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EARTH, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND PLANETARY SCIENCES FROMZARATHUSHTRA (mid-2nd millennium BC) TO FERDOWST (AD 1010);a 2500-year of the Persian Scientific Thought Between Two RenaissancePeriodsMANUEL BERBERIAN, Ph.D., CPG, Memb. N.y. Acad. Sci.c/o Najarian Associates, suite E, one Industrialway west, Eatontown, NJ07724-2255, U.S.A.[e-mai | : berberian@ najarian. com ; Fax: (732)3B g-8546][Second International lranian Studies Conference,The University of Sydney, Faculty of Arts,College of Humanities & Social Sciences,School of Studies in Religion,February 6 to 16, 1998,Sydney, NSW, AustralialAbstractStudy of the Persian classical writings of ancient antiquity clearlydemonstrates that the Persians regarded the activities of nature as intrinsic andorderly events which could be investigatedthe light of observation and reason.The challenge of reason to traditional religious and political values and institutionsin Persia began with the enlightenment of Teacher Zarathushtra who guided theintellectual trends toward three commandments of Good Thoughts, Good Wordsand Good Deeds. The Persians became pioneers in many fields of naturalsciences and had an advanced knowledge of the earth, environmental, andplanetary sciences. They offered the first views of the generic cause ofearthquakes, mountain building (orogeny), continental movement, and many otherphenomena. During Zarathushtra's time, the astrologers based theirprognostications on the combination of religion and science. Ancient Persianswere aware of physical and biological effects of tidal force, and were the firstnation who emphasized the importance of clean soil, clean water, and clean airduring the time of Zarathushtra. They considered the planet Earth, and all that itencompassed, to be sacred and precious and, therefore, in dire need of protectionfrom contamination. The ancient Persians knowledge spread to lndia and China,and provided a starting point for later Greek development.

Introduction'Truth is one, fhe sages speak of it by many names"[Vedas]The earliest human records show man's desire to express himself,coherently but simply, concerning his relationship to the earth, sky and universe.Conscious of the power of natural forces over which he had no control, but whichruled over his physical well-being, man attempted to propitiate these forces bymeans of hymns of praise or supplication. Thus, the sun and the moon, the starsand comets, the planet earth and soils, the mountains and rocks, the rivers andsees (and hence water), the wind and rain, thunder and lightning (and hence fire),earthquakes and volcanoes, and other aspects of nature became objects ofworship or fear. Early man visualized these forces as beings, to whom heattributed not only miraculous births but also ancestors and descendants, and heeventually anthropomorphized them by endowing them with human virtues andvices. In order to approximate the truth from these old myths, legends andnational oral traditions-which go deeper in time and have survived in literatureoneis obliged to make certain assumptions and to speculate as logically aspossible according to bits of information culled from recorded traditions or rarefactual accounts.The records of the early ages of human are very incomplete and theimpression we receive of the evolution of ideas is spasmodic. There was not even,steady progress in the flow of ideas. They arose as particular occasionsdemanded. Only later reflection began to weave them into ordered systems.Human thought is stillepisodic, uneven, and disconnected. Consequently, in orderto give an accurate impression, the story of human beliefs must depicthis unevenand unsystematicharacter of experience.For the earliest picture of the principal aspects of the modern westernthought and civilization, we turn to Middle (Persia/lran, India, Babylonia) and theNear East (Egypt). lt is impossible to say which of these was the earliestcivilization. But the majority of the oldest relevant records, which have survived tothe presentime, have come from Persia and Egypt.The Persian mythology, philosophy, culture, science, and religion are rootedin the common Indo-European system that was carried out of the northern Aral-Caspian steppes into lran and India, as well as into Europe. The principaldivinities of the earliest sacred writings (Avesta, especially the Gathas) of thePersians corresponds very closely to those of the earliest Indian texts (Vedas).But the two branches came under greatly differing influences in their new homes;the Vedic tradition submittingradually to Dravidian Indian forces, the Persian toSumero-Babylonian."And now when fhese Two Spirits together came,they in the beginning created Life and Not-Life"(Gatha Ahunavaiti, Yasna 10/4)

and styles of all the subject civilizations were exploited to create a rich syncreticart.Although Persia has a relatively well-documented historical periodespeciallyfrom the time of the Achaemenidynasty (6th to 4th century BC) whenPersia entered the full light of written history-little is known about the ancientPersian scientific and engineering thoughts and cultures. This is not due to lack ofa pre-existing tradition of historical writing (as stated by many writers, e.g.Ambraseys and Melville 1982:3) but due to the fact that many classical Persiandocuments of antiquity prior to invention of printing were looted and destroyedduring several wars and invasions (such as those of Tiglath-Pibser-lll in 737-735BC; sargon-ll tn 714 BC; scythians in 653 BC; Ashur Banipal in 640 BC;Alexander-lll of Macedonia in 336-330 BC; the Persian-Roman wars; the Arabs inAD 637-642; the Mongols in AD 1218-1338; the Timurids; the Afghans; the Turksand so forth), genocides, demolitions accomplished by the public powers inphases of overlapping religious cultures, changes of dynasties and politicalregimes, revolutions, and civil wars. War has long been the Middle Easternindustry! These catastrophic incidents with frequent destruction of librariesdestroyed the prosperity of the region, and, therefore, very little written informationhas survived these major invasions. There were two copies of the larger ZandAvest with 21 nasks (books), the original priestly literature of Zoroastrianism, oneof which was burned and the second came into the hands of the Greeks. ln itspresent form, the Avesta consists of: (i) the Yasna, (ii) the Gathas (the actualwords of Zarathushtra), (iii) the Vendidad, (v) the Yashts, and (v) the KhordehAvesta. of all the 21 books of the greater zand Avesta only one, the 1gh 6heVendidad) has come down intact. Most pre-Muslim monuments have vanished,and book-buming ceremonies have resulted in the disappearance of almost alldocuments. Hence, the Persian scientific/engineering thought underwent manycenturies of decline from its great days.Between 336 and 330 BC, Alexander-lll of Macedonia (356 BC in Pella,Macedonia, June 13, to 323 BC in Babylon), who defeated the last of theAchaemenians (Darius-lll Codamanus) completed the conquest of the wholeAchaemenid empire (640-323 B.C.). At Persepolis ffakht-e-Jamshid] in April 330BC, Alexander burned down the Palace of Xexes [Khashayarshah], in revenge forthe destruction of the Acropolis, and as a symbol that the Persian order in the areatogether with the Panhellenic war of revenge was at an end. The catalogue oftroubles that marked the latter part of the Achaemenid empire (rebellion, murder,weak kings, civil, internal and international wars, e.g.) helped Alexander-lll ofMacedonia destroy a great power, its lands, people, culture, civilization, and farmore precious, the holy scriptures of Zarathushtra. Alexander, who marriedDarius's daughter, died only a few years later, and his empire was divided betweenhis generals.After Alexander's death, Seleucus-l ultimately won Persia and founded theHelfenistic dynasty of the Seleucids in Persia (323-223 BC), with a new capital atCtesphon fFisfun] on the Tigris. Greek settlements and temples were establishedin Persia,.but the dynasty was soon challenged by the Arsacid Parthians, Persian

people from the northeast, who first achieved a measure of permanent control ofthe lranian Plateau around 239 B.C.During their nearly 500 years of power, the parthians (223 B.C._A.D. 226)clashed with the Romans in the west and with nomadic Scythian-fromtribes-the Sacas-Chinese Turkestan in the east, but established trade with countries as farapart as China and ltaly. Pahlavi, the Middle Persian language (1"t to 1OhCenturies AD), became the national language, -and and these once nomadic horsemanintroduced many features of knighthood chivalry to the West, includingjousting and coats of arms. Their most notable contribution to architecture was theinvention of the "Eivan," a vaurted hall open on the fourth side.The last of the Parthians, Artabanus-V, fell in batfle in AD 224 with a vassal,Ardeshir-|, ruler of Fars and Kerman, who claimed descent from theAchaemenians. Ardeshir founded the great dynasty of the Sassanian s (AD 224-642), during whose 400-yearule the country became wealthier than ever before,with an efficient administrationwhich heavy taxes supported a social welfaresystem that included state hospitals, schools and colleges.Town planning, irrigation and industrialization were carried out on a lavishscale; the empire was expanded; the Roman emperor Valerian, philip the Arab,and Gordian-lll were defeated and carried to Persia in captivity with thousands ofprisoners. \l/hen Ardashir'son, Shahpur-|, was crowned in AD 242 he inheritedan empire stretching from the Eurphrates to Marv (Merv) and the panjab (punjab),including Harat (Herat) and Sistan. The cult of Miihras was probablytaken to thewest by released Roman prisoners.Many of the Sassanian victories are commemorated in huge bas-reliefs,mostly in the province of Fars. Christian communities were established in persia,but the official religion was Zoroastrianism. The magnificence and ceremony ofSassanian court life influenced the later European courts, while Sassanianarchitecture, sculpture, textiles and metal work left an unmistakable and lastingimpression on the West. Most vital of all, perhaps, the Sassanian empire formeda protective barrier between the ruthless, nomadic tribes of Central Asia andwestern civilization.Prolonged hostilities exhausted the powers of Persia and Byzantium. Thelengthy struggle between them for supremacy in western Asia ended in the defeatof the Sassanids in AD 627t6 at the hands of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius,and Persia became open to invasion. The Arabs pressed forward, conquered lranand defeated Yazdgerd-lll. After several encounters, the fate of the Sassanianempire was decided in the battle of al-Qadesiyeh (al-eadisiyah: 636/15-637/16).The Sassanid winter capital at Tisfun (Ctesiphon) along with its treasures weretaken by the Arabs. The battle fought at Nahavand (642121) completed theSassanid's vanquishment the Persians were obliged to submito the Arabs, andbecame a province under the Khalipheh (Caliphate), administered by Arabgovernors' The Muslim Arabs forcibly, and within a very short time, replaced theindigenous Zoroastrian faith with lslam [Eslam], and eradicated Mazdaism. AfterPersian political and cultural autonomy reasserted itself in the gth century, the artsand sciences flourished. Pockets of Sassanian resistance remained around the

over the succeeding centuries. As with the holly religious books, Ferdowsi'soutstanding book, shahnameh ("Epic of Kings"), provides a more or lessconnected Persian history from the creation of the world down to the Arabinvasion.Like his ancestors, Ferdowsi believed that Persia to be the center of theworfd (the discovered world from the eastern China approximately at +120oE to thewestern Europe at -101M), surrounded by the waters of the Indus, Oxus, Araks,Euxine, Bosphorus, sea of Marmara, Dardanelles, Nile, and Indian ocean. To thenorthwest and west lies the Byzantine (Rum/Rome), and to the northeast Turan(Turkestan), which includes the whole area east to China."Fortunateare we that the Teacher was bom"(Yasht xiii/94)This brief and preliminary review will refer to the ancient earth,environmental, and planetary scientific phenomena attracted the attention of theancient Persians from the time of Zarathushtra (the first Persian renaissance) toFerdowsi Tusi (the second Persian renaissance). ln this study an attempt is madeto explain the revival of the Persian scientific restoration of antiquity and to dispelsome of the misconceptions long prevalent about the birth of scientific thought inancient Europe. lt is largely on the recognition of the magnificent achievement ofthese two Persian renaissance periods that two miraculous ages were build upand the positive influence of the revival of antiquity became discernible evenoutside Persia. The actual mechanisms as related to the earth, environmental,and planetary sciences observations cannot be discussed in detail here; some ofthe principles of the Persian Zoroastrian doctrine and their influence will merely beenumerated as follows.ll. Planet EarthThe exterior and interior structures of planet earth attracted some ancientcivilizations. In this section the ancient views on the earth's structures are set forthin two groups as follows.11.1. Exterior Structure of the EarthThe world viewed by the Babylonians is presumed to have consisted of"dish-shapedaeafth" surrounded by a moat of sea beyond which the inverted bowlof the sky came down all around. lt had similarities to the sort of world portrayedlater in the lliad of Homer in Greece.We learn from modern books that Pythagoras (6h Century B.C.) andAristotle (4h Century B C.) supported the idea that the earth is a sphere. However,we read in ancient Persian books such as Bundahishn [Bondeheshn]; MinaviKherad:43; Avesta (Mehr Yasht22/85, 23189, 24195, 24198: Farvardin Yasht:1/2;Art Yasht:2119); and Rig Veda:1/115,11164, that the earth has a "spherical"form.

This clearly shows that the view of the spheroidal shape of the earth was held bythe Persians and Indians far earlier that 6h Century B.C. of Greece.Moreover, Bundahishn clearly addresses that the earth was created as"smoothedaspherical/rounded planet with no highs and lows" Thisobservation of the primordial planet earth is very interesting since we know thatprior to the orogenic activity (c. 3.9 Billion years ago) the earth was smooth with nomajor mountain belts and basins. This observation of the planet earth agreesremarkably wellwith modern data.11.2. lnterior Structure of the EarthThe most conspicuous feature of the earth's interior is the existence of threelayers (crust, mantle, and core) discovered during the 20h century by deepseismic exploration and earthquake seismology.According to Bundahishn, Avesta (Yasna:11ft; Farvardin Yashtl/2), andVeda, the rounded earth is "layered' and there are "three layers" in the earth(however, no specific description of these layers is given). Moreover, in Mandala10 of Rig Veda we read that'Agni [fire, fire Deva] r.s housed in the centre of theearth'. According to Bundahishn (lll/27) "Hell is in the middle of the Eafth". Thesereflecthat fiery material are stored beneath the earth's solid surface.lll. Earthquakes"And he smote the ox [the sole-created or pimeval ox], he made Goyamardmoftal, and he shook the earth; and the land was shattered, creationbecame dark, and the demons rushed below, and on all sides, andmounted even to the uppermosthird of the sky"(D adi sta n-e- Di ni k WV I l/46)Earthquake is a sudden motion or trembling in the earth caused by theabrupt release of slowly accumulated strain (by faulting or by volcanic activity). Abrief review of the modern earthquake theories necessitates tracing their principaldevelopments in ancient beliefs, philosophies, cultures, and religions. In theearliest magical and religious cosmologies, earthquakes were an item of greatinterest. Real or supposed natural phenomena were attributed to divinitie suchas Poseidon, or to mythological figures such as the giants (i.e., Chashmag-e-Div,Khara, Durk Angeghiya), or even to human heroes and holy men.Our knowledge of the various theories elaborated in the ancient world aboutthe causes of earthquakes comes to us through the Persian and Greek myths,philosophies and cultures. Sporadic allusions to large earthquakes in the lranianPlateau are to be found in the old Persian myths, legends and long-standing oraltraditions. Most western textbook suggesthat in classical Greek times, winds insubterranean caves were believed to be the cause of earthquakes. Aristotle (340BC) credits the earlier Greek philosopher Anaxagoras (400 BC) as the originator ofthis idea (Ambraseys and Melville 1982:31 , 176, 177; Howell, Jr. 1986:1323;

Guidoboni 1994). Aristotle attributes to Anaxagoras the theory that earthquakesoccur when the ether, which has a natural tendency to rise, is imprisoned insubterranean cavities and cannot escape because the earth's pores are blockedby rain.Study of the ancient mythological texts such as the Bundahishn, Dinkaft,Yashfs, and Rig Veda, clearly shows that the Indo-Persian Aryans around 4,000years ago offered the first view of the generic cause of earthquakes lsee Berberian1991:838-9 and 1997 tor more discussion). They suggested that the earthquakescaused by the accumulation of winds, air, vapor, and/or gases insubterranean fssures. Moreover, the eafthquakes were assoclafed withfracturing, faulting, Iandslide and rockfa\LIn this hypothesis, "\y'vind" or 'Air" [one of the ,,four pimordial elements,,('four powers of nature) established by the Persians at least'6,000 years agol, asthe most active agent (amongst Earth, Fire, and water), roughly .brr".ponds toour present concept of "elastic energy," the accumulation of which in the rocks ofthe Earth's crust causes earthquake faulting and earthquakes. Today we think ofnatural processes as manifestations of energy acting on or through matter.Surprisingly, the ancient Persians had the same thoughts. They rejarded theactivities of nature not as indications of supernatural intervention, buias naturaland orderly events which could be investigated in the light of observation andreason. The older Persian legend which was popular piior to this hypothesis,attributed earthquakes to a mythological deity or monster called "Chashmag';["Chashmag-e-Div"]. The important point is that the natural and observableactivities of '\Nind," the moving air (energy in our present concept), took the placeof the imaginary, and therefore inscrutable, activities of "chashmagle-Div," and thescience of the ancient Persians replaced the older superstition. HJving noticed thegreat earthquakes and surface faulting in the lranian plateau (which is highlyseismic), the ancient Persians developed the oldest known concept for the causeof earthquakes and earthquake faulting, i.e. the hypothesis of winds insubtenanean fractures of the Earth.One to two thousand years later, the Greek philosophers started discussingthe same hypothesis without reference to the Persians as pioneers in many fieldsof natural science, especially the understanding of earthquakes ("Boom-e-Hen,, inPahlavi language). The Persian concept was later repeated in differentexts byPursina [Avicenna 980/370-1038t4281, Bahmanyar ebn-e-M arzban (d.1066/45gi,Naser Khosrau Qobadyani Marvazi (1003/394-tbAel+At), Shahmardan ebn-e-Abial-Khair (1095/488), Esmail-e-Esfezari (1045t437-11211515), Mohamad ebn-e-Ahmad-e-Tusi (1160/555), zain al-Din omar ebn-e-Sahlan-e-savi (1zthcentury/6th c.), Mas'udi Marvazi (12th century/Oth c.), Zakaqya eazvini (12051602-12831682), Hamdollah Mostaufi Qazvini (134}n4q, anO riny others (Berberian1991 :120, 838-9; 1997).It is therefore, not surprising that most ancient writers and common peoplein Persia attribute the freedom from damaging earthquakes to the wells locatedunder the cities or villages, which release the-powerful vapors below the groundbefore they build up sufficiently to cause an earthquake! What is surprisingto

find approval of this idea in an article in Kayhan International(1349.05.28/1970.08.19) by the former director of the Institute of Geophysics,Tehran Universig, which states:"the two million cesspools underneath Tehran cityact as buffers against earthquakes!"Seismic phenomena had definitely attracted the attention of many ancientPersians. Linguistic traces and dialectal substrata can be found in many placenames of the earthquake prone areas of the country. These are the material ofmyths and lore which was gathered and written down in later periods. Such tracesare part and parcel of the memories lodged in culture, where they are, therefore,reflected, transformed, and interpreted, because destructive earthquakes wereimportant events occurring in geographical regions that were widely inhabited.The localtoponymics have been used by local ancient Persians for severalcenturies to explain some geological hazards, and reflecthe frequency of relatedphenomena. There was a serious attempt in the local oral traditions of the ancientPersians to warn future generations about the geological hazard zones of theirhomeland. lt was in this part of the world with frequent destructiv earthquakesand ancient toponymics referring to earthquakes that an earthquake theory wasformatted. The collected local toponymics can be categorized into differenthazards indicating. Nonetheless, it should be noted that in few cases (marked bya question mark) it is not possible to substantiate the true significance of theseappellations at the present.a) Frequent Occurrence of Earthquakes:Bastak (? 'fastened, knotted, or tied ' as knotting votive cloths, or tied byspell and prayer to prevent shaking in old tradition!; a town in Fars),Bastakabad (? as Bastak; 27o.11'N-54o.22'E: a village in the BaradustDistrict of Urumiyeh),Bastakan/Bastagan (? As Bastak),Boom-e-Hen ('Earthquake' in Pahlavi; 35o.45'N-51o.51'E: a village 40 kmeast of Tehran, south of the Mosha fault),Chalkhamaz (? 'will not shake/not shaking'; a village in southern Maragheh,south of Sahand),Gaud-e-Zelzeleh Zadeh ('smitten by Earthquake/Earthquake ShakenPlaya'; 31o.22'N-56o.22'E & 31o.15'N-56o.22'E: a locality about 12kmsouth of Kuhbanan, near the Kuhbanan fault),Kat-e-Zelzeleh (' Earthq uake C reek' ; 33o. 56' N-60o. 15' E, northeast of theAbiz fault),Kharab Dareh ('Ruined Valley'; a common name used in many places),Kharab Deh ('Ruined village'; a common name used in many places, forexample 35o.45'N-52o.45'E: a village at Firuzkuh area near theFiruzkuh and Mosha faults),Kharabeh ('Ruined'; a common name used in many places),Kuh-e-Zelzeleh ('Earthquake Mt.'; 32o.42'N-59o.12'E: one of the peaks inthe Baqeran Mts, 16 km south of Birjand, and 4.5 km north of Golvillage),10

Kuh-e-Zelzeleh Khiz ('seismogenic Mt'; 35o.41'N-sgo.2g'E: a mountain 52km north of Kashmar, along the Zelzeleh Khiz fault),Lazini (? 'shaking'; a village in the Margur District of urumiyeh),Ray/Rhagae ('Rent by Earthquakes';35o.36'N-51o.22'E. a town south ofTehran, near the North & the South Ray and the Kahrizak faults),Rud-e-Hen ('Quake River'; 35o.44'N-51o.50'E: a viilage 42 km east ofTehran, south of the Mosha fault),Zelzeleh Kharabeh,Zelzeleh Kuh ('Earthquake Mt.'; 36o.39'N-53o.39'E: a mountai northeast ofMazdeh, south of Kusut in Mazandaran between Zalemrud andTajrud),zelzeleh Kuh ('Earthquake Mt'.; 32o.21'N-60o.16'E: a mountain south ofTabas-e-MasinaSistan),zelzeleh sang ('Earthquake Rock'; 31o.1g'N-56o.16E: a locality at Gevarabout 6 km south of Kuhbanan, south of Asfich, along the Kuhbabanfautt),viran Qayeh ('Ruined Mt./Rock'; 37o.03'N46o.53'E: in the eara AghajDistrict of southeast Maragheh),Yarim Qayeh (? 'Half Rock'; 38o.40'N-45o.02'E: a village 1T km northeast ofKhoi),Yarim Qayeh (? 'Half Rock'; 39o.27'N44o.2s'E. 1g.5 km north northwest ofMaku),b) Earthquake Faulting and Fracturing:Bard-e-Shekaft (29".26'-52o.07'E; along the Kareh Bas fault),chat ('Fractured'; 37.58'N55.16'E: a viilage 60 km wNW of MaravehTapeh),Dagh-e-shekafteh ('Faulted/Fractured praya'; 33o.42'N-59o.45': near theAbiz fault),Dochaq (? 'Two Fractures'; a creek on the way between Ardebil andMeshkinshahr),Kamar Kasan (?'sheared Gorge/Mt./Rocr

shekasteh Gush Mir (33".28'N-58o.34'E: NW of Dagh-e-Mohammadabad,60 km SW of Qa'en, west of the Chah Raqsh fault),Shekasteh Haji Mir (34o.54'N-59o.13'E: 20 km north of the Jangalfault),Shekasteh Hezar ('Thousand Fractures/Highly Fractured or Faulted';33o.30'N-57o.03'E; 13 km SE of Tabas-e-Golshan town, along theTabas fault),shekasteh Kalvark ('Fractured/Faulted creek'; 33o.53'N-59o.45'E: 4.4 kmWSW of Kalateh Korizan, near the Abiz fault),Shekasteh Maleki (33".17'N-58o.50'E; along the Chahat fault),Shekasteh Miyandehi (34".49'N-58o.36'E; along the western segment of theJangalfault),Shekasteh Mohammadabad (in Mohamadabad Playa, 60 km SW of Qa'en),Shekasteh Sag Mordeh (33".43'N-60o.15'E: 11 km NE of Shahrakht),shekasteh Yunesi (34".48'N-58o.32'E; along the western segment of theJangalfault),Tang-e-Chak Chak ('Sliced Gorge'; 37.01'N46.52'E: at the eara Aghajdistrict, SE Maragheh),c) Frequent Occurrences of Landslides, Rockfalls and Earth Flows:Akhma Qayeh/Qayah (?'Fallen Rocl

?: The link with earthquake is not certain at this stage of the study.lV' orogeny (Mountain Building: the process of forming continents andmountain belts)"The earth shook and the subsfance of mountainswas created in the earth"(Bundahishn, Vl I l/1 :29)Mountains, the most spectacular issue of the geologic processesshapedthatthe earth's crust, defied comprehension for centuries. Scientists of pastgenerationstruggled to identifiT the forces that could have warped the earth,ssurface so dramatically. And they confronted a host of smaller mysteries asthewell:volcanic eruptions that shatter some peaks; the fact that mountains occurat randomnotbut in long, narrow belts; and the presence of fossilized sea creatureshigh mountaininslopes suggesting that some mountains has risen from primevalsea floors.Viewed from the perspective of 'plate tectonics', mountain belts seemawesomemorethan ever. The theory holds that they are a visible manifestationinch-by-inchof anmovement of greater slabs of the earth's surface layers. Thislong processages-not only pushes up mountains in crustal collisions of inconceivabteforce, it also creates and destroys oceans, and shatters and reshapes wholecontinents.ln Chapter Vlll of Bundahishn, on the conflict which the evil spirit wagedwith the earth (West 1890:2g; 30; Bahar 136}t1gg3:75) we read that: ,,as thespirit rushedevilin, the- earth shook [ionbid] and the substance of mountainscreatedwasin the earth. First Mount Alboz [Harabozeiti:"High Mountain,,]aftenrards,arose;the other ranges of mountains of the middle earth for as Alboz grewforth all the mountains remained in motion, for they have all grown forth fromthe root of Afborz. At that time they came up from the earth, like a treegrownwhich hasup to the clouds and its root to the boftom; and their roof passe d onway fromthatone to the other, and they are ananged in mutual connection.Afterwards, about that wonderful shaking out from the earth, they say that a greatmountain is the knot.of rands" (emphasis added). [cf. with the "Theory oiorog"ny,,introduced by American geologists James nalt (1g11-1gg5) and Jlmes DwightDana (1813-1895) in 18731. As recently as 1962, the origin of mountainremainedbeltsnaggingly obscure, and some geologists despaired of soon findingexplanationan(see the next section on continentaiorirt;.Vl. Continental Movement and DriftBiruni Kharazmi (September 973 in Kharazm-December 13, 104gGhazneh),inthe lranian scholar and scientist, was one of the most learned menhis ageofand an outstanding intellectual figure. Processing a profound and originalmind of encyclopaedic scope, Biruni was conversant with persian, Sanskrit,13

Turkish, Hebrew, and Syriac in addition to the Arabic in which he wrote, andapplied his talents in many fields of knowledge, excelling particularly in astronomy,mathematics, geodesy, chronology, earth sciences, physics, medicine, and history.In his astronomical works he discussed with approval the theory of theEarth's rotation on its axis and made accurate calculations of latitude andlongitudes. ln physics, he explained natural springs by the laws of hydrostatics anddetermined with a remarkable degree of accuracy the specific weight of 18preciou stones and minerals. In geology, he advanced the daring view that thevalley of the lndus had once been a sea basin.The concept of continental drift (continents in motion) was first mentionedby Biruni Kharazmi in his AD 1025 treatise entitled" Determination of Coordinateso,f Positions for Conection of Distances Between Cfties', where a practicalapplication of the rational view point is made in the discussion of the"displacement "changes Of earth's Crust due to eafth'S movemen(', in thecoordinates and, therefore, distances of two fixed poinb", "changes ofdistanceS from eatth'S Centre fo r'ts Surtace", and "the consequent weatherchanges" (pp.19, 33, 34). Biruni Kharazmi's conclusions were based on detailedsurvey and calculations.The idea of drifting continents was first advanced seriously in 1910 byF.B.Taylor, who did not pursue the concept. lt remained for Alfred Wegener toarticulate and develop the theory with his first paper in 1912. Wegener's ideaswere eventually synthesized in his 1915 treatise entitled"The Origins of Continentsand Oceans". His view was that an original single continent became slowly butcontinuously dissociated by horizontal shift of its adjacent parts, creating suturelines and rifts of trenches between adjacent masses. The discrete parts evolvedby slow drift into the major continents we know today. Wegener presumed that thecontinents were supported in a substrate of mantle or subcrustal material-Although American geologists were slow to accept Wegenr's hypothesis,today drift is accepted by almost all earth scientists as the basic explanation forshape and position of the continents. ln 1967, it was first proposed that theearth's crust is divided into immense plates, five or six of which are rigid, relativelythin continental plates. These plates as thoughto be moving continually, primarilyhorizontally with lesser vertical components of movements.Vl. Geography and GeodesY"The Patishkhvargar Mountain is thatwhich is in Taparestan and the side of Gilan"(Bundahishn, XII/11)The ancient Persians had an advanced knowledge of geography andgeodesy , the science of earth measurements. This observation is clear in thegeographical names used during ancient antiquity. For example,'Patishkhvargalr. Pahlavi (see Bondeheshn 12t17) means "Dish-Like Mountain"[patishkhvar=dish, plate; gar=mountain] and is referred to the present Alborz14

Mountains in Northern lran. lt is undoubtedly referring to "arcuate form,,of theAlboz Mountain belt, and this reference goes back to classical antiquity anddemonstrates an advanced knowredge of geodesy (Berberian 1990).The Persians believed that lran is the center of the world. The ancientJavedan Kath (Gang Dezh) astronomical observatory location (Approximately33.50"N-60.00"E) was chosen as a fixed point of geographical reference (like thepresent day Greenwich Mean Time-GMT-longitude of 0.0 derived from an agreedinternational convention of 1884) in the centeiof the known world from the westernEurope to the eastern China.Vll. Tidal ForceIn ancient times, the moon (the satellite of the planet earth) was veryimportant body for night illumination and a great deal of aitention was given to itsmotions. The observations made were an exactitude far in advance 6f those inother physical sciences. The moon has been an object of worship to man (Diana,Selene, Sin) as well as of the fi6t guides to the regulat measurement of time (thelunar calendar). Numerousuperstitionstill survive attributing terrestrial effects tothe influence of the moon, such as earth's tides. Two major observations and theinfluence of tidal forces, physical and biological, are set forth in this section.Vll.1. Physical EffectThe writings of various Persian, Chinese, and lcelandiclassical authors ofantiquity show that they paid some attention to the rise and fall of the tides (see forexample Zad Esparam, Bundahishn, etc.). Few thousand years later, in the early17h century, Johann Kepler recognized the tendency of the water of the ocean tomove toward the sun and moon. Later, Galileo's explanation referred thephenomenon to the relation and orbital motions of the earth. lt was lssac Newtonwho, in his Pincipia of 1687, laid the foundation of the modern theory of the tideswhen he brought his generalization of universal gravitation to bear on ihe subject.Vll.2. Biological Effect"Deliveredto the moon station; that seedwas thoroughly purified by the light of the moon,fully prepared in every man, and produced life in a body"(Bundahishn, Xl2)An interesting expression of lunar and solar rhythmicities and influence isexpressed by the Persian classical authors of antiquity. lt is interesting to knowthat in the Mazdayasna faith, the moon (Maongha) is closely associatei with theanimal creation. He is called the 'processor of the seed of catle,'goospand[mah-*tokhmeh (Gao Chitrill, and is thus closely associated with Vohu-Mano, the Guardian Angle of the animal world, and also with Dravaspa (the15

feminine Deity) who gives health and strength to cattle and animals (Taraporewala,1980; Berberian 1997). ln Mah Yasht, Bundahishn, and Siruz 1212, moon isworshipped for giving the growth power and health to plants and animals.Biological rhythms are deep-seated rhythmic patterns of activity, exhibitedby living things widely, and perhaps universally, the cycles of which are related toallthe major natural geophysical periods. These rhythms, which appear to presentindefinitely-even in organisms shielded from fluctuations in all ordinaryenvironmentalfactors such as light, temperature, humidity, pressure, and chemicalchanges- are considered to be a result of the continuous operation of a 'biologicalclock' system. The activities of many animals and plants take place during periodof natural light, which follow a solar-day rhythm (solar-day rhythmic sysfem).Another major environmental period involves the regular ebb and flow of the oceantides, a cycle that subjects seashore plants and animals to a rhythmic changeswith typically two high and low tides, occurring each lunar day of about 24hr & 50mn duration (lunar-day rhythmic sysfem)The monthly rhythms, the period from one new moon to the next, the'synodicmonth', averaging 29.5 days, is the consequence of 'beats' produced byperiodic interference between the two closely similar rhythmic periods, the solarday and the lunar day. Among the biological activities linked to the synodic monthare the reproductive cycles of some marine animals and certain plants and thehuman menstrual cycle. Monthly reproductive rhythms occur in the Palolo wormsof the southwest Pacific, the Fireworms of Bermudas, the Grunion of the Californiacoast, and brown alga, Dictyota. These breeding rhythms are sufficiently precisein their relation to moon phase to enable one to predict quite accurately the timesof the reproductive activity. The changing relations of the solar-day and lunar-dayphysical rhythms appear to time these breeding cycles, since the phase of themoon at which, for example, Dictyota breeds is related to the times of occurrencewithin the lunar day of the local high tides. The times, of course, differ from placeto place (EB 1985).Although little is known about the timing of the human menstrual cycle orthe approximately semimonthly estrus cycle of such animals as sheep and pigs,two fundamentally different hypotheses have been offered for the timing of thesecycles. One is that they are timed by fully independent periodic oscillations; theother is that the cycles are dependent for their timing on periodic interferencebetween 24-hr and circalunadian (about a lunar day) cycles.Vlll. Weathering/ErosionWeathering is a group of physical, chemical, and biological action wherebyrocks on exposure to the weather change in character, decay, and finally crumbleinto soil. The erosional force of wind is clearly mentioned in Sad Dar Bundahishn,where the wind crumbled mountains into soil and transformed them into deserts.16

lX' Environmental Sciences: 200 years of man-made technological disaster &tragedy"And thus did they poltute our moftal life,,[Gatha Ahunavaiti llA/asna 30,6]For most of human beings history, biological waste-- which was the mainhazardous waste with capability for the spread of contagious disease- wasnaturally biodegraded with time.It was an ancient Persian belief that the material bodies were compoundedby the "four elements" of Fire, Water, Earth (Soil) and Air (together with plants andAnimals), which were later considered as "Power of Nature" in Avesta and Veda.ln-the Mazdayasnan (Zoroastrian) religion of the Persian people (2nd millenniumBC), the Earth (ZamlMother Earth/Armlitil and allthat is on it, like Water, Fire, Soiland Air, is considered as a sacred manifestation of Ahura Mazda (the\l/ise Lord),therefore, it is "sacred" and precious; homage is rendered to every angelto whosecare these are consigned, and thanks are offered to the Court of the gieat Creator."she_ (Mother Eafth/Armaitt) is indeed our Refuge safe;she bnngs sou/-sfrength and Lif*renewed, twin gifts of Love;Mazda hath covered Her with food for man,She feedeth all mankind since dawn of Life;Such is Ahura's plan-and Asha,s Law,'(Gatha Spenta Mainyu il; yasna 4g/6)The "four primordial elements" are specifically mentioned in the Avesta, andsome of them have special Yashts. Amongst the four primordial elements, Firewas the most sacred. Fire [Azar] was an icon representing truth and justice, andsince prayers *"t9 to be said in its presence, an ever-burning fire was maintainedin all the Zoroastrian places of worship . Waterwas the second most sacredpreciousandelement in ancient Persia. Persians used to praise Anahita (ArdavisuraAnahita), the angel or Deity of waters, and the fifth yasht, the Aban yasht, wasdedicated to water and Anahita. The fifteenth Yasht (Ram yasht) was dedicatedto Anand its angel Vayu [in Avestan, and Andar-Vay in Pahlavi) . Earth or So/wastakencare by the fourth"primordialAmshaspand, Sepandirmaz (Sep,ant Arme,iti). Thefour elements" was later coined as "the four elements of the Greekphilosopher Empedocles" (c.490-430 BC), who considered the ingredients of allthings to be the four elements (Holmes 196g:1).After the technological and socio-economic-cultural changes on closingdecades of the 18th century, large numbers of men and women were removedfrom agricultural pursuits, that had formed mankind's main occupation since thebeginning of civilization, and hence large societies with their environmentalproblems were established.-Following the drilling of the world's first modern oil well at Titusville,Pennsylvania, by Edwin Drake on Augusl 27, 1859, foundation of oil city,17

We have forgotten and ignored our old traditions and by being passiveobservers, failed to anticipate the seriousness of the environmentil probLms. Wemust control and correct our behaviour, remember that during the time of theTeacher Zoroaster, Earth, Water, and Air were sacred and people tiveO in harmonywith nature, and that there is a need to respecthe nature's delicate balance."But whoso fosfers not our Mother-Earth,Behaves far worse than any of the bad,-He meets- his retribution atthe end',(Gatha Spenfa Mainu; yasna 50/6)Xl. Astronomy"That gaze with clear eyes on Earth and Sun,,(Gatha AhunavaitiV, yasna 32/10)Astronomy (the science that deals with the origin, evolution, composition,distance, and motion of all bodies and scattered matteiin the universe) is the mostancient sciences, having existed since the dawn of recorded civilization.Systematic observation of the celestial bodies was based on the magicians andastrologers practice in ancient Persia. lt was the duty of tie ancientpriesUastrologers to watch the seven wandering bodies so thaithey might predictand warn the king of any disasters the gods might be preparing ior the nation.Such observations promoted knowledge of occurrences in the heavens; theinterpretation of these observations required familiarity with constellations,particularly the constellations of the zodiac through which the planetary bodiesmoved. A second incentive for acquaintance with the heavens was the usefulnessof celestial bodies in serving as guides to travelers through the desert and over thesea, in telling the.time of day or night and in regulating a calendar. As long as2000 BC the Persian, Egyptians, and Babylonianl were using calendars based onthe regularity of certain astronomical events.The first recorded conclusions about the solar system were set down by theSumerians of the Middle East about 5ooo years ago. To them Earth was flat,motionless-and clearly the centre of the universe. The heavens appeared as athin dome within which the gods moved the stars, the sun and moon, and the fiveclosest planets- Though the sizes of these glowing, supernatural bodies varied,they all seemed to move at about the same distance from Earth. Beyond thedome there was nothing. Other early civilizations-such as the Chinese, Babylonianand Egyptian- had much the same view of Earth as the hub of things. The movingheavens, including the faintly luminous band of Milky way, were the realm of godiand demons who caused the seasons to change, wars to be won and rost, andwho otherwise influenced the currents of life on Earth.People in Mesopotamiare believed to have recognized a number ofprominent constellations as early as 3000 BC and to have named them after19

animals, such as the lion, and representatives of certain occupations, such as theHerdman. This plan was later transmitted to the Greeks and, with changes ofnames and additions of other constellations, has descended to us. TheBabylonians are credited with investing the signs of the zodiac; these 12 divisionsof equal size could serve better for describing the positions of the sun, moon, andplanets than could the 12 constellations of the zodiac of unequal lengths, for whichthe signs were named. These people seem to have recognized the precession ofthe vernal equinox, the period on the sun's path around the heavens from whichthe signs are marked off. They accordingly knew the signs are shifting westwardgradually with respect to the corresponding constellations (EB 1985).Much of the ancient knowledge of the celestial bodies and their ways isfrequently credited by the Persian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Chaldean peoples,and before them a pre-Semitic population, the Sumerians (4000 BC) which werethe Persian ancestors. Beginning sometime around Zarathushtra's life, however, asuccession of the Persians began systematically to identify the infinite puzzle ofthe sky. Zarathushtra himself had an advanced knowledge of astronomy andchronology. During his time, accurate knowledg existed of the sun's annualcourse, of phases of the moon, and of the periodicities of certain planets (seeYasna llll44, lvl44, VI44', the fifth book of Dinkart; the second chapter ofBundahishn; Jackson 1928; Nayer Nuri 1966; Ghazni 1977; Varlavand 1987).Some of their astronomical lore is identified in information they seem to havetransmitted to neighbouring peoples, particularly the early Greeks. ZoroastrianPersians had an influence on the development of the new 'great Armeniancalendar', which consisted of twelve thifi-day months. To the 360 days containedin these months were added five epagomenal days, in accordance with traditionalPersian and Egyptian usage.It took mankind thousands of years to realize that the motions seen in theheavens can be simply understood when it is recognized that we view everythingfrom a moving platform, the planet Earth. Once mankind accepted the idea thatthe earth orbited the sun once a year and that the other planets orbited the sunwith periods that are determined by their distance from the sun, the mystery ofcelestial motion was resolved.The dawn of understanding of the sky began to occur in many parts of theworld around the year 500 BC Although, parallel developments took place in Asia,the Americas, and the Europe. Although, we have inherited most of our modernnomenclatures and ideas from the Mediterranean region, we know that Babylonianastronomy arose around 1700 BC, and cuneiform tablets from that period showthat these people knew a great deal about cyclic motions in the sky. Eventually,by about 200 BC, it was possible for people of this region to predict eclipses andplanetary motion, and they developed a cosmology to fit their world view. TheGreeks borrowed from the Middle Eastern science, but they went much further.X.l. Astronomical Observatory20

The erection of special buildings for astronomical research is a practice oflong standing. lt is said by Diodorus that the great temple of Belus at Babylon wasbuilt for astronomical purposes. There is also indication in the Chinese recordsthat the gnomon was used for measuring the height of the sun in the reign of theemperor Yao (2300 BC).There is no evidence of the existence of an observatory of Greek orAlexandrine origin until the time of Ptolemy Soter, who, about 300 dC, built one atAlexandria. The earliest records from an observatory known to be extant arethose of Hipparchus (c. 140 Bc), who has left a catalogue of stars fromobservations made at the island of Rhodes, repeating thosL made earlier atAlexandria. Three hundred years later, ptolemy (AD 150) compiled a starcatalogue, but it is doubtful whether this was from his own observation and,therefore, whether he had an observatory other than that at Alexandria.In Persia, excavation of (i) the 2nd millennium BC Chogha Zanbil Ziggurat atLorestan (Varjavand 1987), (ii) existence of at least three contemporaneousastronomical observatory at Persepolis, Qui Qirilqan Casfle at Kharazn (south ofthe Aral Sea), and Kalaliger Patace at Nesa near Ashkabad (Zoka lg7g; Hozuri1986; Varjavand 1987); together with discovery of (iii) the irst millennium BCbronze plate with celestial bodies and patterns and astronomical signs at Lorestan(Barnett 1966; Varjavand 1987), the celestial body patterns in the eiz eapanGraveyards of the Kurdistan Mts now in lraq (Varjavind 1987), all indicate that theancient Persians were practicing astrology. Like Stonehenge (2"d millennium BC)in England, these monumentserved as celestial observatory, keeping track of theseasons through the movement of the sun.X.2. AstrolabeAstrolabe is an instrument used for the taking of altitudes of celestialbodies, from which time and latitude are deducible. lt is possibly the oldestscientific instrument in the world, and has played a correspondingly important partin the history of civilization. The planispheric astrolabe, to wniin the name iscommonly restricted, is usually believed to have been a Greek instrument inventedby Hipparchus (150 Bc), or even by Appollonius of perge (c. 2a0 BC).Discovery of the Kharazm clay astrolabe in the Qui Qirilqan Casle (firstmillennium BC) in Persia is very interesting. lt should be noted that according tothe Persian legends (see Ferdowsi Tusi for example), the oldest astrolabe wasmade of clay and belonged to Kay Khosrau (son of siyavash).Alternatives for Groundwater tfffil"J"%no- Nationat Academy press,Washington, D.C., 314p.Ambraseys, N.N., and Melville, c.p., 1gg2 - A History of persian Earthquakes.Cambridge University press, London, 21gp.Anderson, G.L., 1g6i- Masterpieces of the orient. w.w.Norton & co. Inc.. N.y..385p.21

Avey, A.E., 1955- Handbook in the History of Philosophy. Barnes and Noble, Inc.,New York, 320p.Badi', A.M., 1963- Les Grec et les Barbares, I'autre face de I'histoire. Payot,Lausane.Bahar, M., 134511966 - Vazhehnameh Bondeheshn (Dictionary of Bondiheshn).Bonyad Farhang lran Publ., 166P.Bahar, M., 1351t1972- Asatir-e-lran (lranian Mythology). Bonyad Farhang lran,Tehran.Bahar, M., 136211983 - A Research in lranian Mythology. Vol.1. Tus Publ., Tehran,326p (in Persian).Barnett, R.D., 1966- Homme Masque du dieu-ibex? Syria, Xllll.Berberian, M., 1990 - Mountains from the perspective of the ancient lranians andthe geometric pattern of the Alboz mountains in ancient beliefs.Simorgh, no. 17, 18, 10- 1, Los Angeles (in Persian).Berberian, M., 1991 - ls the theory of earthquake Greek or Persian? lranshenasi,Bethesda, MA., ll (4), 834-845 (in Persian) and 120 (abstract in English).Berberian, M., 1992 - Biruni Kharazmi and the theory of Continental Drift.franshenasi, Bethesda, MA., lV(1), 139-147, 17'Berberian, M., 1994- Natural Hazards and the First Earthquake Catalogue of lran.Volume 1: Historical Hazards in lran Prior to 1900. A UNESCO/IIEESProject during the United Nations International Decade for NaturalDisaster Reduction (IDNDR:1900-2000). International Institute ofEarthquake Engineering and seismology (llEES), Tehran, 603p. (inEnglish) & 66p. (in Persian).Berberian, M., 1996- The Historical Records of Earthquakes in Persia.Encyclopaedia lranica, V. Vll, Fas. 6: Drugs-Ebn al-athir, Edited byEhsan Yarshater. Mazda Publishers, California, 635-640.Berberian, M., 1997- ln Search of the Earth and Planetary Sciences in lranveij.Bonyad Neyshabur Publ., Tehran, 551p. (in Persian).Biruni Kharazmi, Abu Rayhan Mohammad ebn-e-Ahmad (3621973 Kharazm-440t1048 Ghaznain) - Tahdid Nahayat al-Amaken le-Tashih Masafat al-Masaken (Determination of the Coordinates of Positions for Correction ofDistances Between Cities; 41611025\. Translated into Persian by AhmadAram. Tehran University Publ. no. 1392,135211973. English translation,Jamil' Ali, Beirut 1967.Biruni Kharazmi, Abu Rayhan Mohammad ebn-e-Ahmad (3621973 Kharazm-440t1048 Ghaznain) - al-Asar al-Baqiyeh an al-Qorun al-Khaliyeh(Surviving Monuments; 390/1000). Translated into Persian by AhmadDana Seresht, Khayyam Publ., Tehran, 132011941. Ebn-e-Sina Publ.135211973. Amir Kabir Publ. Tehran 1363/1984.Biruni Kharazmi, Abu Rayhan Mohammad ebn-e-Ahmad (3621973 Kharazm-44011048 Ghaznain) - al-Tafhim li Ava'el Sana'at al-Tanjim. Ed. Jalal ed-Din Homa'i, Majles Publ. Tehran, 1317-911938-1940. Babak Publ.Tehran, 13621983, 740p.22

Bundahishn:a) in English: Pahlavi texts. The Sacred Books of the East in 5 Vols.Translated by E.W. West. vol.S. Motihl Banarsidass, Dehli, India, 1962,1_151.b) in Persian: Bondehesh by Farnbagh Dadagi. Translated into persianby M. Bahar 1369/1990. Tus pubt. Tehran.c) in Persian: Bondehesh Hendi. Translated into persian by R. Behzadi -> see Bondehesh Hendi.Burrows, M., 1gs5- The Dead sea scrolls. The Viking press, Inc. New york.campbell, J., 1973- The Hero with a Thousand F"."r. Boilinga series XVrt,Princeton University press, 416p.Darmesteter, J., 1877 - Ormazd etAhriman, paris.Darmesteter, J., 1879-87 - The Zend-Avesta: i-Vendidad, ii-Sirozahs, yashts, andNyayish, iii-yasna, Vispered, In: sacred Books of the East.Denvinny, J.s., Everett, L.G., Lu, J.c.s., and stoilar, R.L., 1gg4 - subsurface- migration of hazardous wastes. Van Norstrand Reinhold, New york.DHA News, May/August 1993 - Pesticide residues: when is a litile too much?Department of Humanitarian Affairs News, United Nations, Summerp.17.Ed.,Dinkart-Madan, D.M., 1911:The complete text of the pahalvi Dinkard. 2 vols,Bombay._Also manuscript D 10 A, publ. pahravi University; Shiraz1355/1976.EB, 1985 - Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica lnc., Chicago.Etmekjian, J., 1988 - History of Armenian Literature; Fifth to Thirteenth Centuries.St. Vartan press, New york, Ny, 497p.Ghazni, S., 1977- Astrolabe or astronomical measuring instrument. Tehran, 13s6.Goldman, L.R., Paigen, B., Magnant, M.M., ano Higirand, J.H., 1gg5- Low birthweight, prematurity and birth defects in children living near the hazardouswaste site, Love Canal. Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials,2(2),209_223.Greenberg, M., and schneider, D., 1gg4 - Hazardous waste site remediation,neighborhood change, and neighborhood quality. Environmental HealthPerspectives, 102(6-7),June_July 19g4, 542_547 .Guidoboni, E., 1994- Catalogue of Ancieni Earthquakes in the Mediterranean Areaup to the 10h century. rstitute Nazionare di Geofisica, Rome, 504p.Holmes, A., 1969 - Principles of Physical geology. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.,1288 p.Howell, Jr., B.F., 1986- History of ideas on the cause of earthquakes. Eos, Trans.Am. Geophys. Union, Nov. 1g, 19g6, 1323_1g26.Hozuri, A.' 1986- The ancient Kharazm astronomical observatory. Chista, 6, 462-468.Jackson, A.v.w., lgz}- Zoroaster, the prophet of ancient rran. New york.Jalali-Naini, M.R. (tr.), 134811969 - Selected hymns of Rig-Veda, the oldest livingdocument on Hindu religion and society. Taban press, Tehran, 433p (inPersian).23

Jonaidi, F., 1358/1979 - Life and migration of the Aryans, based on lraniantradition. Bonyad Neshabur Publ., no.2,206p.Matheson, S.A., 1972- Persia: An Archaeological Guide. 1st Edition, Faber andFaber Ltd., London.Matheson, S.A., 1976 - Persia: An Archaeological Guide. 2nd Edition, Faber andFaber Ltd., London, 358p.Nayer Nuri, H., 1966- The calendar of Behruz; from the Persian Share in theCivilization of the World. N.|.O'C., Tehran, A[4p,1345-panoussi, E., 1978- The influence of the Persian culture and world view uponPlato. The lmperial lranian Academy of Philosophy, No. 38,Tehran,130P.Pour Davoud, E., 134311964 - Visparad: A part of Avesta. Tehran.Pour Davoud, E., 1347t1968-Yashtha (the Holy Yashts). Vol. 1, Tahuri Publ',Zaban va Farban-e-lran, 50, 626P.PoureDavoud, E., 1356/1977a (tr.)-The Yeshts. Vol. 1. Tehran University Publ.1637, 3rd edition,626p. (in Persian).PoureDavoud, E. (tr.), 1356t1977b - The Yeshts. Vol. 2. Tehran University Publ.1638, 3rd edition, 545p. (in Persian).poure Davoud, E. (tr.), 135611977c - The Yasna, v.1. Tehran University Publ. 1596(no. 1971), 3rd edition,269p. (in Persian)-Rig Veda -> see Jalali Naini, M.R., 1348/1969; and Griffith (1991).Reed, S.8., 1992 - Introduction to Hazards. UNDP/UNDRO, Disaster ManagementTraining Programme, 155P.Russel, C., Colglazier,E., and English, M., 1991 - Hazardous waste remediation:the task ahead. Knoxville, TN: Waste Management Research andEducation Institute.Scott, W.E., 1989 - Volcanic hazard zonation and long-term forecasts. In: VolcanicHazards, Short Courses in Geol. Vol 1, edited by R. J. Tilling, AGU, 25-49, Washington, D.C.Stevens, R., 1974- The Land of the Great Sophy. Cox and V$man Ltd-,Fakenham, Norfolk, U.K., 326p.Taraporewala, l,J.S., 1980-The religion of Zarathushtra. Faravahar, Tehran,180p.Varjavand, P., 1987- Research in the Maragheh Astronomical Observatory and aseat on the history of astronomical science in lran. Amir Kabir Publ.,Tehran, 1366, 511p.West, E.W., 1880 (tr.)- Bundahis. Sacred Books of the East, 5, Oxford. AlsoMotilal Banarsidass, Dehli.West, E.W., 1882 (tr.)- The Dadistan-i Dinik and the epistles of Manuskihar-Sacred Books of the East, PahlaviTexts. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.Yashts -> See Poure-Davud.Yasna -> See Poure-Davud.Zokai,Y., 1g79- Nau Rooz and its astronomical bases in relation to the Persepolis.Anjoman Farhangi lran Bastan Pub. 1358, 66-69, Tehran (in Persian).24