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210 

Towards a ~’ paleogeography 2 

and tectonic evolution of lran 

MANUEL BERBERIAN AND G. C. P.K~NG 

Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Bullard Laboratories, 

Madingley Rise, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0EZ, England. 

Received February 19, 1980 

Revision accepted July 8, 1980 

Maps of the paleography of Iran are presented to summarize and review the geological evolution of the Iranian region since late 

Precambrian time. On the basis of the data presented in this way reconstructions of the region have been prepared that take 

account of the known major movements of continental masses. These reconstructions, which appear at the beginning of the 

paper, show some striking features, many of which were poorly appreciated previously in the evolution of the region. They 

include the closing of the ’Hercynian Ocean’ by the northward motion of the Central Iranian continental fragment(s), the 

apparently simultaneous opening of a new ocean (’the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean’) south of Iran, and the formation of ’small 

rift zones of oceanic character’ together with the attenuation of continental crust in Central Iran. 

With the disappearance of the Hercynian Ocean, the floor of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean started to subduct beneath southern 

Central lran and apparently disappeared by Late Cretaceous-. Early Paleocene time (65 Ma). From this time the compressional 

motion between Arabia and Eurasia has been accommodated in Iran by shortening and thickening of the continental crust. This 

crustal thickening is accompanied by a progressive, though eventful, U’ansition from marine to continental conditions over the 

whole region. 

A striking feature highlighted in this study is the existence of extensive alkaline and calc-alkaline volcanics, which appear to be 

unrelated to subduction. The intrusion of these rocks started in Middle Eocene time (45 Ma) and extended to the present. It is clear 

that some major fault systems have played a continuous but varied role from the Precambrian until the present, and whatever 

controlled the original fold orientation at the onset of continental compression (65 Ma) apparently still controls the orientation 

contemporary folding. 

On pr~sente des cartes pal6og6ographiques de l’iran pour r6sumer et revoir l’6volution g6ologique de la r6gion iranienne 

depuis la fin du Pr6cambrien.En se basant sur des donn6es pr6sent6es de cette fa~on, on a pr6par6 des reconstructions de la r6gion 

pour tenir compte des grands mouvements des masses continentales. Cos reconstructions, qui apparaissent au d6but de 

l’article, montrent certaines caract6ristiques frappantes dont le rble a 6t6 mal appr6ci6 jusqu’ici dans l’6volution de la r6gion. 

Parmi cos caract~ristiques, on note la fermeture de l’"oc6an Hercynien" par le mouvement vet’s le nord du ou des fragments 

continentaux du centre de l’Iran, l’ouverture apparemment simultan6e d’un nouvel oc6an ("l’oc6an alpin de High-Zagros") clans 

le sud de l’iran et la formation "de petites zones de rift avec des caract~ristiques oc6aniques" avec l’att6nuation de la crofite 

continentale du centre de l’Iran. 

Avec la disparition de l’oc~an Hercynien, le fond de l’oc~an alpin de High-Zagros a commenc~ sa subduction sous le centre 

de l’Iran et apparemment il a disparu au cours du Cr6tac6 sup~rieur-Pal6oc~ne inf6rieur (65 Ma). A partir de ce moment, 

mouvement de compression entre 1’ Arabie et l’Eurasie a 6t6 accommod6 en Iran par le r~tr~cissement et l’~palssissement de la 

croflte continentale. Cot 6paississement de la crofite accompagnait une transition progressive bien qu’6pisodique des conditions 

marines ~ continentalesur route la r6gion. 

Une caract6fistique frappante r6sultant de cette 6rude est l’existence sur de grandes 6tendues de rocbes volcaniques alcalines et 

calco-alcalines qui semblent n’avoir aucune relation avec la subduction. Cos rocbes apparaissant d~s l’Eoc~ne moyen (45 Ma) 

s’~tendent jusqu’~ nos jours. II est clair que certains syst~mes de failles importants ont jou6 un r~le continu mais variable du 

Pr6cambfien jusqu’~ maintenant et quel que soit le m6canisme qui a cont616 l’orientation originale des plis depuis le d6but de la 

compression continentale (65 Ma), ce m6canisme semble encore contr61er l’orientation des plis actuels. 

Can. J. Earth Sci., 18, 210-265 (1981) 

[Traduit par le journal] 

Introduction 

The political boundaries of Iran completely enclose a 

short section of the orogenic belts between the Arabian- 

Afrifan unit and the Asian block. If the events asso- 

~Cambridge Earth Sciences Department Contribution 

No. ES 29. 

2To Jovan Stocidin, for his vaiuable contribution to the 

Iranian geology. 

ciated with the closing of Tethys in this area are to be 

found in the geological record, they should be reflected 

in the tectonic and stratigraphic features of Iran. 

New sketch maps of the geological evolution of Iran 

inside the gradually closing Tethys are presented here 

using the paleocontinental reconstructions of Smith et 

al. (1973) and Smith and Briden (19"/7) as a basis. 

maps are based primarily on geological data, which are 

also presented in a series of conventional paleogeo- 

0008-4077/81/020210-56501.00/0 

@1981 National Research Council of Canada/Conseil national de recherches du Canada

graphic maps. We present both sets of maps to allow the 

significance of the data on which our reconstructions are 

based to be easily assessed. 

This examination of the paleogeography and the paleotectonics 

of the region has clearly excluded some of 

the previous reconstructions, which scarcely considered 

important geological constraints. Our reconstructions, 

which are geometrically as simple as possible, are more 

consistent with the available data, but the data are limited 

and more work will be required to confirm some of 

our suggestions and extend others. In particular, large 

strike-slip motions such as those now occurring in Central 

Asia and Turkey could have occurred, but are undetectable. 

In this study we assume that ophiolites may 

represent the site of either a large old ocean or a small 

Red Sea type ocean. Evidence to distinguish between 

these for our reconstructions comes from large-scale 

geometric contraints and not from any known difference 

in the field observations of features left by their closure. 

Our account of the region, which starts in late Precambrian 

time, is divided into two sections. The first 

section describes the general evolution of Iran and the 

significance of various geological features in its interpretation 

and is intended to be an overview that is easy to 

read. The second section provides a detailed geological 

review and contains the data on which the interpretations 

of the first section are based. The major Iranian tectonosedimentary 

units together with their characteristics 

and the localities cited in the paper are given in Figs. 1 

and 2. Correlation charts of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, 

and Tertiary formations, and sedimentary gaps and unconformities 

discussed in the text are given in Tables 1 

to3. 

1--Evolution of the region 

I. 1--PRECAMBRIAN 

It is not possible at present to produce a paleogeographic 

map and continental reconstructions prior to the 

Upper Precambrian. However, some features of Iran are 

recognizable from this period. These include a possible 

fossil island-arc (Chapedony, Posht-e-Badam), late Precambrian 

deformation followed by alkali-rift volcanism, 

the Hormoz Salt deposits with epicontinental red 

elastics, and some acid magmatism. Some major structures 

such as the Main Zagros, High Zagros, Chapedony, 

Posht-e-Badam, and Nayband faults apparently 

formed facies dividers in the Upper Precambrian and 

Lower Paleozoic (Figs. 3 and 10; see also Section II. 1). 

Like the Arabian craton, the Precambrian basement of 

Iran may be the crust from Precambrian calc-alkaline 

island arcs (see Section II.1), and if this is so their 

cratonization must have taken place prior to the deposition 

of the Upper Precambrian - Lower Cambrian salt, 

red detritus, and carbonates. 

BERBERIAN AND KING 211 

The Hormoz Salt was deposited in basins on the 

peneplaned Arabian shield during Late Precambrian- 

Early Cambrian time. The distribution of these sedimentary 

facies suggests that during the Late Precambrian, 

Central Iran and Zagros together with the Salt 

Ranges of Pakistan and Arabia were all part of the same 

landmass and were partly covered by a common shallow 

sea (Table 1). The present Main Zagros reverse fault 

probably marks the site of a normal fault controlling the 

sedimentation (see Fig. 10) and was associated with the 

formation of a passive continental margin to the north, 

recognizable by the Cambrian (Fig. 3). The Late Precambrian 

orogeny (around 850-570 Ma) and its associated 

magmatism represent an earlier compressional 

phase much before the Hormoz Salt deposition. The 

Upper Precambrian acid and basic alkali-volcanics 

(Figs. 3 and 10) are subsequent to the Late Precambrian 

orogeny and presumably developed during the rifting 

that formed the sedimentary basins in which the Hormoz 

Salt and the Upper Precambrian - Lower Cambrian 

sediments were deposited, and may be associated with 

this rifting. 

1.2--PALEOZOIC 

The first recognizable tectonic event in Iran occurred 

near the end of the Paleozoic Era, with the onset of the 

Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) orogeny. Prior to this time, 

the whole region was a relatively stable continental platform 

with epicontinental shelf deposits, and lacked 

major magmatism or folding. 

After deposition of the Upper Precambrian Hormoz 

Salt-dolomite, shallow-water red arkosic sandstones 

and shales of Cambrian age were deposited over a wide 

area from Arabia in the south to the Alborz mountains 

in the north. These deposits also occur in Pakistan, 

Afghanistan, and Turkey (Fig. 3; Table 1; Section 

II.2a). The red sandstone sedimentation was followed 

by the deposition of dolomite, marl, and shale (with salt 

pseudomorphs) in shallow sea conditions. The first fully 

marine carbonates were deposited in the Middle and 

Late Cambrian Epochs, and in the Ordovician or the 

Silurian the marine transgression was terminated with 

the deposition of sandstone (Table 1). 

All of these terrestrial to very shallow marine depositional 

environments are consistent with a passive and 

continuously connected continental margin at least between 

600 and 400 Ma. The fragments of the margin 

that we can now identify may not have been in the 

positions we suppose in our reconstruction. However, 

this would require large strike-slip motion to have occurred 

subsequently, for which, as yet, we have no 

evidence. During the same period the Asian part of the 

Caucasus, south Caspian, and Kopeh Dagh (north of the 

Hercynian suture line, not shown in Fig. 3; see Fig. 10)

212 CAN. J. EARTH SCI. VOL. 18, 1981 

Fie. 1. Iranian major tectono-sedimentary units. 

1. Stable areas: Arabian Precambrian platform in the southwest and Turanian Hercynian plate in the northeast. The low 

dipping, relatively flat lying beds south and southwest of the Persian Gulf comprise the Arabian shelf over the buried Precambrian 

stable shield. 2. Neogene-Quaternary foredeeps, transitional from unfolded forelands to marginal fold zones, with strong late 

Alpine subsidence. ZF: Zagros Foredeep in the southwest; KDF: Kopeh Dagh Foredeep in the northeast. 3. Main sector of the 

marginal active fold belt peripheral to the stable areas (Zagros and High-Zagros (HZ) in the southwest, and Kopeh Dagh in 

northeast). 4. Zabol-Baluch (east Iran) and Makran (southeast Iran) post-ophiolite flysch troughs. Late Tertiary seaward 

accretion and landward underthrusting seem to be responsible for the formation of the present Makran ranges. 5. Alborz 

Mountains, bordering the southern part of the Caspian Sea. 6. Central Iranian Plateau (Central Iran) lying between the two 

marginal active fold belts. In the northwestern part of the country, Central Iran joins the Transcaucasian early Hercynian Median 

Mass (TC), the Sevan-Akera ophiolite belt (SV), and the Little Caucasus [A: Armenian (Miskhan-Zangezurian) late Hercynian 

belt, with a possible continuation to the Iranian Talesh Mountains (T) along the western part of the Caspian Sea; AA: the 

Araxian-Azarbaijanian zone of the Caledonian consolidation, with the Vedi (V) ophiolite belt]. SS: Sanandaj-Sirjan belt, 

narrow intracratonic mobile belt (during the Paleozoic Era) and active continental margin (Mesozoic), forming the southern 

margin of Central Iran in contact with the Main Zagros reverse fault (MZRF). The belt bears the imprints of several major crustal 

upheavals (severe tectonism, magmatism, and metamorphism). The Central Iranian province joins Central Afghanistan in the 

east. 7. Postulated Upper Cretaceous High-Zagros-Oman ophiolite-radiolarite (75 Ma) and the Central Iranian ophiolite-

was undergoing calc-alkaline magmatic activity, deformation, 

and simultaneous sedimentation. This is completely 

different from the sediments of the stable platform 

(of Arabia and Iran) in the south. Therefore two 

completely different tectonic and sedimentary regimes 

are represented (Fig. 10). 

Thus there is evidence that in this period, Iran, southeastern 

Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and parts of Afghanistan 

and Pakistan were connected (via Arabia) to Africa, and 

the Hercynian Ocean was to the north. This stratigraphic 

evidence is consistent with the paleomagnetic data (discussed 

in Section II). 

1.2.2--Late Paleozoic and Middle Triassic orogenic 

movements 

The Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) orogenic belt is presumably 

associated with the closure of the ’Hercynian 

Ocean’ (we choose to name oceans after the orogenic 

episode caused by their closure). The ocean was to the 

north of lran (as indicated by the foregoing stratigraphic 

evidence). It seems clear that subduction was restricted 

to the northern side of the ocean in the Middle East 

region and resulted in prolonged deformation, metamorphism, 

and magmatism. 

The deformation apparently started during Carboniferous 

time (about 330 Ma) and finished during the Triassic 

Period (about 220 Ma). Most of this deformation 

appears to be associated with the northward subduction 

and closure of the Hercynian Ocean. Towards the end of 

the period Iran apparently moved as one or a few continental 

fragments across the Hercynian Ocean, leaving 

new oceanic crust behind to form the ’High-Zagros 

Alpine Ocean’ in the south (Fig. 4). There is stratigraphic 

evidence (continental rift volcanism and sedimentation 

consistent with stretching along the Sanandaj- 

Sirjan belt; Fig. 11; Section II.2.2b) that Iran and 


some surrounding countries were becoming detached 

from Arabia in Permian time (possibly around 240 Ma). 

However, paleomagnetic poles indicate that lran remained 

close to Arabia during at least the early part of 

this period. The Upper Triassic - Jurassic pelagic sediments 

along the active Central Iranian and the passive 

Zagros continental margins provide the first sedimentary 

evidence for the appearance of a true oceanic environment 

(Table 2). 

Sometime prior to the Middle Triassic orogenic phase 

(210 Ma), the late Paleozoic ophiolites were emplaced 

in the north, presumably at the time of the collision of 

the continental fragments with Asia (Section II.2.2a). 

By Middle to Late Triassic time (200 Ma) a major 

difference in sedimentary environment between [ran and 

Arabia on either side of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean 

is evident. While marine carbonates continued to be 

1.2.l--Early Paleozoic movements (450-370 Ma) 

Because of the deficiency of data, no reconstruction is 

given for the time of the Early Paleozoic (Caledonian) 

movements. The deposition of Upper Silurian (395 Ma) 

continental sediments together with the lack of Lower 

deposited in a passive environment on the Arabian foreland, 

shallow lagoonal coal-beating detrital sediments 

Devonian rocks in Central Iran may indicate a Late 

Silurian movement (see Section II.2.1), the cause were deposited in Iran (Table 2). Furthermore, these 

which is not yet understood. 

were apparently continuous with similar deposits in 

southern Asia (Kopeh Dagh - Turan) suggesting that 

Iran and southern Asia were connected and formed a 

single sedimentary province by that time (Fig. 5). 

It is therefore concluded that the late Paleozoic - early 

Mesozoic phase in Iran and surrounding countries was a 

period when continental fragments travelled across the 

Hercynian Ocean to become attached to Asia (Fig. 5). 

The time taken does not appear to be greater than 40 Ma 

and, based on paleomagnetic data and our reconstructions, 

the continental fragments covered a distance of 

about 4000 km. The necessary rate of movement of I0 

cm/year is reasonable, since India split from Africa and 

formed parts of the Indian Ocean at a rate of 18 crn/year. 

There is some evidence of late Paleozoic low-grade 

metamorphism along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt at a time 

when the paleomagnetic data indicate that the High- 

Zagros Alpine Ocean had not formed in the south (Section 

II.2.2b). This could be interpreted as an error in the 

paleomagnetic data, with some subduction occurring on 

the southern part of Central Iran along the Sanandaj- 

Sirjan belt, prior to the Middle Triassic orogenic movements. 

Alternatively it could be associated with the late 

Paleozoic closure of the rifts formed in the second Palmrlange 

belts (65 Ma), with outcrops indicated in black. The southeastern parts of the Middle Cretaceous (110 Ma) Sevan-Akera 

and Vedi ophiolites of the Little Caucasus are shown in the northwestern part of the country. The extensive belts of ophiolites 

mark the original zone of convergence between different blocks. The positions of ophiolites are modified by post-emplacement 

convergent movements. 8. Major facies dividing basement faults, bordering different tectono-sedimentary units. Contrasting 

tectono-sedimentary regimes, belts of ophiolites, and associated oceanic sediments, together with paleogeographicontrasts 

along the Main Zagros (MZRF) and the High-Zagros (HZRF) reverse faults in the southwest, and the South Kopeh Dagh fault 

(SKDF) in the northeast indicate the existence of old geosutures along these lines. The Chapedony and Posht-e-Badam faults 

delineate the possible Precambrian island arc in eastern Cental Iran. SJMF: South Jaz Murian Fault in the southeast. 9. Late 

Alpine fold axes. 10. Postulated active subduction zone of Makran in the Gulf of Oman. 11. Province boundary. 

(Figure based on Berberian (1980a). Lambert Conformal Conic Projection.)


RG. 2. Localities in Iran cited in the text (Lambert Conformal Conic Projection.) 

eozoic extensional phase (Section II.2a.1.2). The absence 

the north. The ophiolites and basic and granitic complexes 

of any late Paleozoic ophiolites in this belt and 

consistency with the paleomagnetic data may support 

this second conjucture and we adopt this view. 

The Middle Triassic features of Iran are shown in Fig. 

of Triassic age exposed along the southeastern 

margin of Central Iran (Section II.3a) seem to be remnants 

of the crust of the Triassic subduction system of 

the northern part of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean. 

5. They include linear metamorphic belts in southwestern 

Central Iran (the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt, with its probable 

1.3--EARLY ALPINE OROGENIC EVENTS 

continuation to the Tauros belt of Turkey and the 

Wardak-Nawar zone of Central Afghanistan), and 

general compressional phase of folding and mountain 

building throughouthe country (Figs. 5 and 13). This 

presumably associated with the onset of subduction 

along the southern margin of Central Iran, resulting 

from the clogging of the Hercynian belt in the north with 

continental materials. The onset of the Middle Triassic 

events in the southern Central Iranian margin was probably 

a direct consequence of the ending of subduction in 

The Early Alpine orogenic events lasted from 200 Ma 

to around 65 Ma, and apparently represented the period 

during which the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean in the 

southern region of Iran closed (Figs. 5 and 6). Following 

the Middle Triassic compressional phase, the whole 

region underwent tensional movements characterized by 

the Upper Triassic continental alkali-rift basalts in Central 

Iran and the Alborz. A compressional episode occurred 

around Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous time 

(140 Ma), at the middle of the period when we suppose

BERBERIANANDKING 215 

TABLE 1. Correlation chart of the major Paleozoic rock units, sedimentary gaps (blank areas), and unconformities (indented 

lines) in Gondwanian Iran and neighbouring regions. Note that the stable platform shelf deposits are underlain by the alkali-acid 

volcano-plutonic complex, which marks the late Precarnbrian’ intracontinental rifting. Data sources cited in the text. The rock 

unit symbols used are the same as those used on the paleogeographic maps. H-Z: High-Zagros belt; S-S: Sanandaj-Sirjan belt 

the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean to have been closing 

(Section 11.4). The cause of this phase is unknown. 

During and after the Middle Triassic phase of activity, 

andesitic-basaltic volcanism and acid granitic intrusions 

formed along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (the active 

margin of Central Iran; Figs. 5 and 13), and presumably 

represents the full establishment of the southern subduction 

zone. The arc is partly exposed, being covered with 

Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments, which have been 

removed by erosion only in a few places. There is a 

similar situation in the northern Hercynian belt in the 

Kopeh Dagh. Its eastern continuation is completely visible 

in northern Afghanistan, but in this case only one 

small inlier (Aghdarband) is exposed in Iran (Figs. 

and 12). 

During the Mesozoic Era two very different environments 

existed in the Arabian Zagros foreland and the 

Iranian unit attached to Asia. The Arabian foreland is

216 

CAN. J. EARTH SCI. VOL. 18, 1981 

ATE 

PRECAMBRIAN- 

CAMBRIAN 

FIG. 3. A simplified reconstruction of Iran during Late Precambrian - Cambrian times (570-540 Ma), showing a broad 

continuity of epicontinental shelf sedimentary facies over the Arabian-Iranian continental crust (cf. Fig. 10 for the detailed 

Iranian tectono-sedimentary data for the same period). The original position of the Central and north Iranian continental 

fragments relative to Arabia is not entirely clear, and it is possible to postulate a position adjacent to eastern Arabia. The 

Hercynian Ocean is in the north of the Alborz Mountains (south of the Caspian Sea). Lines of latitude and longitude (in Figs. 3 

9) only provide approximate information about the orientation in regions where crustal extension or compresssion has taken 

place. 

1. Oceanic crust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 3. Continental coarse clastics. 4. Zaigun 

and Lalun epicontinental-marine red sandstone-shale formation (Lower Cambrian). 5. Precambrian ophiolites of Saudi Arabia. 

6. Upper Precambrian alkali granitic intrusions in Iran. 7. Upper Precambrian post-orogenic rhyolitic flows in Iran. The rhyolitic

subject to progressive subsidence and uniform thick 

shallow marine sedimentation (Table 2). There are very 

striking simple linear facies boundaries parallel to the 

old continental margin (Figs. 5 and 14). These were 

presumably normal faults formed during extensional 

movement at that time. 

In the north the sedimentary environment was more 

complex, with rapid facies changes and unstable conditions. 

There were large areas of shallow sea and small 

Red Sea type oceanic basins (the sites of the Central 

Iranian narrow ophiolite belts) with a few small land 

areas. Presumably these basins and shallow seas were 

associated with fragmentation of continental crust during 

the period of movement of the continental mass from 

Arabia to Asia (Figs. 4 and 5). There appears to be 

evidence on which to base speculation about when and 

how the Central Iranian narrow oceanic basins formed. 

However, the stratigraphic evidence suggests that the 

Central Iranian continental fragments were never widely 

separated (Tables 1, 2, and 3; Figs. 10 to 17). 

1.3.1--Late Cretaceous orogenic phases 

The Late Cretaceous Epoch in Iran is characterized by 

two episodes of ophiolite emplacement. The emplacement 

dates and the associated change of sedimentary 

conditions from oceanic to shallow marine are critical, 

since they determine the time of ocean closure. Detailed 

arguments outlined in Sections II.5.2b and II.5.3b constrain 

the dates of these changes together with the High- 

Zagros and the Central Iranian ophiolite emplacement to 

be nominally around 75 Ma and 65 Ma (Fig. 6; Table 2). 

The latter phase was associated with regional metamorphism, 

magmatism, and extensive folding and uplift 

throughout the country and is taken here to represent the 

final closure of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean. The 

’High-Zagros-Oman ophiolite-radiolarite belt,’ which 

was emplaced in the form of a thrust stack around 75 

Ma, is apparently the remnant of the High-Zagros Alpine 

Ocean extending from southeastern Turkey via 

High-Zagros to Oman. The ’Central Iranian ophiolitemtlange 

belts’ were emplaced around 65 Ma and resulted 

from the subsequent closure of the ’small ocean 

basins’ created by fragmentation after the separation of 

Iran from Arabia. They form a complex system in the 

country (Fig. 6). The ’Makran ophiolite-mtlange’ 

southeastern Iran (Figs. 1, 6, and 14) is not interpretable 

as a continental closure, since subduction of ocean crust 

BERBERIAN AND ~NG 217 

preceded and succeeded its emplacement. It may be 

speculated that it was associated with the collision of an 

island arc of the eastern High-Zagros Alpine Ocean. 

The Sevan-Akera and Vedi ophiolite belts of the Little 

Caucasus, which were emplaced around 118-105 Ma, 

were the remnants of the western part of the Hercynian 

Ocean in the northwest, and presumably were emplaced 

during the collision between northwestern Iran and the 

Caucasus (see Section 11.5. lc). 

The Central Iranian ophiolite-mtlange belts are associated 

with glaucophane-schist metamorphism (along 

the belt north of the Zagros fault line and in Makran), 

and simultaneously the active Central Iranian continental 

margin (the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt) was affected by 

greenschist metamorphic overprint (see Section 

II.5.3b; Figs. 6 and 14). Extensive magmatism 

not 

found associated with the closure of the internal ocean 

basins. This could be because the volcanism is concealed 

by later sediments, or because the area of ocean 

crust consumed was too small to allow significant volcanic 

arcs to become established. The second explanation 

is a plausible confirmation of the view that the 

internal ophiolites do not represent the remains of the 

large ocean basins. 

We take the Late Cretaceous events to represent the 

disappearance of the oceanic crust between Asia and 

Arabia. From this period to the present, all continued 

convergence of these plates apparently has been accommodated 

by processes that have progressively thickened 

and shortened the continental crust and caused its gradual 

emergence (Figs. 7 to 9). The compression has 

been accompanied by extensive volcanism and various 

tectonic episodes, but none have the characteristic of a 

closure episode and no ophiolites and pelagic sediments 

have been emplaced later than 55 Ma. 

1.4----MIDDLE AND LATE ALPIN EVENTS 

The Middle Alpine orogenic events started at the 

close of the Late Cretaceous movements (65 Ma) and 

ended at about 20 Ma. The Late Cretaceous movements 

created the main structural features of present-day Iran 

(Figs. 6 and 7). During the closure of the High-Zagros 

Alpine Ocean in the south, acid plutonic activity took 

place in Late Jurassic time (140 Ma) along the southern 

margin of Central Iran (the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt; Figs. 

and 14). Later plutonic activity and deformation in the 

volcanics and the comagmatic alkali granites apparently are the products of post-orogenic rifting. 8. Approximate boundary 

between different sedimentary facies. 9. Basement faults (N: Najd left-lateral fault system in Saudi Arabia; Z: Main Zagros and 

High-Zagros reverse fault system in Iran; and C: Chapedony fault delineating the western part of a possible Precambrian island 

arc in the eastern part of Central Iran). 10. Present continental shorelines. 

Principal sources of data: Reconstruction (Mercat6r Projection) is modified from Smith et al. (1973). The Iranian 

tectono-sedimentary data are based on our Fig. 10. Data outside Iran come from Abu-Bar and Jackson (1964), Wolfart (1967), 

Ketin (1966), Gas and Gibson (1969), Brown (1972), et al. (1974),and Frisch and A1-Shanti (1977).


PERMIAN 

DCE 

~I0,-’--L--11 -’--~--12 ,"--’--13." .......... IZ,, I~15 

FIG. 4. Reconstruction of Iran during the Permian Period (possibly around 240 Ma), showing the detachment of Iran from 

Arabia-Zagros following rifting along the High-Zagros and the Sanandaj-Sirjan (SS) belts; formation of the High-Zagros Alpine 

Ocean and the Central Iranian narrow Red Sea type oceanic basins; and the consuming of the Hercynian ocean in the north (cf. our 

Fig. 11 for the detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentary data for the same period). 

1. Oceanic crust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 3. Coarse clastics. 4. Sandstone and 

shale. 5. Carbonates with anhydrite. 6. Shallow marine shelf carbonates. 7. Permian-Triassic intrusive rocks. 8. Permian 

volcanics along the rifted Sanandaj-Sirjan mobile belt (SS) in the south, and along the Great Caucasus - southern Turan


TABLE 2. Correlation chart of the major Mesozoic rock units, sedimentary gaps (blank areas), and unconformities (indented 

lines) in Iran, Arabia, and the Little Caucasus (for which the lower part of the section is not complete). The pelagic sediments 

the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean (H.Z.A.O.), Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (S-S), Central Iranian narrow oceans (C.I.O.), and 

Sevan-Akera (S-A) of the Little Caucasus, are shown by the wavy lines. The arrows indicate the emplacement of the ophiolites 

and pelagic sediments as thrust sheets (thick lines with triangles) onto the continental margin 

Arabia Zagros H-Z H.Z.A.O. I ST,~q I C.I.O. IC~ntrcal I. Alborz Talesh S-A L.Cauca’s 

same region occurred during Late Cretaceous time and is 

presumably associated with the final stages of subduction. 

During this period, north and west Iran were subject 

to little activity, with slight erosion and little deposition 

suggesting low relief. After the emplacement of ophiolites 

onto the continental margin in Late Cretaceous time, 

a major flysch basin formed in east (Zabol-Baluch), 

southeast (Makran), and southwest Central Iran (along 

the Zagros fault line), and very rapid erosion and deposition 

of material took place. The nature of the basement 

of these flysch basins could be oceanic crust. The general 

environment would appear to be relatively subdued 

topography near sea level, except near the flysch basins 

where, at the very least, steep scarp slopes would be 

needed to provide the rapid erosion to supply the basins 

with sediment (Fig. 7). Continental accretion of the 

overlying Tertiary flysch deposits by the successive 

oceanward movements of the site of the active subduction 

zone along southern Makran (Fig. 1) presumably 

gave rise to the subduction complex, which has continued 

from Late Cretaceous time to the present (Figs. 

to 9). 

Extensive volcanism, with a wide range of composition, 

started in the Eocene Period (50 Ma) and continued 

for the rest of the period with the climax in Middle 

Eocene time (about 47-42 Ma). Despite their great 

thickness (locally up to 6 and 12 km) and wide distribution 

(Fig. 7), the volcanics and tufts were formed 

within a relatively short time interval. Since the plutonic 

eugeosyncline north of the Hercynian subduction zone. 9. Approximate boundary between different sedimentary facies. 10. 

Spreading centres. 11. Subduction zone with triangles on the upper plate. 12. Major normal faults activated during the Permian 

rifting phase, controlling the sedimentary facies. 13. Reverse faults with bars on the upper plate. 14. Present continental 

shorelines. 15. Epigeosyncline orogenic region in the north. SS: Sanandaj-Sirjan rift belt. t.c.m.m.: Transcaucasian Median 

Mass. 

Principal sources of data: Reconstruction (Mercator Projection) is modified from Smithetal. (1973). The tectono-sedimentary 

data within the Iranian boundaries are based on our Fig. 11. Data outside Iran come from Wolfart (1967), Nalvkin and Posner 

(1968), Adamia (1968, 1975), Gass and Gibson (1969), Kamen-Kaye (1970), Brown (1972), Belov (1972), et al. 

(1977), and Saint-Marc (1978).

220 CaN. J. EARTH SCI. VOL. 18, 1981 

RHAETO- 

LIAS 

:CENTRAL 

IRA 

/ 

÷10, "’-’11, ~12,-’-’-13,-’--’-lZ,,-"--"-15 ,"Z, lG, . ........ 17 

FI~. 5. Reconstruction of Iran immediately after the Middle Triassic orogenic movements (around 210-190 Ma), showing 

collision of Iran with Eurasia in the north by the final closure of the Hercynian ocean, and shifting of the subduction from the north 

(Hercynian) to the south (High-Zagros Alpine). Compression with regional metamorphism occurs along the southern active 

margin of Central Iran (the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt: SS). The western part of the Hercynian ocean, south of the Pontian- 

Transcaucassian island arc (P-Tc), is not closed. Coal-bearing sediments cover south Eurasia and Iran (cf. Figs. 12 and 13 for 

detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentary data for the same period). 

1. Oceanic crust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 3. Rhaetic-Liassic plant- and

magmatism associated with it would have ceased not 

much more than 10 Ma after the end of subduction 

(about 65 Ma), with the absorption of the downgoing 

slabs, the cause of this extensive ’post-collision’ volcanic 

activity is not clear. Because of the wide-ranging 

composition of these volcanics (rhyolite, dacite, andesite, 

ignimbrite, and basalt) it is difficult to explain them 

simply as crustal melts due to rapid uplift and erosion, 

and it is necessary at least in part to invoke a lower crust 

or mantle source (Section II.6b). Although the nature 

this volcanism is enigmatic, volcanism of the same type 

continues to the present day (Figs. 17, 18) and is evidently 

not related to subduction. It is suggested in the 

absence of alternative hypotheses that this volcanism 

might be related to processes of crustal shortening or to 

strike-slip faulting and sheafing, or to both (see Sections 

II.6b, II.Tb, and 11.8). During the period of most active 

volcanism Iran was subject to an overall right-lateral 

shear and relatively little shortening (comparing Figs. 

and 7). 

Assuming either of the foregoing mechanisms it is not 

clear why the volume of volcanics has diminished with 

time. It may be due to changes in the amount of shearing. 

Alternatively the source conditions may alter as the 

crust thickens or, if volcanoes cease activity when they 

reach a maximum height, larger volumes of lava will 

erupt when the crust is near sea level than on crust more 

than 3000 m above sea level. 

The marine carbonate and marl deposition in the narrowing 

sedimentary basin of the Zagros continued after 

the Late Cretaceous collision (Figs. 6 to 9 and 14 to 17), 

with the folded and uplifted Central Iranian active continental 

margin (the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt) acting as 

barrier between the Central Iranian shallow basins in the 

north and the Zagros basin in the south (Figs. 6 to 9). 

The late Alpine orogenic events followed continuously 

from the Middle Alpine and extended to the present. 

Progressively more of Iran became land with separate 

mountain-divided narrow basins (Figs. 8 and 9). 

Neogene time (10 Ma), continental deposits supplied 

from the rising orogenic belts characterize the sedimentation 

in Iran (Fig. 9). 


During the Middle and Late Alpine orogenic movements, 

folding and uplift occurred followed by subsidence 

in central and northern Iran (Tables 2 and 3). The 

episodes of major activity defined in the literature and 

discussed in Section II refer to the unconformities associated 

with subsidence and marine transgression. Thus, 

although the overall relative motion of Arabia and Asia 

caused compression and uplift, there are clearly defined 

diachronous episodes of subsidence and extension. This 

indicates that the tectonic forces were not supplied from 

the Asian-Arabian motion alone, and presumably must 

have resulted from motions in the upper mantle or lower 

crust. However, throughout the period, the major fold 

belts grew in size, with fold axes continuing to form 

parallel to those initiated during the Late Cretaceous 

movements. 

1.5--DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 

Iran and some of the surrounding countries were connected 

to Arabia and Africa from the late Precambrian 

until the late Paleozoic. At that time these fragments of 

continental crust split from Arabia, crossed the Hercynian 

Ocean, and collided with the Asian block. During 

this passage and the subsequent subduction of ocean 

crust to the south of Iran, the continental crust was 

stretched. At the time of onset of continental compression 

(about 65 Ma) Iran was entirely below sea level and 

marine sedimentary conditions prevailed. This is consistent 

with the crust being thin. Post-colIisional convergence 

could then have resulted in progressive crustal 

thickening and shortening by folding, reverse faulting, 

and the gradual rise of the mountain belts above sea 

level. Redistribution of material laterally by sediment 

transport and large-scale strike-slip motion could also 

have occurred. 

If the Late Cretaceous crust was nominally 20 km 

thick and 100 or 200 m below sea level, a compression 

by a factor of two would double its thickness to that at 

present and account for the present mean elevation of the 

Iranian plateau of 2-3 km. This simple view assumes 

that thermal changes have not altered the density of the 

crust or mantle. The thermal processes associated with 

coal-bearing sandstones and shales of the Shemshak Formation with Asiatic flora and fauna covering Iran and southern Eurasia 

via Kopeh Dagh belt. 4. Continental clastics with marine intercalations. 5. Sea marginal flats, sabkhas, and shallow marine 

deposits. 6. Shallow water marine carbonates and shales. 7. Shallow to moderately deep marine sediments of the Great Caucasus 

(miogeosyncline basin). 8. Volcanic arc of Pontian-Transcaucasian (P-Tc). 9. Upper Triassic - Jurassic intrusive rocks. 

Upper Triassic - Jurassic andesitic-basaltic volcanic rocks. 11. Approximate boundary between different sedimentary facies. 

12. Spreading centres. 13. S ubduction zone with triangles on the upper plate. 14. Reverse faults with bars on the upper plate. 15. 

Major normal faults activated during the late Triassic rifting phase. 16. Middle Triassic regional metamorphic rocks along the 

active Central Iranian continental margin, the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (SS). 17. Present continental shorelines. P-Tc: 

Pontian-Transcaucasian island arc; C-C: Crimean-Caucasian marginal sea; SS: Sanandaj-Sirjan belt. 

Principal sources of data: Reconstruction (Mercator Conformal Projection) is modified from Smith and Briden (1977). 

tectono-sedimentary data within the boundaries of Iran are based on our Fig. 13. Data outside Iran come from Vereshchagin and 

Ronov (1968), Razvalyayev (1972), and Adamia et al. (1977) for the northwesternmost part, Bein and Gvirtzman (1977), 

Biju-Duval et al. (1977) for the westernmost part.


LATE 

CRETACEOUS 

1-’~10, =11, +12, "---13, -~-I~, "-’--15, ¯ ........ 16 

F~o. 6. Reconstruction of Iran during Late Cretaceous time (around 70 Ma), showing emplaced ophiolites along the 

Sevan-Akera and Vedi belts of the Little Caucasus (100 Ma), High-Zagros-Oman belt (80-75 Ma), and prior to emplacement 

the Makran and the Central Iranian narrow ophiolite belts (65 Ma). During that time most of the country was near sea level. The 

Zagros and Kopeh Dagh sedimentary basins have their own separate shallow marine shelf carbonate sedimentation (cf. Fig. 14 for 

the detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentary data for the same period). 

1. Oceanic crust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 3.Emplaced ophiolite-radiolarite belts 

of the High-Zagros-Oman (the former High~Zagros Alpine oceanic crust) and the Sevan-Akera and Vedi (a part of the former 

Hercynian oceanic crust). 4. Shallow marine shelf carbonates and shales (Aruma Formation). 5. Neritic to basinal marl 

shales (Gurpi Formation) in Zagros. 6. Shallow water anhydritic reef limestone (Tarbur Formation) in Zagros. 7. Upper 

Cretaceous flysch. 8. Isolated small intermontane sedimentary basins of Central Iran with marl, shale, and carbonate; tuffs and 

volcanics (mainly in the Talesh area). 9. Shallow carbonate shelf deposits in Kopeh Dagh (Kaiat Formation) and its northwestern 

continuation (the Great Caucasian miogeosyncline). 10. Chitral island arc, north India, and the Little Caucasian eugeosyncline 

northwestern Iran. 11. Cretaceous intrusive rocks. 12. Cretaceous volcanic rocks. 13. Approximate boundary between different 

sedimentary facies. 14. Subduction zone with triangles on the upper plate. 15.Reverse faults with bars on the upper plate. 16. 

Present continental shore lines.

the post-Cretaceous deformation and the cause of the 

Eocene volcanism are not understood; therefore the 

foregoing arguments, although consistent with the stratigraphic 

evidence, must be treated with caution. 

A striking feature of the evolution presented here is 

the apparent control of later fold episodes by the structures 

formed in the earliest fold episodes. This may be 

explained by regarding the early phase as introducing or 

reactivating structural anisotropy that later phases have 

also been forced to follow. Since these structures are 

not everywhere perpendicular to the relative motion 

between Arabia and Asia and since this motion has, in 

any case, changed direction since Late Cretaceous time, 

it follows that structures other than folds must have 

played an important role in the deformation. 

Many of the major faults have been inherited from 

earlier periods. Those that are most easily recognized 

formed facies dividers, presumably when acting as normal 

faults during tensional, down-warping, and depositional 

phases. The Main Zagros, I-Iigh-Zagros, Tabas, 

Kuh Banan, Chapedony, Posht-e-Badam, and several 

recent faults were probably major bounding normal 

faults since late Precambrian time but have operated as 

compressional faults during the overall shortening and 

crustal thickening of the last 60 Ma. 

Particular questions that require further study are the 

time of onset of the late Paleozoic subduction in northeastern 

Iran, the possibility of the late Paleozoic metamorphism 

along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt, the time and 

manner of formation of the Central Iranian narrow ocean 

basins (that became the Central Iranian ophiolitem61ange 

belts), and the reason for the lack of extensive 

exposure of the magmatic arc along the Sanandaj-Sirjan 

belt for the late Paleozoic and Middle Triassic events. 

Finally a detailed and systematic investigation of the 

petrology, the radiometric ages, and the trace- and 

major-element composition of the magmatic (including 

ophiolites) and metamorphic rocks of the country, together 

with paleomagnetic studies for certain crucial 

periods and sites, will carry us further towards a true 

understanding of the paleogeography and tectonic evolution 

of Iran. 

II--Review of the geological data 

The Iranian plateau extends over a number of continental 

fragments welded together along suture zones of 

oceanic character. The fragments are delineated by 

major boundary faults, which appear to be inherited 

from old geological times. Each fragment differs in its 


sedimentary sequence, nature, and age of magmatism 

and metamorphism, and in structural character and intensity 

of deformation (Fig. 1). In this section the evolution 

and effects of different orogenic phases since Late 

Precambrian time are reviewed and discussed separately 

for each unit. A brief review of the previous paleogeographic 

and tectonic reconstructions of the region is 

also included (Section 11.9). 

II. I--PRECAMBRIAN 

The continental crust of Iran was metamorphosed, 

granitized, folded, and faulted during the Late Precambrian 

by what is called the Hijaz or Pan African orogeny 

(around 960-600 Ma). These metamorphosed rocks, 

which are scarcely exposed, form the basement of the 

region (Huckriede et al. 1962; Stocklin 1968a, 1974, 

1977; Nabavi 1976; Berberian 1976a,b). This orogenic 

phase is considered by Brown and Coleman (1972), 

A1-Shanti and Mitchell (1976), Greenwood et al. (1975, 

1976), Neary et al. (1976), and Frisch and AI-Shanti 

(1977) to be an episode of plate collision and arcmagmatism 

terminating about 600-550 Ma in Arabia. 

Following these movements the Upper Precambrian - 

Cambrian Hormoz Salt (Stocklin 1968b, 1972) was deposited 

in a basin(s), parts of which now lie along the 

north and eastern side of the Arabian Peninsula (Fig. 

10). 

Since the different orogenic phases recognized in the 

crystalline shield of Arabia (Greenwood et al. 1976) are 

not recognized in Iran, no detailed correlation can be 

made between the basements of Iran and Arabia. Hence 

the consolidation of the Iranian basement is not well 

understood. The Precambrian Chapedony and Posht-e- 

Badam complexes of east Central Iran (Hushmandzadeh 

1969; Stocklin 1972; Haghipour 1974, 1977; and 

Haghipour et al. 1977), which consist of metagreywacke, 

metadiorite, meta-andesite, amphibolite, pyroxenite, 

serpentinite, and calc-alkaline intrusive rocks 

(Fig. 10) may represent the crust of a Precambrian 

calc-alkaline island arc (Berberian and Berberian 

1980). The nearly north-south arcuate mountain belts in 

east Central Iran may represent the original pattern of 

the Precambrian arc belts. Like the Arabian basement, 

the island-arc cratonization of the Iranian Precambrian 

basement should have taken place prior to the deposition 

of the Upper Precambrian - Lower Cambrian Hormoz 

Salt and detritic sediments. 

Because of subsequent orogenic movements, the few 

attempts to date the Iranian basement using mainly 

Principal sources of data: Reconstruction (Mercartor Conformal Projection) is modified from Smith and Briden (1977). 

tectono-sedimentary data within the boundaries of Iran are based on our Fig. 14. Data outside Iran come from Vereshchagin and 

Ronov (1968), and Adamia et al. (1977) for northwesternmost part, Saint-Marc (1978), and Powell (1979) for the north 

part.


E OCE NE 

I~G. 7. Reconstruction of Iran during Eocene time (55-40 Ma), showing the closure of all oceans, onset of the post-collision 

extensive Lutetian (45 Ma) volcanic activity in Central Iran and southern Alborz, and formation of the major flysch troughs 

eastern and southeastern Iran. Shallow marine shelf carbonate deposition in the narrowing Zagros and Kopeh Dagh basins is still 

noticeable (cf. Fig. 15 for the detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentary data for the same period), The present-day physiographic 

features were already shaped by the Late Cretaceous (65 Ma) orogenic movements and were noticeable during the Eocene Epoch. 

1. Oceanic crust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 3. Lagoonal and shallow marine 

carbonates, marl, and shale with anhydrite and gypsum (Rus and Dammam Formations) on the Arabian shelf. 4. Neritic 

basinal marls (Pabdeh Formation) in the Zagros basin. 5. Shallow marine carbonates (Jahrom Formatidn) in Zagros. 

Evaporites (Sachun Formation) in Zagros. 7. Paleocene-Eocene flysch deposits. 8. Widespread post-collisional volcanic 

activity. 9. Shallow water shelf carbonates of Kopeh Dagh (Chehel Kaman Formation) and its northwestern continuation (the


TABLE 3. Correlation chart of the major Tertiary rock units, sedimentary gaps (blank areas), and unconformities (indented lines) 

in Arabiand Iran. The Makran and Alborz units are divided into north (n) and south (s), and the Talesh into west (w) and east 

S-S Central I. Lut Make’an Zabol-Ba 

~b iJrnz ~ TaleShwl$ Caspian KopehD~ 

÷ ~ ._-..-.:..-~ 

Rb/Sr total-rock techniques have failed (Crawford 

1977), and the Precambrian rocks remain geochronologically 

unclassified. At this stage the Precambrian 

metamorphic rocks of Iran can only be categorized into 

high-grade (amphibolite facies) and low-grade (greenschist 

facies) groups (Stocklin 1968a, 1974, 1977; 

Hushmandzadeh 1973; Haghipour 1974, 1977). 

After the metamorphism of the Precambrian formations 

and the establishment of the Arabo-Iranian coherent 

platform at the end of the Katangan orogeny (Fig. 3), 

the compressional tectonic activity ended with granitic 

intrusions and alkali volcanism (Fig. 10). The Upper 

Precambrian alkali-enriched Doran granites of Iran 

(Stocklin et al. 1964) seem to be equivalents of the 600 

Ma Younger Granites of Arabia (Schmidt et al. 1973, 

1978; Sillitoe 1979). The Doran granite cuts the Upper 

Precambrian low-grade metamorphic rocks of the Kahar 

Formation (Stocklin et al. 1964) and is covered by 

Lower Cambrian sediments. 

Late Precambrian post-orogenic volcanics, which are 

partly the extrusive equivalents of the Doran granite, 

and are mainly alkali rhyolite, rhyolitic tuff, and quartz 

porphyry, form the Gharadash Formation in northwestern 

Iran (Stocklin 1972), the Taknar Formation in the 

Kashmar region, northeastern Iran (Razaghmanesh 

1968), the Rizu-Desu Series (or Esfordi Formation) 

......................, v U.R.~.,.~.~., **** k:::--:5:,’""~ 

~ ~- ~ ~. ~. ~- ~ ~- ~- ~- %* ..... 

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: - ÷ ¯ ~--:.!i 

~::-’-’-’:-’-’: ~ 

- ÷i ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"::’:’:" 

"~ "" ..... 

-~.’° ,...: 

............. .~.-~ 

t’~÷*’,. ~ ..:._ "~ ............ 

oo÷, .÷÷, ÷.. ÷÷’ ÷’ 

I 

÷’ :::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

}::::::}::::}i 

i Iil 

}}} 

¯ ....,÷÷o,°~a*’ .............. 

~.÷++÷÷++÷~ .÷÷÷÷o÷÷,:i:~r":::i:i:i:!:~![ 

:::::2:: 2:::2::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

’N 

+ ,÷÷÷÷,,÷÷÷~ 

° ° ’°°*° ° ~ : *°°°...... .-.-,-.-.~v.v ,’:’:’:+~"~’~"v"’ :::::::::::::::::::::: 

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

¯ ,~... o.o.~...-.......-.t:............................., 

I 

~ :-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: 

southeastern Central Iran (Huckriede et al. 1962; Forster 

et al. 1973), and the Hormoz Formation in Zagros 

(Stocklin 1972; Kent 1979). The late Precambrian volcanics 

also include some andesite, basalt, and tuff. 

These widespread ’post-orogenic’ volcanic rocks, 

which overlie the Precambrian metamorphic rocks and 

are overlain by the Upper Precambrian - Cambrian 

sediments, may indicate the ’stretching’ of the Arabo- 

Iranian coherent continental crust during an extensional 

phase. This could have been associated with the formation 

of the epicontinental platform from Arabia to A1- 

borz prior to the deposition of the Upper Precambrian - 

Cambrian sediments. Similar post-orogenic rhyolitic 

pyroclastic rocks, lavas, and subordinate basaltic volcanics 

of alkali affinity have been developed on the 

Arabian-Nubian Shield (the Shammar Group) during 

663 to 555 Ma (Brown and Coleman 1972; Sillitoe 1979; 

Brown and Jackson 1979; Table 1). Although alkali 

basalt is a typical member of the rifting magmatism, 

extensional tectonics in the continental crust also permits 

rapid rise of rhyolites and acid plutons (Bailey 

1974; Eichelberger 1978). 

During this general rifting and sinking phase of northeastern 

Arabia, the Main Zagros, High-Zagros, Nayband, 

and some other major faults appear to have acted 

as facies dividers separating the main Hormoz evaporitic 

Great Caucasian miogeosyncline). 10. Intrusive rocks. 11. Approximate boundary between different sedimentary facies. 12. 

Subduction zone, with triangles on the upper plate. 13. Reverse faults, with bars on the upper plate. 14. Present continental 

shorelines. 

Principal sources of data: Reconstruction (Mercartor Conformal Projection) is modified from Smith and Briden (1977). 

tectono-sedimentary data within the boundaries of Iran are based on our Fig. 15. Data outside Iran come from Grossheim and 

Khain (1968), Ricou (1974), and Bij u-Duval et al. (1977) for the westernmost part, and Powell (1979) for the north Indian part.


~10, -’-’-’11, -’-’-’-12, " ........ 13, ~14 

Re. 8. Reconstruction of Iran during Oligocene-Miocene times (30-20 Ma), showing gradual thickening of the crust, and 

decrease of the area of the intermontane basins in Central and northern Iran. The Central Iranian volcanic activity diminishes. 

Active flysch-molasse basins occur in the southeast, and gradual narrowing continues in the sedimentary basin of Zagros in the 

south (cf. Fig. 16 for the detailed tectono-sedimentary data for the same period). 

1. Oceanic crust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 3. Sandy limestone, sandstone, and shale 

in Arabia, and platform basins in the Turan plate. 4. Oligocene-Miocene marine carbonates. 5. Red silty marls with subordinate 

silty limestone and sandstone in Zagros. 6. Marine flysch-molasse sediments in the Makran basin. 7. Intrusive rocks. 8. Volcanic 

rocks. 9. Approximate boundary between different sedimentary facies. 10. Spreading centres. ! 1. Subduction zone, with 

triangles on the upper plate. 12. Reverse faults, with bars on the upper plate. 13. Present continental shorelines. 14. Caspian 

facies sediments and epigeosyncline orogenic regions in the north. 


tectono-sedimentary data within the boundaries of Iran are based on our Fig. 16. Data outside Iran come from Grossheim and 

Khain (1968) and Biju-Duval et al. (1977) for the westernmost part, and Powell (1979) for the Indian part.


NEOGENE 

/ I 

-’-’-’-10, --’--’-- 11 , ""-"12," ........ 13 

FIG. 9. Reconstruction of Iran during Middle-Late Neogene time (about 10-4 Ma). Shortening and thickening of the 

continental crust has narrowed the intermontane continental basins. Most of Iran was above sea level and the mountain systems 

were extensive features. The gradual uplift of the Zagros basin from northeast to southwest is noticeable (cf. Fig. 17 for the 

detailed Iranian tectono-sedimentary data). Subduction of the oceanic crust of the Arabian plate beneath the Makran coast was 

presumably responsible for the calc-alkaline andesitic volcanism in northern Makran. Seaward accretion and landward 

underthrusting of flysch deposits possibly elevated the Makran range of southeast Iran. 

1. Oceanic crust area. 2. Continental areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 3. Terrestrial red clastic rocks in Zagros 

(Agha Jari Formation), and gypsiferous saliferous red continental deposits in Central and northern Iran. 4. Marine molasse 

coastal Makran, southeastern Iran. 5. Marine sediments of Caspian, northern Iran. 6. Intrusive rocks. 7. Volcanic rocks. 

8. Approximate boundary between different sedimentary facies, or mountain-basin boundary. 9. Spreading centre in the Red 

Sea. 10. Subduction zone, with triangles on the upper plate in Makran, southeastern Iran. 11. Reverse faults, with bars on the 

upper plate. 12. Rifting in the Afar region. 13. Present continental shorelines. 


tectono-sedimentary data within the boundaries of Iran are based on our Fig. 17. Data outside Iran come from Biju-Duval et al. 

(1977) for the westernmost part.


F~o. 10. Paleogeographic map of Iran during Late Precambrian - Cambrian times (around 600-530 Ma), after the late 

Precambdan orogenic movements. Regional fragmentation and rifting of the region were followed by alkali acid volcanism and 

transgression of shelf sedimentation. The Upper Precambrian - Lower Cambrian salt deposit and shelf detritus are the most 

persistent rock units in the area. Their distribution and broad continuity from Arabia to northern Iran indicate a coherent platform. 

The fundamental unity and platform continuity continued to Permian time (cf. Fig. 3 for reconstruction). 

1. Known outcrops of the Precambrian basement metamorphic rocks, where the Upper Precambrian- Cambrian sediments are 

missing. 2. Upper Precambrian Hormoz Salt basins. The known facies divider faults apparently controlling the Hormoz 

sedimentary basins are indicated. The boundary of the Hormoz Salt deposits is identified mostly from its manifestations at surface 

and presumably is not the real basin boundary. The salt laterally changes into dolomite. 3. Upper Precambrian - Cambrian 

detritus and carbonates (Soltanieh, Lalun, and Zaigun Formations). 4. Known outcrops of the Upper Precambdan - Cambrian 

sediments in the areas covered by the Late Precambrian Hormoz Salt. The Upper Precambrian - Lower Cambrian 

sediments seem to wedge out towards the Caspian Sea region. No sediments of this age are found in the Central 

Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belts (Khoi in the northwest, Doruneh-Joghatai in the northeast, Nain-Baft in Central Iran, 

Zabol-Baluch in eastern and Makran in southeastern Iran). 5. Upper Precambrian alkali rhyolite, rhyolitic tuff, and quartz 

porphyry, with some alkali basic lava flows (Gharadash-Rizu Formation) indicate the onset of rifting phase. Similar volcanics are 

also found from the emergent salt domes of the Zagros fold belt. 6. Upper Precambdan intrusions cutting Precambrian schists and 

overlain by Upper Precambrian - Lower Cambrian sediments. Granite, tonalite, gabbro, and diabase, together with Precambrian

asin and the coeval dolomite (Soltanieh) in Central Iran 

and the Alborz. Thus, these tectonic lines appear to have 

been in existence at least since late Precambrian time 

(Fig. 10). The trend of the Main Zagros and High- 

Zagros faults is parallel to the northwest-southeast leftlateral 

Najd wrench fault system (Brown 1972; Moore 

1979), and like them might have developed during the 

Najd orogeny (about 560 or 540 Ma). 

During Asir (1050 Ma), Hijaz or Pan African (Aqiq 

(960 Ma), Ranyah (800 Ma), Yafikh (650-600 

and Bishah (550 Ma) orogenies, the rocks of the Arabian 

shield were folded and faulted about north-south axes. 

These north-south trends were later cross-cut by the 

Najd northwest-southeast left-lateral wrench fault system 

(540-510 Ma according to Greenwood et al. 1976, 

or 560 Ma according to Schmidt et al. 1978), which 

affected large parts of the eastern and northern Arabian 

Shield. Displacements of more than 100 km took place 

in the northwestern part of the fault zone (Schmidt et al. 

1973; Greenwood etal. 1976). The northwest-southeast 

Najd fault system along the northeastern Arabian shelf 

was responsible for rifting and subsidence of the Arabian-Iranian 

block during the Late Precambrian, Permian, 

and Late Triassic - Jurassic extensional periods. 

The northeastern sets of these faults presumably behaved 

as multi-role faults at various times: as wrench 

faults (during the Najd orogeny), normal faults (Late 

Precambrian, Permian, Late Triassic - Jurassic, Cretaceous), 

and thrust faults (Late Cretaceous, Plio-Pleistocene, 

and Recent; Berberian 1979). 


Arabia (Huqf Group; Murris 1978) to the Alborz mountains 

in the north (Fig. 10; Table 1) and to Central 

Afghanistan (Lower Bedak Dolomite (Lapparent 1977; 

Termier and Termier 1977)), and Pakistan (Penjab 

Saline Series or Salt Range Formation) in the east. This 

and the Lower Cambrian shallow sea deposits of the 

Zaigun-Lalun red arkosic sandstone - shale Formation 

in Zagros (Setudehnia 1975), Central Iran (Huckriede et 

al. 1962), and Alborz (Assereto 1963) and its (possibly 

time transgressive) equivalents (Table 1), the Saq Sandstone 

in Arabia (Steineke et al. 1958; Powers et al. 

1966; Powers 1968), Quwiera Sandstone in Jordan 

(Quennell 1951; Daniel 1963), Sadan, Kaplander, Cardak 

Yalu-Calaktepe in southeastern Turkey (Ketin 

1966; Ala and Moss 1979), Tor Petaw Sandstone in 

Zargaran, central Afghanistan (Lapparent 1977), and 

the Purple Sandstone and Shale in the Salt Range of 

Pakistan (Cotter and Khan 1956), suggest that at least 

from late Precambrian to late Paleozoic times, Iran was a 

part of Gondwanaland and possibly an extension of the 

Afro-Arabian continental platform (Stocklin 1968a,b, 

1973, 1974, 1977; Nabavi 1976; Berberian 1976a; 

Kashfi 1976; see also Figs. 3 and 10). The clastic deposits 

were mainly provided by the Precambrian uplifted 

granitic and metamorphic highlands in Arabia, Iran, and 

other nearby continental areas. 

In late Early Cambrian time, widespread dolomite, 

marl, and shale with salt pseudomorphs were deposited 

in a shallow, shelf-sea (Member 1 of the Mila Formation) 

in the Alborz mountains (Stocklin et al. 1964; 

Kushan 1973, 1978), in Central Iran (Ruttner et al. 

1968), in the Zagros mountains (Harrison 1930; King 

1937; Setudehnia 1975), in the Salt Range of Pakistan 

(Schindewolf and Seilacher 1955), and in the Himalayas 

(Reed 1910). The disappearance of the salt pseudo- 

I1.2 PALEOZOIC (570--230 MA) 

ll.2a---Gondwanian Iran (Zagros, Central lran (including 

Lut), and Alborz) 

Following the Late Precambrian (Katangan) orogeny 

and the consolidation of the basement, the Precambrian morphs in Middle Cambrian time indicates a steady 

craton oflran, Pakistan, central Afghanistan, southeastern 

Turkey, and Arabia became a relatively stable continental 

platform with epicontinental shelf deposits 

(mainly clastics) and lack of major magmatism or folding. 

This regime presumably lasted until late Paleozoic 

time, although there was some epeirogenic movements 

in the Late Silurian - Early Devonian time (Table 1; 

Section 11.2.1). 

The Upper Precambrian Hormoz Salt and its nonevaporitic 

equivalents (Soltanieh Stromatolite Dolomite 

in Iran (Stocldin et al. 1964), and Jubaylah Group 

in Arabia (Brown and Jackson 1979)) are found from 

subsidence of the Cambrian sedimentary basin. By the 

beginning of the Late Cambrian Epoch, a fully marine 

environment with the deposition of fossiliferous limestones 

prevailed (Members 2 to 4 of the Mila Formation, 

Middle to Upper Cambrian). During Early Ordovician 

time (Member 5 of the Mila Formation) the sediments 

changed from marine carbonates to quartzitic sandstone, 

suggesting the regression of the sea (Table 1). The 

Cambrian of Iran, Pakistan, and north India is marked 

by fossils of the Western Pacific (Redlichian) province 

(Kobayashi 1972). Trilobite fauna indicate that during 

the Middle and Late Cambrian Epochs marine commumetamorphosed 

basement rocks, have been found as erratic rock fragments brought up by the Hormoz salt domes in the Zagros 

belt. The magmatic activity in the eastern part of Central Iran along the Chapedony and Posht-e-Badam faults seems to be related 

to the Precarnbrian island arc cratonization of Iranian basement. 7. Geosynclinal areas in the north. 

Principal sources of data: Stocklin (1968b); Keller and Predtechensky (1968); Kent (1970); Brown (1972); Setudehnia 

Berberian (1976a,b); Huber (1978); Berberian and Berberian (1980); Berberian (198 I); and all available data from the 

cal and Mineral Survey of Iran to 1980. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection.


nication existed between the Eastern Asiatic (Chinese) 

region and Iran (Kushan 1973, 1978; Wolfart 1967; 

Kobayashi 1972). The Iranian Upper Precambrian 

Cambrian sedimentary rocks, which are widespread and 

dominant in south, central, and north Iran, apparently 

pinch out northward in the northern Alborz mountains. 

During early Ordovician time, Arabia (Tabuk Formation 

(Powers 1968)), the Zagros (Zard Kuh Formation 

(Setudehni 1975; Harrison 1930)), and parts of Central 

Iran and Alborz (Lashkarak Formation (Gansser and 

Huber 1962)), were covered by marine graptolitebearing 

shale deposits (Table 1). Parts of east Iran were 

covered by the marine carbonates, marls, and shales of 

the Shirgest Formation (Lower to Middle Ordovician; 

Ruttner et al. 1968). The rock sequence deposited 

during the Paleozoic Era in Iran (Table 1) has all of the 

characteristics of a true platform cover (predominance 

of pre-Permian terrigenous clastic deposits and Permian 

carbonates). They are epicontinental deposits and contain 

important sedimentary gaps and thickness and 

facies changes indicating repeated epeirogenic movements 

or possibly eustatic sea-level changes. 

The Paleozoic platform deposits of Central Iran, 

which generally lack major magmatism and metamorphism, 

were presumably separated by some rift-like 

narrow mobile belts (Haghipour and Sabzehei 1975). 

These mobile belts, like the Sanandaj-Sirjan (intracontinental) 

rifted basin (Fig. 1), were presumably developed 

between platform blocks by fragmentation of the 

platform along the major old active faults and are characterized 

by extensive alkaline continental volcanic 

activity and increased subsidence at the end of the 

Paleozoic Era (Figs. 11 and 12). 

H.2a.l--Paleozoic volcanic activity 

Following the Late Precambrian alkali acid volcanism 

(discussed in Section II. 1; see also Fig. 10), some 

basic to intermediate volcanic rocks appeared in Central 

Iran during the Paleozoic Era. Three ’Paleozoic extensional 

phases’ are identified within the continental 

crust of Iran, which are indicated by tensional faulting, 

sedimentation, and volcanism (Table 1). There is 

evidence for subduction to explain these volcanics. Extension 

and uplift appear to follow each other sequentially. 

Folding or other types of compressional deformation 

do not occur except in the Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) 

phase. 

H.2a.l.l--Late Precambrian to Middle Silurian extensionalphase--The 

first Early Paleozoic volcanic activity 

accompanied normal faulting and stretching of the 

continental crust. The start of this phase is marked by 

Late Precambrian alkali acid volcanism, with some 

basic volcanism (Section II. 1; and Fig. 10), and later 

diabase in the Soltanieh Dolomite Formation (see Table 

1) in the north Tabas area (Ruttner et al. 1968). An 

ignimbritic sequence about 400 m thick (Mohamadabad 

ignimbrite) overlies the late Precambrian Gorgan 

schists, and is underlain by the Cambrian Lalun sandstone 

in the Gorgan area of the northern Alborz, southeast 

of the Caspian Sea (Jenny 1977). The Cambrian 

basic volcanics occur near the base of the Zaigun Formation 

in the Taleqan area and in the Vatan Formation of 

the Djam area (Annells et al. 1975; Alavi-Naini 1972); 

diabases occur in the Lalun-Zaigun Formation in north 

Tabas and Avaj (Ruttner et al. 1968; Bolourchi 1977), 

and basic volcanics (olivine basalt, olivine-augitehornblende 

dolerite) in the Kalshaneh Formation of the 

Tabas region (Ruttner et al. 1968). Ordovician dacite 

and andesite volcanics appear in the Maku region of 

northwestern Iran (Berberian 1976c, 1977b; Berberian 

and Hamdi 1977). About 200 m of thick basic (spilitic) 

volcanics appears in the Ordovician Ghelli Formation in 

the Ghelli region, northeastern Iran (Afshar-Harb 

1979). Some basic volcanics are also observed below 

the Ordovician limestone of the Tatavrud area of Talesh 

mountain, southwest Caspian Sea (Davies et al. 1972; 

Clark et al. 1975). Ordovician olivine basalt, quartz 

keratophyre, trachyandesite, and olivine andesite are 

reported from the northern Tabas region of Central Iran 

(Ruttner et al. 1968). The Soltan Maidan basalts (250- 

700 m thick) are developed above the Ordovician and 

below the Devonian beds in the Gorgan area of northern 

Alborz mountains, and are probably Silurian in age 

(Jenny 1977). Silurian spilitic to basaltic (with some 

andesitic) lavas and tuffs occur beneath the red Orthoceras 

limestone in the Kolur area, southwest Caspian Sea 

(Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975). There are also 

Silurian volcanics of the Niur Formation (olivine basalt 

at the base of the formation in the northern part of the 

Shotori area (Ruttner et al. 1968), basic volcanics at 

Ghelli and Robat-e-Gharabil area, northeastern Iran 

(Afshar-Harb 1979), dolerite and basalt at the base of the 

formation in the Soh area (Zahedi 1973), trachyandesite 

in the Torud area (Hushmandzadeh et al. 1978), and 

trachyandesite at the top of the formation in the Djam 

area (Alavi-Naini 1972)). Ordovician volcanics (Chalki) 

have been reported in one section from the western 

Zagros in northern Iraq. The Chalki volcanics occur 

within and towards the top of the Pirispiki red beds 

(Bellen et al. 1959). Unlike the Upper Precambrian 

thick alkali volcanics in Central Iran and the Upper 

Paleozoic volcanics along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt, the 

Iranian Paleozoic volcanic rocks form a few thin layers 

interbedded with sediments (Table 1). 

ll.2a. 1.2--Early Devonian and Carboniferous extensional 

phase--The known volcanic activity of this phase 

is represented by the Lower Devonian basic volcanics in 

the Qazvin area (Annels et al. 1975), and the 150m 

thick Upper Devonian basalts in Member A of the

Geirud Formation in the Alborz mountains (Assereto 

1963; Sieber 1970), in the Khoshyeilagh Formation of 

the Jajarm area, northeast Iran (Bozorgnia 1973), in the 

Talesh mountains (Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 

1975), and in the Anarak region in Central Iran (Reyre 

and Mohafez 1972). Post-Silurian pre-Carboniferous 

basic volcanics under a cover of Permo-Carboniferous 

limestone, together with a Lower Carboniferous andesite, 

are reported from the Talesh mountains, southwest 

of the Caspian Sea (Clark et al. 1975; Table 1). The 

Devonian-Carboniferous basalts along the Sanandaj- 

Sirjan belt (Berberian and Nogol 1974; Berthier et al. 

1974; Berberian 1977a; Alric and Virlogeux 1977) suggest 

rifting during this phase. Subsequent closure of the 

rift seems to be responsible for the late Paleozoic (Hercynian) 

low-grade metamorphism along the belt (see 

Section II.2.2b; and Fig. 11). 

lI.2a.l.3--Permian-Triassic extensional phase--This 

is an important rifting phase which apparently marks the 

onset of the opening of the High-Zagros Alpine and the 

narrow Central Iranian ocean belts (see Section 11.2.2, 

and Figs. 4 and 11). No previous extensional phase left 

any evidence of having produced oceanic crust. This 

phase is mainly developed along the Sanandaj-Sirjan 

belt with basic (basalt, diabase, and some intermediate) 

volcanic activity (Thiele et al. 1968; Dimitrijevic 1973; 

Berberian and Nogol 1974; Berthier et al. 1974; Berberian 

1977a; Alric and Virlogeux 1977; Table 1). Some 

Permian andesitic volcanics are reported from the Talesh 

mountains of the southwest Caspian Sea (Davies et 

al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975). Lower Permian basic volcanics 

also occurred in the Dorud and Ruteh Formations 

of the Qazvin area (Annells et al. 1975). There is only 

one example of basaltic flow of Permian age reported 

from the High-Zagros belt, west of Dehbid (Hushmandzadeh 

1977). 

H.2a.2--Paleozoic paleomagnetic data 

The geological observations indicating a coherent 

Iranian-Gondwanaland continental landmass during the 

late Precambrian to Permian time interval are consistent 

with the paleomagnetic results. Paleomagnetic evidence 

from the Upper Precambrian rocks and iron ores of the 

Central Iranian Bafq area (Becket et al. 1973), from the 

Lower Paleozoic rocks of Kuh-e-Gahkom and Surmeh 

of the Zagros belt (Burek and Furst 1975), from the 

Cambrian Purple Sandstone of the Salt Range of Pakistan 

(McElhinny 1970), from the upper Devonian 

lower Carboniferous Geirud Formation of the Alborz 

mountain in north Iran (Wensink et al. 1978), and from 

the Upper Precambrian, Ordovician, and Permian rocks 

of Central Iran (Soffel et al. 1975; Sorrel and Forster 

1977) show similar virtual geomagnetic poles with those 

of Afro-Arabia. This and the widespread similarity of 

Paleozoic sedimentation (Table 1) indicate that during 


the late Precambrian and Paleozoic, Central Iran, the 

Alborz in northern Iran, the Salt Ranges of Pakistan in 

the east, the Zagros in south Iran, and much of southeastern 

Turkey, were parts of Gondwanaland (Fig. 3). 

However, they do not eliminate the possibility of large 

latitudinal differences. 

H.2b--Asiatic northern Iran (Kopeh Dagh belt) during 

the Paleozoic Era 

There is a major difference between the Paleozoic - 

early Mesozoic history of Iran in the south and that of the 

Kopeh Dagh and Great Caucasus - Transcaucasian median 

mass in the north. In contrast to the Iranian Paleozoic 

stable platform-type shelf sedimentation (absence 

of granitic intrusion or widespread volcanic activity and 

unconformities), an eugeosynclinal regime with widespread 

subsidence, uplift, granitization, volcanism, regional 

metamorphism, and folding existed in the Caucasus 

and Kopeh Dagh during Paleozoic time (Keller 

and Predtechensky 1968; Nalvkin and Posner 1968; 

Adamia 1968, 1975; Belov 1972; Khain 1975; Adamia 

et al. 1977). The geosynclinal regime in the Great 

Caucasus began in early Cambrian time. This Paleozoic 

geosynclinal basin encompassed the areas of the Front 

Range, the Main Range, and the South Slope of the 

Great Caucasus. In the north, it was bordered by the 

Cherkassy-Kislovodsk uplift and in the south by the 

Transcaucasian median mass (Belov 1972). Adamia et 

al. (1977) assumed that the axial part of the Tethys 

Paleozoic and Mesozoic times ran across the Sevan- 

Akera ophiolite belt of the Little Caucasus, northwest of 

Iran (Fig. 1). 

ll.2.1--Early Paleozoic (Caledonian) movements (450- 

390 Ma) 

During the Ordovician - early Devonian time interval, 

the Caledonian orogeny affected the North Atlantic 

region. The Caledonian fold belt in northwestern Europe 

originated with the closure of the Caledonian (Iapatus) 

Ocean. The Iapatus Ocean, which separated Laurentia 

(North America) and Baltica (northern Europe), closed 

along the Acadian-Caledonian eugeosynclinal belt of 

northern Europe and eastern North America (Dewey 

1969; Bird and Dewey 1970; Ziegler et al. 1979). North 

America, Greenland, and the Russian platform were united 

into a single continental mass, Laurasia. Farther 

east, Hamilton (1970) suggested that the Russian plate 

and an island arc collided in early Devonian time. 

Iran being far from this collision zone suffered only 

epeirogenic movements characterized by regional 

regression of the Silurian sea (Table 1) and regional 

disconformity and some local unconformities (in the 

north) at the base of the Middle-Upper Devonian rocks 

(Stocklin 1968a; Nabavi 1975, 1976; Berberian 1976a). 

The large Silurian--Carboniferous sedimentary gap in 

the Zagros (following the Ordovician and (or) lower

232 C~. J. EARTH SCI. VOL. 18, 1981 

FIG. 11. Paleogeographic map of Iran during the Permian Period (around 260 Ma). During the Paleozoic Era a broad continuity 

of shelf sedimentary facies existed from Arabia to northern Iran. The extensive alkaline basalt-diabase volcanic activity, 

thickness, and facies changes, together with flysch-type sediments along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (SS) presumably indicate the 

fragmentation of the continental crust by rifting. The fundamental unity and platform continuity within Arabo-Iranian crust ends 

during this rifting phase and the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean opened along the southwestern edge of the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (see 

Fig.4 for paleoreconstruction). No Permian deposits are found along the High-Zagros-Oman ophiolite-radiolarite belt in 

Kermanshah (k) and Neyriz (n) areas of the High-Zagros (HZ), or in the Central Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belts (Sevan-Akera 

(SV), Vedi (V), and Khoi, in the northwest, Doruneh-Joghatai in the northeast, Nain-Baft in Central and southern Iran, 

Zabol-Baluch and Makran in eastern and southeastern Iran). 

1. Known mountains formed during Late Precambrian time and the Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) orogenic movements identified 

as areas of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 2. Transgressive Permian basal sandstone unit (Dorud Formation in Central 

and northern Iran; Faraghan Formation in Zagros), together with the main marine carbonates (Ruteh and Nessen Limestone 

Formations in Central and northwestern Iran; Gnishik and Khachik Beds in northwestern Iran: Jamal Limestone Formation in 

eastern Iran; and Dalan Formation in Zagros; a: organic carbonate reefoidal shelf facies mostly in High-Zagros (HZ), b: restricted 

carbonate shelf in Zagros). 3. Near-shore carbonates with clastics in High-Zagros (HZ). 4. Nar Member of the Dalan Formation 

in .Zagros,with more than 75 m of evaporites (anhydrite and anhydritic dolomite with oolitic dolomites). 5. Volcano-sedimentary 

umt with continental alkaline basaltic flows, diabases, and flysch-type sediments deposited along the Sanandaj-Sirjan

Silurian deposits) is apparently the effect of epeirogenic 

movement, which led to a regional regression and general 

emergence of the region by Silurian time. Deposition 

of thick continental red sandstone and gypsum 

(Padeha Formation; Ruttner et al. 1968) during Late 

Silurian - Early Devonian time in Central Iran (Table 1) 

indicates emergence of the Central Iranian platform. 

Subsequent submergence is marked by deposition of the 

Middle Devonian carbonates in Central Iran (Sibzar 

Dolomite and Bahrain Limestone; Ruttner et al. 1968) 

and by the Upper Devonian detritus and carbonates in 

the Alborz mountains (Geirud Formation; Assereto 

1963, 1966). A Late Silurian unconformity is reported 

between the Silurian and Carboniferous rocks from the 

Talesh mountains, southwest of the Caspian Sea (Davies 

et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975; see Table 1). 

A slightly metamorphosed shale, sandstone, and volcanic 

sequence containing Ordovician fauna (Berberian 

1976a, 1977a; Berberian and Hamdi 1977) has been 

discovered in the metamorphic complex of the north 

Maku region of northwestern Iran (previously mapped 

as Precambrian by Alavi-Naini and Bolourchi 1973). 

They are covered by Lower-Middle Devonian rocks 

(Muli Formation), and apparently indicate the effect 

the Caledonian or Bretonian movements (435-390 Ma) 

in northwestern Iran. Further research is needed to confirm 

this possibility. Movement at this time is known to 

have caused a greater consolidation of the Araxian zone 

of the Little Caucasus (north of Maku; Fig. 1) and the 

Great Caucasus (Adamia 1968). 

The Lower Devonian basic volcanic activity (Section 

II.2a.1.2) indicates the end of the lata Silurian movements, 

and initiation of the second extensional phase. 


Gorodnitskiy 1977; Kanasewich et al. 1978; Zeigler et 

al. 1979). Geological evidence (Hamilton 1970) 

paleomagnetic evidence (Briden et al. 1974) suggest 

that the Siberian landmass existed as a separate continental 

unit for much of early Paleozoic time, and that a 

major ocean basin was consumed on the site of the Urals 

prior to its final disappearance during the Permo- 

Triassic interval. 

Unlike Appalachian/Hercynian/Uralian orogenic 

belts, the late Paleozoic movements in Iran (except in 

the Kopeh Dagh, northeastern Iran) generally had the 

character of the epeirogenic movements (Stocklin 

1968a, 1974, 1977; Berberian 1976a). However, Thiele 

et al. (1968) and Berberian (1977a) introduced evidence 

of a possible Hercynian metamorphism in the Sanandaj- 

Sirjan belt of southwest Central Iran (Fig. 11). The 

Middle to Upper Paleozoic volcanogenic sediments in 

the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt characterize a narrow belt of 

crustal extension, rifting, and spreading of continental 

plate along the Main Zagros fault before the late Paleozoic 

(Hercynian) movements (Table 1; Figs. 4 and 11). 

H.2.2a--Kopeh Dagh - South Caspian - Caucasus 

Hercynian belt of Asia 

Hercynian orogenic movement is known in the Turan 

region of Russia (northeastern Iran), Paropamisus,west 

Hindu Kush, north Pamirs, and Tien Shan. There is only 

one late Paleozoic metamorphic outcrop at Aghdarband 

in the Kopeh Dagh fold belt of northern Iran. This 

is separated from Central and northern Iran (eastern 

Alborz) by a line of Upper Paleozoic ultrabasic rocks 

near Mashhad (Majidi 1978), northeastern Iran (Fig. 

11). These have been explained as oceanic crust (Stocklin 

1974, 1977), or basic volcanism associated with 

narrow intracratonic rifting (Majidi 1978). The Upper 

H.2.2wLate Paleozoic movements (327-275 Ma) 

Gondwanaland rotated clockwise and collided with Paleozoic ophiolite belt, which is at the northern foot of 

Laurasia in Late Carboniferous time. The rotation of the Alborz mountains between the Arabo-Iranian block 

these two continents widened the Tethyan Ocean in the in the south and the Kopeh Dagh in the north, is exposed 

east, and the collision resulted in the formation of the in Mashhad, northeastern Iran (Majidi 1978) and Talesh 

Ouachita, Appalachian (in North America), Mauritanide, 

Hercynian (in Europe and Northwest Africa), and Stocklin 1974, 1977; Clark et al. 1975; Fig. 11). Basic- 

mountains, southwest Caspian Sea (Davies et al. 1972; 

Uralian (between the Baltic and the Angara craton) to-ultrabasic plutonic bodies (gabbro and peridotite) and 

orogenies and fold belts. The late Paleozoic (Hercynian) Lower Carboniferous and Permian andesitic volcanics 

fold belts of Central Asia developed at the site of the have also been found in the latter zone. This and the late 

Paleo-Asian ocean in a collision of the Siberian, East Paleozoic metamorphic rocks could be evidence of the 

European, and Chinese continents (Zonenshayn and closure of the Hercynian Ocean (Crawford 1972; Stockintracontinental 

rift belt (SS) of south and southwestern margin of Central Iran. Some scattered volcanic activity is reported 

southwest of the Caspian Sea. 6. Outcrops of the supposed Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) ophiolites in Mashhad, northeastern Iran 

and Talesh, southwest of the Caspian Sea, presumably indicating a southern Kopeh Dagh - south Caspian Hercynian collision. 

7. Late Paleozoic granite in northeastern Iran. 8. Supposedly Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) metamorphic rocks. 9. Late Permian 

and early Triassic miogeosyncline. 10. Late Permian and early Triassic epigeosyncline orogenic belt. 

Principal sources of data: Adamia (1968, 1975); Nalvkin and Posner (1968); Berberian (1976a,b); Huber (1978); 

and Kheradpir (1978); Setudehnia (1978); Saint-Marc (1978); Berberian and Berberian (1980); and all available data 

Geological and Mineral Survey of l.ran to 1980. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection.


lin 1974, 1977; Stoneley 1974, 1975, and 1976) in 

northeastern Iran (Figs. 4 and 5). According to Majidi 

(1978) the Devonian--Carboniferous sediments of the 

Mashhad area (northeastern Iran) underwent two phases 

of metamorphism and deformation (east-west b-lineation 

and thrusting). The first phase caused transformation of 

sediments into slates, whereas the second phase, mainly 

of thermal character, has yielded minerals such as 

almandine, staurolite, and feldspar. In the same phase, 

ultrabasic rocks were transformed into serpentinites, 

basic rocks into amphibolites, and a granitic magma 

(granodiorite-tonalite of Mashhad) was formed. 

At present the different crystalline basement (Precambrian 

in the Arabo-lranian block on the south and Hercynian 

in Asia on the north) together with the Upper 

Paleozoic ultrabasic rocks along the Masshad - South 

Caspian - Talesh line, may represent the line of collision 

(Figs. 4, 5, and 11). The Hindu Kush - Tien Shan 

northern Pamir Paleozoic ophiolites, deep-sea sediments, 

and Hercynian metamorphism and magmatism 

(Burtman 1975; Stocklin 1977; Boulin and Bouyx 1977) 

could be the eastern continuation of the Iranian Hercynian 

ophiolite belt, indicating the Eurasian-Iranian collision 

zone. However, paleomagnetic evidence from 

Upper Devonian sedimentary ironstones of the Chitral 

area of eastern Hindukush, Pakistan (about 120 km 

southeast of the supposed Hercynian collision zone) 

indicates that the area was already attached to Asia in the 

Devonian Period (Klootwijk and Conaghan 1979). 

Mgre information, from paleomagnetic, geochronological, 

petrochemical, and geologic studies, is needed for 

the Iranian Hercynian collision zone before the situation 

can be fully assessed. 

The metamorphic rocks of the Talesh mountains 

(southwest Caspian Sea) are assumed to be of Devonian 

age (Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975). Gneiss and 

provided flyschoid sandy argillaceous and coarse-clastic 

materials for the Southern Slope geosyncline of the 

Major Caucasus (Adamia 1968, 1975). The Visean- 

Namurian phase was also responsible for the formation 

of the Araxian median mass (Fig. 1), which became 

area of erosion during Visean to late Carboniferous time 

(Adamia 1968). 

The widespread and regional Permian transgression 

laid down red clastics, conglomerates with Carboniferous 

granitic boulders, volcanics, and molasse facies 

rocks in Turan and Kopeh Dagh during the Permian and 

Triassic Periods (Volvosky et al. 1966; Stocklin 1974; 

Fig. 12). During the Triassic a thick mass of over 1500 

m of black dislocated argillites with volcanic lenses 

containing Carnian (early Upper Triassic) Habobia were 

deposited in the southern part of the Turan Plate (Beznosov 

et al. 1978). The Triassic of the Kopeh Dagh in 

the Aghdarband area is composed of a thick sequence of 

green tuffaceous limestone, conglomerate, red sandstone, 

shale, and tuff. According to Seyed-Emami 

(1971) the sediments below the Anisian (early Middle 

Triassic) nodular limestone are cut by a great number of 

dykes, which do not enter the Anisian nodular limestone 

itself. The fossiliferous shales above the Aghdarband 

coal seams (Oberhauser 1960; Seyed Emami 1971) are 

of Late Ladinian - Carnian age (late Middle to Late 

Triassic), comparable to the lower part of the Nayband 

Formation of Central Iran (Stocklin 1972) and the Ashin 

Formation (Davoudzadeh and Seyed-Emami 1972) 

the Nakhlak areas of Central Iran. The late Paleozoic 

collision zone and the units to the north (Kopeh Dagh 

Turan) and south (Central Iran, Lut, Alborz) were later 

covered by Liassic coal-bearing continental clastic deposits 

(Shemshak or Kashafrud Formation) (Afshar- 

Harb 1969, 1979; Madani 1977). This indicates a united 

Iranian-Turanian landmass in late Triassic-early Jurassic 

time (200-170 Ma) and the end of the late Paleozoic 

collision processes in the north (Figs. 5 and 13). 

phyllite samples from Qaleh Rudkhaneh of Talesh give 

radiometric ages of 382 - 47 and 375 --- 12 Ma (Crawford 

1977). This presumably indicates the onset time of 

the late Paleozoic (Hercynian) movements in the northern 

part of the country, and the Talesh metamorphic Upper Carboniferous sediments have not yet been 

H.2.2b---Central Iran during Late Paleozoic time 

rocks could be the western continuation of the Mashhad found in Iran (except the Sardar Formation (Table 1) 

(northeastern Iran) metamorphic rocks. A possible post- the Tabas area of east Central Iran; Stocklin et al. 1965). 

Devonian pre-Permian syenite is reported from Mero Possible late Paleozoic (Hercynian) movements in Central 

Ixan are demonstrated by isotopic distttrbances. The 

mountain (northwest of Tabriz) and from the Julfa area 

northwest of Central Iran (J. Eftekharnezhad, M. 315 -+ 5 Ma (Late Carboniferous) age from a single 

Qorashi, and S. Arshadi, personal communication, biotite analysis of the Saghand Precambrian metamorphic 

rocks (Crawford 1977) perhaps indicates the late 

1979). 

The northern part of the Great Caucasus (the Hercynian 

Border Zone) was consolidated and folded during alysis of a Precambrian metamorphic rock of the Sag- 

Paleozoic movement. From a total-rock and biotite an- 

Lower Carboniferous movements (Visean-Namurian, hand area, Crawford (1977) reported an age of 240 -+ 

330 Ma). In this zone the Lower Jurassic sediments are Ma (Middle to Late Permian). This does not fit with any 

transgressive on the Hercynian crystalline basement. orogenic movement in Central Iran. 

This zone and the Transcaucasian-Bretonian median The discovery of the lower Paleozoic Trepostomata 

mass were areas of erosion during Visean, Namurian, Bryozoan, Devonian pollen and spores, Devonian Hexagonaria, 

some crinoid stem fragments and and early Middle Carboniferous time (Fig. 11) and 

Blerophon-


OFOMAN 

6o o 

FIG. 12. Paleogeographic map of Iran during Early Triassic time, prior to the Middle Triassic orogenic movements (around 

230-220 Ma). 

1. Known mountainous regions formed during the Late Precambrian and Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) compressional phases. 

2. Triassic clastics and flysch-type deposits (mainly tuffaceous-carbonaceous marine, littoral fine clastics, shale, and sandstones 

with basal conglomerate, and subordinate stromatolitic limestone), deposited mainly north of the South Kopeh Dagh fault system 

in northeastern Iran, along the southern margin of the Turan plate. 3. Calcareous and tuffaceous sandstone-shale (Alam 

Formation, lower member of the Nakhlak Group) in the central part of Central Iran (east of the Nain ophiolite-m61ange belt). 

4. Shotori dolomite-limestone Formation, mostly in the eastern part of Central Iran. 5. Elikah limestone-dolomite Formation, 

mainly in Alborz and Central Iran. 6. Carbonates with shales and volcanics (mainly basalts with diabases) in the Sanandaj-Sirjan 

rift belt (SS). 7. Shelf carbonates of the Khaneh Kat Formation (shallow water dolomite and limestone) in Zagros 

High-Zagros belt (HZ). a: erosional limits of the Dashtak Formation. 8. Dashtak Formation, mainly restricted marine to intertidal 

sabkha facies of carbonates and evaporites in Zagros (b: erosional limits of evaporite "D" member of the formation, c: erosional 

limit of the Sefidar Dolomite member of the formation). 9. Possible Triassic quartzite in the southern Talesh region, southwest of 

the Caspian Sea. 10. Triassic volcanics (mainly basaltic and diabasic) along the Sanandaj-Sirjan rift belt, northeast of the Main 

Zagros reverse fault. 

Principal sources of data: Adamia (1968, 1975); Berberian (1976a,b); Adamia et al. (1977); Huber (1978); Szabo 

Kheradpir (1978); and all available data from the Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran to 1980. Lambert Conformal Conic 

Projection.


tid gastropods in the Middle Complex metamorphic 

rocks of greenschist facies in the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt of 

southwest Central Iran (with the present-day east-west 

b-lineation) provides a little more evidence of late Paleozoic 

movement (Berberian 1977a; Fig. 11). The data 

are not conclusive and further work is needed. The 

absence of ophiolites may suggest that a significant Hercynian 

Ocean never existed in this region. It is possible 

that the observed metamorphic features are associated 

with the compressional closure of rifts opened in the 

second extensional phase of the Paleozoic Era (Section 

II.2a. 1.2). 

The Lower Permian intermediate-to-basic lava flows 

(Section II.2a. 1.3) indicate the end of the late Paleozoic 

compressional phase and the start of the third Paleozoic 

extensional phase. The regional transgression of the 

Permian sea (Figs. 4 and 11) deposited basal sandstone 

and thick limestone (Table 1) in Central Iran (south 

the northern Hercynian collision line) and in Alborz 

(Jamal basal sandstone and limestone in Central Iran, 

Dorud basal sandstone and the Ruteh-Nessen-Jamal 

limestones in the Alborz (Stocklin 1972), Speckled 

Sandstone and Products Limestone Series of the Shahpur 

System in the Salt Range of Pakistan (Pascoe 1959), 

Wajid Sandstone and Kuff shallow water limestone in 

Arabia and Qatar (Powers 1968; see Table i)). Continental 

rift volcanism, and calcareous and terrigenous 

flysch-type sedimentation with considerable lateral and 

vertical facies variations along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt 

during Permian time (Thiele et al. 1968; Dimitrijevic 

1973; Berberian and Nogol 1974; see Fig. 11 and Table 

1) may reflect rifting of the Central Iranian landmass 

from the Zagros-Arabia platform during and (or) after 

the Permian transgression. The passage of the Central 

Iranian continental fragment(s) from the south to the 

north must have taken place prior to the late Paleozoic 

ophiolite emplacement along the northern suture line 

(Majidi 1978; Davies et al. 1972; Stocklin 1974, 1977; 

Clark et al. 1975) and deposition of the Rhaetic-Liassic 

coal-bearing Shemshak formation on the Central Iran - 

Alborz - Kopeh Dagh (united) continental fragments. 

The onset of this passage and therefore opening of the 

High-Zagros Alpine Ocean in the south possibly took 

place during and (or) after the Permian sedimentation, 

but prior to emplacement of the Triassic Sikhoran ophiolite 

complex (Sabzehei 1974) along the Central Iranian 

active continental margin and the Upper Triassic pelagic 

sedimentation (Ricou 1974) in the south (see Sections 

II.3b and II. 5.2b). 

Paleomagnetic data from Central Iran (Soffel et al. 

1975; Soffel and Forster 1977) and from the Helmand 

block of Afghanistan (Krumsiek 1976) indicate that Iran 

and parts of Central Afghanistan were part of Gondwanaland 

during early Permian time. It is interesting to 

note that Rivi~re (1934) noticed similarities in the Permian 

fauna of the Alborz in north Iran and those of the 

Salt Range (Shahpur System) of Pakistan. Paleomagnetic 

results from the early Permian Speckled Sandstone 

of the Salt Range (Pakistan) agree well with the paleomagnetic 

pole position derived from Indian rocks of 

about the same age, and give no reason to postulate 

relative movements between the Salt Range and Indian 

basement since Carboniferous time (Wensink 1975). 

H.2.2c--Zagros basin during Late Paleozoic time 

Most of the Zagros basin, which emerged during 

Upper Ordovician - Lower Silurian movements (around 

440 Ma), remained above sea level and underwent erosional 

activity until the end of the late Paleozoic (Hercynian) 

movements (Table 1). Following this large 

middle Paleozoic (Silurian-Carboniferous) sedimentary 

gap, the regional shallow marine transgression of Permian 

sea with basal coastal clastics (Faraghan Formation), 

overlies with a low-angle unconformity the Ordovician 

and (or) Silurian rocks (Szabo 1977; Szabo 

Kheradpir 1978). The unconformity observed in the 

High-Zagros indicates the earliest known activity of the 

High-Zagros belt along its northern (Main Zagros) and 

the southern (High-Zagros) fault systems (Fig. 11). 

Szabo and Kheradpir (1978) defined the High-Zagros 

an uplifted belt during Early Permian time, with a major 

controlling effect on the sedimentation and facies distribution. 

Unlike the Permian basal sandstone of Arabia 

(Wajid Sandstone; Powers et al. 1966), no clastics of 

glacial origin have been found in Zagros and (or) Central 

Iran. This suggests that the late Paleozoic glaciation of 

southern Gondwana (Africa, India, and Australia) did 

not affect the Iranian continental fragments. Clastic deposits, 

which were mainly provided by the south and 

central Arabian hinterland and other local highlands, 

increase towards central Arabia (Murris 1978), while 

shelf carbonates were deposited in Zagros. 

Isotopic age-dating of the upper Precambrian volcanics 

of the Zagros brought up by salt plugs confirms that 

they suffered disturbances around Early Carboniferous 

time (340 +-- 15 Ma; Crawford 1977). This seems to 

the effect of late Paleozoic movements in Zagros. 

During late Paleozoic time, the east-west central 

Arabian and Hadhramut arches bordering the Rob al 

Khali depression in Arabia and south of the Zagros basin 

were formed. The east-west Mardin arch in the Syrian 

platform was also formed at the same time (Saint-Marc 

1978). During the Permian Period, the Arabian foreland 

gradually subsided and the sea transgressed over much 

of the area. The Permian Wajid Sandstone (Powers et al. 

1966) with clastics of glacial origin (Helal 1965), 

the Khuff limestone (Steineke et al. 1958) were deposited 

unconformably over the older rocks. This marks a 

significant change in sedimentation over the Arabian 

foreland from dominantly Paleozoic clastics to Permian, 

Mesozoic, and Tertiary carbonates (Powers 1968). Following 

the Permian transgression in Arabia, the early


58 ° 

OMAb 

FIG. 13. Paleogeographic map oflran during Rhaeto-Liassic time, after the Middle Triassic orogenic movements (around 195 

Ma). See Fig. 5 for paleoreconstruction. 

1. Known mountainous regions formed during the Late Precambrian, Late Paleozoic, and Middle Triassic orogenic 

movements. The central mass and the main trend of the present mountain belts were already formed. 2. Rhaeto-Liassic 

continental paralic plant-beating sandstone and shale with coal-seams in Central Iran, Alborz and Kopeh Dagh, indicating a 

coherent continental mass after the Middle Triassic orogenic movements, in contrast to the subsiding marine basin of Zagros in 

the south. 3. Middle to Upper Jurassic marine carbonates of the Surmeh Formation, with thin shallow-water Liassic shaly unit at 

the base (Neyriz Formation) in Zagros subsiding basin. 4. Mainly carbonates and shale in the northwestern segment of the 

High-Zagros. 5. Mainly shale and anhydrite with minor carbonates in west Zagros. 6.Upper Triassic - Lower Jurassic volcanic 

activity (mainly andesite with some basalts) along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (SS), and in northwestern Iran (mainly tuffs 

andesites with sandstones and carbonates). 7. Jurassic oceanic sediments, mainly radiolarite along the High-Zagros (HZ), 

Sevan-Vedin northwestern Iran (Little Caucasus). Similar sediments were possibly deposited along the Central Iranian Red Sea 

type narrow oceanic belts (blank). 8. Triassic - early Jurassic and some Middle or Upper Jurassic calc-alkaline granite, 

granodiorite, diorite, and gabbro intrusions exposed at surface. 9. Middle Triassic metamorphic rocks. 10. Little Caucasian 

eugeosyncline. 11. Great Caucasian miogeosyncline. 

Principal sources of data: Vach6 (1968); Vereschagin and Ronov (1968); Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (1972); Sborshchikov et al. 

(1972); Shevchenko and Rezanov (1976); Berberian (1976a and b); Muratov (1977); Saint-Marc (1978); Setudehnia 

Huber (1978); Berberian and Berberian (1980); Berberian (1981); and all available data from the Geological and Mineral 

of Iran to 1980. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection.


Triassic was a time of regression under arid conditions 

(Murris 1978). Clastic deposits were increased in central 

and north Arabia, and the carbonate-evaporite platform 

was restricted in the Persian Gulf area and the Zagros 

belt. Carbonates of the High-Zagros (Fig. 12) now suggest 

an open marine condition along the northern margin 

of the Arabian platform. In some regions (i.e., central 

Arabia and the Dead Sea) a slight Middle Triassic transgression 

is recorded. Furthermore, in both Iraq and the 

Dead Sea region, numerous breaks without visible unconformity 

are known, of which the one at the end of 

Middle Triassic time seems important (Saint-Marc 

1978). 

II.3---MIDDLE TRIASSIC MOVEMENTS (210-195 MA) 

The Mesozoic Era started in Iran without a great 

change in structural or sedimentary environment. The 

rifting of the Iranian Paleozoic platform and the sedimentary 

cycle beginning with Permian transgression 

(Section II.2.2b) continued and ended in the Middle 

Triassic (Figs. 4, 11, and 12; Tables 1 and 2). At the 

stratigraphic boundary of the Middle to early Upper 

Triassic rocks (post Landian -pre Norian, 210-195 Ma) 

there is evidence of a major compressional phase. 

Regional uplift, folding, metamorphism, and erosion 

took place and were followed by the formation of a new 

sedimentary basin with rapid facies changes. Apparently 

the Middle Triassic movements ended the late 

Paleozoic oceanic closure between Iran and Turan in 

the north and both regions became a united landmass 

(Fig. 5). 

have been considered minimum values (by a substantial 

margin), and a Triassic age of metamorphism has been 

favoured for the Barrovian-type assemblages (Watters 

and Sabzehei 1970; Ricou 1974). 

Petrographic investigations and analysis of mineral 

paragenesis of the Sanandaj-Sirjan metamorphic rocks 

led to the conclusion that there were two syntectonic 

regional metamorphic phases during the middle Triassic 

movements. The first phase could be older, and more 

work is needed to date and separate the events. The first 

phase was Barrovian in type and low grade (lower amphibolite 

facies), and the second phase was a retrograde 

metamorphism (Sabzehei and Berberian 1972; Ricou 

1974; Sabzehei 1974; Alric and Virlogeux 1977). 

The Middle Triassic syntectonic metamorphism was 

associated with strong isoclinal folding and axial plane 

schistosity (Sabzehei and Berberian 1972; Berberian 

1977a). The metamorphic rocks are covered transgressively 

by non-metamorphic Jurassic volcano-detritus 

and flysch-type deposits with basal conglomerate. Compressional 

movements that closed the Hercynian Ocean 

in the north now created a subduction zone along the 

southern margin of Central Iran, with compressional 

components along the active margin represented by regional 

metamorphism, folding, thrusting (Fig. 5), and 

accompanied by acid plutonic and intermediate to basic 

volcanic activity (Fig. 13). The Sikhoran basic to ultrabasic 

complex of probable Triassic age in the southeastern 

segment of the Central Iranian active continental 

margin (east of Hajiabad in Fig. 2), represents a sequence 

of layered intrusive rocks (dunite, harzburgite, 

pyroxenite, gabbro) originating from a basaltic magma 

of tholeiitic composition. They produced a hot metamorphic 

aureole of pyroxene-hornfels facies and were 

covered by the Jurassic sediments (Sabzehei and Berberian 

1972; Sabzehei 1974). 

H.3a~Central lran during Triassic time 

A syntectonic regional metamorphism of greenschist 

facies, indicative of ’strong compressional deformation,’ 

developed along the southern margin of Central 

Iran (along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt), in the Saghand 

(Haghipour 1974), and probably Deh Salm (Berberian 

1977a) regions of east Central Iran (Fig. 13). The linear 

metamorphic belt of the Sanandaj-Sirjan could have 

resulted from subducting High-Zagros Alpine oceanic 

crust beneath the Central Iranian active continental margin. 

The area west of Sirjan (at the southeastern part of 

the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt) is characterized by two distinct 

The Triassic Sikhoran ultrabasic complex, the upper 

Triassic (Carnian-Norian) tuffs, andesitic and basaltic 

lava flow in the Abadeh area (Taraz 1974), the Jurassic 

andesitic-basaltic lavas and tuffs with some acid volo 

canics in Sirjan, Hajiabad, Borujerd, and Deh Bid area, 

the late Triassic - Jurassic granitic intrusions all along 

The Central Iranian active continental margin (Dimitrijevic 

1973; Berberian and Nogol 1974; Berthier et al. 

1974; Sabzehei 1974; Alric and Virlogeux 1977), 

together with the Jurassic granitic batholith of Shirkuh, 

metamorphic regimes. In the immediate vicinity of the and the Upper Jurassic diorites and the Cretaceous 

Main Zagros reverse fault line, there is a metamorphic granites-diorites of Alvand (Valizadeh and Cantagrel 

belt of thrust slices containing metamorphosed basic and 

ultrabasic rocks and widespread Barrovian-type metamorphic 

assemblages (Watters and Sabzehei 1970). 

Two middle Paleozoic ages (362 + 7 and 404 -+ 8 Ma; 

K/Ar biotite) were found using biotite-bearing quartzofeldspathic 

gneisses from the Kor-e-Sefid mountain, 

west of Sirjan (see Fig. 2 for the location). The ages 

1975) could all be considered as arc-type magmatism 

along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (Berberian and Berberian 

1980; Figs. 5 and 13). 

The Middle Triassic regional metamorphism in the 

Saghand area of east Central Iran (Fig. 13) is characterized 

by one metamorphic phase of a low-grade greenschist 

facies in Paleozoic-Triassic rocks (with an eastwest 

b-lineation and maximum temperature estimated to 

have been about 500°C), and retrograde metamorphism

in high-grade Precambrian metamorphic rocks. A new 

generation of biotite is formed in the Upper Precambrian 

Sefid granite and granodiorite of the Saghand area during 

this phase (Haghipour 1974; Haghipour et al. 1977). 

Isotopic disturbances around 240 to 190 Ma are observed 

by Crawford (1977) in the rhyolite samples from 

the Upper Precambrian Gharadash Formation (in Azarbaijan, 

northwest Iran), in the Precambrian rhyolites of 

the Taknar Formation (in the Kerman area), in the Upper 

Precambrian rhyolites of the Rizu Formation (also in the 

Kerman area), and in the Precambrian metamorphic 

rocks of the Saghand area. These together with disturbances 

around 203 + 13 Ma observed by Reyre and 

Mohafez (1972) in the Precambrian metamorphic rocks 

of the Anarak region are apparently the effect of the 

Middle Triassic compressional movement in various 

parts of the country. The slaty and phyllitic structures 

observed in the upper Paleozoic rocks of the Talesh 

mountains (Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975) seem 

to be the result of the same movements in the area 

southwest of the Caspian Sea. 

Following the Middle Triassic (210-195 Ma) compressional 

phase, Central Iran and the Alborz region 

underwent tensional movements. The initiation of this 

extensional phase is characterized by the Upper Triassic 

continental alkali rift basaltic lava flows and melaphyres 

preceding the deposition of the Rhaetic-Liassic (200 

Ma) coal-bearing continental clastic deposits of the 

Shemshak Formation (Assereto 1966) in Central Iran 

and Alborz (Fig. 13; Table 2). Two doleritic flows, 

about 100 m thick, interbedded in the Upper Triassic 

Dolaa Group of Syria (Daniel 1963) presumably belong 

to this extensional and rifting phase. 

H.3b---Zagros basin during Triassic time 

During the Middle Triassic orogenic movements, the 

whole country was folded and uplifted, except for the 

Zagros basin where the movements were less intense. 

The Zagros basin steadily subsided along faults inherited 

from Permian time and earlier. The marine carbonate 

sedimentary regime persisted throughout Permian 

and Early Triassic times (Dalan and Kangan Formation; 

Szabo and Kheradpir 1978). Regressive conditions then 

occurred in the Middle Triassic Epoch, resulting in the 

deposition of the evaporites of the Dashtak Formation, 

indicating hot and arid conditions (Fig. 12). The reddish 

green shale separating the Permian Dalan Formation 

from the Lower Triassic Kangan Formation was first 

interpreted as an unconformity by Szabo (1977). This 

was later corrected to a temporary cessation in carbonate 

deposition (Rosen 1979; Szabo and Kheradpir 1978). 

There are still some similarities between the Lower- 

Middle Triassic stratigraphic succession of the Abadeh 

area in Central Iran (Taraz 1974) and those in the Zagros 

basin (Setudehnia 1978), but the Upper Triassic rocks 


Central Iran show marked differences from those of the 

Zagros. The Triassic evaporite and dolomite sequence in 

the coastal areas of the Persian Gulf is an extension of 

the evaporite basin of Arabia and Iraq (Murris 1978). 

Towards the High-Zagros in the northeast, the evaporites 

are replaced by dolomites (Setudehnia 1978). 

The Middle Triassic movements in the Zagros (Middie-Upper 

Triassic unconformity) were not as intense as 

the movements in Central Iran. The uplift and erosion 

were apparently stronger in the High-Zagros belt (most 

of the Triassic and some Upper Permian sediments were 

presumably removed from the High-Zagros), while to 

the south erosion was less severe. 

The Middle Triassic evaporite beds of the Zagros 

(anhydrite/dolomite and red shales) are unconformably 

overlain by the Liassic terrigenous clastics and transitional 

terrigenous-to-open-madne sediments of the 

Neyriz Formation. No Upper Triassic beds have been 

found in the Zagros so far (Szabo 1977; Szabo and 

Kheradpir 1978), probably indicating an apparent drop 

in sea level owing to an eustatic sea level change (Murris 

1978). The lowest part of the Neyriz Formation (sandstone, 

silty shale, limestone, and subordinate coaly 

shales in some places; James and Wynd 1965) is roughly 

similar to the Shemshak Formation of Central-north 

Iran, and represents Liassic shallow water (tidal flat) 

sediments. The deposits of coaly shale and carbonized 

plant remnants with bauxite pebbles are only found in 

the Dopolan area of the High-Zagros (Szabo and Kheradpir 

1978). The Central Arabian hinterland and other 

elevations such as the Qatar arch (Murris 1978) presumably 

provided detrital material for the lower part of 

the Neyriz Formation. During the deposition of the 

Neyriz Formation, the Zagros basin with marine carbonate 

platform sedimentation became established, with 

the greatest subsidence being in the northeast, possibly 

along several faults (Figs. 5 and 13). Marine carbonate 

sedimentation then continued until Miocene time. This 

continuous episode of subsidence and sedimentation in 

the Zagros marginal basin was possibly an isostatic 

adjustment in response to the spreading of the lithosphere 

following the Middle Triassic movements. From 

Jurassic to Miocene times the subsidence possibly along 

inherited faults allowed up to 14 km of sediment (mainly 

marine carbonates) to accumulate in the basin. Some of 

the faults along which subsidence took place controlled 

the sedimentary facies in the Zagros basin. The only 

evidence of volcanic activity associated with rifting of 

Zagros is a few amygdaloidal basaltic flows of Permian 

age in the High-Zagros (Section II.2a. 1.3). 

The Middle Triassic movement affected central and 

southern Arabia and Oman as well as the area of the 

Dead Sea. There the transgressive Jurassic beds are discordant 

upon the Triassic beds. This unconformity and 

the absence of deposits in central and southern Arabia


appear to be the effect of the Middle Triassic movements, 

later extended to west Siberia (Beznosov et al. 1978). In 

which presumably led to the emergence of most Middle Jurassic time a marine sedimentary regime 

of central and southern Arabia. The unconformity is not overcame the lagoonal-fluviatile environment, and an 

reported from northern Arabia and Syria (Powers 1968; 

Saint-Marc 1978). Lower Liassic marine deposits have 

been reported in Iraq and Oman, and the widespread 

Jurassic transgression in Saudi Arabia began with the 

deposition of the marine Toarcian Marrat Formation 

(Powers 1968). Upper Triassic rocks are believed to 

ammonite-beating limestone was laid down. The Liassic 

coal and the Jurassic limestones rich in fauna indicate 

the position of Iran in an equatorial belt. 

Davoudzadeh et al. (1975) inferred another orogenic 

phase, of Middle Jurassic age (pre-Middle Bajocian, 

around 176 Ma), responsible for the metamorphism of 

unconformable on the Middle Triassic in all known the Rhaetic-Liassic sediments of the Mashhad area 

localities in Iraq (Bellen et al. 1959). 

(northeastern Iran) and the intrusion of the Mashhad 

granitic batholith. However, as discussed earlier in Section 

II.2.2a), Majidi (1978) related this metamorphic 

H.3c--Kopeh Dagh basin during Triassic time 

The Kopeh Dagh sedimentary basin was established and magmatic activity to the Hercynian movements. A 

after the Middle Triassic orogenic movements, when the Middle Jurassic orogenic phase is therefore questionable. 

closing process between Iran and the Turan had apparently 

ended (Fig. 5). During Liassic time, the (coherent) 

Iranian - Kopeh Dagh - Turanian landmass was (195 to 140 Ma) is indicated by the tholeiitic basaltic 

The ’late Triassic - late Jurassic volcanic activity’ 

covered unconformably by the Shemshak (coal-bearing) lava flow that preceded the deposition of the Rhaetic- 

Formation and the unconformity is visible in the 

Liassic Shemshak Formation in Central Iran and Alborz, 

Aghdarband region of the eastern Kopeh Dagh (Fig. the Middle Jurassic basic volcanics and tuffs at the top of 

13). The basal conglomerate contains detdtal rock fragments 

of diabase, granite, mica-schist, Triassic sediments 

(red quartzose sandstone, tuffs), and basic dykes 

(Madani 1977). The Kopeh Dagh basin started sinking 

along major longitudinal faults, forming a subsiding 

basin in northeast Iran. Afshar-Harb (1979) recognized 

four major basement faults (Khorkhud, Nabia, Takal 

Kuh, and Maraveh Tappeh), which were active at least 

since the Jurassic Period. In most cases the blocks north 

of these longitudinal basement faults subsided more than 

the blocks on the southern side. The faults changed their 

character from normal to reverse during later compressional 

phases. Similar cases indicating reversal of fault 

motion during tensional and compressional phases are 

also documented in Central Iran and Alborz (Berberian 

1979, 1980b). 

II.4----LATE JURASSIC MOVEMENTS (~ 140 MA) 

The period of the Late Jurassic movements is presumably 

known to be the time of separation of India 

(extrusion of basaltic flows), Australia, and Antarctica 

from Africa, and the real opening of the Indian Ocean 

(Le Pichon 1968; McElhinny 1970; Veevers et al. 

1971; Zonenshayn and Gorodnitskiy 1977). During this 

period Iran underwent some compressional movement. 

H.4a~Central and north lran during Late Jurassic time 

As a result of the Middle Triassic movements, the 

sedimentary environment in Central and north Iran 

changed from shallow marine to lagoonal-fluviatile 

conditions. The latter produced the coal and detrital 

sediments of the Rhaetic-Liassic Shemshak Formation. 

During the Liassic Stage, Central Iran, the Alborz, and 

the Kopeh Dagh were covered by dense forests with 

Asiatic flora (Assereto et al. 1968). These were the 

source of the coal. The Liassic coal-bearing deposits 

the Shemshak Formation in the Ramsar area (Annells et 

al. 1975), and the Upper Jurassic basic lavas in the 

Lahijan region (Annells et al. 1975). There are two 

Upper Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous volcanic series 

consisting of diabasic andesites and pyroxene diabase 

flow in the Deh Sard region of southeastern Sanandaj- 

Sirjan belt (Berberian and Nogol 1974), and the Upper 

Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous augite olivine diabasic 

flows (melaphyres of the Gypsum-Melaphyre Formation; 

Allenbach 1966; Steiger 1966) in the Alborz. Their 

stratigraphic position is not clear because of uncertainties 

about their real age. The Lower-Middle Jurassic 

andesite, dacite, basalt, and rhyolitic tuffs southeast of 

the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (Dimitrijevic 1973; Berberian 

and Nogol 1974) could be related to the subduction 

zone, but more detailed petrochemical and geochronological 

work is needed to understand their relationship. 

The late Triassic to late Jurassic tensional regime in 

Central Iran and Alborz came to an end during the late 

Jurassic (140 Ma) compressional movements. The sea 

regressed from many parts of Central and north Iran and 

many continental areas emerged (Table 2). The boundary 

of the Jurassic and Cretaceous Systems is generally 

marked by an unconformity, significant hiatus, or by red 

continental detritus (Garedu Red Beds, Ruttner et al. 

1968; Bidou Formation, Huber and Stocldin 1954, and 

Huckriede et al. 1962; Red Terrestric Formation, Stocklin 

1961), and evaporitic sediments (Gypsum-Melaphyre 

Formation, Allenbach 1966, and Steiger 1966; 

Upper Jurassic Salt Beds, Stocklin 1961). The movements 

were accompanied by a few granitic intrusions 

(Lut magmatism in east Central Iran; Stocklin et al. 

1972; Berberian and Soheili 1973; Berberian 1974, 

1977c), lava flows (Gypsum-Melaphyre Formation), 

and slight metamorphism in some parts of the country. A

egional greenschist-facies metamorphism in the Tomd 

area is thought to be the result of the Late Jurassic 

movements (Hushmandzadeh et al. 1978), but there is 

not enough evidence at present to prove it. 

In the Ardakan area of Central Iran, the Jurassic rocks 

are intensely folded, exhibit slaty cleavage, and are cut 

by quartz veins. They are unconformably covered by 

Cretaceous conglomerate (Haghipour et al. 1977). It 

seems that the Upper Precambrian salts of the Ravar area 

reached the surface as diapirs during the Late Jurassic 

movements (Huber 1978) and were the source for the 

Jurassic-Cretaceous evaporites. Evidence of continuous 

Jurassic--Cretaceous sedimentation is only found in the 

Shal Formation of the Talesh mountains southwest of 

the Caspian Sea (Davies et al. 1972; Clark et al. 1975; 

Table 2), and in the southeastern part of the Sanandaj- 

Sirjan belt in the Calpionella limestone (Dimitrijevic 

1973; Berberian and Nogol 1974). 

H.4b~Central lranian active continental margin during 

Late Jurassic time 

The Jurassic rocks of the west Sirjan area along the 

Central Iranian active continental margin (the Sanandaj- 

Sirjan belt) are affected by an important schistosity, 

which is not present in the Orbitolina limestone of Berriasian-Valanginian 

age (135 Ma). This may indicate 

Late Jurassic tectonic phase (Ricou 1974). The K/Ar 

ages of the Abukuma type metamorphic rocks of the area 

west of Sirjan (along the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt) range 

from 186 to 89 Ma (Watters and Sabzehei 1970). Although 

some of the metamorphic rocks are definitely 

Middle Triassic (Section II.3a) and Late Cretaceous 

(Section II.5.3b) in age, three samples indicate a Late 

Jurassic - Early Cretaceous compressional movement 

and metamorphism possibly related to subduction zone 

processes. Haynes and Reynolds (1980) suggest 170 --- 

5 Ma as the date of collision processes including metamorphism 

and ophiolite obduction. This is based on one 

date for hornblende taken from an amphibolite enclosed 

by ultrabasic rocks in the area northeast of Minab (east 

of the Minab fault). However, it seems that there is no 

disruption in the sedimentation processes of the Zagros 

and Central Iran during Middle Jurassic time and that 

ophiolite emplacement took place during the Late Cretaceous 

Epoch (Sections II.5.2b, II.5.3b). It is possible 

that the radiometric age has been disturbed by later 

retrograde recrystallization and argon loss. 

The upper Paleozoic crustal extension, which led to 

the development of continental rifting along the High- 

Zagros and the Central Iranian continental margins, 

apparently created marginal oceanic crust in late Permian 

and Jurassic times. Subsequent pelagic sedimentation 

(radiolarite, turbidite, black marl) during Late Triassic 

and Jurassic times (Ricou et al. 1977) reflects 

passive continental margin subsidence and the full 

establishment of the High-Zagros Ocean between the 


Central Iranian active and the Zagros passive continental 

margins. The sedimentary evidence of the continuous 

Upper Triassic to Upper Jurassic pelagic deposition 

along the subsided continental margins apparently indicates 

a long period during which undisturbed ocean floor 

existed. 

Presumably at the end of the Triassic Period and the 

beginning of the Jurassic Period, an ocean extended 

through the Great Caucasus (Khain 1977). Deposition 

the Jurassic-to-Neocomian (190-140 Ma) radiolarian 

cherts and volcanic activity (spilites and diabases) along 

the Sevan-Akera ophiolite belt of the Little Caucasus 

indicate the existence of oceanic crust during Jurassic 

time (Knipper and Sokolov 1974). This ocean seems 

be the western part of the Hercynian Ocean (Fig. 5). 

During this time the northern slope of the Great Caucasus 

was a continental margin of the Atlantic type, the 

southern slope a marginal sea, and the northern Transcaucasia 

an island arc (Adamia et al. 1977). The period 

is known to be marked by a general extension and 

subsidence of all tectonic units of the Caucasus. 

After the Late Jurassic movements, the two separate 

basins of Zagros and Kopeh Dagh continued their subsidence 

with marine carbonate deposition. 

H.4c--Kopeh Dagh basin during Late Jurassic time 

Like the Zagros, the Kopeh Dagh basin started subsiding 

in the Jurassic Period, and after deposition of the 

Liassic Shemshak (Kashafrud) Formation, the sea deepened 

along normal faults depositing the Chaman Bid- 

Mozduran Formation (carbonates and marls; Afshar- 

Harb 1969, 1979). The fault-controlled subsidence in 

the Kopeh Dagh, from Jurassic to Oligocene times, allowed 

up to 10 km of sediment to be deposited. The 

Jurassic marine carbonates also covered the southern 

part of the Turanian plate (Beznosov et al. 1978). 

During late Jurassic time, the Kopeh Dagh basin 

became shallower, and emergence took place over the 

area, producing a continental red unit, the Shurijeh 

Formation (Afshar-Harb 1970, 1979). The late Jurassic 

regression of the sea laid down red clays and sandstones 

of lagoonal and fluvial origin in the southern Turan 

(Beznosov et al. 1978). The Jurassic rock units of the 

Kopeh Dagh sequence in the south extend to the 

Binalud-Aladagh mountains (geographic continuation 

of Alborz in east; Fig. 1) and possibly indicate a united 

landmass in the north (Central Iran - Alborz - Kopeh 

Dagh - Turan plate) with more subsidence in Kopeh 

Dagh than in eastern Alborz or Central Iran. The reason 

for this ’greater subsidence’ is not clear and no Mesozoic 

or Tertiary ophiolite belt is exposed along the southern 

part of the Kopeh Dagh to assume a passive continental 

margin regime. 

H.4d--Zagros basin during Late Jurassic time 

Following the deposition of the Neyriz Formation, 

marine limestones and marls of the Jurassic - Lower


58 ° 60* 

FIG. 14. Paleogeographic map of Iran during Late Cretaceous time (around 65-70 Ma). See Fig. 6 for the paleoreconstruction. 

1. Known mountainous region formed during the previous orogenic phases. Area of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 

Note that after the Late Cretaceous orogenic movements, the main physiographic features of Iran were formed. 2. Upper 

Cretaceous flysch basins. 3. Late Cretaceous (late Santonian - early Campanian; 80-75 Ma) High-Zagros-Oman 

ophiolite-radiolarite belt, with ophiolite outcrops marked in black. Mainly composed of strongly imbricated sheets of 

deep water radiolarite, shale, turbidite, and pillow lava series. 4. Post-Maastrichtian-pre-Paleocene (65 Ma) ophiolite-mrtange 

of the Makran and the Central Iranian Red Sea type narrow belts, with Maastrichtian pelagic pink limestone, radiolarite, pillow 

lavas, and diabase series embodying numeroushallow water olistoliths. The lower part of this series reaches glaucophane-schist 

facies. 5. Limestone and marl. 6. Tuffaceous volcanics and impure silty shaly limestone (mainly forming the Little Caucasus 

eugeosyncline). 7. Shale and marl. 8. Limestone and marl. 9. Upper Cretaceous flysch with volcanics. 10.Late Maastrichtian 

shallow carbonate shelf deposits of Kalat Formation in Kopeh Dagh and the Great Caucasian miogeosyncline. 11. Tarbur 

shallow water anhydrite reef limestone. 12. Neritic to basinal marls and shales of the Gurpi Formation. 13. Shallow marine shelf 

carbonates of Tayaral limestone with minor shales (Aruma Formation). 14. Cretaceous granite and diorite intrusions exposed 

the surface. 15. Upper Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. 

Principal sources of data: Milanovsky and Khain (1963); Mina et al. (1967); Vach6 (1968); Vereshchagin and Ronov (1968); 

Vogel (1971); Stocklin (1968a, 1977); Sampo (1969); Zakhidov (1972); Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (1972); Dimitrijevic (1973);


Cretaceous Khami Group (James and Wynd 1965) were 

laid down in a steadily subsiding basin in the Zagros. 

The Jurassic carbonate platform extended from the 

High-Zagros to northern central Arabia and the climate 

seemed to be more humid than previously (Murris 

1978). The late Jurassic movements were of minor 

tectonic importance, causing slight and short-lived 

marine regression of the sea. This regression laid down a 

sheet of anhydrite (Hith Anhydrite) from the Arabian 

platform to the present foothills of the Zagros, indicating 

an arid climate (Murfis 1978). In the interior of the 

Zagros basin, near Shiraz, there was more or less 

continuous sedimentation during late Jurassic and early 

Cretaceous times (James and Wynd 1965; Setudehnia 

1978). 

As a result of the late Jurassic movements, the whole 

western part of Arabia was uplifted and heavily eroded. 

Subsequent movements associated with the reactivation 

of faults led to the extrusion of basalts in northwest 

Arabia until Albian times (Saint-Marc 1978). 

II. 5---CRETACEOUS MOVEMENTS 

The Cretaceous System was introduced to Iran by 

marine transgression over most of the country. In multibranched 

rifts, deep-water sediments, diabasic pillow 

lava, and continental slope deposits accumulated. Following 

the Lower and Middle Cretaceous marine carbonate 

deposits, the whole region underwent strong 

deformation towards the end of the Cretaceous Period 

(Table 2). The Cretaceous movements are divided here 

into three phases: the late Neocomian-Albian (118-105 

Ma), late Santonian (77 Ma), and late Maastrichtian 

Ma). They were associated with episodic imbrication 

and ophiolite-radiolarites were emplaced along the 

Sevan-Akera (and Vedi) belt in the Little Caucasus, the 

High-Zagros-Oman belt, the Central Iranian belts, and 

in the Makran region (Figs. 1, 6, and 14). The Iranian 

Mesozoic ophiolites have been explained either as remnants 

of a large oceanic crust (Pilger 1971; Takin 1972; 

Forster et al. 1972; Ricou 1974; Glennie et al. 1974; 

Haynes and McQuillan 1974; Stocklin 1974, 1977; 

Stoneley 1974, 1975; Lensch et al. 1975; Pilger and 

Rosier 1976; Alavi-Tehrani 1975, 1976, 1977; and 

Khain 1977, or as narrow intracratonic Red Sea type 

rifts (Sabzehei 1974; Nabavi 1976; Beloussov and 

Sholpo 1976; Hushmandzadeh 1977). Stoneley (1974) 

and Stocklin (1974) emphasized the existence of two 

ophiolite-m61ange belts. Stocklin (1977) divided the 

Middle Eastern Cretaceous ophiolite-radiolafite belts 

into two subbelts: the southern or outer subbelt (the 

’High-Zagros-Oman’ ophiolite-radiolarite in this 

study) south of the Main Zagros reverse fault line, and 

the northern or inner subbelt (the ’Central Iranian’ 

separated ophiolite-m61ange belts; Figs. 1 and 14). 

H.5.1--Lower Cretaceous movements (118-105 Ma 

H.5.1a--The Zagros basin 

Despite the continuous Jurassic--Cretaceous marine 

carbonate sedimentation in Shiraz and northern Khuzestan 

area, the Cretaceous sequence of the Zagros covers 

the underlying Jurassic sediments (Surmeh, Hith, or 

Gotnia Formations) disconformably (the late Jurassic 

disconformity) with deposition of the Fahliyan (Neocomian-Aptian) 

and Gadvan (Barremian-Aptian) 

marine carbonates over the greater part of the Zagros 

(Table 2). In Lorestan and northwest Khuzestan, 

Lower Cretaceous grey-black radiolaria-bearing shales 

and deep-water argillaceous limestone (Garau Formation) 

were deposited disconformably over the Jurassic 

Gotnia anhydrite. The basin shallows towards Arabia 

(Murris 1978). The siltstone, sandstone, and glauconite 

found at the upper part of the Fahliyan Formation, and 

the strongly iron-stained sandy and glauconitic sediments 

on top of the Dariyan Formation indicate a period 

of regression, emergence, and erosion at the end of 

Aptian time and an ’Aptial-Albian (105 Ma) disconformity’ 

in the Fars area (James and Wynd 1965; 

Setudehnia 1978; see Table 2). A widespread emergence 

is reported from Arabia during Albian time, but 

was followed by the Cenomanian Wasia (sandstoneshale) 

Formation (Powers 1968). 

ll.5.1b---Central Iran during Early Cretaceous time 

The Lower Cretaceous rocks in Central Iran are 

detrital limestone, reef limestone (Aptian Tiz Kuh 

Formation, Stocklin 1972), marl, shale (Biabanak 

Shale, Stocklin 1972), and volcanics, frequently intermpted 

by conglomerates and red beds. Large sedimentary 

gaps and unconformities reflect an unstable sedimentary 

environment in Central Iran (Table 2). 

lI.5.1c--Little Caucasus (northwest Iran) during 

Early Cretaceous time 

The extensive Jurassic and Cretaceous volcanics in 

the Great and Little Caucasus, northwest Iran, show an 

apparently subduction related variation of alkalinity. 

The K20/Na20 ratio in comparable rocks north of the 

Sevan-Akera ophiolite belt (Pontian-Transcaucasian 

island arc) also indicates subduction (Adamia et al. 

1977). The Sevan-Akera ocean was consumed during 

late Neocomian-Albian time (118-105 Ma; Knipper and 

Sokolov 1974; Adamia et al. 1977), when northwestern 

Shevchenko and Rezanov (1976); Yegorkina et al. (1976); Berberian (1976a,b); Huber (1978); Saint-Marc (1978); 

Setudehnia (1978); Afshar-Harb (1979); Berberian and Berberian (1980); Berberian (1981); and all available data 

the Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran to 1980. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection.


Iran apparently collided with the Pontian-Transcaucasian 

island arc (Figs. 6 and 14), leaving Jurassic- 

Neocomian (190-140 Ma) radiolarites, volcanics, and 

ophiolites in the resulting serpentine-m61ange thrust 

sheets. The thrust sheets were pushed southwards and 

were transgressively overlain by an Albian to Cenoman- 

Jan (105-95 Ma) sedimentation (Knipper and Sokolov 

1974; see Table 2). Detrital rock fragments of the Sevan 

ophiolites have been found in the Cenomanian olistostrome 

complex (100 Ma) of the Kylychly area 

Armenia (Grigoryev et al. 1975). Subsequent movements 

of the Sevan-Akera ophiolite thrust sheets produced 

the Lower Senonian (85 Ma) olistostrome complex 

and new thrust sheets, which both were transgressively 

covered by the Upper Santonian to Upper 

Senonian (75-65 Ma) carbonate deposits (Knipper 

Sokolov 1974; Beloussov and Sholpo 1976; Khain 

1977; see Table 2). Campanian-Maastrichtian calcalkaline 

volcanism in the Little Caucasus accompanied 

the final oceanic subduction in the Sevan-Akera belt 

(Adamia 1975; Adamia et al. 1977; Biju-Duval et al. 

1977). Pecherskiy and Tkhoa (1978) believe that 

Sevan-Vedi ophiolites of Armenia are autochthonous 

and indicated that their virtual paleomagnetic poles are 

similar to those of Europe but differ from the African 

poles for Late Cretaceous time. They therefore concluded 

that the Little Caucasus formed a unit with the 

Eurasian continent in Late Cretaceous time. 

H.5.1 d--Kopeh Dagh basin during Early Cretaceous 

time 

A more complete Cretaceous sequence composed of 

marine limestone, shale, and marl, with subordinate 

detrital sediments was deposited in the subsiding sedimentary 

basin of the Kopeh Dagh in northeastern Iran. 

The Lower Cretaceous epeirogenic movements caused a 

sedimentary hiatus in the western Kopeh Dagh (Table 

2). In the east, the Upper Turonian sediments (Abderaz 

Formation) were deposited on the lower Cenomanian 

rocks of the Aitamir Formation (Afshar-Harb 1979). 

11.5.2---Late Turonian (88 Ma) and Late Santonian (77 

Ma) movements 

H.5.2a--The inner Zagros 

The Lower Cretaceous sedimentation in the Fars and 

the Khuzestan areas of the Zagros began with a new 

transgression of the sea carrying shales and limestone of 

the Albian Kazhdomi Formation disconformably over 

the top of the Dariyan Formation (Upper Aptian- Lower 

Albian disconformity; James and Wynd 1965; see Table 

2). The sedimentation continued with the shallow marine 

carbonate of the Sarvak Formation (late Albian to 

Turonian). Towards coastal Fars and the Persian Gulf 

area a shaly unit of Cenomanian age (the northern extension 

of Arabian Ahmadi Shale) was developed. There 

were regional uplift and a resulting disconformity at the 

end of Turonian (88 Ma) time in most parts of the inner 

Zagros (Fars and Bandar Abbas area) marked by conglomerates, 

breccia, ferruginous materials, and a weathered 

zone on top of the Sarvak Formation. In Lorestan, 

the deeper water sedimentation continued from Albian 

to Turonian times. The Late Turonian movements (88 

Ma) reactivated northwest-southeast trends in the 

northwest Zagros (Lorestan and northwest Khuzestan), 

and northeast-southwest trends (parallel to Oman) 

central and southeast Zagros, southeast Khuzestan, and 

Fars areas. These trends had existed since Permian and 

Triassic times (Setudehnia 1978; James and Wynd 

1965). A post-Turonian pre-Campanian Maastrichtian 

emergence is also reported from Arabia. Renewed transgression 

in Arabia began in the Campanian and reached 

a maximum during the Maastdchtian Age (Powers 

1968; Murris 1978). 

11.5.2b~High-Zagros belt during Late Santonian (77 

Ma) time 

The High-Zagros Alpine Ocean along the High-Zagros-Oman 

belt presumably started opening in the Permian 

Period (Sections II.2.2a and b). By Late Triassic- 

Jurassic time the High-Zagros basin had subsided by 

rifting to the depth of radiolarian chert accumulation, 

and oceanic crust was clearly developed. The deposition 

of the late Triassic black marls was followed in early 

Middle Jurassic to early Cretaceous times by a thick 

sequence of red radiolarian cherts, and siliceous limestone 

(Ricou 1974) along the High-Zagros-Oman belt 

(Figs. 13 and 14, and Table 2). The High-Zagros ophiolite-radiolarite 

belt in the Neyriz and the Kermanshah 

area (Figs. 6, 13, and 14) is composed of three main 

imbricated units (Ricou 1971, 1974, 1975, 1976; Hallam 

1976; Ricou et al. 1977; Braud 1978). Like the 

Othris mountain in Greece (Smith et al. 1979) and the 

Oman mountains (Glennie et al. 1973; Welland and 

Mitchell 1977; Glennie 1977; Gealey 1977), these units 

are progressively thrust onto the carbonate platform 

sediments of the northern Zagros along a series of northeast-dipping 

thrust sheets, which transported material 

from the northeast (the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean) 

the southwest (the continental rocks of the Zagros belt). 

These units are (i) the radiolarite-turbidite, (ii) 

m61ange (with limestone), and (iii) the ophiolite. 

The upper Triassic to lower Cretaceous radiolariteturbidite 

unit, which seems to be the equivalent of the 

Hawasina allochthonous unit of the Oman and the pelagic 

sediments of the Othris continental-margin sequence 

(Greece), is the ’lowest and earliest thrust sheet’ 

above the Coniacian-Santonian (88-80 Ma in Neyriz, 

or Santonian in Kermanshah) authochthonous rocks of 

the Zagros belt. It comprises radiolarite, turbidite, black 

marl, and limestone. The next sheet, the m61ange unit 

(similar to the Oman exotics), is mainly composed 

tectonically mixed Permian and Triassic limestone, radiolarite, 

pillow lava, serpentinite, and some metamor-

phic rocks (in the Kermanshah region only the Bisutun 

limestone,which was possibly deposited on oceanic islands 

or seamounts, is the representative of this unit). 

Finally the ophiolite unit, which is mainly composed of 

harzburgite, lherzolite, and gabbro (with some microdiorite 

and spilite) forms the highest part of the tectonic 

stack. This unit seems to be the equivalent of the Semail 

ophiolites of Oman and the Mina Group in the Greek 

Othris. 

The thrusting order may roughly indicate an ordered 

lateral transition from the Zagros continental carbonate 

platform in the southwest to the passive continental 

margin with pelagic sediments and the oceanic environment 

in the northeast (the High-Zagros Alpine 

Ocean). The radiolarite-turbidite deposition, which 

probably occurred at least in part on oceanic crust during 

the tensional and spreading phase of 200-140 Ma, 

ceased abruptly in the Cretaceous Period, presumably 

because of the effect of the compressional movements 

and closing processes of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean. 

During ’Upper Campanian - MaastriChtian (70-65 

Ma)’ time, the High-Zagros ophiolite-radiolarite thrust 

stack in the Neyriz area is ’unconformably covered’ by 

the post-emplacement shallow-water reef limestone of 

the Tarbur Formation (Ricou 1974; Table 2). This indicates 

that the obduction of the ophiolites along the High- 

Zagros belt took place during ’late Santonian - early 

Campanian time (80-75 Ma). In the Kermanshah region 

(Brand 1978) the High-Zagros ophiolite-radiolarite belt 

is unconformably covered by the Paleocene volcanics 

and the Eocene shallow-water limestones. 

The High-Zagros ophiolite-radiolarite belt has a 

sharp tectonic boundary in the north with the adjacent 

Mesozoic magmatic arc of the Central Iranian active 

continental margin (the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt) and the 

Maastrichtian-Paleocene ophiolite-m61ange belt of 

south Central Iran (Figs. 1 and 14). Subsequent collision 

of Zagros and Central Iran have caused renewed 

southwest-directed thrusting of the High-Zagros ophiolite 

belt. Owing to lack of detailed work, it is not clear 

whether the subophiolite rocks (greenschist to amphibolite 

facies) of the High-Zagros, Central Iran, and the 

Makran region were metamorphosed during ophiolite 

emplacement onto the continental margin (Malpas et al. 

1973; Woodcock and Robertson 1977; Jamieson 1980), 

or formed by thrusting and related metamorphism within 

ocean lithosphere (Spray and Roddick 1980), or are 

remnant slices of older metamorphic basement. Ages 

found for biotite and muscovite from psammitic layers 

in an olistolith in the area 8 km west of Neyriz (High- 

Zagros belt) are 98 ± 1.2 Ma (for biotite) and 96 ± 

Ma (for muscovite; Haynes and Reynolds 1980) suggesting 

late Cretaceous compressional movements and 

possibly metamorphism along the High-Zagros belt. 

H.5.2c---Central Iran during Late Santonian time 

During Late Turonian (88 Ma) and Late Santonian (77 


Ma) movements, Central Iran was an assembly of continental 

fragments and small narrow oceanic or suboceanic 

basins, possibly formed by back-arc spreading. 

Most parts of Central Iran were below sea level (shallow 

seas and shoals) with uneven sedimentation resulting in 

rapid facies and thickness changes. 

The Mesozoic granitic intrusions along the Sanandaj- 

Sirjan belt (which forms a plutonic belt along Central 

Iranian continental margin parallel to the High-Zagros- 

Oman ophiolite-radiolarite belt; Fig. 14) have been 

dated at 144, 80-78, and 75-65 Ma (Valizadeh and 

Cantagrel 1975). This presumably represents the magmatic 

arc formed during subduction of the High-Zagros 

Alpine oceanic crust (Berberian and Berberian 1980). 

H.5.2d--Kopeh Dagh basin during Late Turonian 

time 

Important evidence of a post-Cenomanian pre-Maas- 

movement was found in Takal Kuh northwest 

trichtian 

of Kopeh Dagh by Afshar Harb (1979), where the Kalat 

Formation (Maastfichtian) overlies unconformably various 

tilted horizons of the Sanganeh (Aptian-Albian) 

and the Aitamir Formation (Albian-Senomanian). In the 

west central Kopeh Dagh a disconformity is reported on 

top of the Abderaz Formation (Upper Turonian - Lower 

Senonian) and the base of the Kalat Formation (Table 2). 

H.5.3--Late Maasterichtian movements (65 Ma) 

H.5.3a--The Zagros basin 

The Upper Cretaceous sedimentation in most parts of 

the Zagros Basin usually began with neritic carbonates 

of the Ilam Formation (Santonian- Lower Campanian). 

This was followed by deeper water marls and shales of 

the Gurpi Formation (Campanian-Maastrichtian; Table 

2). During this period the northwest-southeast trend of 

the northwestern Zagros (Lorestan area) extended 

through Khuzestan and Fars, and the present Zagros 

trend was fully developed and established. At the end of 

Maastrichtian time a general regression of the sea created 

a major unconformity throughout the Zagros 

(James and Wynd 1975; Setudehnia 1978). 

The Mesozoic trend along the High-Zagros was destroyed 

after the Late Cretaceous collision of the Arabian 

and the Central Iranian continental crusts. The 

major Late Cretaceous uplift, folding, upthrusting, and 

erosion of the High-Zagros orogenic belt and its ophiolite-radiolarites 

provided the detrital material of the 

Upper Maastrichtian - Paleocene Amiran Flysch (James 

and Wynd 1965), which was deposited in a long, linear 

trough along the northern part of the Zagros basin (Figs. 

14 and 15). The flysch at some localities consists almost 

entirely of radiolarite and some ophiolite debris. The 

present scattered flysch deposits along the northern margin 

of the High-Zagros suggest a seaway from northwest 

of Makran along the present Main Zagros reverse fault 

line to northwestern Iran. A Late Cretaceous hiatus and

246 CAN. J. EARTH SCI. VOL. 18. 1981 

FIG. 15. Paleogeographic map of Iran during Paleocene-Eocene times, after the Late Cretaceous orogenic movements (around 

55 to 40 Ma). See Fig.7 for the paleo-reconstruction. 

1. Mountainous regions formed during the previous orogenic phases. The main physiographic features were established by this 

time. 2. Red clay, sandstone, and siltstone of the Kashkan Formation (a) and marl, gypsum, and dolomite of the Sachun 

Formation (b) in Zagros. 3. Widespread post-collisional (Eocene) volcanic activity (with tuffs and shallow water clastics). 

Eocene volcanic activity is known from Zagros and Kopeh Dagh marginal sedimentary basins. 4. Paleocene-Eocene flysch 

sediments transgressively deposited over the ophiolite belts. 5. Chehel Kaman early-to-middle Eocene shallow shelf carbonates 

in the Kopeh Dagh, northeastern Iran, and massive shallow marine carbonates of Jahrom Formation in the Zagros basin, 

southwestern Iran (together with the Great Caucasian miogeosyncline). 6. Mixed transitional shallow marine Jahrom carbonates 

and neritic-to-basinal Pabdeh marly facies in Zagros. 7. Neritic-to-basinal marls of Pabdeh Formation in Zagros. 8. Lagoonal and 

shallow marine carbonates, marl, and shale with anhydrite-gypsum (Radhumma, Rus, and Dammam Formations) on the 

Arabian shelf. 9. Shale and graywake facies in northwestern Iran. 10. Eocene and late Eocene - Oligocene granite intrusions 

exposed at surface. 

Principal sources of data: Milanovsky and Khain (1963); Abu B akr and Jackson (1964); James and Wynd (1965); et al . 

(1967); Grossheim and Khain (1968); Stocklin (1968a, 1977); Ahmed (1969); Sampo (1969); et al. (1972);Zakhidov 

(1972); Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (1972); Berberian (1976a,b); Ricou (1976); Huber (1978); Kotanski (1978); 

(1978); Afshar-Harb (1979); Berberian and Berberian (1980); Berberian (1981); and all data from the Geological 

Mineral Survey of Iran to 1980. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection.

a possible disconformity are reported from Arabia 

(Powers 1968). 

H.5.3b~Central Iran during Late Maastrichtian time 

In the Central Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belts (Khoi, 

Nain-Baft, northeastern Zagros line belt, Doruneh- 

Joghatay, Zabol-Baluch, and Makran; Fig. 14), the process 

of ophiolite emplacement extended until late Maastrichtian 

time (Gansser 1960; Sabzehei and Berberian 

1972; Stocklin 1974, 1977; Stoneley 1974, 1975; and 

Sabzehei 1974). The ophiolite-m61ange is mainly composed 

of ultrabasic rocks, diabases, pillow lavas, pelagic 

sediments, and metamorphic rocks. Unlike the 

High-Zagros ophiolite-radiolarite belt, the pelagic sediments 

of the Central Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belt 

range in age from ’Upper Turonian to Upper Maastdchtian’ 

(88-65 Ma; Dimitrijevic 1973). Absence 

pre-Cretaceous deep-water sediments along the Central 

Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belts does not necessarily indicate 

that rifting and deepening to oceanic crust took 

place in the Cretaceous Period. The tectonic setting of 

the Central Iranian ophiolite-m61ange belts also differs 

from those of the High-Zagros. The former belts have 

undergone intensive tectonic m61ange deformation, and 

no complete and ordered tectonic stack and ophiolite 

associations appear to be present. They are ’unconformably’ 

covered by the ’Paleocene-Eocene’ shallowwater 

sediments. The presence of ophiolite-m61ange 

and glaucophane-schist detrital fragments in the basal 

conglomerate of Paleocene-Eocene age indicates a certain 

end to the emplacement of the ophiolite-m61ange 

and formation of associated metamorphic rocks, and the 

disappearence of ocean crust within Iran. The separated 

ophiolite belts in northwest, central, east, and southeast 

Iran (Fig. 14) could be the remnants of a narrow and 

smaller ocean or Red Sea type rifts developed during the 

multibranched rifting following the late Paleozoic and 

Middle Triassic compressional movements (Figs. 4 to 

and 11 to 14). 

During Upper Maastrichtian - Paleocene time, the 

rocks of Central Iran underwent strong folding, magmatism, 

and uplift, over which the late Paleocene - 

Eocene rocks now lie with a pronounced angular unconformity. 

During this phase, closure of the rifts of central 

and east Iran obducted ophiolites and produced two 

phases of the Late Cretaceous metamorphism in the 

ophiolite-m61ange belts (Sabzehei and Berberian 1972; 

S abzehei 1974): (1) a high-pressure static phase of glaucophane-aegyrine-aragonite- 

lawsonite-pumpellyitepectolite-jadeite 

facies; and (2) a dynamothermal phase 

of albite-epidote-biotite facies. 

The Late Cretaceous movements also created a greenschist 

metamorphism along the northern segment of the 

Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (Berberian 1973; Berberian and 

Alavi-Tehrani 1977; Berthier et al. 1974; Fig. 14). 

Late Cretaceous (89 + 7 Ma) K/Ar age of the Abukuma 


type metamorphic rocks in the area west of Sirjan (along 

the southeastern part of the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt) was 

reported by Watters and Sabzehei (1970). 4°Ar/39Ar age 

specmam obtained for a biotite from a garnet amphibolite 

assemblage of the same area (Kuh-e-Ceghalatun) gave 

an age of 87 Ma (Haynes and Reynolds 1980). Although 

some of the metamorphic rocks are Middle Triassic and 

Late Jurassic in age, the effects of the Late Cretaceous 

compressional movementseem to be evident. The Late 

Cretaceous orogenic movements were responsible for 

the formation of the early High-Zagros-Oman ophiolite-radiolarite 

mountain belt, early Alborz ranges, 

central-east Iranian ranges (Shotori, Kuh Banan, Anarak), 

together with the Soltanieh and Takab mountains 

in the northwest. By this time the present physiographic 

features of the country were broadly established (Fig. 

14). 

Based on the difference from the virtual geomagnetic 

pole positions for Early to Late Cretaceous and Early 

Tertiary times between India and Central Iran, Soffel et 

al. (1975) indicated that Central Iran had a much more 

northerly position at that time than India. 

The "Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous (140-65 Ma) 

volcanic activity" in Central Iran and Alborz is indicated 

by the Aptian-Albian alkaline basic lava flows in the Pol 

Rud-Alarnkuh region of the Alborz mountains (Annels 

et al. 1975), the Maastrichtian basic lava flows (mostly 

tholeiitic basaltic andesite with some pillow lava structures) 

in Lahijan region, southwest Caspian Sea (Annells 

et al. 1975), and the Upper Cretaceous tuffs and 

volcanics of the Talesh mountains, southwest of the 

Caspian Sea (Clark etal. 1975). The Aptian andesites in 

Deh Sard region of the Sanandaj-Sirjan belt (Berberian 

and Nogol 1974) could be related to the subduction 

process of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean. 

H.5.3c--Zabol-Baluch basin during Late Maastrichtian 

time 

During the Late Cretaceous movements great masses 

of ophiolite-m61ange were emplaced along the Makran 

active continental margin of Central Iran in the southern 

Lut, apparently due to arc-trench collision and tectonic 

accretion at the base of the active trench slope of the 

eastern High-Zagros Ocean (Figs. 6 and 14). At the 

same time the Zabol-Baluch ophiolite-m61ange was 

emplaced along the eastern Lut margin of Central Iran. 

A thick sequence of Upper Cretaceous - Paleocene 

flysch deposits with submarine volcanics was laid down 

in the basins of eastern Iran. The Eocene flysch along the 

Zabol-Baluch and the Makran belts unconformably covers 

the ophiolite-m61ange sequences. Local intrusions 

of the Upper Eocene granodiorite are found (Fig. 15), 

and fragments of the same material appear as boulders in 

the younger conglomerates of the Zabol-Baluch flysch 

basin (Huber 1978).


H.5.3d--Kopeh Dagh basin during Late Maastrichtian 

time 

Following the Neocomian marine transgression, a 

more complete sequence of Cretaceous sediments was 

deposited in the Kopeh Dagh basin. Except for some 

epeirogenic movements, the continuous sedimentation 

in the Cretaceous time suggests a steadily subsiding 

basin and a stable marine environment during this 

period. In Middle Maastrichtian time, a third regression 

started in the Kopeh Dagh (Table 2). The Late Maastrichtian 

movements, which produced a regional unconformity 

at the base of the Tertiary deposits in Iran, 

only caused a short marine regression (the Upper Maastrichtian 

Neyzar-Kalat detrital materials and the Paleocene 

Pestehleigh Red Beds) associated with a minor 

disconformable contact (Table 3). The Paleocene red 

sandstone, shales, and gypsiferous mudstones with 

intercalations of green shale were deposited in a lowland 

area (Afshar-Harb 1970; Huber 1978). The 

Jurassic-Cretaceous sediments of the Kopeh Dagh 

basin, which also cover the northern part of the Eastern 

Alborz mountains (Binalud-Ala Dagh range), suggest 

united landmass. 

II.6----MIDDLE ALPINE MOVEMENTS (65-22 MA) 

There is no evidence for the existence of oceanic crust 

following the Late Cretaceous movements. Apparently 

by the end of the Mesozoic Era, all of the existing 

oceanic crust between Arabia and Asia in the Iranian 

region had been consumed. The ophiolites and associated 

rocks and glaucophane-schist metamorphic 

rocks were emplaced and covered unconformably by 

the Paleocene-Eocene shallow-water detrital sediments, 

indicating the end of the ophiolite emplacement 

and the mrlange process in these regions. Presumably 

subsequent convergence resulted in steady thickening of 

the continental crust, with a major mountain building 

phase around Late Eocene (37 Ma) time, during the 

Middle Alpine movements. The onset of the first phase 

of the Red Sea rift (30-15 Ma; Girdler and Styles 1974, 

1978) corresponds with the uplift of the Kopeh Dagh 

region and establishment of the Upper Oligocene marine 

limestone basin in Central Iran. 

time. However, the interior Fars, northeastern Lorestan, 

and Persian Gulf area remained above sea level for most 

of the Oligocene Epoch. By late Oligocene time, the sea 

covered most areas except northeastern Lorestan, and 

carbonates of the Asmari Formation were deposited 

(James and Wynd 1965; Nabavi 1971; Setudehnia 1972; 

Berberian 1976a; Fig. 16). Gradual narrowing of the 

northwest-southeast trending open marine basin of the 

Zagros owing to the convergent movements is evident 

throughout the Middle Alpine (Figs. 14 to 16). 

After deposition of the Lutetian Dammam Formation 

(Steineke et al. 1958) on the Arabian platform, there 

was a widespread emergence (Table 3). The stratigraphic 

sequence above the Lutetian beds consists of a 

relatively thin succession of Lower-to-Upper Miocene 

and Pliocene sediments (200-300 m), almost entirely 

nonmarine in origin (Powers 1968). 

H.6b--Central Iran during Middle Alpine time 

The Tertiary System in Central Iran has a basal conglomerate 

and sandstone resting unconformably upon 

older rocks, followed up-section by a widespread volcanogenic 

unit consisting mainly of submarine and continental 

lava flows (from rhyolite to basalt) and dacitic 

tuffs indicative of the most extensive and intense volcanic 

activity in the whole geological history of Iran 

(Fig. 15; Table 3). The main mountain belts formed 

during the Late Cretaceous movements controlled the 

volcanogenic sedimentary basins throughout the Eocene 

Epoch. Therefore most of the main physiographic features 

were established by that time (Fig. 15). Thick 

rapidly accumulated terrigenous sediments of flysch 

facies were also deposited along the continental 

margins and in some basins within the Central Iranian 

continent. 

The extensive Eocene volcanic activity of Central 

Iran was explained by Vialon et al. (1972), Crawford 

(1972), Dewey et al. (1973), Forster (1976), Jung et al. 

(1976), Alavi-Tehrani (1976), Brookfield (1977), 

Farhoudi (1978) to be the result of northeast-dipping 

subduction along the Zagros reverse fault, which was 

active until Pliocene time, and Nowroozi (1971) 

claimed that the subduction activity continued in recent 

times. Jung et al. (1976) have postulated magma generation 

for the Central Iranian Eocene volcanics at a depth 

ll.6a--Zagros basin during Middle Alpine time 

Following the Late Cretaceous movements, the Paleocene-Eocene 

Pabdeh (neritic to basinal marls and ar- 

the Arabian plate underneath Central Iran along the 

of about 120 to 150 km resulting from the subduction of 

gillaceous limestones) and Jahrom (massive shallow present Zagros fault. However, the timing of the volcanic 

activity and the variety of its composition are not 

marine carbonates) Formations were deposited (Fig. 15; 

Table 3). During the Late Eocene movements (37 Ma), consistent with it being related to the Mesozoic subduction 

zone, and the volcanics are not suitably distributed 

widespread regression caused the greater part of the 

Zagros basin (except for the most central part) relative to the supposed plate margin (Fig. 15). The time 

emerge. This regression is marked by the disconformity interval between our supposed collision of the Zagros 

at the top of the Jahrom Formation, and was followed with Central Iran (based on the paleogeographic data) 

rapidly by a transgression starting in early Oligocene and the onset of the volcanism is about 20 Ma and we do


FI~. 16. Paleogeographic map of Iran during Oligocene-Miocene times, after the Late Eocene movements (around 30-15 

Ma). See Fig. 8 for paleoreconstruction. 

1. Mountainous regions, area of erosion and non-marine sedimentation. 2. Oligocene-Miocene marine carbonates: Qom 

Formation in Central Iran; and Asmari back-reefal neritic carbonate facies in Zagros. 3. Sandstone, shale, and back-reef 

limestone in the Persian Gulf region. 4. Continental littoral sandstone (Ahwaz sandstone delta). 5. Continental red beds 

Central Iran; and Razak red silty marls with subordinate silty limestone and sandstone in Zagros. 6. Flysch-molasse sediments. 

7. Molasse (Zeivar Formation and Maikop Series composed of conglomerate, clay, and tuffaceous sandstone) in northwestern 

Iran, and Vindobonian marls in the Caspian region. 8. Volcanics in Little Caucasus (northwestern Iran); and in Central Iran 

(basalt, andesite, dacite, tuffs). 9. Acidic and basic intrusive rocks exposed at surface (Upper Eocene - Oligocene 

Zabol-Baluch, central and south Afghanistan; and Miocene in Central Iran and northern Afghanistan). 10. Platform basins in the 

Turan plate (northeastern Iran). 

Principal sources of data: Gansser (1955); Milanovsky and Khain (1963); Abu Bakr and Jackson (1964); James and 

(1965); Mina et al. (1967); Grossheim and Khain (1968); Sampo (1969); Ahmed (1969); Stazhilo-Alekseev et al. (1972); 

Zakhidov (1972); Dimitrijevic (1973); Ricou (1974); Berberian (1976a,b); Shevchenko and Rezanov (1976); et al. 

(1977); Kotanski (1978); Huber (1978); Murris (1978); Berberian and Berberian (1980); Berberian (1981); and all the 

data from the Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran to 1980. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection.


not believe it to be trench related. A similar substantial 

gap between the end of subduction and the beginning of 

igneous activity exists in the Old Red Sandstone extrusive 

and intrusive activity of the northern British Isles. It 

has been suggested that the Lower Old Red Sandstone 

volcanics of Scotland and northern England (about 2 km 

thick olivine basalt, andesite, dacite, and rhyolite; 

Rayner 1967; Groome and Hall 1974; Gandy 1975) were 

developed during the major Devonian sinistral wrenchfaulting 

movements of the region (Morris 1976) and 

may indicate a genetic connection (Leake 1978). 

Takin (1972), Milanovskiy (1974), Amidi (1975, 

1977), and Conrad et al. (1977) related this volcanism 

the melting or mobilization of sialic crustal material 

during a rifting process. The widespread volcanic activity 

following the high erosion rate of thickened continental 

crust during a considerable development of the 

Late Cretaceous folding and mountain-building phase 

could indicate the rising of the geotherms and onset of 

volcanism due to high erosion and peneplanation. However, 

the composition of the volcanics, which include 

basaltic members as well, does not suggest remobilized 

sialic crust being the only process involved. To produce 

the basaltic members some of the mobilized material 

must be approaching the composition of mantle rocks, 

since there is general argumenthat basaltic magma is a 

product of partial melting of ultramafic material in the 

upper mantle (Presnall 1969; Carmichael et al. 1974; 

Ringwood 1975; Yoder 1976; Kushiro 1979). The volcanic 

activity cannot easily be ascribed to plumes rising 

from hot spots fixed in the deep mantle (Bailey 1977), 

since the Iranian crust moved a considerable distance 

with respect to the mantle during the volcanic period. 

The Eocene period of volcanism in Central Iran was 

followed by Late Eocene (37 Ma) movements, represented 

by a regional unconformity at the base of the 

Oligocene rocks. During this phase the Lut zone in 

east-Central Iran underwent uplift (major Lut uplift) and 

no Oligocene-Miocene sediments were apparently deposited 

(Berberian and Soheili 1973; Berberian 1974, 

1977a; see Fig. 16 and Table 3). 

The Upper Oligocene transgression of the sea deposited 

the Upper Oligocene - Lower Miocene marine 

carbonates of the Qom Formation (Bozorgnia 1966) 

Central Iran (Fig. 16 and Table 3). No Eocene-Oligocene 

deposits were laid down along the northern flank of 

the Alborz mountains while the southern part was subsiding 

(Figs. 15 and 16). The Upper Oligocene beds rest 

unconformably on the Eocene rocks in the Alborz region, 

indicating the Late Eocene movements in northern 

Iran (Stocklin 1968a; Nabavi 1971; Berberian 1976a). 

ll.6c--Zabol-Baluch and Makran flysch basins during 

Middle Alpine time 

The Late Cretaceous subduction zone of the eastern 

High-Zagros Alpine Ocean along the Makran active 

margin of southeast Central Iran was shifted southwards 

during Eocene time. This created new basins to the south 

of the obducted Upper Cretaceous ophiolite-m61ange 

zone of the Makran (in the southeast) and to the east 

the Zabol-Baluch ophiolites (in the east), in the form 

marginal seas, with a branching arm extending along the 

northern margin of the High-Zagros (Fig. 15). Olistromatic 

flysch deposits with terrigenous and turbulent 

clastic rocks from the emergent east-west ophiolitem61ange 

source north of the Makran basin, and northsouth 

mountains of the Zabol-Baluch east of the Lut, 

indicate rapid erosion and sedimentation in an active 

tectonic environment during an orogenic period along 

the continental margin of the Makran and Lut. In the 

Makran the tectonic unrest (oceanwards episodic thrusting) 

accompanying the voluminous flysch deposits 

gradually shifted the main axes of the Makran basin 

towards the south (Huber 1978). 

The southwards shifting of the Markan basin axes and 

therefore development of younger flysch and molasse in 

the south, the northward increase in elevation, and the 

formation of the Jaz Murian depression north of the 

Makran range, indicate an ’accretionary prism’ from 

Early Tertiary time to the present. The prism is presumably 

formed on top of the subducting oceanic crust 

(eastern part of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean) with 

subsiding ’upper slope or fore-arc basin’ (the Jaz Murian 

and Mashkhel depressions) and an "uplifted lower 

slope" across which the accreted sediments become 

younger towards the trench (Farhoudi and Karig 1977). 

The strongly deformed Eocene-Oligocene Lower 

Flysch (Falcon 1974) and the Panjgur units (Ahmed 

1969) are therefore interpreted as "trench-fill deposits" 

forming a narrow ribbon of turbidites at the base of the 

continental slope (Farhoudi and Karig 1977). 

No rocks older than the Upper Cretaceous ophiolitem61ange 

have been recognized underlying the Eocene- 

Oligocene Makran flysch. The presence of conglomerates 

with serpentine boulders together with exotic blocks 

of ophiolite-m61ange in the Lower Flysch (wild flysch), 

and the transgression of the lower sandstone and conglomerate 

of Eocene flysch over the ophiolite-m61ange 

in the Jagin valley and Fanuj area of the Makran (Falcon 

1974; Huber 1978) have been used as evidence to 

suggest that this flysch basin is floored by ocean crust. 

The present Gulf of Oman is assumed to be floored by 

oceanic crust (Farhudi and Karig 1977) because of its 

depth, the acoustic character and velocity of the basement 

(White and Klitgord 1976), the possible easttrending 

magnetic anomalies (Taylor 1968), and the 

strongly positive Bouguer gravity field (USSR Academy 

of Sciences, 1975). A Deep Sea Drilling Project hole 

bottomed in Paleocene basalt on the crust of the Gulf of 

Oman (Whitmarsh et al. 1974).

The sedimentation of Makran flysch continued until 

Oligocene time (Fig. 16). According to Ahmed (1969) 

the Oligocene Epoch marked the beginning of the final 

regression covering the margins of the Makran basin and 

a fundamental change in sedimentation, with an absence 

of carbonates and the deposition of thick sandstone and 

shale units. It is known that a substantial thickness of 

Paleogene and Neogene sediment is present off the 

Oman coast, where refraction profiles in the westcentral 

Gulf of Oman are interpreted to indicate 3.7 km 

of sediments on oceanic crust (Closs et al 1969; Gealey 

1977). 

Towards the end of the Middle Alpine, the Zabol- 

Baluch flysch basin progressively dried up, and the 

sediments were folded, thrusted, and uplifted by the end 

of the Oligocene Epoch. Absence of Tertiary arcmagmatism 

in Makran may indicate a very low angle 

descending oceanic crust. 

H.6d--Kopeh Dagh basin during Middle Alpine time 

In the Kopeh Dagh basin, like the Zagros, Eocene 

volcanic rocks are absent, indicating a non-volcanic 

basin in which marine sediments were deposited (Fig. 

15). In late Paleocene to early Eocene time, the last 

marine transgression covered the northern and eastern 

part of the Kopeh Dagh basin. The Middle-Upper 

Eocene to Lower Oligocene Khangiran Formation 

(shale, gypsiferous mudstone with limestone concentrations, 

and siltstone) is the youngest shallow marine or 

brackish water deposit in the eastern and central Kopeh 

Dagh (Afshar Harb 1969, 1979; see Table 3). After the 

deposition of the Khangiran Formation the last epeirogenic 

movement occurred in late Eocene - early Oligocene 

time (37 Ma), uplifting the entire region, and 

causing the last regression of the Tertiary sea. The 

regression started in late Middle Eocene time, from west 

Kopeh Dagh, and reached the east at the end of the late 

Eocene or probably in early Oligocene time (Afshar 

Harb 1969, 1970, 1979). Therefore the Kopeh Dagh 

formed a mountain belt since early-to-middle Oligocene 

time (Fig. 16). The post-Lower Oligocene (probably 

Miocene) continental red beds (similar to the Upper Red 

Formation of Central Iran) conformably overlie the 

Khangiran Formation in Sarakhs and Daregaz areas 

(Table 3). 

II.7--LATE ALPINE MOVEMENTS (

252 CAN. J. EARTH SCI. VOL. 18. 1981 

Fie. 17. Paleogeographic map of Iran during Middle-Upper Neoge.ne time after the Late Miocene orogenic movements 

(around 5 Ma). See Fig. 9 for paleoreconstruction. 

1. Area of erosion. 2. Evaporitic red beds with clastics deposited in extensive and strongly ramifying continental basins in 

Central, northwestern, and eastern Iran; terrestrial red clastics (Agha Jari Formation) deposited in Zagros in front of a slowly 

rising Zagros mountains. Deposition took place under arid climate and repeated episodic folding. A progressive uplift, flooding, 

and thrusting of Zagros belt from northeast towards southwest is noticeable. 3. Neogene lavas and associated tuffs of andesitic, 

dacitic, rhyolitic, and basaltic composition. 4. Neogene marine molasse of coastal Makran. 5. Marine brackish sediments of the 

Caspian basin (Tortonian-Sarmatian). 6. Intrusive rocks. 

Principal sources of data: Abu Bakr and Jackson (1964); Ahmed (1969); Zakhidov i(1972); Berberian (1976a,b); 

Schevchenko and Rezanov (1976); Huber (1978); Berberian and Berberian (1980); Berberian (1981); and all available data 

Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran to 1980. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection. 

volcanics (Fig. 17 and Table 3). In the northern foothills 

of the Alborz mountains, Cretaceous and older formations 

are unconformably overlain by marine deposits of 

Vindobonian-Sarmatian (Middle Miocene; 15-10 Ma) 

age. The south Caspian region was subsiding at this time 

and the subsidence has continued until the present. Several 

thousand metres of marine and continental Mio- 

Pliocene molasse of Caspian facies (Cheleken Formation 

of the Pliocene (Ognev 1938), Akchagyl Formation 

of the Upper Pliocene (3-1.8 Ma; Andrusov 1896), and 

Apsheron Formation of the Lower Pleistocene (1.8-0.9 

Ma; Barbot de Marny and Simovich 1891)) and Quater-

nary post-orogenic marine beds accumulated in the region 

(Smolko 1958; Stocklin 1972). Similar deposits 

overlie the Sarmatian (Upper Miocene; 12-10 Ma) beds 

with a marked unconformity in Dasht-e-Moghan area of 

northwestern Iran (Mostofi and Paran 1964). The Caspian 

Neogene beds were folded during the late Pliocene 

compressional phases (1.8 Ma). 

H.7b.1---Central Iranian Neogene volcanism 

Neogene lava flows and associated tuffs of andesitic, 

dacititic, and basaltic composition are developed in the 

Lut zone (eastern Iran), Azarbaijan (northwestern Iran), 

and south of Quchan (northeastern Iran) (Fig. 17). 

usually overlie unconformably older volcanic rocks of 

Paleogene age. The predominantly Neogene continental 

volcanism of Central Iran, which produced a thick sequence 

of both lava flows and pyroclastic rocks, culminated 

in Pliocene-Pleistocene time with the formation of 

large stratovolcanoes, composed mainly of andesite, 

dacite, and basalt, and with the intrusion of subvolcanic 

intermediate and acidic rocks (Figs. 17 and 18). 

There are two radiogenic age determinations (K/Ar) 

for the Neogene volcanics of Central Iran. These are 

10-11 Ma (Middle-Upper Miocene) from the quartztrachyte 

and trachyte lava flows of the Qasr-Dagh stratovolcano 

of northwestern Iran (Alberti et al. 1976), and 

8-9 Ma (Upper Miocene) from dacitic and rhyolitic 

volcanic domes of the Bijar region, northwestern Iran 

(Boccaletti et al. 1976-1977). The Upper Miocene (8-9 

Ma) high-potassium calc-alkaline phase in Bijar region 

(Boccaletti et al. 1976-1977) seems to be the final product 

of the calc-alkaline volcanism in Central Iran. Absence 

of an active descending lithospheric slab in Central 

Iran during the Middle and Late Alpine period (65 

Ma to recent) suggests that the gradual shortening and 

thickening of the Iranian continental crust may cause 

partial melting of the lower crust and upper mantle. 

ll.7c--Zabol-Baluch and Makran flysch-molasse basins 

during Late Alpine time 

In the Makran region the Eocene-Oligocene sedimentation 

changed into molasse-type fan and delta deposits 

with concurrent uplifting, folding, thrusting, and erosion 

of the ophiolite and Lower Flysch range during the 

Neogene period (Figs. 16 and 17). The basin axis was 

shifted to the south, owing to orogenic movements in 

early Miocene time, and caused regression of the sea. 

Below and between the delta fans in coastal Makran, 

gypsiferous mudstones and marls of Middle Miocene 

age were deposited in great thickness in a shallow but 

subsiding basin. The absence of carbonates and the 

presence of argillaceous sandy detritus suggest a considerable 

relief and subaerial erosion of northern mountains 

(Ahmed 1969; Falcon 1974; Huber 1978). 

Unlike other parts of Iran (except the Zagros basin), 

the Makran basin was the site of the continuous deposition 

from Oligocene to Miocene times (Fig. 16). The 


sedimentary environment was neritic at all times in the 

Makran basin, and the basin continued to subside as 

large amounts of Lower Miocene sediments were deposited. 

The sediments formed a wedge thickening seawards 

at a rate of 160 m/km to a total thickness of at least 

10000 m along the coast of the Arabian Sea (Ahmad 

1969). The Miocene Upper Flysch is overlain unconformably 

by more than 1 km of Pliocene molassic sediments 

(Fig. 17). During Pliocene time the Makran 

region together with the whole country suffered folding, 

thrusting, and uplift. 

The Miocene-Pliocene Upper Flysch of the Makran 

(Fig. 17) is interpreted as "trench-slope strata" deposited 

in narrow basins between the accretionary ridges (Farhoudi 

and Karig 1977). At present, in the Gulf of Oman, 

relatively fiat-lying sediments at the northern edge of the 

abyssal plain are deformed and accreted to the lowermost 

continental slope as a series of northward-dipping 

submarine ridges, presumably suggesting that active 

subduction of oceanic portions of the Arabian plate 

beneath the Makran coast continues (White and Klitgord 

1976; White and Ross 1979). 

H.7d--Kopeh Dagh during Late Alpine time 

Following the conformable deposition of the supposed 

Miocene continental red beds over the Eocene - 

early Oligocene Khangiran Formation of Kopeh Dagh, 

the region was unconformably overlain by Pliocene conglomerates. 

As in the Zagros, no important orogenic 

movement took place in Kopeh Dagh after Liassic time 

(except some minor epeirogenic movements; see Table 

2). If the correlative ages of red beds and conglomerates 

are correct, the post-red bed, pre-conglomerate orogenic 

movement can be dated post Middle Miocene or post 

Miocene (Afshar-Harb 1979). 

In the western part of the Kopeh Dagh, northeastern 

foothills of the Gorgan plain, the Upper Pliocene (3-1.8 

Ma) deposits of the Caspian Sea (Akchagyl Formation; 

Faridi 1964; Stocklin 1972) rest with visible angular unconformity 

over different horizons of Cretaceous rocks 

(Afshar-Harb 1979). The folding of the Pliocene conglomerate 

and the Upper Pliocene Akchagyl Formation 

suggests late Pliocene (1.8 Ma) orogenic phases. 

II.8~PLIO-QUATERNARY VOLCANISM IN CENTRAL IRAN 

AND ALBORZ 

Accompanying the continuous convergence of the 

Arabian-Eurasian plates and the thickening and shortening 

of the Iranian continental crust, volcanic activity 

has continued from early Tertiary time until the present 

in Central Iran and Alborz. Neogene volcanism reached 

a climax in the Pliocene-Quaternary Periods with the 

formation of large volcanic cones of alkaline and calcalkaline 

composition. The Quaternary volcanic cones of 

Iran were formed during active shortening, but after the 

major Plio-Pleistocene (Zagros) orogenic phase (Fig.


¯ ~. QUATERNARY VOLCANISM 

CASPIAN 

SEA 

ALKALINE 

CALC-ALKALINE 

100 200km / 

Fie. 18. Unfolded Quaternary volcanic rocks of Iran formed after the Plio-Pleistocene orogenic movements. By this time the 

Iranian plateau reached an average height of about 2-3 km, as a result of continental thickening and shortening following 

continental-plate convergence after closing of the High-Zagros Alpine Ocean in Late Cretaceous time. The Late Alpine fold axes 

(Berberian 1980) are shown by thin lines, and the elevations of the volcani cones are in metres. Data sources cited in the text. 

18). There is no volcanic activity in the Zagros and the 

Kopeh Dagh active fold belts of Iran. Some recent 

(Plio-Pleistocene) flood basalts cover the Diarbakir 

(Dikranagerd) region of Zagros in southern Turkey 

where the Zagros active fold belt is in the apex zone of 

the impinging Arabian plate and the region seems to be 

subject to some lithospheric fragmentation and sideways 

motion of the continental blocks. 

Dewey and Bird (1970), Crawford (1972), 

Dewey el al. (1973) related the young calc-alkaline 

volcanism of northwestern Iran to subduction of the 

Arabian plate. Jung et al. (1976) have postulated magma 

generation for the Damavand volcanic cone in the AIborz 

(Fig. 18) at a depth of about 250 km, and related 

to Pliocene-Quaternary subduction of the Arabian plate 

underneath the Iranian plate. Brousse et al. (1977) proposed 

the hypothesis of an oceanic lithosphere, broken 

down during the collision of the Arabian and Eurasian 

plates, responsible for the formation of the Damavand 

volcano. It would be surprising in our view if, after 65 

Ma, a single volcanic cone formed 400 km north of the 

Zagros line could be related to the Upper Cretaceous 

subduction zone. 

The recent Iranian volcanic rocks are divided here

into calc-alkaline and alkaline series (Fig. 18). These 

volcanics cannot be related to subduction except for the 

calc-alkaline rocks of the Baluchestan volcanic arc, 

southeastern Iran (Bazman and Taftan volcanics in Fig. 

18). The calc-alkaline activity in northwestern Iran 

(Sabalan and Ararat, Fig. 18) cannot be associated with 

a descending slab, since apparently the collision ended 

during Late Cretaceous movements (65 Ma). The continued 

existence of alkaline and calc-alkaline volcanism 

in the absence of trench tectonics supports our view that 

earlier (Middle Eocene to Pliocene) volcanism (Section 

II.6b) was also not subduction related, but does not help 

in understanding the origin of the magmas. 

Various mechanisms for the Plio-Quaternary volcanism 

can be suggested. It may have been due to modification 

of geothermal gradients owing to uplift and erosion, 

or to strike-slip shearing motion created by sideways 

movement of fault blocks in response to the continued 

convergence of Arabia and Eurasia, or to the existence 

of large strike-slip faults which could develop a region 

of relative tension at their ends. The suggestion that 

strike-slip sheafing processes can relate to volcanism 

has been used to account for the Owens Valley volcanics 

in California (Pakiser 1960). 

Brief descriptions of the major Plio-Quaternary volcanic 

rocks of Iran, shown in Fig. 18, follow here. 

H.8a~Calc-alkaline series 

Three groups are recognized in this series (see also 

Fig. 18): (al) "Sabalan" high K calc-alkaline explosive 

volcanism, mainly composed of andesite, dacite, and 

some rare rhyolite (Alberti and Stolfa 1973; Alberti et 

al. 1974, 1975, 1976; Didon and Gemain 1976; Dostal 

and Zerbi 1978); (a2) "Ararat and Suphan (Sipan)" 

canoes with some lava flows covering northwestern Iran 

(Lambert et al. 1974; Innocenti et al. 1976; Bocaletti et 

al. 1976-1977); (a3) "Baluchestan Volcanic Arc": 

Bazman, Taftan (southeastern Iran), and Soltan (southwestern 

Pakistan) volcanics of tholeiitic to rhyodacite 

basalts, with isotopic ages of 4 Ma to historic time (for 

Bazman). The rocks are similar to island arc calcalkaline 

series and are possibly related to the subduction 

of the Arabian plate underneath Makran in Oman region 

(Girod and Conrad 1976; Conrad etal. 1977; Dupuy and 

Dostal 1978; Jacob and Quittmeyer 1979). The Makran 

active volcanic arc with a trend of N68°E makes an angle 

of 24 ° with the Makran coastal line. This may indicate 

that the considerable change in the dip of the shallow 

descending oceanic crust does not occur parallel to the 

east-west trend of the trench. 

H.8b--Alkaline series 

Eight groups are recognized in this series (see also 

Fig. 18): (bl) "Sahand" volcano in northwestern Iran, 

presumably associated with Quaternary northwestsoutheast 

trending rifting that was possibly due to 


doming of the region (Berberian and Arshadi 1977); (b2) 

"Tendurak and Nemrut" basanite to alkaline basalts with 

some lava flows covering northwestern Iran (Innocenti 

etal. 1976; Vossughi-Abedini 1977); (b3) "Damavand" 

volcano in Alborz, an olivine trachybasalt to trachyandesite 

and trachyte of an early WiJrm (70 000-10000 a) 

to Late Holocene (Recent) age, forming a peak 5670 

above sea level (Allenbach 1966; Sussli 1976; Brousse 

et al. 1977; Vossughi-Abedini 1977); the volcano is 

located in a region of the Central Alborz mountains 

where the Alborz trends bend from northwest to northeast 

(Fig. 18); (b4) "Kamku" olivine plateau basalt 

sheets in eastern Iran, situated in a zone where the accretionary 

prisms of Eocene flysch of the Zabol-Baluch 

tectono-sedimentary unit bends from northwest-southeast 

to north-south; (b5) "Aj and Dehaj" dacito-andesite 

with "Masahim" pyroclastic hornblende andesite in 

south Central Iran (Dimitrijevic 1973), located in a region 

between two parallel faults (Shahr Babak in the 

southwest and Rafsanjan in the northeast); presumably 

the right-lateral motion along these faults could create 

some sheafing in the Aj-Masahim block; (b6) "Bijar" 

potassic alkali basalts and rhyolites with isotopic ages of 

1.3 to 0.5 Ma in west Central Iran (Boccaletti et al. 

1976-1977), and "Miandoab" basalts and trachytes, 

possibly associated with right-lateral sheafing along a 

northwest-southeast fault system due to north-northeast 

convergence of Arabia and a greater sideways motion of 

the blocks in northwestern Iran; (b7) "Nayband" alkali 

basalt (Conrad et al. 1977), formed along the northsouth 

Nayband fault in east Central Iran, in a zone 

between two en echelon segments of the fault; lateral 

stretching in the zone between two en echelon sets of the 

Nayband fault may have created a lower pressure region, 

which possibly led to this volcanic activity (Fig. 

18); and (b8) "Quchan" augite-diopside olivine basalts 

in northeastern Iran (Afshar-Harb 1979) along the junction 

zone of Kopeh Dagh and Central Iran; development 

of a region of relative tension in the southern ends of the 

Quchan and Baghan-Germab northwest-southeast 

faults, owing to their considerable right-lateral motion, 

seems a possible mechanism for the formation of the 

Quchan volcanics in this region (Fig. 18). 

II.9-~PREVIOUS 

RECONSTRUCTIONS 

Many workers have published reconstructions that to 

a greater or lesser extent concern the Iran region. Some 

of these (Dietz and Holden 1970; Smith et al. 1973; 

Smith and Briden 1977; Irving 1977, 1979 (for the 

absence of Central Iran during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic 

Eras); and several others) concentrated on the 

large-scale aspects and essentially ignored the details. 

Some reconstluctions are profoundly different from 

those we present here, presumably because of a lack of 

information upon which we based our constructions, or


because of a different interpretation of the same features. 

Other authors show an ocean in the Tertiary 

Period, but we find no evidence for it (see (7) below). 

We overcome problems of crustal area by allowing 

crustal thickening and shortening of Iran since Late 

Cretaceous time. Reconstructions differing from ours 

are classified here into seven groups, as follows: 

(1) Late Precambrian and Paleozoic suturing between 

Zagros and Central Iran (Irving 1977; and Morel and 

Irving 1978). 

(2) Deposition of the late Precambrian Hormoz Salt 

over an oceanic crust in the Zagros (Haynes and Mc- 

Quillan 1974). 

(3) Paleozoic and (or) Mesozoic suturing in the 

north of Central Iran (Smith 1973; Smith et al. 1973; 

Johnson 1973; Argyriadis and Lys 1977; Kanasewich et 

al. 1978; and Klootwijk 1979). 

(4) Triple division of Iran during the Paleozoic and 

(or) Mesozoic Era(s) (Dewey et al. 1973; King 1973; 

Krumsiek 1976; Gealey 1977; Kanasewich et al. 1978; 

and Ziegler et al. 1979). 

(5) Large Mesozoic ocean in the north, and placing 

Central Iran in the south (Dewey et al. 1973; Hallam 

1973; Robinson 1973; Smith 1973; Smith et al. 1973; 

Owen 1976; Thierstein 1976; Irving 1977; Smith and 

Briden 1977; Bein and Gvirtzman 1977; Rona and Richardson 

1978; Klootwijk 1979; and Seng6r 1979). 

(6) Southward subduction underneath the Alborz 

mountains during Jurassic and Cretaceous times (Dewey 

et al. 1973; and Powell 1979); there is no evidence of 

subduction and related arc-magmatism along the Alborz 

mountains. 

(7) Later closure of the southern ocean (Dewey et al. 

1973; Smith 1973; Smith et al. 1973; Forster 1974; 

Haynes and McQuillan 1974; Krumsiek 1976; Smith 

and Briden 1977; Kanasewich et al. 1978; Klootwijk 

1979; Seng/Sr 1979; and Powell 1979). 

Finally some authors have published reconstructions 

that in many respects and for some periods are substantially 

similar to ours. These are: Jell (1974), Zonenshayn 

and Gorodnitskiy (1977), and Klootwijk (1979) for 

Paleozoic Era; Takin (1972), Vander Voo and French 

(1974), Stoneley (1975), Argyriadis and Lys (1977), 

and Kanasewich et al. (1978) for the Mesozoic Era; and 

Irving (1979) for the Tertiary Period. 

IIl---Concluding remarks 

This paper attempts to present the results of the many 

publications on the geology of Iran such that their significance 

is understandable to a reader without specialist 

interest in Iran, but an interest in Alpine-Himalayan reconstructions. 

A problem in producing reconstructions 

arises from the great variations in the reliability of geological 

data. For example, some stratigraphic correlations 

are obvious, but some are obscure and rely heavily 

on the ability of the field geologist. One of us (M. B.) has 

worked extensively in the field in Iran, and this paper 

necessarily rests to a great extent on his judgement of the 

field work of others. 

However, despite limitations, geological data provide 

a rich source of information on which to base reconstructions. 

We can think of a new method of presenting ’error 

bars’ on the reconstruction maps, but feel that the reader 

must appreciate the great variation of reliability. Instead, 

we present conventional paleogeographic maps 

and sets of stratigraphic columns which represent the 

partly assimilated data, and a text that provides complete 

references. This is a poor second-best, but does allow an 

energetic reader to check our work. 

Acknowledgments 

This work was supported by the Department of Earth 

Sciences, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, 

and the Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran. We 

would like to thank M. P. Coward, D. P. McKenzie, P. 

Molnar, R. H. Sibson, A. G. Smith, and N. H. Woodcock, 

for critically reading the manuscript and for valuable 

discussions. We also wish to thank two anonymous 

reviewers for helpful comments and suggestions. Berberian 

acknowledges all the help and facilities received 

during the last 8 years of field work and research in 

Iran from the Geological and Mineral Survey of Iran. 

Gratitude is also expressed by Berberian to the Department 

of the Armenian Affairs of the Galuste Gulbenkian 

Foundation (Lisbon), the British Petroleum, and the 

British I.B.M. for donating separate small grants during 

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