ISLAM FOR BEGINNERS BRS 107.pdf - CUEA

ISLAM FOR BEGINNERSA Handout for teaching Islam inColleges and Universities in AfricaPart OneEarly history and development of IslamWhat people say about IslamWhat People think about IslamWhat people hear about IslamWhat Islam seems to beWhat Islam isFrederic Ntedika Mvumbi, PhDSenior Lecturer at the Catholic University of Eastern Africa, CUEANairobi, 2010Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 1 of 85

Lesson 1INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONSExploring Islam, as the title indicates, is not just an introduction but an overview of someaspects that make us understand Islam not as it appears to the person on the street but asit is observed by a person whose interest is to learn. It demands docility; that is toincrease our readiness to be trained for a better appreciation of Islam and the Muslims.This exploration begins with a detailed introduction that creates the conditions of possibilityof a fruitful encounter with Islam. This the first stage of our enquiry.1. What could be an Introduction to Islam?An introduction to Islam, particularly at the university level is more than a preliminarysection of a text; it is a specific course that defines the basic elements of the religionfounded or renewed by Muhammad. It also guides the student in Religious Studies as heor she familiarizes with the history, the beliefs, the doctrine, the law, the ethics, thephilosophy and the theology of Islam.Islam is first and foremost a religion. A thorough study of any religion reveals that areligion is more than just set of beliefs; religion ought to be a way of life, for it defines ourbeing and our relations with the world around us. There are as many types of religion asthere are kinds of people: we have revealed religions, natural religions, missionaryreligions and monotheistic or polytheistic religions. Islam is a one of the revealed religions,for it has a prophet and a book. These are the two major characteristics of a revealedreligion and Islam falls into this category.However, we think that it is important to be aware of the major attitudes of believerstowards other believers in order to justify this study because this will certainly work for anew way of looking at people of different religions. Since, here, we concentrate solely onIslam, we generally inquire on the non- Muslim views about Islam.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 2 of 85

2. Islam, known and unknownWhat is Islam? The religion founded or renewed by Muhammad is far and near to us. Forsome people, Islam is a religion of the Arabs or of the people of North Africa in view of itsorigin; or maybe it is a religion of some particular tribes of some countries in Asia andAfrica. Thus, Islam is taking as a distant reality whose knowledge is not necessary to non-Muslims; its study has no importance. With this reasoning, Islam that was born in 7 thcentury remains a strange reality. The concept “strange”, here, refers to suspicion,mistrust and skepticism.Conversely, some consider the religion whose book is the Qur’an as a movement veryclose to us through its believers and structures. In fact, we do not need to travel farbeyond our boundaries to experience Islam, to meet Muslims, to listen to the call of theMuezzin from the minaret, to see mosques in many places, both public and private. Thecommon saying “Islam is present at our doors” finds its real meaning here. At least manyhave heard about its characteristics, its self-government and perhaps its doctrines. But wediscovered that, mistakenly, what we call Islam is maybe just a group or groups of Muslimswe have met or we have heard.Many people if not the majority of us have met Muslims but not Islam, have encounteredMuslims but not Islam, have spoken to Muslims but not to Islam, have listened to Muslimsbut not to Islam, have judged Muslims but not Islam. Islam is a religion while Muslims arethe believers of this religion. Though there is no Muslim without Islam and vice versa, forthey are inseparable, both concepts are distinct therefore they must be studied andunderstood as two concepts and not as one. All Muslims in the world do not make Islamfor Islam supersedes Muslims altogether.Hence, Islam suddenly appears like a known as well as an unknown world, present andabsent and sometimes frightening; Islam becomes a strange reality. In his book titled“Islam…Etrange? Au-delas des apparences, au coeur de l’acte d’Islam, acte de foi”, (Islam…Strange reality. Beyond appearances, at the center of Islam, act of faith) professorEmilio Platti shows how Islam has become a strange world to many and how such imagehas led to fantasist assertions. Again, he explains how some affirmations have increasedtensions between non-Muslims and Muslims. Emilio Platti calls for a demystification ofFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 3 of 85

LESSONS 2 and 3MAJOR ATTITUDES OF NON-MUSLIMSTOWARDS ISLAM1. Some people manifest a narrow view in their declarationsThrough some inquiries, we have observed that there are many people who simply regardIslam as violence and war, particularly when they refer not only to history of Islam but alsoto what is said in the media every day. Although, a good number of violent acts andattitudes are mentioned and even glorified in the Qur’an (2:190; 4:74-77,84-89; 5: 35; 8:38;9:13,29; 47:4; 61:10), it would be so narrow to assert that Islam is violence. Sura 4: 74says:” Let those who fight in the way of Allah who sell the life of this world for the other.Whoso fights in the way of Allah be he slain or be he victorious, on him we shall bestow avast reward”. War in Islam could be considered as God’s command but we still need toask a good number of questions: (1) which type of war the Qur’an is talking about? (2)What are the modalities of such war? (3) How should it be waged?Historically, we know that wars and raids were Arab customs that Muhammad and hiscompanions used for two major reasons: the feeding of the emigrants and the unity of theMadinans with the emigrants. Most of the first converts to Islam were slaves and poorpeople and those who migrated to Madina with Muhammad in order to escape persecutionfrom the Makkan polytheists and worshipers of idols had neither land for farming nor workto support them as Muhammad did encourage them. Having abilities in trading as goodMakkans (Trading was the major activity of Makkans), they went into what could havebeen the source of their daily bread but it briefly became insufficient for their needs. “Aready-made alternative was the Arabian custom of raiding unprotected caravans. Due tothese circumstances, trading changed into raiding, that is war and violence.” Muhammadinitiated great battles, which gave to the new community of the believers power, land andproperties. Raiding in its manifold forms continued during the time of conquests andexpansion of Islam, even after the death of the founder.In the beginning, only emigrants went to war but later on the movement of raiding becamean occasion of having booty; so Emigrants and Madinans went into it without caring againabout their differences. The movement became not only an opportunity of getting foodFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 5 of 85

ut also a cause of unity of all the parts that constituted the people in Medina becauseeverybody, Emigrants or Madinans, fought as one man. Thanks to war that was initiatedby Muhammad, their internal and external differences were forgotten; unity of the partiescame out of it. However, as time went on, raids were done not for material interest but forreligious interest, for God as we read in Sura 8:39: “ And fight them until persecution is nomore, and religion is all for Allah. But if they cease, then lo! Allah is seer of what they do”.Violence was well established in religion.Supposedly that Muslims of the first hour fought for God, he first internal divisions(Sunnism, Shi’ism and Kharijism) were the result of a civil war which was not far fromGod’s command to fight whoever does not submit to his will. Anyway, Islam establishedits power throughout the whole world through war. From 670 to 682, the Maghreb wasconquered, in 711, Spain was under fire of Islam…Maybe Islam came down to Africawithout war but introduced war wherever Muslims settled.Moreover, through the media, we hear or see nowadays that Muslims in the name of Allahor of their religion have performed numerous acts of violence, such as killings and cuttingsof hands. By God’s command, many of our brothers and sisters have been killed andsome have left their homes; some have been massacred, tortured and inflicted uponimprisonment and humiliation. All these are more or less true but Islam is not only that; itis obviously more than this. We surely find violence, sometimes in a high level, but warand violence are neither pillars of Islam which are five and accepted all over the world norarticles of Muslim faith which are six in the entire Islamic community. Islam is more thanthis. I believe that, scientifically speaking, Islam cannot be defined as war and violencethough these are part of it. Violence could be understood as means of Islam in historyand deviations of some Muslims today; but not as its essence because whether we believeor not, God is the essence of Islam. It is clear that if Muslims fight, it is because of Allah.When Islam is defined as violence, it proves that some persons (Christians) have a narrowview, which leads to an irrational rejection of whatever originates from Islam. Countlessconclusions can be drawn from such view: Allah is not God, anything good can come fromthe Qur’an? There is neither truth nor inspiration in Islam, Muhammad is just an impostorand Muslims are outsiders, enemies, they cannot be saved… A narrow minded persondoes not define Islam at all but Islamism or Islamic fundamentalism or extremism. Suchperson could read the Qur’an save for underlining verses that are in contradiction with theFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 6 of 85

Christian doctrine. He will disregard the great themes of the Qur’an like the justice,oneness, mercy and power of God, Prophethood, the last judgment, and the limits ofhuman beings…2. Others represent a too wide viewThe concept “wide”, here, does not refer to a view that is open to other views or acceptsother images of a reality (that would be very interesting) but to lack of personal opinionabout the existing reality, lack of realism. Thus a person having a too wide view issomebody who, after going through the history of religions and reading some Muslim andChristian writings, will not only make any distinction between Islam and Christianity but willneglect all their differences. He will quickly say that both are religions and we can belongto wherever we find ourselves. He wouldn’t talk about two different religions.As a matter of fact, this attitude is neither novel nor original as some of us may assume,for this was exactly the approach of the Negus, King of Abyssinia during the time ofMuhammad. Let us recall to mind the context and Negus’ approach of the two great livingfaiths in his encounter with Muhammad’s companions. When Muhammad saw theaffliction of his first converts, he sent many of them to Abyssinia so that they will escapepersecutions from the Quraysh and avoid apostasy. They were around eighty-three menapart from women and the children they took and those who were born there. Despitetheir belonging to different religions –the king wasn’t aware of- the encounter was withoutfear and suspicion because the King gave them a very warm welcome in his palace andthe emigrants really found protection and justice in the kingdom. Nevertheless, theQuraysh who decided to wipe out all the Muslims followed the emigrants to Abyssinia butfailed to get them from the King. Then later on the king sent for the emigrants, for hewanted to learn from their religion. Ibn Ishaq reports: “Then he summoned the apostle’scompanions, and when his messenger came they gathered together, saying one toanother, ‘what will you say to the man when you come to him?’ They said, ‘we shall saywhat we know and what our prophet commanded us, …He asked them what was thereligion for which they had forsaken their people, without entering into his religion or theother. Jafar b. Abu Talib answered, O king, we were an uncivilized people, worshipingidols…Thus we were until God sent us an apostle whose lineage, truth, trustworthiness,and clemency we know. He summoned us to acknowledge God’s unity and worshiphim…The Negus asked if they had with them anything, which had come from God. WhenFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 7 of 85

ja⎺far said that he had, the Negus commanded him to read it to him, so he read him apassage from the Qur’an. Then the Negus said, ’of a truth, this and what Jesus broughthave come from the same niche... I will never give them up to you and they shall not bebetrayed.”This long but important notice illustrates the attitude of the Negus before Islam. Surat-al-Maryam (19) recited by the Emigrants was sufficient for the king to conclude that the tworeligions are the same. In acting this way, he ignored or maybe neglected the realmeaning of both Jesus of the Gospels and the Qur’anic Jesus; he adopted a wide viewthat does not help us in knowing what makes us different from others and what we needfrom others for progress and perfection.A too wide view of Islam takes Islam as being equal to Christianity because of the few ormany similarities in doctrines and expressions that someone may find without deepenthem. Since Christians and Muslims worship one God, their Scriptures contain the names“Jesus and Maryam”,…, they are not different but the same. Such view does not go farbeyond appearances and, indeed, no question is asked about the other.We observed this attitude in many of our contemporaries who, perhaps tired of religionswhich are becoming more than the computers in the markets or out of ignorance whichhas been increased by inadequate knowledge overlook the rich differences that insist on tocollaboration. They ignore moreover that differences do make sense, especially whenthey are well examined. Have you not been asked this question: what is the differencebetween what it said in Churches and Mosques? Do you not forbid evil and encouragegood? What are you still looking for? Do you not know that both Christians and Muslimsdo work for good?Once more, this too wide view is identified, sometimes, to a relativist attitude, which doesnot confront truths that are accessible to reason. The relativist says: “Everybody has hisown truth”. I wonder how such thought could be held in a pluralist society. In thecontrary, if I really discovered truth in my neighbor, this could be a change, for my owngood as well as the good of the others. Anyway, unlike the first view, the wide view doesnot entertain fight but a heavy and dangerous sleep. Both are still in a stage, which needsabsolutely reason, and openness, frankness and sincerity.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 8 of 85

3. Some others stand for a middle viewWith this view, we have somehow arrived to the land of reflection and deep knowledge ofthe other, objectivity and openness, giving and receiving as an outcome of the Holy Spiritand intense studies of the available materials. All these concepts carry a meaning thatpromotes respect and peace in the world. But how can we overcome the first twoperspectives abovementioned and arrived to this stage?First of all, It is by listening to God’s plan of salvation, desiring its full realization andworking for it that someone might have a middle view concerning Islam. Michael L.Fitzgerald, commenting Nostra Aetate, said: “God wills the salvation of all. The wholehuman race is united in its origin and its destiny. God is active in the hearts of humanbeings, drawing them to him; as he is active in the different religious rites, which give,cooperate expression to the human response to God. Yet human beings have beencreated with free will” I think we should be able to understand what Islam offers to thosemillions of people who remain faithful to its doctrine. Are Muslims inspired when they readthe Qur’an? I do remember some Muslims who cry while reciting Qur’anic verses relatedto those who do not believe in the last day. Believe in the Day of Judgment is one ofMuslim articles of faith. I believe that this is the starting point of any objective opinion wema have vis-à-vis Islam. Secondly, a middle view is neither a natural nor an a prioriapproach that someone would acquire without tears, without misunderstandings; it israther a product of a research work in which faith and reason live together withoutconfusion. Through readings of the sources of Islam and other books or articles writteneither by Muslims or Christians, with more or less objective interpretation of texts, bymeeting Muslims of different backgrounds, origins and education, someone might attain amiddle view with regard to Islam. It is man’s vocation to know God, himself, the world andtheir relationships (object of philosophy); but how will we know if we do not study? Andhow will we study realities that we reject and neglect? Whether you like or not, Islam isone of those realities that cannot be avoided if we want to build this world. CardinalFrancis Arinze wrote: “Knowledge of the other is the first requirement if one is to hope tobuilt up relationships that will be respectful and faithful. Good will is necessary, but it is notenough. A planned study of the other is required if Interreligious relationships are not tostagnate on the superficial level of generalizations.” 8 He added: “ The type of knowledgeFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 9 of 85

outlined in the preceding paragraph can be obtained simply through open-minedconversations. There is need also for more specialized study in the domains of history,sociology, politics and also the religious sciences.” 9 We need to have a middle view inorder to see that Islam is not only violence or war but also love and peace. It takes timeand meditation to accept this but that is where we must turn up.Thirdly, a person with a middle view acknowledges differences and accepts them as asource of attraction rather than a cause of antagonism. Acknowledging their numeroussimilarities, an unrestricted study of Islam and Christianity will surely show that bothreligions have fundamental differences concerning the conception of God, man and theuniverse. Their theological, moral, pastoral and legal approach of the existing realities isquite different. For instance, in Islam, God is not accepted as one in three persons, thedivine nature of Jesus is denied; man does not need redemption through Jesus. InChristianity, Qur’an is not accepted as the final revelation; Muhammad is not the seal ofthe prophets. These differences must bring us closer to others with the intention of lovingthem. I think that it is a great sign of wisdom to love those who think differently from us.Such view becomes a wisdom that seeks for wisdom wherever it can be found.Study Questions 2Without fear, state your view as Islamis concerned. Is it narrow, too wide ormiddle?What are the major weaknesses of anon-Muslim whose mind is narrow ortoo wide vis-à-vis Islam?What are the strengths of a non-Muslimwho has a middle mind vis-à-vis Islam?Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 10 of 85

Summary 2We need to move from narrow mind and too wide mind tomiddle mind. A person with middle view opens his mindand soul to the other side of the sea and desires to know forlove because love becomes more fervent when we know itsobject. He goes into studies in order to have a critical mind,defines his language and expressions and builds a discursivereasoning. Without dishonest compromise, he brings up thedifferences, neglects some and considers some others thatare helpful. Therefore, in spite of the differences betweenChristianity and Islam, which may be destructive, a middleview bearer throws a bridge over the river that separatesthem; a bridge where the two meet and discuss not onlyabout the river but also about the sea. If a narrow view aswell as a wide view of religions lead to things that arehorrible in the sight of God and men of good will, a middlewhich is not an end but a sound instrument that directs themind of those who are moved by the Highest Good.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 11 of 85

LESSON 4A BRIEF HISTORY OF ISLAM1. Jahiliyya: Arabia before the rise of IslamArabia before the birth of Muhammad had been a culturally isolated and economicallyunderdeveloped region. Most of the land is desert; rainfall is scarce, vegetation scant, andvery little of the land is suitable for agriculture. In the north of the region, several Arabickingdoms (the Lakhmids and the Sassanids) were able to establish contacts with theByzantine and the Persians Empires as early as the fifth century A.D. To the south, smallArabic kingdoms, including Saba (Sheba), were ancient centers of Arabic civilization. Butin the interior, dotted only with occasional oases, the nomadic life was the only successfulexistence.1.1 Political, economical and cultural ContextPolitically, the great Empires –Byzantine and Persian- directly or indirectly controlled thewhole world, including the Arab tribes though they were isolated. These Empires wereengaged in permanent wars of supremacy, which affected their colonies, the Lakhmidsand the Sassanids. Since wars could not allow the circulation of traders who desired tomove straight from West to East in search of new products, they had to find other ways.Thus the Byzantines were forced to come down to the South, passing through Makka andthen move up to the North as far as India.The discovery of Makka and its surroundings by the Westerners began. This situationmodified both economic and religious life of Arabia, particularly Makka. Because of wars,sea-trade routes became inaccessible. Arabian land route became important. Caravanindustry was developed. Their contacts with foreign people changed their cultures andbeliefs.There was also a creation of a settled and urban culture. The fact that wealth wasconcentrated into the hands of a few generated an alarming situation of poverty andinjustice in the City. We believe that this state of affairs called for a change that camethrough Muhammad’s preaching.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 12 of 85

Makka was one of the oases of Arabia. On the western side of the Arabian Peninsula is aregion known as the Hijaz, or "barrier." The Hijaz rises from the western coastal plain fromYemen in the south to the Sinai Peninsula in the north. One of the oases in the Hijaz isMecca, set among the barren hills fifty miles inland from the sea. This site had severaladvantages: Mecca possessed a well (the Zamzam) of great depth, and two ancientcaravan routes met there. An east-to-west route ran from Africa through the peninsula toIran and Central Asia, and a northwest-southeast route brought the spices of India to theMediterranean world. Another significant advantage of Mecca was its importance as areligious sanctuary. An ancient place for worship, an almost square structure built ofgranite blocks, stood near the well of Mecca. Known as the Kaaba (cube), this squaretemple contained the sacred Black Stone, which had been brought –according to sometraditions- to Abraham and his son Ishmael by the Angel Gabriel. According to tradition,the stone, was originally white but had become blackened by the sins of those touching it.For centuries the Kaaba had been a holy place of annual pilgrimage for the Arabic tribesand a focal point of Arabic cultural and linguistic unity. The Kaaba itself was draped withthe skins of sacrificial animals, and supposedly held the images of 360 gods andgoddesses.By the sixth century, the Quraysh tribe (the tribe of Muhammad), whose rulers organizedthemselves into syndicates of merchants and wealthy businessmen, controlled Makka.The Quraysh held lucrative trading agreements with Byzantine and Persian contacts, aswell as with the southern Arabian tribes and the Abyssinians (Ethiopians) across the RedSea. In addition, a number of neighboring merchant fairs, such as one usually held atUkaz, were taken over by the Quraysh to extend the economic influence of Makka. TheQuraysh were also concerned with protecting the religious shrine of the Kaaba, in additionto ensuring that the annual pilgrimage of tribes to the holy place would continue as asource of revenue for the merchants of the city.Culturally, this is the time known as "Jahiliyyah" (Ignorance, barbarism). People werenomads which the normal life in the desert. They encouraged values of clan solidarity,primitive fatalistic paganism. However, the religious circumstances of Makka before Islammust be well known for they influenced Muhammad directly or indirectly. Arabians beforethe rise of Islam were aware of a good number of religious cultures: Arabian TraditionalReligion, Judaism, Zoroastrism and Judeo-Christianity.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 13 of 85

1.2 Religious Context1. Arabian Traditional Religion: Arabians held first a fatalistic view of the world; theybelieved in impersonal forces in nature. According to them, they were natural forceseverywhere, which made water to flow, and plants to grow. As time went on, these forcesturned to be known as spirits or idols. This was considered as idolatry but it soon turnedinto polytheism, for they worship those idols as gods. So they believed in many gods.This polytheism developed into henotheism that is the worship of many gods but one issupreme. Arabians, therefore, believed in an overall God called Allah, but turned mostly tolesser divinities for their needs. There was already a form of monotheism during the timeof Muhammad. In one way or the other, Arabians expressed a great religiousdissatisfaction.2. Zoroastrism: This religious culture came from the Persians was also present in Arabia.Note that Zoroastrism is a dualistic religion because it preaches the belief in two creatorsat the beginning: Ahura Mazda, the creator of life and goodness; Ahrimon, the creator ofevil and death.3. Judaism: Judaism was present in Yatrib (Madina) but since it is not a missionaryreligion, it was a very closed culture just for the Jews.4. Judeo-Christianity: This was the form of Christianity well known to Arabians that it wasthe most influential religious culture. The Qur’an makes several references to it. Thetradition says that Abraham was neither a Christian nor a Jew but a worshipper of oneGod. He was a Hanif. The Qur’anic word Nasara for the Christians derived from it, theQur’an accepts no prophets between Aaron and Christ; this appears in the Qur’an. TheJudeo-Christians with Muslims accept the Torah in part and the Gospel revealed to Jesusas the only inspired Scriptures. The Judeo-Christians and the Muslims considered the OldTestament as corrupt and distorted. The Judeo-Christians and the Muslims are devoted todaily ablutions for the forgiveness of sins.5. Christianity: Christianity, which was divided into many sects, was present in theperipheries of Makka, particularly in Najran. Muhammad must have met some Christianheretics as he went to Najran for trade.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 14 of 85

It is very important to know that religiously; the entire society of Arabia and of Makka inparticular, was evolving towards a new life, perhaps a better one. Arabian TraditionalReligions evolved from animism to idolatry and from Idolatry to polytheism and frompolytheism to henotheism. Judaism, however, was present but limited to the Jews alone.Christianity was there in the peripheries of Makka but divided into numerous sects. This isthe situation that was in vogue towards the end of 6 th century. Muhammad’scontemporaries, though still rooted in their tradition, sought for a new way of life to fill thevacuum, which was created by the political, social-economic and religious status. Who willbring this social-political change? Who will fight against poverty and injustice and build aharmonious society? Who will bring a religion that will satisfy Arabians?We believe that any historical event is influenced by the existing cultures; historicallyspeaking, Muhammad must have been influenced by these cultures, events and ideaspresent in Arabia, as we will identify some in the course of this subject. He certainly tooksome and rejected some others. Perhaps he modified and adapted some ideas to go wellwith his views. Nonetheless, he had his own integrity and identity, which brings up hisoriginality, though he borrowed. His originality might be shown in the way he handledwhatever he received from Makka and its surroundings.Study Questions 3What do you know about the cultural,economic and political context of Arabiabefore Islam?What tells you that Islam was influencedby the existing religions of the time ofMuhammad?If Islam was influenced by the time inwhich Muhammad lived, do you believethat he received a revelation?Differentiate influences and revelation inthe building of Islam as a religion.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 15 of 85

Summary 3Islam is a historical event; that is, it was born in time and space.Being a historical event, it must have a pre-history that gives usthe background of its beliefs and doctrines, rites and practices,philosophy and theology. So this chapter is all about its prehistory.This pre-history covers a large range of aspects: culture,economy, politics and religion. This various contexts contributedlargely to the shaping of what it is today. However, the chapterconcentrates on its religious context since we are studying Islamas a Religion. The religions mentioned in the chapter influencedIslam in many ways. But this does not mean that Islam tookeverything from them. Influences are of three types: Muhammadmust have taken some, rejected some and made a synthesis ofwhat he perceived good. Revelation as he claimed to havereceived is not ruled out.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 16 of 85

LESSON 5MUHAMMAD IN MAKKAMuhammad is so esteemed by Muslims that it is usual to utter the blessing "peace beupon him" after his name. This is often abbreviated to "pbuh". Apart from the Qur’an,historians, Muslims and non-Muslims, depend mostly on the work of Ibn Ishaq (died in767). At the time of Muhammad's birth, most people in Arabia believed in many differentgods and idolatry was common. This shows the background of his newness, for hepreached both the unity (one God) and the uniqueness (God has not equal) of God.570: Birth of Muhammad into Quraysh, the ruling tribe of MakkaThis year is known as the year of the elephant. Islamic tradition relates miraculous signsforetelling Muhammad's future greatness. Muhammad's father died before Muhammad'sbirth, and his mother died when the child was only 6. So Muhammad was raised first byhis grandfather Abd al-Muttalib and later by his uncle Abu Talib to be a trader. The familywas not rich, so Muhammad spent much of his childhood tending animals for others inorder to earn his livelihood.The Year of the ElephantThe Ethiopian governor of Yemen, Abraha al-Ashram, envied the reverence in which theArabs held the Ka’bah. Being a staunch Christian, he built a big cathedral in Sanaa (thecapital of Yemen) and ordered the Arabs to go there for pilgrimage instead. The order wasignored. Not only that; someone entered the cathedral and made it unclean. The wrath ofAbraha knew no bounds. In his fury, he decided to avenge it by demolishing anddesecrating the Ka'bah itself. He advanced with a large army towards Mecca. There weremany elephants in his army; he himself rode a huge elephant. It was an animal which theArabs had not seen before, thus the year came to be known as 'Amul-Fil (the year of theelephant), and it started an era for reckoning the years in Arabia.When news of the advance of Abraha's army came, the Arabian tribes of Quraish,Kinanah, Khuza'ah and Hudhayl joined together to defend the Ka'bah. Abraha sent a smallcontingent towards Mecca to capture the camels and young people. The contingentFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 17 of 85

captured many animals, including two hundred of 'Abdul-Muttalib's. Meanwhile, a manfrom the tribe of Himyar was sent by Abraha to Quraish to advise them that Abraha hadnot come to fight them: his only aim was to demolish the Ka'bah. But if the Quraishresisted, they would be crushed. Then followed a frightening description of his huge army,which, admittedly, was much larger and better equipped than all the tribes put together.'Abdul-Muttalib replied to this ultimatum in these words: "By Allah, we do not want to fighthim. So far as this House (the Ka'bah) is concerned, it is the House of Allah; if Allah wantsto save His House, He will save it, and if He leaves it unprotected, no one can save it."Then 'Abdul-Muttalib, with 'Amr ibn Lu'aba and some other prominent leaders, went to seeAbraha. Abraha was informed before hand of the prestige and position of 'Abdul-Muttalib.Also the personality of 'Abdul-Muttalib was very impressive and aweinspiring. When heentered Abraha's tent, the latter rose from his throne, warmly welcomed him, and seatedhim beside him on the carpet. During the conversation, 'Abdul-Muttalib requested him torelease his camels. Abraha was astonished. He said: "When my eyes fell upon you, I wasso impressed by you that had you requested me to withdraw my army and go back toYemen, I would have granted that request. But now, I have no respect for you. Why? HereI have come to demolish the House which is the religious center of yours and of yourforefathers and the foundation of your prestige and respect in Arabia, and you say nothingto save it; instead, you ask me to return your few camels back to you?!"'Abdul-Muttalib said: "I am the owner of the camels, (therefore, I tried to save them), andthis House has its own Owner Who will surely protect it." Abraha was stunned by thisreply. He ordered the camels to be released, and the deputation of Quraish returned. Onthe second day, Abraha issued orders to his army to enter Mecca. 'Abdul-Muttalib told theMeccans to leave the city and to seek refuge in the surrounding hills. But he, together withsome leading members of Quraish, remained within the precincts of the Ka'bah. Abrahasent someone to warn them to vacate the building. When the messenger came, he askedthe people who their leader was. All fingers pointed towards 'Abdul-Muttalib. He was againinvited to go to Abraha where he had a talk with him. When he came out, he was heardsaying: "The Owner of this House is its Defender, and I am sure He will save it from theattack of the adversaries and will not dishonor the servants of His House." 'Abdul-Muttalibthen took hold of the door of the Ka'bah and, crying to Allah, prayed in the following words(of poetry):Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 18 of 85

(O Allah! Surely a man defends his own home, therefore, Thou shouldst protect ThyOwn House. Their cross and their wrath can never overcome Thy wrath. O Allah,help Thy Own people against the fellows of the cross and its worshippers).Then he, too, went to the summit of the hill, Abu Qubays. Abraha advanced with his army.Seeing the walls of the Kaaba, he ordered its demolition. No sooner had the army reachednear the Kaaba than an army of Allah appeared from the western side. A dark cloud ofsmall birds (known in Arabic as Ababil) overshadowed the entire army of Abraha. Eachbird had three pebbles: two in its claws and one in its beak. A rain of the pebbles poureddown from the birds, and in a few minutes, the whole army was destroyed. Abraha himselfwas seriously wounded; he fled towards Yemen but died on the way. It is to this importantevent that is mentioned in the following in sura:Have you not seen how your Lord dealt with the companions of the Elephant? DidHe not make their treacherous plan go astray? And He sent against them birds inflocks, striking them with stones of baked clay, so He rendered them like straweaten up. (Qur’an, 105)Some historians have tried to minimize the impact of the Divine intervention by suggestingthat the army perished because of an epidemic of smallpox. But such an explanationcreates more puzzles than it solves. How was it that the whole army was seized by thatepidemic just when it was advancing on the Kaaba? How was it that not a single soldiersurvived that epidemic? Why was it that no Makkan caught that contagious epidemic?Moreover, if there was no epidemic in Mecca before or after that sudden burst of theplague, where did the epidemic come from? This epoch-making episode happened in570 A.D. It was in the same year that the Holy Prophet of Islam was born to `Abdullah andAmina.Marriage, revelation and preaching595: Muhammad marries Khadija a rich widow several years his senior. When he was 25Muhammad married Khadija, a wealthy widow aged 40. Muhammad soon showed aninterest in spiritual matters and would spend time on retreat in the cave of Hira on "TheMountain of Light" (near Mecca).610: The Night of Power First revelation while meditating in a cave on Mount Hiraoutside Mecca.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 19 of 85

Muhammad claimed to have received his first revelation - a vision of the ArchangelGabriel, who told him that he was to be a prophet. Khadija confirmed Muhammad's beliefin his mission and declared herself to be his first disciple. There was a gap of 3 yearsbefore the next revelation. People who claimed that God had forsaken him mockedMuhammad at first, but the revelations resumed in 613 and over many years Muhammadreceived the text of the Qur’an in a series of revelations. Muhammad intensified his publicpreaching and won more converts. A long period of difficulty followed, but Muhammad andhis followers remained true to the faith and he continued to preach and convert. He and hisfollowers -younger members of less powerful clans, slaves, tribeless persons, Ali hisnephew, Abu-Bakr a wealthy merchant, and Uthman b. Affan who became a caliph- werepersecuted, and some of them went to Abyssinia to escape in 615. Arouses hostility andpersecutions from the Meccans, since he challenged their gods, loose morals, and socialinequalities, and condemned their pagan ancestors to hell. His condemnation of the Ka'bacult threatened the lucrative pilgrimage trade. There were some attempts to silence him bytheats, bribes and ostracism.Muhammad proclaimed that the Qur’an was the last Book of God, and that he himself wasthe last Prophet. Voices and visions eventually convince Muhammad to preach the theunity of God; the preaching makes the Qur'an. With small group of people who believedwhat he said, Muhammad began to spread the message. Muhammad publiclycondemned the existing idolatrous local beliefs, and religious customs; these did not makehim universally popular that he had strong and growing opposition and persecutions.Again, with the death Khadija and Abu-Talib, he lost the minimal support that he enjoyedfor a while. He had to migrate to Madina..Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 20 of 85

LESSON 6MUHAMMAD IN MADINAIn 622, Converts from Yathrib offer Muhammad protection and he and about 70 Makkansmove to Yathrib (later to be called Medina) with 70 colleagues; this is known as the Hijrah(which means 'emigration' or 'flight'). He was invited to unite pagan Arab tribes in Yathrib inconflict with tribes converted to Judaism. He formed the Ummah or community of peoplewho accept him as prophet. He became the official judge-arbiter of all tribes in Yathrib(Medina).The classes of Muslims who made up the community in al-Madina are the Emigrants(Muharijun) - those who came from Mecca, the Helpers (Ansar) - those who receivedthem in Medina and the Hypocrites - Madinans who accepted Islam only superficially. In624, the Umma began raids to gain independent economic standing. The Umma defeatedlarge Quraysh force from Mecca. Then, in 628, Muhammad marched with 1000 men totake part in hajj to Mecca; he Signed treaty with Quraysh and withdrew. All pagan idolsand shrines in Mecca were destroyed. 631 was the year of deputations. The tribes fromHijaz and Najd came to offer submission and adopt Islam. In 632, Muhammad made afinal pilgrimage to Mecca with over 100,000 of his followers, and gave his last sermon. Hedied a few months later at Medina.The Madinan CharterThis is a document from Muhammad the Prophet (May Allah bless him and grant himpeace), governing relations between the Believers i.e. Muslims of Quraysh and Yathriband those who followed them and worked hard with them. They form one nation -- Umma.-The Quraysh Muhajirun will continue to pay blood money, according to their presentcustom. In case of war with anybody they will redeem their prisoners with kindness andjustice common among Believers. (Not according to pre-Islamic nations where the rich andthe poor were treated differently). The Bani Awaf will decide the blood money, withinthemselves, according to their existing custom.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 21 of 85

-In case of war with anybody all parties other than Muslims will redeem their prisoners withkindness and justice according to practice among Believers and not in accordance withpre-Islamic notions.-The Bani Saeeda, the Bani Harith, the Bani Jusham and the Bani Najjar will be governedon the lines of the above (principles) The Bani Amr, Bani Awf, Bani Al-Nabeet, and BaniAl-Aws will be governed in the same manner.-Believers will not fail to redeem their prisoners they will pay blood money on their behalf.It will be a common responsibility of the Ummat and not of the family of the prisoners topay blood money.-A Believer will not make the freedman of another Believer as his ally against the wishes ofthe other Believers. The Believers, who fear Allah, will oppose the rebellious elements andthose that encourage injustice or sin, or enmity or corruption among Believers.If anyone is guilty of any such act all the Believers will oppose him even if he be the son ofany one of them.-A Believer will not kill another Believer, for the sake of an un-Believer. (i.e. even thoughthe un-Believer is his close relative).-No Believer will help an un-Believer against a Believer.Protection (when given) in the Name of Allah will be common. The weakest among-Believers may give protection (In the Name of Allah) and it will be binding on all Believers.-Believers are all friends to each other to the exclusion of all others.-Those Jews who follow the Believers will be helped and will be treated with equality.(Social, legal and economic equality is promised to all loyal citizens of the State). No Jewwill be wronged for being a Jew.-The enemies of the Jews who follow us will not be helped.-The peace of the Believers (of the State of Madinah) cannot be divided. (it is either peaceor war for all. It cannot be that a part of the population is at war with the outsiders and apart is at peace).-No separate peace will be made by anyone in Madinah when Believers are fighting in thePath of Allah.-Conditions of peace and war and the accompanying ease or hardships must be fair andequitable to all citizens alike.-When going out on expeditions a rider must take his fellow member of the Army-share hisride.-The Believers must avenge the blood of one another when fighting in the Path of Allah(This clause was to remind those in front of whom there may be less severe fighting thatFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 22 of 85

the cause was common to all. This also meant that although each battle appeared aseparate entity it was in fact a part of the War, which affected all Muslims equally).-The Believers (because they fear Allah) are better in showing steadfastness and as aresult receive guidance from Allah in this respect. Others must also aspire to come up tothe same standard of steadfastness.-No un-Believer will be permitted to take the property of the Quraysh (the enemy) underhis protection. Enemy property must be surrendered to the State.-No un-Believer will intervene in favor of a Quraysh, (because the Quraysh havingdeclared war are the enemy).-If any un-believer kills a Believer, without good cause, he shall be killed in return, unlessthe next of kin are satisfied (as it creates law and order problems and weakens thedefense of the State). All Believers shall be against such a wrongdoer. No Believer will beallowed to shelter such a man.-When you differ on anything (regarding this Document) the matter shall be referred to -Allah and Muhammad (may Allah bless him and grant him peace).-The Jews will contribute towards the war when fighting alongside the Believers.-The Jews of Bani Awf will be treated as one community with the Believers. The Jewshave their religion. This will also apply to their freedmen. The exception will be those whoact unjustly and sinfully. By so doing they wrong themselves and their families.-The same applies to Jews of Bani Al-Najjar, Bani Al Harith, Bani Saeeda, Bani Jusham,Bani Al Aws, Thaalba, and the Jaffna, (a clan of the Bani Thaalba) and the Bani AlShutayba.-Loyalty gives protection against treachery. (loyal people are protected by their friendsagainst treachery. As long as a person remains loyal to the State he is not likely tosuccumb to the ideas of being treacherous. He protects himself against weakness).-The freedmen of Thaalba will be afforded the same status as Thaalba themselves. Thisstatus is for fair dealings and full justice as a right and equal responsibility for militaryservice.-Those in alliance with the Jews will be given the same treatment as the Jews.No one (no tribe which is party to the Pact) shall go to war except with the permission ofMuhammad (may Allah bless him and grant him peace). If any wrong has been done toany person or party it may be avenged.-Anyone who kills another without warning (there being no just cause for it) amounts to hisslaying himself and his household, unless the killing was done due to a wrong being doneto him.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 23 of 85

-The Jews must bear their own expenses (in War) and the Muslims bear their expenses.If anyone attacks anyone who is a party to this Pact the other must come to his help.-They (parties to this Pact) must seek mutual advice and consultation.Loyalty gives protection against treachery. Those who avoid mutual consultation do sobecause of lack of sincerity and loyalty.-A man will not be made liable for misdeeds of his ally.Anyone (any individual or party) who is wronged must be helped.-The Jews must pay (for war) with the Muslims. (this clause appears to be for occasionswhen Jews are not taking part in the war. Clause 37 deals with occasions when they aretaking part in war). Yathrib will be Sanctuary for the people of this Pact. A stranger(individual) who has been given protection (by anyone party to this Pact) will be treated ashis host (who has given him protection) while (he is) doing no harm and is not committingany crime. Those given protection but indulging in anti-state activities will be liable topunishment.-A woman will be given protection only with the consent of her family (Guardian). (a goodprecaution to avoid inter-tribal conflicts).-In case of any dispute or controversy, which may result in trouble the matter must bereferred to Allah and Muhammad (may Allah bless him and grant him peace), The Prophet(may Allah bless him and grant him peace) of Allah will accept anything in this document,which is for (bringing about) piety and goodness.-Quraysh and their allies will not be given protection. The parties to this Pact are bound tohelp each other in the event of an attack on Yathrib. If they (the parties to the Pact otherthan the Muslims) are called upon to make and maintain peace (within the State) theymust do so. If a similar demand (of making and maintaining peace) is made on theMuslims, it must be carried out, except when the Muslims are already engaged in a war inthe Path of Allah. (so that no secret ally of the enemy can aid the enemy by calling uponMuslims to end hostilities under this clause).-Everyone (individual) will have his share (of treatment) in accordance with what party hebelongs to. Individuals must benefit or suffer for the good or bad deed of the group theybelong to. Without such a rule party affiliations and discipline cannot be maintained. TheJews of al-Aws, including their freedmen, have the same standing, as other parties to thePact, as long as they are loyal to the Pact. Loyalty is a protection against treachery.-Anyone who acts loyally or otherwise does it for his own good (or loss).Allah approvesthis Document.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 24 of 85

This document will not (be employed to) protect one who is unjust or commits a crime(against other parties of the Pact).Whether an individual goes out to fight (in accordancewith the terms of this Pact) or remains in his home, he will be safe unless he hascommitted a crime or is a sinner. (i.e. No one will be punished in his individual capacity fornot having gone out to fight in accordance with the terms of this Pact).-Allah is the Protector of the good people and those who fear Allah, and Muhammad (mayAllah bless him and grant him peace) is the Messenger of Allah (He guarantees protectionfor those who are good and fear Allah).We need to state that, with his migration to Madina, a new phase in Muhammad’s strugglebegan. He became not only a prophet but also a head of an organized society. Havingreconciled the factions in Madina, he began his struggles with the Makkans and otheroppositions in a series of battles and negotiations. In 629, he made a pilgrimage toMakka. In 630, Makka submitted to Islam and Muhammad gained more converts. He diedin 632 in the house of his wife Aisha.Study Questions 5 and 6Comment on the following dates: 585, 622,570, 610.Explain why the year of elephant isimportant in the life of Muhammad.Give and explain the genealogy ofMuhammad.Analyze and reflect on the circumstancesof his migration to Madina.Did Muhammad need to make a charter inMadina? State the reasons.What are the major differences betweenMuhammad in Makka and Muhammad inMadina?Identify and explain the major issues in themedian charter.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 25 of 85

Summary 5 and 6Muhammad was a Makkan (A town in Arabia) and lived inMakka till 622. Then he migrated in Madina. The chapternarrates about his childhood, his adulthood, his marriage andparticularly his marriage with Khadija and his migration toMadina. But the central point here is the revelation he claimed tohave received and the circumstances around it. His life in Makkatells us about his life. It goes from 570 to 622, the year of hismigration to Madina. His life in Madina tells us about the way heestablished a religion that will become great. So the dates givenare very important for they testify that these events took place intime and space. His existence is not a myth or a story but ahistorical reality that should be known to know Islam.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 26 of 85

LESSON 7OVERVIEW OF ISLAMIC DOCTRINE AND BELIEFS1. What is Islam?“You are the best of peoples, evolved for mankind. Enjoining what is right, forbidding whatis wrong, and believing in Allah.” (S.3: 110)“Say: ‘Shall I take for my protector any other than Allah, the Maker of the heavens andearth? And He it is that feedeth but is not fed’. Say: ‘’Nay! But I am commanded to be thefirst of those who bow to Allah and be not thou of the company of those who join gods withAllah’” (s. 6:14).According to Muslims, Islam is the last revealed religion, which confirms the basicdoctrines preached by earlier prophets but renewed by the last prophet (Q. 42:13-15). Theword “Islam” originally comes from the Arabic term salam (peace). But in the course oftime and actually Islam means “submission to the will of Allah God.” Islam means peaceattained through voluntary self-surrender to God. Therefore, “a Muslim is the one whostrives to submit himself to Allah.” However, Islam is more than this. The truth is Islam isnot a simple system of doctrines and religious practices. It is much more than that, it is acomplete civilization. 1. It is FAITH and 2. It is a RITE 3. It is a LAW and 4. It is ETHICS5. It is a POLITICAL INSTITUTION 6. It is a CULTURE and 7. It is SPIRITUALITYIslam is the world’s second largest religion with a following of more than one billion peoplecalled Muslims, in other words one-fifth of humanity.Islam, according to the Qur’an, is the religion before Allah Q. 3:19). Indeed, whenMuhammad was asked what is Islam, he replied: Islam is to worship Allah alone and noneelse, to perform Salat, to pay Zakat, and to observe Fast during the month of Ramadan.(Cf. Sahih Bukhari on the book of Belief). The mission of Islam is described in s.42,15 asit says: “Now then, for that reason, call them to faith, and stand steadfast as thoucommanded, nor follow thou their vain desires; but say: I believe in whatever Book Allahhas sent down; And I am commanded to judge between you. Allah is the Lord and yourLord...Allah will bring us together, and to Him is our final goal.”However, we should know that there is a difference between Islam and Islamism. PerhapsFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 27 of 85

everything in Islamism begins with the various interpretation of sura12. Surat-ul-Yusufusays: “If not Him, you worship nothing but names which you have named, You and yourFathers, for which God has sent down no authority: the command is for none but God: Hehad commanded that you worship none but Him: the is the right religion, but most menunderstand not...(!2:40)Authority belongs to God alone. This short Qur’anic phrase is part of the central Islamicdoctrine and it is, somehow, the origin of Islamism. In today’s Islam, this short phrasebelongs to political Islam. It becomes the turning point of many ideologies. In other words,the legitimacy of any doctrine does not depend on democracy or on a consensus or on aconstitution or on a single person. Any legitimacy of a given society is solely based onGod’s decrees. This is what could be called a fundamentalist view of Islam: it is Islamism,or a group or ideologies in Islam; this is not Islam.Islamism is an ideology or a group of ideologies that demands man's complete adherenceto the sacred law of Islam and rejects as much as possible any other influence whethergood or bad, with some exceptions (such as access to military and medical technology). Itis imbued with a deep antagonism towards non-Muslims and has a particular hostilitytowards the West. It amounts to an effort to turn Islam, a religion and civilization, into anideology. Therefore, Islamism is a group of ideologies in Islam that want to use the Shariato its full extent, meaning that secular forms of governments and institutions areconsidered foreign to a true Muslim society. For the Islamists, Islam should be applied asa complete code, which provides for all areas of life, whether spiritual, intellectual, political,social or economic.But Islamism has taken many directions so that inside the same society, several trends ofIslamism can be found, and these are cooperating. There are four central motifs inIslamism:DifferencesIslamists are strongly concerned about social differences, between the rich and the poorworld, as well as inside the Muslim communities. As responsibility for the poor and theneedy is central in Islam (cf. Zakat: almsgiving), any situation with unevenly divided wealthand many poor people is unacceptable to a zealous Muslim. Islamists react towards boththe West for its reluctance to address the poverty of the world, as well as towards the richin their own societies, who are considered equally averse.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 28 of 85

Cultural problemsIslamists feel that they are losing their culture; that Western clothes, values, socialpatterns, political structures, language and identity are replacing what there once was.Islamists reject many elements of modern culture because they feel they are superfluousand dangerous. In many countries, the growth of Islamism must moreover be approachedin connection with an inferiority complex towards West; this is not only felt by Islamists, butalso by many other Muslims.We state here that Islam is growing at an annual rate of 3 percent. In 1900 Muslimscomprised about 12.4 percent of the world’s population. As of the year 2001, Muslimsnumber about 22% of the world’s population. We could count now European and AmericanMuslims. The growth is largely due to biological expansion; Muslims usually have largefamilies. Nevertheless, since September 11, it seems the population has been attenuated.But we can also say that Islam is more visible nowadays because of the free movementsof people. This does not mean that is growing.2. The major tenets of IslamThere is great need to grasp the fundamental tenets of Islam in order to understand thedevelopment of its doctrines and beliefs. The Qur’an says: “O ye who believe! Obey Allah,and obey the messenger, and those charged with authority among you. If ye differ inanything among yourselves, refer it to Allah and his Messenger, if ye do believe in Allahand the last day: that is best, and most suitable for final determination.” (s.4:59)Again the Qur’an states: “And obey Allah and his Messenger; that ye may obtainmercy”.(s. 3:132) The highest point in Islam is nothing but Submission or obedience. Thisobedience is due to the truth that Allah gave in the Qur’an, which was revealed, toMuhammad. Allah is the Creator of the universe, He revealed his message to mankindthrough Muhammad; and that message is contained in the Qur’an. Some fundamentalistMuslims believe that a Muslim should not be submitted to any created being, except toGod.a. Allah“Praise be to Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the worlds: most Gracious,MostMerciful: master of the Day of Judgment. (s. 1:2-4)Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 29 of 85

“Say. Shall we call on others besides Allah, things that can do us neither good nor harm,and turn on our heels after receiving guidance fro Allah? Like one whom the Satan havemade into a fool, wandering bewildered through the earth, his friends calling ‘come to us’,guiding him to the path. Say:’ Allah’s guidance is the only guidance, and we have beendirected to submit ourselves to the Lord of the worlds”. (s. 6:71)“ It is He who created for you all things that are on earth; then he turned to the heaven andmade them into seven firmaments. And of all things he hath perfect Knowledge.” (s. 2:29)Allah is the name of God in Arabic. He is one and unique; thus his uniqueness andoneness are affirmed throughout the Book. Allah has neither wife nor child (sura 112).Arabs believed in Him and adored Him before Islam -during the time of Ignorance, but notas unique. He is transcendent (above all created beings) and immanent (he is with thepeople through his Word and not through any other being, angelic or human). He alonemust be worshiped. He has many attributes such as creator, great, merciful, magnificent,master or master of the universe...: only 99 are known to men and women; the 100 th isunknown. The commonest feature is that He is Akbar (Allah Akbar: Allah is great) but thegreatest is that he is One. He gives his decrees to all men and women for guidance. Infact, the prophet’s mission was not to proclaim God’s existence but to deny the existenceof all lesser deities (for the name was known in the pre-Islamic period) and to announcethat he is the only One.b. The Qur’an“ And this is a Book which we sent down, bringing blessings and confirming which camebefore it: that thou mayest warn the mother of the cities and all around her.” (s. 6:92)“Do they ponder on the Qur’an? Had it been from other than Allah, they would surely havefound therein much discrepancy” (s.4: 81)“These are the Ayats of the Book of Wisdom. It is a matter of wonderment to men that wehave sent to a man from among them? That he should warn mankind and give the Goodnews to the believers. That they have before their Lord the good actions they haveadvanced. (s.10:1-2)“We have sent it down as an arabic, in order that you may learn wisdom” (s.12: 2)Can we say that as Christians have the Bible, Muslims have the Qur’an? Muslims believeGod dictated the Qur’an to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. It has a divine origin,though it was edited. “ And if you doubt as to what we revealed from time to time to ourFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 30 of 85

servant, then produce a sura like hereunto; and call your witnesses or helpers (if thereany) besides God, if your doubts are true” (Q. 2:23) Muslims believe that it was revealed inArabic. Because of this, many Muslims assert that the true Qur’an must be read in Arabic(12:2; 16:103). Many do not accept translations because they are mere interpretations. Itis, indeed, the very Word of God. For Christians, the Bible is the Word of God in humanlanguage as inspired men and women write it; for Muslims, the Qur’an is the very Word ofGod dictated word for word. According to them, the Qur’an is a recorded Word of Allah.Comparatively, Christians could say that the Word became flesh, Jesus; for the Muslims,the Word became Book: Qur’an. Thus the Qur’an can be compared to Jesus and not tothe Bible.The Qur’an contains 114 suras (chapters), and more or less 6200 ayats (verses). The firstsura, which is called al-Fatiha, opens the book. This sura is often compared to Our Fatherdue to its structure and content. Note that there is no chronology in the Qur’an, thus all thesuras are not given in the order of revelation; the longest come first. The longest of all issura Baqara with 286 ayats and it is, more or less, the summary of the whole Book. Eachsura has a proper name. Muslims are also asked to read three other holy books: theTorah (which are the first five books of the Old Testament), the Zabur (which is the Psalmsof David), and the Injiil (the gospel of Christ). The Qur’an is the first source of Islam.However, there are 3 other sources of Islam: the Hadith (the tradition of the prophet), theConsensus of the Scholars and personal opinions-Ijtihad and Qiyas.The major teachings of the Qur’an could be subtracted from the following Qur’anic verses.“Allah doth command you to render back your trusts to those to whom they are due; andwhen ye judge between people that ye judge with justice: verily how excellent is theteaching which he giveth you! For Allah is He who heareth and seeth all things.” (s. 4:58)The fact that the Qur’an is considered by the Muslims as the Book of guidance (S.2:1-6),implies that it guides Muslims by preaching the truth and giving warnings. The Qur’ancontains what Mankind should believe and what it should do or avoid. The earliestdoctrines revealed in Makka are: God’s Justice and judgment, strict monotheism, creationof the universe and Prophethood. The theme on Prophethood was repeated in Madina butthe madinan period is dominated by the revelation on regulations of the life in thecommunity (concerning marriage, inheritance, food, dress, banking...). Thus the Qur’anhas a great value in Islam. “This is the Book; it is guidance sure, without doubt, to thosewho fear Alla; who believe in the unseen, are steadfast in prayer, and spend out of whatFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 31 of 85

we have provided for them.” (s.2:2-3)The value of the Qur’an lies mostly in its origin, meaning and content. First, it isconsidered as the Book of Allah, the first source of Islam, for it gives the basic knowledgesomeone needs to know Islam. Secondly, the Qur’an is the essential material for Muslimeducation. Thirdly, some Qur’anic verses contain a sort of supernatural power that helpswhen it is revealed by some enlightened Muslims; they provide good health, easy birth,painless death, right direction, right choice...when they are recited by the faithful,especially in Arabic.Furthermore, it is important to state that Muhammad is not the author of the Qur’an. “Andif ye are in doubt as to what we have revealed from time to time to our servant, thenproduce a sura like thereunto; and call your witnesses or helpers besides Allah, if you aretruthful.” (s. 2:23).“Do they not ponder on the Qur’an? Had it been from other than Allah, they would havefound therein much discrepancy.” (s. 4:82)“Perchance thou mayest to give up a part of what is revealed unto thee, and they heartfeeleth strained because they say, why is not a treasure sent down unto him, or why doesnot an angel come down with him? But thou art there only to warn! It is Allah thatarrangeth all affairs! Or they may say, he forgets it. Say. Bring ye then ten suras forged,like unto it, and call whomever ye can, other Allah! If ye speak the truth. (s.11:12-13)Verse 82 of sura 4 says: “Do they not consider the Qur’an with care? Had it been fromother than God, they would surely have found therein much discrepancy”. The wholeMuslin tradition maintains that Muhammad did not write down the Qur’an, for he is not theauthor. It is said that he received it through divine inspiration and recited it for people to getGod’s message. However, many secretaries put it in writing as he was reciting. The chiefargument for this claim is that Muhammad was ummi, unlettered; he could neither read norwrite. Aisha, one of Muhammad’s wives, narrated: The angel came to him and asks him toread. The prophet replied: I do not know how to read” (Cf. Sahih Bukhari on the book ofrevelation). The majority of Muslims believe that the Qur’an is uncreated. However, therewas some Muslims (the Mutazilites) who believe that it was created. If we cannot say thatthe Qur’an was authored by any person, we can state that it was edited. “None of ourrevelations do we abrogate or cause to be forgotten, , but we substitute something betteror similar; knowest thou not that Allah hath power over all things.” (s.2:106) A few versesFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 32 of 85

were written on animal skin and other materials but the major part was in the memories ofthe Faithful. As the community continued waging war against the infidels, many Muslimswho had retained the Qur’an were killed. Uthman (644-656), the fourth orthodox Caliph,being afraid to lose everything, called his people, especially those who could remembersome verses for the editing. That was the first edition of the Qur’an. Copies were editedand sent to some prominent places such as Makka, Basra and Damascus.Nevertheless, how could we understand the contradictions -some verses are abrogated bysome others- found in the Qur’an with the teaching of divine origin of the Qur’an? Muslimtheologians responded in this way: As the very Word of God, it is said that Muhammadwould not change the Qur’an deliberately on his own authority; he did not change or omitanything in the Qur’an perhaps because of his forgetfulness. But God does initiatechanges in the Qur’an. So God initiated some abrogations of some verses.c. Muhammad and his succession“O ye believe! Do your duty to Allah, seek the means of approach unto Him, and strive inhis Cause: that ye may prosper.” (S.5:35)“And the servants of Allah Most gracious are who walk on the earth in humility, and whenthe ignorant address them, they say, peace.” (S.25:63)It is neither proper nor fitting -it is even an insult- to call the Muslims, Muhammadansbecause they are not followers of Muhammad but Servants of Allah. Though Muslimshighly respect Muhammad -he is part of the Shahada (Islamic profession of faith), they donot worship him; he is not God. Only God should be worshiped. However, many scholars,especially in the Middle Ages, made the mistake of calling them, Muhammadans. Ibelieve, this happened out of ignorance of the true Islamic doctrine or out of hatred thatnon-Muslims had towards them. The name “Muslims” goes in line with the Islamic doctrinein toto and gives respect due to them. Such lapses need to be corrected both for properappreciation of Islam and for sincere interreligious dialogue. “Muhammad is no more thana messenger: many were messengers that passed away before him. If he died or wereslain, will ye then turn back on your heels? If any did turn back on his heels, not the leastharm will he do Allah; but Allah will swiftly reward those who serve him with gratitude” (s.3:144). “Say: o men! I am sent unto you all, as the messenger of Allah, to whom belongedthe dominion of the heavens and the earth: there is no god but He that gave both life anddeath. So believe in Allah and his messenger, the unlettered prophet, who believeth inFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 33 of 85

Allah and his words: follow him that ye may be guided.” (s.7:158) “Muhammad is not thefather of any of your men, but the messenger of Allah, and the seal of the prophets.(s.33:40)Muhammad is the prophet of Islam. He is not the only one but the greatest and the last;he is the seal of the prophets. Born in 570 from Abdallah and Amina, he married in 590;and in 610, he received the first revelation, which marked the beginning of Islam. He livedin Makka till 622. Running from persecutions and other troubles, he migrated to Madinaand lived there until he died. There he consolidated the religion he founded. He died in632 after he had conquered Makka and cleaned the Kaaba, which is the center and theholiest place of Islam. Islam was founded or renewed in 610 A.D. by a man namedMuhammad. During Muhammad’s time, polytheism reigned since his ancestors andcontemporaries worshiped multiple gods. In this particular time, he claimed to have avision from a being he perceived to be an angel who said, “There is only one God, and Hisname is Allah, and worship Him.” and asked him to proclaim it.As seen above Muhammad has a special place in Islam and in the life of the Muslims. “Wehave truly sent thee as a witness, as a bringer of glad tidings, and as a waner: in order thatyou may believe in Allah and his messenger, that ye may assist and honour him, andcelebrate his paises, morning and evening.” (s.48:8-9). “Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah’sMessenger said, by him in whose hands my life is, none of you will have faith till he lovesme more than his father and his children” (cf. Sahih Al-Bukhari on the Book of belief)Though there is no doctrine of divinity as to Muhammad in Islam, but rather sustainedinsistence to the contrary, the prophet of Arabia is the human name the most associatedwith that of God. He is mentioned in the second clause of the Shahada (the first article offaith). A Muslim must believe in God alone; but he must acknowledge that Muhammad ishis prophet. Islamic life rests upon the precepts of the Qur’an and the example ofMuhammad (the Sunna of the prophet). “Narrated Jbair bin Mut`im: a woman came to theProphet who ordered her to return to him again. She said, what if I came and did not findyou? As if she wanted to say, if I found you dead? The Prophet said: if you should not findme, go to Abu Bakr. (cf. Sahih Al-Bukhari on the Book of Virtues and Merits of thecompanions of the Prophet)Islamic tradition testifies that there is no prophet after the death of Muhammad; thus hisFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 34 of 85

successors could not be called prophets but Caliphs. The first was Abu Bakr (632-634):his mission was to consolidate the community dislocated after the death of the prophet.Umar was the second (634-644): his mission was to expand Islam within and outsideArabia. The third was Uthman (644-656): faced with so many tensions, his reign wassimply full of dissatisfaction. Ali was the last (656-661): his reign faced a civil war; this ledthe ground for the numerous sects of Islam such as Sunnism, Shi`ism, Kharigism. Theperiod of the four immediate successors of Muhammad is called: Golden Age (Rashidun).The end of this period marks the beginning of empires. The first was the Umayyad period(661-750). The second was the Abbasid Empire (750-1258). In 1258 or thereabout, theAbbasid empire disintegrated and the Muslim world saw another ruling power: theOttomans. But after the First World War, the Turks were left with only the territory of thepresent Turkey. At the same time the Caliphate was abolished.Study Questions 7Is it true to say that Islam is faith, law,ethics, rite, practice, belief and politics?State your reasons.Who is Allah for the Muslims? Can youconfidently say that he is God, the God ofthe Christians? Comment on yourresponse.Comment on the macro and the microstructure of the Qur’an. Can youconfidently say that the Qur’an is therevealed Word of God? Explain yourresponse.What is the place of Muhammad in Islam?Can you confidently say that Muhammadis a prophet? What is your opinion?What are the differences between thesetwo expressions: (1) Muhammadans (2)Muslims.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 35 of 85

Summary 7This chapter is the central pint of this introduction and, indeed,of the whole study of Islam, for it explains, in one way or theother, what makes Islam to be Islam and not something else.Although Islam is politics, economy, rites, practices, it is first areligion. And each religion has some aspects that characterize itto be what it is. Islam turns around three realities: Allah whoreveals his word, The Qur’an which is taken as the revealed wordand Muhammad who is the messenger of Allah’s word. All otheraspects of Islamic doctrine turns around this three. If someonewants to understand Islam, let him study what Muslims sayabout Allah, the Qur’an and Muhammad.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 36 of 85

LESSON 8The Creed and pillars of IslamIslam has a creed that tells us about the essentials of muslim faith and practices throughwhich this faith is manifested. So the essentials of muslim faith constitutes the creed andthe major practices are the pillars.1. The Creed“O ye who believe! Believe in Allah and his Messenger, and the Scripture which he hathsent to his Messenger and the Scripture which he sent to those before him, Any whodenieth Allah, his Angels, his Books, his Messengers, and the day of Judgement, hathgone far, far astray” (s. 4:136)“ Those who listen, be sure, will accept: as the dead, Allah will raise them up; then will theybe returned unto Him.” (s.6:36)Islam has six functional beliefs that every Muslim must accept as a part of his/her religion.Every Muslim learns this formular as a part of his/her religious training.1. Belief in God” (Allah) Allah is one.2. Belief in the angels” Malaika3. Belief in the revealed Books of God: Kitab, plr kutub (Torah, Zabur, Injil, Qur’an)4. Belief in God’s prophets”(including Adam, Abraham, Moses, David). Some are Rasul (aProphet with a Book) while some others are Nabi (a prophet without a book).5. Belief on the Last Day and judgement: yaum al-kiyama6. Belief in life after deathApart from these six canonical beliefs, Muslims also recognize the power of Satan. Theyalso know that Ishmael (the father of the Arab world) not Isaac received the promise fromGod through Abraham; This helps to explain why Arab Muslims feel that their claim to theHoly Land is a God-given right. Muslims respect the dead and take care of them until theyare laid into the tomb. Narrated Umm `Atiyya: Allah’s Messenger came to us when hisdaughter died and said, wash her three, five or more times with water and sidr if you thinkit is required and sprinkle camphor or something of it on her at the end; and when youfinish notify me. So when we finished, we informed him and he gave us his waist-sheetFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 37 of 85

and told us to shroud her in it.” (Sahih Al-Bukhari on the Book of funerals)“Narrated Ibn `Umar when `Abdallah bin Ubai died, his son came to the Prophet and said,O Allah’s Messenger, please give me you’re your shirt to shroud him in it, offer his funeralprayer and ask for Allah’s forgiveness for him. (Sahih Al-Bukhari on the Book of funerals).The treatise on Malik Law speaks of the attendance at the death. The dead person isturned towards the Qibla (Makka), his eyes are closed as soon as he expires, he is clothedwith clean tunic; sometimes sura 36 is recited. Moreover there are prayers to be said andintercessions to be made for the dead.Again, there is no doubt that Muslims strife to be saved and have eternal life. Muslimsbelieve that all their works will be accounted for and that on judgment Day. If one’s awfulworks outweigh good works, the person goes to hell. The opposite leads to heaven.However, since God is all-powerful according to their understanding, Muslims concedethat Allah may do with you as he pleases, even if you have been very righteous. Theyhope for a third possibility: that a Muslim could go to hell and burn his sins off for a whileand then be allowed to enter into Paradise. The only way Muslims can be guaranteed togo to Paradise is through “Jihad” literally means “fighting for God.” One could be in Jihadby writing a book about Islam, or by sharing his faith to bring others to Islam, or byphysically fighting for the cause of Islam. If a Muslim dies in “Jihad,” he is guaranteed togo to Paradise. The following verses explain their belief in the life after death. “Then, onthat day, not a soul will be wronged in the least, and ye shall but be repaid the needs ofyour past deeds” (s. 36:54). “And if ye are slain or die in the way of Allah, forgiveness andmercy from Allah are far better than all they could amass. And if ye die or slain, lo! It isunto Allah that ye are brought together. (s. 3:157-158). “Those who leave their homes inthe cause of Allah, and are then slain of die, on them Allah will bestow verily a goodlyprovision: Truly Allah is he who bestows the best provision. (s.22:58)2. The PillarsThere are five pillars that the majority of Muslims all over the world recognize as the fiveways through which faith is put into practice.1.Say the profession of faith. (Shahada) A Muslim must confess, “la ila illa allah waMuhammad rasul Allah: There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the prophet of God.”2. Prayer five times a day. (Salat) Muslims are supposed to pray five times a day: shortlyFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 38 of 85

efore sunrise, mid-morning, noon, mid-afternoon, and after sunset. Daily prayers are anobligatory activity that a Muslim, male and female, poor and rich, must observe at fivedifferent and prescribed times. It is highly considered as means through which a Muslimcomes closer to God. It symbolizes equality and fosters unity, solidarity among Muslims.Muslims pray at dawn, early afternoon, late afternoon, early evening and late evening.Apart from these regular hours, Muslims have distinct supererogatory prayers. “Andestablish regular prayers at the two ends of the day and at the approaches of the night: forthose things that are good, remove those that are evil: that is a reminder for the mindful.”(s. 11:114)They turn to one direction (Qibla) while praying. Qibla is the direction to which Muslimsturn in praying, thus there is a niche in each mosque indicating the direction of the Kaaba.Islam and prayer are inseparable. Just as Muhammad’s career revolved around Makka,the city of his first prophetic warnings and his final victory, so his community acknowledgesthe religious centrality of the Makkan Qiblah. This simple gesture makes them part of onehistory and one keeps them in solidarity. “Narrated Bara (bin Azib): Allah’s Messengeroffered the Salat (Prayer) facing Bait-ul-Maqdis for sixteen or seventeen months but heloved to face kaaba at Makka. Narrated jabir: The Prophet used to offer Salat while ridingon his mount wherever it turned, and whenever he wanted to pray the compulsory salat,he dismounted and prayed facing the qibla. (Cf. Sahih Al-Bukhari on the Book of As-Salat)However, it is compulsory to purify themselves before prayer, for they believe that theystand before Allah who is pure. “O ye who believe! When you prepare for prayer, washyour faces, and your hands, and arms to the elbows; rub your heads with water; and washyour feet to the ankles. If you are in a state of ceremonial impurity, bathe your whole body.But if you are ill, or in a journey, or one of you came from the privy or you have been incontact with women, and you find no water, then take for yourselves clean sand or earth,and rub therewith faces and hands. (s. 5:6) As we mentioned above, Islam values rites;thus the ritual Purification before prayer is not only required but also compulsory becauseAllah cannot be approached with impurity. Usually, jars of clean water are put before eachmosque in order to facilitate the ablution before anyone goes into. Islam establishedFriday as the day of assembly, the weekly meeting and the common public worship of thebelievers during which the Imam reviews the week’s life of the community and offersadvice and exhortations on good conduct. However, in the entire Islamic Community,Friday is not a consecrated free day. “O ye believe!, When the call is proclaimed to prayerFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 39 of 85

on Friday (the day of assembly), hasten earnestly to remembrance of Allah, and leave offbusiness: that is best for you if ye but knew! And when the prayer is finished, then may yedisperse through the land, and seek of the bounty of Allah: and remember Allah frequentlythat you may prosper” (s.62: 9-10)3. Alms-giving (Zakat). Muslims (good health, possession and age matter) are to giveabout 2.5 percent of their wealth for the poor, the miserable, the stranded travelers and forthe sustenance of new converts, for those who collect the Zakat and for the spread ofIslam. Note that zakat is different from sadaqa for while zakat is compulsory and followswell defined structures; sadaqa enjoys the freedom of the giver.4. Fast during Ramadan. (Sawn) For one lunar month, from sunrise to sunset, Muslimsare called to abstain form eating, drinking, sexual activities and ...in order to experiencethe feelings of those who have not and create the awareness of coming to their aid... Thenfrom sunset to sunrise, they are permitted to come back to their legal and allowedactivities. This is their way of developing discipline and relating to the poor. (Travelers,young children and pregnant or nursing mothers do not need to keep the fast).5. Make a pilgrimage to Makka. (Hajj) Every Muslim who is financially able and healthy issupposed to travel to the birthplace of Islam once in his or her lifetime. There he or she willperform a number of spiritual activities loaded with great symbolism that reminds them ofsome truths of their faith such as venerating the black stone (symbol of the uniquenessand the oneness of Allah), the stoning of Satan (symbol of rejecting evil), sacrifice (as thesacrifice of Abraham). The intention for which the pilgrimage is made is one of the mostimportant features of it. “O ye who believe! Fear Allah as he should be feared, and die notexcept in a state of Islam” (s. 3:103).“Guard strictly your habit of prayers. Especially the middle prayer, and stand before Allahin a dvout frame of mind” (s. 2:238)“And be steadfast in prayer: give Zakat, and bow down your heads with those who bowdown.” (s. 2:43).“Fasting for the a fixed number of days; but any of you is ill, or on a journey, the prescribednumber should be made up from days later. For those who can do it, is aransom...(s.2:184)“Behold safa and Marwa are among the symbols of Allah. So if those who visit the housein the season or at other times, should compass them round. It is no sin in them.” (s.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 40 of 85

2:158) As a work-oriented religion, Islam requires that a Muslim earn his way to Paradiseby performing the five pillars of the faith.Study Questions 8Critically explain the articles of MuslimCreed and show how they can be helpfulto you.Name and comment of the five pillars andshow how they can help your life.Muslim Fasting is only from sunrise tosunset, do you think that it genuine? Whatis your opinion?We hear from the media that manyMuslims die during pilgrimage to Makka.Do you think that it is a spiritual exercisehat someone must undergo? What is youropinion?Summary 8With this chapter, we have arrived at both the internal andexternal life of a Muslim. The creed and all its content is what AMuslim must believe; the pillars are what a Muslim should do.Although there are many other articles of the Muslim faith, thefive points presented here are the most concise summary of theirfaith. Again, Muslims have many practices but the onespresented here are the most concise summary of the expression oftheir faith. However, someone needs to study this creed and thepillars to get their full content, for they say more than what itstated here. For instance, to believe in one God as expressed inIslam, has a lot of insight, implications and consequences to thedaily life of a Muslim. It also affect the relations betweenMuslims and non-Muslims.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 41 of 85

LESSON 9SHARI`A, ISLAMIC LAWThere are two major reasons why I am writing this article: the first is to demystify some viewsabout Shari`a or Islamic Law. I do not intend to belittle it or to empty it from its value withinIslam but to present it to Christians as a subject that can be studies with instruments of ourpost-literate world. The second is to invite Christians to have a working knowledge as thestudy of Shari`a is concerned; with this, Christians could have an insight that could dissipatesome fears and suspicions.The concept “Shari`a” means etymologically way, path or road that leads to a source of water.This is the meaning underlined in suras 42:13 and 21, 45:18, 5:48. In these passages, Shari`ais strictly a way of life that Allah ordained for his people. The religious obligations, which wererevealed to Muhammad, are its content. Shari`a is the law of Islam, based on the Qur’an andthe Sunna of the prophet. Shari`a is, therefore, the practical aspect of Islam that embraces thetotality of the religious, political, social, domestic and private life of a Muslim. Therefore,essentially, Shar`ia law is not a criminal law but a way to God. As given by God, according toMuslims, Shar`ia stipulates what is permitted and forbidden. Shar`ia becomes a problem tosociety when its human interpretation (Fiqh) is taken as God’s word. Many Muslim leaderstake shari`a (God’s revealed law) for Fiqh (jurisprudence). This is what Christian need todiscuss; it constitutes the subject matter of our enquiry.Hence, it seems to me that the intellectual atmosphere of our time is becoming more andmore collective that scientific investigations are no longer limited to one discipline or to acategory of people or to one faith/religion but cumulative as people solicit an wide range ofknowledge. This is, perhaps due to an increasing number of interactions at all levels and tothe interdisciplinary dimension of today’s world. For instance, the problem that emanatesfrom Christian-Muslim encounters and man’s desire to find lasting and effective solutions insetting some guidelines for justice and peace among the believers of different religions havepressed us to present to Christians some essential points related to Shar`ia or the Muslim law.Shari`a has never been an issue reserved to solely Muslim, for it application affects all.According to Abdur Rahman I. Doi, Shar`ia - the path shown by Allah and believed by allMuslims- is the only law that liberates man, individually and collectively, from all kinds ofFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 42 of 85

servitudes. 1 It is, therefore, fundamental that Christians inquire on its nature, origin andextension and find out how such law liberates; this could help Christians to establish friendly,sincere and more reasonable relations with the Muslims.Many Christians would view this as strange or even inadequate subject because, they think, aspeech on Shar`ia would only be useful in a Muslim context. We know quite well that theword “Shar`ia” alone arouses great fear in the hearts of many Christians in Africa that none ofthem wishes to reside in any kind of Shar`ia territory because when they speak about it, theyspontaneously think of a kind of degraded zones. It will be, therefore, difficult or impossible toconvince Christians that Shar`ia could liberate people. However, I understand that Shar`iaand its enforcement in a political institution should be regarded as a non-negligible point in thehistorical struggle of man in willing to create just societies. Salf El-Din `Abdel Fattah says:Islamic religious law, which has celestial origins, corresponds to human nature. Itsfoundations, in fact, are based on what is required by the unchanging nature shared byall men. In particular, it meets the needs for justice. 2To make it clear, the issue of Shar`ia together with the call to set up Shari`a states is neithersurprising nor strange to many African Christians living in South of Sahara, for they havealready witnessed a few attempts in Nigeria and in Sudan. Unfortunately, this state of affairsis not only refuted by Christians but also by many Muslims who exclaim “the time of Medinawill never come back”. Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im wrote:In view of the nature of Shari`a, as historically understood by Muslims, the modernterritorial state should neither seek to enforce it as positive law and public policy norclaim to interpret Shari`a doctrine and principle for its Muslim citizens. 3Shar`ia states can only be established by force not by a genuine demand of the peoplebecause it violates the basic tenets of human rights; thus, it is not applicable to the modernman. Nevertheless, because of lack of solid information on the subject, someone mightendlessly speculate and fail to bring out consistent as well as coherent arguments to supportthis claim. We, therefore, thought that it is decidedly imperative to look into the sources ofShar`ia, its nature and background for more evidence and objectivity.1 Abdur Rahman I. Doi, Shar`ia: the Islamic Law (London: Ta Ha Publications, 1997), p. 2.2 Saif El-Din `Abdel Fattah, Between God and his servants there is the Shar`ia in Oasis ( Germany: PassaviaDruckserviace Gmbh,2007), p.303 Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im, The time of Medina will never come back in Oasis ( Germany: Passavia DruckserviaceGmbh,2007), p 33Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 43 of 85

The primary sources of Shar`iaMuslims know and believe that Shar`ia is naturally a text-based law, for it is contained inthe sacred text, which is the Qur’an and depends on the Qur’an. So the first source ofShar`ia is obviously the Qur’an. Modernists, reformists and fundamentalists willconfidently affirm that the Qur’an is the first source of Shar`ia since they all claim that ithas divine origin. `Abdel Fattah says: “Islamic religious law, the Shar`ia, in its essentialprinciples is not based on the historical experience of a society or a community –it hasdivine origins”. 4 This is a logical statement because the Qur’an itself is believed to have adivine origin and that Muhammad is not its author. This is actually affirmed in the Hadith:For instance, Sahih Al-Bukhari recounts:Narrated `Aisha, the mother of the faithful believers: Al-Hârith bin Hishâm askedAllâh’s Apostle ‘O Allâh’s Apostle! How is the Divine inspiration revealed to you?’Allâh’s apostle replied, ‘Sometimes it is revealed like the ringing of a bell, this form ofinspiration is the hardest of all and then this state passes after I have grasped what isinspired. Sometimes the angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and Igrasp whatever he says.’ `Aisha added: verily I saw the Prophet being inspireddivinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead as theinspiration was over. 5Al-Bukhari, who in a special way gives the decorum in which Muhammad received hisrevelation, authenticates the idea that the Qur’an has a divine origin and ipso facto the divineorigin of the Shar`ia.The Muslim conception of the Shari`a flows directly from their traditional conception of theQur’an as a whole. Since the Shari`a is Qur’anic and that the Qur’an is divine, it is understoodthat the Shari`a is divine. We, perhaps, need to know that Muslims throughout the worldconsider the Qur'an as the book of Allah or the very Word of Allah. This consideration is wellestablished in the book itself because many verses state that Allah revealed it; Allah sent it forthe guidance of humankind (6:92; 17:105). In sura Al-Ahqaf, for instance, we read the explicitstatement: “The revelation of the book is from Allah the Exalted in power, full of Wisdom”(46:2). Moreover, in sura An-Nisa, especially in verses 77-82, the Qur'an invites people to4 Saif El-Din `Abdel Fattah, op.cit., p. 305 Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Sahih Al-Bukhari (Chicago: North Wells Street, 1976), p. 2.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 44 of 85

elieve in its message because it originated from Allah; therefore it is a message of truth. Inverse 82 of the same sura, the Qur'an justifies that invitation by saying: “Do they not ponderon the Qur'an? Had it been from other than Allah, they would surely have found therein muchdiscrepancy.”I think it would not be wrong to consider Shar`ia as one of those Qur’anic messages or eventhe juridical aspect of the Qur’an in toto. I agree with what Joseph Schacht says when hetalks about the widespread influence of Shar`ia:The sacred law of Islam is all-embracing body of religious duties, the totality of Allah’scommands that regulate the life of every Muslim in all its aspects; it comprises on anequal footing ordinances regarding worship and ritual, as well as political and, in thenarrow sense, legal rules. 6However, there have been tremendous human efforts of interpretations, classifications andunderstandings of Qur’anic elements of the law right from the beginning of Islam. TheSunna/Hadith which constitutes the second source of Islamic law plays a remarkable roleas legal interpretations for the meaning of the Qur’an. In other words, the Hadith is thefirst interpretation of the Qur’an; it also interprets the law. There are other sources ofShar`ia that make great impact in the study of Islamic law, particularly today; these couldconstitute another article. We do not concentrate on them.Definition of Shari' aThere are diversity of meanings of the concept of Shari’ a but, as a religious concept, it meansfirst a way towards salvation, as way of life in God. The concept "Shar`ia" itself meansetymologically way, path or road that leads to a source of water where Arabs and their cattlecould quench their thirst. By analogy, the way that leads to Allah was called Shar`ia sinceAllah is the giver of life. Shari’ a, therefore is generally considered as the way to salvation, away to God. Shari`a is or Islamic law is the sacred law of Islam, the all-embracing body thatregulates the entire life of Muslims as individuals and as community; it is the most typicalmanifestation of the Islamic way of life. 7 Shari`a responds to some questions through which itis most known to Africans: what food may one eat? What clothes may one wear? How andwhen should one pray? Gamal Moursi Badr says:6 Joseph Schacht, An Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), p. 1.7 Ibid.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 45 of 85

Shari`a indicates not only what individual is entitled or bound to do in law, but also whathe or she ought, in conscience, to do or refrain from doing. Accordingly, certain acts areclassified a praiseworthy (mandub) which means that their performance carries religiousmerit and their omission religious demerits. 8However, Lucie provost notes that the ideological interpretation of the term “Shari`a” is at thevery heart of another conflict, between two modes of knowledge, which are the basis of legalscience, and its application: the knowledge received through revelation and the one receivedthrough human reason. 9 From these two modes of knowledge stream two different conflictingconcepts: Shari' a and Fiq. Shari`a is the revealed law while Fiq is the human interpretation ofthe Shar`ia or the science of the divine law. Unfortunately, many times, one is taken for theother; Muslims do not clearly know whether a particular speech, regulation, or pronouncementis Shari`a or Fiq.Shari' a as a positive lawSura 42:13 and 21, 45:18, 5:48 explicitly contain the word Shari’ a. Although the idea ofway/road to salvation is still maintained in these passages, these same references advocatefor legal structures as Shar`ia is concerned and manifests itself as a positive law. Tabari said:Shari' a is the determination-of-the-shares-of-inheritance, legal punishments, commandinggood and forbidding the evil. Moreover, according to some commentators, Q. 42: 13 and 21brings together the two concepts of Shar`ia and din (Religious obligations). This is what ledsome fundamentalists to confuse religion and Shar`ia and consider Shar`ia as the religion ofall. But from what comes out from sura 5:48-51, we discover that religion is one and the sameto all people while Shar`ia is manifold, for it differs from one community to another: “Religionis the same but Allah has prescribed a different Shari`a to people. So the Jews, the Christiansand the Muslims have different Shari' a” (5, 48- 51).It was the will and the plan of Allah to reveal different Shari`a to different people. So theconfusion between religion and Shar`ia is not Qur'anic, therefore not permissible. In spite ofthis, many Muslims still confuse Shari`a with religion. This is not new in the Umma, for theearly Muslims did not make a great difference between what was legal and what wasreligious. Muhammad preached the practical aspect of the religious and social.8 Cf. Gamal Moursi Badr. http//www.jstor.org/jstor/gifcvtdir9 Lucie Provost, Islamic identity and divine law: notes on the concept of Shari'a. In Encounter (Rome: PISAI, 1997), p. 5.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 46 of 85

According to those who do not distinguish religion from law, God did not will to give differentlaws which go into various changes; instead he wanted only one and that is the law of Islam.With this conception, the meaning of Shar`ia is extended to that universal religion establishedby Allah (fasting for the month of Ramadan,. Ritual prayer, pilgrimage to Macca, almsgiving...); Islam should, therefore embrace all.ProblemsWho can change or modify the law in Islam? It is known that laws promulgated by an authoritycan only be abrogated by itself or by a superior authority, but not by an inferior one. Now aswe said above, Shari'a is a divine law, it is a law made and given by God. It goes withoutsaying that only a divine authority or a posterior divine revelation that can abrogate it. Eventhe direction of Muhammad can be abrogated either by God or by himself. So during hislifetime, Muhammad was abrogating some. But what happens after his death?People after Muhammad can only interpret the law; they have no power to change anything.The death of Muhammad marked the end of revelation, which had the force of ordering everylaw, abrogating or modifying every custom or practice. Thereafter, the Muslim community wasobliged to be contented with the legislation already accomplished by Muhammad. 10The Qur'an does not cover some areas of the lawIf the science of law is the knowledge of the rights and duties whereby man is enable toobserve right conduct in this world, and to prepare himself for the future life, it will seem thatthe law is restricted to private law. Therefore, it does not cover the field of public law, criminallaw, constitutional law, law governing land tenure.Besides, only a small portion of eight verses can be considered legislation in the strict senseout of six thousand and two hundred, the sum of all verses. The rest are concerned withreligious duties. Thus, a scanty material could not build a system of law.3 Attempt of the schools of lawThe four sources mentioned above may not be considered as the only the foundationalstructures of Shar`ia, for many outstanding scholars have the same opinion over the10 Muhammad Hamidullah, Introduction to Islam (Lagos: Islamic Publication Bureau: 1981), p. 129.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 47 of 85

influences that Muhammad must have been received. There is no way Muhammad couldescape the weight of certain existing cultures: Jewish and Christian regulations as well as theArabian traditional practices. A thorough history of Islam reveals that the non-Arab Muslimsand non-Muslims worked tremendously for the systemization and re-birth of both tenets andviews of the Umma with reference to the law especially during the Umayyad and the Abbasidperiods. We recall that from 661 to 1258, Islam had moved into vast territories that had bothnative and borrowed legislations. Is there any culture that escapes the historical forces ofinfluences?As a matter of facts, the need to systematize the whole law into four consensual schools (atleast among the Sunni), is a fabulous indication of the on-going reshaping and restructuring ofShar`ia. The four schools were actually founded and developed as a need of the communityto set some guidelines that could work for the fitness of Shar`ia in all the conquered lands. Ofcourse, the existence of different understandings and perceptions could not be ignored orneglected.a)The school founded by Abu Hanifa adopted Qiyas (Application of his intelligence) as atool for judging and choosing the most equitable or nearest to the general rules when hefaced, for instance by two opinions or more attributed to the companions of the Prophet. Thatwas done by applying to legal judgments. b) the school of Malik ibn Anas accommodatedthe customs of Madina; that is what the inhabitants of Madina had transmitted from onegeneration to the next. c) Ash-Shafi'i appealed to the principles of the law: Consensus.Having noticed different positions in different countries in the matter of law, he chose thecommon opinion of the scholars concerning particular questions. And d) Ibn Hambal upliftedFiq; for him Fiq –jurisprudence- which use a good dose of rationalism was to guidetradition. 11The four schools are Sunni (90% of the Muslims in the world); and every Sunni is obliged tobelong to one of them. However, these understandings have different backgrounds that wewill not be surprised that different individuals, people or groups have contradictoryapplications.11 Cfr. Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs. From the earliest times to the present. (New York: St. Martin'sPress, 1968), p. 397.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 48 of 85

4. Shari`a considered as religion (Q.2:243-244)When Shari’a is taken as religion, its separation from it becomes difficult or impossible;consequently, it becomes an unbearable law to the supposed non-recipient and evensome recipients suffer. The Quran says:“The same religion has he established for you as that which he enjoined on Noah- theone we have sent to thee...” (s.42:13). “Then we put thee on the right way of religion:so follow thou that way, and follow not the desires of those who know not” (s. 45:18).The non-separation of religion and law as Shari`a is concerned generates somediscrepancies. For example, the partition between religion and politics in Islam becomesunacceptable by many Muslims because both aspects seem to be inseparable. SomeMuslims and non-Muslims restlessly struggle for their divorce. Thus, many learned Muslimswho consider it as a cry of the modern world call for the separation of religion and politics inIslam. This could perhaps save the non-Muslims because even during the time ofMuhammad, non-Muslims suffered pains and died because of the duality of religion-politics inIslam. During Muhammad's time, the people of the Book according to the Qur’an (Jews andChristians) were regarded as second citizens; they were not accepted but tolerated afterfulfilling some conditions such as paying a tax ( Jizya). Two options were given the Dhimmis(tolerated people): either they were converted to Islam and found freedom or they could paytax and continue professing their religions. On the contrary, the pagans (according to theQur’an) were given two different choices: conversion to Islam or death. The world was dividedinto three territories: the world of Islam (the Muslims), the people of the book "Dhimmis "(Jewsand Christians) and the pagans.These practices continue up-to-date especially where Muslims are in majority. For instance, inSudan, north of Nigeria and Egypt, though the non-Muslims enjoy the protection of thegovernment, they do not have equal rights with the Muslims. In spite of solemn declarationsgiven by many Muslim leaders that shari'a law is applicable to Muslims only, Christianscontinue to suffer deprivation and molestation. In the case of Nigeria, we know that AlhajiMuhammad Maccido, the Sultan of Sokoto, once declared in "The Guardian, September 25,2000 that since Shari'a is a way of life of Muslims, it must continue but it will not affect non-Muslims”. Meanwhile, non-Muslims who live in areas where Shari'a is enforced are stillvictimized. This situation generates conflicts among Muslims and non-Muslims; it reallyundermines all the rising calls made by people who believe in interfaith dialogue initiatives andunity.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 49 of 85

Even among Muslims, Shar`ia a law is not made to set up a just society but to preserve andmaintain justice. In other words, Shar`ia should be implemented and only when commutative,associative as well as social justice reigns.5. Application of Shari`a as a positive law for a second mission of Islam and theaffirmation of identityAccording to some renowned Muslim scholars like Taha, Islam has two missions: the first isthe application of the Quran and the second the application of its principles. The firstrefers to the contemporaries of Muhammad and the second to the Muslims of today. So theprinciples of the Qur'an must be reinforced regardless of time for some; that is Shari`a, asGod's law is above time and space. Nevertheless, a few calls for a comprehensive definitionof the context in which it must be implemented for a better application. From time to time, thecommunity of the Muslims raises some reformers who do not work for substantial change ofthings but possibly present them in different ways. Presently, Muslims discovered that theWest is corrupting the world, including Islam. So the only way of fighting such decline ofmentalities, attitudes and behaviors, is to bring back Shari' a, reinforce it to all Muslims, not asa way but as a legislation of private, public as well as civil matters. That is what we find in theso-called Islamic countries where Shar`ia appears to be the constitution of some nations likeSaudi Arabia, Pakistan, Iran, Soudan, Afghanistan, and the North of Nigeria. Theimplementation of Shar`ia today is therefore a reaction to the western civilization or Europeanimmorality.The same reasons of corruption, immorality, according to a good number of governors in theNorth of Nigeria, do call for Shari`a. The governor of Zamfara State and others decided toreinforce Shari' a in their States because they believe that where national policy has failed,Shari’a could succeed to re-establish order. We find the same mentality among the Muslimsin the Sudan. Miguel Ayuso Guixot, commenting on the relations between Human Rights andIslamic law in the Sudan, wrote:The application of Islamic Law, with its consequent lack of respect for the minorities, wellexpressed by the Sudan Council of Churches (SCC) paper, mentioned above, placed theGovernment and its policy in a position of self-defense of Western policies and, therefore,strongly insisting in supporting of the application of Islamic law.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 50 of 85

Unfortunately, in these two referential cases (Nigeria and the Sudan), the differentbackgrounds, and diversified native laws, the multiplicity of religions and philosophies do notwork for such enterprise. In the case of Nigeria, the implementation of Shari’a perhapssucceeded in the 15 th century in the Hausa Land because Nigeria as one nation never was;what existed were not Nigeria but various tribes and Kingdoms. We know moreover that in19 th Century, Uthman Dan Fodio raged a war against the rulers who secularized Islam. Weequally know that during colonization, the British accepted Shar`ia as a native law since it wasalready a written. So Shari`a was used in the North of Nigeria but specifically in mattersconcerning marriage, inheritance and ownership of lands. We recall that the British settlersused an indirect rule to govern the nation but this turned to be an indirect way of promotingand protecting Shar`ia and the Islam. Non-Muslims were rejected and the non-Muslimschools disallowed for a while. It was the most popular law in pre-independent Nigeria andthis popularity might have been one of the motives behind all the attempts (1978 and 1989) ofmaking Shar`ia the constitution of the country. A new attempt was made in 2001. Is going tosucceed?Even if the Shari'a is considered as the law of all, its first source (Quran) does not containpositive rules that could guide people in various matters. In criminal law, for example, theQuran list six cases namely unlawful sexual relations, false accusation of unchastity, theft,wine-drinking, armed robbery and apostasy. Furthermore, in judging these crimes, the judgeswere neither effective nor powerful because of the conditions laid down by the Quran forfinding the truth. Out of 6200 verses, 200 admit juridical construction and only 80 are explicit.There is therefore a great work of scholars of interpreting what God has revealed in theQur'an. It is here that we find great confusion between what Allah ordained from all eternityand what people (scholars) acclimatize from time to time, mostly for their benefits andadvantages.6. Shar`ia: theocracy or normocracyWith all the above mentioned, I am tempted to assert Shar`ia, instead of establishing thepower of God on earth, demonstrates the power of the law. We are, therefore dealing with anormocracy, which introduces a legal system more rigid, and less responsive to the needs ofthe society. Such system cannot be questioned because it becomes divorced from reality. 1212 R.M. savory (ed.), Introduction to Islamic civilization (London: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p.57.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 51 of 85

We wonder whether Shari'a has ever been successfully applied in history. Nevertheless,Muhammad is quoted in al-Athar as having said, "Do not enforce your own ethics on yourchildren; they have been created for a time other than yours." If this pronouncement is validwith children who are hardly three decades apart from their parents, how much more it mustbe accurate to those who live several centuries apart from their ancestors. 137. Relevance of such informationPeople who are aware of Shar`ia and its subsequent issues ask, what could be done?Perhaps our response in this paper will not bring out the importance of the matter at hand, sowe rely on Jesus especially in what his reassuring Word expressed in the parable of thesower in Lk8,4-l5. The sower comes out to sow the seed that will be the bread from whichpeople live. Everybody depends on the activities of the sower and the product of the land.However, there are many dangers opposed to the seed growing: the unworkable stonyground, the weeds, and the bad weather. Everything seems to condemn the sower's work.We are the new sowers of the Gospel, we are the sower of the Word of today that could helppeople to grow, practice justice and establish peace in the world. I know that Muslims have adifferent perspective as the identity of Christ is concerned but they still consider Him as agreat prophet whose life was without reproach. Thus, they can still listen to him and uprootthe weeds that prevent Shar`ia to fit into the protecting laws of the modern world.It is, therefore, time to think again of our work in the world of today. On one hand, majority ofMuslims believe that Shar`ia sets a straight path toward God and purifies the human race. Onthe other hand, Shar`ia questions our minds and our lives as we live in a society, which ismore pluralistic than ever. Shari`a should challenge our Christian faith and beliefs, particularlyas we meet the Muslims with whom we ought to built our world and make it a better place.Christians should know and know quite well that they could challenge the Muslims if theycould live an outstanding moral life; this could force Muslims to re-consider theimplementation of Shari`a. We have to examine ourselves and see how far our justice,obedience, moral life, religious life and interrelationship have gone. The Muslims observe andmaybe realize that Christian morality is not even the commendable way of life that couldshape this world; so they continue wrinkling on Shari`a as the better option. As we sow, let us13 Cf. Http://wvvw.light-of-l(le.com/eng/answer/a4990efill.htmFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 52 of 85

e God's seed-corn, maybe we will stand firm and help this world to become admirable. Weshould be both the sower and the seed that we may sow ourselves by changing if not showingexamples worthy to be imitated.In Islam, the divine will manifests itself concretely as specific law, and not abstractly as moreor less general moral injunctions. We will understand the reason why the study of Law ismore prominent than the study of theology in Islam, although the conception of law in Islam isdrowned from their conception of God. In other words, the way Muslims conceive God andhis actions towards men and women affects their understanding of law.Thus, the genesis of both positive and negative aspects of the Shar`ia and its all-embracingreputation flow from the Muslim perception of God. Unless that is modified or changed,Shar`ia will continue to be a problem not only to non-Muslims but also to Muslims themselvesbecause it is a law that cannot be incarnated or fails to enter in human history. The Ummaitself is already divided into three major groups concerning Shari`a: the first calls for itsapplication, the second refutes it and the third is arguing over its very meaning. Christiansshould joins and work with those who are arguing over its meaning and fitness in the modernworld. African Christians need to learn more about Islam, Shar’i`a and the Muslims to arrive atan understanding that goes beyond hearsay. This way, they will be better prepared fordialogue with their Muslim brothers.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 53 of 85

Study Questions 9What is Shari`a and where do you find it?Comment on the following assertion:Shari`a is a revealed law”Why is it that Shar`a conflicts with sometenets of the modern world?Summary 9As said above, Islam is also a law; this law is called Shari’a. Thislaw regulates the entire life of a Muslim; it regulates the personal,public, spiritual, political as well as economic affairs of a Muslim.It takes its root from the Qur’an to the extent that it isconsidered divine. The other sources are considered assecondary. However, Shari’a conflicts with some rules of themodern world that many find it obsolete; it needs to be adaptedand perhaps put in our modern context for it to be applicable.There are people, within Islam, who are fighting for its fullapplication and some others are suggesting its revision. I adviceMuslims and non-Muslims to study Shari`a for moreunderstanding and for the avoidance of misconception.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 54 of 85

LESSON 10NOTES ON ISLAMIC ETHICS(Salama, Salam, Islam, Muslims)The word "ethics" is derived from the Greek word ethos (character), and from the Latinword mores (customs). Together, they combine to define how individuals choose tointeract with one another. In philosophy, ethics defines what is good for the individual andfor society and establishes the nature of duties that people owe themselves and oneanother. 14 We know that Muslims are believers of a religion called “Islam”. They form anorganized community which is guided by a law. It is this law that governs their personaland public behaviors, acts and actions. We should, therefore, learn how they respond tothis law and how they form their characters and customs, how they interact with otherMuslims and with non-Muslims as they look for what is good for their community and forthe entire society.Islam begins in and with the Qur’an. Thus the whole Islamic education –theology,philosophy, business, medicine, and ethics- begins in the Qur’an which is, according to theMuslims, a revealed book, a book that came from God. As the book of Islam, the Qur’angives the basis of whatever we want to know of Islam. Throughout the whole world,Muslims consider the Qur'an as the book of Allah or the very Word of Allah. The wholeIslam turns around three essential concepts: Allah, the Revealer; the Qur’an, the revealedand Muhammad, the Messenger.This consideration about the importance of the Qur’an is rooted in the book itself becausemany verses state that the Qur’an was revealed by Allah; Allah sent it for the guidance ofmankind (6:92;17:105). Such statements abound and are found implicitly in every sura. Insura Al-Ahqaf, for instance, we read the explicit statement: "The revelation of the book isfrom Allâh the Exalted in power, full of Wisdom" (46:2). Moreover in sura An-Nisa,especially in verses 77-82, the Qur'an invites people to believe in its message because itoriginated from Allah; therefore it is a message of truth. In verse 82 of the same sura, theQur'an justifies that invitation by saying: "Do they not ponder on the Qur'an? Had it beenfrom other than Allah, they would surely have found therein much discrepancy." It would14 http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/index.php/EthicsFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 55 of 85

e a great mistake if Christians nowadays, as those of medieval times, continue to regardthe Qur'an as equivalent to the Bible.The Qur'an is the basic material for Muslim education. In other words, the Qur'an,especially in Arabic language, plays a very important role in educating children and othercategories of Muslims. However, Islamic and particularly Qur’anic ethics must beunderstood and evaluated not just in itself; but also in relation to what it came to replace orimprove upon. That is the ethics of pre-Islamic Arabian society. It can also be betterunderstood when compared with other ethical systems, notably the philosophical ethics ofthe Greeks and Christian ethics.Islamic Ethics is built on the Qur’an (Revealed book) and the Hadith (Life and acts ofMuhammad and his companions). These constitute the Islamic Law (Shar`ia). They mightbe more sources of this ethics (Ijma and Qiyas) but the Qur’an and the Hadith are the mostimportant. As said above, there is no Islam without the Qur’an because Islam begins inand with the Qur’an; therefore, we can convincingly state that there is no Islamic ethicswithout the Qur’an. This means that the Qur’an cannot be compared to any other text inIslam. Some scholars state that the Qur’an is the only source of Islam; the Hadith is itsfirst interpretation. Thus we limit these notes to the Qur’anic Ethics.Islamic ethics has a structure: Creation, maintenance, guidance, judgment. In otherwords, we have God’s initiative in creating the universe; He guides it. Then we haveman’s response, and God as the final end. We need structures in order to familiarize withand know the truth of the matters.1. God’s initiativeFirst, in Islam, God is well known as Akbar (He is great, one, all-knowing, almighty andabsolute). This attribute legitimates his transcendence and his being different from otherbeings. He is the Creator of all, including man. “Everything in heaven and on earthsubmits to God willingly or unwillingly” (3:83). Man is likewise called to submit to Godvoluntarily. That is why Islam is defined as submission to the will of Allah. The secondaction of God is maintenance and guidance. Allah maintains creation and guides hispeople in the right path through his Word: ”This the Book, there is no doubt, it the Book ofguidance” (S. 2:2-4). He guides them to Islam; that is to do submit to him, to do his will, tofollow his laws (Shar`ia), The expression “In sha allah”(If Allah wills) that MuslimsFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 56 of 85

pronounce find its meaning here. Everything done seeks the will of Allah. He also guidesthem through the prophets (Moses, David, Jesus, Muhammad).The words Niama and fadl (grace or favor) express God’s favor and kindness. It isbelieved that through this, Allah gives all blessings of life, strengths faith and protects themfrom evil. “Were it not for God’s mercy and favor to you, most of you would have followedSatan” (S.14:83).2. Response by IslamFirst, Islam as submission to the will of Allah, is expressed by faith; this impliesthankfulness. This is opposed to the concept –kufr- which means ingratitude and unbelief.It also implies to Christians (5:72-73; 10:68).Secondly, Islam is also expressed by obedience. Muslims obey not only to God but alsoto Muhammad and others: “Obey God, the Messenger and those who are in authority fromamong yourselves” (4:59; 4:83).Thirdly, Islam means belonging to the Muslim community: “The believers are brothers, somake peace among your brothers” (49:10). This recommendation seems discriminatory,for peace is done only to the brothers; that is Muslims to other Muslims. Muslims believethat they form the best community of people on earth: “You are the best community raisedup among mankind, commanding what is good and forbidding what is evil” (s. 3”110).This, if followed, would be a great principle for all moral acts since the end of each ethicalact is good. It is said in philosophical ethics that what is good must absolutely be done;what is evil must absolutely be avoided. I add that good must absolutely be done evenwhen it is bitter; evil must absolutely be done even when it is sweet. Muslims might befollowing this principle; but what is good, for the Muslims, that it should be done? And whatis evil, for the Muslims, that it should be avoided? Our African culture comes in to shedsome light when we say “Mutoto wa nyoka ni nyoka”.The Qur’an divides humanity into two clearly opposite types of people: the believers andthe unbelievers. *The believer is marked with certain features: respect, reverence,thankfulness, submission, sincerity, being in the right direction, being guided by Allah,truth, knowledge, and repentance.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 57 of 85

*The unbeliever is also marked with certain characteristics: immoral, evildoer, wrongdoer,polytheist, falsehood, transgressor, committing excesses, proud, haughty, insolent,rebellious, hypocrisy, disloyal, who feels no need of God.Response by obedienceMuslims are called to obey God, the prophets and authorities among them. They,therefore, exercise their obedience through good works. Nevertheless they are guided bytwo major principles as to what should be obeyed and what should not: halaal andharaam. (s. 2: 84-85, 168, 172, 230; 3:50, 87; 4: 160-161). *Halaal : that is what islegitimate because it is good, pure like life, wives, properties. *Haraam: that is forbiddenor untouchable or unclean like idols, forbidden meat, wine. From these principles flow agood number of acts of obedience. Commitment to Piety (2:177; being good to parents(6:151-152, avoiding killing, unchaste acts, killing a life that God has made sacred,appropriation of what belongs to orphans,…There are some requirements of obedience*Beliefs: Muslims believe in one God ( la ila illa allah), then they believe in hismessengers, in the book, the angels and the last day. These are the basic elements oftheir faith. But faith must be practiced through the five pillars.*The pillars: Salaat – prayer- (2:177); Sawm –fasting- (2:283-287); Zakat –almsgiving-(2:177); Hajj –pilgrimage- (2:296-203).3 Judgment on the last day (yaum ad-din or yaum al-kiyaamaGod’s initiative, Muslim response by Islam and obedience, acts of faith and practices areall directed to the end of time where everyone will be judged. This means that at the end,there is God’s judgment; there is a reward or a punishment; paradise or hell. So the gooddeeds will be weighed against the bad ones. “The best among you Muslims are thosewho learn the Qur’an and teach it to others ” (Sahih al-Bukhari on the Book of the virtuesof the Qur’an).Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 58 of 85

Study Questions 10Comment of the structure of Islamic Ethicsand show how it guides Muslim acts andactions.Reflect on the duties and obligations of theMuslims.Summary 10Muslims follow a law that designs their moral life or perhaps alltheir acts and actions. This, of course, derives from the Qur’anwhich is not only the first source of Islam but their revealed book.This ethics has a structure that explains both its content and end:Creation, maintenance, guidance, judgment. In other words, wehave God’s initiative in creating the universe; He guides it. Then wehave man’s response, and God as the final end. Someone needs toknow this structure in order to familiarize with and know thetruth of the matters.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 59 of 85

LESSON 11LEADERSHIP IN ISLAMWe must state beforehand that this presentation will have a very little contribution if it is nottaken in a circumscribed context, which is the dialogue between the Catholic Church andIslam. Hence the problem I propose to you originates from some fundamental difficultiesfound as we meet and discuss with our Muslim brothers and sisters. If the authority of theCatholic Church -particularly in the “Declaration on religious Liberty of Vatican II Council”and in many subsequent documents, has defined the guidelines for inter-religious dialogueas well as given basic principles for a fruitful discussion with other believers, Islam has noreference-text for such activity. This lack could probably be attributed to the shortage of acentral authority or leader accepted by the majority of the Muslims. In other words, thereis no Muslim in the whole word that could authoritatively speak in the name of the Umma.The authorities that someone might know are only shadows. Thus this absenceendangers or makes the effort of the Catholic Church futile. Nevertheless there are someshades of leadershipThere is no dispute among Muslims of today that each community, sect or group has itslegal leader or leaders and that Muslims feel comfortable with whoever guides them. Thisseems to be the normal way of ruling the Umma especially since the disintegration of theOttoman Empire. We wonder whether having a central authority is not essential to Islamand not needed. Thus “What is Islam” might be the fundamental. More so afterSeptember 11 violent events, some emphatically inquire whether Islam could be definedas a religion of peace as it claimed to be. It is this comprehensive question that we wouldhave loved to address. Anyway, we are still addressing it under the study of leadership.We need to understand leadership in Islam, especially when some young Muslims,instructed by a “leader” carried out actions that the modern world considers as evil in it.So we find out whether such a leader is a mere a shade or a reality.Who is the leader of the Umma? Who could speak officially and legally in the name of theUmma (Islamic community)? This question became so prominent after Osama bin Ladenhad called all Muslims for a holy war (Jihad) that it is now an object of reflection forcountless scholars. Does such call or impetuses to fight have any legal stance in Islam? IFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 60 of 85

know and I believe that this set of questions helps to seek a mandated and legitimate“interlocuteur” who could objectively present and represent Islam and the Muslims for afruitful dialogue. As we know, religion which some had considered as a private affair or aminor nuisance of an optional department of life, has become a partie integrante ofsociety. 15 The integration of religion in our lives has not yet been effective because,instead of building peace and justice and lifting up its moral values, it seems that religiousconsciousness brought violence and war. Thus we need to dialogue.Francis Gonsalves, writing on “Gods of war and wars of God” paints a significant picture oftoday’s violence. 16 The first part of the title shows and justifies God’s battle againstviolence. We read for instance that “from the days of John the Baptist until now theKingdom of Heaven has suffered violence, and the violent men take it by force” (Matt.11:12). This means that we need to do violence to our selfishness as well as to some ofour desires in order to attain salvation. Whereas the second part of this phrase applaudsmen’s violence and wickedness; all is done in the name of religions, cultures and beliefs.We could see individuals, organizations and systems destroying and killing in the name ofGod. Osama bin Laden is not the only one even though the most popular now.Anyway, we do not intend to comment on religious violence, which could be a veryimportant topic, but, as this essay is concerned, we need to understand leadership in Islam.We will try to achieve it with a theological method backed up with history. Islam is thesecond great religion after Christianity; maybe the first in twenty years due to its rapid andefficient campaign of conversion. It may, nevertheless, fall in the third position with theSeptember 11 irrational events.Maybe a brief definition of leadership, the study of Qur’anic approach, the leadership ofMuhammad and his companions, leadership in Sunnism and in Shi`ism could provide athorough understanding of the issue.15 .Owen C. Thomas (ed), Attitudes towards other religions. Some Christian interpretations (London: SCM Press LTD, 1969), pp. 1-4.16 .Cf. Francis Gonsalves, Gods of war and wars of God. Religions and violence in contemporary society in Yearbook of ContextualTheologies 2001 (Frankfurt: IKO, 2001), pp. 37-46.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 61 of 85

1. LEADERSHIP, QUID?Since all cultures, societies, institutions, organizations, nations, all human groups havesome credited individuals who lead others, the concept “leadership” should not be difficultdefine. But, after going through writings of some experts in Education, we realize that theconcept is still misunderstood. Hence we ask again the remote question but necessary:What is leadership indeed? What goes into leadership?Considered first and foremost as a matter that concerns every member of society 17 ,leadership is evaluated as a collective affair in which every member of the communityparticipates for its well-being. C.A. Gibb comments: leadership is a variety of ways inwhich one individual stands out from others in social situations and in which the one maybe said, therefore, to be leading the others in exercising his influence over otherindividuals. Moreover, it is a concept applied to personality-environment to describe asituation when a person is so placed in the environment that his will, feeling and insightdirect and control others in the pursuit of common cause. 18 Here, leadership is taken as agroup-function, which bears in mind the socio-cultural, economical and political aspects ofman. Nevertheless, Charles J Keating points out a great change in the way we viewleadership. He asserts that:In the past two and half decades leadership has gone through a series of changes.Writing in 1960, Alex Bavelas, a successful behavioral scientist, summed up thestudies on leadership of the previous decade: Early notions about leadership wereexplicitly associated with special powers. An outstanding leader was credited notonly with extensions of the normal abilities possessed by most men, but withextraordinary powers, such as the ability to read men’s mind, to tell the future, tocompel obedience hypnotically. Today, leadership is related more to particularsituations... 19We can observe that, instead of keeping its shared meaning, psychologists, like Gibb,have limited the concept of leadership to the life between a person and the rest of a givinggroup. The definition is narrowed down and appears unacceptable. Anyway, it still17 .C.A. Gibb (ed), Leadership. Selected readings (Australia: Peguin Books, 1969), p.9.18 .Cf. David L. Sills (ed), International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences vol.9 (USA: The Macmillan Company &The Free Press,!968).19 .Charles J. Keating, The leadership Book ( Toronto: Paulist Press, 1978), p.5.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 62 of 85

contains the cosmological dimension of actions and interactions; it implies, therefore, adirection shared with others for a common goal. Sharing is the essence of suchconception.However, the study of leadership requires also an awareness of various mechanisms andnature of leadership, its problems, expectations and philosophies since they do differ fromone scholar to another. Thus, leadership in Christianity may not have the samesubstructure in Islam. Besides, a good leader in Christianity may not be regarded as goodin Islam and vice-versa. We can equally assert that the question above-mentioned (Who isthe leader of the Muslims), if it is rooted on a non-Muslim background, may not find theexpected response if our texts do not correspond to their contexts. There are differentperspectives for different philosophies and that is why the study of interactions andinterrelations, conflicts and black holes of a particular group is not only important but alsonecessary for one to grasp the vivid knowledge of it.I agree with Charles J. Keating that leadership encounters dilemmas found between theleader and the people, between the people and the situations at hand. These dilemmascould lead to confusion in the sense that, not having a full knowledge of a giving situation,the leader and the people may not know the kind of leadership is to be exercised for aparticular good. 20 In this way, a person with strong personality may spring up and declarehimself a leader. And the acceptance of his leadership depends on the success and thenobility of his actions and decisions to cure a disease or overcome a demon, to defeat aking, to control a situation, to increase the life of his followers. That is why manyeducators such as Marie-France Perrin Jassy observe that a leader may be an appointedperson or a person who, out of his abilities emerges from the group. It is here that the soclaimedleadership of Osama bin Laden could be justified within an exclusive context andlanguage.As a matter of fact, leadership neither does nor arise from a vacuum; it comes to meet asituation-it could be famine or war. In the case of Osama, he arose in order to lead a waragainst the enemy of Islam; therefore whoever is an enemy Islam is an enemy of Allah.Such a leader acquires absolute power, which enables him to enforce obedience to his20 .Charles J. Keating, The leadership Book ( Toronto: Paulist Press, 1978), p.8Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 63 of 85

commands and laws; 21 they are, indeed, measures of pressure. Those measures seemhelpful when their shadows are taken as realities-for example in the case of Osama binLaden. We are very much aware of the qualities of a good leader; Charles Keatingenumerates some:A leader must have an acute and accurate perception of the needs of the group, theability to judge and to determine its level of maturity in all dimensions of human life.Moreover he should have a close and interpersonal relationship with his followers,he initiates, regulates, informs, supports, evaluates, and summarizes. 22Who is able to carry out such duty in Islam and act according to the essence ofleadership? Anyway, this few lines are challenging as we try to understand leadership inIslam. Some scholarly works simply deny the existence of leadership in Islam perhapsbecause of the multitude shades that Islam brings to those who have even acquired amiddle view of Islam. They merely say that there is no leadership in Islam in comparisonto their various institutions like the Catholic Church since there is no Church reality inIslam; there is no Magisterium. This is merely a transfer of institutions or an adaptation ofCatholic social life to the Muslim’s. Is it not, indeed, a simplistic way of looking at things;this attitude which portrays a narrow view of Islam, does not do justice to Islam. Perhapsthis terminus could be tolerated only after we have analyzed the major Islamic texts mainlythe Qur’an and the Hadith, for there is certainly a kind of leadership in Islam which directsall the Muslims and keeps them together in Dar-l-Islam (The house of Islam) for more thanfourteen centuries. How could they have survived if there is none? Nevertheless if thereis any reality of leadership, what is its image, what is its color, height and size? How couldwe understand its organization?2. THE CONCEPT OF HUDAN (right guidance) IN THE QUR’ANIt is through the concept Hudan that we will attempt to comprehend leadership in theQur’an. In his “a dictionary of modern written arabic”, Hans wehr gives a clear definitionof the concept “hudan”. According to him, Hudan, in a religious sense means rightguidance, right way or true religion. So to be led or guided is to walk on the right way or to21 .Ibid, p.31.22 .Charles J. Keating, The leadership Book ( Toronto: Paulist Press, 1978), pp. 13-18.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 64 of 85

embrace the true religion that is Islam. There must be, therefore, a wrong way or a falsereligion, which will be a way of perdition; Muslims ought not to follow it.As a matter of fact, Islam begins in and with the Qur’an; thus there is no Islam without theQur’an. Serious studies of anything pertaining to Islam require absolutely Qur’anicknowledge because the dogmatic, moral and pastoral teaching is founded on it.Throughout the whole world, Muslims consider the Qur’an as the Book of Allah (Kitabu-lallah)or the very Word of Allah (Kalimat allah). The Qur’an is almost what Christ is inChristianity. Moreover, the Qur’an is the Book of guidance which was sent to lead thosewho believe (Suras 6:92;17:105;31:3;80:11). In spite of the divisions and numeroustendencies or brotherhoods found within Islam, the Qur’an remains the cornerstone ofMuslim’s daily life in all its aspects. Robert Casper declares:In relation to social life, the Muslim city, the role sovereignty of God leads to arejection of a separation between temporal and spiritual (din and dunya), and so tostate religion (din al-dawla). 23The Qur’an is the first source of Islam towards every Muslim turns to justify his stance.Wilfred C. Smith comments:To study the Qur’an... is to study much more that its texts; and much more of socialconditions than those that preceded its appearance in history and contributed to itsformation...It is because of what the Qur’an has been doing, mightily andcontinually, in the life of men for all these centuries after it was launched, thatanyone takes the trouble to notice its launching at all...The Qur’an is significant notprimarily because of what historically went into it but because of what historicallyhas come out of it; what it has done to men’s lives, and what men have done to itand with it and through it. 24Though Qur’anic studies have led scholars to divergent interpretations, its value cannot beunderestimated; its role cannot be overlooked. We will surely turn to some suras,especially al-fatiha and al-baqara. The first is the essence of the Qur’an; the second is itssummary.23 .Robert Caspar, the permanent significance of Islam’s monotheism in Concilium (Edinburgh: T and T. Clarck Ltd, 1985), p. 71.24 .Quoted by Willen A. Bijlefeld, Islamic studies within the perspective of the History of Religions in Muslim World, vol.62,January, 1972, p. 5.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 65 of 85

Al-FATIHAIt is asserted that chronologically, al-fatiha is not the first sura which was revealed toMuhammad though it comes first in the present arrangement. It opens the Qur’an that iswhy it is called al-fatiha (Fataha means to open). Muslims say: qira`atu-l-Qur’an taftahubiha(the reading of the Qur’an begins with it). It has only seven ayats but Bukhari calls itthe greatest sura in his book of commentary, certainly for some constructive reasons:Narrated Abu Sa`id bin al-Mu`alla while I was offering salat in the mosque, Alla’sMessenger called me but I did not respond to him. Later I said, o Allah’smessenger! I was offering salat. He said, didn’t allah say-answer allah and hismessenger when he calls you. He then said to me, before you leave the mosque, Iwill teach you a sura which is the greatest sura in the Qur’an.Some scholars like Yusuf Ali, consider it as the essence of the Book or the mother of theBook. The sura is like a song of praise in which the believer sings the oneness,uniqueness, omnipotence, omnipresence and ultimate authority of Allah. Allah is calledtherein rabi-l-alamin (Lord of the world), Maliki yaumi-l-din (Master of the day ofjudgement). Though we will dwell on the sixth ayats, the first five ayats are not ignored forthere is a preparation of the great demand that is realised in the sixth. ihdina sirat-almustaqima(show us the straight way or guide us on a straight path). The believer,knowing in advance that it is Allah who leads, asks for guidance in the right path, a paththat leads to life. This is what holds the whole islamic ethical teaching. 25Allah is the leader of all Muslims and the sura does not mention anyone else as theultimate leader save Allah. At least, according to this verse, it is clear that leadership inIslam belongs to Allah alone. Allah is the giver of guidance to men and women. KennethCragg adds:The transcendental lawgiver ordains the human order, establishes the dueconstitution of society, and communicated it in the final revelation. 26The structure of the sura certifies that the centre or the goal of it is verse 6; everything isleading towards the man’s request.25 .Kenneth Cragg, The mind of the Qur’an, Chapters in reflection (London:George Allen, 1973), p. 85.26 .Ibid, p.86.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 66 of 85

1. In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.(2,3,4 )-Praise be to God, the Cherisher and the Sustainer of the Worlds;-Most Gracious, Most Merciful;-Master of the day of Judgment5. Thee do we worship and thine aid we seek6 and 7. Show us the straight way.The way of those on whom thou hast bestowed thy Grace,those whose is not wrath, and who go not astray.The idea expressed in the verb “ihdina” contains therein the accusative “na: us” whichcomprises those who believe in Allah. This means that the believer is seeks guidance inhis prayers and works. “O you Muslims, your leader or your guide is Allah; leadership andguidance belong to Allah and to him alone. Such belief will doubtlessly have someimplications: first, Muslims attribute the organization of the world to Allah since he is theone who orders the universe and all that is in it. Secondly, they believe that Allahdetermines the attitude of each Muslim -Allah bestows favor upon whomsoever he willet ofhis servants” (Q.14,13). Thirdly, Allah determines all human acts and therefore eliminatesany philosophical ethics, for if nature is guided by Allah without man’s collaboration, itmeans that nature cannot decide whether this is bad or good, right or wrong. All theseexplanatory phrases tell us of the leadership of Allah.However Allah has revealed himself through and in the Qur’an for his last time that theQur’an becomes the only source of guidance. Where shall we turn when we are in need?It is in the previous books? Surely the Taurat, the Zabur and the Injil that came downbefore the Qur’an are well acknowledged but their time has gone and in a way distorted;this is the time of the Qur’an. It contains the final and the last revelation of Allah; there isnone after it. I think that its value is lifted up because of its position in processionalrevelations. It is clearly asserted here that all leadership belongs to Allah. But he guidesthrough the Qur’an. In other words, God’s expression of leadership is the Qur’an.AL-BAQARA (1-6)If al-Fatiha is the essence of the Our`an, al-Baqara is its summary. Revealed in Madina,its 286 ayats summarize the main points of Muslim life in its manifold dimensions. We willconcentrate on its first six ayats.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 67 of 85

The sura begins with three huruf (letters), signs not only of the inimitability of the Our`anbut also of its solemn nature. Through these huruf, those who heard Muhammad recitingthe Our`an, were astonished by the beauty and the novelty of such recitation. Many wholistened to it got converted to Islam; in other words they were guided in the right path.Surat-l-jinn says that even some groups of jinns believed in Islam after they have heardthe recitation: qul uhuhi ilaihi inahu astama`a nafaru min a–jini fa qaalu inaa sami`anaQur’anan `ajaban (Say: it has been revealed to me that a company of jinns listened to theOur`an. They said, we have really heard a wonderful recital) (Q.72,1). Commenting onthe word “revealed”, Yusuf Ali observes that, probably the jinns have previously heardsome recitations but was not touched; with this last one, they abandoned their evil deedsand followed the right path of Allah.The Qur’an is now singled out as the guidance not only of men but also of jinns: it givesguidance to the right and we have believed therein: we shall not join in worship any godswith our Lord (Q.72,2). Surely, this verse does not directly mention Allah as the leader ofthe universe but his Word made Book. The jinns who were working on the wrong wayhave seen the light. It is exactly this idea that surat-l-baqara brings up:dhalika-l-kitabu, larayba fihi hudan li-l-mutaqiina(This is the Book, in it is guidance sure, without doubt, tothose who fear God.(Q.2,2) The same idea is repeated in sura-t-sajda: This is therevelation of the Book in which there is no doubt, from the Lord of the worlds. (32,2) IfYusuf Ali did not explain the meaning of Hudan in al-Baqara, he makes an importantcomment in al-Sajda. He wrote:By the time of the Holy prophet the earlier books of revelation had been corrupted,by human ignorance or selfishness or fraud, or misinterpreted, or lost altogether.There were sects violently disputing with each other as to their true meaning. Suchdoubt had to be set at rest, and they were set a rest by the revelation of the Qur’an.The Qur’anic inspiration came direct from God, the Lord of the worlds, and did notconsist merely of human conjectures or a reconstructed philosophy, in which thereis always room for doubt or dispute. 27Parallel verses to S.2,2 are numerous; for instance in S. 36,2, the Qur’an is called “Book ofwisdom”; in sura 43,2, it is considered as the Book that makes clear what is dark and27 Cf. Note 3629 of Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur’an. Translation and commentary.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 68 of 85

confused. Apart from the sura above-mentioned, many others do repeat the same idea inorder to show the real value of the Our ‘an, its place and its position in the course ofguiding all men and women of this world. Sura-t-al Imran says: nazala ilaika-l-kitaba bi-lhaqmusadiqan lima baina yadaihi (It is he who sent down to thee in truth the bookconfirming what went before it) Q.3,3; Kitabu unzila ilaika falaa yakun fi sadrika harajunminhu litunzirabihi wa zikra li-l-mu`minina (a book revealed unto thee, so let your heart beoppressed no more by any difficulty on that account, that with it thou mightiest warn andteach the believers) Q.7,2;alif mim ra kitabu uhkimat ayatuhu tuma fusilat min ladun hakimin khabirin (This is a bookwith verses basic or fundamental of established meaning, further explained in detail, fromone who is wise and well acquainted with all things) Q.11,1. The same terms with thesame meanings and emphasis are found in suras 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20, 26, 27, 28, 29,30, 31, 32, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 64, 50, 68.Coming back to Q.2.2, Al-Muntakhal and Muhammad Tantawi are unanimous in theircommentaries on these verses. According to them, the Our`an which speaks of itself,declares that the guidance does neither come from the East nor from the West but fromthe Qur’an. It is the guidance of aladhina yasta`aduna litalaba al-haq (those who seek thetruth). Dhalika al-kitabu la rayba fihi in S. 2,2 gives us a message of completenesstruthfulness of the Book. In fact it provides, in a concise but explicit way, the reasons whythe Qur’an must be taken as the leader of the Umma. For Baidawi, this very ayat assertsfirst that it is indeed about the Qur’an inasmuch as the word kitabu is preceded by itsdefinitive pronoun dhalika. Secondly, he went further to state in la rayba fihi itscompleteness (Kaamil): this means that the Qur’an contains not a half of revelation buteverything that man might use for his guidance. He, therefore, points to the perfection ofthe Book. Consequently, it is necessary to all those who desire prosperity (hum ulmuflihuna)(2,5).The Word of God which is the Glorious Our’an (Al-Our’an al-kariim) hass ever been for theguidance of the universe. For instance Moses needed absolutely the guidance of Allah inorder to make a sacrifice that is pleasing to God:And remember Moses said to his people: God commands that you sacrifice aheifer...They said: beseech on our behalf thy Lord to make plain to us what she is:to us all are heifers alike: we wish indeed for guidance, if God wills (2,67-70).Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 69 of 85

In reviewing the ayats that mention the concept hudah (guidance) we discover that theemphasis on the Qur’an as the Book of guidance, is more significant. Talking about the 9 thmonth of the Muslim calendar, the Our’an says: Ramadan is the month in which was sentdown the Our’an, as a guide to mankind, also clear signs for guidance and judgmentbetween right and wrong. (2,185)Many other suras, such as 31,3; 6,71; 87,3; 92,12 arrive at the same cross road.However, as long as the Our’an is the very Word of Allah, according to Muslims, and thatAllah is his author, we do not see how both would be separated. Therefore what we haveexpressed stands for Allah as well as for the Book. We could say Allah leads the worldthrough the Qur’an. From what comes out of the above, leadership belongs to Allah or tothe Our’an. Now, what is the place of Muhammad in the leadership of the Umma?3. MUHAMMAD, THE LEADER OF THE UMMAThough the Qur’an is not the handiwork of Muhammad, it has strong link with himespecially as it was revealed to him. Ahmad Deedat, once responding to some journalistsdeclared that if Muhammad was the author of the holy Qur’an, then he would not havefailed to include in it with Maryam the Mother of Jesus, his own mother-Amina, his dearwife-Khadija, or his beloved daughter Fatima. But no! no! This can never be.Nevertheless, what the Qur’an and the Hadith say about Muhammad reminds us of hisgreat role in the Umma. He is considered as the model of all the believers: “You haveindeed in the Apostle of God a beautiful pattern of conduct for any one whose hope is inGod and the final day, and who engages much in the praise of God.” (Q.33,21); and “youstand on an exalted standard of character” (Q.68,4) He is the worthy example to befollowed, to be imitated.In addition, the Muslim creed -La ilaha ill-allah, Muhammad ar-rasul llah- shows that it isnot sufficient to believe in the oneness of God in order to be saved but also toacknowledge that Muhammad is the Messenger sent by Allah. Both propositions areinseparable. Sahih Bukhari relates: Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah’s Messenger said, by himin whose hands my life is, none of you will have faith till he loves me more than his fatherand his children and all mankind. 2828 .Sahih al-Bukhari on the book of Belief.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 70 of 85

He continued insisting on the love of Muhammad as one of the delights of faith:Narrated Anas: The prophet said, Whoever possesses the following three qualitieswill have the sweetness of faith: the one to whom Allah and his Messenger becomedearer than anything else, who loves a person and he loves him only for Allah’ssake, who hates to revert to atheism as he hates to be thrown into fire. 29Furthermore, Aisha summarized everything in this way:His daily life was a true picture of the teachings of the Qur’an. Thus a Muslim has adouble guide-the holy Qur’an tells how he must live; and the prophet’s life is aperfect example of living. 30These references are enough to conclude that during Muhammad’s lifetime, he was theonly leader of the Umma. The Qur’an explicitly declares that he was sent to bringhumanity out of darkness into light (Q.65,11), Allah commands obedience to him (Q.4,59;8.20;64,12). Now his presence and his guidance is seen through his sayings, actionsand silences compiled in some collections like Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Manystories of the sira of the prophet confirm his leadership. At least, during his time,Muhammad was the only leader of the Muslim community; he was the must excellent inmorals, politics, in all the aspects of human life. But what happened after his death?4. LEADERSHIP DURING THE PERIOD OF THE ORTHODOX CALIPHSWhen Muhammad was alive, he was de facto the only authority who could guide thepeople concerning the matters, which were not discoursed in the Qur’`an. But when hedied, the community was in need of being guided again by some people who couldinterpret the Qur’an and find solution to the matters arising. Early, there are four electedCaliphs ( Abu Bkr, `Umar bin al-Khattab, `Uthman bin Affan and `Ali bin Abu Talib); theseare remembered as the rightly guided Caliphs. They are called Caliphs because theysucceeded the prophet since prophethood ends with Muhammad. The period of Rashidunin which they lived is estimated as the best period in Islam. The four, one after the other,were elected to be the leader of the Umma. Bukhari calls them companions of theprophet because they lived with him and complied with him; he praises their merits in29 Ibid.30 .Al-Haj F. R. Hakeem, Life of Muhammad (London:Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 42.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 71 of 85

terms such as God loves them, believers, people without pride, people whose paradise isassured. John Esposito remarks that:The period between 632 and 661 is the normative period to which the Umma hasoften returned for guidance and inspiration. During this time, the spread of Islamand conquest of Arabia were completed, and Islam rule was extended throughoutmuch of the middle East and North Africa. 31Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim describe the merits of the companions of the holyprophet as proof and confirmation of their election as leaders. Unlike Muhammad, the fourcaliphs were elected by a group of people; they are regarded as the best leaders afterMuhammad.Though the elections conducted were not transparent and free, leadership belonged tothem and to nobody else. As Muhammad, they were the organizing forces in the Ummaand the relations between man and Allah, between individuals, whether Muslims or non-Muslims, as well as man and things. They were to take care of the commutative,associative and social justice of the community. Abu Bakr reigned from 632 to 634, `Umarwho can be compared to Saint Paul -he spread Islam beyond the arabic peninsula- led thecommunity from 634 to 644, `Uthman who did the first edition of the Qur’an ruled from 644to 656, and the last `Ali, in spite of the civil war that broke out in the `Umma governed the`Umma from 656 to 661.5. LEADERSHIP AFTER THE PERIOD OF RASHIDUNThough the period of the first four Caliphs of Islam is regarded as the best of times, it hassome black holes. We remember, for instance, that `Umar met a violent death in 644,`Uthman was killed when he was reciting the Qur’an in 656, `Ali was stabbed and killed inthe mosque of Kufa in 661. In addition, the first divisions in Islam -Sunnism, Shi`ism,Kharijism- originated from this period.L. Esposito wrote:The issue of leadership after the death of Muhammad led to a major split in theMuslim community and gave rise to its two major branches or divisions: the Sunni31 . John Esposito (ed), The Muslim community in history in Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 72 of 85

who today represent about 85 percent of the world’s Muslims, and the Shi`i, whoconstitute 15 percent. 32Despite the dark events above-mentioned, the golden age of Islam inaugurated a strongand everlasting theory concerning leadership, especially succession. From the first caliphAbu Bkr, the leader of the Muslim world is chosen by a special group ahal al-`aqd wa-l-hall(the people who bind and loose) This theory or way of organizing succession remains tillnow though with some differences noticed in the two major groups of Muslims namely theSunnites and the Shi`ites. They are, surely, many groups in Islam; we could say that theyare as many as they are in Christianity, but the two major, according to the percentagegiven above, have different views of leadership.Those differences are more prominent in their institutions and methodology. Afteranalysis, we think that both groups are unanimous in their definition, role and the qualitiesof a leader. They agree that the leader should be the one who guides all Muslims; he is tolead the people in the right path. He must, therefore be wise, just and compassionate,courageous, eloquent and patient. They are even unified concerning the legitimacy of aleader. Unlike other non-Muslim systems, which depend on the popular legitimacy, Islamconsiders both divine and popular legitimacy. However, the divine legitimacy is anessential pre-requisite that it precedes the popular one. Thus the leader is entitled topeople’s obedience. (Q.4,59) The popular legitimacy could follow but not automatically.That is why we observe that all the prophets have divine legitimacy but not the popularlegitimacy. Despite this agreements, their methodology differs, for:The Sunni majority believes that Muhammad died without designating a successor.Thus, the elders of the community selected or elected a caliph to be political leaderof the Islamic community-state or caliphate. The Shi`i minority believe thatMuhammad did in fact designate the senior male of his family, his son-in-law andcousin, `Ali ibn Abu Talib, to lead the community. 33Exposito confirms it:32 Ibid, p.247.33 Ibid.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 73 of 85

The fundamental difference between Sunni and Shi`i Islam is their institutions forleadership, the imamate and the caliphate. For the Shi`i Islam the imam is not justa political successor (caliph) of the prophet Muhammad but the religio-politicalleader of the community. Though not a prophet..., Shi`i belief came to regard theimam as religiously inspired, perfect and sinless. 34Consequently, when the Shi`ite leader is appointed -not elected- he has the right to guidethe community, promulgates its laws, interpret the Qur’an, and narrate the Hadith througha divine inspiration handed down to him from his ancestors through a direct lineage fromMuhammad to `Ali. 35 The Shi`i imam is more or less a super human being if not a godbecause he decides on what is right or wrong for the`Umma. He is the incarnation ofAllah’s will.On the contrary, Sunni Islam came to place religious authority for interpreting Islam in theconsensus (ijma`) of the `ulama who represented the collective judgment of thecommunity. 36 The `Ulama are the collective mind of the community. `Ijma is countedamong the major sources of Islam. For Goldzher, `ijma is the agreement of the people(those who have a right, in virtue of knowledge, to form a judgment of their own) after thedeath of Muhammad, in any age, on any matter of the faith. 37 These scholars, therefore,decide on people’s way of life and conduct. Yet Baruti Muhammad D.S. Kamau points outthat, in the course of Muslim history the institution of the caliphate underwent manyinternal commotions until the religious function of the caliphah was taken over by the piousand learned individual ulama who declared themselves the sole interpreters of the law,leaving the caliphah with the responsibility of executing the law as they understood it. Astime went on, some individual scholars became so trustworthy and credible that theybecame sources and, therefore, provided solutions to the matters arising. This kind ofstratagem gave rise to Ijtihad, which means the application of one’s self reason to theutmost degree for the attainment of an object or for the solution of a problem. This is used34 Ibid.,p. 248.35 .Cf. Baruti Mhammad D.S Kamau, A concise historical account of Sunnism, Shi`i, and Sufism note to the critics ofof the Tijaniyyah, 30 September 1991.36 .John Exposito, op.cit., p.248.37 .Goldzher, `ijma in The Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden: Brill, 1997).Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 74 of 85

technically for the building the self and equipping it to form a person opinion. Such opinionwhen it is so convincing turns into a law. This is done by applying analogy to the Qur’anand Sunna. 38This situation was made popular especially after the decadence of the Abbasid Empire inthe middle of the 13 th century: Caliphates, Dynasties and Emirates began and grew,appeared and disappeared until the creation of Muslim States which exist this time. Thus,with the principle of Ijtihad, the decrees and judgments promulgated by a person of greatesteem and integrity according to some parameters of a particular group of Muslims will beobeyed. Zafar Bangash said:A person is thrust into a position of leadership both by circumstances as well as byhis ability to motivate and lead others towards the realization of a particular goal.When a group of people accepts this vision, it creates a movement for change. Theleader, however, must first articulate the vision and demonstrate the ability to turn itinto action by aligning performance with vision to create a climate of success for therealization of the stated goal. 39A person will emerge sometimes from nowhere; he will impose his rule and his vision andif he gets some disciples, novices and students, adherents and believers, helpers andmissionaries, satellites and devotees, he automatically becomes a leader: this is what weencounter in some groups of reformists, fundamentalists and extremists. It happens in thisway when leadership is in a vacuum, and that a person arises and makes somepronouncements, which find a fertile land. Will the case of Osama Bin Laden fall into thisline?Hence, in order to appreciate better today’s Islam, we have to consider the two realities ofgoverning the Umma since they prevail not only in the Middle East and in Islamic Statesbut also wherever Islam is rooted and grows.38 .Idem, Ijtihad in The Encyclopedia of Islam (Leiden: Brill, 1995).39 .Cf. WWW (Internet) on Leadership. Zafar Bangash, the concepts of leader and leadership in Islam.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 75 of 85

The two theories are also present in Nigeria. However, all over the Muslim world, thesecond, that is Ijtihad, is more prominent; it carries more magnitude especially in Africaand elsewhere because, apart from its epistemological substance, it includes nowadays -perhaps from time to time- power and money. Therefore when you have the threeprecious stones, you can influence whomever. What prevail here are no longer the will ofthe community but the mind of a particular person. Osama bin Laden, for instance,succeeded to lead many Muslims either in carrying out his recommendations or insupporting and praising his thoughts and deeds; he became a leader.CONCLUSIONWith respect due to all religions, uplifted by the burning candle of the spirit of dialogue andguided by an epistemological zeal, we were prompted to study of leadership in early Islam;it is one succinct but not unimportant Islamic outlook of Muslim life. Time has come to castoff narrow and wide views that both Muslims and no-Muslims stronghold about Islam; andadopt a middle view which will empower us to analyse objectively what history has done tothe Muslims and what Muslims have done to history.It is not sufficient and indeed inadequate to declare that there were no leadership in Islamsince they have a deficiency of an ecclesiological body. But how did they have survivedfor more than fourteen centuries? Anyway, The leading principle is that what holds inChristianity or in the Catholic Church may not the model of all religions or institutions.Each reality has its own particularities; in other words, each text must be put into a contextin order not to fall into a pretext or pretence. In the Islamic context of leadership, historytells us that the Qur’an is the Book of guidance of all the Muslims, both orthodox andunorthodox. The Qur’an guides all Muslims in all the dimensions of human life. There isneither Islam nor Muslim without the Glorious Qur’an. The Qur’an itself should not becompared to the Bible but to Jesus.Secondly, we have the Sunna of the prophet to which Muslims refer in order to providesolutions to new issues and problems, for it explains the ordinances of the Qur’an. Thesayings, deeds and silences of the prophets are unceasingly quoted by the Muslims eitherto clarify Qur’anic statements or to comprehend this changing world. Soon the Sunniteswill need a group of Ulama to interpret the Qur’an and make laws and design the image ofthe community. Here, leadership belongs to the mind of the community incarnated in theUlama. Inasmuch as some Ulama, out of their powerful opinions and integrity, will emergeFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 76 of 85

above others and automatically become references. Thus we pass from collectiveleadership to individual leadership. An individual has, therefore, the right to direct andinfluence community life. In this way, how many scholars will we count in Muslim world? Itseems that each country, each movement, each sect has its scholars. I was surprised tonote that Muhammad Tantawi, the Cheik of Al-Azhar -the greatest Islamic university inMuslim world- has no authority outside Egypt. Threfore, leaders are as many as theUlama.In Shi`ism, we encounter the same reality but expressed differently. In fact, the Shi`ites,reacting against the background of the sunnite consensus, relied solely on the person ofthe Imam. The Imam is the leader of the Umma; he decides on religious, political,economical and cultural issues. But already early in the 8 th century, the Shi`ites split intotwo groups: the Twelvers and the Seveners. Who knows the exact number of the Shi`itesects or movements today? The Imams are also multitudinous.As we sum up this essay, we should not lose sight the fact that leadership in Islam and inChristianity has no much difference, for who will deny this truth that there are moremushroom Christian sects than computers in the market? Maybe only the Catholic Churchcould claim to have an organized leadership. But even there, Catholics have their thorns.We know that leadership in Islam is much more different from the one in the CatholicChurch -Roman and Orthodox since Islam lacks the idea of Ecclesia or an ecclesiasticalauthority who speaks ex cathedra. Islam has many leaders and every leader has its ownIslam; therefore no one speaks for all or no one can speak for all. That is why professorBormans in the Pontifical Institute of arabic and Islamic studies (P.I.S.A.I in Rome) speaksof the existence of Islams and not of Islam: Islam of Bourgibba, Islam of Kadaffi, Islam ofKing Afuad, Islam of Khomeini, Islam of Sadaam Husein, Islam of Osama Bin Laden. It willnot appear so strange to those who are aware of the multiplicity of “Islams” in the Muslimworld that Zanfara State Governor Ahmad Sani Yerima will lunch, proclaim its own Islamand frame it as it pleases to him and to his sponsors or godfathers. Maybe it could havebeen more adequate to title our essay as “the Quest of the lost leadership in Islam”.With the above information, we could be able to understand different views found in Islamconcerning Shari`a; there are divisions and confusions because there are, in Arab andMuslim world, groups or individuals calling for its application, groups rebelling against itsFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 77 of 85

application and groups debating its very meaning. 40 Thus, considering what the earlyMuslims went through concerning leadership, observing the major cause of the Division inIslam, viewing the assortment of “Islams” in Islam yesterday and estimating the function,the position and the notability of the Qur’an in the life of Islam and all the Muslims withoutexception in another, we agree with many Muslim scholars of Islam that the Qur’anremains their only and absolute leader; all others are shades.Study questions 11How do you understand leadership in Islamand who is the leader of the Islamiccommunity today?Discuss the place of the Qur’an in relation toleadership in Islam.Explain how the first divisions in Islam arelinked to the struggle for leadershipWith vivid examples concerning leadershipin Islam, explain how Sura 12, 40 affectssome leaders of Muslim fundamentalistgroups.Summary 11There is no person in Islam who can speak authoritatively onbehalf of all Muslims although the Umma has some shades ofleadership, particularly after the fall of the last Empire (theOttoman Empire); even the Sunni or the Shiites, the major groupsin Islam, have no central authority. It is true that Muhammad wasthe leader of the entire community; the Four caliphs were alsoleaders of the Community during their respective periods. Againthere was always a Caliph who could stand as the leader of theUmma in each given time. But today, there is no authority who canclaim to be the leader of all. However, we can state that Allah andhis Word revealed in the Qur’an is the only leader of all Muslimstoday. This situation is not different from what we experience inChristianity.40 Lucie Pruvost, Islamic identity and Divine Law: Notes on the concept of Shari`a in Encounter no236(Roma:P.I.S.A.I,1997), p.1.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 78 of 85

LESSON 12MAJOR DIVISIONS IN ISLAMSunni and ShiitesFirst of all, the majority of Muslims belong to either Sunnism or shi’ism. These are the twomajor groups which started long time after the death of Muhammad and continue till today.We have both Sunnites and Shiites in Africa –Kenya. Differences between these twogroups are numerous but the cause of all their divisions is about the legitimacy of thesuccessors of Muhammad.For the Sunnites, the first four Caliphs are the legitimate successors of the prophet.However, for the Shiites, Ali is the only one. Moreover, the Sunnites and the Shiitesrespectively refer more to the Qur’an and to the Imam as authority is concerned. About 85percent of Muslims are Sunni and only 10 percent of the Muslim world is Shiites. (Theremaining 5 percent belong to other minor sects.). However, this division could beconsidered as traditional for the modern which is more important nowadays considersmore and more the various perceptions found within Islam. Thus we have, within Sunnismor Shiism, fundamentalist, reformers and modernists. Fundamentalist Muslims are the tinyminorities whose manifesto is: 1. Islam is the solution, 2.God is our goal, and 3.the prophetis our leader, 4. The Qur’an is our constitution. They equally demand that Shar`ia-lawshould be applied immediately. This approach of Islam brings violence in the world; it isno longer Islam but Islamism.Islamic BrotherhoodThough all Muslims belong to the Umma (Muslim Community), many strive to fit in smallerorganizations or societies known as Tariqa (Brotherhood). These are new Islamicmovements. Hans Wehr in “a Dictionary of modern written Arabic” defines the word“Tariqa” as manner, mode, means, way, method, procedure, system, creed, faith, religion.All these meanings are valid and can be applied to the Brotherhoods. Indeed, theexpansion and the importance of Brotherhoods or Tariqa structure (various ways in whichMuslims worship Allah) in Africa are considered almost as the defining characteristic oftoday’s African Islam. Nowadays, Islam in Africa has become, more or less, an AfricanIslam since African Muslims live their faith in African way. Thanks to Brotherhoods,African Muslims worship Allah in an African way. Old and new Muslim Brotherhoods areFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 79 of 85

very prominent and successful in Africa, especially in the North, West and East for variousreasons. The establishment of facts in this matter is always a difficult task; the truth aboutIslamic Brotherhoods remains questionable and sometimes controversial. Here are themajor ones:Sufism with its emphasis on renowned religious knowledge, piety and miracle-working;Qadiriyya with its tolerance and moral rectitude; Shadihiliyya with its political awareness;Tijaniyya taken as the supporter of enculturation, Idrisiyya with its emphasis onrenaissance and expansion of Islam; Sanussiya and Khatmiyya characterized by itsascetic way of life; Ahmadiyya with its vibrant centers for learning have made their wayinto Africa, especially in Western and Eastern parts. It is in these Brotherhoods that wemeet the majority of African Muslims. Wahhabism is another old Brotherhood in SaudiArabia but also present in Africa. Historically, Wahhabis call themselves “al-Muwahhiddun” (the monotheists). They advocates a fundamentalist, puritanical andlegalistic stance in matters of faith and religious practice for the restoration of pure Islamdistorted by a number of new practices such as invoking any prophet, saint or angel inprayer, other than God alone; grave worship, whether to saints'graves or the prophet'sgrave, celebrating annual feasts for dead saints, wearing of charms, and believing in theirhealing power, practicing magic or going to witches for healing , erecting elaboratemonuments over any grave. According to Wahhab and Wahhabi , all these practices aremerely forms of polytheism or idolatry. Maitatsine movement (in the North of Nigeria)known to be very radical or violent, for the number of riots, killings and destruction itsmembers have carried out in 1980 and 1984. Muridiyya or Muridism (Senegal), which istaken as a new African way of following the recommendations of the Qur’ân.Nevertheless, all Muslims are not fundamentalist. Although Shi’ites tend to be moreradical, the average Muslim is like the average Christian. Fundamentalists call themselvesMuslims, but basically they are materialistic, want a good job, and hope to live a goodcomfortable life. The fundamentalist Muslims are somehow disapproved of and disownedby some of their brothers. Three groups emerge nowadays in Islam.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 80 of 85

LESSON 13OTHER RELATED ISSUESThere are many issues that could be considered in this introduction but we narrow themdown to a few namely the Muslims organizations, the issue of marriage and divorce, theissue of jihad, major Muslim festivals, Muslim calendar.1. Muslim organizationsMuslims long to become one, to build one united community as they were during the timeof Muhammad and the time of Empires where they had only one leader or one Caliph.Unfortunately, nationalism, that is the independence of Countries from the end of 20 thCentury, divided the entire Islamic world into nations which have their independentleaders. This weakens the Umma. So the intiatives of having Organizations is an attemptto re-unite the Umma. There are many but the major ones are 1. World MuslimConference founded in Makka in July 1926; the headquarters is in Karachi.2. Muslim World League founded in Makka in May1962; the headquarters is in Makka.3. Organization of the Islamic Conference founded in Rabbat in September 1969; theheadquarters is in Djeddah.4. World Council for Islamic Da`wah founded in 1971; the headquarters in in Tripoli.2. Marriage, Polygamy and Divorce in IslamMarriage is a sacred Institution in Islam and every Muslim ought to marry. The Qur’angives many regulations for the all that goes into marriage. However, Islam allowspolygamy without imposing it. But two conditions must be fulfilled: 1. The number of wivesdoes not exceed to four. b. the husband must treat them equally (s.4:2-4) Is-it possible totreat four wives equally? This tells us that monogamy is the rule even in Islam. As for thedivorce, the husband is free to send back his wife without asking anyone except God. Insome areas, the wife, too, is capable of asking for it. But divorce, though allowed, is saidto be it is the most horrible thing to do. The following Qur’anic verses illustrate what wehave stated: “ If ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, marrywomen of your choice, two, or three, or four; But if you fear that you shall not be able todeal justly with them, then only one, or that you right hands possess. That will be moresuitable, to prevent you from doing injustice.” (s.4:3). “There is no blame on you if youdivorce women before consummation or the fixation of their dower: but bestow on them aFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 81 of 85

suitable gift, the wealthy according to his means, and the poor according to his means; agift of a reasonable amount is due from those who wish to do the right thing.” (s. 2:236)“Divorced women should wait concerning themselves for three months periods. And it islawful for them to hide what Allah hath created in their wombs, if they have faith in Allahand the Last day. And their husbands have the better right to take them back in thatperiod, if they wish for reconciliation. And women shall have rights, similar to the rightagainst them, according to what it equitable; but men have a degree over them and Allahis exalted in power. A divorce is only permitted twice...” (s. 2:228-229)3. About JihadJihad literally means effort or striving -struggle in the path of Allah. It is both internalstruggle aimed at self-purification and external, for the purification of the society. It is alsounderstood as the holy war, permitted when there is aggression which threatens toannihilate the faithful and faith, and to suppress and control forces of evil that try todominate the society and lead into corruption and disorder. According to Yusuf Ali, jihadrequires fighting in Allah’s cause, as a form of self-sacrifice. Therefore, war is permissiblein self-defense. Whoever is killed in a holy war is a martyr (Shahid).“Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you but do not transgress limits; for Allah lovesnot transgressors. And slay them wherever you catch them, and turn them out from wherethey have turned you out; for persecution is worse than slaughter; but fight them not at thesacred mosque, unless they first fight you there; but if they fight you, slay them. Such isthe reward of those who reject faith.” (s.2:190)“Those who believe and emigrate and strive with might and main, in Allah’s cause, withtheir goods and their persons, have the highest rank in the sight of Allah: they are thepeople who will achieve salvation.” (S.9:20)4. Major festivals in IslamThere are three major ones: 1. Id al-fitr, celebrated after the fasting month of Ramadan. 2.Id al-adha, celebrated in commemoration of the sacrifice of Isma’il by the Abraham. 3.Laylat ul-Qadr, the Night of power; it is the most significant night in Islam. It occurs duringthe month of Ramadan.5. Muslim CalendarWhile Christians follow the solar calendar, Muslims use a lunar calendar, especially inFrederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 82 of 85

eligious matters; its months are determined by the various positions of the moon. In everyyear, there are twelve months, each either of the 30 or 29 days, depending on the positionof the moon and thus the Muslim year is approximately 11 days shorter than the Gregorianyear. The migration of Muhammad from Makka to Medina in 622 marks the beginning ofthe Muslim calendar.Study Questions 12 and 13State and comment on the majordifferences between Sunni and ShiiteMuslims.Define the followings:a. Fundamentalistsb. Reformersc. ModernistsIs polygamy and divorce allowed in Islam?State your opinion.Comment of the different meaningsattached to the word “Jihad “Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 83 of 85

Although we admit that we can have an ethics without religion, we cannot imagine a worldwithout religion. Religions play a unique role in the life of people. The three features ofreligion (substantial, functional and formal) must be considered for us to state this truthwith confidence and authority.Thus, some scholars assert that someone could become ethical in his or her acts andactins, thanks to the natural law that directs all people. Natural law is the participation ofrational beings into the eternal law and reason which is like the organ of natural law directsour behaviors and attitudes. With reason, we know what is right and good to be done forthe benefit of all. That is why people who do not believe in God could also be moral andpose high moral actions. However, we should be very careful, for reason when it is notwell guided can lead to wrong doings. It could be easily be rooted on the customs of atribe, a region, a country or a continent. Such ethics could become so narrow and limitedto a category of people. People can act according to their customs but pose immoral acts.There are, nevertheless, some scholars who believe that religions should be the root ofethics, for religions, particularly missionary religions, transmit much wider moral teachingsin the sense that they extend their teachings to all people. Since the role of religion is tomake all wise, good and holy, they seem to provide a better platform for a moreoutstanding ethics. But even in this case, religion should be understood as such. Forinstance, if ATR, Christianity and Islam teach that God is one and he is the creator of all,they should advocate for the unity of the world and the unity of people, maybe not sociallybut spiritually. This requires commitment to love everyone without discrimination, to workfor peace and justice for all.We should not give up in studying religions, particular the major ones in Africa, for such astudy makes us understand different doctrines and beliefs held by different people. Islam,as one the major religion in the world and in Africa, should be studied in order to know itsmajor tenets. Islam is one of those living religions that teach a compound message; thereis a great need to understand it for its suitable consideration since it is embraced bymillions of people in the world and in Africa. This consideration begins with an initiationthat we attempted to provide. It forms our ability to assess Islam rightly; it fosters the worldeffort to interreligious dialogue.Frederic N. Mvumbi,OP Page 85 of 85