33Nam TongNam KoungB.Lak 24Huay DokmalHuay PamomWater Sampling StationB.Phone Xay NeuaB.Phone Xay KangB.Phone Xay TaiB.Koua LekNam NgunB.KomeeB.NaLuang10.0 Station 1ST-1ST-2ST-3NN1 dAM sITEFigure 3.6.3. Monitoring stations(Source: Komany 2011)ST-6ST-7ST-8ST-9ST-4ST-5B.NaTouNam MoNam NgunHuay KalNaw NgumNN2 Dam SiteNam Bak5.00.0DO at station 1-9Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan06 06 06 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 11Figure 3.6.4. DO level(Source: Komany 2011)During PeriodStation 2Station 3Station 4Station 5Station 6Station 7Station 8Station 9Total P (mg/L)1.000.800.600.400.200.00Total P at station 1-9Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan Mar May Jul Sep Nov Jan06 06 06 07 07 07 07 07 07 08 08 08 08 08 08 09 09 09 09 09 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 11Figure 3.6.5. TP value(Source: Komany 2011)During PeriodStation 1Station 2Station 3Station 4Station 5Station 6Station 7Station 8Station 983

GroundwaterGroundwater information including resource potential,uses and quality is very limited in the country. Since surfacewater is abundant for supply, groundwater is regarded as asource only when and where surface water is not available(Chanthavong 2011). Groundwater is also used as a sourcefor urban water supply although it covers only about 5% oftotal water production volume (If spring water is includedin this definition, about 20% of total water production iscovered by subsurface water.) (Chanthavong 2011) As forquality, arsenic contamination has been detected near theborder of China (MRC 2010) and in Attapeu province.5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementLegislationThe Environmental Protection Law (EPL) adopted in1999 is the basis of water quality management in thecountry. EPL specifies a set of rules for conservation of theenvironment to protect human health and natural resourcesand to ensure the sustainable socio-economic developmentof the country (Article 1). To reflect the changes in socioeconomicconditions domestically and internationally, andfrom the necessity of clarifying responsibilities inConstitutionWater and Water Resources LawEnvironment Protection LawForestry LawLand LawPolicy FrameworkAgriculture LawPrime Ministerial Decree on theImplementation of the Water andWater Resources LawPrime Ministerial Decree on theImplementation of theEnvironment Protection LawPrime Ministerial Decree on theImplementation of the Forestry LawDecree on the Implementation ofLand LawPrime Ministerial Decree on theImplementation of the AgricultureLawManagement InstrumentsNational Water Sector Strategyand Action PlanNational Environment Strategyand Action Plan; EIA Regulation;Regulations on the Monitoringand Control of WastewaterDischarge Environment StandardRegulations related to forestryand biodiversity: NationalBiodiversity Conservation Areasand Aquatic ResourcesRegulations related to wetlands,land uses and titlesRegulations related to AgricultureExtension, Livestock and FisheriesRegulations related to WaterUser’s Association, lrrigationO&M, Supply and Drainage, etc.Supporting Tools• National Water SectorProfile• Lao Environment Monitor• Other Relevant Date andInformation• Relevant Training andAwareness ProgramIndustrial Processing LawRegulations and standardrelated to wastewater dischargedfrom industry and handicraftsMining LawElectricity LawHygiene and Disease Prevention LawRegulations related to MiningExtraction and ManagementEnvironmental ManagementStandard for Electricity ProjectsDrinking Water StandardWater supply and Sanitation, andStandardUrban Planning LawRegulation related to UrbanPlanning, Housing, DomesticDrainage System and DesignsFigure 3.6.6. Legislation system on water environmental management in Lao PDR(Source: MoEJ 2009)84

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.6 Lao PDRreorganized ministries, the EPL is now under revision. TheEPL will strengthen the provision on environmentalmonitoring and inspection, and the articles onenvironmental impact assessment (EIA). The Ministry ofNatural Resources and Environment (MoNRE) will begiven full authority in review, approval, and inspection inthe EIA process. In addition, legal requirements forstrategic EIA will be included in the law to ensure thatenvironmental and social impacts are carefully taken intoaccount in project development processes. The revisedversion of the law was submitted in 2009 and it is underdiscussion by the National Assembly as of November 2011(Phonvisai 2011).The Law on Water and Water Resources which waspromulgated in 1996 stipulates the principles on themanagement, utilization, and development of water. Thepurpose of the law is to secure the quantity and quality ofwater by meeting people’s needs as well as ensuringenvironmental sustainability. However the law is not clearon the issue of water supply and wastewater. In response tothis, a draft new “Water Supply Law” was developed by theMinistry of Public Works and Transportation (MPWT)with the assistance of the World Bank. The Water SupplyLaw was approved by the National Assembly in November2009. As most of the stipulations in this law focused mainlyon water supply services, provisions on sanitation andsewerage are planned to be stipulated by a decree. To reflectthese changes, a revision of the Water and Water ResourcesLaw has started with assistance from the AsianDevelopment Bank (ADB). The final draft of theframework for the new water resources policy wassubmitted in May 2009 and as of November 2011, isawaiting approval (Phonvisai 2011).Other laws such as the Forest Law and Mining Law arealso relevant to water environmental management asshown in Figure 3.6.6.Institutional arrangementIn June 2011, MoNRE was created by merging the WaterResources and Environment Administration (WREA),part of the National Land Management Authority (NLMA)and the Geology Department, and the Protection andConservation Divisions of the Department of Forestry(MoNRE 2011). The Department of Environment mainlymanages water environments, and is responsible for settingambient water quality standards and effluent standards. Theroles and mandates of each department are still under finalconsideration as of November 2011.Ambient water quality standards29Revisions of environmental standards have been ongoingsince 1999. The revised National Environmental Standards (Source: WREA 2010)of Lao PDR were issued on 7 December 2009. Water qualitystandards were established through the initiative of MoNREin consultation with thirteen relevant organizations.Ambient water quality standards are surface waterquality standards and groundwater quality standards. Sincestandards for surface water did not exist in Lao PDR in thepast, it is completely new. Details are shown in Table 3.6.2.The standard is rather ambitious in that it currently is verydifficult to observe water quality that satisfies the standard(Phonvisai 2011). For example, a 1.5 mg/L standard valuefor BOD5 is generally only found in mountain streams inrural areas. Thus for projects studies such as the MasterPlan for Water Environment Improvement Project inVientiane capital, BOD values reflecting reality were used(Phonvisai 2011).Table 3.6.2. Surface water quality standardNo. Parameter Unit Standard Value1 Color, Odor, Taste - Natural Level2 Temperature °C Natural Level3 pH - 5 - 94 DO mg/L 65 COD Cr mg/L 56 BOD 5 mg/L 1.57 Coliform Bacteria MPN/100 mL 5,0008 Faecal Coliform MPN/100 mL 1,0009 NO 3 -N mg/L < 5.010 NH 3 -N mg/L 0.211 C 6 H 5 -OH mg/L 0.00512 Cu mg/L 0.113 Ni mg/L 0.114 Mn mg/L 1.015 Zn mg/L 1.016 Cd mg/L 0.00517 Cr +6 mg/L 0.0518 Pb mg/L 0.0519 Hg mg/L 0.00220 As mg/L 0.0121 CN - mg/L 0.00522 Radioactivity - Gross α Becquerel/L 0.123 Radioactivity - Gross β Becquerel/L 1.024 Total organochorine mg/L 0.0525 DDT μg/L 1.026 αBHC μg/L 0.0227 Dieldrine μg/L 0.128 Aldrin μg/L 0.1Heptachlor & Heptachlorepoxide μg/L 0.230 Endrin μg/L ND85

Standards for drinking water quality, drinking waterquality in covered containers, and groundwater fordrinking purposes were developed under the same NationalEnvironment Standards. They were mainly developed bythe Department of Hygiene and Prevention under theMinistry of Health in cooperation with World HealthOrganization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’sFund (UNICEF).Monitoring of water quality in public water bodiesAccording to the Agreement on the National EnvironmentalStandards in 2009, the Department of Environment isresponsible for the administration and monitoringactivities of the agreement throughout the country(WREA 2010). It also states that the Department ofWater Resources is responsible for coordinating withother authorities to conduct surveys, and evaluate andmonitor the quality of surface water and groundwater.Currently there is no regular structured monitoring ofwater quality in Lao PDR, however, some agencies carryout water quality monitoring and laboratory analysis asnecessary (Table 3.6.3).Table 3.6.3. Public agencies conducting water quality monitoringInstitution Type of Samples Number of Stations Parameters MonitoredDept. of Irrigation(Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry)(Analysis is conducted in WaterQuality Laboratory)Ministry of Public Health, PesticideLaboratoryMinistry of Energy and MinesSurface water GroundwaterIndustrial wastewaterSurface waterSurface water from Hydropowerdams23 Ad hoc samples taken fromsurface, ground and waste wateras requiredAd hoc testingAd hoc sampling14 parameters(DO, dissolved salts, nutrients, andorganic matter)(Plans for As, Hg, Cd, and Pb)24 parameters(Organic compounds andpesticides)Almost 8 parameters(Including temperature, pH, DO,COD, etc.)Environment Department (MoNRE)Wastewater (urban/industrial)11 (Vientiane municipality)3 (Vientiane province)4 parameters(TSS, TDS, BOD, and pH)Ministry of Industry and Commerce(MIC)Industrial effluent(Samples collected by Dept. ofIrrigation or MONRE)Ad hoc samplingParameters monitored aremainly related to industrial wastemonitoringMinistry of Public HealthRural water supplyAd hoc testing for groundwaterand newly drilled bore holes, andsurface water resources used inpublic water supply7 parameters(Fe, Cu, Ba, pH, Ec, TDS, NO 3)(Source: Komany 2008)Effluent standardsThe following effluent standards are stipulated underthe National Environmental Standards issued in December2009: 1) general industrial wastewater discharge standards,2) standards for specific industries, 3) effluent standards forpig farms, 4) gas station effluent standards, and 5) wastewaterdischarge standards from urban areas (WREA 2010).Details are shown in Table 3.6.4.Table 3.6.4. Effluent standardsName of standardsGeneral industrial wastewater discharge standardsStandards for specific industriesTypes of Standards1.Standards for general industries2.Standards for sugar cane factories3.Standards for textiles and garments factories that dye yarns4.Standards for pulp products5.Standards for paper products6.Standards for slaughtering factories1.Standards for factories that contain organic substances2.Standards for factories that contain inorganic substances (metal plating)3.Standards for battery producingEffluent standards for pig farmsGas station effluent standardsWastewater discharge standards from urban areas(Source: WREA 2010)1.Wastewater discharge standards2.Wastewater treatment standards for public areas86

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.6 Lao PDRFor wastewater discharge standards from urban areas,buildings such as hotels, dormitories or hospitals areclassified according to the number of rooms and volume ofdischarged wastewater. Buildings such as residences,temples, schools, offices, markets and restaurants are alsoclassified according to floor area. For the wastewatertreatment standards for public areas, classifications are inplace for areas such as historical sites, public parks, waterparks, and marshes and ponds.The Agreement on the National EnvironmentalStandards in 2009 states that those who violate the provisionof the agreement will be warned, fined or subject to criminalpunishment (WREA 2010). Also under the Regulation onWastewater Discharge from Industrial Processing Factoriesissued in 2005 by the Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts(currently the Ministry of Industry and Commerce), allindustrial factories are required to obtain approval andmajor factories also need to submit treatment andmanagement plans. They also are required to installwastewater treatment systems and the necessary facilities tomonitor and analyze water samples, as well as frequentlymonitor and analyze wastewater and report results to theDirector of the Industry Department of the Ministry orrespective province. The staff of the Industry Department asfactory environmental inspectors are permitted to enter allareas within factories to inspect, observe, measure, sampleand monitor wastewater discharged into public waterbodies. If violations are found, certifications for wastewaterdischarge will be suspended and the Director of the IndustryDepartment may suspend or terminate wastewater dischargeuntil improvement and compliance is confirmed. Thepenalty for violation of the regulations is set out as follows:(1) first stage: warning, suspension of import/export,suspension of production, (2) second stage: fine of 5-10times the amount of certification fee, and (3) third stage:fine of 10-15 times the amount of certification fee andpenalties for other relevant regulations (Phonvisai 2011).6. Existing and Future ChallengesAlthough water quality is, in general, in good condition inthe country, it has deteriorated in major urban areas. Nourban centres, including the capital Vientiane, havecomprehensive piped sewerage systems or wastewatercollection, treatment and disposal systems. The waterquality of urban rivers may further deteriorate in the nearfuture because of the inflow of untreated wastewater ofwhich volume will increase according to urban growth.The government of Laos has been developing andrevising environmental management frameworks such asthrough the revision of relevant laws. However, there arechallenges in their implementation. For example, variousministries and departments carry out water qualitymanagement such as monitoring and analysis independentlyand do not share results. Also, there are overlaps in the laws.For example, there is duplication among the Regulation onthe Wastewater Discharged from Industrial ProcessingFactories, EPL, EIA regulations and Decree on EIA for theIndustrial Sector in requiring environmental compliancecertificates, and submission/approval of environmentalmanagement plans for factories that discharge wastewater.It has been reported that the wastewater dischargecertification system is currently not in operation andinspection is conducted according to each regulation(Phonvisai 2011). Capacity and systematic coordinationprocedures among responsible agencies for overall waterquality monitoring and management need to be established.Recent organizational restructuring of MoNRE is expectedto promote and strengthen water environmentalmanagement in Lao PDR.87

Malaysia1. Country InformationTable 3.7.1. Basic indicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 330,803 (2010)Total Population (person) 28.4 million (2010)GDP (current USD) 237.8 billion (2010)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 8,373 (2010)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 2,875 (2009)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 580* (2009)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m 3 ) 13.2* (2005)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors* Estimated(Source: See References)Agriculture 34.2%* (2005)Industry 36.3%* (2005)Municipal(including domestic) 29.5%* (2005)2. Major Water Basins in Malaysiabrings heavy rainfall, particularly to the east coast states ofPeninsular Malaysia and western Sarawak, whereas theSouthwest Monsoon normally signifies relatively drierweather. (MOSTI 2010). Droughts occur occasionallysometimes coinciding with the El Niño phenomena. Themost prominent droughts happened in 1998.Droughts are managed through the monitoring of dryevents by the Department of Irrigation and Drainage.Floods are managed through various flood mitigationstrategies using structural and non-structural means.Surface water provides 97% of water supply fordomestic, industrial, and agricultural use. About 80 percentof the water withdrawn from the river system is used forirrigation purposes. In the future, the percentage of wateruse for domestic and industrial uses is expected to commanda bigger share of the water withdrawn from surface watersources. Potable water supply coverage extends to mostareas throughout the country with the exception of a fewisolated spots where water supply network coverageremains difficult or inaccessible due to physical orgeographical factors. Groundwater wells or rural watersupply scheme systems will be provided in those spots.Perak RiverBernam RiverKelantan RiverPahang RiverKualaLumpurSingaporeSouth China SeaFigure 3.7.1. Major rivers in Malaysia3. State of Water ResourcesBruneiBaram RiverRajang RiverIndonesiaKinabatangan RiverThere are ample water resources in Malaysia with seasonalvariations. Most areas in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah andSarawak in particular, receive a national average rainfall of2,500 mm and 3,500 mm. Weather in Malaysia is characterizedby two monsoon regimes, namely, the Southwest Monsoonfrom late May to September, and the Northeast Monsoonfrom November to March. The Northeast Monsoon4. State of Water QualityRiversIn Malaysia, the Water Quality Index (WQI) is used toevaluate the status of river water quality. The WQI iscalculated using the values of six parameters: DO, BOD,COD, NH 3-N, SS, and pH (DoE 2011). According to theWQI, the status of water quality is classified into threecategories: “clean,” “slightly polluted,” and “polluted.” Figure3.7.2 shows the ratio of river monitoring stations undereach category from 2005 to 2010. Figure 3.7.3 also showsthe ratio of river monitoring stations under the threecategories during the same period in terms of BOD, whichis a parameter to show the state of organic pollution.Compared with values in past few years, the ratio of“polluted” rivers in 2010 increased. The MalaysiaEnvironmental Quality Report 2010 analyzed that increaseof untreated or insufficiently treated wastewater fromsewage and agro-based industries. In terms of BOD load,treated and partially treated sewage is the largest contributorof which estimated loads is 1,021,576.05 kg/day. Figure3.7.4 shows the composition of pollution sources by sector.88

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.7 Malaysia100%80%60%40%20%0%2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010Clean 338 335 368 334 306 293Slighly Polluted 166 180 164 197 217 203Polluted 90 58 48 48 54 74Figure 3.7.2. State of river water quality by Water QualityIndex(Source: DoE 2011)100%80%60%40%20%0%2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010Clean 302 349 376 320 187 104Slighly Polluted 134 102 117 156 238 225Polluted 158 122 87 103 152 211Figure 3.7.3. State of river quality by BOD sub-index(Source: DoE 2011)CleanSlighlyPollutedPollutedCleanSlighlyPollutedPollutedAnalysis of heavy metals in 4,565 water samples in2010 revealed that almost all samples complied with ClassIII of Water Quality Standards (Table 3.7.2) for arsenic(As), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead(Pb) and zinc (Zn), and National Water Quality Standardsfor arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), chromium(Cr), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). On the other hand, thecompliance ratio of iron (Fe) remains at 94% (DoE 2010).Lakes and reservoirsSince lakes and reservoirs are managed by differentauthorities including owners and operators of each lake/reservoir, comprehensive water quality monitoring or waterquality inventories for lakes and reservoirs are not available.According to a study on water quality of lakes and reservoirsconducted by the Institute of Environment and WaterResource Management and Teknologi Malaysia, waterquality is under eutrophic condition in 62% of studied lakesand reservoirs (Sharifuddin 2011).Coastal waterMarine water quality was monitored at 161 coastal and 76estuary monitoring stations in 2010. Figure 3.7.5 shows thenational average exceeding rates for Class 2 of the MarineWater Quality Criteria and Standards (MWQCS) forsome parameters. The exceeding rate differs from region toregion. For example, high exceeding rate for TSS in marinewater was quite marked in Sarawak and Kelantan, but nosamples exceeded the standards in Kedah and Labuan. Themajor causes of marine water quality deterioration for TSSis considered to result from land-based activities (e.g.coastal development, land clearance for development,agricultural activities), untreated or partially treated animaland domestic wastes and wastewater from activities incoastal areas, and discharge or leakage from ships and boatsfor oil and greases. (DoE 2010)Animal Farm(Pig Farm)4%ManufacuringIndustry45%Agro-basedIndustry2%SewageTreatement Plants49%(%)10080604020042.82361.553.445.241.340.335.230.532.964.162.744.4costalestuaries26.623.618.50.60.3TSS Oil and E coliGreaseAs Cd Cr Cu Pb HgFigure 3.7.4. Composition of water pollution sources bysector in 2010(Source: DoE 2011)Figure 3.7.5. National average of rates exceeding MarineWater Quality Criteria and Standards in Marine Areas andEstuaries(Source: DoE 2011)89

GroundwaterGroundwater quality status was evaluated using theNational Guidelines for Raw Drinking Water Quality fromthe Ministry of Health (revised in December 2000) as abenchmark.In 2010, 201 water samples were taken from 112monitored wells situated in eight different land use areas,namely industrial, landfills, agriculture, municipal watersupply, urban/sub-urban, golf courses, rural areas and exmining(gold mining). The results show that valuesexceeding guidelines for As, Fe, Mn, Total coliform, andphenol were observed in all land use areas. The noncomplianceratio of total coliform was 100% in all land usecategories. Other parameters of which exceeding rates arefound in all categories include phenol, arsenic, iron, andmanganese. On the other hand, for chromium, copper, andzinc, all samples satisfy guideline values.5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementThe ultimate objective of Malaysia’s environmentalmanagement (including water quality management) isimprovement of living standards and the sustainability ofits citizens’ quality of life. The National Policy on theEnvironment approved in 2002 stated “the nation shallimplement environmentally sound and sustainabledevelopment for the continuous economic, social andcultural progress and enhancement of the quality of life ofMalaysia” (Ministry of Science, Technology and theEnvironment, Malaysia 2002). In line with the policy, thenational policy set eight principles to integrate the economyand environment as follows:Stewardship of the EnvironmentConservation of the Nature’s Vitality and DiversityContinuous Improvement in the Quality of theEnvironmentSustainable Use of Natural ResourceIntegrated Decision-makingRole of the Private SectorCommitment and AccountabilityActive Participation in the International CommunityThe Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974 is an actrelated to the prevention, abatement and control ofpollution, and enhancement of the environment. The actordains that the Minister, after consultation with theEnvironmental Quality Council, may elaborate regulationsfor prescribing ambient water quality and dischargestandards, and specifying the maximum permissible loadsthat may be discharged by any source into inland waters,with reference either generally or specifically to the bodyof waters concerned. Other laws and regulations are alsoshown in Figure 3.7.6.As for the nation’s target for water quality improvement,the 10th Malaysian Plan (2011-2015) includes efforts totackle river water pollution, which is the country’s mainwater source, by addressing major pollution sources.Pollution countermeasures mentioned in the plan includethe following points (Sharifuddin 2011; EconomicPlanning Unit of Prime Minister’s Department 2010):- To strengthen the enforcement of effluent standards(sewage and industries) in line with EnvironmentalQuality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations- To assess total maximum daily loads for both point andnon-point sources- To revise the Water Quality Index by incorporating otherparameters for more accurate river water classification- To develop the National Marine Water Quality IndexInstitutional arrangementsThe Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment(NRE), established in 2004 as a result of restructuring ofministries, is in charge of environmental conservation whichincludes water quantity and quality management. Otherministries and authorities are also involved in waterresource management such as the Ministry of WaterEnergy and Communication for water service monitoringand supervision, Ministry of Science, Technology andInnovation for water research and development, Ministryof Health for drinking water quality, and local governmentsfor water planning and development (Sharifuddin 2011).For water pollution control, the Department ofEnvironment (DoE) under NRE is mainly engaged inimplementation of the Environmental Quality Act 1974.90

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.7 MalaysiaConservation of Water QualityGeneralEnvironmental Quality ActEnvironmental Quality Standards for Surface WaterEffluent Discharge StandardsSpecific AreaSelangor Waters Management Authority Enactment (1999)Kedah Water Resources Enactment (2007)Sabah Conservation of the Environment EnactmentSabah Water Resources Enactment (1998)National resources and EnvironmentOrdinance SarawakSpecific SectorPeninsular Malaysia1. AgricultureIrrigation Areas Act (1953)Drainage Works Acts (1954)2. ForestryNational Forestry Act (1984)3. Control of RiversWater Acts (1920), Reviewed (1989)River Rights Enactment of PerakKelantan River Traffic Enactment (1955)Pahang River Launches Enactment 6/494. Land ManagementNational Land Code (1965)Land Conservation Act (1960)Earthwork by laws5. Domestic Water SupplyWater Service Indutry Act6. MiningMining Enctment (1936)7. Local and Regional PlanningTown and Country Planning Act (1976)8. FisheryFisheries Act (1963)9. OthersLocal Government Act (1976)Street Drainage Building By law (1974, 1994-R)Geological Survey ActMinisterial Function Act (1969)State of Sabah and Sarawak1. AgricultureDrainage and Irrigation, Sabah Ordinace (15/1956)Drainage Works Ordinance Sarawak (1966)2. ForestrySabah Forest Enactment (1965)Forest Ordinance Sarawak, Cap1263. Control of RiversSarawak Water Ordinance,Sarawak Riverine Transport Bill (1993)4. Land ManagementSabah Land Ordinance (1930)Sarawak Land Code (1958)5. Domestic Water SupplyWater Services Industry Act6. MiningMining Enactment (1960 Sabah)Mining Enactment (1949 Sarawak)7. Local and Regional PlanningTown and Country PlanningEnactment Sabah Cap 141Town and Country Planning Sarawak Cap 878. OthersLocal Authority Enactment, Sabah Ordinance (11/1961)Local Authority Ordinance Sarawak Cap 117Figure 3.7.6. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)91

Ambient water quality standardsNational Water Quality Standards (NWQS), which areapplied to surface waters, set out standard values for 72parameters in six water use classes (Table 3.7.2). The goal isnot to meet the standards of a particular water class in allsurface waters, but to improve water quality gradually inorder to meet the standards of a water class higher than thecurrent class.Table 3.7.2. Water quality classes in the National WaterQuality StandardsClassIIIAIIBIIIIVVUsesConservation of Natural EnvironmentWater Supply I: Practically no treatment necessaryFisheries I: Very sensitive aquatic speciesWater Supply II: Conventional treatment requiredFisheries ll: Sensitive aquatic speciesRecreational use with body contactWater Supply lll: Extensive treatment requiredFisheries lll: Common, of economic value, and tolerantspecies; livestock drinkingIrrigation(Source: DoE 2011)None of the aboveFor marine water quality, the Malaysian Marine WaterQuality Criteria and Standards (MWQCS) was establishedwith 20 parameters in five classes. Water classification inMWQCS is shown in Table 3.7.3.Table 3.7.3. Water quality classification in the MalaysianMarine Water Quality CriteriaClassClass 1Class 2Class 3Class E(Source: DoE 2011)UsesPreservation, marine protected areas, marine parksMarine life, fisheries, coral reefs, recreational and mariculturePorts, oils and gas fieldsMangroves, estuarine and river-mouth waterGroundwater quality standards for Malaysia have notbeen established, but considering the potential ofgroundwater as an alternative source of surface water, theNational Guidelines for Raw Water Quality is referred asthe benchmark for evaluating groundwater qualitymonitoring results.Ambient water quality monitoringThe Department of Environment (DoE) of the Ministry ofNatural Resources and Environment (NRE) conductsmonitoring programmes for rivers, marine waters andgroundwater as shown in Table 3.7.4.Effluent standardsThe National Environmental Quality Act 1974 states that“no person shall, unless licensed, emit, discharge or depositany environmentally hazardous substances, pollutants orwastes into any inland waters in contravention of theacceptable conditions specified under Section 21” (Section25, National Environmental Quality Act 1974). In 2009,Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluent)Regulations 1979, which set rules and procedures relatedto effluent discharge, had been replaced by new threeregulations: Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations,Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulationsand Environmental Quality (Control of Pollution fromSolid Waste Transfer Stations and Landfills) Regulations.Under the regulations, sewage discharge standards,industrial effluent discharge limits, and leachate dischargestandards were established (DoE 2010).Effluent monitoringMonitoring of effluent, recording and maintenance of themonitoring results are obligations that all premises arerequired to fulfill under the new environmental regulationson sewage and industrial effluents. Analytical methods andparameters to be monitored are designated. All premises arerequired to submit monthly effluent discharge reports toDoE. For the monthly report, an on-line reporting system isavailable, as well as hard-copy submission. Authorized DoEofficials can carry out inspections of all premises, includingsurprise inspections, to ensure compliance with allprovisions in the act. Non-compliance of the regulationsresults in immediate penalties to polluters.As a measure to improve effluent quality, industrialeffluent treatment systems (IETS) were introduced (Box3.7.1).92

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.7 MalaysiaTable 3.7.4. Water quality monitoring status (in 2010)Monitoring typesStarting yearNumber of monitoring stations/wells (in 2010)Major parameters monitoredRiver water quality monitoringprogramme19781,055 stations* 1 located at 570riversParameters included in NWQSMarine waters1978(Peninsular Malaysia)1985(Sabah and Sarawak)Parameters included in MWQCS161 stations for coastal areas72 islands* 2 TSS, E.coli, oil and grease76 stations for estuary[island marine water quality]Groundwater monitoringprogramme1997 112 wellsParameters included in the nationalguideline for raw drinking waterquality*1 There are two kinds of monitoring stations: manual water quality monitoring stations and continuous water quality monitoring stations.*2 72 islands are categorized into four types: development islands (3 islands), resort islands (32 islands), marine park islands (22 islands)and protected ones (15 islands).(Source: DoE 2011)Box 3.7.1. Industrial Effluent Treatment Systems: A system to encourage self-regulation in the industrial sectorMeeting effluent standards through proper treatment is a crucial issue for water quality conservation. In Malaysia,the Environmental Quality (Industry Effluent) Regulations 2009 mandate the owner of industrial premises to properlyoperate and maintain industrial effluent treatment systems (Section 8 (1)) and monitor the performance of the treatmentsystems (Section 9 (1)).Industrial effluent treatment systems (IETS) aim to promote the optimal operation and maintenance of effluenttreatment by enabling preventive or corrective actions through monitoring of the treatment performance with certainparameters. Through IETS, companies can benefit from the early identification of deficiencies, identification of properdosages for chemicals (Keong 2008), and increasing opportunities to identify preventive actions (How 2008). DoEprovides technical guidance to promote IETS. Within an industry, a competent person who is certified by the Director-General of DoE should be on duty to supervise IETS.IETS is expected to encourage industries to be more proactively engaged in pollution control without strongenforcement action by the public sector.6. Existing and Future ChallengesEnvironmental Quality Act 1974 has been successful inreducing pollution to a certain extent with control ofpoint and non-point sources, and continuous monitoringand assessment of the water environment. However, thereare still many challenges that need to be addressed toachieve holistic water environment management. Thedirection of water environmental management has alreadybeen incorporated in the 10th Malaysian Plan asmentioned in the previous section. The following elementsare also considered essential to ensure a better future forthe water environment in the country.Promoting water environmental management at thebasin level, including river basin modeling, considerationof localized water discharge standards in accordancewith the capacity of individual water bodies.Strengthening effluent management policy to improvewater quality conditions. In line with this, self-regulationapproaches to pollution control should be furtherpromoted.Identifying groundwater potential for areas wheresurface water is limited or unavailable.Achieving better management of lakes and reservoirs, inwhich the roles and responsibility of relevantstakeholders is clarified. Further studies and proper datamanagement is required to fulfill this target.93

Myanmar1. Country InformationTable 3.8.1. Basic indicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 676,578 (2011)Total Population (person) 48 million (2010)GDP (current USD) 45.4 billion (2010)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 742 (2010)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 2,091 (2009)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 1,168* (2009)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m 3 ) 33.2 (2000)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors* Estimated(Source: See References)Chindwin RiverAgriculture 89% (2000)Industry 1% (2000)Municipal(including domestic) 10% (2000)2. Major Water Basins in MyanmarPutaoChinaMekong River3. State of Water ResourcesMyanmar has an abundance of water resources. However,the spatial and temporal distribution of water resources isuneven.The average annual rainfall is about 2341 mm, most ofwhich is concentrated during the southwest monsoonseason (May-October). As with the temporal distributionof rainfall patterns, about 80% falls during the monsoonseason and 20% in the dry season.The catchment area of Myanmar’s eight principal riverbasins is approximately 737,800 km 2 . The country’s twomajor natural lakes are Inle Lake and Indawgyi Lake. Aswell as natural water bodies, constructed engineeringstructures can reserve 15.46 km 3 of surface water.The potential volume of groundwater resources in thecountry is 580 km 3 and the estimated total renewable is1,046 billion m 3 (river basin level annual groundwaterpotential is shown in Figure 3.8.2.) Total water developmentis 33.2 billion m 3 , which represents only 3% of the totalrenewable water resources in Myanmar. Approximately91% of the total water withdrawal comes from surfacewater and 9% from groundwater. Groundwater is mostlyused for domestic purposes and irrigation of vegetables andother high value crops.Rakhine River Basin51.4Sittaung River Basin34.9SittweAyeyarwady(Irrawaddy)RiverBay of BengalBasseinMandalaySittaungRiverYangon(Rangoon)Thanlwin(Salween)RiverThailandMoulmeinTanintharyiRiver Basin48.3ThanlwinRiver Basin88.3ChindwiinRiver Basin8.7Mekhaung River Basin70.8LowerAyeyarwad dyRiver Basin163.9UpperAyeyarwaddyRiver Basin113.9Figure 3.8.2. Annual groundwater potential (km 3 ) in riverbasins(Source: MoEJ 2009)Andaman andNicobar Islands4. State of Water QualityFigure 3.8.1. Major rivers in MyanmarInland surface waterMyanmar is heavily dependent on inland surface waterbodies for domestic use, agricultural irrigation and industrialproduction. Surface water is vulnerable to pollution that isintrinsically linked to inadequate sanitation. Monitoring94

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.8 Myanmardata for water quality in Ayeyarwady River, Chindwil River,Thanlwin River, and Sittaung River revealed that water inthese rivers is suitable for irrigation purposes (Table 3.8.2).However, the quality of some surface water bodies wereinadequate both for human health and aquatic ecosystems.High levels of phosphate and nitrate and low levels of DOwere measured in Inle Lake, which is most likely caused byrunoff of agricultural fertilizers and discharge of untreatedwaste (Table 3.8.3, Box 3.8.1). In addition, both coliformand E.coli bacteria exceeded standards, making the water ofInle Lake unfit for use as drinking water.Table 3.8.2. Water quality in selected riversRivers DO Fe Na ClAyeyarwady River 4.02 0.45 0.57 0.30Chindwil River 4.17 0.01 0.69 0.52Thanlwin River 3.56 0.02 0.62 0.35Sittaung River 4.19 0.50 0.77 0.62(Source: Data from the focal person in 2011)Table 3.8.3. Water quality of Inle LakeParameters Value RemarkspH 7.8-8.0 AlkalineCa (mg/L) 30.0-50.4 HighPO 4-P (mg/L) 0.0078-0.28 HighNO 3-N (mg/L) 0.7-0.9 HighDO (mg/L) 0.6-8.6Coliform bacteria (CFU) 18-137 Unfit for drinkingE. Coli (CFU) 0-23 Unfit for drinking(Source: Khin Lay Swe 2011)(mg/L)GroundwaterWith increases in population and a greater need for waterfor economic activities, there is increasing pressure ongroundwater extraction. Unrestricted groundwaterextraction can result in land subsidence and saltwaterinstruction, and therefore, groundwater must be controlledand managed appropriately. As well, surface water should bemanaged along with groundwater in an integrated way inorder to ensure the recharge of groundwater aquifers.Moreover, the rising water requirements of the country’srapidly expanding urban and industrial centres, especially inYangon City, and the contamination by pollutants fromindustrial, municipal and agricultural effluents (the latterassociated with the uncontrolled use of pesticides andfertilizers) have lead to the decreasing availability offreshwater. Additionally, salinity intrusion has been reportedin the inland areas along the tidal reaches of the AyeyarwaddyRiver system, and monitoring of the Ayeyarwaddy in the dryzone shows excessive pollution, particularly in summer.Salinity intrusion is also a critical problem in thecountry, particularly in the Delta Region, the third mostpopulated area in Myanmar and where most rice iscultivated. The Figure 3.8.3 shows the degree of intrusion.PatheinYandoonMaubinBogalay Pyapon4.4.200720.3.20074.3.2007YangonLabuttaBox 3.8.1. Water Environment in Inle LakeInle Lake, the second largest lake in Myanmar, servesas the sole source of domestic water. Water qualityof the lake is impacted by various factors. Amongthem, deforestation and more intense agriculturalactivities on its western and northern watershedareas have brought in increasing amounts of silt andnutrients into the shallow lake. It was reported thatconcentrations of PO 4-P, NO 2-N, and NO 3-N wererelatively high, leading to a eutrophic state. Thedirect discharge of domestic wastewater is anothercause of water pollution. A high number of coliformbacteria was reported, indicating that the lake waterwas unfit to drink. The government introduced theuse of latrines with the assistance of WATSAN ofthe Community Water Supply and Sanitation projectwith the aim of addressing the specific problem ofpollution in the lake.(Source: Than 2007; Akaishi et al. 2006)Figure 3.8.3. Degree of penetration and saline frontsmeasured in summer 2007(Source: Ra 2011)5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementLegislationMyanmar has no specific laws to control water pollution.There is a general provision in Section 9 of the Public HealthLaw of 1972, which empowers the Ministry of Health tocarry out measures relating to environmental health, such asgarbage disposal, use of water for drinking and otherpurposes, radioactivity, protection of air from pollution,and food and drug safety. However, detailed provisions donot exist to ensure more effective and comprehensive95

egulation of these matters. As well, there are no provisionsfor pollution control in the regulation of hotels and tourism.Although the Burma Port Act of 1908 contains aparagraph about harbor pollution, this merely focuses onthe detriment to navigation. The only control of waterpollution in the country is through guidelines issued inJune 1994 by the Myanmar Investment Commission.These guidelines require that new investment projects havewastewater treatment systems. River and lake pollutionfrom sewage, industrial waste and solid waste disposal areserious problems in Myanmar, but are not explicitlyregulated by a particular law, so new laws relating topollution must be enacted. The draft law on environmentalprotection is now awaiting approval by the government.LegislationsNo[ Specific descriptions on water quality control ]Penal Code, 1860[Person(s) who voluntarily pollute the water of publicsprings or reservoirs so as to render it less fit for the1purpose for which it is intended, shall be punished withimprisonment or be levied a fine for polluting bodies ofwater within the municipal jurisdiction]2 Yangon Waterworks Act,18853 Canal Act, 19054 Yangon Port Act, 19055 Port Act, 19086City of Yangon Municipal Act, 1922[Penalties for polluting bodies of water within themunicipal jurisdiction]7 Emergency Provisions Act, 1950Factories Act, 1951[Industries shall provide their own treatment plants to8remove or reduce potential pollution from wastewaterbefore discharging effluent]9 Territorial Sea and Continuous Zone Law, 197710Law Relating to the Fishing Rights of Foreign FishingVessels, 198911 Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law, 199012 Pesticide Law, 199013 Fresh Water Fisheries Law, 1991Development Committees Law, 199314 [Amendment to City of Yangon Municipal Act, 1922including proper disposal of sewage and pollutant water]Myanmar Hotel and Tourism Law,1993[Includes standards for construction of wastewater15treatment plants for proper disposal wastewater to publicdrainage canals]Protection of Wild Animals, Wild Plants and Preservationof Natural Areas Laws, 199416 [Restrictions on wildlife sanctuaries and reserved forestsfor controlling of water quality in upstream watershedareas]Myanmar Mines Law,199417 [Prohibits mining works in upstream watershed areas]Conservation of Water Resources and River Law, 200618 [Control of water resources, such as surface water andgroundwater, and riverine management]NCEA Law for Myanmar Environmental Protection19 and Conservation (The law has been drafted but notapproved.)Table 3.8.4. Myanmar’s legal framework withenvironmental implications(Source: MoEJ 2009)After the law is officially approved, it is expected thatnational environmental standards will be set up.Institutional arrangementThere are different government organizations which areresponsible for water environmental management withinrespective sectors such as health, irrigation, mining,transport, and industry. For example, the Yangon CityDevelopment Committee (YCDC) is responsible for waterquality management in the former capital (Ra, 2011).In September 2011, the Ministry of Forestry wasrenamed as the Ministry of Environmental Conservationand Forestry. The new ministry will be responsible for theimplementation of draft environmental protection law.However, clarification of the responsibility of differentministries may remain an issue in the promotion ofenvironmental protection in the country, including waterpollution control.Water quality standardsThe main causes of deteriorating water quality are untreatedmunicipal wastewater, solid waste, and industrialagrochemical solid and liquid wastes. In principle, localcity development committees are responsible for theprotection of water quality. Rapid industrialization hasincreased pressure on the environment in many cities, suchas the former capital city of Yangon. The direct discharge ofuntreated industrial wastewater into rivers and streams isthe major cause of pollution. In addition, untreated orinsufficiently treated industrial wastewater is dischargedinto the municipal sewage system, which furthercomplicates the problem. The National Commission forEnvironmental Affairs (NCEA) and NGOs proposedeffluent standards for the proper disposal of wastewaterfrom factories, but it has not yet been approved. Control ofdisposal of wastewater from residential, office buildingsand factories is the responsibility of the Ministry ofEnvironmental Conservation and Forestry.The government banned the use of some toxic pesticides,encouraging instead the utilization of conventional biofertilizersas a substitute for chemical fertilizers to mitigateagricultural based water pollution.Ministries and departments are currently working tostrengthen water quality management to address thedeterioration of water quality in public waters. Nationaldrinking water quality standards have been developed buthave yet to be approved. Water quality control measures arelooked at on a case by case basis, especially in the productionof bottled drinking water. Arsenic and other parametershave been tested in collaboration with the Water ResourcesUtilization Department (WRUD), Department ofDevelopment Affairs (DDA), and UNICEF. TheEnvironmental and Sanitation Division under the Ministry96

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.8 Myanmarof Health is jointly implementing a programme on watersupply systems with health institutions and carrying out aWater Quality Surveillance and Monitoring System PilotProject in the former capital city of Yangon.Water quality monitoringThere are no specific regular monitoring programmes forambient water quality in the country. Similarly, waterquality monitoring is conducted by different governmentalagencies in line with their own respective purposes.In 2006, the Irrigation Department instituted waterquality monitoring for both irrigation and potable waterpurposes at 15 stations in four rivers, namely Ayeyarwady(8 stations), Chindowin (3 stations), Thaniwin (2 stations)and Sittoung (2 stations). Sixteen parameters are monitoredseasonally (twice a year): pH, ECw, turbidity, temperature,total hardness, TDS, salinity, SAR, RSC, Ca++, Mg++,K+, Co 3+, HCO 3, SO 4, and Cl. The Irrigation Departmentalso monitored salt water intrusion in the delta area duringthe summer season.Effluent standardsYCDC convened a meeting in July 2001 to introduceproposed environmental standards for Yangon, includingstandards on air, noise, wastewater effluent and toxicchemicals. Similarly, governmental departments in YCDChave set their own standards with regard to the protectionof environmental areas in which they are fully involved.The main objective of the National Commission forEnvironmental Affairs is to conserve the environment andprevent its degradation when utilizing water, land, forest,mineral, marine and other natural resources. The currentmeasures mentioned above are in line with the NationalEnvironment Policy of Myanmar initiated by the NationalCommission for Environmental Affairs.6. Existing and Future ChallengesA number of agencies are responsible for implementingwater supply and sanitation schemes, which shouldideally be carried out in an integrated manner.Coordination mechanisms among the various agenciesshould be strengthened to promote more effectivemanagement of the programme.Improvement of water use efficiency is an importantfactor for water conservation in the irrigation sector toreduce both water consumption and pollutant dischargeby enterprises (point sources) and farmland (non-pointsource).The main sources of deteriorating water quality aresewage, solid waste, industrial waste and agrochemicalwaste. Water conservation through water qualityprotection is undertaken by the relevant city developmentcommittees. In fact, the control of wastewater is both amunicipal and an industrial problem. In cities undergoingrapid industrialization, the municipal treatment issue isstill complicated. Thus stricter laws to control waterquality should be imposed. In the agricultural sector, thegovernment has banned the import of some toxicpesticides and encourages the use of conventional biofertilizersas a substitute for chemical fertilizers tomitigate water quality deterioration.Deforestation in catchment areas and around waterresources causes serious degradation of water quality andquantity. The resulting topsoil loss and land degradationby gully and sheet erosion leads to excessive levels ofturbidity in incoming water and to offsite ecological andphysical impacts from deposition in rivers and lakebeds.The silt and clay fractions, which carry absorbed chemicals,are transported by the sediments into the aquatic system.Box. 3.8.2. Current actions taken in the water sectorPublic awareness through community involvement is a key issue on the subject of water use efficiency andconservation. Social development and public education and information programmes lead to an increasinglyknowledgeable public that wants to be involved in government decision making. Training in nurturing forests,producing firewood substitutes and distributing leaflets on reforestation technology is provided to educate the localpeople in forest conservation practices. The government has designated July as the Month of Planting Trees forcommunities countrywide.YCDC has enacted Law No. 6/99 to improve water distribution systems, including leak detection, construction, repairand maintenance of city water mains, changes in plumbing codes and prosecution for illegal connections.Some effective measures have been taken to conserve agricultural water, such as adjustment of cropping patterns,water supply scheduling, improvement of irrigation facilities and management, land leveling, water pricing, canallining and proper use of fertilizers and pesticides. Rehabilitation works for existing irrigation facilities have beencarried out for efficient use of water instead of building new structures. Programmes that promote irrigation efficiencydirectly equate increased efficiency with savings for farmers (reduced energy, labour or cost) or improved productivity.Laws and regulations related to water resource and environmental management are reviewed in line withenvironmental assessments.97

Nepal1. Country InformationTable 3.9.1. Basic indicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 147,181 ( - )Total Population (person) 30 million (2010)GDP (current USD) 12.9 billion (2009)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 438 (2009)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 1,500 (2009)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 210.2* (2009)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m 3 ) 9.8 (2005)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors* Estimated(Source: See References)MahakaliKarnaliIndiaBabaiOther Southern RiversAgriculture 98.2% (2005)Industry 0.3% (2005)Municipal(including domestic) 1.5% (2005)2. Major Water Basins in NepalWest RaptiGandakiKathmanduFigure 3.9.1. Water basins in Nepal3. State of Water ResourcesBagmatiChinaKamalaKoshiKankaiNepal is one of the richest countries in the world for waterresources. The mean annual precipitation is 1,530 mm,with a range of more than 6,000 mm along the southernslopes of the Annapurna Range in central Nepal to lessthan 250 mm in the north-central portion near theTibetan plateau. The snow-capped Himalayas are themain source of rivers in the country (WECS 2000).There are about 6,000 rivers in Nepal with a totaldrainage area of 194,471 km 2 . There are 17 river basins.Karnali, Sapta-Gandaki and Sapta-Koshi, with theirorigins in the Himalayas, are the major river basins andaccount for around 80% runoff. The Babai, West Rapti,Bagmati, Kamala and Kankai are medium-sized riverbasins accounting for about 7% of runoff. The southernrivers—the Bering, Balan, Khutiya, Pathraiya, Lal Bakaiya,Ratu, Sirsia, Manusmara and Banganga, have origins inthe Siwalik Hill Range (WECS 2011).More than 5,000 lakes have been identified in thecountry. This includes natural lakes as well as ponds, damsand other small wetlands (<strong>WEPA</strong> database). Groundwaterpotential is high in the country and annual extractionpotential is about 12 billion m 3 . People living in Terai(lowland) and inner valleys in the hills and mountainsextract groundwater for domestic use.Water resources in Nepal can be profitably utilized forpower generation, irrigation, domestic uses, aquacultureand recreational fisheries. Of the above, hydropowerdevelopment has become an attractive option as an energysource. The theoretical hydropower potential of Nepal is83,200 MW, of which 44,552 MW is regarded astechnically feasible and 42,133 MW is economicallyfeasible. According to the Water and Energy CommissionSecretariat of Nepal, the present situation of waterresources can be summarized as follows (WECS 2011):72% of the population has access to basic water supply.About 42% of cultivated area has irrigation facilityand only 17% has year round irrigation.Less than 632MW of hydropower capacity is currentlyavailable.Little consideration is being given to environmentalrequirements.4. State of Water QualityWater quality data available for the country is very limited,but water quality of public water bodies is generallyconsidered good. However, urbanising areas, including thecapital Katmandu, are facing the degradation of waterquality which is caused by an increasing volume of untreatedor insufficiently treated domestic and industrial wastewater,as well as waste dumped directly into rivers and lakes. Theincreased use of fertilizer and pesticide is also putting criticalpressure on water quality, especially in rural areas.Insufficient access to sanitation facilities also leads tonegative impacts on water quality in both surface andunderground waters. In the rainy season, sedimentationbecomes a problem especially in rural areas due to erosion.98

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.9 NepalRiversThe Bagmati River is one of the most polluted rivers inNepal. Due to lack of proper city development, watersupply, sanitation and wastewater treatment facilities havenot been developed as expected in the basin, which hasresulted in the current water related problems. Water qualityhas rapidly deteriorated in the course of only a few decades(Figure 3.9.2) and the quality of water is not suitable foreither drinking, recreation, or irrigation purposes.Untreated domestic wastewater is considered to be themain cause of pollution in the river, which accounts forabout 42% of total BOD load (NTNC 2009). In addition,domestic and industrial waste dumped into the river andwastewater from livestock farming have also been identifiedas major sources of pollution (NTNC 2009). Besides theincreasing pollution loads from various sectors,development activities such as sand mining, encroachmentof river banks and improper river bank protection workshave also caused sedimentation issues.BOD (mg/L)7006005004003002001000Sundarijal20051989PashupatiMinbhawanSundarighatChovarGaurFigure 3.9.2. BOD among 5 sites from the headwaters todownstream along the Bagamati River(Source: ICIMOD 2007)The availability of water quality data for other riverbasins is very limited due to lack of regular water qualitymonitoring. The latest environment statistics for Nepal(2008) indicate that water quality in eight major riversduring the dry season satisfied four parameters (pH, TDS,DO and BOD) in WHO guidelines (CBS 2008), althoughdata is based on data as of 1998.Lakes and reservoirsSimilar to river water quality, lake water in the country isgenerally good in quality, but some lakes under pressurefrom economic development and population growthexperienced water quality degradation. For example,eutrophication has been observed in Phewa lake and otherwetlands located in the south Terai region, which has alsoled to the destruction of local ecosystems. The followingtable shows the water quality in selected lakes based ondifferent studies.Table 3.9.2. Water quality condition of selected lakesParameters Unit Phewa Begnas Rupa GosainkundaBOD mg/L 2 2 2.68 Not availableTotal Nitrogen mg/L 260 233.6 176.4 210P-PO 4mg/L 30 18.7 23.3 3Chlorophyll mg/L 8 5.5 6.5 1.2(Source: CBS 2008)GroundwaterBoth shallow and deep groundwater in Nepal is at risk ofcontamination. Shallow groundwater is polluted bypathogenic bacteria, pesticides, nitrate and industrialeffluents from industrial and domestic pollutants. Pesticidesand nitrate contamination has mostly resulted from the useof inorganic fertilizers and pesticide sprays in the agriculturalsector. Unplanned urban development and insufficientwaste management facilities are the main causes ofgroundwater pollution in rural areas (Sharma et al. 2005).Deep groundwater in Kathmandu and Terai is largelyanaerobic and vulnerable to increased concentrations of iron,manganese, ammonium and arsenic. In the deep aquifers ofKathmandu Valley, iron concentrations are in the range of

pollution, there is no one particular law for environmentalwater management or water pollution. In addition to EPAand Environment Protection Rules which stipulate theoutlines and rules for pollution control and environmentimpact assessments, the National Water Resources Strategy(2002) and the National Wetland Policy (2003) also indicatethe importance of developing and strengthening enforcementof environmental protection related regulations andstandards. The outline of legislations related to waterenvironmental protection is illustrated in Figure 3.9.3.Water Resources Act 2049 (1994)Water Resources Regulation 2050 (1995)Environment Protection Act 2053 (1996)Environment Protection Rules2054 (1997)Soil and Watershed Conservation Act 2039 (1982)Nepal Drinking Water Quality Standard (Nepal Gazette 2006)Nepal Water Quality for Irrigation Water (Nepal Gazette 2008)Nepal Water Quality for Aquaculture (Nepal Gazette 2008)Nepal Water Quality for Livestock Watering (Nepal Gazette 2008)Nepal Water Quality for Recreation (Nepal Gazette 2008)Nepal Water Quality for Industries (Nepal Gazette 2008)Aquatic Animals Protection Act 2017 (1961)Nepal Water Quality for the Protection of Aquatic Ecosystem(Nepal Gazette 2008)Industrial Enterprise Act 2048 (1993)Local Self Governance Act 2055 (1999)Figure 3.9.3. Outline of legislation system related to conservation of the water environment in Nepal(Source: Created by the <strong>WEPA</strong> Secretariat)There are also several related acts which could helpreduce environmental impacts on rivers and lakes. Theseinclude acts related to land use, building codes, wastemanagement, and conservation and protection of naturalresources and cultural heritages (Table 3.9.3).Institutional arrangementThe Ministry of Environment is responsible forenvironmental protection by managing and coordinatingthe country’s environmental protection policies andmeasures. The Department of Hydrology and Meteorology(DHM) under the ministry implements and coordinatesthe monitoring of river hydrology, climate, agrometeorology, sediment, air quality, water quality,limnology, snow hydrology, glaciology, and wind and solarenergy. As for water, the Water and Energy CommissionSecretariat (WECS) takes on the role of an apex body fornational planning related to water and energy through theformulation and provision of assistance to water and energyrelated policy and strategy development. WECS is alsomandated to ensure sustainability by integratingenvironmental agenda into development policies. There arevarious ministries and line agencies at the national levelthat promote water and environmental management and itis necessary to coordinate the work of these ministries.The Local Self Governance Act (LSGA) 1999 allowsvillage development committees (VDCs), districtdevelopment committees (DDCs), and municipalitiesTable 3.9.3. National policies/legislations/strategies relatedto water environmental conservationSectorEnvironment(overall)WaterOther naturalresourcesLegislation- National Environment Act 1996 andRegulation 1997- The National Conservation Strategy 1988- Water Resource Act 1994- Water Resource Regulation 1995- National Water Supply Sector Policy 1998- Water Resource Strategy Nepal 2002- National Water Plan 2005- Nepal Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2002- Forest Sector Policy 2000- National Wetland Policy 2003Wastes - Solid Waste Management Policy 1996- Industrial Policy 1992Industries/Services - Tourism Policy 1995- Hydropower Development Policy 2001Agriculture- Irrigation Regulation 2000, Irrigation Policy2003Others(administrative rules)(Source: Created by the <strong>WEPA</strong> Secretariat)- Local Self Governance Act 1999 andRegulation 1999more autonomy to manage local natural resources and tointegrate environmental resource management andenvironmental planning.Ambient water quality standardsAmbient water quality standards were established underEPA (Article 24). There are two standards for differentpurposes, namely Nepal Water Guidelines for Recreationand Nepal Water Quality Guidelines for Protection ofAquatic Ecosystems.100

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.9 NepalEffluent standardsEffluent standards for different pollution sources are alsoset up under EPA as follows:Tolerance limits for industrial effluent discharged intoinland surface waters (generic)Tolerance limits for specific industrial effluent dischargedinto inland surface waters (for nine industrial sectors,namely tanning, wool processing, fermentation,vegetable ghee and oil, paper and pulp, dairy products,sugar milling, cotton textiles, and soap industries)Tolerance limits for industrial effluent discharged intopublic sewersTolerance limits for wastewater discharged into inlandsurface waters from combined wastewater treatmentplants (CWTPs)Water quality monitoringSystematic ambient water quality monitoring is notconducted in public water bodies in the country, althoughwater quality is monitored by different ministries andagencies for different purposes (e.g. water qualitymonitoring of the source of municipal water supply). Thewater quality of the Bagmati River is monitored to someextent considering the critical state of the river quality.Water related database development is also set out in theaction plan of the National Water Plan. Department ofHydrology and Meteorology under the Ministry ofEnvironment monitors river and lake water quality.Recent policy developmentIn the past two decades, the Nepalese government hasstrengthened legislation both in water and environmentalsectors. In water environmental management, both sectors areclosely interlinked but require further coordination. Effluentstandards have been set up in the past three years as prescribedin the National Water Plan (Box 3.9.1). The framework ofwater environmental management already set up the countryis facing enforcement and implementation issues.6. Existing and Future ChallengesA framework of management has been set up for waterenvironmental management in Nepal. The next step to betaken is the actual implementation of the nation’sregulations and rules. Lack of sub-ordinances enablinglegislation and integration among related legislation andpolicies are major obstacles to achieving a comprehensiveframework for water environmental management.The lack of regular water quality monitoring is aconstraint to the development of a scientific basis for policymaking, implementation and review. There is a pressingneed to coordinate institutions and develop institutionaland human capacity to promote water quality monitoring.To improve the present state of Nepal’s waterenvironment, it is important to issue legal instrumentswhich facilitate a feeling of ownership in order to improvethe water environment. As well, an environmental databasemust be developed, and regular monitoring carried out toenforce legislation and ensure compliance.Box 3.9.1. Implementation of water environmental related actions set by National Water Plan (2002)The National Water Plan (NWP) 2002 has different sectoral policies—hydropower development, irrigation, and drinkingwater supply and sanitation. Recognizing the importance of sustainable development principles for the country’sdevelopment, NWP incorporated environmental sustainable principles* 1 and included four actions related to waterquality management as follows.(a) Development of water quality standards/guidelines for irrigation, drinking and recreational purposes(b) Establishment of water quality standards/guidelines for ecosystems maintenance(c) Development of standards/guidelines for the discharge of municipal and industrial wastewater(d) Establishment of minimum in-stream and outflow in important aquatic ecosystemsNWP also has special provisions in its environmental management plan (Part D). The environmental managementplan is “a strategic document which deals with a plan for the implementation of environmental protection measures,monitoring and auditing programmes, institutions and procedures.” The actions introduced under NWP would havean impact on various environmental issues. The summary table of environmental issues included some waterenvironmental conservation aspects such as downstream water pollution and groundwater quality, sedimentation,water pollution and sanitation, and impacts on aquatic ecosystems.The environmental management plan aims to ultimately contribute to maximizing positive impacts and minimizingadverse effects in environmental sustainability in water development/conservation actions. Municipalities, local communitiesand the private sector are expected to play an increasing role in the utilization and sustainable use of groundwater.* 1 Definitions and principles of environmental sustainability in NWP include the following elements:a. to protect, conserve and manage natural resources and ecosystems while orienting technological, economic and institutional changes tomeet the needs of the present and future generations;b. to ensure the rate of consumption of natural resources does not exceed the rate of their regeneration;c. to include consideration of all aspects of the water cycle and all uses for sustainable water resources.(Source: Government of Nepal 2002)101

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.10 PhilippinesTable 3.10.2. Classification of water bodiesWater bodies Classification Beneficial useFor fresh surface waters(rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.)For coastal and marine waters(as amended by DAO 97-23)Class AAClass AClass BClass CClass DClass SAClass SBClass SCClass SDPublic water supply class 1• Waters that require disinfection to meet the national standards for drinking water (NSDW)Public water supply class 2• Waters that require complete treatment to meet the NSDWRecreational water• Waters for primary contact recreation (e.g. bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.)Water for fishery production• Recreational water class II (boating etc.)• Industrial water supply class IFor agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering• Industrial water supply class IIWater suitable for fishery production• National marine parks and marine reserves• Coral reefs parks and reservesTourist zones and marine reserves• Recreational water class I• Fishery class I for milkfishRecreational water class II (e.g. boating)• Fishery water class II (commercial)• Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish and wildlife sanctuariesIndustrial water supply class II• Other coastal and marine watersNon-point sources11%Industry27%Domesticsources33%Table 3.10.3. Change in BOD levels of selected priorityrivers from 2003-2010RiversAnnual average ofBOD (mg/L)2003 2010% ChangeMarikina River 18.2 31 Increased by 70%Paranaque River 42 38 Improved by 10%Agriculture-Livestock29%Figure 3.10.2. BOD loads from key potential pollution sources(Source: DENR-EMB 2007)RiversEMB has conducted inland surface water monitoring forrivers and lakes since 2001 and prioritized 19 rivers formonitoring under the Sagip Ilog (Save a River) Program.The prioritized rivers are expected to satisfy 30%improvement in BOD and DO values by 2010, comparedwith 2003 monitoring results. Table 3.10.3 shows thepercentage of change in BOD values in selected priorityrivers in 2003 and 2010.According to the monitoring results, signs ofimprovement in BOD levels were observed in theParanaque, Marilao, Bocaue, Anayan, and SapangdakuRivers. However, the targeted 30% improvement for BODwas only observed in Anayan River. At the same time,increasing trends for BOD levels were observed in manyBalili River 14.8 37 Increased by150%Meycauayan River 38.2 59 Increased by 54%Marilao River 32.3 24 Improved 26%Bocaue River 12.2 11 Improved 10%Imus River 8 12 Increased by 50%Ylang-ylang River 24.4 119 Increased by 388%Anayan River 8.9 4 Improved 55%Iloilo River 2.4 12 Increased by 400%Luyang River 2.4 4 Increased by 67%Sapangdaku River 7.6 6 Improved 21%(Source: Date provided by the focal person in 2011)priority rivers, such as an increase of 400% in BOD levelsin Iloilo River in 2010, compared with monitoring resultsin 2003. Monitoring data also showed that about 80% ofmonitored rivers surpassed the DENR criterion of DO(5mg/L) for Class C water.103

(%)1009080706050403020100n=8417832006n=8815852007n=9217832008n=6923772009n=7718822010Non-compliedCompliedFigure 3.10.3. River water quality compliance ratio of DOvalues in Class C (2006-2010)(Source: Calculated from EMB monitoring data)Lakes and reservoirsLaguna Lake (Laguna de Bay) is an important water bodythat supports thousands of fishermen residing in MetroManila. It is also being considered as an alternative to AngatDam as a main source of potable water in Metro Manila.Therefore, rehabilitation and improvement the waterquality of this lake is a priority agenda for the government.Main sources of pollution in the lake are domestic (77%),agriculture (11%) industry (11%) and forestry (1%).According to current water quality classifications, thecentral zone of this lake is fit for fisheries and the west bayfor irrigation. However, peripheral portions in the west bayare heavily contaminated with high sediment loads andhigh level of coliform counts.Coastal waterThe quality of marine and coastal water is relatively goodwith the exception of Cansaga Bay in Region 7, DO levelsare lower than 5 mg/L in all monitoring stations. Twentysixcoastal monitoring stations showed DO compliance of54% with good quality, 46% of fair quality and 0% forpoor quality (DENR-EMB 2007). In terms of fecalcoliform, 34 out of 41 priority bathing beaches meet theClass SB water quality value of 200MPN/100mL(DENR-EMB 2007).GroundwaterThe status of groundwater quality is assessed through thePhilippine National Standard for Drinking Water Underthe Tap Watch Program of EMB which monitored 88shallow wells in the country. Of this, only 21 sites met thepotable groundwater quality standard, while 27 failed thefecal coliform standard for drinking water. An additionalforty sites required further testing to confirm portability.Nitrate levels were monitored in Metro Cebu and CentralMindanao. Not many sites were contaminated.Studies conducted for salinity levels in Metro Manilaand Metro Cebu showed an increase in salinity in somelocations in Metro Manila. Over-abstraction is consideredto be the cause.5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementLegislationFigure 3.10.4 shows the legislative framework for waterenvironment management. In addition to the laws/regulations shown in the figure, there is other legislationrelated to water environmental conservation, such as thePhilippines Environmental Policy (PD1151) and SolidWaste Management Act (RA9003). EMB is thegovernmental agency responsible for water conservationand protection.Conservation of Water ResourcesPA 3931 (1964) as amended by PD 984 (1976) as repealed by PA 9275Conservation of Water QualityClean Water Act of 2004Objective: To protect, abate and control pollution of water, air and landDAO 35 (1990) Revised Effluent Regulation- Objective: This rules and regulations shall apply to all industrial and municipal wastewater effluentDAO 34 - Revised Water Usage and Classification Water Quality Criteria- Objective: shall classify all bodies of water and comply with the water quality criteriaConservation and Protection of Laguna LakeMarine Water Resources ProtectionConservation of Water Resources ownership,development and exploitationRA 4850 (1966) as amended by PD 813 (1975), PD 927 (1983)Objective: To promote, and accelerate the development and balanced growth of theLaguna lake area with due regards for environmental management and control,preservation of un due ecological disturbance, detenoration and pollution.PD 979 Marine Pollution Decree of 1976Objective: To control pollution discharge from ship.PD 1067 Water CodeConsolidate legislation relating to ownership,development, exploitation and conservation of water resourcesFigure 3.10.4. Legislative chart of water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)104

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.10 PhilippinesThe Clean Water Act (RA 9275) and its ImplementationRules and Regulations (DAO 2005-10) provide aframework for water quality management in Philippines,and employ an integrated, holistic, decentralized andparticipatory approach. Figure 3.10.5 shows the conceptualframework of the water environmental management underthe act. Philippines has many water-related laws, but theirenforcement is weak and beset with problems that includeinadequate resources, poor databases, and weak cooperationamong different agencies and Local Government Units(LGUs).To conserve water quality and mitigate water pollution,various programmes have been implemented, which includesthe SAGIP ILOG Program (Ilog River conservation andrestoration program linked with LGUs, NGOs and otherinterested parties); LINIS ESTERO Program (clean-upprogramme of creeks and esteros in Metro Manila inpartnership with the private sector through MoUs); TAPWatch Program (monitoring programme for drinking waterin poor communities); Industrial Eco Watch Program(rating programme for environmental performance); BeachWatch Program (monitoring of tourist beaches); andPhilippine Environment Partnership Program (supportingself-regulation efforts in industries) (Cuna 2011).Integrated Water Quality Management FrameworkWater Quality Management Action Plan (WQMAP)Households Industries Other Non-Point SourcesDesignation of Water Quality Management Areas (WQMA)Non-Attainment Areas (NAA)NatI. Sewerage and Septage Management ProgramClassification/ReclassificationGroundwater Vulnerability MappingWQGuidelinesEffluent StandardsCategorization of IndustryWaste water Charge SystemDischarge PermitsFinancial LiabilityProgrammatic EIAIncentives and RewardsProhibitions/Sanctions/ActionsFigure 3.10.5. Conceptual framework of water quality management under the Clean Water Act(Source: Cuna 2011)The following are some examples of key features of thenew water quality management framework.Designation of Water Quality Management AreasWater Quality Management Areas (WQMA) are anew feature of water environmental managementintroduced by the Clean Water Act 2005, which intends tostrengthen and promote efficient and effective waterquality management at local levels that have similarhydrological, hydro-ecological, meteorological orgeographic conditions (Tuddao 2011). Governing Boards,which are composed of relevant stakeholders in eachWQMA and chaired by DENR Regional Offices, areresponsible for the development of strategies to coordinatepolicies, regulations/local legislation, and other measuresnecessary for the effective implementation of the CleanWater Act. WQMA applies the concept of basinmanagement, which will also be beneficial for water qualitymanagement. Reasons for this include (1) the manageablesize of planning and management areas which have similarphysical conditions, (2) enabling focused management andactions to address specific issues in each area, and (3) ease ofmonitoring water quality (Tuddao 2011).As of September 2011, there are five officially designatedWQMAs within the Laguna Lake Development Authority(LLDA) jurisdiction, Marilao-Meycauayan-Obando Riverin Region 3 (DAO 2008-07), Tigum-Aganan WatershedWQMA in Region 6 (DAO 2008-18), Iloilo-BatianoRiver System WQMA in Region 6 (DAO 2009-11),Sarangani Bay WQMA in Region 12 (DAO 2010-12) andSilway River WQMA in Region 12 (DAO 2010-10). Ofthese, a ten-year WQMA Action Plan has been preparedfor Marilao-Meycauayan-Obando River, Iloilo-BatianoRiver system and Sarangani River (Tuddao 2011).105

Designation of non-attainment areasIn cases where specific pollutants exceed water qualityguidelines, DENR shall designate these areas as “nonattainmentareas.” In the designated areas, pollution controlmeasures are strengthened to comply with standards. Forexample, new sources of pollution will not be allowed inthe non-attainment areas without plans to reduce totalpollution loads from a facility below the guideline value.Water pollution permits and wastewater charge systemThe wastewater charge formula was established in 2005(DAO 2005-10) on the basis of payment to the governmentfor discharging wastewater into water bodies in all watermanagement areas. It is expected that the system is to be anincentive for those who discharge pollutants to reducetheir pollution loads such as through modification ofproduction process and investment in pollution controltechnologies. DENR also issues discharge permits forwastewater, which includes the allowable value of bothquantity and quality of effluents, compliance schedule andmonitoring requirements.Incentives and rewardsFor outstanding and innovative projects, technologies,processes and techniques, and activities, rewards areprovided to individuals, private organizations and otherentities from the National Water Quality ManagementFund. Incentives for industries are also provided, such astax and duty exemptions for industrial wastewatertreatment/collection facilities.Ambient Water Quality StandardsAccording to the classification under the DENR AO No.34 Series of 1990 (Table 3.10.2), the following waterquality criteria has been set up for freshwater and coastaland marine water, respectively:(1) Water Quality Criteria for Conventional and OtherPollutants Contributing to Aesthetics and OxygenDemand(2) Toxic and other Deleterious Substances (for protectionof public health)Monitoring of water quality in public water bodiesEMB and its Regional Offices conduct regular waterquality monitoring throughout the country based on theparameters indicated in DAO 34. From 2001 to 2005, 238water bodies were monitored either for classification or forregular water quality monitoring. Depending on theresources, monitoring for these waters bodies is carried outmonthly or quarterly according to the DENR-EMB WaterQuality Monitoring manual (2009).Effluent standardsSection 14 of the Clean Water Act requires owners oroperators of facilities that discharge regulated effluents tosecure permits to discharge. Discharge permits are legalauthorization granted by the DENR to dischargewastewater, provided that the discharge permit specifiesamong others, the quantity and quality of the effluent thatsaid facilities are allowed to discharge into a particularwater body, compliance schedule and monitoringrequirements. DENR can also suspend and revoke permitswhen business entities are not in compliance with the rulesand regulations and/or permit conditions. Effluentstandards (DAO 35, 1990) are set as follows:a. Effluent standards for conventional and other pollutantsin Protected Waters Category I and II and in InlandWaters Class C. Standards were set for the following:color, temperature, pH, COD and settleable solids,BOD, TSS, TDS, surfactants (MBAS), oil and greases,phenolic substances and phenols. These standards applyto protected waters (both fresh and marine waters) andinland waters.b. Effluent standards for toxic and other deleterioussubstances (maximum limits for protection of publichealth). For this category, effluent standards are set forarsenic, cadmium, chromium, cyanide, lead, mercury(Tot.), PCB, and formaldehyde. Different standardvalues for each substance are set in accordance with waterclassification. Stricter values are applied to “new plannedindustries.”c. Effluent standards for conventional and other pollutantsin Inland Waters Class D and Marine Waters Class SCand SD and other coastal waters which are not classified.The same parameters as in a. were considered with theexception of settleable solids.d. Interim effluent standards for BOD applicable to old orexisting industries producing strong industrial wastes(1990-1994).e. Effluent standards for new industries producing strongwastes upon effect of the regulations and for all industriesproducing strong wastes starting 1 January 1995. Thestandard was based on BOD of raw wastewater. Thestandard covers old or existing industries producingstrong waste whose wastewater treatment plants have yetto be constructed.106

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.10 PhilippinesTo set Industry-Specific Effluent Standards (ISES), adraft has been prepared with revision of current IndustrialEffluent Standards. However, the draft still subject torevisions.The Clean Water Act does not have standards foreffluents discharges to land, but mandates that effluentemitters not affect the usability of land and groundwaterresources. For effluent discharged for irrigation and otheragricultural purposes, emitters should meet the guidelinesof the Department of Agriculture (DA).Effluent monitoringEffluent monitoring must be carried out by those who arerequired to comply with effluent standards, in principle. Amanual on effluent monitoring was issued by DENR-EMBin 2009. In order to determine compliance by industrialestablishments, a series of surveys and follow-up inspectionsare conducted by personnel in DENR’s sixteen regionaloffices.Strengthening of the following areas is necessary: nonpointsource management, coastal area management toavert impacts on coastal ecosystems, protection ofgroundwater quality, and rehabilitation of degradedwater bodies.Water quality management at the basin level should bepromoted. Integration of water quality managementstrategies and action plans with basin level development/management strategies and master plans is a challengethat the country will face in the near future.Incorporation of water quality parameters should beconsidered when river basin integrated informationmanagement systems (RBIMS) are designed/developed.6. Existing and Future ChallengesThere are various challenges being faced in waterenvironment management including the followingelements.Challenges in water quality management include thelimited availability of funds and investments, whichshould be facilitated for effective and efficientenforcement of the requirements of the Clean Water Act2004.Water quality monitoring should be strengthenedthrough capacity building, and ensuring the necessaryresources and infrastructure.Sharing of water quality monitoring data is also achallenge. Utilization of networks and strengthening ofinstitutional partnerships could address this particularissue.Management of wastes should be strengthened to protectwater bodies from contamination, especially that ofdomestic solid waste and hazardous waste.Strengthening institutional mechanisms and sustainingmulti-sectoral participation in water quality managementis necessary to promote water quality management.Appropriate land use plans should be enforced tomitigate and prevent pollution both from point andnon-point sources.107

Sri Lanka1. Country InformationTable 3.11.1. Basic IndicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 65,610 (2010)Total Population (person) 20.9 million (2010)GDP (current USD) 49.6 billion (2010)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 2,375 (2010)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 1,712 (2009)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 52.8* (2009)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m 3 ) 13 (2005)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors* Estimated(Source: See References)Agriculture 87.3% (2005)Industry 6.4% (2005)Municipal(including domestic) 6.2% (2005)2. Major Water Basins in Sri Lanka3. State of Water ResourcesThere are three different climatic zones in the country:wet, intermediate, and dry. Annual rainfall for eachclimate zone is over 2,000 mm/year for wet zones, between1,500-2,000 mm for intermediate zones and 1,500 mm/year for dry zones (IGES 2007). These different climaticzones constitute a unique natural feature of the country.There are 103 natural river basins in Sri Lanka, with atotal length of about 4,500km (UNESCO and MoAIMD2006). The largest river is the Mahaweli River with the size335km long and 10,448 km 2 (MENR and UNEP 2009).In addition, there are a significant number of reservoirsincluding ancient irrigation reservoirs and recentlyconstructed multi-purpose reservoirs with a total area of169,941 hectares (Table 3.11.2).Table 3.11.2. Estimated reservoir areas in Sri LankaType of ReservoirNumberArea(ha)Percentage(%)Major irrigation reservoirs (ancient) 73 70,850 41.7Medium scale reservoirs (ancient) 160 17,001 10Minor scale reservoirs (ancient) >10,000 39,271 23.1Mundal LagoonChilaw LagoonNegombo LagoonLunawa LagoonBolgoda LakePadawiya TankKala OyaKelaniGangaKaudulla TankRajanganaReservoirKala WeraMinneriya TankParakramaSamudrayaMadura OyaReservoirMaha Oya Victoria ReservoirKalu GangaSri JayewardenepuraKotteGin GangaMa OyaRantambeReservoirRandenigalaReservoirUda WalaweReservoirNilwalaGangaWalaweGangaFigure 3.11.1. Major water bodies in Sri LankaBay of BengalMahaweli GangaMadura OyaFlood plain lakes N/A 4,049 2.4Upland hydroelectric reservoirs(recent)Mahaweli multipurpose system ofreservoirs7 8,097 4.813,650 8.0Other 17,023 10Total area 169,941 100(Source: MENR and UNEP 2009)Groundwater resources in the country are estimated atabout 7,800 million m 3 per year (IGES 2007; MENR andUNEP 2009; Nandalal 2010). Groundwater is the majorsource of water especially in rural areas, and it is estimatedthat about 72% of the rural population relies ongroundwater for domestic use (Nandalal 2010).4. State of Water QualityIt is difficult to comprehend the trend of water quality inpublic water bodies due to lack of monitoring data.However, the Sri Lanka National Water DevelopmentReport (2006) pointed out a variety of quality concerns inSri Lanka, including contamination by nitrate and bacteriain underground and surface waters mainly due to poorsanitation and untreated wastewater or insufficient108

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.11 Sri Lankawastewater treatment, toxic chemicals from industrial andagricultural activities, and eutrophication in lakes/reservoirs(UNESCO and MoAIMD 2006).RiversDeterioration of water quality has been reported in somerivers. The main cause of water pollution in urban area isdumping of domestic and industrial wastes and untreatedwastewater in to water ways. In agricultural areas,agrochemicals are the main pollutants (UNESCO andMoAIMD 2006). Water quality in the Kelani River, whichis one of the major water sources for Colombo, isconsidered to be threatened by untreated or insufficientlytreated wastewater (Ratnayake 2010) and solid waste.Expansion of sand-mining activities also affects theriver water quality such as increasing turbidity decreasingwater flow, and accelerating salt water intrusion. Salt waterintrusion accelerated by sand-mining activities in theKelani River affected drinking water supply (MENR andUNEP 2009) and court cases over sand-mining increasedfrom 709 in 2002 to 2,496 in 2005 (MENR and UNEP2009).Table 3.11.3 shows the recent inland water qualitymonitoring results in selected rivers conducted by theCentral Environment Authority (CEA). Overall, thewater quality of these rivers is considered moderate togood, although not all parameters met the interim ambientwater quality standards.Table 3.11.3. Recent water quality monitoring results in selected riversRivers Kelani Mahaweli Mahaoya Proposed ambient standards by CEASampling point Kaduwela Peradeniya Mawanella Class 1Drinking(with simpleMonth/Year June 2010 January 2011 November 2011 treatment* 1 )Class 2BathingClass 2Fish andaquacultureClass 2Drinking(with conventionaltreatment* 2 )BOD (mg/L) 2.5 5-10 4-5 3 4 4 5COD (mg/L) 12.6 15-20 10 15 20 15 30Total Coliform(MPN/100mL)13,000 - 170 5,000 1,000 20,000 5,000NO 3 - N (mg/L)* 3 N/A N/A 0.47 5 5 5 5PO 4- P (mg/L)* 4 N/A N/A

Box 3.11.1. Water quality under threat in Bolgoda Lake in Kelani River basinBolgoda lake is a shallow brackish water body located between the southern and northern borders of the KelaniRiver basin, about 30 km south of Colombo. The lake water is used for agriculture and domestic purposes includingrecreational activities, and its wet land supports a rich bio-diversity of fauna. However, the release of industrial effluents,agricultural runoff and untreated domestic wastewater as well as other anthropogenic activities such as unplanneddevelopment activities, boat operating for recreational purposes, pose a serious threat to water quality of the lake andits eco system.Several studies reported high values of total coliform and faecal coliform possibly due to disposal of untreated orpartially treated wastewater from hotels and houses located on the banks. Presence of lead (Pb) and Chromium (Cr)due to industrial effluents is significant considering the proposed ambient water quality standard for category 4 class IIwaters (fish and aquatic life).A recent study carried out by the CEA revealed that BOD ratios met the proposed ambient water quality standard forcategory 3 and 4 class II waters, while COD values exceeded the proposed standards at all points, and indicated thatindustrial wastewater contributed to the deterioration. High turbidity level was observed during the study (in September2011) (CEA 2011).Considering the importance of maintaining the quality of water, Bolgoda Lake was declared an EnvironmentalProtection Area in 2009 under the provisions of the National Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980. (CEA 2011)Coastal waterStudies on coastal water quality in Sri Lanka are few innumber, although water pollution in coastal water bodieshas grown over the past few decades due to rapiddevelopment activities and human settlements both inand outside coastal areas. The Coastal ResourceManagement Project (CRMP) implemented by theMinistry of Fisheries and Ocean Resources reported thatthe organic pollution in sea water of the Beruwala andUnawatuna areas attributed to high BOD valuesthroughout the year (MENR and UNEP 2009).GroundwaterA common groundwater quality problem in the country ispathogenic pollution mainly caused by poor sanitationsystems such as pit latrines (MENR and UNEP 2009;Nandalal 2010).Nitrate is also identified in coastal aquifers such as inJaffna (north coast) and Kalptiya (western coast) becauseof excessive fertilizer use and untreated wastewater(Nandalal 2010). High salinity is also an issue especially incoastal zones, which is exacerbated by excessivegroundwater use. Fluoride and arsenic, which is naturallyoccuring, was identified in some areas of the country(Nandalal 2010).5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementThe constitution of Sri Lanka states that protection,preservation and improvement of the environment for thebenefit of the community is the responsibility of the state(Article 27(14)) and that every person in the country has aduty to “protect nature and conserve its riches” (Article28). Surface water resources—rivers, streams and lakes, areunder the control of the government under the CrownLands Ordinance and the Constitution.The Haritha Lanka Programme, approved in June2008, is the current basic national policy document forenvironmental conservation in the country. The policyaims to promote sound environmental management in SriLanka by balancing the needs for social and economicdevelopment and environmental integrity. The “NationalAction Plan for Haritha Lanka Programme” was preparedin the same year, based on the programme. The action planincludes actions to be implemented between 2009-2016under the supervision of the National Council forSustainable Development (NCSD) (Box 3.11.2). Theproposed strategies and actions in the Haritha LankaProgramme are a concerted effort of all relevant ministriesand stakeholder institutions. As for the environmentpollution control domain, the Central EnvironmentAuthority (CEA) prepares five year action plans. The2012-2016 action plan is currently under preparation.110

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.11 Sri LankaBox 3.11.2. Water environmental conservation related targets in the National Action Plan for Haritha Lanka ProgramThe National Action Plan for the Haritha Lanka Programme consists of ten missions related to different environmentalmanagement domains. Among the missions, Mission 7 (Water for All and Always) and Mission 9 (Greening Industries)include specific strategies related to water environmental management. For coastal and marine water bodies, Mission4 (Wise Use of Coastal Belt and Surrounding Sea) includes related actions.Mission 7Strategy 4: “Keep drinking water sources free from contamination through proper zoning and control measures” is oneof the most popular water quality related targets. Actions include strengthening of inland water monitoring, identification ofpollution sources, promotion of central wastewater treatment plants, and developing water conservation areasStrategy 6: “Strictly enforce the polluter pays principle for water pollution industries/activities” outlines actionsrelated to the Wastewater Charge Programme (WCP) which would be introduced by an amendment to the NationalEnvironmental Act. In addition to actions related to institutional arrangements for the introduction and implementation ofWCP, the promotion of cleaner production principles and surveys on prescribed activities in the National EnvironmentalActs are also included in the strategy.Strategy 8: “Reduce fertilizer leaching and eutrophication” is also a target to reduce pollution loads from agriculturalactivities. Soil erosion control is also included in the strategy.Mission 9Strategy 1: “ Consolidate Cleaner Production in industries” aims to reduce the amount of resources wasted andminimize water usage in industries. Promotion of environmental and social responsibility in small- and medium-sizedenterprises, and appreciation and reward programmes for industries with good environmental performance areexamples of actions included under this strategy.Strategy 2: “Establish eco-industrial parks,” Strategy 3: “Certification of industries mostly related to ISO 14000certification,” Strategy 4: “Greening the supply chain” and Strategy 6: “Incentives for environmental friendly investments”are not directly related to water quality conservation, but the actions under these strategies could contribute to thereduction of environmental loads from industrial activities.(Source: NCSD and Presidential Secretariat 2009)LegislationThe National Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980(amended as Act No. 53 of 2000) is the country’s basic lawprotecting the environment in the country. Under the Act,National Environmental Regulations were set up tostipulate wastewater quality standards to protect waterquality in public water bodies. There is also a regulation onenvironment impact assessments (EIA). Other acts andordinances related to water environmental managementare illustrated in the following figure.Environmental Conservation (Overall)- Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka- National Environment Act No.47 of 1980 as amended byNo. 56 of 1988 and No. 53 of 2000- Effluents discharge standards Gazette No. 1534/18and the prescribed activities for which a license isrequired in Gazette No. 1533/16- Prescribed projects in Gazette No. 772/22 whichapply the EIA process- EPA - Environment Protection Areas declaredunder the sections 24C and 24D of the NationalEnvironmental Act No. 47 of 1980- Local Authorities Act(for municipal and urban councils and Pradeshiya Sabah)Management of specific areas- Mahaweli Authority Act No. 23 of 1979- North Western Provincial Environmental StatuteNo. 12 of 1990Marine and costal water qualityMarine Pollution Prevention Act of No. 35 of 2008Coast Conservation Act No.57 of 1984 as amendedby Act No. 64 of 1988Water resource development/management- Irrigation Ordinance Chapter 453- National Water Supply & Drainage Board Act No.2 of 1974- Water Resources Board Act No. 29 of 1964Other acts related to water environmental management- Urban Development Authority Act No. 41 of 1978 as amendedfrom time to time- Greater Colombo Economic Commission Law No. 4 of 1978 asamended by Act No. 49 of 1992Figure 3.11.2. Laws and regulations related to water environmental management(Source: created based on the information from CEA)111

Institutional arrangementsThe Ministry of Environment is the national authority thatformulates policies and guidelines for the conservation ofthe environment and natural resources in Sri Lanka. Underthe ministry, there are six agencies which are responsiblefor policy implementation, including the CEA and theMarine Environment Protection Authority (MEPA).The CEA is was established in 1981 as the authoritywith regulatory powers for activities that have adverseimpacts on the environment under the NationalEnvironment (Amendment) Acts No. 56 of 1988 and No.53 of 2000. Industrial water pollution control is regulatedunder provisions of the NEA by CEA. In addition, thereare different governmental agencies related to waterenvironment management. MEPA is in charge of themanagement of the coastal and marine environment.National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWS & DB)is responsible for water supply and sewerage treatment andmanagement in the country. Other organizations which areresponsible mainly for water resource management includethe Department of Irrigation, Water Resources Board, andthe Mahaweli Development Authority.Governmental organizations related to construction,engineering services, housing and common amenities suchas the Condominium Management Authority, NationalHousing Development Authority, and Board of Investmentof Sri Lanka are not directly related to water environmentalmanagement, but they regulate development/industrialactivities which affect the condition of water quality.Local governments also play an important -role in waterenvironmental management. They are responsible forregulating low-impact industries and activities prescribed byorders issued under the National Environmental Act. Theyalso regulate and control on-site sanitation systems such aspit latrines and septic tanks; public health inspectors are incharge of these tasks.Ambient water quality standardsThere are no ambient water quality standards orclassification of water bodies in Sri Lanka. Surface waterquality is evaluated by potable water standards (SLS 614)and also by proposed ambient water quality standardswhich were prepared by CEA and is currently in theprocess of being approved. The proposed ambient waterquality standards cover only surface water quality.Monitoring of water quality in public water bodiesThere is no regular monitoring of surface and undergroundwater quality except the monitoring of water intake qualityconducted by the National Water Supply and DrainageBoard. The CEA conducted ambient water qualitymonitoring projects for different river basins such as theMahaweli River, Kandy Lake and Kelani River. Under thePavithra Ganga Project, water quality has been monitoredsince 2001 (Box 3.11.3).Box 3.11.3. Recent development of water environmental management: Pavithra Ganga ProgrammeThe Pavithra Ganga (Clean River) Programme was initiated in 1998 by the Ministry of Environment of Sri Lankato mitigate water pollution and conserve biodiversity of freshwater bodies in a comprehensive manner. Under theprogramme, a pilot project was conducted for the Kelani River which is the main drinking water source for the westernprovince. The Pavithra Ganga project in the Kelani River included various activities such as the promotion of awarenessprogrammes for industries especially on cleaner production, awareness programmes for school children, waste auditsby the ministry in collaboration with local authorities, and tree-planting along river banks.Water quality monitoring has been also strengthened under the project. Water quality has been monitored at 12locations, and since 2003, water quality monitoring results have been made public through water quality informationboards set up at selected locations along the river. The information boards help local people gain an awareness of thestate of water quality in the river.The project is a good showcase of comprehensive water environment management with the participation of nationalgovernment agencies, as well as 13 local governments located in the Kelani River basin and other local stakeholders.(Source: Documentation from CEA, MENR 2008)112

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.11 Sri LankaEnvironmental protection license systemEnvironmental protection licenses (EPL) are required forall entities in the country which discharge wastes to theenvironment, prescribed by a regulation published underthe National Environmental Act. EPLs are issued by CEAbased on the National Environmental RegulationNo.1533/16 and No. 1534/18 of 2008. 138 activities intotal are mandated to obtain EPLs by GovernmentalNotification (Gazette No. 1533/16, 2008). These activitiesare divided into three categories according to pollutionload levels. In principle, EPLs are issued for waterdischarging activities which comply with national effluentstandards (Ratnayake 2010). However, an industrialsurvey conducted by CEA found that some industries arefunctioning without EPL.Effluent standardsCurrently, different kinds of effluent standards have been setbased on point of discharge and type of effluent as follows.General standards for discharge of effluent into inlandsurface watersTolerance limits for industrial effluents discharged onland for irrigation purposesTolerance limits for discharge of effluents into publicsewers with central treatment plantsTolerance limits for industrial and domestic effluentsdischarged into marine coastal areasTolerance limits for effluents from rubber factoriesdischarged into inland surface watersTolerance limits for effluents from textile industriesdischarged into inland surface watersTolerance limits for effluents from tanning industriesConsidering that current effluent standards do not wellreflect local socio-economic and environmental conditionsand have resulted in implementation problems, a revisionof effluent standards is currently being proposed. Noncomplianceactions shall be subject to fine or imprisonmentbased on the National Environmental Act.Effluent monitoringIn principle, effluent quality should be self monitored bydischarging industries. However, significant number ofindustries do not monitor effluent quality of theirdischarging effluent.The CEA occasionally monitors effluents dischargedfrom industries/activities which are suspected of noncompliancewith effluent standards. It also checks effluentquality based on complaints received from the generalpublic.6. Existing and Future ChallengesThere has been a positive development in the developmentof a water quality management framework in past decadesin Sri Lanka. On the other hand, various challenges remainto ensure implementation of water pollution controlmeasures.i) Organization: There is no umbrella body to regulatewater issues and therefore, water resources/quality aremanaged by different agencies based on their area ofinterest. Coordination among agencies should bestrengthened to ensure comprehensive water managementin the country.ii) Legislation: Ambient water quality standards andclassification of water bodies should be established tostrengthen water pollution control. Draft ambient waterquality standards are now awaiting approval.iii) Scientific data: Lack of baseline data is one of thecritical challenges in promoting water quality management.The availability of data, as well as accessibility to datastored in different institutions is an issue. Financial andinstitutional arrangements should be improved to establishsystematic data collection and periodical analysis systems.iv) Awareness: Unwillingness by industries and the generalpublic to contribute to water quality management is abarrier to reduce pollution loads on public water bodies.Awareness programmes and consultation processes shouldbe further promoted to ensure sound and sustainablemanagement for a better water environment.113

Thailand1. Country InformationTable 3.12.1. Basic IndicatorsLand Area (km 2 ) 513,116 (2007)Total Population (person) 69.1 million (2010)GDP (current USD) 318.5 billion (2010)Per Capita GDP (current USD) 4,608 (2010)Long-Average Precipitation (mm/year) 1,622 (2009)Total Renewable Water Resources (km 3 ) 438.6* (2009)Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals(billion m 3 ) 57.3 (2007)Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal bysectors* Estimated(Source: See References)SalaweenPingSakae KrangTha ChinChao PhrayaMae KlongPhetchaburiAgriculture 90.4% (2007)Industry 4.8% (2007)Municipal(including domestic) 4.8% (2007)2. Major Water Basins in ThailandKokWangWestern CoastTapiSouth-WestCoastSongkhla LakePattaniBang PakongFigure 3.12.1. Water basins in ThailandKhongNanYomKhongChiPasakMunPrachinburiTonele SapEastern CoastSouth-East Coast3. State of Water ResourcesBased on geographical characteristics, Thailand can bedivided into 25 river basins (Figure 3.12.1). The totalvolume of water from rainfall in all river basins in Thailandis estimated at approximately 800,000 million m 3 , of which75% is lost through evaporation, evapotranspiration andinfiltration. The remaining 25% constitutes the runoff thatflows in the rivers and streams. Available water quantity isabout 3,300 m 3 /capita/year (Office of National WaterResources Committee 2000).Groundwater is an important source of water supply inThailand. Twenty percent of public water supply and 75%of domestic water are derived from groundwater resources.The groundwater system in Thailand is mainly rechargedby rainfall of about 40,000 million m 3 and seepage fromrivers. It was estimated from previous hydrological balancestudies that about 12.5 to 18% of rainfall would reach theaquifers. More than 200,000 groundwater well projectswere undertaken by both government and the privatesector with total capacity of about 7.55 million m 3 /day(information from the <strong>WEPA</strong> focal person in 2012).4. State of Water QualitySurface WaterWater quality monitoring is conducted at 620 generalmonitoring stations in 48 major rivers and four standingwater resources (Kwan Phayao, Bueng Boraphet, NongHan, and Songkhla Lake). Water quality is evaluated bymaking comparisons to surface water quality standards andwater quality index (WQI). Figure 3.12.2 shows the statusof water quality in the country from 2001 to 2010 based onan assessment of WQI by the Pollution Control ofDepartment (PCD) under the Ministry of NaturalResource and Environment (MoNRE). There have been nopoints categorized as “highly deteriorated” since 2008,although points categorized as “deteriorated” have been onthe rise for the same period. Wastewater from communitiesis considered to be the main point source of surface waterquality deterioration, and untreated wastewater fromindustries and agricultural activities also contributes todeterioration (PCD 2010).During the last 10 years, several standards have beenestablished to control effluent quality emissions torecipients. However, it is still difficult for entrepreneurs andagriculturists to comply with these standards. Sectors such114

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.12 Thailandas factories, real estate, condominiums, hotels, departmentstores, restaurants, and fresh food markets are better able tofollow the standards as they are likely to have more capitalfunds available to establish management systems thanagricultural sectors.(%)10090 18172321 19 2222323180407060 4035493931 5153502554 364030334420313229212310243339093 6 5 5 3 2 0 0 02001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010GoodFairDeterioratedHighlyDeterioratedFigure 3.12.2. Trend of inland water quality by Water QualityIndex during 2001-2010(Source: PCD 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011)Remarks: “Good” to “Highly Deteriorated” corresponds to the following:Good: Surface water quality standard Class 2 and Water QualityIndex (WQI) 71-90Fair: Surface water quality standard Class 3 and WQI between 61-70Deteriorated : Surface quality standard Class 4 and WQI between31-60Highly Deteriorated : Surface water quality standard Class 5 and WQIbetween 0-30Figure 3.12.3 shows the regional differences of waterquality by different parameters. Higher values of TCB andFCB are observed in the rainy season than during the dryseason because pollutants are washed away by rain fromdrain pipes and land, and flow into rivers.PCD identifies critical areas of water pollution basedon water quality monitoring results. These areas includesChao Phraya basin (upper, central and lower Chao PhrayaRiver), Tha Chin basin (upper, central and lower ChaoPhraya River), Bang Pakong basin (Bang Pakong, Prachin(%) Northern Central Northeastern30Eastern Southern Nationwide2520151050DO BOD TCB FCB NH 3Figure 3.12.3. Water quality parameters not in compliancewith water quality standards by region in 2010(Source: PCD 2010)Note: Standard values for each parameter used in this figure are as follows.DO: 2.0mg/L, BOD: 4mg/L, TCB: 20,000MPN/100mL, FCB: 4,000MPN/100mL,NH 3 : 0.5 mg/LBuri, Nakhon Nayok Rivers), Songkhla Lake basins (Talay-Noi, Talay-Luang, Songkhla Lake), and Lamtakong basin(upper and lower Lamtakong River) (PCD 2010).Coastal waterPCD has 240 monitoring stations in 23 provinces alongthe 2,600 km coastline and significant islands. Monitoringresults were evaluated with the Marine Water Quality Indexwhich is calculated with the monitored value of eightparameters. Figure 3.12.4 shows the chronological changeof water quality in coastal areas and estuaries from 2006 to2010. There are no significant changes, but the number ofpoints evaluated as “deteriorated” or “highly deteriorated”increased slightly in 2010 compared with the value in 2008(PCD 2011).By region, deterioration was significant in the inner gulfof the country at the estuaries of the four main rivers (ChaoPhraya, Tha Chin, Mae Klong, and Bang Pakong Rivers) forDO and TCB. TSS values were also high in the BangPakong area. The western seaboard, tourist areas, tigershrimp and oyster culturing areas generally appear to have“good” water quality. However, TCB levels in some areaswhere domestic wastewater is discharged into the seawithout treatment exceeded the standard (PCD 2010).(%)100908070605040302010013 125249164825 36 295 851 4734 3475 62 63 1 15 52006 2007 2008 2009 2010ExcellentGoodFairDeterioratedHighlydeterioratedFigure 3.12.4. Coastal marine water quality nationwide2006-2010(Source: PCD 2010 and 2011)GroundwaterThe country’s groundwater potential is large in general,except the eastern region. The lower central plain area hasthe largest potential of groundwater resources, particularlyin the Bangkok Metropolitan Region and surroundingprovinces. Groundwater in the region has been exploited tomeet growing water demand and has caused severe landsubsidence problems. Regarding water quality, high iron,fluoride and salinity is observed in some areas of the country,which is natural contamination. On the other hand,contamination by fertilizers, agricultural chemicals,115

aquaculture and animal wastes have been identified in someregions. Leakage from waste dumping sites and petroleumwastes are also a cause of contamination. Examples havebeen observed in Pak Chong district (petroleum waste),Sating Phra and Songkhla Lakes (freshwater animalfarming), Muang district, Lanphun, Rayong and Chon Buriprovinces (VOCs), and Bang Pakong and Tha Chin Riverbasins (agricultural wastes) (PCD 2010).Sources of Water PollutionThe main sources of water pollution can be divided intothree types as follows:1) Domestic wastewater: The general public whichgenerates domestic sewage that is discharged into riversand other bodies of water after undergoing primarytreatment or no treatment at all. It was estimated thatapproximately 15 million m 3 /day or 2.77 million kg ofBOD/day of wastewater generated by the populationacross the country is discharged into receiving watersand the environment. This includes the 2,008municipalities considerably generating approximately3.8 million m 3 /day, Bangkok Metropolis and Pattayacity generating about 2.7 million m 3 /day, and the areasof 5,767 local administration organizations contributingabout 8.5 million m 3 /day.2) Industrial wastewater: Industries which dischargeprocessed wastes including by-products of various typesof industrial operations. At present, many industries arelocated in high population density areas or mixed withresidential areas in the city. Across the country, there aremore than 120,000 industrial establishments of varyingsizes, carrying on a wide range of activities, locatedwithin the Inner Gulf. They produce a range of products.3) Agricultural activities: Agricultural activities such as theuse of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and animal wastesfrom feedlots. A considerable part of the fertilizer usedfor rice paddy fields is washed away by irrigation waterand flows into rivers, estuaries, or other bodies of water.This fertilizer causes eutrophication and supports thegrowth of water hyacinths. This unwanted plant growsvery fast, covering major areas of water bodies.5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementThe constitution of Thailand (2007) stipulates thatenvironmental protection and conservation undersustainable development principles and elimination ofpollution which affects human health and welfare is theresponsibility of the state (Section 5, part 8). Since 1992,the five-year national economic and social developmentplans have emphasized environmental conservation of thecountry. The 10th National Economic and SocialDevelopment Plan (2007-2011) emphasized therehabilitation of natural resources and the environment bystrengthening environmental management and increasinglocal community participation as key areas. The nationalplan does not include a detailed implementation or actionplan, and in order to bring the environmental strategies inthe plan into action, the related agencies have to formulateprogrammes, projects and measures based on the nationalplan (Box. 3.12.1).Box. 3.12.1. Water environmental management policy in ThailandThe environmental policy on water pollution control for 2010-2014 was approved by the National Environmental Boardon 30 October 2009. The summary of this policy is shown below.Policy:1) Reduce BOD loads from domestic wastewater by usingGrease Traps and On-site method2) Rehabilitate existing municipal wastewater facilities3) Build wastewater treatment facilities where there is awater pollution crisis4) Unite the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority andWastewater Management Authority5) Enforce Polluter Pays Principal (PPP): Producers ofpolluted water must be responsible for paying for themanagement of water pollution.6) Promote and support private sector/public participationin co-investing and solving water pollution problemsPrioritizing operational areas:Classifying wastewater management based on theresult of prioritization of river basins and importance ofmunicipal areas, which will help establish implementationplans into four phases as below (in order of priority):Phase 1 : 2010-2011Phase 2 : 2012-2016Phase 3 : 2017-2031Phase 4 : 2032-2041(Source: Information from the <strong>WEPA</strong> focal person in 2012)116

Table 3.12.2. Surface water quality standard classificationClass Objectives Beneficial UseClass 1Class 2Class 3Class 4Class 5(Source: MoEJ 2009)Extra cleanfresh surfacewater resourcesVery cleanfreshwatersurface waterresourceMedium cleanfresh surfacewater resourceFairly cleanfresh surfacewater resourceSource notincluded inClass 1-4Conservation not necessary to passthrough water treatment process.Only requires ordinary process ofpathogenic destruction, ecosystemconservation where basic organismscan breed naturally.Consumption requires ordinarywater treatment process before use,conservation of aquatic organisms,fisheries, recreationConsumption, but ordinary treatmentprocess is required before use (foragricultural use)Consumption, but requires specialtreatment process before use (forindustrial use)NavigationCoastal water quality standardsThere are 30 parameters designated for coastal waterquality standards in six classes, determined according tousage (6 classifications). Different classifications are appliedfor the west coast of Phuket Island.Groundwater quality standardThe parameters included in groundwater quality standardsare divided into four groups: volatile organic compounds(15 parameters), heavy metals (ten parameters), pesticides(nine parameters) and others (four parameters).Ambient water quality monitoring in public water bodiesUnder the EQA, the government conducts monitoring ofreceiving water quality to maintain quality. There are 620general monitoring stations and 39 automatic monitoringstations in 48 main rivers in the country and water qualitysamples are taken three to four times/year during the wet anddry seasons. The methods of water sampling and analysisshould follow the Standard Method for the Examination ofWater and Wastewater (1998) (Yolthantham 2011). Themonitoring results of ambient water quality conducted bythe government are summarized and made available to thepublic through publications and online.Effluent standardsBased on the EQA (Section 32), a series of effluentstandards have been set up as follows.a. IndustryIndustrial Effluent StandardsStandards are applied to factory Group II and IIIcategories and all industrial estates under the FactoryAct B.E.2535 (1992). The standard value is designatedfor 15 parameters and 12 heavy metals. Regardingeffluent quality control, the Regulations of IndustrialPollution Control Facilities (1982) stipulates thatspecific industrial plants must have supervisors andmachine operators responsible for pollution prevention.Such industrial plants include those using heavy metalsin production processes, discharging wastewater athigher than 50m 3 /day and having a heavy metal contentin the discharged wastewater at designated values.b. Domestic and CommercialBuilding Effluent StandardsEffluent from each type of building, namely apartments,hotels, hospitals, schools and academic buildings, publicand private offices, department stores, fresh markets andrestaurants, is regulated under these standards. Regulatedparameters, depending on building size, include pH,BOD, suspended solids, sulfide, TKN, and fat, oil, andgrease.Housing Estate Effluent StandardThese standards regulate effluent from housing estateswhich are classified into two categories, those with thenumber of units exceeding 100 but less than 500, andthose with over 500 units. Regulated parameters includepH, BOD, suspended solids, settleable solids, totaldissolved solids, sulfide, TKN and fat, oil, and grease.Municipal Wastewater Treatment System Effluent StandardThis is a new standard established in 2010. There are sixparameters in these standards, namely pH, BOD, SS,TN, TP and fat, oil, and grease.Gas Station and Oil Terminal Effluent StandardThere are four parameters in these standards, namelypH, COD, SS, and fat, oil, and grease.c. AgricultureEffluent Standards for Pig FarmsIn consideration of the contribution of pig farms towater pollution such as in Tha Chin River and BangPakong River, standards were established in 2001. Theparameters designed by the standards include pH, BOD,COD, SS, and TKN and different values are applied toType A (more than 600 livestock units) and Type B (60-600 livestock units).d. OthersEffluent Standards for Coastal AquacultureEffluent Standards for Brackish AquacultureEffluent Standards for Inland AquacultureWater Characteristics Discharged into Irrigation SystemWater Characteristics Discharged into Deep Wells118

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.12 ThailandEffluent monitoringThe EQA requires the owner or possessor of point sourcesof pollution designated under the act to monitor thequality of effluent and collect statistics and data, as well assubmit notes and reports (Section 70 and 80). The types ofeffluent to be monitored are categorized into four types:sewage-swine farms; land development, industrial estatesand industrial zones, and Class A buildings (hotels,hospitals, condominiums, department stores, markets andrestaurants). The point sources of water pollution were alsomonitored in three river basins such as Chao Phraya, ThaChin, and Bang Pakong.If the capability to treat or dispose wastewater fails tomeet applicable standards, the owner has a duty to modifyor improve it in conformity with the pollution controlofficial’s directions. Fees, fines and civil liability and penalprovisions are applied if violation are found or ownersrefuse to comply. It is a promising trend that all the sectorsare willing to comply with the standards as it can beadvantageous for business agreements as well as for betterenvironmental quality which reflects the quality of life.6. Existing and Future ChallengesWater environmental management in Thailand has been apriority for the country since 1992, in particular.Legislative frameworks have been developed and improvedto promote implementation. The following aspects arepointed out as key issues for improvement and furtherpromotion of water environmental conservation efforts(Yolthantham 2011).Strengthening wastewater treatmentPromotion of wastewater treatment remains a challenge inwater environmental management in Thailand. In urbanizedareas such as Bangkok, water pollution mainly caused bydomestic wastewater remains a serious problem andtherefore, sewage development has been promoted tomitigate water pollution. However, there have been anumber of challenges in the operation and maintenance ofwastewater treatment facilities, including lack ofknowledgeable staff, enough funds for operation andmaintenance, tariff setting and collection. To solve suchproblems and to ensure that the existing and futurewastewater treatment systems can be operated andmaintained effectively and sustainably, the Polluter PaysPrinciple (PPP) has been introduced and user chargesimposed.Promotion of public participation and voluntaryapproachIn the policy of the country, public participation andvoluntary approaches by the private sector are encouragedto improve water quality in public waters. There are a lot ofpositive actions related to public participation. However,the communities and people still lack an understanding ofwaste water problems and awareness to protect theenvironment. Regarding the promotion of voluntaryapproaches by the private sector, a green procurementproject for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) is nowunder development by the Thai government.Promotion of basin management approachPromotion of basin management approaches is an emergingchallenge for water environmental management, and waterquality and water quantity management should beintegrated to improve water quality by promoting the basinapproach. The integration of various activities and policymeasures related to water environmental conservationshould be also be built upon current efforts and addressedfurther. Actions at the basin level are encouraged incommunity projects to promote such positive actionsthrough the coordination of local actions, as seen in theTha Chin River basin (Box. 3.12.2).Box 3.12.2. River Basin Management ApproachNew directions for urban water quality managementare being considered based upon the assimilativecapacity of receiving waters, budget availability, andprioritized projects within the basin-wide approach.The most flexible means of water quality managementare being practiced such as simulation models,geographic information systems, and databasemanagement systems. Waste load allocation is beingconsidered based upon the assimilative capacity ofwater bodies and guidelines to attain receiving waterquality standards.For areas where water pollution is serious, theMinistry of Natural Resources and Environment(MoNRE) set basin-level policies, which include the“Master Plan of Songkhla Lake Basin Development(2002)” and “Preventive Measures and Solving WaterQuality in Chao Phraya, Bang Pakong, and Tha ChinRiver Basins (2007).” As a project-based activity,MoNRE “Prevention and Reclamation of WastewaterProblems in Lamtakong River Basins” was startedin collaboration with other related ministries andlocal and regional authorities. Thus, river basinmanagement approaches are being practiced, suchas in the Tha Chin River Basin. Details can be foundat http://welcome.to/thachin.(Source: Information from the <strong>WEPA</strong> focal person in 2012)119

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.13 Viet NamOn the other hand, groundwater is intensively exploited insome areas of the country such as in the Mekong Delta, andoverexploitation of groundwater has resulted in fallingwater tables, associated further land subsidence, andsalinity intrusion.The use of water for agriculture is higher than othersectors. In urban areas, the need for water for domestic,service, and production purposes is increasing and hascaused a depletion in water resources. Other environmentdegradations such as deforestation, inadequate solid wastemanagement and impacts from development activitiesalso affect the state of water resources in both quantity andquality.4. State of Water QualityWater quality in public water bodies is generally good inthe upstream of rivers (MoNRE 2005). On the other hand,the downstream areas of major rivers, especially in cities,face serious water pollution which has accelerated due toincreasing populations and growing economic activities.Wastewater from both industrial and domestic sources isnot well treated and has become the source of organicpollution. Ninety percent of wastewater discharged fromdomestic sources and 70% from industrial zones and parksis not served by a centralized wastewater treatment system(Nguyen 2010). Poor sanitation elicits high E-coli values,seasonal changes in water quantity also affect the state ofwater quality—water quality in dry seasons is moredeteriorated than that in rainy seasons.The water quality of coastal waters has also deteriorated asa result of polluted river water flowing into the sea, and humanactivities such as aquaculture, waste dumping and oil spillsincrease pressure. Details on groundwater quality are not welldefined due to a lack of information, but some parameterssuch as ammonia and coliform exceed standard values.Rivers and lakesRiver water quality has declined in the downstream,especially in growing urban areas. Figure 3.13.2 shows thevalue of BOD 5at some monitoring points in the majorrivers in urban areas. The trend shows the gradualimprovement of water quality over a period of five years,but the value still exceeds 4mg/L, the currently permittednational standard for Category A1 (water for domesticwater supply with appropriate treatment) at most points.Pollution in some canals is also serious in cities. Forexample, the BOD 5level of the Tham Luong-Vam Thuatcanal in Ho Chi Minh City in 2009 greatly exceededstandards; it was eight times higher than the ambient waterquality standard for Category B2 (water for watertransportation and other purposes with demand for lowqualitywater). Untreated or insufficiently treatedwastewater from industries and households is a majorsource of pollution.BOD (mg/ 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 QCVN 08:2008(A1) QCVN 08:2008(B1)1614121086420Red Riverin HanoiCam Riverin Hai PhongLam Riverin Nghe AnPerfume Riverin HueHan River Dong Nai Riverin Da Nang in Dong NaiSai Gon Riverin HCMCTien Riverin Tien GiangHau Riverin Can ThoFigure 3.13.2. Changes in annual average BOD 5 content in major rivers (2005-2009)(Source: MoNRE 2010)Figure 3.13.3 also shows water quality in surface waterbodies in the country’s urban inner precincts and districts.Most lakes, ponds, canals and rivers have exceeded theBOD standard set by the National Technical Regulationon Surface Water Quality 08:2008/MoNRE, Type B2.Many rivers and canals have become receptacles forwastewater and ambient water quality standards and manylakes in inner cities are affected by eutrophication. Thesurface water in these lakes becomes muddy and emits astrong odour which spoils the environment and appearanceof Viet Nam’s cities.121

BOD 5 (mg/200180160140120100806040200West LakeHanoi2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 QCVN 08:2008(A2)Bay Mau LakeHanoiKim NguuRiverHanoiTo Lich RiverHanoiTam Bac LakeHanoiTinh Tam LakeHueNhieu Loc CanalHCMCQCVN 08:2008(B2)Tham Luong-Vam ThuatCanal - HCMCFigure 3.13.3. Changes in average BOD 5 content in some rivers, lakes and canals inside cities (2005-2009)(Source: MoNRE 2010)Tan Hoa - LoGom CanalHCMCFigure 3.13.4 shows pollution by coliform. Thecoliform value tends to have improved but it is still higherthan the standards value of the National TechnicalRegulation on Surface Water Quality 08:2008/MoNRE,Type A1.Coastal waterPollution is observed in coastal waters as well (MoNRE2005). Aquaculture such as uncontrolled shrimp pondsand untreated industrial and agricultural wastewaterdischarged into coastal waters are the major sources ofwater quality deterioration (Nhuan et al. 2010). In additionto organic matter, higher concentrations of Zinc (Zn) andCopper (Cu ) have been observed in the southern coastalareas, as well as sediment. Oil spills are also the issues thatViet Nam faces in marine water quality (MoNRE 2005).GroundwaterSalinization is a common groundwater problem in coastalzones due to sea water intrusion accelerated by theuncontrolled and indiscriminate exploitation ofgroundwater by industries and households. In a textmessage to the author on August 12, 2011, Do Nam Thangstates that according to groundwater monitoring, Iron(Fe), Manganese (Mn, ranging from 0.18-71mg/L), P-PO 4,Ammonium (NH4, ranging from 0.05-8.7ml/L), E.coliand coliform exceed groundwater quality standards insome areas (Do Nam Thang, pers.comm.).5. Frameworks for Water EnvironmentManagementLegislationArticle 29 of the constitution states that “all State offices,armed forces units, economic establishments, socialorganizations and every citizen have to observe stateregulations on the appropriate utilization of naturalresources and on environmental protection” and that “allMNP/100mL10,0009,0008,0007,0006,0005,0004,0003,0002,0001,0000Red RiverHanoi2006 2007 2008 2009QCVN 08:2008(A1)Cam RiverHai PhongLam RiverNghe AnPerfumeRiver HueFigure 3.13.4. Changes in annual average content ofcoliform in major rivers (2005-2009)(Source: MoNRE 2010)QCVN 08:2008(B1)Thi Vai RiverDong Naiacts resulting in depletion and destruction of theenvironment are strictly prohibited.” The constitution is thebasis of environmental protection in the country.The Law on Environmental Protection (1993, revised2005) is the principle law on environmental protectionincluding water, and stipulates that the objective ofenvironmental protection is to ensure social progress inorder to achieve national sustainable development.Environmental standards are also stipulated under the law.In addition to the environmental law, the Law on WaterResources (1998), the Land Law (2003) and theBiodiversity Law (2008) complete the national legislationrelated to water environmental management.In addition to national laws, decrees, decisions andcirculars, and strategies are established for different purposes.Some set policy targets with timelines (Box.3.13.1). Otheradministrative orders establish rules and systems to regulatepollution sources which includes environmental protectioncharges for wastewater (Decision No.67/2003/ND-CP)and permits for wastewater discharge to water sources(Decree No.149/2004/ND-CP) (Box. 3.13.2).Based on the revision to the Viet Nam Criminal Code2009 (Chapter XVII for environmental crime) and DecreeNo. 117/2009/NĐ-CP on guidance to businesses in122

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.13 Viet Namviolation of standards set forth by laws and regulations, thesanctions and punishments for such violations have beenstrengthened.In the context of promoting river basin management,an integrated water environmental protection approachhas been incorporated in major river basins.Conservation of Water QualityLaw on Environmental ProtectionAmbient standardsQCVN 08:2008/BTNMT – National technical normon surface water qualityQCVN 09:2008/BTNMT – National technical normon underground water qualityQCVN 10:2008/BTNMT – National technical normon coastal water qualityDecree on Licensing for exploitation, utilization, useand discharge of wastewater (2004)Other Laws Related to Water EnvironmentLaw on Water ResourcesEffluent standardsTCVN 5945:2005 has been replaced by TCVN 5945:2010 – industrial wastewaterQCVN 11:2008/BTNMT – National technical norm on the effluent ofaquatic products processing industryQCVN 12:2008/BTNMT – National technical norm on the effluent of paper andpulp industryQCVN 13:2008/BTNMT – National technical norm on the effluent of textile industryQCVN 14:2008/BTNMT – National technical norm on domestic wastewaterQCVN 25:2009/BTNMT – National technical regulation on wastewater of the solidwaste landfill sitesQCVN 28:2010/BTNMT – National technical regulation on health care wastewaterQCVN 29:2010/BTNMT – National technical regulation on the effluent ofpetroleum terminal and stationsLand LawBiodiversityLawFigure 3.13.5. Legislative chart for water quality management(Source: MoEJ 2009)Box. 3.13.1. Water environmental managementrelated targets in Viet Nam(1) National Strategy for EnvironmentalProtection Until 2010 and Vision toward 2020(2003)These strategies set water pollution related targetsuntil 2010 and toward 2020. The targets toward 2020include two water related goals: access by 100% ofthe urban population and 95% of the rural populationto clean drinking water supply, 100% provisionof centralized waste treatment systems for urbancenters, industrial parks and export-processing zones.(2) Decision No. 64/2003 which approved the planfor establishments causing serious pollution(2003)This decision set short-term objectives to 2007and long-term objectives to 2012. Out of 4,295establishments that cause serious environmentalpollution, 439 establishments were scheduled forreview by 2007 and the remaining establishments by2012. Based on the outcomes of the review, identifiedpollution sources have been transferred, shut-downor suspended.Box. 3.13.2. Environmental protection charges forwastewaterEnvironmental protection charges for wastewaterwere introduced in Viet Nam in 2003 by the DecreeNo. 67/2003/ND-CP and the Circular No.125/2003/TTLT-BTC-BTNMT. Industries, as well as households,that discharge effluent into public water are required tocomply with the decision, with a few exceptions, suchas water run-off from hydroelectric power plants, watercirculated in power plants, sea water discharged fromsalt production, households in the region classifiedunder national subsidies for water supply, householdsin communities in rural areas and other areas withoutclean water supply schemes.The protection charge is determined based on the“percentage of the selling price of 1m 3 of clean water”which does not exceed 10% of VAT clean water sellingprices. The rate of the charge is differentiated basedon the pollution load for six parameters (COD, TSS,HG, PB, AS, Cd). Although national charging rates aredecided by the central government, local governmentscan decide their own charging rates in line with theirlocal situations.After a part of collected charges are allocated tothe administrative costs of implementing agencies, theremainder is allocated for operational capital of nationalenvironmental protection funds and investment inenvironmental protection facilities/projects.123

Institutional arrangementThe Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment(MoNRE) is responsible for the management of the qualityand quantity of water resources. According to the Law onEnvironmental Protection, MoNRE is responsible forestablishing environmental standards including waterquality and conducting public water quality monitoring,providing guidance to non-compliant industries, and otherimportant aspects of environmental management. Otherministries also are involved in water related activities (Table3.13.3). Under MoNRE, the Vietnam EnvironmentAdministration (VEA), which was established in 2008 tostrengthen institutional capacity to manage environmentalissues, is responsible for policy planning, monitoring ofcompliance and provision of guidance to local governments.Table 3.13.3. Water quality management related ministriesName of MinistryResponsibilitiesMinistry of NaturalResources andEnvironmentMinistry ofAgriculture andRural DevelopmentMinistry of Planningand InvestmentMinistry of Industryand TradeMinistry of Scienceand TechnologyMinistry ofConstructionMinistry ofTransportationMinistry of HealthMinistry of Finance-Manage water resources and water quality.-Make plans on the use, overall managementand protection for water resources in large riverbasins.-Irrigation, flood and storm prevention, ruralwater supply, management of hydraulicengineering and dykes.-Manage water for aquaculture and aquaticproduct processing.-Set guidelines for and check ministries andsectors for the preparation and implementationof strategies on socio-economic development.-Develop hydropower via Viet Nam ElectricityCorporation.-Appraise drafts and publicize water qualitystandards prepared by the Ministry of NaturalResources and Environment.-Manage urban public works, design and buildurban water supply and sewage works.-Manage and develop transportation on water,manage aquatic engineering and port systems.-Manage drinking water quality.-Prepare and supervise water quality standards.-Prepare policy on taxes and fees for waterresources.(Source: Modified based on Hanh and Dong 2011)In implementation, local governments play animportant role in environmental management. TheDepartment of Natural Resources and Environment(DoNRE) under the People’s Committee takes a leadingrole in the promotion of environmental conservationactivities through the implementation of environmentalregulations and provision of guidance.Ambient water quality standardsAmbient water quality standards are established for surfacewater, coastal water, and groundwater, referring to bothinternational standards and standards in developed countries.The surface water quality standard (TCVN 5942:1995) wasenacted in 1995 and revised in 2001 and 2008. CurrentlyQCVN 08:2008 is applied. The current standard (QCVN08:2008) sets four classes as shown in Table 3.13.4 andstandard values for 32 parameters in each class.Table 3.13.4. Classes in surface water quality standardsClassA1A2B1B2Objective of UseGood for domestic water supply and other purposes in A2,B1 and B2.Good for domestic water supply, but suitable treatmenttechnology must be applied; conservation of aquatic life orother purposes in B1 and B2.Good for irrigation or other purposes with demand for similarquality water or other purposes in B2.Good for water transportation and other purposes withdemand for low-quality water.The Coastal Water Quality Standard (TCVN5943:1995) was revised to QCVN 10:2008 on 31 December2008. The current standard sets values for 29 parametersin three categories: beaches, aquaculture, and other areas.The Groundwater Quality Standard (QCVN 09:2008),which was revised to TCVN 5944:1995, sets standardvalues for 26 parameters.Monitoring of water quality in public water bodiesThe Law on Environmental Protection stipulatesmonitoring and treatment of water pollution anddegradation in river basins by public sector (governments).The monitoring system of the country has graduallydeveloped since the latter half of 1990s.The Center for Environmental Monitoring under theVietnam Environmental Administration, MoNREconducts water quality monitoring. Considering thenecessity and resource constraints, not all parameters forwater quality standards are monitored, but basic parameterssuch as BOD, COD, DO, TSS, N, P and metals aremonitored four times a year, in principle.The locations for monitoring are rather concentrated inareas where water quality is deteriorated. In 2007, theNational Master Program for natural resource andenvironment monitoring until 2020 was approved by theDecision No.16/2007/QD-TTG, which includes numericaltargets for water resource monitoring. The nationalprogramme targeted an increase in the number of surfaceresource monitoring stations to 348 (existing 248; upgraded:123, and new: 99) step-by-step by 2020. Out of the existing248 stations, 116 stations are water quality monitoringstations for surface (river and lake) water (Nguyen 2007).The monitored data is stored at the Center forEnvironmental Monitoring under the VietnamEnvironment Administration, MoNRE and the Center forEnvironmental Monitoring under DoNREs (Departmentsof Natural Resources and Environment in the country’s124

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012Chapter3.13 Viet Namprovinces). Monitoring data is used to review and revisepolicies and measures for water quality conservation.MoNRE issues the State of the Environment Reportannually in which major data is made public.Effluent standardsThere are various effluent standards in Viet Nam as shownin Figure 3.13.5. Industrial wastewater discharge standardswere established in 1995 (TCVN 5945:1995), and revisedin 2005. The revised standards (TCVN 5945:2005) set lessstrict effluent quality targets than previous targets inconsideration of the best technology available in thecountry. In 2009, the standard of 2005 was replaced by theNational Technical Regulation on Industrial Wastewater(QCVN 24:2009/BTNMT). The new technical regulationset the formula and necessary concentration value andcoefficients to calculate the maximum values of pollutants(32 parameters) to be discharged into public water bodies.Different concentration values were set for the water bodiesthat are the source of domestic water use and other waterbodies, respectively.All industries and industrial activities, business entities,and service providers should conform to the new technicalstandard except industrial sectors which have differenteffluent standards. The specific industries/activities whichhave different standards include the natural rubberprocessing industry (QCVN 01:2008/BTNMT), pulpand paper mills (QCVN 12:2008/BTNMT), domesticwastewater sector (QCVN 14:2008/BTNMT), andhealthcare sector (QCVN 29:2010).Industries that are required to carry out environmentalimpact assessments (EIA) will have to commit to selfmonitoringfour times/year, in accordance with a circularissued by the national government. Inspection ofcompliance with industrial effluent standards is conductedby MoNRE, VEA or/and DoNRE two times/year. Theinspection is carried out with prior announcement and notmore than twice a year. In cases where a violation issuspected, “environmental police” from the Ministry ofPublic Security have authority to conduct compulsoryinvestigations without prior notice, and therefore havemore opportunities to identify possible non-compliance.capacity of water environment management by addressingthe following challenges (Nguen 2010; Nga 2011).To further improve legislative systems (such aselimination of overlapping or uncoordinatedprovisions): Strengthen economic incentives.To strengthen compliance: Redouble inspection,improvement and strengthening of technical/administrate guidelines, socialization of environmentalprotection and sustainable development, furtherstrengthening of administrative sanctions against noncomplianceTo enhance organizational arrangements: Facilitatecoordination and minimize overlapping of functionsand duties of different ministries, sectors and localauthorities on water quality managementTo improve institutional capacity at national and locallevel to implement water quality management,especially in the field of water quality monitoring,control and investigation of pollution sources, how toimpose sanction at ground level, etc.);To promote basin-management approach: Improve andstrengthen water environment management at the basinlevel, especially in the three main river basins (Cau,Nhue-Day, and Don Nai)To develop a sound information base: Develop reliableinformation systems of the state of water quality andmanagementTo choose and introduce appropriate technology toimprove water quality, especially introduction ofwastewater treatment technology which is appropriatefor different local settings:To increase of budget for environmental protection:Target is 2% of total state budget allocated forenvironmental activitiesTo strengthen capacity of human resources both innumber and capacity and financial status.6. Existing and Future ChallengesViet Nam has developed its water quality managementsystem since 1990s. In 2000 in particular, the environmentallegislation of the country was amplified—refiningenvironmental and effluent standards, strengthening noncomplianceresponses and applying environmentalprotection charges. Now, Viet Nam must work on ensuringand enforcing implementation by strengthening systems and125

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Appendix

Selected social, economic and water related indicators in <strong>WEPA</strong> partner countriesCountry Geography 1 Population 2 Economy 3Land Area(km 2 )YearTotalPopulation(person)GrowthRate in20yrsUrbanPopulation(person)GrowthRate in20yrsRuralPopulation(person)GrowthRate in20yrsYearGDP(current USD)PerGrowth CapitaRate in GDP20yrs (currentUSD)GrowthRate in20yrsCambodia181,035 a(2010)1990 9,531,928 1,201,022.9 8,330,905.1 1993 2,533,727,592 2402010 14,138,255 48% 3,223,522.1 168% 10,914,732.9 31% 2010 11,242,266,334 344% 795 231%China9,600,00 b(2010)1990 1,135,185,000 311,040,690.0 824,144,310.0 1990 356,936,901,184 3142010 1,338,299,512 18% 600,896,480.7 93% 737,403,030.8 -11% 2010 5,926,612,009,750 1560% 4,428 1310%Indonesia1,910,931 c(2010)1990 184,345,939 56,409,857.3 127,936,081.7 1990 114,426,498,045 6212010 239,870,937 30% 128,810,693.2 128% 111,060,243.8 -13% 2010 706,558,240,892 517% 2,946 374%Japan377,950 d(2008)1990 123,537,000 77,951,847.0 45,585,153.0 1990 3,058,038,227,118 24,7542010 127,450,459 3% 85,136,906.6 9% 42,313,552.4 -7% 2010 5,458,836,663,871 79% 42,831 73%Republic of Korea99,700 e(2009)1990 42,869,000 31,637,322.0 11,231,678.0 1990 263,776,986,549 6,1532010 48,875,000 14% 40,028,625.0 27% 8,846,375.0 -21% 2010 1,014,483,158,314 285% 20,757 237%Lao PDR236,800 f(2005)1990 4,192,414 645,631.8 3,546,782.2 1990 865,559,856 2062010 6,200,894 48% 2,058,696.8 219% 4,142,197.2 17% 2010 7,296,361,374 743% 1,177 471%Malaysia330,803 g(2010)1990 18,208,562 9,067,863.9 9,140,698.1 1990 44,024,178,270 2,4182010 28,401,017 56% 20,505,534.3 126% 7,895,482.7 -14% 2010 237,796,914,597 440% 8,373 246%Myanmar676,578 h(2011)1990 39,268,304 9,777,807.7 29,490,496.3 1990 2,788,000,000 682010 47,963,012 22% 16,259,461.1 66% 31,703,550.9 8% 2010 45,428,000,000 1529% 742 991%Nepal147,181 i( - )1990 19,081,064 1,698,214.7 17,382,849.3 1990 3,627,559,252 1902010 29,959,364 57% 5,452,604.2 221% 24,506,759.8 41% 2009 12,897,180,525 256% 438 131%Philippines300,000 j(2007)1990 61,628,668 30,074,790.0 31,553,878.0 1990 44,311,595,230 7192010 93,260,798 51% 61,925,169.9 106% 31,335,628.1 -1% 2010 199,589,447,424 350% 2,140 198%Sri Lanka65,610 k(2010)1990 17,337,048 2,981,972.3 14,355,075.7 1990 8,032,551,173 4632010 20,859,949 20% 3,149,852.3 6% 17,710,096.7 23% 2010 49,551,751,283 517% 2,375 413%Thailand513,116 l(2007)1990 57,072,058 16,779,185.1 40,292,872.9 1990 85,343,189,320 1,4952010 69,122,234 21% 23,501,559.6 40% 45,620,674.4 13% 2010 318,522,264,429 273% 4,608 208%Viet Nam331,051 m(2009)1990 66,016,700 13,401,390.1 52,615,309.9 1990 6,471,740,486 982010 86,936,464 32% 25,037,701.8 87% 61,898,762.7 18% 2010 106,426,845,157 1544% 1,224 1149%1. a. From the Cambodia Millennium Development Goals Report 2010. b. From China Statistical Yearbook 2010. c. From BADAN PUSAR STATISTIK 2011. d. From the Japan Statistical Yearbook 2012.e. From the Statistics Korea 2009. f. From the Year Book 2005 of Lao Statistical Bureau. g. From the official website of Department of Statistics of Malaysia. h. From the Health in Myanmar 2011. i. Fromthe country profile in the official website of the Government of Nepal. j. From the Tourism Investment Portfolio of Department of Tourism of the Philippines. k. From the Statistical Abstract 2010 of Sri Lanka.l. From the 2008 Core Environment Report of National Statistical Office of Thailand. m. From the official website of the General Statistics Office of Vietnam.128

<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012AppendixWater Resources 4 Water Use 5 Achivements of Water and SanitationGoals of MDGs 6DomesticWastewater TreatmentLong-AveragePrecipitation(mm/year)TotalRenewableWaterResources(km 3 )YearTotal AnnualFreshwaterWithdrawals(billion m 3 )Annual FreshwaterWithdrawal by sectors (%)AgricultureIndustryMunicipalincludingDomesticYearPopulation withaccess to safewater sources(% of population)Population withaccess toadequate sanitation(% of population) Yearurban rural urban ruralSewerageTreatmentCoverage(%)Remarks1,904 476.1* 2006 2.2 94.0 1.5 4.5 1995 54 34 40 62008 81 56 67 18 2010

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<strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> on Water Environmental Management in Asia 2012ReferencesTotal Population[Data for Philippines]NSO (National Statistics Office of Philippines). 2012. “Philippines inFigures.” Official Website. http://www.census.gov.ph/. Accessed 20February 2012.[Data for Other Countries]World Bank. 2012. World Development Indicators (WDI) OnlineDatabase. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator. Accessed 19 January2012.GDP and Per Capita GDP[Data for Myanmar]IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2011. World Economic <strong>Outlook</strong>Database. September Edition. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/02/weodata/index.aspx. Accessed 19 January 2012.[Data for Other Countries]World Bank. 2012. World Development Indicators (WDI) OnlineDatabase. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator. Accessed 19 January2012.Long-Average Precipitation, Total Renewable WaterResources, Total Annual Freshwater Withdrawals,Annual Freshwater Withdrawal by sectors[Data for Japan]MLIT (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan).2011. Heisei 23 Nen Ban Nihon no Mizu Shigen (Water Resources ofJapan 2011). Tokyo. http://www.mlit.go.jp/tochimizushigen/mizsei/tochimizushigen_mizsei_tk2_000002.html. Accessed 20 January2012.[Data for Other Countries]FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2012.Main AQUASTAT Country Database. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/index.html?lang=en. Accessed 19 January2012.Chapter 3.1 CambodiaArsenic Center of Cambodia. 2010. National Arsenic database. http://www.arseniccenter.com. Accessed 6 October, 2010 (The database iscurrently unavailable as of 24 February 2012).MoE (Ministry of Environment of Cambodia). 2006. Water Quality inCoastal Rivers and Near Shore Coastal Waters of Cambodia-SecondAnnual Monitoring Report. Phnom Penh. http://www.czmcam.org/content/documents/Report_WQM_CZM_Final%20_ENG-KH_.pdf. Accessed 5 December 2011.. 2009. Cambodia Environment <strong>Outlook</strong>. Phnom Penh.. 2010. Annual Environment Report (in Khmer). Phnom Penh.MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. <strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> onEnvironmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute forGlobal Environmental Strategies.MoWRAM (Ministry of Water Resource and Meteorology of Cambodia).2008. Master Plan of Water Resource Development in Cambodia.Phnom Penh.Sokha, Chrin. 2005. Environmental Hazards and Risks in Cambodia: AnAnalysis. Phnom Penh: Ministry of Environment of Cambodia.. 2011. “Progress of Water Environment Management and FutureChallenges in Cambodia.” Presentation at the 6th <strong>WEPA</strong> AnnualMeeting, Tokyo, Japan, 24 February.Chapter 3.2 ChinaChinese Government’s Official Web Portal. 2011. “China’s State Councilorders underground water safety, protection.” 24 August. http://english.gov.cn/2011-08/24/content_1932057.htm. Accessed 15December 2011.Gang, Chen. 2011. “Water Environment Protection in China.” Presentationat the 6th <strong>WEPA</strong> Annual Meeting, Tokyo, Japan, 24 February.Jin, Zhu. 2011. “Govt Eyes Safety on Underground Water.” China Daily. 25August. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2011-08/25/content_13184850.htm. Accessed 15 December 2011.MEP (Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic ofChina). 2007. “Appendix IV: Explanatory Notes on Main StatisticalIndicators.” China Environmental Statistical Yearbook 2006. http://english.mep.gov.cn/standards_reports/EnvironmentalStatistics/yearbook2006/200712/t20071217_114397.htm. Accessed 16December 2011.. 2010a. Report on the State of the Environment in China 2009.Beijing.http://english.mep.gov.cn/standards_reports/soe/soe2009/201104/t20110411_208979.htm. Accessed 14 December2011.. 2010b. “The First National Census on Pollution Sources Completesin Success.” 10 February. http://english.mep.gov.cn/News_service/infocus/201005/t20100531_190101.htm. Accessed 15 December2011.. 2011a. Report on the State of the Environment in China 2010 (inChinese). Beijing. http://www.mep.gov.cn/pv_obj_cache/pv_obj_id_2664F11057268A0849A1871670B91BB09D7C1200/filename/P020110603390794821945.pdf. 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Syarif. L.M. 2010. “Current Development of Indonesian EnvironmentalLaw.” IUCN Academy of Environmental Law eJournal 2010 (1).Chapter 3.4 JapanMLIT (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan).2011. “Nihon no Mizushigen no Genjo Kadai (State and Issues ofWater Resources in Japan).” Last modified 1 August. http://www.mlit.go.jp/tochimizushigen/mizsei/c_actual/index.html. Accessed 20January 2012.MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. <strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> onEnvironmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute forGlobal Environmental Strategies.. 2011a. “Heisei 22 nendo Kokyoyo Suiiki Suishitsu Sokutei Kekka(Result of Measurement of Water Quality in Public Water Bodies2010).” Tokyo.http://www.env.go.jp/water/suiiki/h22/full.pdf.Accessed 20 January 2012.. 2011b. “Heisei 21 nendo Chikasuishitsu Sokutei Kekka (Result ofMeasurement of Groundwater Quality 2009).” Tokyo. http://www.env.go.jp/water/report/h22-01/01.pdf. 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Accessed 20December 2011.Chanthavong, Phouvong. 2011. “Groundwater for Water Supply in Laos.”Presentation at the Launch Meeting of Asia-Pacific Water ForumKnowledge Hub for Groundwater Management, Bangkok, Thailand,2 June.Komany, Souphasay. 2008. “Water Quality Monitoring and Management inLao PDR: The Case Study of Nam Ngum River Basin.” In OralPresentation Proceedings, the 3rd <strong>WEPA</strong> International Forum onWater Environmental Governance in Asia, Tokyo: Ministry of theEnvironment of Japan.. 2011. “Water Quality Monitoring at Reservoir of Nam Ngum 2Hydropower Dam and Upper Reservoir of Nam Ngum 1Hydropower Dam.” Presentation at the 3rd <strong>WEPA</strong> InternationalWorkshop, Manila, the Philippines, 21 September.MoEJ (Ministry of the Environment of Japan).2009. <strong>WEPA</strong> <strong>Outlook</strong> onEnvironmental Management Strategies in Asia. Hayama: Institute forGlobal Environmental Strategies.MoNRE (Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Lao PDR).2011. “MoNRE Plan for 2011-2015.” A Presentation Material on 11July.http://www.rtm.org.la/documents/SWG/Agriculture/MoNRE%20Plan%20for%202011-2015.pdf. Accessed 20 January2012.MRC (Mekong River Commission). 2010. State of Basin Report 2010.Vientiane. http://www.mrcmekong.org/assets/Publications/basin-reports/MRC-SOB-Summary-reportEnglish.pdf. Accessed 20January 2012.Phonvisai, Phengkhamla. 2011. “Water Quality Monitoring in VientianeCapital City.” Vientiane: Unpublished material.<strong>WEPA</strong> (Water Environment Partnership in Asia) database. (n.d). http://www.wepa-db.net/policies/measures/currentsystem/laos.htm.Accessed 20 January 2012.WREA (Water Resources and Environment Administration of Lao PDR).2010. 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Ministry of the Environment, JapanWater Environment DivisionEnvironmental Management Bureau1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 100-8975, JapanTEL: +81 3 3581 3351, FAX: +81 3 3593 1438URL: http://www.env.go.jp/en/<strong>WEPA</strong> Secretariat ]Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES)Freshwater Sub-group2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama, Kanagawa, 240-0115, JapanTEL: +81 46 855 3700, FAX: +81 46 855 3809E-mail: contact@wepa-db.net, URL: http://www.iges.or.jp/www.wepa-db.net