edition-dw-akademie-in-the-service-of-the-public-functions-and-transformation-of-media-in-developing-countries-pdf

PrefacePrefaceA mouthpiece of government turned into a broadcasterworking in the interest of the public – this vision has alwayshad a strong appeal to DW Akademie. DW Akademie is Germany’sleading organization for international media developmentand Deutsche Welle’s center of excellence for education,knowledge transfer, and media training.We firmly believe that independent media and responsiblejournalism are essential to societies. In Germany, thepublic service broadcasting system is widely accepted as oneof the pillars of a system of such quality media. Being part ofDeutsche Welle, our country’s international broadcaster with apublic service remit, the concept of media in the service of thepublic is very close to DW Akademie.This is why DW Akademie has actively supported severaltransformation processes of former state broadcasters in developingcountries and emerging economies over the years.Assisting reform, however, has often proved to be very challenging.Progress has felt too slow in some cases, in others,resistance to reform turned out to me more obstinate thanexpected. Sometimes we asked ourselves if this really is theright path to take, and if there are any alternative approacheslike the support of community or private media who in manycases also deliver good services on behalf of the public.This study constitutes the attempt to draw some initialconclusions from the work conducted by DW Akademie andother media development organizations in the past. It aims ata better understanding of which public service functions formerstate broadcasters can provide at all and which approachesof media development actors have proved to be successful.Reforming of state mouthpieces into public service mediacan indeed be achieved. This is one of the most importantfindings of this study. DW Akademie researchers here presentexamples of media outlets that fulfill their public service remitof creating a public sphere and supporting integration to asubstantial degree. Even among the success stories, not all themedia outlets studied here have adopted a public service ethosto its full extent. Their work, however, improved considerably.In assisting reform, media development actors were thus ableto enhance the public’s freedom of expression as well as its accessto information – two basic human rights we see as importantprerequisites for peace and democracy.On the other hand, this study shows how difficult and complextransformation is. State media are often highly politicized.Successful transformation, therefore, requires supportof a lot of different actors: the political elite, civil society, themanagement of the broadcaster, its staff, and last but certainlynot least, the public as a whole. It is vital that media developmentactors identify windows of opportunity and profit fromthem in order to propel change forward.At the same time, this study demonstrates that media developmentorganizations have to think beyond their traditionalfields of expertise: capacity development and newsroom consultancy.A much broader approach is needed if substantialand sustainable development is to be achieved.DW Akademie is currently implementing a new, more complexstrategy for successful media development cooperationthat takes this into account. Political and legal frameworkshave become a strategic area of activity. Other equally importantareas comprise qualifications, professionalism, andeconomic sustainability of the media sector, participation insociety, and digital change.With regard to public broadcasting, political and legalframeworks are especially important in order to ensure editorialindependence of former state broadcasters. Furthermore,media development actors have to engage more in organizationaldevelopment. Therefore, at the end of this study, wededicate a whole chapter to this question.This study of selected media outlets from twelve countriesdoes not attempt to provide a final answer to the question ofsuccessful public service transformation. It aims at giving anoverview of what has been achieved in practical work in thisfield in the course of the past years. More research is neededto understand which steps of reform are needed for a genuinetransformation that is sustainable in the long term.The media are undergoing crucial developments. Digitalchange, convergence, and social media have increased pluralismof opinion substantially in many parts of the world. At thesame time, the media face new challenges with respect to theireconomic sustainability. The notion of public service mediathat offer a model for providing journalistic quality withoutfinancial dependence deserves further thought.Christian GramschDirector DW AkademieEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 5

Executive SummaryExecutive SummaryThis study analyses the transformation process of state media towards public service media (PSM). It looks at individual cases offormer government mouthpieces being turned into media that operate on behalf of the people in their country. Alternatives arealso taken into consideration: private and community media that operate in the service of the public. Overall case studies fromtwelve developing countries and emerging economies are presented. An assessment is made of the role media developmentactors have played and in which methodological setting they have placed their interventions. Finally, recommendations for thepractice of media development are made. The most important findings are put in a nutshell here, followed by a brief overviewof the individual case studies.Theoretical ApproachInstead of defining public service media (PSM) at theoutset, this study takes a broad and explorative approach.It analyses which societal functions are fulfilledby (transformed) state broadcasters – or by other mediathat operate on behalf of the public. Two overarchinggeneral functions of the media are differentiated: First,“creating a public sphere” which includes political functionssuch as comprehensive balanced news, politicalexpression, social orientation, criticism, moderation ofdebate, agenda setting, local generation of content. Andsecond, “supporting integration” which includes socialfunctions such as cultural expression, empowerment,entertainment, education, and innovation.The concept of a “public service ethos” is introducedaccording to which public service media are not theonly obliged form. Private and community media, too,can be part of a public service media system if they arecommitted to delivering important services to the public.Further, a model for the study of public service mediasystems is used in order to analyze organizationalstructure, management and governance of the differentmedia, as well as the changes they undergo.According to the findings of this study, the former statebroadcasters of Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Moldova and Serbiacan be called public service media (PSM) today. These mediaoutlets have undergone successful transformation processesin recent years. Although in different stages at present, theyfulfill a number of important functions in the service of thepublic. This notwithstanding, many reforms are still ongoingand achievements will need to be defended in the future. Thisresult must necessarily be seen in context, namely, that manyother efforts to establish a free media that operates in the serviceof the public have failed in the past two decades.As a result of the overall assessment of this study, four differenttypes of media can be differentiated with regard to thepublic service ethos:1. Media outlets that remain state media. These outlets generallyfail to deliver basic journalistic services such as objectiveand balanced news or criticism of those in power. But in manycases they do support the integration of society by strengtheningcultural cohesion and expression. In addition, they offereducational and entertaining content. In many countries thesemedia are the only ones with a network able to reach the wholepopulation. They are often accepted by the population becausethey stand for national unity, integration and the respect forminorities. (See the case studies of Afghanistan and Namibia.)2. PSM in initial transformation. These media offer basic informationalservices and forums for public debate. They letthe opposition speak, and they offer some societal criticismand orientation. And they support the integration of societythrough programming for cultural cohesion and expression,education and entertainment. They integrate citizens in theirprogramming and win the trust and the engagement of theiraudiences. They have a legal basis including a public service remitand an independent, plural governing body which includescivil society. (See the case studies of Kyrgyzstan and Mongolia.)3. PSM in advanced transformation. In addition to the above,some media that have undergone a process of transformationalso offer their audiences objective and independent newsjournalism, forums for public debate, social orientation, andcriticism. However criticism of the government is still rare, asis agenda setting and in-depth journalism. (See the case studiesof Moldova and Serbia.)4. Alternative Public Service Media (APSM). Besides the formerstate media, this study also presents cases of exceptionalprivate commercial media and community media. These mediadiffer in origin and purpose, organizational structure andcontent from PSM. Some of them have developed and expandedtheir services to fulfill broader public service functions. As itturns out, these cases are comparable in their fulfillment of keyfunctions to “PSM in advanced transformation.” On the otherhand most of the APSM offer their services only to a selectedsegment of the country or community. They do not as a rulehave a governing board which represents different parts of society.Nonetheless, they have a clear and institutional commitmentto professional journalism standards and to servicing abroader public. They may take over roles as neutral and independentactors in society (while still pursuing specific communityradio agendas or commercial interests in other parts).Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 7

Part I: Developing Public Service Media – Functions andChange Processes01Introduction: A Major Challenge forMedia DevelopmentJan Lublinski, Merjam Wakili, Petra Berner10

Before we introduce our approach further, we sidestep briefly togive a short general introduction to the challenges of public servicebroadcasting: We first look at where PSB comes from historicallyand how the idea of transformation of state broadcasterswas put into practice in Eastern Europe in the 1990s. Secondlywe discuss some of the current challenges of the Internet andmobile communication and, in this context, we reconsider theactors that should be at the heart of all public service activities:the citizens.Public Service Broadcasting – West European Roots,International AmbitionsPSB is deeply rooted in the history and political discourse inWestern Europe, an ambitious and universal concept which integratesgreat visions such as media freedom, equality amongcitizens, a public sphere, and innovative force. On a more practicallevel, PSB also evolved from the need to finance the comparativelyexpensive radio and television technology and thelimited number of broadcasting licenses to be distributed.The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is often citedas a model or even “prototype” of a public service broadcaster(PSB). 8 And indeed it is respected worldwide for its editorial independence,its public obligations, its numerous innovationsin technology and content and its license fee funding model.But the BBC model was not installed once for all time. Fromthe outset political actors have attempted to control or influencethe broadcaster. The idea and realization of independentbroadcasting in the public service needed to be developed anddefended over time. 9The first case of successful post-conflict transformation toPSB can be found in German history. After World War II andthe Nazi’s landscape of propaganda media, a free media sectorwas to be created, at least in western Germany. The BBC servedas a model for a broadcasting system that was adapted to theneeds of the new federal system. Special legal obligations forthe new regional broadcasters’ independence and pluralismwere established. In particular they were obliged to delivertruthful and balanced reporting. And in their regulative bodiesdifferent social groups were represented: churches, sportsassociations, trade unions, employers’ associations, culturalorganisations, and political parties.The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer made several attemptsto gain more influence over the new broadcasters, butdid not succeed. After several years of parliamentary debate thehigh court in Karlsruhe strengthened in 1961 the PSB system. 10In the 1950s all the regional broadcast stations had cometogether to form a nationwide network, the ARD. 11 In 1962ZDF, 12 a second PSB for television, was established. So a wholegeneration of citizens was brought up only knowing and expectingpublic service content. The first commercial broadcastersin Germany were not introduced until the 1980s. 13To this day, PSM are a disputed issue in Germany. Politicalactors have always attempted to gain more influence over thebroadcasting organisations, whilst proponents of commercialmedia have criticized PSM as privileged media enterprises. 14But over the decades public service media in Germany havebeen able to defend their status and independence. 15 And generallythe debate over funding and programs has helped to createa certain awareness among citizens that these are in facttheir very own media.Another historic case of transformation from a state broadcasterto a public broadcaster is East Germany. In 1989, beforeand after the fall of the Berlin Wall, many journalists workingin the state-controlled broadcasters pursued political changein general but also sought a shift in the media landscape. Theybegan to introduce self-generated reforms and envisioned anew broadcasting era that would help them articulate the visionsand ideas of the citizens in the German Democratic Republic(GDR). But after the peaceful revolution and the reunificationof Germany, Western politicians and media managersdominated the transformation process and set a fast pace. In1991, after German reunification, the East German broadcastingauthority was dissolved. New and more effective regionalpublic service broadcasters were established and integratedinto the Western system of the ARD. The East Germans hadwon freedom of expression and a system of PSB, but due topolitical and economic pressures they had to comply with abroadcasting culture that was introduced from the West. 16From PSB to PSMIn the digital age of media convergence the term publicservice broadcasting (PSB) is broadened to public servicemedia (PSM). It stands for the attempt to includeboth the broadcasting media as well as interactive Internetmedia. In this study we mostly use the term PSM.We do this partly to avoid interpreting PSB in the narrowsense of the traditional terminology, i.e., as being onlya technical term for one of a number of distributionmethods and technologies used by media companies. 17Nevertheless the term PSB is still used in this study. Insome cases when a particular organization is addressedwhich still broadcasts TV and radio programs only, wespeak of the broadcaster and PSB. Also when referringto older literature we use the old term.12

Part I IntroductionSo the evolution of PSM was never as natural as it may be perceivedin Western Europe today. It was not established in anideal democratic process, it had to survive major conflicts,and it needed to grow over time as an ongoing process, and berooted in society on the way.If this process is on the whole successful, citizens can greatlybenefit from PSM because they have more to offer than privatestations. In an international study, Curran et al. comparedthe content of the reporting and the knowledge of the audiencein different media systems. 18 The study showed that incountries with PSM, such as Sweden or Finland, television devotesmore attention to public affairs and international newsand fosters greater knowledge in these areas than in a medialandscape with a dominant market model as in the US. “Publicservice television also gives greater prominence to news, encourageshigher levels of news consumption and contributesto a smaller withinnation knowledge gap between the advantagedand disadvantaged.” 19Difficulties in Defining and Understanding PSMThe range of public service media (PSM) worldwide isvaried and complex. There is no standard definition.Nevertheless numerous attempts have been made inthe academic world as well as the media policy debate todefine the core of PSM or PSB and to describe their characteristics.20 Generally the different PSB models weredeveloped as an alternative to the models of state-controlledand profit-oriented commercial media. 21 But theterms PSB and PSM are perceived differently in differentlanguages and cultures: ‘Public’ may be perceived as‘national’, ‘state’ or even ‘governmental’ in many partsof the world. So often this linguistic difficulty is a firstobstacle to an understanding of the concept. 22 And authoritarianregimes tend to only label their state mediaas public service media.To define or describe PSM it would be insufficient tosimply generate a catalogue of requirements for sucha broadcaster and the societies it operates in. Insteadone has to allow for a certain variance and openness inapproach. In Chapter 2 a theoretical approach towardsPSM functions is developed.So PSM have become a decisive cultural and democratic factorin some European societies, and stand for some universalideas that should apply worldwide. But are these really of relevanceto countries in other regions of the world?In the global efforts to foster public service media worldwide,UNESCO has taken the lead. It has supported numerousactivities including the “Public Broadcasting for All Campaign”by the International Federation of Journalists launched in2001 and meetings in different world regions where declarationsand recommendations in favor of PSB were made. 23The UN agency 24 also introduced public service broadcastingamong its Media Development Indicators. 25 And it has alsohelped to publish several guides on broadcasting regulations,editorial guidelines and other best practices. 26 The publicationsall convey a lot of enthusiasm for PSM, and they buildconceptual and legal grounds for the realization of this specialmedia form. But they have less to say about the failures intransformation of state broadcasters and the lessons that maybe learned from them.8Woldt 2005, 293.9The first case occurred even beforethe corporation received its firstroyal charter for its operation asa “public corporation acting asTrustees for the national interest”(BBC 1927). In 1926, during ageneral strike, the first instancewas recorded of major pressure onthe BBC from political actors. Fornine days British industry was at astandstill. Many of the newspapershad stopped printing. The onlychannel to reach the public atlarge was radio. Consequently theConservative Chancellor WinstonChurchill, the Labour OppositionLeader Ramsay MacDonald aswell as the Unions’ representativestried to get airtime for theirmessages to the public. But theyoung founder of the BBC JohnReith withstood and convincedthe prime minister of the time,Stanley Baldwin, in a series ofexchanges to support the BBCin its independence. Anotherimportant milestone was the SuezCrisis in 1956 when the governmentand the opposition weredivided on the question ofmilitary intervention. Here theBBC insisted on reporting on thisdivide, and broadcast it via itsWorld Service to the Middle Eastregion. The government seriouslyconsidered “disciplinarysanctions” for the broadcaster.See BBC 2014.10Diller 1999, 148-159.11ARD: ArbeitsgemeinschaftDeutscher Rundfunkanstalten.12ZDF: Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen.13Wilke 2009; Hoffmann-Riem1997; Bausch 1980.14See for example ACT 2004.15For example: In 2009 theformer editor-in-chief of ZDF,Nikolaus Brender, lost his jobalthough the director of thebroadcaster wanted to prolonghis contract. Conservativepoliticians had formed informalmajorities in the governingbodies and voted against Brender.In 2014 the highest court inGermany disapproved of this andlimited the influence of politicalactors on the governing bodies.Only one third of the membersof the governing bodies are nownominated by political parties.See Hanfeld, 6 April, 2014.16Hoffmann-Riem 1997; Kilborn1993.17Nissen 2006, 6.18Curran et al. 2009.19Curran et al. 2009, 5.20See Taussig 2006, 62.21UNESCO 2005, 13.22See Rumphorst 1998.23UNESCO 2005.24UNESCO 2008, 54-57.25Public service broadcasting is alsoan important element in theAfrican Media Barometerdeveloped by the GermanFriedrich Ebert Stiftung (FES) in2004, and was later added to theAsian Media Barometer as well(www.fesmedia.org).26For an overview see Smith 2012,58-59.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 13

Lessons Learned? – Transformations Since the 1990sIn the 1990s a large number of transformation initiativeswere started in the former socialist countries in Europe.Hrvatin studies the case of Slovenia and compares it to othercountries. 27 She describes how formerly state-owned mediain Central and Eastern Europe were transformed to PSB onlyformally and “practically overnight.” Her general conclusion isthat public broadcasters in former socialist countries are in astate of crisis. The elements of this crisis “range from haphazardmedia legislation, political pressures, financial and organizationaldifficulties, and management crisis to identity crisisand loss of public support.” 28 But at the same time she pleadsfor individual treatment: Each transformed broadcaster hasits own history, its own problems and will need its own solution.Jakubowicz analyzes the very first transformation processeswhich took place in Central and Eastern European countriesduring the 1990s. 29 His results shed light on what went wrongin these countries and why. From his long catalogue of reasons,which seems to be valid for other unsuccessful transformationprocesses, too, there is one major reason that standsout: The PSB models were implemented in completely differentcultural and social environments from the organizationsthey originated with, and were implemented without strongsupport from the country itself. The problems that Jakubowiczdescribes can be categorized into two types: 30Problems caused by internal reasons:Traditional and badly designed organizational andmanagement structures, involving many collectivebodies divided along party lines, incapable of fast decision-makingand mainly concentrating on blockingeach other’s actions;Heavy political control, resulting from the politicizationof the process of appointing governing authorities,turning former state radio and television into ‘parliamentary’rather than public broadcasters, or indeedamounting to its ‘re-nationalization’;Frequent management and leadership crises andchanges of top management, resulting from politicalinterference.Problems caused by external reasons:Lack of funds and programming know-how requiredto compete with commercial broadcasters, sometimescoupled with exaggerated insistence on non-commercialismwhich additionally weakens those stations;Self-censorship of journalists and program-makerswho can expect little protection from their superiorswhen they run afoul of politicians or some influentialorganization;Lack of social embedment of the idea of public servicebroadcasting;Lack of a social constituency willing and able to supportpublic service broadcasters and buttress their autonomyand independence.Jakubowicz speaks of a process of ‘transformation by imitation’not only on the political level but also on the social leveland – most importantly for our context – in the media sector. 31He stresses that it would be wrong to see these enormous difficultiesas mere teething problems. The state-owned broadcasterswould have needed long-term help from internationalmedia aid for the transformation into public broadcasters; infact, Jakubowicz questions whether such an extraordinary engagementwas ever provided by the international actors.Equally sobering are the evaluation results, undertakenby the United Nations Development Programme, 32 of theefforts to support PSB in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Besidesnotable achievements (improved legislative framework, independentregulatory system and co-existence of commercialand public service broadcasting), the organization alsoidentifies numerous challenges involving the external mediadevelopment agents:Lack of coordination among the key players.Lack of the right expertise in media development.“Several local media actors have said that the situationwas made worse by the fact that the international consultantswere not experts: They had media credentials butlacked the experience involving the transition from a statebroadcaster to a public service broadcasting system.” 33Limited focus on management capacity development.Too much emphasis was placed on training journalists,with insufficient guidance for managers on how to runtheir media outlets on a sustainable basis.Donor dependency and (un)sustainability. “Such dependencyseems to have been created by a limitedappreciation of the need to focus on strengthening financialself-sustainability at the outset of media/broadcastingprojects.” 34Limited consultation with local stakeholders leadingto lack of ownership. “Several of the programs supportedby the international community have been criticizedfor not being sufficiently informed by local expertise14

Part I Introductionand that this has contributed to a lack of local ownership.However others believe that (...) the reason for thelack of ownership was that public service broadcastingis an entirely alien concept.” 35Stiles and Weeks draw conclusions along much the samelines in their evaluation of UNESCO’s support in Afghanistan,Cambodia, India, Kyrgyzstan, Malawi, Panama, and Sri Lankabetween 2002 and 2005: They find that the projects that werefunded were too small, too short-term, too isolated, and toomany. Opportunities to cooperate with national NGOs weremissed. The monitoring and evaluation approaches usedwere generally very weak, hard data was lacking. 36 In the caseof Afghanistan, Wakili stresses that the international communityfailed to demonstrate staying power in its support ofthe country’s state broadcaster. She points out that a broadcasterthat is not successfully transformed to PSB may still beenabled to offer, to some extent, acceptable programming onbehalf of the audience. 37The international attempts to transform African statebroadcasters in recent years were generally unsuccessful. Althoughpublic service broadcasting has become a popularideal, and although there is a broad consensus that transformationof state broadcasters is needed, not much has beenachieved. Many national broadcasters on this continent nowcall themselves “public” broadcasters but they remain de factostate-controlled. The governments generally try to retain theircontrol over the broadcasters while at the same time reducingthe funding. “Broadcasting reform efforts are generally sluggishdue to a lack of political will and the lethargy of civil society”,summarizes Hendrik Bussiek in the overview report 38 ofthe AfriMAP project funded by the Open Society Foundationwhich assessed the reform status in eleven sub-Saharan Africancountries up to 2013. 39Overall the problems with transformation efforts can belocated in three areas: inside the media organisation itself, inthe environment of its media landscape, and also in the supportsystem provided by media development actors. In sum,these problems can lead to major dysfunctions. Thus new approachesand concepts are needed.Reconsidering Audiences – Media in the Information SocietyWith the advent of the Internet and mobile communicationtechnologies, media landscapes are undergoing fundamentalchanges. Information is potentially available everywherearound the globe. The national markets are opened up, andmore and more media organizations come into existence, offeringtheir services and trying to win their share of the audience’sattention. 40At first sight this is the universal idea of PSB taken one stepfurther. Media users now have even more sources of informationto choose from. Content can even be offered tailor-madeto their needs. And they can participate through new formsof interactivity. On the one hand, the Internet brings the opportunityto stay in touch with national and global news agendas,and on the other hand, the Internet offers room for smallgroups or communities to exchange on special needs or topics.But there are also major problems that arise in the newera: Firstly, the “digital divide” will not be bridged easily; accessto the Internet is not available to all global citizens. Nordo they all have the media literacy to make full use of the newtechnologies. Secondly, the internationalization of the mediamarket brings a concentration of ownership, a few players willcommand the main media markets, and entertainment andcommerce may dominate in the future. 41 Thirdly, political regulationon national levels will lose its importance in this area.And fourthly, independent, critical journalism will be difficultto sustain. Investigative journalism in particular is expensiveand it takes an independent publisher to withstand the threatsof political and economic actors. “While the new Internet sitesand blogs provide enormous breadth and width of information(...), they cannot replace one fundamental function ofprofessional journalism that is vital to democracy: scrutiny ofthose in power.” 42Jakubowicz sees the chance here for former public broadcastersto become truly public service media by offering twokinds of services: a basic supply on general channels for alarge part of the population, and at the same time a wholerange of new communication products tailored to specificaudiences – alerts and other extra services on mobile devices,moderated forums on websites, archive material for documentationor educational purposes, new forms of interactivity,etc. 43 The concept of participation can come to its fullrealization here. Citizens move from being mere viewers orlisteners to active users: They can comment on, modify, andproduce their own content.27Hratvin 2002.28Ibid., 83-84.29Jakubowicz 2005 and 2007.30Jakubowicz 2005, 9.31Jakubowicz 2007.32UNDP 2004.33UNDP 2004, 21.34Ibid., 22.35Ibid.36Stiles & Weeks 2006.37Wakili 2013, 257.38Bussiek 2013, 2.39Benin, Cameroon, Kenya, Mali,Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria,South Africa, Uganda, Zambia,Zimbabwe. South Africa is anexceptional case here. The SouthAfrican Broadcasting Corporation(SABC) has undergone seriousprocesses of transformation sincemedia freedom was established inthe country in the 1990s.The Commonwealth Associationhad supported the process throughconsultancy at the time (Smith2011). Today SABC is, as far as thelaw is concerned, more accountableto the public than to thegovernment. And there is a strongcivil society watching over thechanges within the SABC. Never -theless the broadcaster’sindependence from the rulingparty will still need to be foughtfor in the future. See Lloyd etal. 2010; Duncan 2009.40Berger 2009; Deane 2005.41Nissen 2006, 9-11, 16.42Peters 2010, 270.43Jakubowicz 2007.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 15

But will it be only public service media that will be able to offerthese services?The traditional answer is that PSM is the only democratic formthat puts citizens at the center of its activities and seeks tocommunicate for the common good. “It is becoming increasinglyevident that in the blind pursuit of profit, commercialbroadcasting has often diverted the media from its public interestfocus towards pure entertainment. Yet, nowhere havethey made public service broadcasting obsolete, and the dualsystems often provide the best media ecology.” 44However this differentiation between democratic publicservice on the one side and profit-oriented private media onthe other seems to somewhat oversimplify today’s situation.The media landscapes worldwide are of a complex and diversecharacter. It has become much less clear who acts on behalfof the public and who does not. Some broadcasters may officiallybe called PSM and in reality just be large, self-sufficientbureaucracies that show little interest in their audience. Andthere are media entrepreneurs that have objectives and professionalethics that include serving the public.At the same time the original problem which led to the developmentof PSB still remains, namely, that broad radio andtelevision coverage for a whole country is still difficult to finance.These old channels of mass communication remain ofgreat importance to a large part of the world’s population eventhough the Internet progresses. At the same time, newspapersand magazines are struggling. In the past they were able toprovide good quality, broad distribution services because theywere comparatively cheap in production and distribution. Nowthey are increasingly losing their business model. To what extentonline services will be able to take over is not clear.So there still is an urgent need for the development ofPSM. But they may take on entirely new forms in the futureand their content may be provided by numerous actors.Along these lines, the “de-institutionalizing of PSB” is beingdiscussed in various forms. Broadcasters could be forced, forexample, to finance themselves initially by advertising andthen, in addition, they could apply for grants to publish publicservice content. 45In Scandinavia, Sondergaard observes “the emergence ofnew hybrid channels.” 46 These combine public service requirementsand commercial operations. But these outlets may, hefears, “gradually metamorphose into strictly commercial enterprises.”This could be all the more likely because featuresthat were previously perceived to be exclusive parts of the PSMconcept – such as public ownership and licence fee financing –no longer apply.In a book chapter entitled “Smells, sounds, walks like publicservice content; but then why is it not?” 47 , Ferenc Hammerstudies three cases of new web-based community media inHungary and comes to the conclusion that their high qualitycontent could easily meet the programming standardsof a PSM outlet. 48 Moreover, he argues, internet and digitalstreaming technology allows these media outlets to addressaudiences that are no longer restricted to certain geographicalareas, as used to be the case for classic community media. Thespecific communities interested in the content produced bythese outlets can access them anywhere.Community Media, PSM, and Social MediaCommunity media is any form of independent, nonprofitmedia that is created and controlled by a community,either a geographic community or a communityof identity or interests. Community media stand for theempowerment of civil society and offer alternative contentby helping to express concerns, cultures and languages.Their legal status varies: they may be communityowned, privately owned or illegal without a license.What matters more is their social function.“They provide communities with access to informationand voice, facilitating community-level debate, informationand knowledge sharing and input into public decisionmaking.” 49They have their origins in Latin American communityradio.“They are characterized by their political objectives ofsocial change, their search for a fair system that takes intoaccount human rights, and makes power accessible to themasses and open to their participation.” 50The characteristics mentioned above describe whatcommunity media should be. The reality in many casesis different. Community media struggle with adverselegal frameworks, non-transparent and corrupt licensingprocesses, financial problems, and lack of human resources.In some cases, they also pursue mainly privateinterests or indirectly support political groups. Neverthelesscommunity media are present in all regionsof the world. They form an independent media sector,separate from and an alternative to commercial media,state run media or public service media (PSM).PSM are different from this in many respects. They areexpected to follow certain general principles or functionsin a society as a whole. In practice they are establishedas public institutions based on a broadcastinglaw and governed by a body representing different actorsin society. Their production of journalistic contentis guided by professional standards and the differentneeds of broad audiences.The internet offers new opportunities for distributionof content and participation. In particular socialmedia, the interaction of people creating and sharinginformation on virtual platforms and networks, play aspecial role here. Numerous communities but also mediaoutlets use social media, along with other digitalforms of communication.16

Part I IntroductionConsequently Hammer foresees a convergence between PSMand community media as part of a de-institutionalizing ofpublic service provision. In a new form of PSM ecology he canimagine many providers of public service content. “Why canPSM not utilize a careful tagging enterprise with a well-editedchannel of multiplatform access on YouTube using audience/user folksonomies, collaborative tagging, crowdsourcing inidentifying PSM content regardless of its origin?” 51Notwithstanding these possibilities there is the need, notonly to strengthen the communication within limited communities,but to include society as a whole. In many countriesthere is still a healthy political will to sustain strong nationalpublic service institutions. The cases where traditional publicservice broadcasters were, for economic reasons, dividedinto different enterprises have shown that the newly created“privately owned public service broadcasters” 52 are much lessobliged to deliver a broad service to the public (and less interestedin doing so) than the classic PSB. “Splitting up the publiccorporation and distributing the public service obligation to arow of smaller and more vulnerable entities involves a dangerof opening up a gate for illegitimate influence and pressure.” 53So there are still good reasons for strong PSM that can inthe long run defend the independence of their work on behalfof the public as a whole.As far as media landscapes in developing countries are concerned,there is a particular need for larger national institutionsthat ensure public access to information and advancesocial cohesion. James Deane of BBC Media Action analyzesthe situation in fragile states and concludes that, here in particular,public service broadcasting can involve citizens fromall regions and cultures in national public conversations andthus help to build shared identities. 54Another major challenge for developing countries is posedby the new digital technologies. On the one hand, many societiesprogress at a great pace with respect to mobile communicationand the internet where new media outlets emerge.On the other hand, the new technologies are the tools of theelites only. 55 And many broadcasters are not prepared for theupcoming “digital switchovers” in their television services.For the specific media development context of this study,we need to carefully analyze the status of the (former) statebroadcasters and their potential for change – even if theyseem completely outdated and dysfunctional at first sight. Atthe same time we need to look for new avenues to take in thelarger media landscapes but also in the strategies and managementof the media development interventions.The question needs to be asked again, what exactly PSMas a concept means today and how this concept can be developedin different cultures, particularly in developing countrieswhich are undergoing processes of transformation.All this has to be achieved with a broadened perspectiveon the audience. The media’s role here is to help people accessinformation and voice their opinions, and to allow for theirparticipation in public discussions. As new forms of participationbecome possible through the medium of the internetand mobile communication, citizens should be encouraged totransform from passive recipients to active users and providersof specific content. Yet at the same time the old ideals suchas universality of access and the independence of journalismare still relevant and need to be ensured.So the idea of this study is not to defend old territory, butrather to see which new buildings can be constructed on it andhow. And, in doing so, one has to keep in mind that the basicidea behind all this is to deliver a good, fair, and equal mediaservice to the public.Approach and Aim of the StudyThis study’s primary aim is to take stock of approaches, experiencesand results in media development. After more than twodecades of interventions in the transformation of state broadcastersit is still not clear what has been achieved and underwhich circumstances. It also remains somewhat uncertainwhich methods worked and why.Among media development experts there is an ongoingdebate as to whether the transformation of state broadcastersshould generally be pursued and, if so, whether it is a goodidea at all to export the Western model of PSM to other regionsand cultures of the world. It is further being discussed whetherthis transformation approach should be complemented or replacedby alternative strategies. For example, the work withthe state broadcasters could be limited to a few assistance projectsonly. Or a media development organization may chooseto work with other partners altogether, such as the communitymedia sector or civil society, and thus support media workon behalf of citizens in a different way.To prepare the study we conducted a preliminary literaturereview and initial interviews with development and media experts.Initially we were unable to identify many cases of successfultransformation achieved through media development. 56 Butwe saw that in numerous instances we could identify specificaspects that were of interest to us, such as new legislation initiatives,active civil societies, new programming formats, organizationalreform or new approaches in media development.44UNESCO 2005, 12.45See Bardoel & d’Haenens 2008,345-348.46Sondergaard 1999, 25.47Hammer 2013.48For example, they produce videoson environmental protection andsocial injustice; they offer animportant programming space foraudience participation andinvolvement on the radio; theyexperiment with new formats,such as a soundmap of Budapeston the internet.49Buckley 2011, 7.50Villamayor & Lamas 1998.51Hammer 2013, 126.52E.g. French TV ChannelTV1. See Nissen 2006, 32.53Nissen 2006, 32.54Deane 2013, 21.55Bussiek 2013, 36.56See Smith 2011; Muppdi & Manvi2012; AfriMAP.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 17

Part I IntroductionIn order to generate some level of standardization and comparabilitybetween the chapters, we developed a set of subchaptersthat the authors were asked to write. This structureis based on the theoretical considerations we propose in thefollowing chapter. In the chapters on private and communityradio, this structure is only slightly modified.At the end of each chapter we summarize the informationgiven in a set of tables which also represent our theory on thedifferent public service functions. In the text as well as in thetables, we ask the authors of the chapters to deliver an appraisalof the different public service functions the media outlet inquestion may fulfill. So instead of actually measuring thesefunctions – which would be a major research effort even foronly one broadcaster – we ask our authors to tell us what theyknow, based on their interviews, their document analysis, andobservations. It goes without saying that all these judgmentsare preliminary and that the issues in question are subject tochange. But they do give us valuable and complementary informationon the media in question and the change processes.During the research phase of this project we quickly realizedthat in many interventions there is still room for improvementwith regards to the methodological approach in thedesign of the transformation process. We therefore asked anexpert and consultant in organizational development to adda chapter on organizational transformation processes. Thischapter is deliberately placed at the end of the book, as a constructivecontribution to the discussion on the way forward.Acknowledgements:We would like to thank Dr. Gabriele Geier of the German Ministryfor Development (BMZ) for inspiring this study. It is hercritical questioning that led us to reassess this branch of mediadevelopment. This project was funded by BMZ.This book could not have been realized without the enthusiasticsupport and advice from the following media developmentexperts: Susan Abbott, Tanja Suttor-Ba, JamesDeane, Simon Derry, Corina Cepoi, Dr. Toby Mendel, Dr. MaryMyers, Thomas Mösch, Julia Glyn-Pickett, Bettina Ruigies,Biljana Tatomir, Michael Tecklenburg, Mathis Winkler andMark Walsh. On top of this our authors were supported bymany journalists, managers, experts and other intervieweeswho took time to answer questions and helped in many otherways. Their names are listed in the appendices of the differentcountry chapters.Finally we would like to thank our colleagues at DW Akademie’sresearch and development department that helpedto manage this project and edited and sub-edited our manuscripts:Erik Albrecht, Jackie Wilson Bakare, Peter Deselaers,Simon Didszuweidt, Esther Dorn-Fellermann, Richard Fuchs,Ofelia Harms, Lina Hartwieg, Dr. John Kluempers, AlexanderMatschke and Yordanka Yordankova.57See Appendix.58Formerly called BBC World Service Trust.59Lloyd et al. 2010; see also Duncan 2009.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 19

AppendixReferencesACT et al. (2004), Safeguarding the Future of the EuropeanAudiovisual Market: White Paper on the Financing and Regulationof Publicly Funded Broadcasters. Published by: Associationof Commercial Television in Europe (ACT), Association Européennedes Radios (AER), and the European Publishers Council(EPC). Retrieved from: http://www.aereurope.org/content/view/40/36/lang,en_GB/AfriMAP – Africa Governance Monitoring and AdvisoryProject, retrieved from: www.afrimap.org/ReportTheme/Broadcast+mediaBardoel, Johannes & d’Haenens, Leen (2008) Reinventing PublicService Broadcasting in Europe: prospects, promises and problems.In: Media Culture Society 30 (2008), p. 337–355.Bausch, Hans (1980), Rundfunkpolitik nach 1945, München.BBC (1927), Charter for ten years from 1 January 1927 to31 December 1936, document retrieved fromhttp://downloads.bbc.co.uk/bbctrust/assets/files/pdf/regulatory_framework/charter_agreement/archive/1927.pdfBBC (2014), History of the BBC: The BBC and government,retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/historyofthebbc/resources/bbcandgov/Berger, Guy (2009), Beyond Broadcasting: the future of stateownedbroadcasters in Southern Africa, Grahamstown, p. 7–13.Buckley, Steve (2011), Community media: a good practice handbook,Paris, UNESCO, 2011.Bussiek, Hendrik (2013), An Overview. Benin, Cameroon, Kenya,Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda,Zambia, Zimbabwe. In: Public Broadcasting in Africa Series.Open Society Foundations, AfriMap, Johannesburg.Curran, James/ Iyengar, Shanto/ Lund, Anker Brink/ Salovaara-Moring, Inka (2009), Media System, Public Knowledge andDemocracy: A Comparative Study, in: European Journal ofCommunication, vol.24, n°1, March 2009, p. 5–26.Deane, James (2005), Media Democracy and the Public Sphere,in: Henner, Oscar/Tufte, Thomas (eds), Media and GlocalChange. Rethinking Communication for Development,p. 177–192.Deane, James (2013), Fragile States: The role of media and communication.Policy briefing No. 10, BBC Media Action, retrievedfrom: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/publicationsandpress/policy_fragile_states.htmlDiller, Ansgar (1999), Öffentlich-rechtlicher Rundfunk, in: Wilke,Jürgen (ed.), Mediengeschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland,Bonn, p. 146–166.Duncan, Jane (2009), South Africa. Migration underway. In:Berger, Guy (2009), Beyond Broadcasting: the future of stateownedbroadcasters in Southern Africa, Grahamstown, p. 43–51.Hanfeld, Michael (6 April 2014), Ein guter Tag für das ZDF, in:Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung.Hoffmann-Riem, Wolfgang (1997), Germany: The regulationof broadcasting. In: Atkinson, Dave/ Rabo, Marc et al. (eds.),Public Service Broadcasting. The Challenges of the Twenty-firstCentury, No III, Unesco-Publishing, p. 99–102.Hammer, Ferenc (2013), Smells, Sounds, Walks Like Public ServiceBroadcaster. But Then, Why Is It Not? – Community Mediain Hungary. In: Gulyas, Agnes/Hammer, Ferenc (eds.), PublicService Media in the Digital Age: International Perspectives,Newcastle upon Tyne, p. 109–124.Hrvatin, Sandra B. (2002), Serving the State or the Public. Theoutlook for Public Service Broadcasting in Slovenia, Ljubljana,Peace Institute (http://www.mirovni-institut.si/).Jacka, Elisabeth (2003), Democracy as Defeat – The Impotenceof Arguments for Public Service Broadcasting, in: Television &New Media 4 (2003), p. 177–191.Jakubowicz, Karol (2005), Post-Communist Media Developmentin Perspective. Internationale Politikanalyse Europäische Politik.Politikinformation Osteuropa. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.Jakubowicz, Karol (2007), Rude Awakening. Social and MediaChange in Central and Eastern Europe, New Jersey.Jakubowicz, Karol (2007), Public service broadcasting. A newbeginning or the beginning of the end? Knowledge Politics,retrieved from: http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/media/Doc/PSB_Anewbeginning_KJ_en.pdf20

Nissen emphasizes the cultural role PSM can play. He statesthat “[w]ritten constitutions play an important role for theexercise of democracy, but democracy is also built upon customs,national identity and culture.” 14 Concerning the role ofthe media he notes that, inasmuch as electronic media sharesome of the responsibility for the transformation process,public service can serve as a remedy. “PSM can sustain anddevelop national cultures and cultural diversity.” 15 He speaksof PSM as a cultural, social, and political glue which has complexcharacteristics. Ideally, this “societal glue” nourishes civicaspects, such as citizenship, empowerment of minorities andthe disadvantaged, cultural expression, common values, constructionof reality, and strengthening of identity. It providesentertainment and education and it promotes innovation.Figure 1 will serve us as a guiding, theoretical approachfor this study. All the political and social functions displayedhere have their basis in fundamental human rights such asfreedom of expression and access to information. Any interventionin media development and transformation supportingPSM should be oriented along these two lines: creating apublic sphere and supporting integration.Public Service Ethos – A Broadened ApproachSo far in this chapter we have limited our focus in the medialandscapes to classic PSB or PSM. But if one primarily looks atthe content delivered by the media it is in many cases difficultto tell the difference between public and private media.We have already discussed the “de-institutionalizing of PSB”in Chapter 1.3 above. Along these lines new PSM approacheswere developed in the literature which take a fresh look at thepublic service remit and allow for a broadening of the publicservice idea.In order to integrate private media into a public servicesystem, Barnett and Docherty introduce a “total philosophy ofthe public service ethos.” 16 After analyzing the interrelationsbetween different actors in the media system and society as awhole, the authors come to the conclusion that PSM is not theonly obliged form. The public remit can also include the privatesector as long as the “public service ethos” is the overallphilosophy. Barnett and Docherty point towards a broad anddynamic societal process that includes many actors. This philosophycan be defined as a mutual agreement of all the actorsin society. The obligations of the actors in a media systemmight differ, but all are based on the public service idea. Allactors could, in an ideal case, be committed to the idea that themedia serve the public.Ideally in such a media environment PSM would take thelead in setting standards and the general tone of the media.They would promote innovation and help to advance the qualityof journalism, education and entertainment.But it may also be the other way around in societies thathave no strong public service tradition. Innovative private mediaor community media may aim at delivering a service tothe public. They may engage in healthy competition with stateor public service media – and put these under pressure to bemore active and innovative.This approach can bear fruit in the context of transitioncountries with a media landscape that shows a range of diverseprivate media outlets and state-owned media. If a publicservice ethos can be built in a society, different paths for mediadevelopment are possible. One may strengthen PSM whichthen set standards for the whole media sector. Or one may asan alternative strengthen private and community media andthus deliver certain public service functions to the people –thereby advancing the media sector overall.In applying the public ethos concept in this study, we takean open approach toward public service functions. Instead ofsetting up a checklist of functions, legal rules or programmingcontent as criteria for a “true” PSM we only attempt to make anassessment as to which functions are fulfilled – and which arenot. Also we do not expect to find these functions fulfilled bytransformed state broadcasters only. There may also be othermedia, which operate clearly in the interest of the public.Public Service Ethos“We must establish from the outset our own emphasison the public service system of broadcasting ratherthan the public broadcaster. Public service broadcastingmust be defined in terms of a commitment to a set ofprinciples rather than in terms of the ownership or financingof broadcasting bodies; it is therefore not a philosophywhich can be confined to national broadcastersor state corporations, but through various legislativeand regulatory frameworks must also imbue privatelyowned stations and channels. This integration of theprivate sector is vital to a total philosophy of the publicservice ethos.” 1726

Part I Definitions and ConceptsTransitions and Transformations – Developing Media forthe PublicIn this study we focus on media landscapes in developingcountries and emerging economies which are very differentfrom those in Western Europe where PSM was first developed.The societies in the countries in question are undergoingtransformations on political, social, and economic levels. Asfar as their media sectors are concerned, there is usually a coexistenceof private media and (former) state-owned media.The idea of public service is mostly one that was brought upand advanced by Western politicians and media developmentorganizations. As discussed in chapter 1, the attempts to establishPSM have in many cases not been successful.To understand why and when this is the case, as a first step,we need to better analyze the individual media landscapes andthe changes they undergo. According to Raboy there are threeprincipal types of broadcasting systems in the world: 18Public service core systems, in which PSBs have historicallyoccupied the center of the system (WesternEurope, Canada, Australia, Japan). These countries have“mixed ownership systems” today.Private enterprise core systems, where the wholebroadcasting system is built around commercial broadcastingpractices, as in the US.State core systems, where media which are owned andcontrolled by the state are dominant.For this study we focus on the latter. Raboy here differentiatesbetweenresidual state core system (a monolithic state-ownedbroadcaster still plays the key role);emergent state core system (a system in which privateand community radios play an increasingly importantrole), andtransitional state core system (where pluralistic modelsare established on the old foundations of the statemedia).Media development can take different paths, according to thesituation, to advance a transformation process in the sense ofthe public service ethos. Depending on the particular situationof a media system and the capacities and interests of the differentactors involved, one may, for example, choose to changelegislation and reform the state broadcaster towards more independence.Or one may strengthen private and communitymedia in their service to the public. Or one may choose tostrengthen selected areas such as the capacity of regional reportingor program formats that allow for public participation.In this context the question arises as to what transformation,especially in the media sector, actually means. Unfortunatelythere is a substantial backlog in the field of communicationscience as far as the link between media and transformationis concerned. So far there is no serious theoretical draft thatcan encompass the complexity of the issue. Hafez and Thomaßbemoan that there is as yet no answer to the question whatrole the media play in the political and societal transformationprocess towards democracy. 19 Ritter recommends pragmaticapproaches and pleads for a focus on empirical country casestudies instead of waiting for an overall theory. 20In the practice of media development, however, there is acommon understanding of what is meant by the terms transitionand transformation:“Transition in the context of media functions in two ways:media practitioners are working in political situations thathave been defined as ‘transitional’ by the international community,and they are tasked with transforming the mediasphere from one that supported the old, authoritarian regimeto one that upholds the new principles of democracy.” 21Taking a closer look at what the key players in media developmentthink about transforming state broadcasters into PSM,it is evident that there is no clear-cut course. On the one handthere are those who plead in favour of PSM and on the otherhand there are the critics who think it is a waste of time andmoney to transform giant state broadcasters and would ratherpromote smaller private media. Hadamik, for example, observedin the Eastern and Central European context that establishinga public service broadcaster in developing countries ismore an issue for the European media development actors thanfor the US-led media development actors, since they all tend toact based on their experience with their own media systems. 22Within this melange of different paradigms in media developmentwe can observe that there seems to be a broadconsensus on at least two points: State-owned media servingas a mouthpiece for those in power is not compatible with ademocracy. And secondly, a society in transformation needsmedia that have an obligation to the public.But beyond this there is in the practice of media assistance aneed for the careful development of strategies of media-relatedinterventions – based on assessments of the state of transitionin a particular country and its media system. Also a culture ofevaluation and learning is needed in order to assure that positivechange is advanced. This study is an attempt to contributeto this: It should lead to a better understanding of transformationprocesses and help the efforts of media development.14Nissen 2006, 22.15Ibid.16Barnett & Docherty 1991.17Barnett & Docherty 1991, 24.18Raboy 1995.19Hafez 2002; Thomaß 2001.20Ritter 2008.21Hartenberg 2005, 6f.22Hadamik 2003.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 27

Media DevelopmentThe Center for International Media Assistance (CIMA)sees media development as: “efforts by organizations,people, and sometimes governments to develop the capacityand quality of the media sector within a specificcountry or region.” 23Banda stresses in addition that media development ismuch more than economic and infrastructural growth.It should rather be seen as “the totality of all supportmechanisms for the growth of media institutions into vibrantagents of social and political change in democraticand undemocratic polities.” 24On top of this it should be added that media developmentdoes not only focus on the media institutionsalone but equally on the people using the media.Therefore media development should broaden thefreedom of citizens to use and build media accordingto their interests and needs. In a nutshell, media developmentis rooted in efforts towards democratizationand empowerment.PSM in UNESCO’s Media Development IndicatorsAccording to UNESCO’s Media Development Indicatorsreport 25 , PSM are expected to– be non-partisan, non-profit with a public interestremit;– have a national mandate and offer national coverage,complemented by regional services, particularlyin autonomous states or regions with differentlanguages. Their transmission systems andprograms should reach all regions, cultures andlanguage groups;– deliver their services free of charge or at a cost that isavailable to the whole population;– deliver comprehensive, balanced news, especially atelection times;– offer a forum for public debate;– guarantee a minimum of locally generated content;– deliver creative, diverse, and original programming;– be protected from political or economic interference;– have specific guarantees on editorial independenceand appropriate and secure funding arrangements toprotect them from arbitrary interference;– be financed through public funds and sometimesadditional charges on users, while sometimes alsoattracting additional commercial funding;– play a key role in the modernisation of a country’stechnological environment and put in place propertools to fight the digital divide caused by geographicallocation, age, education and wealth;– be publicly accountable through a governing body,and have public involvements in appointments to thegoverning body;– have a proven commitment to consultation andengagement with the public and civil societyorganisations (CSOs), including a complaints system.23CIMA 2014.24Banda 2009.25UNESCO 200826DW Akademie 2014, 29.28

The Strategic ModelPolitical and legal framework:Professionalism and economic sustainability of themedia sector– Advising state and government institutions, support forexisting structures, promotion of laws includingapplication and implementation, legislation and lawenforcement practice (incl. press laws, censorship, andlibel), broadcast regulation, internet regulation, cartellaw, open government) with reference to article 19 andits guarantee in the national context;– Strengthening of the self-regulation of the media and ofpress freedoms, particularly by means of press andmedia councils;– Support for the activities of non-governmental playerswho undertake the protection, security, and legalassistance of media professionals and activists, supervisethe political arena and act as watchdogs (e.g., accessto government information, encouragement of transparencyand accountability, etc.);– Support for non-governmental players who actualizethe aforementioned human right (reference to article 19and its guarantee in the national context); establishmentof a legal framework for education and training in themedia sector, accreditation requirements, recognitionand protection, compliance and observance.– Promotion of networks and strengthening of institutionsand platforms, both structurally and in terms ofcontent, of and for the professional community (incl.trade unions, interest groups, professional associations,also on a regional scale);– Promotion of dialogue on a local scale and furtherpractical development of specialist offers and solutionsin the media sector (incl. trustworthy media, significanceand potential of independent journalism,prevention of bribery and corruption, sustainablefinancial models and strategies, professional andethical standards);– Consultancy provision for professional media organizationsand institutions: editorial and quality management/controlfor independent, sustainably financedjournalism providing locally relevant, comprehensible,human resources, high-quality reporting (incl. publicparticipation, ombudsman/arbitration);QualificationsSocial participation– Institutionalization of study and training programs;– Development of curricula, including specialist areas(economic/budget reporting, parliamentary reporting);– Dual training/sandwich courses, practice-orientedteaching, accreditation requirements, etc.;– Stabilization of sustainable and effective training ofmedia professionals in education and training structures,with focus on the civil right to free informationand expression (practical vocational training, technicalmedia training, internships, traineeships, further trainingopportunities and formats).– Empowerment of individuals and groups using media,also in cooperation with NGOs (community media, civicmedia and other target group-relevant information andcommunication services);– Improvement of media literacy, human rights educationand guidance on the right to freedom of opinion andaccess to information and ideas;– Digital und mobile security (data protection, encryption,secure communication devices and methods, etc.);– Strengthening of NGOs, initiatives und coalitions whichwant to use media in creative, effective and secure waysfor their information and expression interests, reinforcingaccessibility of social discourse for underprivilegedindividuals and groups.– Consultancy provision also for semi-professional mediaproviders (e.g., bloggers who create an oppositional voiceunder dictatorial regimes, or promote political pluralism).30

Part I Definitions and ConceptsAround these areas a ring is placed: “digital change” (Figure 2.).This stands for the fact that in all four strategic areas new developmentsrelated to digital technologies need to be takeninto account. For example: Regulation of the media sector certainlyconcerns the internet and mobile phones. And mediaoutlets, universities as well as other actors from civil societyneed to deal with the challenges and opportunities, which thenew technologies offer. All these different areas need to beconsidered when developing strategies and planning projects.Activities in each of them can help foster access to informationand freedom of expression. Often true progress can onlybe achieved through the interplay and synergies betweenthese areas.This model can now be applied to projects around PSM andtheir transformation. The bottom area in the model “Professionalismand economic sustainability of the media sector” iswhere the functional elements related to content and organizationcan be placed. Many projects try to improve the organizationalstructure and economic model of the broadcaster aswell as the content it provides.But also the other areas need to be considered. The politicaland legal framework for public service media is of courseof particular importance and needs special attention. Equallyrelevant, the question of capacity building of media expertswithin the public broadcasting system but also in journalismschools and universities should not be neglected. And anotherkey area is the role civil society plays in participating in thedifferent programs as interviewees, protagonists and participantsin discussion – but also as actors in observing, steering,and advancing public media as such.These elements all contribute to a Public Service MediaSystem and they should be part of establishing a public serviceethos. Thus we can integrate many elements needed byPSM to fulfill the principles discussed above into this strategicmodel. All the elements mentioned above are assembled intable 2. In our case studies they will be assessed for each of theselected media.Public Service Media SystemKey Areas in theStrategic ModelPolitical and legalframeworkMedia Development towardsa Public Service Media System– Media laws– The application of these lawsin daily practice– Bodies controlling the media– Ethics codices, newsroomguidelines set up by the mediaQualifications – Journalism education, offeredto the staff of the media– General structures for capacitybuildingProfessionalismand economic sustainabilityof themedia sectorSocialparticipation– Sources of revenue of thebroadcaster– Payment of staff– Organization of the broadcaster,newsroom structure (includingregional offices)– Technological situation of themedia, coverage (includingservice in rural areas)– Human resources management– Civil society organizationsengaged in a public serviceethos, and PSM– Participation, voice, empowerment(minorities, disadvantaged)Change in thedigital age– Innovation (technical as wellas content-related)Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 31

Research QuestionsTo sum up we now use main elements and results of the argumentationabove to prepare for the empirical part of thisstudy.As the theoretical understanding of media transformationprocesses in general is limited, we choose an explorative approachand conduct single case studies. The situation andstructure of selected public media systems will be analyzed accordingto the DW strategic model.We have assembled a number of functions of PSM under twogeneral functions: creating a public sphere and supporting integration.With this study we cannot attempt to actually measurethese functions objectively in the different countries.Nevertheless informed judgments about these functionscan be made, based on our in-depth interviews with differentstakeholders.By applying the public ethos concept, we take an open approachtowards public service functions. We do not look fora list of criteria that describe a “true” PSM. Instead we only attemptto make an assessment as to which different functionsare fulfilled by (transformed) state broadcasters - or other mediathat operate on behalf of the public.Media development work, in particular with former statebroadcasters, has turned out to be more complex and challengingthan first expected in the 1990s. We now need to assessthe status, experience and learning of stakeholders in thetransformation process.In the following, case studies from different countries will bepresented in individual chapters. Based on them, an overallassessment will be made to answer the following researchquestions:RQ 1: Which public service functions can be provided todayby (former) state broadcasters?RQ 2: What change in former state broadcasters could beachieved through media development in the past andwhat were the challenges and limitations?RQ 3: Which public service functions can be provided bycommunity and private media?RQ 4: What change in private and community media couldbe achieved through media development in the pastand what were the challenges and limitations ofthis work?RQ 5: Which approaches and methods in media developmentwere taken in our case studies?RQ 6: What recommendations can be made for future mediadevelopment projects supporting public service functions?32

Sondergaard, Henrik (1999), Some Reflections on Public ServiceBroadcasting.Thomaß, Barbara (2001), KommunikationswissenschaftlicheÜberlegungen zur Rolle der Medien in Transformationsgesellschaften.In: Thomaß, Barbara & Tzankoff, Michaela (Eds.): Medienund Transformation in Osteuropa, Wiesbaden, p. 39–61.UNESCO (2005), Public Service Broadcasting. A Best PracticeSourcebook, retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001415/141584e.pdfUNESCO (2008), Media Development Indicators. A frameworkfor assessing media indicators, Paris, retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0016/001631/163102e.pdfUNESCO/ WRTVC (2001): Public Broadcasting. Why? How?World Radio and Television Council/Centre d’Etudes sur lesMédias. Retrieved 31.08.2014 from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001240/124058eo.pdfVlasic, Andreas (2004), Die Integrationsfunktion der Massenmedien:Begriffsgeschichte, Modelle, Operationalisierung,Wiesbaden.Wakili, Merjam (2013), Medien und Öffentlichkeit im Demokratisierungsprozessin Afghanistan – Die Transformation desStaatssenders‚ Radio Television Afghanistan‘ in einen öffentlichenSender, Berlin.Woldt, Runar (2005), Öffentlich-rechtlicher Rundfunk im internationalenVergleich. Fragestellungen, Methoden, Fallbeispiele.In: Ridder, Christa-Maria/Langenbucher, Wolfgang R./Saxer,Ulrich/Steininger, Christian (Eds.): Bausteine einer Theorie desöffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunks, Wiesbaden, p. 293–310.34

Part I Definitions and ConceptsEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 35

Part II: Transforming State Broadcasters – Case Studies fromMedia Development03Afghanistan: Reform Fear, Limited InternationalSupport, Failed TransformationMerjam Wakili36

Part II Afghanistan: Reform Fear, Limited International Support, Failed TransformationAfghanistan: Reform Fear, Limited International Support, Failed TransformationIn Afghanistan, the transformation process of the state broadcaster RTA has failed. The station was reopened after the fall of theTaliban regime in 2001. After mainly technical assistance in the first years, an international consortium of BBC World Trust Service,DW Akademie and Canal France International started to implement a reform strategy financed by the EU from 2004 to 2007.However, the media development organizations were successful neither in changing the regulatory framework nor in engagingthe top and middle management in the reform.A lack of coordination and a lack of money for supplementary capacity building measures with RTA’s editorial and technicalstaff have led to a situation where, for example, high-end technology in new broadcasting studios could not be used by theemployees of the broadcaster due to a lack of technical expertise. As a result, RTA has great difficulties in creating a public spheretoday, even if it does offer certain forums for public information and discussions. The broadcaster still mainly functions as amouthpiece of the government.On the level of integration, RTA still offers the most potential for Afghanistan, although this is far from being fully realized.With most Afghan media focused on the capital Kabul, RTA is seen as a symbol for national unity since it respects minorities asthe only broadcaster that offers a platform for the smallest minority groups; these are generally ignored by the private mediabecause they do not form a profitable high-income group of consumers. So despite all difficulties and deficiencies, RTA does offera service to the public. It can be concluded that the transformation process of the state broadcaster did not succeed for a varietyof reasons: Most importantly, a lack of follow-through on the media development side coupled with reform fear, confusion, andlack of information on the Afghan side led to a stagnation of the reform. A renewed attempt would need fresh approaches onseveral levels and a well-coordinated long-term engagement from all actors.Radio Television Afghanistan (RTA) 1 is the state broadcasterof Afghanistan. There have been attempts from internationalmedia development organizations to transform RTA into apublic service broadcaster which hitherto were not successful.The following analysis tries to assess these transformation attempts.This has to be put in an overall context; therefore Afghanistan’smain characteristics, its media landscape and thestatus of RTA shall be briefly outlined. Then we discuss to whatextent RTA is fulfilling two general functions of public servicemedia: creating a public sphere and supporting integration.As a last step the achievements and challenges as well as thetransformation approach itself are analyzed and recommendationsfor action are derived.Afghanistan – A Brief OverviewThe Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a landlocked countrylocated in Central Asia. It has a population of around 31 millioninhabiting an area of approximately 652,000 square kilometers.It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and the east,Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan inthe north, and China in the far northeast. Three decades ofwar made Afghanistan one of the world’s most dangerous andpoorest countries with a young population: Approximately 12million Afghan citizens are under the age of 15. Only 43 percentof the male and 12 percent of the female population is able toread and write. 2 Almost 78 percent of the population lives inrural areas. Afghanistan is characterized by a large urban-ruraldiscrepancy and a focus on the capital Kabul where over threemillion people live.1http://www.rta.org.af/It is a multi-ethnic, multilingual country with more than 30ethnic groups and a variety of languages and dialects. Pashtoand Dari are the official languages of Afghanistan. Bilingualismis quite common. The four largest ethnic groups are Pashtuns,Tajiks, Hazara, and Uzbeks. 3 The first and at the sametime last census of population in Afghanistan was held in 1979and was not finished due to the invasion of the Soviet troops. 4Therefore there is no valid data on the exact ethnic structureof the country. This was and still is one of the reasons for conflictand discussion amongst the different groups in terms ofdistribution of power. Afghanistan is still – after Taliban rulein 2001 and the efforts of the international community to democratizethe country – facing major problems of insecuritydue to weakness of the state authorities, badly functioningstate institutions, and poor infrastructure.The Afghans have experienced many shifts of power andnever had a strong central government serving the wholecountry and reaching the people in the remote areas. This isone of the factors that has led to strong tribal and clan affiliation.A nation-building process, which is crucial for a successfulstate-building process and thus a democratization of thecountry has yet not taken place. Despite this sobering conclusionthere is at least one success story that Afghanistan canoffer: The development of the media landscape and freedomof speech have experienced exceptional success.2CIA 2014.3Ibid.4In 2008 the Japanese governmenttried to finance and to launch acensus, which never took place dueto the fragile security situation.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 37

Media LandscapeThe development of Afghanistan’s media landscape as one ofthe rays of hope needs to be assessed in a more detailed manner.A close look at the history of the Afghan media showsthat this country never had a tradition of free, impartial, andwidespread media. The first newspaper was established 140years ago by the former king Amir Sher Ali Khan and its onlyfunction was to praise the king’s policy and inform the king’scourt about decisions and agreements. Afghanistan was farfrom having a mass media able to inform a great part of thepopulation, which was and still is illiterate and lives in remoteareas. The focus was much on the capital Kabul and on thosein power ever since.When in 1928 the first radio station, Radio Kabul, was establishedby the former King Amanullah Khan, only the citizens ofKabul were able to receive the radio program. At that time theking recognized the power of the new medium to inform hispeople all over the country. By the 1940s, people in many moreparts of the country could listen to the state broadcaster.With the help of the Soviets in 1976 the new medium televisionwas introduced to Afghanistan’s media landscape. Like RadioKabul, television was initially a privilege that only Kabul’scitizens could benefit from. Later many more large cities acrossAfghanistan were able to receive the television broadcaster.Afghanistan’s media landscape has experienced variousrelevant transformation steps since the end of 2001. UnderTaliban rule from 1996 to 2001 television was prohibited,many antennas and transmitters were destroyed and the onlyradio station allowed was Radio Shariat run by the Taliban. InNovember 2001 RTA’s broadcasting restarted with the help ofthe international community in the capital Kabul. The UNES-CO helped to reconstruct the destroyed premises and rebuildingthe infrastructure of RTA and the state-owned newsagency, Bakhtar News. Since then the media landscape hasexperienced incredible growth: from one non-governmentalradio station in 2002 (Sulh) to over 75 terrestrial televisionchannels, 175 FM radio stations and 800 regular publications(in September 2010). 5Print media in Afghanistan cannot be defined as mass mediasince the large majority of the population does not have accessto daily newspapers or weekly magazines and the vast majorityis not able to read. Internet as well still plays a marginalrole for the majority of the rural population. 6Despite the liberties and possibilities for media actors tolaunch media outlets and to produce content, pressure, selfcensorship,insecurity, and monetary problems are also part ofjournalists’ daily lives. 7 Afghanistan has a broad mixture of differentmedia and the urban population has the choice betweenlots of different sources of information which the rural populationdoes not have. Therefore RTA plays an important role sinceit is the only Afghan source for a large part of the population.Radio Television Afghanistan (RTA)Radio Television Afghanistan (RTA) consists of television (RTA)and radio (Radio Afghanistan) at the national level. RTA is theonly Afghan channel that operates as a network of local teams,with branches in almost every province. It produces content inthe most common languages Pashto and Dari and the minoritylanguages Uzbek, Tajik, Balochi, and Pashai. According tothe law RTA is obliged to the public which means that it has torepresent all parts of the country and all the different groupsin Afghan society. As a multi-ethnic country where many differentlanguages are spoken, the respective proportion of programmingin the different languages is a sensitive issue. Dariand Pashto are the official languages spoken by the majority inAfghanistan. The ways of mixing languages are varied and debatable,for example, combining the two languages with twohosts in one program or using separate programs from thesame outlet or using different outlets. Some TV channels havepositioned themselves to address specific audiences based ona single language.Radio Afghanistan returned in November 2001 whenthe Taliban left Kabul and the Northern Alliance forces tookcontrol of the station. The nationwide broadcasting beganin early June 2002 with USAID’s technical and financial support.A satellite terminal was installed at Radio Afghanistan,linking Radio Afghanistan’s signal to shortwave transmittersthat broadcast the station’s programs throughout Afghanistanfor a few hours each day. 8 The television program began a fewweeks later, offering three hours of programming a day. The localbranches are required to broadcast Kabul RTA from 7-9 p.m.,and also to produce local content adapted to the local environment(in terms of language, for instance). 9RTA is the broadcaster with the largest infrastructure, with22 radio transmitters all over the country covering the largercities in the provinces as well as the rural areas. It has ten TVtransmitters with the provincial coverage areas: Faizabad,Ghazni, Herat, Jalalabad, Kabul, Mazar, Pul-e-Khumri, Qunduz,Taloqan, and Sheberghan. 10 There is a discrepancy betweenthe situation in the capital studio and the provincial studios.In many provinces the studios are declining and run by a fewemployees who are not qualified.It is difficult to get valid information about the outlet’sstrategy and goals since there are no strategy papers or guidelinesavailable. According to the Altai study conducted in 2010,RTA’s intended goals are strengthening national unity, promotinga sense of civic responsibility, encouraging the youthand furthering sports. 11 Zarin Anzor, RTA’s General Directordescribes RTA as an important “national institution which reflectsthe people’s needs and their views better than the privatemedia do.” 12RTA does rather well in the audience survey from 2010(ranking third), although the quality of what is produced byRTA leaves a lot to be desired and lies behind the best privatechannels. 13 As a result the audience share never exceeds 10 per-38

Part II Afghanistan: Reform Fear, Limited International Support, Failed TransformationFinancing, Management and Newsroom StructuresRTA has various financial sources: advertising (which is a smallamount), paid programming at the national and local levels,taxes levied on other channels’ antennas, and rental incomefrom surplus facilities and staff, i.e., buildings, equipment andproduction crew. All revenues are handed over to the Ministryof Finance and then to the Ministry of Information and Culturebefore a small part of the amount is paid out to the broadcaster.RTA relies on that monthly subsidy of 408,000 US Dollarsfrom the Ministry of Information and Culture. Provincialbranches typically spend between 7,000 and 10,000 US Dollarsa month and employ a staff of around 30 per local studio(with estimates of the total RTA staff in the whole of Afghanistanlying at around 1,600 to 2,000). 29Most of the money that RTA gets is spent on payroll. DirectorZarin Anzor moans that even the smallest investment, forexample, in new equipment or studio supplies, has to be declaredto the Ministry of Information so that the broadcasterseems rather incapable of acting. 30 This situation makes it difficultfor RTA to decide independently on the programminglevel as well as the staff level.RTA has no clear newsroom structure or organizationalchart which reflects the real situation within the broadcaster.As the only broadcaster RTA has special desks for minority languageslike Pashai or Uzbek. Most of the content is translatedDari or Pashto content and read by an ethnic representative.There is little journalistic content produced for those minorities,so it stagnates on a folkloric level. There is no newsroomstructure that produces content for all languages and localoutlets. Another problem RTA is faced with is a lack of clearlyidentifiable flagship programs with an appealing title and alack of a program schedule the audience can rely on. RTA stilldisplays a “confusing grid where the main contents are not obviousto the viewers.” 31 There are efforts to bring order into theconfusion and in fact there is a schedule on paper for the capitalchannel of RTA, still there is no guarantee that the schemeis followed.channels in Afghanistan with 8 percent claiming to watchit and an audience share of 7 percent. 33 In the Altai survey of2010, trust was measured comparatively for radio stationsacross the country by asking the audience to report the threestations they trusted most. The most trusted stations werethose on international networks. Azadi and the BBC receivedthe highest ratings (44 percent and 41 percent, respectively).The RTA network also generated a high level of trust. Whenconsidered alone, the Kabul-based national broadcaster wasamong the most trusted radio stations for 18 percent of Afghans,when aggregated with local RTA radio stations (Kandahar,Jalalabad, etc.), the network ranked third, with 39 percentof trust expressed at the national level. 34As mentioned before, people are aware of a certain governmentbias and people do criticize that the president and otherofficials use RTA as their mouthpiece. Still there is a need towatch and listen to the program to be informed about whatthe government is proclaiming, doing or deciding. 35 As forentertainment, the audience tends to watch the private mediawhich offer international series and films or other attractiveprograms. RTA’s programs are perceived as rather boring, oldfashionedand not reliable concerning the program schedule. 36The prime time news can take from 15 minutes up to one hour,depending on what the president or another official have tosay and how much footage is available.RTA’s role is seen as quite diverse: As a national broadcasterit should contribute to modernization. It has a clear educationalmandate which it does not live up to and it shouldpromote the feeling of national unity and social cohesion. Inthis regard, it is important to distinguish between the terms“public” and “national.” In Afghanistan these terms are beingused synonymously. In other contexts it might be importantto differentiate.Perception, Participation and Public EngagementRTA has a long tradition as the first broadcaster and the onlyAfghan broadcaster covering the more remote areas of thecountry. It is well known as the state broadcaster. AnalyzingRTA means making a distinction between the radio programand the television program. In general RTA is the only stationwith a broad coverage of rural areas. According to the Altai surveyits radio program is generally the most listened to. 32 RadioAzadi and the BBC are listened to and trusted for their professionalismand their networks of journalists, as well as their accessto international news. RTA is listened to and trusted fora different factor: it is generally praised for being the radio ofall Afghans, with national news and a sense of national unity,despite a certain government bias. RTA’s local stations are alsoappreciated for their responsiveness and reliability in relationto local news. RTA television is among the four most watched22Eberhard Sucker, RegionalCoordinator and Project Managerin Afghanistan during the transformationprocess, DW Akademie.23There are also some supplementarylaws, such as TelecommunicationsLaw, Copyright Law, LaborLaw, Criminal Law and CommercialLaw. These laws also organizeaspects of the media sector.24Altai Consulting 2010, 25.25Law on Mass Media.26Altai Consulting 2010,Wakili 2012.27Abdul Sobhan Ghafoori, technicaldirector at RTA.28Wakili 2007, 190.29Altai Consulting 2010, 54.30Zarin Anzor, DirectorGeneral, RTA.31Altai Consulting 2010, 85.32Audience share: RTA 18 percent,BBC 7 percent. See AltaiConsulting 2010, 119.33Altai Consulting 2010, 113.34Altai Consulting 2010, 147.35Shirazuddin Siddiqi, consultantat BBC World Service Trust duringRTA’s transformation process.36Wakili 2012, 243.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 41

Public Service: General FunctionsIn the following section we will take a closer look at the twogeneral functions of public service broadcasting we introducedfor this study: creating a public sphere and supportingintegration. We will evaluate to what extent RTA may or maynot fulfill these functions. All the information about the politicaltransformation process in Afghanistan and the peculiaritiesof the media landscape given above have to be kept inmind while assessing the fulfilment of the functions.Creating a Public SphereCreating a public sphere through mass media in Afghanistanis very challenging. It has to be taken into account that a largemajority of Afghans live in rural areas and secluded mountainregions so from the mere infrastructural aspect it is a challengeto reach the masses via media.A public sphere in the sense of a democratic forum is notnecessarily what can be observed in Afghanistan. This hasprimarily two reasons. Firstly, one cannot speak of one publicsphere. One could rather speak of many public spheres due tothe different and still very dominant communication channelssuch as tribal assemblies, Friday sermons in the mosques,bazaars, and market places or family gatherings. Secondly, thecontent that is spread via media is not comprehensible for alarge part of the recipients. 37 This is mainly due to the fact thatmost of the journalists use a language that is not the commoneveryday language of the people but merely a written language.38 This environment makes it difficult for RTA to fulfillthe function of “creating a public sphere.”Although RTA has the best prerequisites with its quitedense regional coverage to create a public sphere, it does not,or only to a very limited extent, offer politically balanced andindependent reporting. This is not only due to the fact thatRTA still defines itself to a certain extent as a mouthpiece ofthose in power, but also due to the lack of professionalism inthe staff.The general quality of the journalism in RTA’s programs ison a very low level compared to most private channels. 39 Women’sactivist Soraya Parlika criticizes: “The state-owned broadcasteris censored. It will also be in the hands of those in powerand the questions ‘Which minister talked to whom?’ ‘What didthe president say?’ are more favored than real important andunbiased information. They don’t have balanced reporting.” 40Investigative journalism is a completely new phenomenonfor Afghanistan, which has no mass media tradition. Even fundamentaljournalistic standards like doing basic research ortaking a closer look at a certain issue and questioning procedures,political, or social decisions and asking more than oneor two sources on the same issue, cannot be observed in mostRTA programs.It has to be said that independent journalistic research isnot necessarily what people expect in the first place from RTA.Meanwhile, the broadcaster does offer forums for public infor-mation and discussions. General Director Zarin Anzoor speaksof “building a bridge” between the people and those in power.41 Again one has to differentiate between RTA television andRTA radio. While television does not offer a platform for differentand opposing opinions, RTA radio gives space to differentopinions and thereby to some extent fulfills a public servicemandate, providing balanced and unbiased news.The technical director of RTA puts the central political functionRTA has to fulfill this way: “Firstly, RTA should draw theattention on the different views of the people. Secondly, RTAshould draw the attention on the memory of the 30 years ofwar in this country. Thirdly, RTA should draw attention to theunbelievably bad economic situation of the people. Fourthly,RTA should be listening to what the people are telling. And forthat we fortunately have a very intensive and close relationshipto our listeners and viewers. A lot of people from all overthe country call us and tell us their issues.” 42The wishes and ideals do not always match the real situationin RTA’s programs. And it has to be said that this has itsmain cause in the lack of quality and professionalism in thestructures and work processes, an obstacle as major as the lackof independence.Supporting IntegrationIntegration is certainly the general function for which RTA stillholds the biggest potential for Afghanistan. As a matter of fact,however, this function today is far from being fully realized.RTA TV is still very much focused on the capital Kabul, butthe radio stations in the provinces provide locally-generatedprograms which are – in some areas – the only source of information.The General Director of RTA Zarin Anzor describesthe broadcaster as “mirror for all Afghans” adding that RTAshould be a mirror, despite all the difficulties and deficiencies.He adds that RTA still does not adequately represent the wholepopulation of the country and is very much focussed on thecapital Kabul. 43 Anzor states: “The variety of cultures in the differentregions has to be shown and it has to be shown whatprogress is achieved. Only when we have covered all the provincesand not only the capital, can we contribute to the peopleto get closer to each other through our reporting. We can diminishthe distance between the people and our reporting.” 44One of the key findings of the Altai study in 2010 was thatthe highest expectations voiced by the public across the countrywere: media should promote a sense of national unity,rather than trying to further divide people of different political,ethnic or religious groups. 45 Indeed this goal is difficult toattain in a country that is multi-ethnic and has to struggle withreligious and tribal tensions (in part reflected in the diversityof the media actors currently in the country). Difficult as it maybe, though, it does not seem impossible to the media actors.It is only in a limited sense that RTA is fulfilling this functionbetter than the private media: especially regarding theminorities and finding the right balance between the two officiallanguages Pashto and Dari, RTA is the only broadcaster42

Part II Afghanistan: Reform Fear, Limited International Support, Failed TransformationThis case study shows that the transformation of RTA muststart completely anew. There are still basic questions left unanswered:What should RTA ultimately become? A nationalbroadcaster which is fully independent from the Ministry ofInformation and Culture yet remains under the control ofthe government (a model that the government seems moresupportive of)? Or a public broadcaster governed by an independentcommission, more similar to a European model ofbroadcasting, as, for example, in the case of the BBC (a modelmore supported by the international community)? The initialeuphoria about transforming RTA was followed by disillusionment.Finding the reasons for that is complex, but two maincauses can be observed: the political unwillingness and difficultieson the Afghan side and the discontinuation of the internationalfinancial support as a result of those difficulties.It is still unclear how high the level of willingness to transformRTA on the international side was. It cannot be assessedwhether it was euphoric or rather hesitant. What can be analyzedare the methods the international consortium applied.At first glance it seems logical and reasonable to start with anoverall assessment of the broadcaster. But in the meantimethe top and middle management should have been convincedof the transformation idea. There were not enough capacitiesto do so. What was planned as the fourth step, namely reconstructingthe organization, should have been one of the initialsteps. The money that would have been necessary for that wasnot available. Firing or retiring large parts of the staff needsstructural and financial preparation.Instead of focussing on an overall transformation of thestate broadcaster, the stakeholders DW Akademie and BBCMedia Action are running individual projects. Since RTA’sdirector signaled willingness on the level of individual projthatoffers at least a platform for the smallest minority groupswho are totally ignored by the private media because they donot form a profitable high-income group of consumers. So despiteall difficulties and deficiencies RTA does offer a servicehere to the public.Looking at Afghanistan’s media landscape, the differentmedia offer a variety of content. But a closer look at functionslike cultural expression, strengthening of identity, values, andcultural cohesion shows that RTA seems to stay ahead of thegame. It is seen as a national institution despite the limitedquality of some of the programs. As the first broadcaster, RTAhas the largest and oldest archive of old films and music videosof Afghan musicians. In its program these old clips areshown and people from the older generations love to watchthem. Although the entertainment programs are somewhatold-fashioned, some of the programs are successful, for example,quiz shows or comedy shows that reflect the culturalpeculiarities.Education is one of the issues that RTA has been dealingwith since its early days. It was the first broadcaster to have achildren’s program which is also quite popular. But more hasto be done to satisfy the younger audience. Serving the functioneducation means offering more than a weekly or bi-weeklychildren’s program or offering literacy programs for adults,like some private TV stations do. It is more an educationalparadigm that shapes all kinds of programs.Achievements and ChallengesRTA’s final status is still not determined. There are still differentopinions on what RTA should or could ultimately become.There are those who argue in favor of a national broadcasterwhich is fully independent from the Ministry of Informationyet remains under the control of the government; othersinsist on a public broadcaster governed by an independentcommission, more similar to the Western European modelsof broadcasting. The Minister of Information und Culture Raheenis supportive of the public service idea but still there areobstacles in the way, inlcuding a lack of funds and an the absenceof an overall transformation strategy that is accepted byall stakeholders. All the goals that were defined in 2002, suchas greater editorial independence and a less complicated andmore independent financial situation, are still goals that thecurrent RTA management wants to achieve. The HMC has yettodefine the roles, responsibilities and technical means of thefuture RTA. There are no achievements yet that can be named.– Reconstructing the organization to prove its editorialas well as structural independence.– Involving the technical departments into the currentchange management process in order to make it a success.– An organizational chart which automatically leads tomore structure and clearly defined responsibilities hasto be created.– Creating a financial and human resources plan.Transformation ApproachesThe challenges that RTA is faced with remain those from 2004.RTA’s problems on the way towards public service broadcastingremain:– Preparing the top and middle management or rather, firstof all, creating a competent management.37Wakili 2012, 90.38This is also one of the findings ofthe Altai Consulting study from2010.39Baktash Siawash, journalist andmember of the Afghan parliament.40Soraya Parlika, women’s activist.41Zarin Anzor, Director General, RTA.42Abdul Sobhan Ghafoori,Technical Director, RTA.43Zarin Anzor, Director General, RTA.44Zarin Anzor, Director General, RTA.45Altai Consulting 2010, 174.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 43

ects, DW Akademie and BBC Media Action were motivated toconduct training sessions and establish a new format for apolitical talk show in the run-up to the presidential electionsin March 2014 (“Open Jirga”). “Open Jirga is, at least at the moment,a single project and is the only one with RTA - but I amhoping it would work as a catalyst to demonstrate RTA’s potentialto Afghan politicians.” 46 Media Action project manager Siddiqistates that nothing significant has happened to supportthe transformation of RTA: “A couple of things that have happened,have not had any significant impact (even if they hadthe potential to do so).” Nevertheless, he has not fully abandonedthe idea of transforming RTA into a PSB, even though itwould be a lot more difficult now than it was five years ago.The DW Akademie’s focus in Afghanistan was and is on programsfor children and young people. According to assessmentsof the regional coordinator Afghanistan at DW Akademie,the projects in 2013 with RTA were quite successful onthe editorial level, despite all the difficulties on the structurallevel. 47 Besides the journalistic trainings the measures includedconsultations for RTA’s middle-management, in orderto drum up support and emphasize the relevance of new andattractive programs for a younger audience. Changes on themanagement level are seen as the greatest challenge. Yet DWAkademie’s measures on the editorial level are backed up byconsulting measures for RTA’s management, in order to helpimprove internal processes. Some stakeholders prefer the ideaof establishing a completely new public service broadcaster,others still hold on to the idea that RTA can be transformedinto a public service broadcaster if certain measures are taken:– Improvements of the legal framework: Amending themedia law in order to give RTA more editorial and financialindependence.– Advocating for the possibilities of raising money for RTAand finding financial sources.– Implementing structures that provide for long-termplanning within the corporation.– Help in organizational development for RTA’s basis inKabul and the outlets in the provinces.– Establishing a training department.– Assessment of the programs in order to develop andintroduce new formats meeting the public serviceidea with respect to the major languages and theminority languages.In the Altai study RTA is seen as one of the main ways to pursuethe goal of supporting integration: “To this end, it wouldbe necessary to build on RTA’s relative success and significantlyenhance its audience share through a line-up of moreattractive programs, designed with the goal of promoting asense of national unity.” 48 The Altai authors suggest programsfocussing on positive achievements, showing the results of thenation-building effort, testimonials of conflict resolution andwell-administered justice, examples of successful (and not corrupt)business ventures and clever promotion of Afghan history,culture, and identity can contribute to fostering a senseof national unity. Civil society actors like Seddiqullah Tauhidi,the advocacy manager of the media watch branch of the journalists’union NAI, underline the necessity of a strong and reliablepublic broadcaster that fosters a national consciousnessand thus supports integration.For Afghanistan it can be concluded that the transformationprocess of the state broadcaster did not succeed for differentreasons: Most importantly short-sightedness on themedia development side and a reform fear and confusion onthe Afghan side led to reform stagnation. A new attempt toreform the broadcaster would need new approaches on manylevels as well as a well-coordinated long-term engagementfrom many actors.– Reducing the RTA staff (to retire the old cadre). A seriousrestructuring process of the organization would entail thefiring of 90% of the staff who are currently on the payrollbut were never were productive for the broad caster. Changingthe personnel structure of RTA was and still is the mostdifficult aspect in the transformation efforts.– Improving professional skills of old and new RTA staffin production, administration, and technical departments.– Improving professional skills of the corporation’s middlemanagement team, in particular, in leadership and organizationalskills. Most of the people in those positions are notqualified for the jobs and have no interest in changing thestatus quo. They should be motivated to follow the idea.46Shirazuddin Siddiqi, Project Manager, BBC Media Action for Afghanistan,written answers, May 29, 2014.47Priya Esselborn, Regional Coordinator South Asia, DW Akademie.48Altai Consulting 2010, 175.44

Part II Afghanistan: Reform Fear, Limited International Support, Failed TransformationStatus of Radio Television Afghanistan (RTA)Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsChannels,distributionTV: RTA Kabul and in all 32 provinces. They provide basic televisionat a provincial level. They broadcast material producedin the provinces. No clear scheme, 24/7 on paper, with somerepetition in the programming.–Radio: Radio Afghanistan basis in Kabul with a number ofprovincial sub-stations which operate radio services. Newscome from Kabul-based news desk. The stations are usuallyclosely affiliated with the Provincial Governors’ Offices.Legal frameworkThe Afghan Media law regulates the private media sector aswell as the state media. The key bodies are: the High MediaCouncil (HMC), the Mass Media Commission and the NationalRadio Television Afghanistan Commission (NRTAC).RTA’s status has yet to befully agreed on and is subjectto political debate.Public service remitAccording to the Media Law, RTA belongs to the Afghannation and performs as an independent directorate. Article15 says: “National Radio Television Afghanistan is obligatedto adjust its programs in the light of the principles and theprovisions of the holy religion of Islam, national and spiritualvalues of the Afghan nation and in its programs shall considerdissemination of information, promotion of religiouseducation, science, culture, economy, moral and psychologicalwellbeing.” Article 16 says: “National Radio Television, incompliance with full impartiality in the interest of promotingnational unity and strengthening religious and nationalvalues of the country, must organize its programs in such away to reflect the culture, language and religious beliefs of allthe ethnic groups residing in the country.”–Regulatory system/governing bodyThe NRTAC is commissioned to regulate RTA’s structure and itstransformation process (Art. 41, Par. 4). Its seven members areappointed by the HMC and have a three-year mandate.–Engagement ofcivil societyThe HMC is allowed to appoint members that are civilsociety actors.–FinancingAll revenues are handed over to the Ministry of Finance andthen to the Ministry of Information and Culture before asmall part of the amount is paid out to the broadcaster. RTArelies on a monthly subsidy of 408,000 US Dollars from theMinistry of Information and Culture.–Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 45

Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsUse of mobile and internetcommunication/moderntechnology/challenges ofdigitalizationNot an issue (yet). –Regional structuresand reportingThere is no chart listing the regional structure and givinginformation on how the provincial desks work.–Capacity buildingRTA has no training department. Most of the staff is recruitedfrom the faculty of journalism at Kabul University whichhas an old-fashioned, theoretical curriculum and does notinclude vocational trainings for aspiring journalists.–Ethic codices, newsroomguidelinesThere are no documents in which the ethics codices or newsroomguidelines are written down.–Public perception andsupport for the mediaorganizationRTA is perceived as the national broadcaster and people relyespecially on the radio program because it covers locallygeneratedinformation. Although most of the viewers of RTAknow that the program shows government bias, they stillwatch it to at least know what the government is doing andsaying. As for the integrative role and the national unity, RTAis seen as a symbol for that because it respects minorities andstands for national unity.–46

Part II Afghanistan: Reform Fear, Limited International Support, Failed TransformationGeneral Functions I: Political SphereFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Information: comprehensive, balanced,objective – and also regionalnews.PartiallyRTA is the only broadcaster that covers all provinces andthus gives information to a broader public. Programsdelivered by RTA Kabul are strongly focused on the capitalso that not all provinces feel represented - especially in theprime-time news.All political parties have the opportunityto speak in the program andare present in interviews, soundbitesetc.NoRTA is highly government biased.Criticism of political actors(government, administration,other political actors)PartiallySince there are vox pops of average people that are notcensored, criticism can be heard in those voices. Journalistsasking politicians critical questions in the RTAprogram are rare.Societal criticism (social actors,individuals, problems in society)PartiallyThere is no profound research on social issues. Most of theprograms are based on interviews with individuals andvox pops. RTA covers merely success stories rather thanshowing problems in society.Moderation of debate/democratic facilitationNo –Social/political orientation Partially Since the media landscape offers a broad range ofbroadcasters RTA is one pillar of information for itsaudience. Thus it gives orientation towards the goal ofnational unity.Agenda setting/investigative journalismNoInvestigative journalism is a completely new phenomenonfor Afghanistan and has no tradition in the mass media.Doing undercover research, having a closer look at a certainissue and questioning procedures, political or socialdecisions and asking more than one or two sources on thesame issue – all these things cannot be observed in theprograms of RTA. And in fact these elements are not necessarilywhat people would expect in the first place from RTA.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 47

General Functions II: IntegrationFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Participation, voice, empowerment Partially RTA is very much focused on the capital Kabul, but theradio stations in the provinces provide locally-generatedprograms which are – in some areas – the only source ofinformation.Cultural expression, strengtheningof identity, values and culturalcohesionYesAs the first broadcaster RTA has the largest and oldestarchive of old films and music videos of Afghan musicians.In its program these old clips are shown and people fromthe older generations love to watch them. RTA is seen as anational institution despite the limited quality.Entertainment Yes Although the entertainment programs are somewhat oldfashioned,some of the shows are successful, for example,quiz shows or comedy shows.Education Partially RTA was the first broadcaster to have a children’s programwhich is also quite popular.Innovation No –48

Part II Afghanistan: Reform Fear, Limited International Support, Failed TransformationInternational Media Development PartnersPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/progress/problemsConsortiumof BBC, DWand CFI(startedin 2004)Transformation of RTAinto a PSBFirst phase:Assessment of the status at RTA.Figuring out all that belongs toRTA from buildings to technicalequipment to cars, etc.First phase:There were no documents aboutthe assets, the donations givenby the international donors, thestaff, the payrolls. Everything hadto be assessed. This phase couldnot be accomplished.Second phase:Changing the regulatory framework.The consortium has beenlobbied for some amendments tounderline RTA as a PSB.Second phase:As a PSB RTA has to be financiallyand organizationally more independentfrom the government.There was no success in achievingthis independence.Third phase:Preparing the top and middlemanagement.Third phase:Most of the people in those positionswere not qualified for thejobs and had no interest in changingthe status quo.Fourth phase:Reconstructing the organization.Preparing a concept for the broadcasterand an organizational chartthat reflects the reality.Fourth phase:Reconstructing the organizationmeans in the case of RTA firing90% of the staff that were on thepayroll but were never productivefor the broadcaster. Changing thepersonnel structure of RTA wasand still is the most difficult aspectof the transformation efforts.N.B. All the information given in the tables above is based onthe interviews, observations and document analysis made bythe author of this chapter. The tables provide very rough summariesof what is elaborated in the texts. Many of the issuesmentioned here are, of course, subject to change.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 49

AppendixReferencesAltai Consulting (2010), Afghan Media in 2010. Sythesis Report,retrieved from: http://www.altaiconsulting.com/docs/media/2010/Afghan%20Media%20in%202010.pdfBritish DX Club (2014), Guide to Broadcasting in Afghanistan,retrieved from: http://homepage.ntlworld.com/bdxcuk/afghan.pdfCIA – Central Intelligence Agency (2014), The World Factbook:Afghanistan, retrieved from: http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.htmlLaw on Mass Media, retrieved from: http://www.afghan-web.com/politics/storage/law_on_mass_media.pdfNational Radio Television of Afghanistan, Website, retrievedfrom: http://www.rta.org.af/von Nahmen, Carsten (2006), From State to public servicebroadcasting. Difficulties in the transformation of Radio-TelevisionAfghanistan. In: Money Matters. How Independent MediaManage to Survive. Forum Medien und Entwicklung, retrievedfrom: http://www.cameco.org/mez/Money_Matters_Documentation_sw.pdfList of InterviewsAnzor, Zarin; Director General, RTA, interview conducted inKabul in October 2010.Esselborn, Priya; Regional Coordinator, DW Akademie, interviewconducted in Bonn on May 22, 2014Ghafoori, Abdul Sobhan;Technical Director, RTA, interviewconducted in Kabul on June 28, 2010.Parlika, Soraya; Women’s activist, interview conducted in Kabulin October 2010.Siawash, Baktash; Journalist and Member of the Afghan parliament,interview conducted in Kabul in October 2010.Siddiqi, Shirazuddin; Consultant at BBC World Service Trustduring RTA’s transformation process, interview conducted onJune 20, 2010.Sucker, Eberhard; Regional Coordinator and Project Managerin Afghanistan during the transformation process, DW Akademie,interview conducted in Berlin on September 2, 2013.Tecklenburg, Michael; Project Manager in Afghanistan from2003–2004, DW Akademie, interview conducted in March 2011.Wiener Dokumentationsarchiv zur Erforschung der Geschichtedes Funkwesens und der elektronischen Medien, Rundfunk inAfghanistan, retrieved from: http://www.dokufunk.org/broadcast/international/?CID=5080&PHPSESSID=604ba687c456912a25f969a19f43e5deWakili, Merjam. (2012), Medien und Öffentlichkeit im Demokratisierungsprozessin Afghanistan – Die Transformation desStaatssenders RTA in einen öffentlichen Sender, Berlin.50

Part II Afghanistan: Reform Fear, Limited International Support, Failed TransformationEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 51

04Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly EnvironmentJackie Wilson Bakare52

Part II Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly EnvironmentKyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly EnvironmentKyrgyzstan is the only country in Central Asia whose main state broadcaster (OTRK) has had its status changed to that of publicservice media – finalized, after one or two earlier failed attempts, in 2010. In early 2012, the American media development organizationInternews initiated a new attempt to advance the transformation process. The strategy focused first on managementand on television, and different organizational and financial assessments were made.There was also some lobbying work done in the political sphere and moves towards more citizen participation were made:Now audience research is being conducted, audience feedback is collected and town-hall meetings between citizens and staff ofOTRK are organized. In addition to this, civil society groups were encouraged in their engagement for the PSM on the SupervisoryBoard. OTRK is one of the very few Kyrgyz media outlets that provides an international news segment, relying on materialfrom the BBC here. It also broadcasts parliamentary debate live. Yet much work still needs to be done to improve the qualityof the content. Aside from the questionable balance within OTRK’s news and political programming, the other main problemdogging news production is the lack of regional content. So far the journalists at OTRK do not make full use of the potential thepress freedom in their country holds. The case of OTRK shows that the transformation of a broadcaster in a country with pressfreedoms, an economically weak media landscape, a strong civil society, and media development actors with a dedicated strategyis possible, but not simple.In the media landscape of the Central Asian region, the KyrgyzRepublic represents a “relative bright spot” according to FreedomHouse’s latest report on media freedom. 1 The 2014 reportsaid despite its rating as “not free,” there were “positive developments”to report in the Kyrgyz media. It is, amongst otherthings, the only country in the region whose main state broadcaster(OTRK) has had its status changed to that of public servicemedia. In order to understand the particular situation ofthe public service media in Kyrgyzstan, a brief overview of thecountry’s most important characteristics, its media landscape,and the status of its current public service media will be given.Kyrgyzstan – A Brief OverviewKyrgyzstan is a country still struggling to come to terms witha past characterised by ethnic strife. The second-poorest countryin Central Asia, one third of the population of just overfive-and-a-half million lives below the poverty line. 2 Economicgrowth and productivity is slow, a large part of the workforce isemployed abroad (mainly in neighbouring countries).Since gaining independence from the Soviet Union in 1991,its path towards democracy has been halting, but largely determined.Power struggles and turf wars were regular and sometimesfierce in a culture heavily marked by clan delineationsand loyalties. The first presidents of the young Republic werewidely respected but hardly brought up in democratic traditions.The first president was Askar Akayev, a respected physicist,and he maintained his position for the first decade and ahalf of the country’s independence. Initially, NGOs, civil societygroups, and the media were given relative freedom. But by thelate 90s, Akayev was tinkering with the fledgling constitutionand substantially increasing the power of the presidency. Hewon re-election in 1995 and again in 2000 – for an unconstitutionalthird term –, and international observers noted seriousirregularities in both the presidential and the parliamentaryelections of that year. 3 By 2002, people in the marginalized andeconomically disadvantaged southern regions were becomingfrustrated and this led to public protests. Akayev’s ‘island ofdemocracy’ was becoming increasingly compromised, as thepresident took steps to silence the independent media andsuppress opposition. Parliamentary elections in February2005 were seen as deeply flawed and the country was throwninto a state of political turmoil. Thousands of protesters tookto the streets, demanding Akayev’s resignation, and when thedemonstrators marched on the presidential headquarters inBishkek in March, Akayev departed, fleeing eventually to Moscow.This period became known as the Tulip Revolution. Peoplein Kyrgyzstan refer to it as the First Revolution.In July of 2005, interim President and opposition leaderKurmanbek Bakiyev gained a decisive victory in the presidentialballot. He was practically unopposed but the Organizationfor Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) neverthelessrated the election as “tangible progress” compared to previouspolls. 4 However, opposition from the streets continuedand people accused Bakiyev of failing to see through promisedconstitutional reforms. A referendum in October 2007 waswidely seen as an attempt on Bakiyev’s part to constitutionallyincrease the power of the presidency and when he won thepresidential election of July 2009 with over 80% of the vote,OSCE observers condemned the poll as “failing to meet keyOSCE commitments for democratic elections.” 5President Bakiyev continued his campaign of political suppression.Opposition figures had to fear harassment or attacks,not just on themselves but their families as well. Several fledthe country. The media experienced major political pressure,and a series of vicious attacks on journalists and the assassinationof regime opponents silenced any open criticism. 61Freedom House, May 1, 2014.Article quotes Freedom House’s2014 report’s project director,Karin Karlekar.2USAID 2014.3Freedom House 2013a.4OSCE/ODIHR 2005.5OSCE/ODIHR 2009.6Bertelsmann Foundation 2014.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 53

Increasing levels of corruption under this president finallybrought tension in the Republic to the breaking point. InApril 2010, there were confrontations with security forces onthe streets of Bishkek and a total of 86 people were reportedkilled, with dozens more injured. Bakiyev fled Bishkek and theformation of an interim government was announced, headedby another prominent opposition leader, Roza Otunbayeva.The interim government struggled to maintain order. Later inthe same year, ethnic rioting broke out in the southern half ofthe Republic, during which at least 470 people died.In 2010, the people of Kyrgyzstan were called to the ballotboxes twice: In June 2010, a constitutional referendum confirmedOtunbayeva as President of an Interim Governmentand also approved a new constitution, shifting power frompresidency to parliament. Then in October a parliamentarypoll took place. Both polls were judged reasonably fair andabove-board by the OSCE. The organization concluded that“the competing parties had equal access to mass media andregistration process.” 7 Some irregularities involving voter listsand campaign financing were noted.It is widely recognized that it was this latter, more decisiveshift towards parliamentary democracy in the wake of theSecond Revolution that allowed the Kyrgyz Republic (as it isofficially called) to become a model of transformation for theregion. Of 50 registered political parties – most of which wereonly registered shortly before the polls – 29 were able to competein the 2010 parliamentary election. Five won seats inparliament and formed a coalition government – which hasbeen the prevailing form of government since then, thoughwith changes in the alliances. There have been three differentcoalitions since the adoption of the new constitution, thelatest collapsed on March 18th, 2014, only to come togetheragain in the same constellation. It is now presided over by(former Deputy) Prime Minister Joomart Otorbaev, who wasofficially named the Kyrgyz Republic’s 26th prime minister,and the fourth since the parliamentary election of 2010, onApril 3rd, 2014. 8Parties in Kyrgyzstan stand and fall with their ability tofinance campaigns and promote their key leaders. They arepersonality-oriented and rely on clan-like loyalties, ratherthan on their policies. Corruption is endemic in the Kyrgyzpolitical landscape – indeed at all levels of society. The countryranks 150th out of 177 on Transparency International’sCorruption Perceptions Index 2013. 9 However, TransparencyInternational notes in its report for 2013 that measures are beingtaken to strengthen the independence of the judiciary andother institutions, and that the present climate as a whole isreform-friendly.Kyrgyzstan politics are verbose and competitive, and cannotbe separated from the ethnic situation in the countrywhich remains largely unresolved, especially in the south, inOsh and Jalal-Abad. Regional politicians tend to find themselvesfrequently at odds with central government: “President[Almazbek] Atambayev... has shown inclination to assertmore power ... and to promote officials to key posts based onloyalty rather than merit.” 10 Ethnic strife and unease are moreprevalent in the south because of border tensions and the differentdemography: Whilst about 14% of the population inthe country as a whole is Uzbek, that concentration increasesconsiderably in most southern regions.Media Landscape“The considerable social polarization is reflected in the mediaand the climate for journalists, who are often harassed by pressuregroups,” notes Reporters Without Borders. 11 However, theBertelsmann Foundation believes that “Kyrgyzstan’s mass mediaoutlets are more diverse and free of government control inBishkek compared to provinces, especially in the south.” 12 Conditionsfor Kyrgyz-language media are seen as vastly improvedsince 2010, but other ethnicities are if anything worse off withregards to representation in the media.Uzbek-language outlets have disappeared almost entirely,and of the three or four main broadcasters, only one, Yntymak(a word which means ‘harmony’ in both Uzbek and Kyrgyz)Public Regional TV and Radio Company, broadcasts in Kyrgyz,Russian and Uzbek. The station was co-founded by Internewsand the Kyrgyz government as a public broadcaster in September2012, in Osh, to promote and help improve inter-ethnicrelations. It is now the only station broadcasting in Uzbekas well as Russian and Kyrgyz, and has become very popular. 13However, despite the importance of its mission, the stationreceives no funding from the state, relying primarily on foreignaid and grants. 14Altogether there are 26 radio stations, 15 many of which areprivately owned – and have little real editorial independence.Of the 31 TV networks, three of which are local cable networks,ratings show the top three to be OTRK, ElTR (both state-owned)and the privately-owned 7th Channel. 16 Obschestvennaya Tele-Radio Kompaniya – OTRK – is the main public service media(PSM). The second biggest national broadcaster is Public TelevisionElTR (this is its title and not an acronym, with a lowercasel, not a capital I), an Osh-based Kyrgyz-language public TVstation. It was established in 2005 by presidential decree. Anotherimportant player is Radio Azattyk, the Kyrgyz service ofRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). Established in 1953,the radio station calls itself “the leading source of independentnews and information for elites and ordinary citizens alike.” 17 Itis widely regarded as one of the more professional and objectiveoutlets.There are four main news agencies, one (Kabar) is stateownedand the other three are in private ownership. Theyhave well-developed, professional websites, with at least Englishand Russian versions available, and at least one of them –AKIpress, the largest and most well-established online-basednews agency – has a Twitter and Facebook presence. Thereare several blogging websites available for those with internetaccess (which, in Kyrgyzstan, is now around 80% of the54

Part II Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly Environmentcountry 18 ); one of these, Kloop Media, also runs a journalismschool. Kloop’s news website is available in Kyrgyz, Russianand English. This is a well-developed and reasonably wellfundedplatform, a private initiative, which we will look at inmore detail later.Only two of Kyrgyzstan’s TV stations have a nationwidereach, but owing to the mountainous nature of large parts ofthe country, more remote areas are often cut off even fromthese providers. The same applies to radio, of which again,only a handful have national reach. Newspapers, especially regionaloutlets, are more numerous, but national newspaperswill often reach more rural areas in remoter parts of the countrywith a two-week delay:“Any shortage of information in southern Kyrgyzstan andother remote areas of the country is not unique to a specificethnic group, but is rather a sign of poor general access to television,radio, and print media.” 19Russian television is more widely available 20 – and also oftenmore popular, particularly with urban populations, probablypartly because of the greater variety of entertainmentprograms on offer, although OTRK holds the floor for newsprograms. In urban centers (Bishkek and Osh), cable televisionnetworks offer access to a variety of foreign channel options,whilst in rural areas people tend to resort to satellite if they canafford it. Access to foreign media “is not restricted by anythingother than the financial means of the customer.” 21the only children’s channel in the country. A culture channel isin the planning phase. All of these channels broadcast in Kyrgyzand in Russian – the spread of the two languages acrossthe channels appears to be fairly random. The BBC providesnews segments in English for re-broadcast on the main channel.At OTRK, there are five radio channels, and these broadcastin Kyrgyz, Russian and English. Birinchi Radio (First Radio), describedon the company website as All Talk Radio or “radio ‘everything,’”broadcasts two hours of English news a day. Thereis also a tiny segment with the optimistic name of FriendshipRadio (Radio Dostuk). This, at the moment purely an onlinepresence, puts together programs in most of the minority languagespresent in the Kyrgyz Republic, although surprisinglynot in the language of the largest minority, the Uzbeks. 22 Wewill come back to this in a later part of the chapter.Both ElTR and OTRK, and Yntymak are subject to the regulationof the Supervisory Board, which was set up during thereforms of 2010 specifically to watch over the transformationto PSM. Members are selected by a parliamentary Committeefor Education, Science, Culture and Sport. The Board consists of15 members, five from government, five from parliament andfive from the civil society. Its authority as laid down in the constitutionis considerable, but is in actual fact tempered by theinfluence still wielded by the state. 23 Many media experts andobservers hold it to be “neither balanced nor independent.” 24Obschestvennaya Tele-Radio Kompaniya (OTRK)The Kyrgyz public service media sector, although in its infancy,is slightly more varied than in many other countries at thisstage of development, where one state broadcaster has beenor is being transformed. In Kyrgyzstan, dominant in the sectoris the main, formerly state, broadcaster OTRK. Yntymak, (fulltitle Public Regional TV and Radio Company) is purely radioand was established in the south as an integration initiative.There is also the public television company ElTR – which weinclude here on the periphery as an important factor in anyanalysis of the Kyrgyz PSM sector. Established in 2005 byPresident Bakiyev as a public broadcasting company with theaim of contributing to the harmony of society, the station isgoverned by its own bylaw and fully owned by the state. It is asmall outfit (about 260 employees) which started out in Osh inthe south but has now also established offices and studios inBishkek (premises are partially leased from a university) andintends to broaden its audience base to include the entire Republic.There is at present just the one channel but plans arebeing made to establish a second one, also in the south.The main focus here, however, has to be the dominant nationalbroadcaster: OTRK (sometimes known under varyingacronyms such as KPRT - Kyrgyz Public Radio and TV – KPBC, orPRTC, whereby OTRK is the most recognisable and will be usedhere throughout) has 3 TV channels, two of which are newlyestablishedspecialist channels – a music and a kids’ channel,7Bertelsmann Foundation 2012.8Trilling, March 31, 2014.9TI 2013.10Bertelsmann Foundation 2014.11Reporters Without Borders 2014a.12Bertelsmann Foundation 2014.13“Over the past year, the opportu -nities for Kyrgyz citizens to obtainnews and information in theUzbek language have improvedmarkedly, with an Uzbeklanguageversion of the KyrgyzlanguageAalam broadcast onOTRK’s Yntymak channel, alongwith news releases and programsin Uzbek.” See IREX 2014, 260.14IREX 2013, 268.15IREX 2014, 250.16Ibid.17Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty2013.18Bektour Iskender, Kloop MediaFoundation ( founding member) –NB this figure reflects accesscapability throughout thecountry, largely boosted by mobilephone networks. Actual digitalliteracy figures are much lower.19Freedom House 2013c.20Freedom House 2014.21IREX 2013, 266.22http://dostuk.ktrk.kg/ky23Employee International RelationsDept., OTRK – does not wish tobe named.24IREX 2014, 253.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 55

Stakeholders in the Transformation ProcessThere are a considerable number of international organizationsactive in the Kyrgyz Republic today, across all sections ofcivil society. The main actors in the media sector are the OSCE(Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe), 25 theUS Agency for International Development (USAID), 26 the SO-ROS Foundation, 27 and the American media development organization,Internews. 28 The Copenhagen-based media developmentNGO International Media Support (IMS) 29 also worksin the country, mainly with the Public Association of Journalists(PAJ) and Kloop Media.In the public service media sector, the following recent developmentsand activities stand out: With the financial supportof USAID, the US-American media development organizationInternews has been actively involved in the transformationprocess of OTRK from state broadcaster to public service mediasince March 2012 – and in the development of independentmedia in the country for much longer than that. Their programhas a strong focus on management strategies and on television.Several organizational and financial assessments weremade. Internews also engaged in lobbying work in the politicalsphere and civil society groups were supported in their engagementfor PSM on the independent Supervisory Board.Moves were made towards more regular citizen participation,with town-hall meetings organized between citizensand OTRK staff. Following a tender given out by Internews,an international research organization called InterMedia wascharged in late 2013 with a study of the television and radioaudiences of OTRK. 30 Beginning in mid-December 2013, focusgroups were set up across the country to take a closer look atOTRK audiences. The study is aimed at identifying programmingweaknesses – and strengths – as well as determiningfuture target audiences. The Joint Media Committee, an umbrellaorganization which was formed in the latter half of 2012by joining three separate Kyrgyz media associations, 31 is accompanyingthis study in a consultancy role. 32In January 2014, Internews also announced a tender for aManagement Support Component on strategic planning, reportwriting, and communication. To be based on a functionalanalysis already carried out, this project is in response to “aneed to support the OTRK management in compiling annualreports, strategies and presentations.” 33 It was requested bythe management at OTRK, which would indicate that changeagents have successfully insisted on the need for wide-rangingimprovement of media management skills. This is frequentlysingled out as the one of the biggest weak spots, the Achillesheel (along with insufficient legal frameworks) in the transformationof the Kyrgyz media sector. 34 A tender has also beenissued (by Internews and the Soros Foundation) for a review ofthe laws and regulations governing OTRK, with a view to clarifyingfunding mechanisms for the broadcaster and adjustingexisting laws to better recognise its public status. Draft lawsand regulations have already been drawn up which need re-fining and discussing with ministries and other stakeholdersbefore being put into the hands of the lawmakers. 35Among initiatives already completed, the SOROS Foundationand the OSCE have been instrumental in organizing studytours for MPs and broadcasters to Georgia, Lithuania andother countries in the wider region where the transformationto public service media is further advanced. These have beentaking place since 2011 and have resulted in recommendationsand guidelines being established for further development. AnOTRK ‘top management’ delegation including the DirectorGeneral, Kubatbek Otorbaev, was shortly due (at the time ofwriting) to visit Estonia to exchange expertise and comparenotes on the transformation process. 36OTRK itself is becoming more pro-active in this respectand the International Relations and Protocol Department(which sometimes calls itself External Relations) has takensteps to strengthen relations with foreign broadcasters andbroadcasting associations, including Korean BroadcastingSystem (KBS) in South Korea, Japanese public broadcasterNHK, and the Turkish Radio and TV Corporation TRT. OTRKis a member of the Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union (ABU), acooperation and assistance platform for the region based inKuala Lumpur. 37 At present, by far the larger part of internationaldonor cooperation is provided by Internews and SO-ROS – without whose considerable financial commitment,according to one interviewee, many of the Internews projectscould not get off the ground. 38 The Japan International CooperationAgency (JICA) also provides some support in the formof consultancy and equipment. 39All international change agents seem to work very well withKyrgyzstani organizations – collaboration on both an abstractand a more concrete logistical level seems well-developed.Most collaboration is on a consultancy level or in the form offunding or a combination of both. There is some training – ofjournalists as well as administrators – undertaken by both foreignand national organizations, 40 but it is widely recognisedthat more needs to be done here.ElTR works with partners such as USAID and SOROS as well.The outlet has received financial and technical assistance fromthe United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and it hasreceived direct funding for programming from India and fromChina, and peer-to-peer training from the Turkish broadcasterTRT (for which ElTR staff travelled to Turkey). 41Status of the Media OrganizationLegal Framework, Governance and EthicsOstensibly, the media sector in Kyrgyzstan is governed bysome of the most liberal media legislation in the region. Accessto public information, and freedoms of speech and of thepress are guaranteed in the Kyrgyz constitution and, to a degree,in law. But practical experience with the law has shownthat it lags behind the constitution to a certain degree. It wasquickly recognized that whilst the media had been reformed,56

Part II Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly Environmentthere had been no parallel reform in other sectors such as thejudiciary or law enforcement. 42The libel law in particular is currently under debate. Althoughlibel was decriminalized in 2011, it is still a crime toinsult public officials. This law is frequently used againstjournalists and bloggers. Over the course of the past months,there have been three unsuccessful attempts to push throughamendments “that would have severely restricted freedom ofspeech in Kyrgyzstan.” 43 One of these, a bill on false accusationsin the media, was withdrawn, only to be replaced by a versionwhich, as its backers stress, is aimed not only at journalists, butat anyone spreading ‘false information’ in the media. On April16th, 2014, the Kyrgyz parliament approved amendments tothe criminal code which threaten hefty fines and up to threeyears’ imprisonment for “spreading false information relatingto a crime or offence.” 44 Reporters Without Borders calls it a“pointless backward step” and says it “makes nonsense of thedecriminalization of defamation in 2011. By once again turninga media-related offence into a crime, the authorities aresending a deterrent message to all journalists, promoting selfcensorshipand hindering investigative reporting.” 45Several interviewees – interviewed in Bishkek in the courseof a four-day research trip in February 2014 – mention a workinggroup currently formulating new media legislation, whichincludes representatives of the media community and parliament.They have a huge task before them since the new lawsalso have to encompass digitalization, set to take place in 2015.The pace of legal reform needs to be stepped up, says one interviewee,two or three years of intense research (includingprojects by international NGOs) have paved the way for it, butprogress is halting. 46 This is partly due to the fact that politicalinterests frequently get in the way of agreement, partly alsodue to a mistrust of the fragile status quo and a fear that legislativeinitiatives could be used to muzzle free speech and blockfurther progress.As part of the transition to digital broadcasting, licensesfor analogue broadcasting are no longer being issued. The newchannel Yntymak was the last to receive a license and frequencyallocation for analogue transmission. 47 By and large, however,developments have fallen behind initial timetabling. Bylate 2011, for example, the assigning of frequencies for digitalbroadcasting was meant to have been open to competition.One online media outlet however reported that the responsibleministry, the Ministry of Transport and Communication,“allocated four multiplexes without competition to the stateownedfirm, Kyrgyztelecom.” 48Meerim Asanaly, OTRK Head of International Relationsand Protocol, confirms that legislation governing the publicservice media status of OTRK also needs to be redrafted, andagain, after a lengthy period of research, reform processes arebeing introduced. The broadcaster’s public status needs to becemented, as it is widely seen as public service media primarilyin name, with very little by way of legislation to underpin this. 49Financial legislation is one important area of reform, as theFinance Ministry still controls most budget issues, includingstaffing – a circumstance which must necessarily impact theoutlet’s independence. Also, “the procedure for ElTR and OTRKto defend their budgets in the Jogorku Kenesh [parliament] everyyear adversely affects their editorial independence.” 50As has been mentioned, OTRK is subject to a SupervisoryBoard, the 15 members of which are selected by a parliamentarycommittee. Members serve a two-year term and electionstake place annually. They approve programming and the budgetand monitor the work of the Director General – humanresource management is outside their remit, although it’sagreed that this isn’t always the case in practice. The Board isseen by some as the transformation success story, with shortcomings,one of which is the fact that any of their decisionscan be overridden by parliament. 51 For others, this lack of politicalclout means that they represent a sort of sham. 52 It ispointed out that the kinship and clan squabbles, divided loyalties,political games, and resentments that beset daily politicsare hardly magically absent here, and severely handicap theBoard’s work. 53Meetings are open to the public and members of civil societyorganizations, and this provision is regularly made useof. Despite the reservations of some observers, the Board is animportant factor in the broadcaster’s independence, since at25OSCE 2014.26USAID 2014.27http://soros.kg/en/28http://eng.internews.kg/category/otrk/29http://www.i-m-s.dk/30http://eng.internews.kg/category/otrk/31Associations of private media,state-owned media andadvertising agencies.32Marina Kydyralieva, Joint MediaCommittee ( founding member),advisor to Director General ElTR.33http://eng.internews.kg/category/otrk/34Yelena Baranouski, Joint MediaCommittee ( founding member),Bishkek.35Internews 2014a.36Meerim Asanaly, Head of InternationalRelations and ProtocolDepartent, OTRK.37Ibid.38Corina Cepoi, Project Director,Internews Bishkek.39Ibid.40DW Akademie and OSCE Academy(summer school – see Tables);OTRK’s own newly-establishedtraining department;Kloop Media.41Sultan Zhumagulov, DirectorGeneral ElTR.42Rickleton, September 29, 2011.43IREX 2014, 251.44Reporters Without Borders 2014b.45Ibid.46Marina Kydyralieva, Joint MediaCommittee ( founding member),advisor to Director General ElTR.47IREX 2013, 262.48Ibid., 263.49Meerim Asanaly, Head of InternationalRelations and ProtocolDepartment, OTRK.50IREX 2014, 253.51External Analyst, Policy OfficerOSCE – wishes to remainunnamed.52Employee, InternationalRelations Department, OTRK –wishes to remain unnamed.53Yelena Baranouski, Joint MediaCommittee ( founding member),Bishkek.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 57

Part II Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly Environmentetc. The courses have to be paid for but Kloop will help tofund them for aspiring professionals from poorer economicbackgrounds. This isn’t purely charity, as the majority of theyoung people taking the courses also work for Kloop, unpaid.All their articles are written by young journalists aged 15-25,and feedback indicates that this works. Everything is doneunder careful supervision and the Foundation is a well-respectedplatform.Because of the aforementioned hiatus between managementand staff, many of the younger workers at OTRK don’tstay for long. One interviewee informed us in late March 2014(not long after the research was conducted for this report)that he was looking for another job since his February salaryhad not been paid and further budget cuts were imminent.Pay in the sector in general is poor, however “researchersfound that OTRK salaries fall beneath average monthly wagesin Bishkek, which in 2012 was KGS 10,566 ($204), and are uncompetitivein the labor market.” 67On the other hand OTRK has, thanks to the reforms process,been able to keep some good staff and also to attract anumber of new, well qualified professionals from other mediaoutlets.Financing, Management and Newsroom StructuresThe question of finance and financial management is, manyfeel, the question of the hour in Kyrgyzstan. It is the frameworkwithout which any progress so far achieved may stand or fall,since it not only touches on the outlets’ independence but alsoon their sustainability. 68 Journalists in Kyrgyzstan earn belowpar. Research carried out by the Bishkek-based Public Associationof Journalists, with the support of IMS, in October 2013showed the average salary of a Kyrgyz journalist to be about7,500 soms (approx. 155 US dollars). Radio journalists receivesome of the highest salaries in the sector but still struggle tokeep up with the average monthly salary in the country as awhole, which in 2013 was thought to be about 13,500 soms. 69One of the more damaging consequences of this is the migrationof good journalists abroad, or into the private and PR sector,where they can expect far better pay. The “brain drain” isan increasing threat to the professionalization of the sector. 70Legal reforms since the events of 2010 have ensured manybasic media freedoms are protected in the constitution, asmentioned earlier. Like these, financial reforms are there, onpaper, but full legislation lags behind. Most media outlets arestill economically entirely dependent on their owners or, inthe case of state-owned or partially state-owned organizations,upon the state.So, notwithstanding the relative press and media freedomguaranteed in the constitution as of 2010, state bodies feelfully justified in interfering with editorial policy. This interferencemay be relatively limited and seldom amount to downrightcensorship, but it still gives rise to a certain amount ofself-censorship on the part of the media itself. And so “thestate-owned media and their directors never express dissatisfactionwith these dictates and do not even consider what theirbusinesses would be like as an independent media outlet.” 71As the main public service media, OTRK has three distinctstreams of income: primarily, of course, it is state-financed,via a budget which is still under the control of the Ministryof Finance – probably the primary reason why many observers,and some among its employees, regard its claims to independencewith skepticism. It also makes budget managementproblematic, as OTRK’s finance managers have no flexibility;they cannot vary reporting fees, for example, or address theissues of staff salaries. 72 One interviewee felt that too muchof it goes towards programming and not enough is put intounderfunded areas such as staff training and development orequipment maintenance. The channelling of state-budgetedfunds is circuitous and slow, in part because every transactionalso has to go through a review by the Supervisory Board. 73According to the latest figures, the larger part of the nationalmedia budget is split between OTRK and ElTR. OTRK receivesjust over US$8 million per year, with another US$10 million inspending planned for the transition to digital broadcasting, ontop of around US$2 million already spent out of the 2013 transitionbudget. 7454External Analyst, Policy OfficerOSCE.55Meerim Asanaly, Head of InternationalRelations and ProtocolDepartment, OTRK.56Employee, International RelationsDepartment, OTRK.57Yelena Baranouski, Joint MediaCommittee ( founding member),Bishkek.58IREX 2013, 264.59Marina Kydyralieva, Joint MediaCommittee ( founding member),advisor to Director General ElTR.60Employee, International RelationsDepartment, OTRK.61IREX 2013, 264.62Yelena Baranouski, Joint MediaCommittee ( founding member),Bishkek.63IREX 2013, 271.64IREX 2014, 258.65Employee, International RelationsDepartment, OTRK; informationprovided via email, March 4, 2014.66Meerim Asanaly, Head of InternationalRelations and ProtocolDepartment, OTRK.67“Today, the average salary ofan OTRK employee isKGS 7,908 ($153) for creativeand production personnel.”See IREX 2014, 257f.68Yelena Baranouski, Joint MediaCommittee ( founding member),Bishkek69International Media Support,November 27, 2013.70External Analyst, Policy Officer,OSCE.71IREX 2013, 268.72Corina Cepoi, Project Director,Internews Bishkek.73External Analyst, Policy Officer,OSCE.74$8,165,000 – or nearlyKGS 400 million;see IREX 2014, 263.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 59

However, thanks to the input of experts (provided by Internewsand others), via financial assessment and consultancies, OTRKis in a better position to negotiate its case with the ministriesand work towards more autonomy in the budget planning.Gaps are occasionally filled with the help of internationaldonors. The broadcaster has recently managed to attract agrant of US$ 800,000 from the Japanese government, to beused to upgrade their technical facilities in the move towardsdigitalization. In general, aside from the state budget, the othermain revenue source is advertising. The outlet’s InternationalRelations and Protocol Department is very active in exploringalternative revenue sources and, apart from looking for partnersand grants, it established a PR section three months agowhich is working, for example, to boost their public profile andraise their value as an advertising partner. Some rebrandingwork is being done since the head of the department felt thattheir most popular logos, such as that for the Kids’ Channel,were being widely misused. 75The advertising industry in general in Kyrgyzstan is underdeveloped,and so whilst it is also a source of income, it’sneither sizeable nor dependable. It is poorly regulated, theonly restrictions under the Advertising Act being that “advertisingvolumes should not exceed 20% of airtime and 20% ofnewspaper space.” 76 These regulations are neither monitored,nor are violations sanctioned. OTRK’s main TV channel has advertisingblocks of 5 or 6 minutes, once every two hours forthe larger part of the day, then rising to half-hourly or hourlyintervals during evening peak viewing times. With a total of17.5 hours of airtime daily, their advertising volume on theprimary channel stays within prescribed limits. It is perhapsworth noting that the Joint Media Committee has had enormoussuccess in both establishing the worth of the country’sadvertising market and helping it to realise its potential andexpand rapidly. 77News programming is at the heart of OTRK’s value withaudiences: Focus groups set up by the Joint Media Committee,with the help of USAID and Internews, established that byand large, audiences like the news and agree that the qualityof news programming with regard to reporting and politicalbalance is improving. 78 There are concerns about the extentof regional coverage, and about the quality of reporting. Accordingto one interviewee, there are major inconsistenciesin the quality of the programs, and still too many instancesof items being repeated a day later, items being insufficientlyresearched, with only one source, and so on. But this, she felt,was down to poor management, the head of news programmingbeing an excellent journalist but an insufficiently experiencedmanager. Management, she insisted, is an area that stillrequires particular attention, in the newsroom as elsewhere. 79Perception, Participation and Public EngagementCivil society in general in Kyrgyzstan is very supportive of themedia and guards basic rights such as freedom of expressionjealously. There are numerous media watchdog organizationsand journalists’ associations, there is a media ombudsman,and various forms of legal help for journalists, although a decreasein the availability of aid and the number of donors inrecent years means many NGOs are struggling to find funding.Also, online information about the activities of media NGOsseems to show, according to observers, that “almost all of theiractivities take place in the regions.” 80 Online-based organizationsin particular become very vocal if media freedoms lookthreatened by state interference – which happens often. 81 Thelack of organization, however, sometimes makes civil societygroups vulnerable to political influence. The liveliness of publicdebate – on all societal issues, not just pertaining to media –is greatly supported by the robustness and ready availabilityof online platforms.Audiences tend to welcome opportunities to vocalizetheir wishes and expectations, rare as these are, and there isno lack of feedback: Quite early on, town-hall meetings betweencitizens and the staff of OTRK were organized with themediation of Internews. OTRK has an audience feedback section,fed partly through a public reception area on the groundfloor of the building itself, where members of the public candeliver complaints and other feedback in person, partly bya telephone system, and partly via online platforms such asTwitter and Facebook. The online feedback in particular hasbeen hugely improved, with input from an expert: BektourIskender of Kloop Media was sent in (an intervention initiatedby Internews) to train OTRK editors in the effective useof their Facebook and Twitter accounts and other online facilities,which were already in place but languishing unusedthrough lack of both expertise and interest. And the feedbackdoesn’t simply get ‘filed,’ it is acted upon: in an oft-cited example,during the Sochi Winter Olympics, the broadcaster’s twocommentators (one for Russian and one for Kyrgyz) were veryquickly replaced when complaints about their delivery (tooslow, not professional enough) began to pile up, in particularon the Facebook page. New commentators were put in place,the audience response was positive, and the whole episodewas highlighted in local newspapers as an example of goodbroadcasting practice. 82Audience and market research is still very underdevelopedin Kyrgyzstan, although the Joint Media Committee is makinghuge progress in this area with the help of USAID. What ratingsinformation there is shows that public radio Yntymak isvery popular in the south of the country and widely listened to.Osh-based ElTR is also the main TV channel in the south, whereit is primarily based, and is the second TV broadcaster on theoverall ratings list. 83 According to its own testimony, this is notso much due to quality as to technical issues, mainly transmissionproblems. Its response to feedback is limited, in the DG’swords, because it is “currently more focused on content.” 8460

Part II Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly EnvironmentPublic Service: General FunctionsThe understanding of public service functions may very wellhelp to establish a clearer indication of how and in which fieldsthis transformation can best progress. Therefore, the studywill take a look at the general functions of public service media,in particular how well OTRK (and the other public mediaoutlets) are actually delivering these public goods.Creating a Public SphereThe assessment of OTRK’s program quality, particularly ofnews, is widely varied. General program content, certainly onthe main TV channel, is rated highly by certain segments ofthe population (with the exception that a regular gripe is thelack of Kyrgyz soaps). The general opinion seems to be thatthe younger generation tends to turn to the Russian channelsfor better-made entertainment programs and talk shows, andsince cable access is widespread and cheap, “most consumershave access to Russian-language channels.” 85 News is moreharshly judged, even by those segments of the populationwho cite OTRK as their primary source of information (ratingsshow the OTRK news programs to be the most popular). 86 It isfelt to be unbalanced, too one-sided, and not current enough.There are people within OTRK who will insist that the broadcaster’snews programs are entirely unbiased with no governmentcontrol whatsoever, but few really believe this. Onesource within OTRK who wished to remain unnamed blamedthe lack of progress or improvement on aging, unprogressivemanagement, and partially blamed partners and donors fornot making a greater effort to influence policy and managementstructures. 87 But it must also be said that so far, journalistsat OTRK do not make full use of the potential that pressfreedom in their country holds.On the plus side, Kloop Media make a bulletin style newsprogram which is broadcast by OTRK and say that so far ithas been broadcast uncensored, despite occasional criticalcontent. 88 OTRK is one of the very few outlets which providean international news segment, relying on material from theBBC here. They also have a slot from parliament, where parliamentarydebate is broadcast live – the timing of this programseems to be irregular but on average about once a week. 89Then there is Inconvenient Questions, a Radio Azattyk (RadioFree Europe/Radio Liberty) political talk show rebroadcast byOTRK (on TV). Radio Azattyk’s website says this program reachesone in four Kyrgyz viewers every week and is “consideredamong the best programs on Kyrgyz national television.” 90Observation tends to confirm this. The program has been runningsince 2008. However, in March 2010, Azattyk was brieflytaken off air and prevented from rebroadcasting via other stations– observers thought probably because of InconvenientQuestions, although financial reasons were given (closet censorship).After the events of April 2010, all restrictions werelifted. Old editions of the program – dating back to 2010 and2011 – can be found on YouTube, where Azattyk has an account.Aside from the questionable balance within OTRK’s news andpolitical programming, the other main problem dogging newsproduction is the lack of regional content. There are seven regionalstudios/offices (the widest regional distribution of anyKyrgyz broadcaster) 91 and a limited network of both own correspondentsand stringers, but it doesn’t seem that they getmuch to do, mainly leaping into action if government politiciansvisit the region. According to the head of the InternationalRelations department, aside from the regional bureausthere is also a ‘mobile studio,’ in a bus, which does a tour ofall the regions twice a year and produces talk shows with localpoliticians – the resulting production is a popular programknown as Oi-ordo (Brainstorm Battle). 92 The mobile studio isalso used within Bishkek to cover live events such as concerts,operas, and similar happenings. And yet audience feedbackstill indicates that there is simply not enough coverage of regionalaffairsThe other PSM, ElTR, provides some things that OTRK doesnot provide. It has a strong heritage and culture focus and ismore highly regarded in the south. It rates public educationhighly and maintains reasonably good audience relationships.But ElTR is still quite provincial and it is underfinanced, itsmanagement structures are underdeveloped, and developmentof program content is slow moving.The Director General of ElTR, Sultan Zhumagulov, speakswith some pride of the fact that his was a presidential appointment,not a Supervisory Board decree and that therefore he ismerely “acting” Director General and has yet to be approved inoffice by the Board – but that he has been given full power bythe President to take any action necessary for transformation.He speaks of the President’s conviction that all media, local orotherwise, should work according to international standards75Meerim Asanaly, Head of InternationalRelations and ProtocolDepartment, OTRK.76IREX 2013.77IREX 2014, 262.78Marina Kydyralieva, Joint MediaCommittee ( founding member),advisor to Director General ElTR.79Corina Cepoi, Project Director,Internews Bishkek80IREX 2014, 264.81Bektour Iskender, Kloop MediaFoundation ( founding member).82Meerim Asanaly, Head of InternationalRelations and ProtocolDepartment, OTRK – this examplewas cited by several interviewees.83IREX 2014, 250.84Sultan Zhumagulov, DirectorGeneral ElTR.85IREX 2014, 259.86Marina Kydyralieva, Joint MediaCommittee ( founding member),advisor to Director General ElTR.87Employee, International RelationsDepartment, OTRK.88Bektour Iskender, Kloop MediaFoundation ( founding member).89Employee, International RelationsDept., OTRK.90Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty2013.91Employee International RelationsDepartment, OTRK; informationprovided via email on March 21,2014.92Meerim Asanaly, Head of InternationalRelations and ProtocolDepartment, OTRK.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 61

and that the present situation of the Kyrgyz media sector isunacceptable. The clash here, it is evident, is not so much oneof objectives as of leverage and loyalties. 93There is little doubt that Mr. Zhumagulov is a man wellqualified for the post. He is a journalist with many years’ experience,served as a press advisor to President Kurmanbek Bakiyev,and managed Radio Azattyk for three years. He recentlyspent several months on secondment with the BBC in London.His was nonetheless most likely a political appointment andsymptomatic of the contradiction at the heart of Kyrgyz mediamedia politics between the freedom of press and expressionas laid out in the constitution and to a certain degree by law,and the extent to which this freedom of expression is disregardedby daily politics.None of the public media outlets show any evidence ofinvestigative reporting or programming, nor of independentinitiative that might be regarded as agenda-setting. This is anarea that is, by general admission, sorely underdeveloped inthe media sector of the Kyrgyz Republic. This is in part dueto the unwillingness of journalists to expose themselves tothe repercussions that invariably follow. Online media outletssuch as Kloop or 24.kg provide users with “lively alternativenews sources,” but online penetration within the Kyrgyzpopulation is only around 22%. And: “Around half of usersreached the internet through the state-controlled ISP Kyrgyztelecom,creating the potential for government influence overthe medium.” 94Supporting IntegrationSince the ethnic strife of June 2010, Uzbek outlets have disappearedalmost entirely from the Kyrgyz media sector. Uzbeksmake up around 14% of the population as a whole, but thisproportion climbs to around 40% in the southern regions,where ethnic tension remains close to the surface. Other ethnicities(as well as Kyrgyz, of course) are Russian, Ukrainian,Dungan and Uyghur (each around 1%). 95 None of these minoritieshas much access to news and information, certainlynot in their own languages. But the Broadcasting Act imposesno restriction on retransmission, so Russian, Chinese, Kazakhand some English programs are rebroadcast. Foreign channelsare made available and in the south, Tajik and Uzbekbroadcasters can be picked up within Kyrgyzstan. 96 Audiencesreceive programs in Bishkek and Osh via cable networks, inmore rural areas satellite reception is preferred for the bettersignal. Internet access is as yet poor but continues to expandrapidly, and although there are occasional attempts to controlor even block access to certain websites, access is for the mostpart completely unrestricted.OTRK is available nationwide and has three TV channels (amain channel, a music channel and a kids’ channel) with some80 programs (a fourth channel, cultural, is in the planningstages). There are five radio channels. The main broadcastinglanguages are Russian and Kyrgyz with a sprinkling of English.On the main TV channel, there is an irregular and far too shortnews bulletin, there are films, documentaries and talk shows.Like many broadcasters, OTRK puts its money primarily onentertainment. The introduction of the children’s programming,in particular, is innovative for Kyrgyzstan and widelywelcomed as “an important step.” 97 Balastan, according to thebroadcaster’s (English-language) PR, “provides parents andkids with educational entertainment, from singing and dancingto birthday wishes and bedtime stories.” 98A tentative attempt to reach out to ethnic minorities can beseen in OTRK’s offshoot, Radio Dostuk (Friendship), started upin October 2013. A tiny outfit run by seven part-time staff membersout of a small office with three or four computers, RadioFriendship is still just an online presence. They put togetherhalf an hour per week of programming for each of the minoritylanguages Dungan, Uyghur, Ukrainian and even Polish, as wellas Kyrgyz and Russian. 99 Uzbek is at present not one of the languageson the program. In addition to these they hope to add afurther four languages – this had not yet happened at the timeof writing. To make the programs, a representative is selectedfrom each of the relevant communities in Bishkek and this person– usually someone with absolutely no journalistic trainingor experience – is then offered minimal training at OTRK.Each representative will hold the post for a year. There is littleeditorial control, since hardly anyone else can speak the languagesconcerned. The lack of Uzbek-language programminghere, as elsewhere, is a glaring omission since Uzbeks make uparound 14% of the population as a whole, in the south around40%. According to a source at OTRK, the Uzbek representativeswanted too much money. A statement from the Uzbek sidecould not be obtained for this study.There are certainly hopes of expansion, the staff would liketo branch out with an FM station, possibly even, eventually,into TV. However the equipment is noticeably is noticeablyoutdated and the staff complain that there is not enough moneyeven for their own salaries. OTRK is to date their only sourceof finance and this is obviously not a budget priority. They saythey are attempting to attract funds from foreign partners.OTRK is currently piloting the use of mobile applicationsand social media for its programming.Achievements and ChallengesThe “poor economic health of the market” 100 is one of the mainproblems dogging the development of PSM in Kyrgyzstan.Real budget transparency is rare (OTRK is probably the mainexception as the Supervisory Board demands it and a full publishedaudit is part of editorial policy). 101 Therefore potentialinvestors are reluctant to cooperate because the perceptionis still that most outlets are state-run or private mouthpieces.Media management has to become even more of a focus.Revenue and budget-planning need to improve so that outletsbecome more independent and self-sustaining. 102 Journalistsneed to be better paid so that they don’t go elsewhere – eitherinto other sectors or abroad – as soon as they become decently62

– Consultation on reform of the outdated Media Act of1992, a process which has been ongoing for several yearsnow and which many stakeholders are anxious to seecompleted. This would help further secure the transformationto public service media and include revision ofthe legislation governing libel and defamation, in particularwith regard to recent attempts to re-criminalizelibel.– Support for capacity building and on-the-job trainingof journalists and staff in production, newsroomsand editorial staff; particularly in areas such as presentationand investigative reporting: stakeholders urgethat it should be done in close cooperation with outletmanagement and ensure that conditions on the ground(time, availability of staff taking part, logistical provisions)are taken into consideration. Reporting fromconflict situations and safety-training for journalistsshould also be considered. OTRK’s own initiative to setup a training center should be supported.– Support also needs to be provided to senior and middlemanagement – some provision is already in place(Internews – OTRK Management Support Component).This would help improve communication and cooperationbetween management strata and with editorialand administrative staff, as well as with governing bodiessuch as the Supervisory Board.– Support also in the area of revenue and budget planningis vital if the broadcaster is to become self-sustaining,a pre-condition for independence. This wouldhelp improve retention of good staff as salaries couldimprove accordingly.– Provision of technical know-how and/or equipmentwhere needed, to enable OTRK to fulfil its role as publicservice media.– Enabling of study trips within the wider region tocompare and exchange experience – some have alreadytaken place under the auspices of other change agents(Internews, SOROS).– Support for underdeveloped civil society sector, journalists’associations, etc.64

Part II Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly EnvironmentStatus of Obschestvennaya Tele-Radio Kompaniya (OTRK)Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsChannels,distributionTV: 3 channels, main channel, broadcasting 16.5–18 hrs daily;children’s channel, broadcasting 11.5 hours daily; musicchannel. All channels broadcast in Kyrgyz and Russian, mainchannel broadcasts some news content in English (providedby the BBC).Radio: 5 stations, broadcast in Kyrgyz and Russian, Birinchradio (First radio) also broadcasts 2 hours / day news contentin English, own production.Radio Dostuk (Friendship Radio) is online only and provideshalf an hour per week of each of five or six languages, includingminority languages Dungan and Uyghur. Languages suchas Ukrainian or Polish are included on an informal basis andmay be irregular since there is usually insufficient fundingfor salaries. These programs are made by non-professionals.The TV children’s andmusic channels are recentadditions (Oct. 2013), afourth channel for culturalcontent was still in theplanning phase at the timeof writing.Radio Dostuk is trying toattract more languagesinto its program, hoping toeventually bring the totalto 10.Legal frameworkThe constitution of 2010, adopted after the Second Revolution,guarantees and protects the right to freedom of expression,speech, press and information. The Media Act of 1992is generally agreed to be relatively liberal but outdated anda working group is currently formulating a new media act.Access to information is well-legislated (most recently by theAccess to Information Held by Departments of State and LocalGovernment Bodies Act – 2006)The formulation of a newMedia Act is proving difficult,thanks to conflictinginterests of parliamentarianswithin the workinggroup, and the fact that italso has to take impendingdigitalization (June 2015)into account. The mediacommunity is also heatedlydiscussing changes to thelibel laws. Libel was decriminalizedin 2011 and isnow a civil matter, attemptsto change that are seen asa potential attack on freespeech.Public service remitThe April 2010 Decree of the Provisional Government of theKyrgyz Republic “On Creating a Public Broadcasting Servicein the Kyrgyz Republic” assigned public broadcaster status tothe existing National Television and Radio Broadcasting Corporation,renaming it the Public Broadcasting Corporationof the Kyrgyz Republic. The Decree established a SupervisoryBoard and reinstated the April 2007 version (initially formulatedby the Law on National TV and Radio) which includedmembers of civil society.There would seem to be nospecific spelling out of aremit for PSM in the KyrgyzRepublic as yet – whichmay be due to the fact thatlegitimacy of decrees issuedby the interim governmentof 2010 was in doubt and afully reformed media lawhas yet to be formulated.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 65

Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsRegulatory system/governing bodyThe Supervisory Board is made up of 15 members: 5 fromgovernment, 5 from parliament and 5 from civil society.Members are elected for a period of two years, elections takeplace annually. Theoretically, the Board wields quite a lot ofpower, in practice this is constantly tempered by politicalpressure. All decisions also go before parliament, budgetingdecisions go to Finance Ministry.The Supervisory Board iswidely seen as one of thesuccess stories of transformationin Kyrgyzstan andas such, attempts to politicallyundermine it rarelyget far.Engagement of civil societyThe inclusion of civil society in the Supervisory Board wasa precept only reinstated in the third attempt to establishPSM in 2010. Civil society in general guards social freedomsjealously, there are numerous media and press associations,although no unions.–FinancingOTRK is financed primarily by the state: the budget goes tothe Supervisory Board, then to parliament for approval, so allfinancial matters are decided on by politicians. The FinanceMinistry holds the purse strings. There is also some revenuefrom advertising (not much – the Kyrgyz advertising industryis small), and funding from international donors and developmentpartners.OTRK recently attracteda Japanese grant worthUS$ 800,000 for technicalupgrading.Use of mobile and internetcommunication/moderntechnology/challenges ofdigitalizationDigitalization is planned for June 2015, estimated cost, 550million Kyrgyz som (just over US$ 11 million). Likely to beproblematic as there are already complaints that not enoughmoney is being made available for the necessary upgradingof infrastructure and skills.OTRK has a website presence, with live streaming, and alsoruns a Facebook page and a Twitter account.Radio Dostuk (Friendship Radio) is only online, programs aremade available in MP3 format.The use of social media hasrecently been improved:a local expert (runs oneof the biggest and mostsuccessful news websites inthe country) showed staff atOTRK how to use the socialnetwork sites and sincethen, they are a popularinterface between stationand audience.Regional structures andreportingThere are 7 regional studios, one in each oblast (region), withcorrespondents, and a mobile studio goes out to the regionstwice a year and organizes talk shows with locals and localdignitaries/politicians. Nonetheless, audience feedback indicatesthat coverage of regional events/affairs is anything butsatisfactory. Generally, the regional facilities are only usedwhen members of government or VIPs visit.–66

Part II Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly EnvironmentCharacteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsCapacity buildingCapacity building up until now was largely left in the handsof international development partners and donors. It is asorely neglected area across the Kyrgyz media industry.OTRK have begun thedevelopment of a journalismcenter. They have hiredan expert (formerly withInternews) but have neitherthe funds nor qualifiedstaff. Looking for recognitionas a public foundationso that they can attractdonor funding.Ethic codices, newsroomguidelinesOTRK statutes apparently cover ethics (no more precise informationwas available): The general feeling is that even a verydetailed ethics codex or highly specific editorial guidelineswould tend to be disregarded – the change is one of mindsetwithin the profession as a whole.–Public perception and supportfor the media organizationRecent focus groups (organized with the support of Internews)have crystallized much of what the audiences wantto see changed at OTRK. Response has been rapid (accordingto Joint Media Committee), a lot of programming has beenchanged, and ratings are rising. Main competition comesfrom Russian-language channels which tend to be morepopular amongst younger segments of population.Project involving focusgroups is ongoing.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 67

General Functions I: Political SphereFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Information: comprehensive,balanced, objective –and also regional news.PartiallyLevel of program-making in general is relatively poor, therefore the newstoo is not of the best quality. Studios, etc., on TV present quite a polishedappearance, but neither presenters nor news editors are well-trained.News items are repeated without checking sources, hearsay often replacessound research. Very little coverage of regional developments; rural audiencesand ethnic minorities are largely ignored.Daily rebroadcast of 10 mins. of BBC (world) news in English, at 10 p.m.All political parties havethe opportunity to speakin the program and arepresent in interviews,sound bites, etc.PartiallyThere is a slot from parliament, some parliamentary debates are broadcastlive; once a week, OTRK rebroadcasts Inconvenient Questions, a highlypopular political talkshow from Radio Azattyk (Kyrgyz service of RadioFree Europe/Radio Liberty)Criticism of politicalactors (government,administration, otherpolitical actors)NoThe balanced and objective representation of the entire political spectrumis laid down in the constitution, the country’s media legislation isby far the most liberal in the region – but bad journalistic habits are stilltoo ingrained, and self-censorship is often automatic. Bad political habitsare also proving difficult to eradicate. Still incidents of journalists beingthreatened, although no fatalities since 2011.Societal criticism(social actors, individuals,problems in society)PartiallySelf-censorship means that journalists will stay away from topics thatmight be uncomfortable for daily politics to deal with. Radio Azattyk’sInconvenient Questions may be the only program that doesn’t shy awayfrom tackling touchy subjects: renaming Russian-named villages in Kyrgyz,discussing contentious Islamic leadership policies, etc.Moderation of debate/democratic facilitationPartiallyCoverage of parliament; Radio Azattyk’s Inconvenient Questions – debateis a form still very much in its infancy in radio and TV.Social/politicalorientationPartiallyOTRK’s relationships with audiences have been improving thanks torecent focus group research: audience feedback is being taken on board,it is likely that this will result in more programs on social/political issuesbeing provided.Agenda-setting/investigative journalismNoInvestigative journalism is completely underdeveloped in Kyrgyzstan,although this shortcoming has been widely recognized and is likely to beaddressed with increasing diligence. Agenda-setting at present is mostlikely to come from foreign news sources, although the Kyrgyz onlinenews agencies are fairly on-the-ball.68

Part II Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly EnvironmentGeneral Functions II: IntegrationFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Participation, voice,empowermentPartiallySocial minorities and the disempowered (handicapped, LGBT groups,women) are completely underserved; ethnic minorities, particularly theUzbek, continue to be sidelined; rural populations are occasionally heard,and get to air their issues when the mobile studio comes around, or if aVIP turns up on their doorstep.Cultural expression,strengthening ofidentity, values andcultural cohesionPartiallyThere is increasing effort to include cultural and historic content – OTRKlags behind the other public broadcaster, ElTR, here. The inauguration ofthe new TV culture channel should hopefully change all this.Entertainment Yes The majority of OTRK’s programming is entertainment, whether sports,nature shows or films and the occasional soap. EducationEducation Yes The new children’s channel Balastan prides itself on offering a balancedmix of entertainment and educational programming, 11.5 hours daily.Innovation Partially Balastan is the first and only specialist children’s channel in Kyrgyz television– the initiative is to be supported, quality could be improved.OTRK gets audience feedback via internet, has improved its use of socialmedia and is currently working towards the use of mobile applications.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 69

Part II Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly EnvironmentPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/progress/problemsUS Agency forInternationalDevelopment –USAIDUSAID, along with SOROS andthe UNDP, offers technical assistanceto ElTRUSAID is one of Internews’main partners in offering supportto OTRK and other PSM.No further information on workin the media sector immediatelyavailable.–Organizationfor Security andCooperation InEurope – OSCETechnical support – as part ofOSCE efforts to support thedevelopment of pluralistic andprofessional mediaIn April 2014, the OSCE donatedcomputer equipment to YntymakRadio and TVNo information availableSOROSFoundation– Since 2011, the Soros Foundationand the OSCE have been organizingstudy tours for MPs andbroadcasters to Georgia, Lithuania,and other countries inthe wider region where the transformationto public servicemedia is further advanced.These have resulted in recommendationsand guidelinesbeing established for furtherdevelopment.DW AkademieThe Central Asian School ofContemporary Journalism isa ten-week annual summercourse implemented jointly bythe OSCE Academy and the DWAkademie.A new project begun in 2014offers regional reportersworking for OTRK capacitystrengtheningmeasures.Trainers are brought in from theentire region, first undergoing atrain-the-trainer workshop withthe DWA. Students also comefrom the wider region.There are plans to transform thesummer school into a more permanenttraining venue, possiblylocated within a specific mediaoutlet such as OTRK. Bishkekseems the ideal location sincethe general media climate inKyrgyzstan is the most liberal inthe region.Turkish Radioand TV CorporationTRTCapacity building cooperationwith ElTRPeer-to-peer training, for whichElTR staff were invited to visit TRTstudios in TurkeyNo information availableN.B. All the information given in the tables above is basedon the interviews, observations and document analysis madeby the author of this chapter. The tables provide very roughsummaries of what is being elaborated in the texts. Table 4, inparticular, can only hope to give an impression of the manyand varied activities undertaken by change-agents in thecountry. Many of the issues mentioned here are, of course,subject to change.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 71

AppendixReferencesBertelsmann Foundation (2012), Transformation Index BTI2012, Kyrgyzstan Country Report, retrieved from: http://www.bti-project.org/reports/country-reports/pse/kgz/2012/index.ncBertelsmann Foundation (2014), Transformation Index BTI2014, Kyrgyzstan Country Report, retrieved from: http://www.bti-project.org/reports/country-reports/pse/kgz/2014/index.ncDW Akademie (2013), Berichte aus den Regionen für die Regionen– Kirgisistan| Zentralasien|2014, November 6, 2013.Freedom House (May 1, 2014), Freedom House Warns PressFreedom ‘Lowest In A Decade’, retrieved from: http://www.rferl.org/content/freedom-house-press-freedom-lowest-in-decadereport-media/25369191.htmlFreedom in the World (2013a), Freedom in the World 2013 – Kyrgyzstan,retrieved from: http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/kyrgyzstan#Freedom House (2013b), Freedom of The Press 2013 – Kyrgyzstan,retrieved from: http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2013/kyrgyzstan#Freedom House (2013c), Nations in Transit 2013 – Kyrgyzstan,retrieved from: http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/nationstransit/2013/kyrgyzstan#Freedom House (2014), Freedom of the Press 2014 – Kyrgyzstan,retrieved from: http://www.refworld.org/docid/536b342cb.htmlIMS – International Media Support (November 27, 2013), NewResearch Provides Overview of Kyrgyz Media Sector, retrievedfrom: http://www.i-m-s.dk/new-research-provides-overview-ofkyrgyz-media-sector/IMS – International Media Support; IMS Mission to Kyrgyzstan(2010), The media in Kyrgyzstan: A window of opportunity,June 2010, retrieved from: http://www.i-m-s.dk/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-window-opportunity-kyrgyzstan-2010.pdfInternews (2014a), Tender announcement for reviewing oflaws and regulations governing the Kyrgyz Public Broadcaster,retrieved from: http://eng.internews.kg/2014/02/tender-forsupport-to-kyrgyz-public-broadcaster-management-on-strategic-planning-and-report-writing/Internews (2014b), Tender announcement for OTRK’ ManagementSupport Component on strategic planning, report writingand communication, retrieved from: http://eng.internews.kg/2014/02/terms-of-reference-an-otrk-management-supportcomponent-on-strategic-planning-report-writing-and-communicatio/IREX (2013), Media Sustainability Index (MSI) Europe and Eurasia2013, Kyrgyzstan, retrieved from: http://www.irex.org/sites/default/files/u105/EE_MSI_2013_Kyrgyzstan.pdfIREX (2014), Media Sustainability Index (MSI) Europe andEurasia 2014, Kyrgyzstan, retrieved from: http://www.irex.org/sites/default/files/u105/EE_MSI_2014_Kyrgyzstan.pdfKarimov, Alisher (December 19, 2013), Kyrgyzstan gears up fortransition to digital television, in: Central Asia Online, retrievedfrom: http://centralasiaonline.com/en_GB/articles/caii/features/main/2013/12/19/feature-01OSCE/ODIHR – Office for Democratic Institutions and HumanRights (2005), Election Observation Mission Final Report: KyrgyzRepublic Presidential Election 10 July 2005,retrieved from: http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/17661OSCE/ODIHR – Office for Democratic Institutions and HumanRights (2009), Election Observation Mission Final Report: KyrgyzRepublic Presidential Election 23 July 2009, retrieved from:http://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/kyrgyzstan/39923OSCE (2014), OSCE Center in Bishkek,retrieved from: http://www.osce.org/bishkekPBC – Public Broadcasting Corporation of the Kyrgyz Republic(2013), Corporate Profile, retrieved from: http://ktrk.kg/sites/default/files/PBC_KR_Profile.pdfRadio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty (2013), RFE/RL’s Kyrgyz Service,retrieved from: http://www.rferl.org/info/kyrgyz/189.htmlReporters Without Borders (2014a), World Press Freedom Index2014, Eastern Europe and Central Asia, retrieved from: http://www.rsf.org/index2014/en-eastern-europe.phpReporters Without Borders (2014b), Legislation raises prospectof prison sentences for media offences, April 24, 2014,retrieved from: http://en.rsf.org/kyrgyzstan-legislation-raisesprospect-of-24-04-2014,46190.html72

Part II Kyrgyzstan: Advancements in a Media-Friendly EnvironmentList of InterviewsRickleton, Chris (September 29, 2011), Kyrgyzstan: Public TelevisionIn Bishkek facing Independence Test, in: Eurasianet.org,retrieved from: http://www.eurasianet.org/node/64242SOROS Foundation-Kyrgyzstan: http://soros.kg/en/TI – Transparency International (2013), Corruption PerceptionsIndex 2013, retrieved from: http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/EY-Transparency-International-Corruption-Perceptions-Index-2013/$FILE/EY-Transparency-International-Corruption-Perceptions-Index-2013.pdfTrilling, Dave (March 31, 2014), Kyrgyzstan Gets New RulingCoalition, Just Like the Old One, in: Eurasianet.org,retrieved from: http://www.eurasianet.org/node/68210USAID (2014), Kyrgyz Republic,retrieved from: http://www.usaid.gov/kyrgyz-republicAsanaly, Meerim; Head of International Relations andProtocol Dept. OTRK;interviewed in Bishkek on February 12, 2014Baranouski, Yelena; Joint Media Committee(founding member), Bishkek;interviewed in Bishkek on February 14, 2014Cepoi, Corina; Project Director, Internews, Bishkek;interviewed in Bishkek on February 14, 2014Employee; International Relations Dept. OTRK(does not wish to be named);interviewed in Bishkek on February 13, 2014External analyst; Policy Officer OSCE,(does not wish to be named);interviewed in Bishkek on February 13, 2014Iskender; Bektour, Kloop, Media Foundation(founding member);interviewed in Bishkek on February 14, 2014Kydyralieva; Marina, Joint Media Committee(founding member), advisor to Director General, ElTR;interviewed in Bishkek on February 13, 2014Zhumagulov, Sultan; Director General, ElTR;interviewed in Bishkek on February 13, 2014Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 73

Part II Namibia: Multilingual Content and the Need for Organizational ChangeNamibia: Multilingual Content and the Need for Organizational ChangeFounded in 1991, Namibia’s state broadcaster NBC has been undergoing a long-term change process since 2008, with SwedishRadio as the most important partner. While the initial phase focussed on the improvement of editorial guidelines, since 2012,phase 2 has concentrated on change management towards multimedia production. In 2011, the Board of Directors adopted astrategy aimed at developing NBC into “the leading multi-media public broadcaster of choice in Africa.” However, the ongoingreform process has failed to include civil society, with notable impact on the broadcaster’s future integration in society.In the Namibian media landscape, NBC remains the only provider capable of producing a broad variety of programming inten languages within one corporation. Thus, with regard to the public service function of supporting integration, NBC is verylikely to remain the biggest platform for cultural expression and the strengthening of local identities for the foreseeable future.However, its TV channels do not create a public sphere at the moment, since they mainly follow the agenda set by the government.They are biased in their reporting, and controversial topics are excluded from talk shows. But in the less prominent radioprograms in minority languages, critical voices can also be heard. Overall, this state broadcaster plays a vital role in deliveringpublic service goods in particular to poorer parts of the population.The Namibian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) 1 is the statebroadcaster of Namibia. In order to understand to what extentNBC has transformed itself into a public service media outlet(PSM), the following undertakes an analysis of its public servicefunctions. The analysis will begin with a brief overview ofthe country’s main characteristics, its media landscape, andthe status of NBC as public service provider.Namibia – A Brief OverviewNamibia is a country of sharp contrasts and disparities. Thisstatement holds true for its geography, its society as well asits economy. With a population of only 2.2 million living inan area of around 820,000 square kilometres, the Republicof Namibia in Southern Africa is amongst the least populatedcountries in the world. A nation, moreover, whose citizens arevery unevenly distributed. Whilst the capital region Windhoekwith around 350,000 citizens is relatively densely populated,most other parts of the country constitute desert-like rural regions.2 Secondly, Namibia is a country of disparity with respectto the multiethnic and multilingual background of its society.Various ethnic groups with their specific indigenous languageslive in the country. For half of the population, the mothertongue is Oshivambo, followed by other languages such asDamara/Nama and Bushman/San (12.7%), Afrikaans (11.4%),RuKwangali (9.7%), Otjiherero (7.9%), SiLozi (5%), German (1.1%)and Setswana (0.3%). For the purpose of uniting this multilingualenvironment, the founding fathers of Namibia opted in1990 to introduce English as the sole official language for thenation – although hardly anybody uses English (2%) today astheir mother tongue. 3 And thirdly, the country can be characterizedby one of the sharpest levels of disparity between richand poor worldwide. Whilst Namibia is widely acknowledgedas one of the most stable and most prosperous countries inAfrica, the level of inequality within its economy is staggering.On paper, the median yearly income of a single Namibianwas said to lie at around 8,200 US Dollars in 2013, whichwould make Namibia an upper-middle income country. 4 Lookingat the distribution of family income, however, Namibia isamongst the Top 10 countries worldwide with the highest degreeof inequality. Figures of the United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP) suggest that well over 50 percent of thepopulation lives below the poverty line, notably on two US-Dollars per day. 5Thus, Namibian politics remains preoccupied with the constantquest for unity and balance. It wasn’t until 21st March1990, that a century marked by German colonial rule and bydecades of South African occupation and annexation endedwith Namibia’s independence. What had been a guerrillagroup fighting for independence against the South Africanapartheid regime, subsequently became Namibia’s dominantpolitical force. The South-West Africa People’s Organization,or SWAPO, has won all elections since the country’s independence.Although the most recent elections in November 2009saw 14 different political parties running for seats in the NationalAssembly, analysts have stressed that the ideologicaldifferences between the various political parties in Namibiaremain rather small. “SWAPO is the template for all other parties,”one interviewee argued. 6 Some have even stressed thatthe political climate is streamlined – with negative effects forthe freedom of speech:“There is a lack of (self-)critical awareness and extremelylimited willingness to accept divergent opinions, particularlyif they are expressed in public. Non-conformist thinking is interpretedas disloyalty, if not equated with treason. This marginalisationor elimination of dissent drastically limits thenew system’s capacity for reform and innovation.” 71http://www.nbc.na/2CIA 2014.3Namibian Biodiversity Database.4CIA 2014.5UNDP Human DevelopmentReport 2005, as quoted inCIA 2014.6Nangula Shejavali, Researcherat the Institute of Public PolicyResearch (IPPR).7Melber 2010.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 75

Media LandscapeAt first glance, this rather challenging environment for thefreedom of speech and freedom of the press does not seem toinfluence the media landscape of the country. Namibia is a nationwith a small population, but with a surprisingly manifoldand thriving media scene. One of Namibia’s major achievementswith regard to the freedom of speech and information isthe introduction of a three-tier system of broadcasting: Publicmedia, commercial media and community media are recognizedwithin the 2009 Communication Act and each sectionplays a vital role within a freely operating media environment. 8State-owned media as well as commercial and community mediaoutlets operate successfully side by side. Five daily nationalnewspapers are on offer, as well as a dozen weekly, bi-weeklyand monthly newspapers and magazines. Namibia is hometo more than 20 commercial and seven community radio stationsand hosts at present three television channels from thestate broadcaster, one commercial and one religious TV channel.In Namibia, as in other African markets, the use of mobilephones is booming. Analysts estimate that virtually the entirepopulation are mobile cellular subscribers, even though onlyfew have an activated mobile-broadband tariff which allowsthem to download videos and heavy data loads. The internetbroadband penetration rate in Namibia remains very low todate. Official data suggests that approximately 13 percent of thepopulation accessed the internet in 2012 via broadband. 9 Studiessuggest that household internet access has been hamperedby monopolistic company structures and difficulties in makingthe expensive infrastructures construction a real business case.Radio is still seen as having the widest reach of all media,whereas TV, print, and online have significantly lower marketpenetration rates. 10 In regard to access to information, NBC isand will likely remain the biggest supplier of country-wide coverageand program delivery in radio and television. Particularlyin rural Namibia in the border regions to Angola, Zambia, Botswana,and South Africa, the NBC transmission network will bethe only way for the local population to access information, asthere is no economic incentive for commercial media outletsto roll out expensive networks in a nation with a populationdensity of three people per square mile. In essence, Namibia isa prime example of a nation where the public service functionof universal access to information should be accomplished bya public service provider. Even with the existing network, oneinterviewee argued as follows: “The rural areas are neglected.” 11Namibia Broadcasting Corporation (NBC)“Inspiring a growing nation”– this is the corporate claim of NBC,which is by far the most dominant player within the Namibianmedia landscape. The corporation was established in 1991 byact of parliament 12 and has been operating since then from twosites in the capital Windhoek. Before independence, NBC wasused as a propaganda channel for the South African occupationforces, and was known as the South West African BroadcastingCorporation (SWABC). For more than 20 years now, NBC hasbroadcast on one TV channel via analogue terrestrial signals,exclusively in the official language English. With the introductionof the digital broadcasting standard DTT in early 2014, NBCexpanded its TV transmission to three TV channels, accordingto the Director General, two channels with public servicecharacter (NBC1 and NBC2) and one with a commercial touch(NBC3). 13 NBC1 is supposed to concentrate on full-range familyprogramming, ranging in content from a morning news show(“Good Morning Namibia”) to entertainment soaps to lifestylemagazines (“Tutaleni”). NBC2 is to be the news and currentaffairs channel, rebroadcasting content from Russia Today,CCTV Africa, Al Jazeera, and Deutsche Welle, as well as carryingdebates from the National Assembly. NBC3, however, is tofocus exclusively on sports programming and movies, soaps,and shows, mostly third-party content. NBC radio already traditionallyoffers ten different language services, reflecting thelanguage diversity of the country more adequately. The Englishservice, NBC National radio, broadcasts on a 24-hour basis.The other radio services, namely Afrikaans Service, Damara/Nama Service, German Service, Otjiherero Service, Tirelo YaSetswana, ah! Radio, Lozi Service, Oshiwambo Service and RukavangoService, suspend broadcasts during the night. 14 Datafrom NBC suggests that 98 percent of Namibians receive coveragefrom NBC radio and 66 percent have access to NBC TV onthe analogue terrestrial standard. 15 This includes the servicesto rural areas which are mostly ignored by commercial broadcastersthat focus on the financially interesting urban elites inWindhoek and the few other bigger cities in Namibia. Six outof ten radio language services are currently available via internetlive stream. NBC TV, however, offers to date only selectedvideo news clips on its website.Stakeholders in the Transformation ProcessAlthough Namibia is home to a vibrant media scene, the numberof actively-engaged national change agents in a media-relevantcontext is rather limited. On the systemic level, Namibianand international actors have established close cooperationthat has the potential to shape the future structure of the medialandscape. The civil society awareness-raising campaign“ACTION Namibia” advocates the implementation of an accessto information law in Namibia. 16 Notably, the country chapterof the Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA) 17 and the Instituteof Public Policy Research (IPPR) 18 launched an advocacycampaign in cooperation with the UNESCO Office Windhoek.The coalition organizes public awareness-raising events to explainwhy better access to information from governmental andstate-controlled public authorities is key to fighting corruptionand allows for better control through civil society. A kick-offconference in August 2012 brought together stakeholders frommedia, lawmakers and human rights organizations. And the coalitionorganized a workshop for legal drafters (November 2013)76

Part II Namibia: Multilingual Content and the Need for Organizational Changefor the relevant Namibian ministry committee that was taskedwith drawing up what shall become the text of a future Accessto Information Law.Meanwhile, say numerous interviewees, the change processwithin the state broadcaster NBC has been driven largelywithout the participation of Namibian civil society and thepublic at large. 19 Instead, the corporation is busy working onwhat the NBC Board of Directors is calling the “Strategic Triangle2011,” a corporate mission statement that targets one majorobjective: By 2015 the NBC shall, according to the Board’svision, have developed into “the leading multi-media publicbroadcaster of choice in Africa.” 20 Based on this major objectiveat the top of the triangle, the corporate strategy formulatesgrowth goals, critical success factors as well as strategicinitiatives to be accomplished within the same time frame.The corporate mission also formulates a set of values accordingto which the corporation wants to operate, namely professionalism,honesty, integrity, customer focus, teamwork,courtesy, and employee empowerment.Two international media development organizations havebeen involved – to a varying degree – in NBC’s recent path oftransformation since 2008. Both organizations are briefly introducedbelow, and their methods summarized:Swedish RadioThe media development organizations Swedish Radio (SR) 21collaborated with the NBC from 2008 to 2013 on a changemanagement scheme. With financial backing from the SwedishInternational Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA)worth 7,580,000 SEK and a contribution from NBC of 72,000SEK (together around one million euro at the current exchangerate), the exchange was called a “partner driven cooperationproject.” It was divided into two phases: Phase 1 (2008 to 2012)focussed on radio news with the goal of strengthening NBC’srole as provider of balanced and independent news. In Phase 2(2012 to 2013), NBC and Swedish Radio agreed to focus on theintroduction of digital media production within the NBC’s radioand TV structures.With regard to Phase 1, neither Swedish Radio nor NBCpublicly specified the methods used or the results that wereachieved so no further information was available for this study.For Phase 2, some information was available: In line with NBC’scorporate multimedia strategy, TV and radio departmentswere restructured into new multimedia units that create jointcontent for radio, TV, internet, and social media. 22 In 2013, thedepartments “Sports” and “Education for young people” werechosen as pilot departments for corporate restructuring towardsfull multimedia production. SR trainers and NBC staffformed production groups. These teams also introduced audienceresearch for the first time at NBC. With recurrent SR mentoringevery two months, the two pilot groups went throughjoint planning and subsequent production processes of multimediacontent. The final result of this collaboration was anNBC series of programs broadcast via television, radio, and theinternet in autumn 2013. The topic was “Entrepreneurship.”The challenge was, as one interviewee said, “to change people’sminds in the way they work.” To this end, exchange visits werealso an important part of the project. NBC staff visited the SRheadquarters in Stockholm to learn more about productionmethods in Sweden. The participants had conducted interviewsin Namibian schools beforehand that were then usedas production material for radio plays by their SR colleagues.Extending the corporate restructuring to other departments,such as news and current affairs, remains a major task for 2014and beyond. 23DW AkademieDW Akademie has also been – to a lesser degree – involved inNBC’s recent transformation process. Up until 2013, the cooperationbetween DW Akademie and NBC was based on ad-hocarrangements focusing on pressing needs in the sector of journalismtraining and professionalization of staff. For example,NBC staff were invited on a regular basis to participate in advancedTV workshops for an international co-production seriesnamed “African Stories.” These workshops aimed to delivertheory and practice of full production cycles resulting in highquality TV reports. From conceptualization to post-production,the participants from all over Southern Africa had two weeks toproduce the reports. The last of these workshops took place inWindhoek in autumn 2013. DW also has a member of staff permanentlybased in Windhoek: as DW’s local representative, shehas intensified the cooperation with NBC through weekly consultationsand recurrent strategy meetings. This local representativewas also on hand for the final implementation phase ofthe launch of a new children’s educational TV show that wasaired for the first time in winter 2013 to 2014. Particularly duringthe phasing out of support from Swedish Radio in 2013, DWAkademie staff ensured the first months of actual multimediaproduction within the corporation through mentoring andproduction consultancy.8FES 2011, 42.9ITU 2014.10MediaMetrics 2010.11Elizabeth Kalambo M’ule,Executive Director, Editors’ Forumof Namibia (EFN).12Namibian Broadcasting Act;Act 9 of 1991.13Albertus Aochamub, DirectorGeneral of Namibian BroadcastingCorporation (NBC).14NBC 2014.15Albertus Aochamub, DirectorGeneral of Namibian BroadcastingCorporation (NBC).16ACTION Namibia 2014.17http://www.misanamibia.org.na/18http://www.ippr.org.na/19Mareike Le Pelley; Director ofthe Friedrich Ebert Stiftung,Windhoek Office.20NBC 2014.21Or more specifically SR MDO(Swedish Radio MediaDevelopment Organization).22http://www.sida.se/English/Countries-and-regions/Terminated-development-cooperation/Namibia/Programmes-andprojects1/Radio-Cooperation/23Ragna Wallmark, MediaConsultant of Swedish Radio.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 77

NBC’s Strategic Triangle 2011Our PurposeTo be the leadingmultimedia publicbroadcaster of choicein AfricaGrowth GoalsThe triple own revenue by 2015Audiencefocused andquality programmingCritical Success FactorsEffective financialmanagementDrastic revenueimprovementPassionate,empowered andmotivated team– Commission andconduct research– Improve productionstandards, researchmethods, reourcesand compliance– Improve quality control– Multimedia system plans– Network and ITsystems problems– Content sourcing– Monitor and evaluateprogrammes– Marketing Plan– Production andcommisssioning plan– Plan for designing templatesand formats for programmesStrategic Initiatives– Review, implement – Sponsorship forfinancialpolicies/ programmesprocedures – Sales plan linked to– Develop or acquire special eventsintegratedsystems – Develop action plan– Ownership and for other revenueaccount ability for streamscost centres – Define and implement– Monthly business property managementperformance reports strategy– Plan for IFRS reporting– Implement HRmanagement system– Develop stakeholderrelationship plan– Implement a HumanCapital DevelopmentPlan– Develop performancemanagement plans– Develop an OrganizationalDevelopment plan– Review, implement andenforce policies andprocedures– Instill corporate purposeand objectives with staff– Review and implementcorporate values– Equipped staff withright toolsReviewMonitoring and Evaluation6 monthly review of Triangle, quarterly board meeting, monthly business performance review,monthly departmental meetings, regular access to management informationOur ValuesProfessionalism, honesty, integrity, costumer focus, teamwork, courtesy, employee empowermentSource: NBC78

Part II Namibia: Multilingual Content and the Need for Organizational ChangeStatus of the OrganizationLegal Framework, Governance and EthicsNBC operates on the basis of the Namibian constitution whichguarantees freedom of speech, but its governance structurelacks concrete evidence of its independence. When thecountry celebrates its 25th anniversary in 2015, it will rightlycelebrate its level of political freedom and a degree of freedomof speech that is unprecedented in most parts of Africa.Nevertheless, some constitutional provisions remain that potentiallypose a threat to the freedom of expression of freelyoperating media, in particular a lack of legal protection forinvestigative journalists and whistleblowers. Moreover, theconstitution contains ‘limitation clauses’ that come into playwhen the protection of national security, public order or suchvague concepts as decency or morality are endangered. 24 Furthermore,there is no law guaranteeing access to informationheld by public authorities. And the fact that defamation is acriminal offence under common law in Namibia has resultedin various civil suits against investigative journalists; the substantialfines imposed discourage journalists from fulfillingtheir watchdog function. As one interviewee said: “We havenever had a strong, investigative journalism in the country.” 25For the governance of NBC in particular, one law is of specificimportance. The 1991 Namibian Broadcasting Act (NBCAct) constitutes the basis on which the state broadcasteroperates to this day. Several analysts and even the Director-General of NBC himself argue that the NBC Act is hopelesslyoutdated and is urgently in need of legislative renewal. Accordingto the Act, the main objective of the broadcaster is to“inform and entertain the public of Namibia, to contribute tothe education and unity of the nation, to provide and disseminateinformation relevant to the socio-economic developmentof Namibia and to promote the use and understandingof the English language.” 26 As several non-NBC intervieweespointed out, the broadcasting legislation does not include aguarantee of editorial independence, nor does it provide for agovernance structure that could be called ‘open, transparent,and free.’ NBC is a parastatal organization: it is supervised andcontrolled by a group of senior executives who make up theBoard of Directors. All Board members, including the NBC’sDirector General as the chief executive officer, are appointeddirectly and exclusively by the Minister of Information andCommunication Technology (MICT) 27 for a five year term. 28Albertus Aochamub has been Director General since August2010, a longevity which is a novelty in NBC’s recent past,as the corporation has muddled through a constant leadershipcrisis for at least a decade. 15 different director generals haveheaded the corporation in the 24 years since independence,with the highest degree of instability from 2000 to 2010.As a result, many day-to-day issues were not dealt with. Forinstance, until recently NBC lacked a department for the collectionof licence fee revenues, which resulted in less than 50percent of possible income being realized in this field. 29 Andthe corporation still lacks a publicly available editorial policy,setting out standards for reporting and documenting its editorialindependence. NBC has endorsed a journalistic codexunder the supervision of the Editors’ Forum of Namibia (EFN):It and another 16 Namibian media outlets have signed up toa Code of Ethics that calls on the signatories to observe thebasic principles of quality journalism, especially accuracy,fairness, independence, protection of sources, considerationfor the right to privacy, and others. A complaints procedurewas established, handled by a Media Ombudsman, 30 for casesof misconduct. “Especially among the journalists, there isa striving for more accuracy and objectivity in their storiesbecause they don’t want people to make complaints.” 31 In anongoing process, the Communications Regulatory Authorityof Namibia (CRAN) asked the signatories to the self-regulationmechanism to extend the Code of Ethics to become a “BroadcastingCode” that goes into more detail within the field ofdigital media. Whilst this would have been a welcome opportunityfor the NBC to reflect on its own editorial policiesin general, the corporation remained passive in this process,which constitutes a missed opportunity.Capacity Building and Human ResourcesIn particular in the field of human resource management,NBC has seen extraordinary deficiencies in the past decade,with improvements in professional management from 2012onwards. This statement is endorsed by practically all stakeholdersinterviewed for this study – up to the NBC’s own DirectorGeneral. 32 For years, training and training capacities in localownership had been virtually non-existent at NBC and, asone interviewee said: “When they had to rationalize, the firstdepartment that they closed was the training department.” 33Not surprisingly, program editors with key responsibilities forthe successful day-to-day running of the corporation complainthat they were never offered basic research training norany advanced courses – with notable effects on the quality ofbroadcasts. If there was any training in the past at NBC, saysthe corporation’s Head of Training, then it was often done ina “vacuum” without practical use for day-to-day operations.From 2012 onwards, a more stable governance structure underthe current director general allowed for a restart of trainingactivities. Instead of a well-established training scheme,however, the corporation has so far relied mostly on “gap24See Namibian Constitution,§ 21 (2).25Natasha H. Tibinyane, NationalDirector, MISA Namibia.26Namibian Broadcasting Act,1991 (Act 9 of 1991), § 3.27http://www.mict.gov.na/28NBC 2014.29Albertus Aochamub, DirectorGeneral, Namibian BroadcastingCorporation (NBC).30http://www.mediaombudsmannamibia.org/index.html31Clement Daniels, MediaOmbudsman of Namibia.32Albertus Aochamub, DirectorGeneral of NamibianBroadcasting Corporation (NBC).33Emily M. Brown, Head of DepartmentMedia and Technology,Polytechnic of Namibia.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 79

training.” 34 In essence this means that the corporation has inthe past asked external media training organizations to offerin-house training ad hoc when a particular gap of skills andcompetences was discovered.Moreover, recruiting processes and the internal promotionof staff within NBC are not based on a fair and transparentperformance and skills assessment, but rather on arbitraryappointments without justification and without further notice.In effect, this random and non-transparent approach tohuman resources management has also left its mark on thelatest reform efforts of the corporation when implementingits multimedia strategy. The ongoing process of departmentrestructuring has been hampered by false staff placementsfor key positions. In the build-up of the so-called “multimediacontent hub,” a kind of central news desk within the corporation,staff recruitment was done by directive. As one intervieweesaid: “All these people that are under the division were notrecruited, but those are people that have been shifted from anotherdepartment, and that is the big challenge.” 35 The currentapproach to human resources management at NBC has led to adeterioration of corporate spirit. As one NBC employee noted:“There is no trust in this corporation, nobody trusts anybody,people even withhold information from each other.” The factthat there is no NBC intranet sharing information within thecorporation is in this respect telling.In 2013, NBC’s training department laid the foundationsfor a complete overhaul of the recruitment and training process.A policy for a “performance assessment system” has beendrafted and forwarded to the NBC Board. With such focus ona career development policy, the roughly 450 employees withfixed contracts and approximately 100 freelancers should getnew career opportunities within the corporation, says thehead of training. 36 Career opportunities for employees basedon merit rather than on fortune, that seems to be one of themost pressing needs for NBC, as the rather shocking remark ofone NBC reporter highlights: “I am here at NBC for five yearsand I think this is bad for my CV”.Financing, Management and Newsroom StructuresThe financial situation of the NBC has improved from nearbankruptcy in the fiscal year 2007–2008 to a more balancedmanagement of the state broadcaster’s accounts in recentyears. 37 In principle, the state broadcaster is funded mainly byan annual state subsidy, whilst partly using other sources ofincome such as the sale of airtime and programmes, the issuingof yearly television licenses and the rental of transmitters.For the financial year 2012–2013, the Namibian finance ministerhad to provide funding of N$ 154.3 million for NBC, with thecorporation’s own revenue reaching N$ 67.9 million. This leftNBC’s overall deficit at N$ 2.3 million in that year compared toa deficit of N$ 48.5 million in 2011/12. The NBC managementis indeed hoping to break even within the foreseeable future.A small victory, local analysts have argued, as the corporationremains highly indebted with little room for manoeuvre toinvest in future projects. 38 As local media have reported, thestate subsidy for NBC is expected to remain high at a level ofjust over N$ 1 billion for the upcoming three years. 39 Governmentfunding rises therefore to a very substantial share of55 percent, whereas income generated from advertising andsponsorships accounted lately for 21 percent. 40 Or as one intervieweenoted, in view of the strictly state-controlled governancemode at NBC: “The majority of funds comes directlyfrom government, so that destroys the whole model of publicservice broadcasting.” 41Alongside the corporate mission illustrated in the “StrategicTriangle 2011,” the corporation aims to regain financial sustainability.By 2015, the objective is to “triple its own revenue”through a coherent commercialization strategy. 42 Accordingto the Director General, this can be achieved through an effortto collect licence fee revenues more vigorously, to rentout NBC transmission infrastructure at higher prices and toincrease advertising revenue via the roll-out of digital broadcastingservices DTT. “’Our complete orientation from simplybeing preoccupied with public broadcasting will have to bringin stronger elements of the commercial focus. Because it isout of that we have to match every dollar the public investsin us, we should be able to match. The commercial model ofNBC will therefore change radically.” 43 A key tactic, the directorgeneral argues, is to allow for better positioning of the Namibianbusiness community within NBC programming. 44 Whilstthe newly-established NBC1 (family channel) and NBC2 (newsand current affairs) shall remain dedicated to the public servicemandate, NBC3 is setting out to become the commercialNBC channel that aims for sponsored edutainment and sports.“Whilst we know that our core mandate is public service, withinthat you have to think is it possible that 10 percent of whatwe put out can be content that other people that have a commercialinterest might want to buy or sponsor.” 45Despite the fact that the ‘commercial mindset’ has gainedground in the NBC’s corporate strategy, this has not yet translatedto staff salaries, as on-site research revealed. To date, therules and regulations for staff payment remain opaque andnon-transparent. And for staff that are highly engaged anddeliver high-quality output compared to others, the systemprovides no incentives, be they financial or otherwise. Accordingto one interviewee, the only real advantage of working ina state-owned media company rather than a commercial oneremains to date the benefits with respect to social welfare. 46The technological capacity of NBC is at present undergoing itsbiggest ever overhaul since the set-up of its initial transmissionnetwork in the 1990s and earlier. According to companyfigures, NBC maintains 56 transmission sites, hosting over260 analogue terrestrial transmitters for radio and television.In comparison, NBC’s only commercial rival on the nationaltelevision market OneAfrica TV has rented out 28 analogueterrestrial transmitters either at NBC’s transmission sites orhosted on towers owned by telecommunication companies. 47However, the NBC transmission network in particular has80

Part II Namibia: Multilingual Content and the Need for Organizational Changebeen strongly criticized for being outdated, or, as one memberof the expert panel with the Africa Media Barometer argued:“The majority of these transmitters do not work to full capacityowing to a lack of maintenance and the NBC has only fourtechnicians servicing the country’s transmitter network.” 48Although the old transmission network is to remain inplace beyond 2015, 49 NBC has begun its switchover to a digitalterrestrial transmission network (DTT), with significant progressmade from 2013 onwards. For years, mismanagementhas meant that the roll-out of a functioning DTT-network hasbeen on hold at NBC. In early 2014, however, digital broadcastingand the expansion of NBC finally got underway. The DTTnetwork provides space for up to 16 digital TV channels, ofwhich three are to be used for NBC purposes (as mentionedearlier). The rest of the available transmission space will berented out to third parties in order to generate revenue for thestate broadcaster – with NBC management particularly hopingfor increased advertising through greater coverage. NBC isin full ownership of the newly established DTT-infrastructurethanks to the financial backing of the state. This may occasionallylead to competition problems for commercial andcommunity broadcasters.The state-owned Communication Regulation Authority ofNamibia (CRAN) has identified this potential ‘conflict of interest’regarding the newly established DTT infrastructure, in particularbecause the state broadcaster does not fall within itsregulatory scope. So far, it is the exclusive right of the Ministerof Information and Communication Technology to decideon the rates NBC should apply to rent out its infrastructure tothird parties – rates which other outlets have no choice but topay in order to go digital. CRAN, which bases its regulation authorityfor all other telecommunication and broadcasting serviceson the 2009 Communication Act, so far lacks a mandatefor any kind of intervention. “If they [NBC] are not regulatedby CRAN, we can’t bring in effective competition with the commercialbroadcasters and we can’t force NBC to share some oftheir infrastructure,” CRAN-CEO Stanley Shanapinda argues. 50While the national regulation authority has geared up itspolicies to include NBC within its purview - thereby hoping toavoid a situation where the state broadcaster dictates rents toits commercial competitors - the Namibian minister in chargewill have to consent to such a regulatory intervention. NBC’scurrent management does not see any need for such a restructuringof the regulatory framework, referring to its mandate inthe NBC Act.At the time of writing, NBC TV had one newsroom operating.An organizational change process is to help transformthe news and current affairs department into a multimediaproduction department, based on the experience that the corporationhas gained in the “Education” and “Sports” departments.In this respect, the restructuring of the NBC newsroom(News & Current Affairs) lies at the heart of the corporation’schange management process. Major components of thistransformation are planned for 2014. However, at the timeof writing, no specific information on the actual proceedingswas available. Besides the newsroom, the corporation has thefollowing departments and sections at its TV production site:Human Capital & Organizational Development, TV Programs,Engineering & IT, Finance & Administration, Marketing & CorporateCommunications, Commercial Services, Project Planningand two TV studios. The NBC Radio building contains officesand studios of six NBC Radio Language Services, namelyAfrikaans Service, Damara/Nama Service, German Service,National Radio, Otjiherero Service and Tirelo Ya Setswana.Four NBC Radio Language Services are situated in the regions,namely ah! Radio in Tsumkwe, Lozi Service in Katima Mulilo,Oshiwambo Service in Oshakati and Rukavango Service inRundu. NBC also has three Contribution Centres with a limitednumber of staff and little equipment, namely in Otjiwarongo,Walvis Bay and Keetmanshoop. In essence, however, the author’sown research has shown that there is no regionalizationstrategy in place which would guarantee content productionthroughout the nation from which the whole corporation (TV,radio and online) would benefit.Perception, Participation, and Public EngagementFor the general public, the internal functioning of NBC andits ongoing transformation process has remained opaquein recent years. This holds particularly true for the adoptionof NBC’s new corporate mission, the “Strategic Triangle 2011”mentioned earlier. There has neither been a public consultationprocess which would have given third parties – such ascivil society and non-governmental organizations – the opportunityto participate in the run-up to the organization’s strategicreorientation. Nor has there been an information campaign,raising awareness amongst the public for the ongoingtransformation process, once launched by NBC’s Board of Directors.One Namibian interviewee argued that one can also34Ted Scott, Head of Training atNamibian BroadcastingCorporation (NBC).35Maria Indongo-Nepaya, Headof Media Content Hub, NamibianBroadcasting Corporation (NBC).36Ted Scott, Head of Training atNamibian BroadcastingCorporation (NBC).37Allgemeine Zeitung, July 13, 2011.38Allgemeine Zeitung, April 4, 2011.39The Namibian, February 28, 2014.40Open Society Foundations, 2013,p. 43.41Robin Tyson, Lecturer at Departmentof Information andCommunication Studies,University of Namibia (UNAM).42NBC 2014.43Albertus Aochamub, Director-General of Namibian BroadcastingCorporation (NBC).44Rita, July 11, 2013.45Albertus Aochamub, Director-General of Namibian BroadcastingCorporation (NBC).46Natasha H. Tibinyane, NationalDirector, MISA Namibia.47Open Society Foundations 2011,52.48AMB 2011, 48.49The analogue terrestrial networkremains the mode of transmis sionfor FM radio signals beyond 2015.50Stanley Shanapinda, Chief ExecutiveOfficer, CommunicationRegulation Authorityof Namibia (CRAN).Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 81

detect a kind of lethargy in Namibian civil society vis-á-vis itsstate broadcaster: “I feel sometimes we became too complacentas Namibians, we are not pushing hard enough from thecivil society.” 51In the eyes of many analysts, NBC to date remains a “statebroadcaster,” if not a “ruling party broadcaster.” 52 The representationof Namibian civil society within the NBC steeringcommittee remains fragmented – it certainly does not reflectthe complexity of Namibian society. The five current BoardMembers come from the corporate business community, thenational telecommunications company, the Namibia LiteraryTrust and the Christian community, which by and large is nota representative cross-section of the Namibian public. 53 Financialturmoil, obscure decision-making processes, a lack ofcredible distance to government interests, and some seriousproblems with journalistic quality have further damaged theacceptance of the state broadcaster as the “voice of the peopleof Namibia.” 54Public Service: General FunctionsWe will use the following pages to evaluate the different publicservice functions NBC may or may not fulfill. In doing so, onehas to keep in mind the peculiarities of Namibia, namely thesharp contrast between the capital region and rural areas, thevariety of ethnicities, and the particularly high percentage ofNamibians living below the poverty line. Seen from this perspective,the public service functions of the NBC can be assessedas follows:Creating a Public SphereOne of the key functions of public service media is to providea platform for political debate, occasionally setting the agendaand confronting officials with critical questions from thepublic, thereby fostering accountability. To a large extent, saymost impartial observers, the NBC in its current form does notprovide space for such a ‘forum of national debate.’ Thus, thebroadcaster is often criticized for its reactive news programming.Or as one interviewee argued: “I tend to believe that theNBC follows the government agenda, I don’t see them settingthe agenda.” 55 Even though NBC TV does have political talkshows such as “Talk of The Nation,” “One on One” or “The WeekThat Was,” many local interviewees have argued that controversialdebate remains excluded from the broadcast reality. Inconsequence, what is discussed in the public domain is mostlikely an agenda as set by government officials or by a ministryspokesperson. International analysts 56 and local media stakeholdershave similarly suggested that in particular the currentpredominance of state-owned media in Namibia makes anycriticism of those in power problematic, or as one intervieweenoted: “Self-censorship is a big, big problem because the majorityof journalists are working in government institutions.” 57Looking at both sides of the story is a guarantee of balancedreporting: This basic principle of public service media be-comes something of a balancing act in the Namibian context –in particular with regard to national television. Or as one intervieweeput it: “The stories are not stories at all, but theyare press releases from the government.” 58 In short, many Namibiansdoubt that NBC currently acts as a reliable vehicle forunbiased information and diverse perspectives. Often, singlesource reports are broadcast, critics argue, featuring the pointof view of the current government exhaustively but with littleor no airtime given to opposing views that might be of equalinterest to the public. In the words of a leading NGO member:“They simply say nothing about what we are saying, they simplydon’t broadcast that. But once a minister says somethingagainst us, immediately that’s a headline.” 59International observers have also referred to the currentNBC commercialization strategy as potentially dangerous forits editorial independence – this time from the business angle.In other words, the state-controlled broadcaster might, on itscurrent path, find itself trying to overcome financing shortagesfrom the national budget by taking on business intereststhat will inevitably interfere with its public service mandate.With regard to biased reporting, NBC is confronted withwhat observers are calling a crisis of confidence and trustworthiness.In reality, this translates into a scenario whereordinary citizens in urban areas (with alternative media athand) already read between the lines when consuming newsand current affairs products from the state broadcaster. Alternatively,such ‘informed parts of society’ sideline the statebroadcaster completely, consuming media with a reputationfor independent journalism, such as the national daily The Namibian,or, amongst younger Namibians, the blogs “Free yourMind” or “Spoken Word.” The MediaMetrics study (2010) suggestsNBC nevertheless remains the most popular TV channelin Namibia with – on average – 1.1 million possible viewersat a given time. The same data from opinion polls show thatOneAfrica TV was estimated to have around 400,000 viewerson average. 60 In particular with societal multipliers, the smallcommercial rival OneAfricaTV has a much better standingand reputation than NBC. 61However, as far as NBC radio and its different languageservices are concerned, some observers state that NBC doesin fact offer small spheres of public space and political discourseand thereby fulfills a public service mandate, providingbalanced and unbiased news: “If you listen to NBCAfrikaans radio, they are actually quite critical and they alsoallow critical voices to speak, maybe the politicians feel it’snot relevant. The NBC Herero radio station is also where lotsof debates take place.” 62Much has been invested in recent years at NBC in improvingthe quality of its programming, not only from an editorialpoint of view, but also in terms of its production and technicalimplementation. In cooperation with the NBC’s trainingdepartment, media trainers from SR as well as DW Akademiehave conducted workshops aiming for high-quality output –and also introducing debate on editorial guidelines. Neverthe-82

live on two US Dollars a day or less – and nevertheless shouldbe offered universal access. Secondly, the state broadcaster isgearing up to become Africa’s leading multimedia provider,based on the notion that virtually every Namibian has accessto a mobile phone, which makes multimedia content distributionan attractive option. However, virtually every Namibianalso knows that mobile broadband tariffs that allow for multimediaconsumption are extremely expensive in Namibia,compared to other African nations. For this reason, even theCEO of the national regulation authority says: “Data pricing isthe next challenge.” 69 In order to achieve universal access forall Namibians, now and in future, the NBC strategy will have totackle these challenges.Yet, there are also fields in which the NBC brief is fully inline with the classic definition of a public service remit. Lookingat the Namibian media landscape, the variety of its differentmedia provides a broad mix of content in the fields ofinformation, entertainment, education, and sports. NBC remains,however, the only provider capable of producing sucha broad variety of programming within one corporation. Andparticularly in certain fields of programming, NBC remainsto date the most prominent if not the only provider of publicservice functions; educational programming, for example, isoverlooked by most commercial radio stations and is hopelesslyunderfunded in community media. In the Namibiancontext in particular, this is a public service function of greatimportance, not least because 56 percent of Namibians are estimatedto be younger than 24 – which makes them potentialbeneficiaries of such programs. 70 NBC has gradually expandedits portfolio of educational programming over recent years.The author’s research, however, indicates that a more decentralizedapproach that would give educational programminggreater relevance to local communities would represent a logicalnext step in this respect.In the field of entertainment, NBC is the major supplier ofthird-party content from abroad, which is part of its public servicemandate as stated in the NBC Act. The current process ofdigitalization will greatly extend NBC’s entertainment portfolio,as there is to be one channel (NBC3) exclusively dedicatedto entertainment and sports. To what extent such an expansionof the entertainment field is in line with the broadcaster’spublic service mandate, remains open for debate.Even though NBC is following a path towards substantialtransformation, the corporation does not have a reputationas a trailblazer, either with consumers or with media experts.Thus, as several interviewees have stressed, NBC’s potential fortechnical as well as editorial innovation remains to be developedthrough structured processes.Achievements and ChallengesSummarizing the public service functions of the state broadcasterin Namibia as analysed above, it is difficult to developa clear-cut picture of the state of affairs within NBC. Derivingfrom a multitude of interviews, the author has established thefollowing picture of achievements and challenges at NBC:There are particular strengths that stand out, notably its analogueand digital network which is Namibia’s best possible optionto achieve universal access for all. There is NBC’s pivotal roleas provider of multilingual media content in radio that enablesthe cultural expression of language minorities, an unrivalledstrength and an important public service function. And thereis NBC’s function as the main and only genuine supplier of educationalprogramming in a media landscape that has otherwisenothing of the kind to offer a mostly young audience.But there have also been weaknesses and organizationalflaws that constitute major challenges on NBC’s transformationpath. First and foremost, there is an uncertainty aboutand, in parts, neglect of the “public service ethos” and how thisshould be translated into reality at Namibia’s state broadcaster.Secondly, the current corporate strategy (Strategic Triangle)may cause difficulties for the most vulnerable media consumersin the country, notably those people living below the povertyline. And thirdly, the ongoing transformation process ofthe state broadcaster has failed to include civil society in itsreform processes, with notable impact on the broadcaster’s futureintegration within society.NBC’s record of achievements, with particular reference to thepast three years, reads as follows:– The corporation has gained stability in management andmade progress towards financial sustainability, both importantprerequisites for future change processes. 71– NBC has intrinsically endorsed a major organizationalchange management project (multimedia strategy),aiming to upgrade programme quality and reorganizeinefficient structures. 72– NBC has launched a major modernization project of itstransmission network successfully – from the author’scurrent perspective – and with potential upgrading ofexisting infrastructure as well.– NBC has initiated a complete overhaul of its humanresources management which in the past has been oneof the main reasons for failed change processes. 7384

Part II Namibia: Multilingual Content and the Need for Organizational ChangeNBC’s recurrent problems on the way towards public servicebroadcasting remain:– NBC’s low credibility and perceived lack of trustworthinessamongst major parts of the population – which, as mostindependent interviewees noted, pose a threat to any publicservice function that the corporation would like to fulfil.– NBC’s existing governance structure constitutes a majorhindrance to further progress and would need reform inorder to improve the organization’s editorial as well asstructural independence. 74– NBC’s administrative and technical departments will haveto be more closely involved in the current change managementprocess in order to make it a success. 75Transformation ApproachesThe case study shows that much remains to be done in orderto enable NBC to tap its full potential as public service media.National as well as international stakeholders in NBC’s transformationprocess have stressed that the following measurescould be supportive:– Establishing platforms for political debate about the roleand the mandate of the national public broadcaster and itspublic service functions. 76– Enhancing advocacy work with Namibian Members ofParliament involved in the consultation process on redraftingthe outdated NBC Act.– Advocating the implementation of a multi-annual financialframework for the state broadcaster, reducing thedependency on advertising revenue. 77– Support measures targeting overall improvements of thelegal framework, in particular in the fields of access toinformation, whistleblower protection and the redraftingof the equally outdated 2009 Communication Act. 78– Improving professional skills of NBC staff in production,administration and technical departments, ranging frombasic skills training to awareness-raising interventions tospecialist training. 79– Improving professional skills of the corporation’s middlemanagement team, in particular with regard to leadershipand organizational skills. 80– Supporting the NBC’s training department in implementinga systematic career development system for NBC thatallows for competence-based recruitment and careerplanning. 81– Implementing structures that provide for long-term newsroomplanning which allows the various NBC departmentsto coordinate production needs with the use of limited productionfacilities. 82– Supporting the ongoing restructuring process of the NBCtowards multimedia content production through mentoringand ‘training on the job.’ 83– Advocacy work with the national media regulation authorityCRAN aimed at securing fair access for commercial andcommunity media to the newly established digital transmissioninfrastructure owned by NBC. 84– Raising awareness for the impact that technology-drivenchange management may have for the most vulnerable in thepopulation and developing measures to counterbalance. 8569Stanley Shanapinda, Chief ExecutiveOfficer, CommunicationRegulation Authority of Namibia(CRAN).70CIA 2014.71A trend that is particularlystressed by interviewees fromwithin NBC.72External consultants such asSwedish Radio have confirmedthat organizational irregularitiesat NBC are gradually being addressedand changed for the better.73In particular the current Headof Training at NBC, Ted Scott,has emphasised thisimprovement.74This position is similarly putforward by local stakeholdersfrom civil society as well as byinternational media experts thathave published studies for theOpen Society Foundationsin 2011 and 2013.75“The producers can’t rely onthe technical department. Itsnot a good structure and thathas to do with management.”Quote from: Ragna Wallmark,Media Consultant forSwedish Radio.76See in particular Open SocietyFoundations 2013.77See in particular Open SocietyFoundations 2013.78Natasha H. Tibinyane, NationalDirector, MISA Namibia.79Ted Scott, Head of Training atNamibian BroadcastingCorporation (NBC) andSwedish Radio consultants.80Ragna Wallmark, MediaConsultant of Swedish Radio.81Ragna Wallmark, MediaConsultant of Swedish Radio.82Ragna Wallmark, MediaConsultant of Swedish Radio.83Ted Scott, Head of Training atNamibian BroadcastingCorporation (NBC) andSwedish Radio consultants.84Stanley Shanapinda, ChiefExecutive Officer, CommunicationRegulation Authority ofNamibia (CRAN).85Phil Ya Nangoloh, ExecutiveDirector at NamRights.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 85

According to the interviewed stakeholders, the followingmethods and approaches may be helpful:Methods that accompany ongoing production processesthrough supervision, consultation and mentoring are welcome,as they guarantee continuity, accessibility of consultants,and feedback and constant check of results. 86– Long-term placements of senior consultants ratherthan short term skills workshops (six months andmore or on a regular basis)– Continuous group-building processes– Mentoring throughout production cycles – fromconcept to broadcastEstablishing a content-sharing platform amongst public servicemedia in Southern Africa. 87Exchange of experiences:– Bringing NBC staff together with civil society groups– Arranging study trips abroad for administrativeand technical staff– Giving journalists the possibility to participate inregional exchange programmes or co-productions(under the supervision of international consultants)In its current format, the Namibian Broadcasting Corporationdoes not qualify as a fully-fledged public service media outlet.But the corporation plays a vital role in delivering public servicegoods in particular to poorer parts of the population. Forany media development initiative that is initiated in Namibia,it would therefore be vital to engage in a dialogue with NBC asto how certain public service functions could be strengthenedthrough targeted interventions.– Developing pilot shows with one public broadcaster– Staff exchange (Twinning) and content exchangewith supervision and mediation by internationalconsultants86Ted Scott, Head of Training at Namibian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC)and Swedish Radio consultants.87Albertus Aochamub, Director General of Namibian BroadcastingCorporation (NBC).86

Part II Namibia: Multilingual Content and the Need for Organizational ChangeStatus of the Namibia Broadcasting Corporation (NBC)Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsChannels,distributionTV: Three nationwide channels: NBC1 (family channel/publicservice); NBC2 (news and current affairs/public service)and NBC3 (entertainment and sports/commercial focus); allchannels broadcast in English and are 24/7 on air, while mostcontent is bought from third parties, local content currentlyat 35 %In 2014, NBC expanded itsTV portfolio from 1 to 3channels, thanks to a moveto digital terrestrial broadcasting(DTT)Radio: NBC provides 10 radio channels in ten different languages;The English service, NBC National radio, broadcastson a 24 hour basis. The other radio services, namely AfrikaansService, Damara/Nama Service, German Service, OtjihereroService, Tirelo Ya Setswana, ah! Radio, Lozi Service, OshiwamboService and Rukavango Service shut down during thenight; Some broadcast from regional studios, and therebyhave limited coverage to specific regions.Legal frameworkNBC operates on the basis of the Namibia BroadcastingAct (Act 9 of 1991); Problems: The law is generally seen asoutdated, as it reflects the pre-internet age. Moreover, thegovernance structure lacks independence both on a financingand a decision-making level. The Namibian Constitutionpromotes in principle the rights of a free and independentpress.According to the NBCDirector General (CEO), aconsultation process on anew NBC law has alreadystarted; a move towardsincluding it on the politicalagenda is a prerogative ofthe Namibian InformationMinister (MICT)Public service remitThe NBC law does not refer explicitly to a public serviceremit, but it stipulates that NBC is a parastatal organization(same status as Air Namibia and other state-owned companies)that has the following objectives: to “inform andentertain the public of Namibia, to contribute to the educationand unity of the nation, to provide and disseminateinformation relevant to the socio-economic development ofNamibia and to promote the use and understanding of theEnglish language.”–Regulatory system/governing bodyThe highest governing body of NBC is the Board of Directors(Board), a group of senior executives that supervise andcontrol the corporation. All Board Members, including NBC’sDirector General as the chief executive officer, are appointeddirectly and exclusively by the Minister of Information andCommunication Technology (MICT) for a five year term.Problem: There is no civil society involvement and no transparency,and there is a strong alignment with the ruling partySWAPOProgress towards a reformof this state-controlledselection procedure is likelyto remain difficult as thereis a lack of problem awarenessin the political domainand, notably, divergingstrategic interests of theruling party (SWAPO)Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 87

Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsEngagement of civil societyAs stated above, the NBC’s Board of Directors is elected withoutcivil society involvement; Problem: The NBC governancestructure encourages public disinterest vis à vis its statebroadcaster.–FinancingIn principle, NBC is funded mainly by an annual state subsidy(55%), partially also using other sources of income, such asthe sale of air time and programs (21%), the issuing of yearlytelevision licenses and the rental of transmitters. Problems:Firstly, NBC is heavily dependent on direct state subsidies,which have to be negotiated annually. Second, mismanagementhas led to a drop in license fee revenue of more than 50percent in recent years.Until recently, NBC had nodepartment for license feecollection; restructuringsince 2011 has reduced obviouscases of managementfailure; the NBC Board hasendorsed a new strategy,the “Strategic Triangle2011.” The objective is to“triple its own revenue” by2015, through a coherentcommercialization strategy.Use mobile and internetcommunication/moderntechnology/challenges ofdigitalizationNBC is in the process of digitalizing its TV broadcasting; as of2014, DTT-broadcasting has extended the NBC channel familyto NBC1, NBC2 and NBC3; for years, NBC lagged behind in thisprocess due to lack of leadership and public funding. TheNBC’s analogue broadcasting network is the largest networkin the country, but a lack of maintenance means parts of itare in bad condition; NBC has an online presence and someNBC radio stations are available via live streaming; however,the standard of NBC’s online presence remains rudimentary.–Regional structuresand reportingFour NBC Radio Language Services are situated in the regions,namely ah! Radio in Tsumkwe, Lozi Service in Katima Mulilo,Oshiwambo Service in Oshakati and Rukavango Service inRundu. The regional stations are also provided with stafffrom NBC Engineering & IT and NBC News & Current Affairs.NBC furthermore has three Contribution Centres, namely inOtjiwarongo, Walvis Bay and Keetmanshoop. The ContributionCentres are smaller in size than the regional stations andhave fewer employees. Problems: Firstly, NBC TV lacks regionalizationwhich is why local communities often complainthat they do not feel represented; secondly, most regionalstories are dependent on the occasional visits of high-profilepoliticians.–Capacity buildingFrom 2000 to 2010, the NBC was in a constant managementcrisis; effectively, this led to a total halt of all activities at theNBC’s training department; NBC staff had various training opportunitiesthrough cooperation with external media trainingorganizations (e.g., Swedish Radio or DW Akademie).–88

General Functions I: Political SphereFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Information:comprehensive, balanced,objective – and alsoregional news.PartiallyNBC is by far the most dominant media player in Namibia, with the greatestresources and broadest coverage. But, the availability of resourcesdoes not translate into high-quality news and current affairs reporting.Problems: Firstly, lack of training has led to problems with staff; secondly,the public perceives the news agenda of the NBC often as biasedand one-sided, as news is often connected to prominence (governmentinvolvement), rather than actual news value; thirdly, minority languagespeakers from Namibia’s rural areas often do not feel represented by thenews selection.All political parties havethe opportunity to speakin the program and arepresent in interviews,sound bites, etc.NoThere is a clear tendency in NBC’s news and current affairs broadcastingto favor government voices; opposition parties are only representedbefore elections, but in quantity and quality of reporting rather limited;after election campaigns, the main focus of the media is on ruling party(SWAPO) representativesCriticism of politicalactors (government,administration, otherpolitical actors)PartiallyAs local and international analysts have argued, the Namibian politicallandscape currently lacks a culture of political criticism and debate, whichis in part due to the omnipresence of the dominating political partySWAPO, which has run the government since independence. Direct criticismof the government is therefore seldom heard on NBC, and if so, inniche channels such as the minority language channels on NBC radio.Societal criticism (socialactors, individuals, problemsin society)PartiallyProblems in society are captured very superficially, often lacking in-depthresearch that the day-to-day organization of the current NBC set-up doesnot allow time for; thus, corruption scandals or the highlighting of socialproblems is most often left to newspapers such as the daily The Namibianor some weekly newspapers that have staff with an investigative mandate.Moderation of debate/democratic facilitationNoEven though NBC TV does have political talk shows such as “Talk of theNation,” “One on One” or “The Week That Was,” many analysts argue thatcontroversial debates remain excluded from broadcast reality.Social/politicalorientationPartially to NoNBC offers the broadest range of programming of all Namibian media.However, programs that help citizens to develop an understanding ofsocial and political problems and the various solutions that are at handare scarce in NBC programming.Agenda setting/investigative journalismNoNBC in general follows the government’s agenda quite stringently. Agenda-settingin the public sphere is most often to be ascribed to journalistsof daily or weekly newspapers, if at all. Truly investigative research is rarein Namibia. It is often believed to be too expensive with little commercialvalue.90

Part II Namibia: Multilingual Content and the Need for Organizational ChangeGeneral Functions II: IntegrationFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Participation, voice,empowermentPartiallyNBC mostly produces in the capital Windhoek, which reduces the inputthat local communities in remote areas might have in programming; invarious regions, the NBC has a very small network of regional studioswith few staff; too few provide truly decentralized news from all regionsin Namibia for the specific constituency and give them channels of participation.Cultural expression,strengthening ofidentity, values, andcultural cohesionYes to partiallyNBC TV, due to its “English-only” policy, doesn’t set the best example ofproviding a sphere for cultural expression in minority languages; NBCradio, however, provides such a space. NBC is often criticized for being toofocused on the capital, as all its major production capacities are there.NBC offers a range of 35 percent of local production, which is in itself astrong statement on strengthening national and cultural identity; however,this cultural cohesion is not directed at showing diversity, but ratherat stressing the commonalities of cultural expression; this is why, forinstance, a lot of local cultural heritage will not make it into the programmingof NBC TV.Entertainment Yes NBC provides entertainment programs: however, analysts often criticizethat entertainment is mainly content bought from outside, so there is alack of cultural cohesion and representation.Education Yes NBC provides various specific educational programs. In fact, NBC is thebiggest provider for this kind of programming in all of Namibia. However,the outlet is often criticized for the quality of education programming.Innovation Partially NBC’s potential for technical as well as editorial innovation remainsto be developed through structured processes, as stressed by variousinterviewees.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 91

International Media Development PartnersPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/progress/problemsSwedish Radio(2008–2013)Project with 2 Phases; Phase 1from 2008 to 2012 focussed oneditorial guidelines; Phase 2from 2012 to 2013 focussed onchange management towardsmulti media productionPhase 1: no information on appliedmethods available; Phase 2:mentoring and group-buildingworkshops that were implementedin two-month intervals, fromconceptualization to implementationof one multimedia projectMain result of Phase 1: no informationavailable;Main result of Phase 2: twodepartments, “Education” andSports,” were regrouped intomulti-media divisions (as pilotsfor other departments) and inwinter 2013, one series of multimediaprogrammes was broadcast(Topic: Entrepreneurship)DW Akademie(2012 –ongoing)– Various short-term workshops, such as “AfricanStories,” capacity buildingmeasures for NBC staff andstaff from other regionalbroadcasters– Production mentoring forthe launch of a TV children’sshow from autumn 2013onwards– Mentoring of productionprocesses through permanentstaff based in Windhoek– Capacity building workshopsthrough visiting DW mediatrainers– Liaison meetings with DWmedia consultants– Launch of children’s programmingin winter 2013– Internal restructuring ofEducation department withregular meetings, scheduledtask lists and transparentfunctional roles within ateamwork processN.B. All the information given in the tables above is based onthe interviews, observations and document analysis made bythe author of this chapter. The tables provide very rough summariesof what is being elaborated in the texts. Many of theissues mentioned here are, of course, subject to change.92

Part II Namibia: Multilingual Content and the Need for Organizational ChangeAppendixReferencesACTION Namibia (2014), Who we are, retrieved from:http://www.actionnamibia.org/node/4FES – Friedrich Ebert Stiftung/ MISA (2011), African Media Barometer:Namibia, p. 1–71.Allgemeine Zeitung (July 13, 2011), NBC-Bilanz: Mehr Schuldenals erwartet, retrieved from: http://www.az.com.na/wirtschaft/nbc-bilanz-mehr-schulden-als-erwartet.130420.phpAllgemeine Zeitung (April 4, 2011), Politiker erfahren NBC-Notlage,retrieved from: http://www.az.com.na/lokales/politikererfahren-nbc-notlage.124638.phpAllgemeine Zeitung (May 7, 2010), Neues Quintett soll NBCretten, retrieved from: http://www.az.com.na/wirtschaft/neuesquintett-soll-nbc-retten.106513.phpCIA – Central Intelligence Agency (2014), The World Factbook:Namibia, retrieved from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/wa.htmlFischer Weltalmanach (2013), Namibia, Frankfurt am Main.ITU – International Telecommunication Union (2014), ICT-Eye,Namibia Profile 2012, retrieved from: http://www.itu.int/net4/itu-d/icteye/Open Society Foundations (2013), An Overview; Taylor, Sarah;Minnie, Jeanette; Bussiek, Hendrik, Open Society FoundationsPublic Broadcasting in Africa Series: AfriMAP, p. 1–154.Rita, Christine, Windhoek Oberserver.com.na (July 11, 2013),Digital TV Puts Spark in Advertising, retrieved from: http://observer24.com.na/business/1847-digital-tv-puts-spark-inadvertisingStork, Christoph, (2009), Namibia 2009 – Access to Online Informationand Knowledge, Research ICT Africa (RIA), retrievedfrom: http://www.giswatch.org/country-report/20/namibiaThe Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Analysis Namibia,retrieved from: http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=130480997&Country=Namibia&topic=Summary&subtopic=At%20a%20glance, and http://country.eiu.com/article.aspx?articleid=410809825&Country=Namibia&topic=Risk&subtopic=Credit+risk&subsubtopic=Overview#The Namibian (February 28, 2014), NBC gets a billion dollarsdespite breaking even, retrieved from: http://www.namibian.com.na/indexx.php?archive_id=120436&page_type=archive_story_detail&page=1MediaMetrics (2010), Measuring Namibian Media Awarenessand Consumption, Windhoek, Vision for Africa, p. 1–105.Melber, Henning (2010), The legacy of anti-colonial strugglesin Southern Africa: Liberation movements as governments, in:Links International Journal of Socialist Renewal, retrieved from:http://links.org.au/node/1704#_ftn1Namibian Biodiversity Database, Namibian Languages, retrievedfrom: http://biodiversity.org.na/NamLanguages.phpNBC – Namibian Broadcasting Corporation (2014), AboutNBC, retrieved from: http://www.nbc.na/co_aboutus.php?id=16&title=About%20NBC.Open Society Foundations (2011), Public Broadcasting in Namibia;Taylor, Sarah; Minnie, Jeanette; Bussiek, Hendrik (eds.),Open Society Foundations Public Broadcasting in Africa Series:AfriMAP, p. 1–154.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 93

List of InterviewsAmupadhi, Tangeni;Editor of The Namibian,interview conducted in Berlin on September 4, 2013.Aochamub, Albertus;Director General of Namibian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC),interview conducted in Windhoek on September 23, 2013.Brown, Emily M.;Head of Department Media and Technology,Polytechnic of Namibia,interview conducted in Windhoek on September 26, 2013.Coetzee, Wiets;Head of News, ONE Africa Television,interview conducted in Windhoek on September 25, 2013.Daniels, Clement;Media ombudsman of Namibia,interview conducted in Windhoek on September 25, 2013.Indongo-Nepaya, Maria;Head of Media Content Hub,Namibian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC),interview conducted in Windhoek on September 23, 2013.Kalambo M’ule, Elizabeth;Executive Director, Editors’ Forum of Namibia (EFN),interview conducted in Windhoek on September 25, 2013.Le Pelley, Mareike;Director of the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Windhoek Office,interview conducted in Windhoek on September 23, 2013.Olivier, Pieter;Managing Director of Live FM Community Radio, Rehoboth,interview conducted in Windhoek on September 24, 2013.Scott, Ted;Head of Training at Namibian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC),interview conducted in Windhoek on September 23, 2013.Shanapinda, Stanley;Chief Executive Officer,Communication Regulation Authority of Namibia (CRAN),interview conducted in Windhoek on September 20, 2013Shejavali, Nangula;Researcher at the Institute of Public Policy Research (IPPR),interview conducted in Windhoek on September 24, 2013.Tibinyane, Natasha H.;National Director, MISA Namibia,interview conducted in Windhoek on September 24, 2013.Tyson, Robin;Lecturer at Department of Information and CommunicationStudies, University of Namibia (UNAM),interview conducted in Windhoek on September 27, 2013.Van de Port, Joost;Head of Media Department MATS, College of the Arts (Cota),interview conducted in Windhoek on September 26, 2013.Wallmark, Ragna;Media Consultant for Swedish Radio,interview conducted in Windhoek on September 23, 2013.Nangoloh, Phil Ya;Executive Director at NamRights,interview conducted in Windhoek on September 23, 2013.NBC Employee (Reporter) ;Namibian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC),interview conducted in Windhoek on September 23, 2013.NBC Employee (Editor);Namibian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC),interview conducted in Windhoek on September 27, 2013.Ndlovu, Marco;Acting Station Manager, BASE FM Community Radio,interview conducted in Windhoek on September 27, 2013.94

Part II Namibia: Multilingual Content and the Need for Organizational ChangeEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 95

06Mongolia: Achievements ThroughPublic Service Capacity BuildingLaura Schneider96

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingMongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingIn nine years of transformation, Mongolian National Broadcaster (MNB) has undergone a change process with significantachievements. The decisive factor for this support was the continuous and long-term collaboration – in particular with RadioSweden, funded by the Swedish development agency SIDA – which was systematically planned and attuned to everyday challenges.DW Akademie has been active here since 2011. All stakeholders point out the great importance of the collaboration withinternational development experts and organizations which fuel and accelerate MNB’s transformation process. Today, despitepersisting problems, numerous MNB journalists have reached a basic level of professionalism. What remains to be done in particularis to build capacity at the management level. MNB fulfils important public service broadcasting functions: It providesthe Mongolian society with diverse programming of national coverage which gives a voice to different parts of society. Despiteincreasing competition from commercial rivals, it is still the broadcaster with the best ratings and highest credibility among thepopulation. For the empowerment of the most vulnerable in society, MNB plays an important role. The improvements achievedduring MNB’s transformation process so far prove that the efforts made by the different actors were and will be worth it. In Mongolia,there are no real alternatives to well-functioning public service media.In order to understand the particular situation of the publicservice broadcaster Mongolian National Broadcaster (MNB), abrief overview of Mongolia’s most important characteristics,its media landscape and the status of the media organizationshould be given.Mongolia – A Brief OverviewMongolia is a country of superlatives: With its population ofaround 2.8 million 1 people living on a surface area of nearly1.6 million 2 square kilometers, Mongolia is not only amongthe largest countries of the world, but also the least denselypopulated one. Another Mongolian superlative is its extremeclimate, with very hot summers and extremely cold winters.The capital Ulan Bator (or: Ulaanbaatar) is the coldest nationalcapital in the world with January temperatures as low as -40°Cand an average annual temperature of -2.4°C. 3 Almost half of allMongolians live in the capital which has a population of morethan 1.2 million people. 4 The rest of the country is divided into21 provinces, the so-called aimags. The Mongolian populationis fairly homogenous: With 85%, the Khalkh or Mongolian arethe largest ethnicity, followed by the Kazakh (7%). The remaining(8%) are divided into small groups with the major linguisticminorities being Kazakhs and Tuva-speaking Tsaatans. 5 Othergroups speak varying dialects of Mongolian. Further, there aresmall clusters of Chinese and Russian residents. 6As in many other countries, in Mongolia the breakdownof the Soviet Union initiated a democratic revolution in the1990s. This led to a multi-party system, 7 a new constitutionthat was adopted in 1992 as well as transition to a marketeconomy. Today, Mongolia has a number of political parties,the most powerful of which are the Mongolian People’s Party(MPP) and the Democratic Party (DP). The MPP 8 formed thegovernment of the country from 1921 to 1996 – in a one-partysystem until 1990 – and from 2000 to 2004. During the interviewsconducted for this study 9 several interviewees assertedthat Mongolia is still in the process of democratization andthat the political education of the population is still weak. Thecitizens neither have sufficient understanding of democracynor awareness of their rights. 10 As reasons for this, both the nomadicroots and traditions of the Mongolian society and thecommunist era are mentioned. According to the World Bank,a quarter of Mongolia’s population are still nomadic herders. 11In the last two decades, an increasingly affluent Mongolianmiddle class has emerged. However, wealth is distributed unequallyand especially the disparities between the urban andthe rural population are staggering.Media LandscapeThe disparities between the urban centers – especially thecapital – and the rural provinces are inherent in the Mongolianmedia system as well. While the newly-gained freedom inthe 1990s led to a media boom in the capital, not much haschanged in the countryside. According to the latest report(2013) by the Mongolian NGO Press Institute, 12 there are 555media outlets operating on a regular basis in Mongolia. 13 In2012, there were 135 newspapers, 99 magazines, 84 radio stations(77 are FM stations), 166 television channels and 68 infor-1NSO 2014.2UN Data 2014.3White, January 9, 2013.4UBstat 2012.5Ziyasheva 2007, 4.6MRG 2005.7Today, Mongolia’s politicalsystem can be described asa parliamentary republic.8The MPP was known as thePeople’s Revolutionary Partybetween 1921 and 2010.9For the purpose of this study, nineinterviews with different peoplewere conducted in Ulan Batorin January 2014. Among theinterviewees were representativesfrom Mongolian National Broadcaster(journalists, administrationand management level),representatives from differentNGOs, researchers, a blogger aswell as a former and a currentmember of the National Council.The interviews lasted betweenone and two hours.10Zanaa Jurmed, Director of theCentre for Citizens’ Alliance.11World Bank 2013.12The Press Institute is the onlyindependent NGO that monitorsthe Mongolian media landscaperegularly.13Press Institute 2013, 2.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 97

mation websites 14 in Mongolia. Of the 135 newspapers, 16 arepublished daily, 31 weekly and 24 monthly. 15 Currently, thereare 16 TV stations with national coverage and only three nationwideradio stations. 16Since the end of the communist era, the Mongolian mediamarket has been growing significantly and even in the last fewyears the number of media outlets has constantly increased. 17For example, in 2012, seven newspapers closed down, but 16new ones were launched. Also the sales of newspapers have increased,though they are still relatively low. The biggest growthhas occurred in television – a fact that will be discussed later inthis chapter as it plays an important role regarding the transformationof MNB as well. In the last six years, the numberof TV stations has increased from 50 in 2006 to 166 in 2012. 18Seventeen new stations were launched between 2011 and 2012alone. Also, the number of local media outlets has been increasingand as of 2012, 179 rural media outlets were operating, anincrease of 26% from the previous year. 19 Around 4,900 Mongolianswork in the media business (2,270 for television, 2,095 forprint media and 538 for radio); 2,341 of them are journalists. 20In 2013, television remained the most important source ofinformation (33%), followed by the internet (22%), whose importancehas grown rapidly in recent years. 21 In particular inthe countryside, local community radio stations play a certainrole in providing access to information for minorities and therural population.Mongolian National Broadcaster (MNB)Mongolian National Public Television started broadcasting in1967, while Mongolian National Public Radio had already existedsince 1934. 22 Under the Law on Public Radio and Television,which was adopted in 2005, these state-run television andradio stations were formally transformed into a public servicebroadcaster on January 1, 2006. 23 MNB not only consists of theradio and television branches, but also of the MM News Agency,which was established in 1967. Today, MNB is the only publicbroadcaster in Mongolia, the rest of the Mongolian media landscapeis mainly privately organized. 24 Currently, MNB employsa total of 745 staff members, with 58 people working for theMM News Agency, 185 for MNB radio and 273 for MNB television.25 While MNB is regulated through the Law on Public Radioand Television, the private broadcasters are controlled by theCommunications Regulatory Commission of Mongolia (CRC),which was established by the Communications Act of 2001. 26MNB television consists of two nationwide channels: themain channel, which broadcasts between 17 and 18 hoursper day and MNB2, the second public channel. The latter wasfounded in 2011 and targets minorities. MNB2 broadcasts culturaland educational programs, movies and news, amongothers, in Kazakh, Tuva and Buryad for 17 hours daily. 27 Accordingto the Press Institute, MNB’s programming is dividedinto 50% information, 27% movies and documentaries, 10%entertainment shows, 6% arts and music, 2% sports and 4%other genres. 28 The program schedule provided by MNB for thisstudy, however, reveals that 49% of its programs are repetitionsand 1% “programs produced by request, with payment.” 29 Thisis important, as these programs are frequently criticized andthus will be discussed later in this study.MNB radio consists of four channels, which together produce50 hours of programming per day: The nationwide mainchannel (17 hours daily), the nationwide second channel,which targets minorities (16 hours daily), the third channel P3FM, which broadcasts in the capital and online only (16 hoursdaily) and Voice of Mongolia, the country’s only internationalbroadcasting station for Mongolians living abroad and foreigners,broadcasting in Mongolian, English, Russian, Chinese, andJapanese (around 8 hours daily). 30Having been the only broadcaster and a mouthpiece andpropaganda instrument of the government for many decades,MNB’s main news channel is still the television channel withthe highest daily reach. Further, its daily program “Tsagiinkhurd” remains the news program with the highest ratings(33%). 31 However, the competition from private channels ishigh and MNB has lost its leading position especially amongyounger viewers.According to Article 17 of the Law on Public Radio and Television,MNB is financed through a mandatory license fee, advertisingand sponsoring, direct support from the state budget,income from property rental, and donations. Articles 20 and 21of the same law determine that the highest governing body ofMNB is the National Council, which consists of 15 members andappoints MNB’s General Director. Both the problems emergingfrom the current funding structure of MNB and the work aswell as the appointment process of the National Council will bediscussed later in the study – they are the two main issues thatcurrently hinder MNB’s transformation.Stakeholders in the Transformation ProcessGenerally, civil society, i.e., NGOs, play an important role in thehighly politicized and corruption-prone Mongolian society,though unfortunately the majority of them are not a strongforce for change: “Many organizations like the different journalisticorganizations as well as a number of NGOs are closelyassociated with the political rulers.” 32 Within the field of media,there are two national NGOs that stand out for their long-termcommitment to supporting the development of free and independentmedia: the Press Institute of Mongolia and GlobeInternational. These NGOs as well as different media outletshave been supported by a variety of donors. Thus, the two nationalNGOs could get involved in the transformation processof MNB. For that reason, they will be briefly introduced. Apartfrom these two national NGOs, several international organizationshave supported the development of the Mongolianmedia as well as the transformation process of MNB. Notably,only those organizations that impacted most on MNB’s transformationwill be briefly mentioned subsequently.98

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingPress Institute of MongoliaEstablished in 1995 under the Free Press project and financedby a grant from the Danish Agency for International Development(DANIDA), the Press Institute (PI) is a non-governmentalnon-profit organization. It supports the development ofan independent and pluralistic media sector in Mongolia byimproving the qualifications and skills of Mongolian mediaworkers, analyzing the development of Mongolian media,and explaining to the public the role and importance of freemedia. 33 PI has implemented more than 50 research projectsand organized around 700 training and information eventsfor media professionals. 34 The NGO plays an important rolein journalism training in Mongolia: It offers short- and longtermtraining including a 6-month Journalism Diplomacourse, and a 4-year Bachelor program developed jointly withthe Danish School of Journalism, as well as a digital photojournalismcourse developed with funds from UNESCO. PI isthe only journalism school that has a practical focus. Apartfrom its academic and its practical training programs, themethods applied by the Press Institute are: roundtable discussions,events on key issues in the media, constant monitoringof the overall media landscape, and research studies on specifictopics. Since 2006, PI has extensively supported MNB’stransformation by, for example, organizing the National CivilSociety Forum 2006 for the nomination of NC members, aswell as in-house training for MNB radio and TV newsroomjournalists and numerous studies.Globe InternationalThe second organization, Globe International (GI), 35 wasfounded in 1999 as a non-profit NGO. It focuses on freedom ofexpression, freedom of information and media independenceand has developed a special expertise in legal aspects, i.e., thelegal framework for journalists. 36 GI has been funded primarilyby international donors, UNESCO and the Soros Foundationbeing the leading contributors. 37 In cooperation with the NGOArticle 19, GI has conducted research on the Mongolian medialegislation. In 2010, in association with the organizationIFEX, GI established an online self-reporting system wherejournalists can report violations and harassments. The NGOreports all information to national and international networkssuch as IFEX, IFJ, Freedom House, Reporters Without Borders,Internews, Article 19, and GFMD as well as to embassies andNGOs. Moreover, GI conducts training workshops for lawyersin the field of media law.SIDA – Swedish International Development CooperationAgencySIDA played a very important role right from the beginning ofMNB’s transformation process. From 2006 on, together withRadio Sweden, the organization focussed on MNB radio aimingat the following four focal points: (1) increasing managementcapacity within MNB radio, (2) increasing news and current affairscapacity at MNB radio, (3) developing a third radio chan-nel focussing on the youth, and (4) initiating a public serviceapproach on the coverage of elections. 38 During the five yearsof collaboration, around 50 different training activities werecarried out, among them top-level seminars and workshops,classroom lecturing and workshops for journalists and techniciansas well as on-the-job training directly in the otherwiseon-going production. Further, the collaboration included settingup practical routines and/or technical installations, practicalhands-on consultation concerning for instance electioncoverage, current affairs programming or a new salary system.Moreover, a number of study trips to Sweden were organizedfor gathering and sharing experiences of practical journalistic,technical, and managerial issues. 39 A total of about 700 participantsfrom different levels at MNB radio were involved inSIDA’s activities.Today, MNB radio is said to have a higher quality and to bemore professional than MNB television. Several intervieweespointed out that SIDA’s work led to significant improvementsregarding the quality of MNB radio and the professionalism ofits journalists – both in terms of practical skills and knowledgeand with regard to the understanding of the role and functionof public service media. 40 Furthermore, they stressed that itwas very helpful and efficient that SIDA did not only organizeworkshops but actually accompanied journalists during their14Ibid.15The others are published bi-weekly,bi-monthly or only a few timesper year.16Ibid., 40ff.17Press Institute 2013, 3.18Ibid., 40.19Ibid., 5. The average weekly broadcastinghours for local TV is80 hours, and 104 hours for radio.20Press Institute 2013, 64.21Ibid., 68.22MNB 2014.23Ziyasheva 2007, 13.24According to the Press Institute(2013), out of the 166 TV channels152 are privately owned, 8 areowned by state organizationsand 6 by NGOs/public. Regardingradio, 54 stations are privatelyowned, 19 are owned by NGOs/public, 2 by state organizations,two by “others” and 7 arecommunity stations. Further,65% of all newspapers areprivately owned, 26% by NGO/public, 6% by state organizationsand 3% by “others” (ibid.).25MNB 2014. The whole organizationalchart provided by MNBcan be consulted in the Appendix.26CRC 2014.27Ibid., MNB2 was establishedwith the support of UNESCO.28Press Institute 2013, 45.29MNB 2014. The translatedprogram schedules providedby MNB of both MNB’s mainchannel and MNB2 can beconsulted in the Appendix.30Ibid.31Press Institute 2013, 71.32Ziyasheva 2007, 40.33Press Institute 2014.34Ibid.35Naranjargal Hashhuu, Directorof Globe International.36GI 2007.37Ziyasheva 2007, 42.38Tuvshintugs & Helgesson 2010, 3.39A table comprising all mainactivities carried out by SIDAis attached in the Appendix.40Batzorig Tuvshintugs,Munkhmandakh Myagmarand Oyuntungalag Tsend,in interviews.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 99

every day work, e.g., experts went to pre-election events withMNB journalists and then worked on the piece with them andgave them direct feedback, allowing for “training on the job.” 41Moreover, P3 FM, which was established with SIDA’s help, is apopular radio station in Ulan Bator today. However, SIDA terminatedits work in Mongolia in 2010.DW AkademieDW Akademie has supported the transformation process ofMNB since 2011. The cooperation focused on organizationaldevelopment, i.e., the consolidation of a strategic plan as wellas the improvement of the internal organization and communication.Therefore, the collaboration mainly concentratedon MNB’s Strategy and Finance Department. Activities carriedout were a planning workshop, a workshop on the developmentof a strategic plan, a workshop addressing the topic ofcommunication and coordination, a television training workshopon election reporting, an HR assessment which evaluatedMNB’s transition and challenges, and a workshop withthe Board of Directors which identified priority issues forthe Board and how to tackle them (all measures were implementedin 2011 and 2012). In 2013, DW Akademie conducted aworkshop on the strategic plan – both the prioritization andconsolidation of the first Strategic Plan (2009–2013) and thedevelopment of the new Strategic Plan (2014–2017) – and aroundtable discussion with old and new members of the NationalCouncil. Further, another human resource workshopwas carried out, addressing the topics of job advertisements,the salary system, human resource development, and a trainingcenter. 42From 2014 on, two major projects will be carried out overthe course of three years: First, DW Akademie supports Mongolianjournalists in the foundation of an organ of media selfregulation,namely a media council. The cooperation partneris the Friedrich Ebert Foundation – and the national controlgroup consists of the Press Institute, Globe International, andthe Mongolian Journalists’ Union. In order to successfully establisha media council, the focus will also lie on an improvementof the legal framework and the training of media lawyers.Second, DW Akademie aims to strengthen investigativereporting in Mongolia. Building on the already existing structuresat the Press Institute of Mongolia, a sustainable conceptfor investigative reporting will be established. This includesthe development of a module for education and training ininvestigative reporting, which is sustainable both with regardto its contents as well as its financing. The goal is that theprogram meet international standards and that it can be furtherintegrated in the existing curriculum of the Press Institute.Moreover, DW Akademie will conduct an analysis of thechances and risks of the transformation process of MNB, incooperation with MNB. This baseline study will contain DWAkademie‘s consultancy since 2011 as well as recommendationsfor the ongoing process. On this basis, decisions aboutfurther advisory services through DW Akademie will be taken.Overall, although there are various actors who work for freeand independent media in Mongolia, there is no genuine coordinationof activities nor a holistic approach. 43 As stated,MNB has benefited from various activities by different organizationsfocusing on distinct topics. While with the supportof SIDA mainly the journalistic skills and understanding aswell as the programming was improved, UNESCO enhancedthe broadcaster’s diversity and DW Akademie supported thestrategic and organizational development, among others.Status of the Media OrganizationLegal Framework, Governance and EthicsMNB’s structure and broadcasting are legally based on the Lawon Public Radio and Television adopted in 2005. Apart from that,all Mongolian media outlets act in the context of the Constitutionof Mongolia from 1992 and the 1998 Media Freedom Law –both guarantee freedom of expression. The Law on Public Radioand Television was developed in close consultation with GlobeInternational and international organizations including Article19. The law is widely praised as an essential step and a properlegal basis for MNB’s functioning as public service media. However,in particular two issues are frequently criticized and leadto severe problems regarding the broadcaster’s independence:the provisions concerning MNB’s funding and the process ofappointing MNB’s governing body, the National Council.The problems regarding the financing of MNB basicallyresult from three legal provisions: First, the law imposes extraordinarilystringent restrictions on advertising by MNB determiningthat “advertisements shall not exceed two percentof the daily broadcasting time” (Art. 13.3). Further, the law prohibitsall kinds of commercial advertisements (Art. 13.1). Thismakes it hard for MNB to raise sufficient funds, according tothe broadcaster’s management. Second, the actual pricing ofthe license fee is determined by the government (“Governmentshall set up the size of the service fee of the Public Radio andTelevision on the basis of a proposal of the National Council”,Art. 18.2), which means that it is not as insulated from politicalinterference as it could be. 44 Moreover, at 1100 Tugrik, which isaround 50 Euro cents per month, the license fee is relativelylow. And thirdly, the law states that the fee “shall be imposed toeach radio and television set of the household” (Art. 18.1), whichmeans that smart phone or computer owners do not pay so far.These facts leave MNB dependent on other sources of funding,especially direct government grants. Although the lawstipulated that the state will provide sufficient funding to enableMNB to meet its programming mandate (Art. 7.1), thereare no precise regulations and in reality MNB has to negotiatethis grant from the government on an annual basis. Theinterviewees criticized that these imprecise legal conditionsregarding the funding make it impossible for MNB to act independently,especially because the amount of the state subsidiescurrently depend on personal decisions and the “mood”of the government. 45100

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingThe process of appointing MNB’s governing body, the NationalCouncil, as set out in the 2005 law, is unique. In Article21, the law provides for the appointment of 15 members –four by the president, seven by the parliament and four bythe government. In principle, it was intended that the chosencandidates be selected from a shortlist of nominees that gotconsent from representatives of the civil society, i.e., NGOs.Although this is potentially a good approach, the fact thatcivil society is largely undefined within this legal frameworkhas led to serious problems concerning the independence ofMNB’s governing body. 46 Further, even though the law statesthat it is prohibited to nominate politicians and other officialsas well as individuals working at the management level of apolitical party, among others (Art. 21.3), the research for thisstudy has shown that political influence in the National Councilis high.All interviewees, regardless of their affiliation, mentionedthe political closeness of the National Council and the lack oftransparency of its nomination process as one of the mainproblems hindering the transformation of MNB. For the firstnomination process in 2006, a national forum was organizedby the Press Institute, 47 which guaranteed a transparent procedure.Afterwards, 60% of the candidates that had been nominatedby NGOs during the forum were appointed. 48 Hence,these first NC members were experts in their fields and inaddition benefited from various training activities. Today, incontrast, it is said that almost all NC members, or at least 80%of them, are directly connected to the government or politicalparties and have previously worked in PR departments ofpolitical parties or were spokespersons of politicians. 49Moreover, there is no transparent nomination processand it remains “completely unclear how the members andthe chair of the NC are elected and by whom.” 50 Whilst activistsfrom NGOs do not know what they have to do in order tobe nominated, it is much easier for people that know a politician.51 The affiliation of the current members, i.e., which NGOthey represent, is dubious and in some cases the stated organizationsdo not even exist. 52 This raises concerns that politiciansuse arbitrary methods in order to get their own peopleinto the NC, which in turn leads to NC members that are notprofessional and lack proper knowledge about the functionand role of MNB as a public service broadcaster. As a result ofthis opaque nomination procedure, some NC members do notfeel committed. That is why the attendance rate of the council’smeetings is poor, which blocks decision-making processeswithin MNB’s governing body and thus impedes actions andprogress. The fact that shortly after the elections in 2012 manysenior executives of MNB changed is a clear sign that the politicalaffiliation rather than professional skills count.According to the interviewees, MNB does not have propernewsroom guidelines or an ethics code. The only existing documentsregarding rules are the following: the Law on PublicRadio and Television, MNB’s general statutes, the press codexof Mongolia as well as a document about election coverage. 53The press codex, for instance, contains only very few paragraphsdealing with general things like the issue that journalistsshould act according to the law and that they should notbe corrupt. The lack of guidelines leads to daily conflicts becauseyoung journalists often do not know what the rules are.This is directly connected to the next category, the qualificationof MNB’s personnel.Capacity Building and Human ResourcesJournalism education and training is of particular importancein the case of Mongolia, as the country is going through a processof democratization on the one hand, whilst on the otherhand patterns and attitudes from the old Soviet system seemto prevail. This is true also for MNB. Numerous people haveworked for the former state broadcaster for all their life and areused to the old structures and the old working habits. 54 Sincethey were educated and trained in the communist era, they arenot familiar with the specific mandate of public service broadcasting.This is true not only for the older staff members, butalso for younger journalists – as most journalism schools arestill influenced by the Soviet system and its thinking. Accordingto the interviewees, a lack of understanding of the generalfunctions, and the role of public service media constitute – atall employment levels of the corporation – one of the biggestproblems regarding its transformation process. Yet, this lackof knowledge and awareness does not only apply to MNB staff,but also to most parts of Mongolian society.In addition, due to the problems mentioned above (e.g.,arbitrary employment policies), numerous MNB staff werenever trained in the field that they now work in, which as aresult leads to a lack of professionalism and reduced journalisticquality. As a consequence, there is neither much intrinsicmotivation for change, nor is there the awareness and theself-perception that change would be necessary. 5541Oyuntungalag Tsend, formerMNB radio journalist.42Reports and draft programsprovided by DW Akademie.43Ziyasheva 2007, 40.44Mendel 2010.45Narantsetseg Lonkhoo, UndraaBat-Ochir and TserenjavDemberel, in interviews.46Mendel 2010.47The forum was financiallysupported by Friedrich EbertFoundation.48Munkhmandakh Myagmar,Executive Director of the PressInstitute.49Ibid.; Oyuntungalag Tsend andGantumur Damba, in interviews.50Tserenjav Demberel, ExecutiveDirector of the TransparencyFoundation Mongolia.51Oyuntungalag Tsend, former MNBradio journalist.52Ibid.53Oyuntungalag Tsend, formerMNB radio journalist.54Ibid.55Zanaa Jurmed, MunkhmandakhMyagmar and OyuntungalagTsend, in interviews.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 101

On the contrary, some MNB employees are convinced thatthey have to serve the president, no matter what. 56 However,it should be noted that there are also critical voices and welleducatedpeople working for MNB.Financing, Management, and Newsroom StructuresAs mentioned earlier, MNB has three main sources of funding:direct government subsidies, license fees and advertising.According to MNB, out of its total budget, 51% is governmentfunding (“national treasury”), 21% is revenues from licensefees from Mongolian households, 26% comes from “programsproduced by special request, collaborations etc.” and 2%stems from advertising. 57 Information provided by the PressInstitute reveals that out of MNB’s annual budget generatedthrough own revenues, 58 46% is income from license fees and43% comes from sponsored and paid-for programs as well asadvertisement. 10% of the own revenue comes from the rentof premises and facilities and other small business activities. 59Both international experts and all national stakeholders interviewedfor this study point out that funding remains one ofthe main problems that impede MNB’s transformation. Thereare difficulties concerning all three major sources of funding:First, as the numbers above show, MNB is heavily dependenton direct government subsidies. This is highly problematicalin terms of the broadcaster’s independence, adequacyand stability, particularly as MNB has to negotiate this grantfrom the government on an annual basis. This gives the governmentenormous power and enables it to manipulate andpressure MNB, which has to “beg” 60 politicians for money andbasically depends on their current mood. Generally, as Mendelputs it: “Indeed, in most respects a direct governmentgrant is the worst form of funding for a public broadcaster.” 61Second, another reason for MNB’s heavy dependence onstate funding is the fact that Mongolia has a population ofonly about 2.8 million people, of which a high percentage isnomadic. So, even if all Mongolian households, including thenomads, paid license fees, it would not be sufficient. 62 On topof that, currently the license fees are very low. One optionwould be to increase the fees, though this is never popular –and even less in a country where the public is not generallyaware of the role of public service broadcasting. Moreover,MNB faces problems with the collection of license fees. Especiallyin rural areas, MNB staff still knock on people’s doors oftenwithout success, a system which is far from efficient. Thelarger part of the fees, however, is collected through electricitybills with the help of power companies, with which MNB hascontracts. Undraa Bat-Ochir, Director of MNB’s DepartmentStrategy and Finance, laments that the broadcaster has to begthe companies to help collect the fees and thus becomes dependenton them: “The power providers want 20% of the collectedamount for their performance, next year they maybewant 25% and so on, and we cannot do anything about it.” 63And third, MNB does not get enough funding throughadvertising because the law only allows non-profit ads. 64 Allmonitoring studies conducted by the Press Institute foundout, however, that MNB actually broadcasts commercial ads,although its total advertisement time does not reach 2%. Thestudies revealed that within the time limit allowed by law, 89%of all the ads broadcast are commercial. 65Another source of revenue that MNB is highly dependent onare sponsored and paid-for programs. 66 Often, these are actuallyhidden ads, which are – in principle – prohibited by law. Accordingto the blogger Tserenjav Demberel, during prime timemore than half of the programs are paid and commissioned. 67The government and the parliament also use these programsfor their purposes. Further, half of all news items in news programsare paid-for, generating a new genre, the so-called “businessnews.” The programs do not talk about business, but arewholly financed by businesses. 68 Although in most cases thepayment is made transparent at the beginning of the broadcast,these programs constitute a big problem, since they endangerboth MNB’s independence and its credibility.Recently, MNB introduced a new salary system, which isbased on the scheme for salaries of public officials. Before that,the middle level, i.e., the administration, received a fixed salaryand journalists got a basic salary plus a bonus, depending ontheir performance and number of publications. Since this wasconsidered unfair, the new system was established and noweveryone gets a fixed amount. 69 Broadly speaking, journalistsare poorly paid in Mongolia, which is true for commercial mediaas well as for MNB. According to an MNB journalist interviewed,the average wage of journalists lies between 450,000and 500,000 Tugrik (approx. 190–215 Euros) per month; 70only very few journalists earn one million Tugrik, i.e., 430 Eurosmonthly. Journalists who have been with MNB for morethan ten years and occupy a leading position receive around800,000 Tugrik (approx. 340 Euros). 71 Since very often journalistscannot live on their salary they depend on so-calledgatekeeper contracts and thus support the system of paid-forprograms. These gatekeeper contracts include deals betweenjournalists and politicians or companies, which force the journalistto only report positively about them, negatively abouttheir competitors, or both.Still under consideration with MNB, although scantilyplanned at the time of writing, is that of a single newsroomfor its television production. To date, there is no centralizeddesk that delivers news and current affairs stories for the newsshows. Each department (culture, business, and so on) workswithin its own domain – with little cooperation. MNB’s managementhas identified the organization of such central structuresas a priority task, though with little to no measurableresult so far.By request of the Mongolian government and due to internationaldevelopments, another restructuring project hasbeen approached. MNB is planning to launch digital transmissionstarting as early as July 2014. To date, however, the broadcasterhas developed neither a stringent policy, nor a realistic102

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity Buildingplan that would ensure both a successful operational launchand financial sustainability. While the digitalization of MNB’sprograms is estimated to cost about 50 billion Tugrik (approx.21.5 million Euros), the government is currently only willingto pay between 3 and 4 billion Tugrik (1.2–1.7 million Euros). 72In addition, no upfront research has been done, which is whya lot of fundamentals remain unclear, such as the pricing oflicenses for digital broadcasting as well as the distribution ofdigital equipment for households. Thus, if the analogue terrestrialbroadcasting signals were to be switched off in the nearfuture, nobody knows what would happen. Consequently,all stakeholders interviewed doubt that digitalization will beachieved within the scheduled time frame. 73Perception, Participation, and Public EngagementAs shown in the section on “stakeholders,” there are mainlytwo national NGOs that both support and at the same timecritically monitor MNB: the Press Institute and Globe International.Further, there is a demanding blogger, intervieweeTserenjav Demberel, who focuses solely on MNB and criticallyanalyzes and comments on the public broadcaster’s programming.The public at large, however, has not been muchinvolved in MNB’s transformation process. Something that isalso true for many CSOs or NGOs. It has become apparent thatmost of them do not know much about media and even lessabout public service media. 74 Several interviewees argued thatnot just journalists, but also and especially the general publicis not aware of the role and importance of public servicebroadcasting. The basic level of education is poor and neitherin families nor in schools or universities are basic democraticvalues or the significance of human rights taught. 75 “Peoplewant to be loyal to political and economic actors, like bondsmen.The society thinks that the state is responsible for everythingand, as long as they are not affected directly, peoplejust do not care.” 76 This is one of the reasons why, althoughMNB’s problems are well known, there is no public pressure tocounteract obvious errors and power abuses. The public indifferencetowards MNB is intensified by the fact that there areplenty of alternative media outlets available in Mongolia, atleast in the capital Ulan Bator.Overall, MNB continues to enjoy a good reputation amongcitizens. Its daily “Tsagiin Khurd” is not only the most viewednews program, but also – according to opinion polls – has thehighest credibility ratings. In this regard, MNB still benefitsfrom its decades-long tradition and the fact that for generationsof older Mongolians it was the sole media outlet available.77 The status of MNB in public opinion is also reflected inpolitical actions: Apart from politicians trying to influence thebroadcaster, as seen above, political meetings and press conferencesoften do not start as long as the MNB journalist is notpresent. 78 However, mainly due to the strength of competitionfrom private channels, MNB’s ratings are falling and especiallyyoung viewers perceive the broadcaster’s programming asboring and old-fashioned. 79 However, this is actually a prob-lem that numerous public service media are facing, includingthose in the highly-industrialized world. Maintaining itshigh ratings and credibility is among the biggest challengesthat MNB will face in the future. On the other hand, it is a potentialthat should serve as motivation for continued effortstowards transformation.Public Service: General FunctionsThe understanding of public service functions may very wellhelp to establish a clear-cut understanding about the fieldsthis transformation can and should progress. Therefore, thestudy will take a look at the general functions of public servicemedia and establish in how far MNB is actually deliveringthese public goods.Creating a Public SphereCreating a sphere for public debate and national dialogue isone such function that public service media should deliver.MNB in Mongolia provides a platform through which various55Zanaa Jurmed, MunkhmandakhMyagmar and OyuntungalagTsend, in interviews.56Zanaa Jurmed, Director of theCentre for Citizens’ Alliance.57Information provided by MNB(Solongo Erchitbaatar) via E-Mailon February 4, 2014.58According to the Press Institute,55% of MNB’s annual budget isgenerated through state subsidiesand 45% through own revenues.59Information provided by thePress Institute via E-Mailon February 4, 2014.60Undraa Bat-Ochir, Director ofMNB’s Department Strategyand Finance.61Mendel 2010, 7.62Munkhmandakh Myagmar,Executive Director of the PressInstitute.63Undraa Bat-Ochir, Director ofMNB’s Department Strategyand Finance.64The law allows 2% of the dailybroadcasting time to be used fornon-profit ads.65Information provided bythe Press Institute via E-Mailon February 4, 2014.66Among others, also donoragencies such as the German GIZplace paid reports on air.67Tserenjav Demberel, ExecutiveDirector of the TransparencyFoundation Mongolia.68Ibid.69Oyuntungalag Tsend, formerMNB radio journalist.70Ibid.71Ibid.72Narantsetseg Lonkhoo,Head of Department Strategyand Planning, MNB.73Munkhmandakh Myagmar,Oyuntungalag Tsend andNarantsetseg Lonkhoo,in interviews.74Munkhmandakh Myagmar,Executive Director of the PressInstitute.75Zanaa Jurmed, Director of theCentre for Citizens’ Alliance.76Ibid.77Munkhmandakh Myagmar,Executive Director of the PressInstitute.78Batzorig Tuvshintugs,Head of Center for PublicCommunication and Research,MNB.79All interviewees.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 103

actors within society (government and civil society, the politicalparty in power and the opposition) are given a voice. Sincethe broadcaster still runs the most important news program,it definitely has the potential to set the agenda of public topics.Nonetheless, in particular in news and current affairs programs,the voices of the ruling party dominate because journalistsinterview predominantly government representatives.One would be unlikely to find harsh criticism of the rulingparty and the government on MNB’s programming, yet onecould easily find critical stories on the behavior of politiciansfrom the opposition parties. Societal problems are also criticizedvery cautiously within the MNB programming.The wide range of topics represented in MNB’s programschedule, however, is an asset when it comes to its function asfacilitator and moderator of public debate. This program varietyhelps citizens to gain an overall understanding of theirsituation, even though some of these programs might be biasedand not balanced.Not surprisingly, within the Mongolian media environment,it is difficult to produce investigative stories due to thepolitical pressure that journalists face. Moreover, there are legalobligations within the criminal law code that are frequentlyused to harass journalists (defamation is a criminal offense).The program of MNB is affected: Though sometimes there aregood background stories, there are not enough and more indepthinvestigations and critical stories are needed in orderfor MNB to be accountable to the public. Moreover, there areno special gender programs and the issue of women is not onMNB’s agenda. Nor does the broadcaster have enough regionalprograms, i.e., stories from the countryside. Most reportingis strongly focused on the capital, rather than the rural areas.Though some topics are covered when, for example, the primeminister visits the regions, citizens of rural areas complainregularly about a lack of stories from their reality.In essence, more in-depth investigations and critical storiesare needed for MNB to be truly accountable to the public.Yet, on average, the quality of news is not very high – not onlybecause of paid-for programs, but also due to a general lack ofbasic professional skills. For the audience, this means a lack ofquality programming.Supporting IntegrationFor the empowerment of the most vulnerable in society, MNBplays a highly important role. It is the broadcaster with themost extensive coverage throughout the country. Besidesthat, it is the only media outlet that has a special channel forminorities, namely MNB2. Since the Mongolian population isrelatively homogenous, people regard MNB’s program choicefor minorities as more than sufficient. 80 Apart from broadcastingin the three main minority languages, MNB also providesprograms for deaf people in sign language. Further, it offersspecial programs for children and families, as well as a popularFM radio station for young people, and educational and culturalprograms that strengthen the cultural identity and supportnational traditions. Moreover, even critics admit that MNB’sprogramming is more diverse and more professional than privateTV. 81 However, there are too few regional programs thatdeal with the issues of the population outside of the capital.Therefore, their participation and voice is limited.In general, MNB’s programming puts a strong focus on theMongolian culture and its traditions. The function is fulfilledthrough a wide range of programs that convey traditional andmodern knowledge and cultural practices to the public. MNB’sinformational, cultural and entertainment programs providereference for what is good or important. And in this sense, thebroadcaster contributes to the creation and development ofcommon values in society.MNB distinguishes itself from commercial broadcastersthrough a high share of local content productions that promotetraditional cultural values and the national identity. Inparticular in the field of education programming, MNB offersa wide variety of shows. But, as indicated earlier, the qualityof the content is frequently questionable and programs forpolitical education (promoting democratic values) are entirelymissing.Instead, entertainment is prominently featured: 10% ofMNB’s programming is entertainment shows and 27% moviesand documentaries. However, here too, critics argue that theentertainment shows often lack quality. Moreover, MNB doesnot have a reputation as one of the innovators of the Mongolianmedia scene. Whilst MNB did establish the youth-orientedchannel P3 FM, this radio and online product is only availableto citizens in the capital. Generally, MNB is still perceived astraditionalist and rather old-fashioned. 82Achievements and ChallengesIn 2014, MNB will be in the ninth year of its transformation process.And despite all the remaining challenges, the followingstatement holds true: MNB, which used to be the former mouthpieceof the Soviet system, has undergone a change process withsignificant achievements on its path of full restructuring.The initial phase and the first years of the transformationprocess in particular are often evaluated positively: First, althoughthere should be some amendments made to the Lawon Public Radio and Television, especially with regard to thefunding and the nomination process of the NC members, itgenerally provides a solid legal framework for MNB’s functioning.Second, the support of SIDA led to a continuing improvementboth of the professional skills of MNB radio staffand their understanding of a public service mandate. Thedecisive factor in the success of this support was the continuousand long-term (five years) collaboration, which was systematicallyplanned and attuned to the everyday challenges.Further, the activities were very practical, which enabled thejournalists to be “learning by doing.” As a consequence, today“MNB radio is better organized, has its own values and ismore professional.” 83104

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingMoreover, due to the various training activities provided bydifferent actors, MNB staff are constantly becoming more professionaland are slowly beginning to understand their specialmission. Third, the establishment of MNB2 guaranteed accessof information for the country’s minorities and furtherstrengthened MNB’s diversity. And fourth, through the nationalforum, which was organized for the first nominationprocess of the National Council, this process was monitoredand made transparent. Together with training activities for thefirst NC members this ensured more political independenceand thus professionalism of the NC, which in turn had a positiveinfluence on the selection of MNB’s executives and, hence,the broadcaster’s overall functioning.According to the stakeholders interviewed, however, therehave been increasingly negative trends regarding MNB’s transformationprocess in recent years. Some have even argued thatcurrently there is no progress at all. 84 As indicated earlier, theissue of MNB’s funding and the nomination of executives inits governing body entail numerous problems that have to betackled. And despite gradual improvement of the journalisticquality, there is still a lack of professionalism at all levels withinMNB, not only concerning basic journalistic skills, but alsowith respect to the understanding of a public service mandate.And, last but not least, opinion polls show that MNB’s popularityamongst citizens is decreasing, not least because its programmingis often perceived as old-fashioned.Transformation ApproachesThis assessment of achievements and challenges of MNB’stransformation process can serve as a first step for future strategiesand thus further improvements. The following steps areconsidered to be fruitful:First of all, in order to further advance the public broadcaster’stransition it is highly important to ensure – both legallyand in practice – appropriate funding, which minimizes potentialfor political and economic influence. How could this bedone? One consideration could be an increase in the amountof advertising that MNB is allowed to carry, as determined inthe law – though indeed overall limits should still exist. An alternativecould be to require private broadcasters to provideMNB with some portion of their advertising revenues, as a wayof compensating MNB for not competing with them for advertising.85 Another option would be to allocate MNB with a fixedpercentage, up to a specified maximum, of either the nationalbudget, or some other revenue source (like mobile phonecharges or taxes on luxury items). 86 Consideration could alsobe given to increasing the license fees. Although this is neverpopular, they provide a relatively independent and stablesource of funding. Finally, it should be ensured that powercompanies conclude appropriate agreements with MNB regardingthe collection of the fees, without exploiting. Theseoptions should be evaluated by national and internationalexperts and a decision then taken as to whether all or a com-bination of some measures are introduced and how. Smallerand less radical reforms should be realized soon: For example,in order to interrupt the complete dependence on the government,other players should be involved in setting the level offunding, guarantees against reductions in the funding couldbe introduced, and there could be a move to multi-year allocations.87 Undoubtedly, even the smallest positive changes inthis field would enhance the independence and professionalismMNB needs in order to be accountable to the public.Secondly, regarding the appointment of NC members, theprocess determined in the Law is potentially a good one. Thefact, that “civil society” is largely undefined, however, andthat there are no clear regulations regarding the step-by-stepcourse of the process have led to the highlighted problems. Ifnominations by civil society are involved, then these shouldbe established and independent civil society groups, such as acouncil of human rights NGOs or federation of developmentgroups: “Leaving this important matter to individual civil societygroups is likely to lead to manipulation of the sort that hasbeen witnessed in Mongolia.” 88Another approach would be an open appointment processoverseen by parliament, with an opportunity for the public tomake representations, and the publication of a shortlist, againwith an opportunity for public comment. Another optionwould be an appointment committee consisting of leadingfigures in society (not politicians), which makes nominationswhilst parliament or these leading figures themselves, appointmembers. In any case, if the process remains as it is foreseennow, it is very important to organize national forums in orderto give NGOs the opportunity to name candidates and makethe whole process more transparent. Financial support by donororganizations is needed for that.Thirdly, in order to improve the skills and professionalism ofMNB staff, further engagement will be needed. To begin with,each intervention should bear in mind that efforts to foster anunderstanding of general democratic values are still needed.Only through such support can awareness be raised for thesignificance of MNB’s role as a public service broadcaster that80Munkhmandakh Myagmar,Executive Director of the PressInstitute.81Ibid.82All interviewees.83Munkhmandakh Myagmar,Executive Director of the PressInstitute.84Oyuntungalag Tsend,Munkhmandakh Myagmar,Zanaa Jurmed and TserenjavDemberel, in interviews.Of course, the MNB employeesinterviewed for this study emphasizedthe positive developmentsand success of the transformationprocess, while also reflectingon the remaining problems.85Mendel 2010, 8.86Ibid.87Ibid., 7.88Mendel 2010, 8.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 105

functions as a watchdog as well as an unbiased source of information.This fact, together with systematic and high-qualitytraining opportunities, both external and also within MNB,would bring genuine improvements. On the other hand, welleducatedemployees would be able to modernize the broadcaster’sprogramming – in terms of structure and with regardto individual programs and pieces.Fourthly, all stakeholders interviewed for this study highlightedthe great importance that the activities of internationalorganizations have had – and still have – for MNB’s transformationprocess. In overall terms, the past training interventionshave resulted in an increased level of professionalism of individualemployees at MNB, as well as a better understandingof the mandate of MNB as a public service broadcaster. 89According to the interviewees, this is crucial because “eventhough the bosses might not have much understanding, it isimportant to train the journalists because they take their owndecisions, share common values and professional attitudes.” 90The interviewees further asserted that despite the persistingproblems, numerous MNB journalists have a certain level ofprofessionalism. What remains to be done in particular is toengage in professional training with the management level.Therefore, interviewees noted that it is important that thetraining includes the executive level – and this is exactly wherethe support of international organizations is needed: “For localNGOs it is difficult to get managers on board because it isnot prestigious to take part in local trainings. When the trainingis provided by international organizations, though, andthe experts come from Deutsche Welle or the BBC, it looks alot better for them to participate.” 91Further, it was stressed that the continuity and the cohesionof this professional training is essential: There are frequentstaff changes, be that in the journalism staff room or in managementpositions, such as the Board of Directors and the NationalCouncil. Consequently, the training should be repeatedconstantly. In general, long-term collaboration rather than adhoc and isolated measures is necessary in order to make thecooperation more sustainable.In summary, the investigation revealed that the following actionsof both national and international organizations are neededin order to further support MNB’s transformation process:– Conducting ongoing research and analysis of thenational context in order to ensure success ofdevelopment cooperation.– Developing an ethics code and clear editorial guidelineswithin MNB.– Ensuring sufficient income for journalists in order to putan end to the system of gatekeeper contracts and paid-forprograms and thus secure a higher quality of the journalisticcontent.– Developing an active and self-sustaining training centerinside MNB including a high-quality training programfor young journalists.– Increasing the professionalism of MNB’s human resourcedevelopment in order to ensure that employees are hiredbecause of their skills and not because of personalaffiliations.– Developing an adequate strategy of organizationaldevelopment which takes the establishment andprofessionalization of regional bureaus into accountand makes MNB’s operations more effective.– Improving the transparency of the nomination andappointment process of the National Council (NC) andensuring its independence.– Develop a financing model for MNB that guaranteesthe broadcaster’s sustainability and independencefrom political and economic influence.– Improving the legal framework (changes of andamendments to the existing law, development of newlaws in which the stated shortcomings are tackled).– Supporting the process of programming reform with moreinnovative approaches as well as interactive programs,which give all parts of society the opportunity to raisetheir voices.– Improving public communication of MNB in orderto strengthen interaction with the public.– Advocacy work aiming for more support from the sideof the government in favor of public service broadcasting.– Improving the professional skills of journalists andmanagement (including basic journalistic skills,understanding/awareness of the role and mandateof public service media, and self-perception).106

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingAccording to the interviewed stakeholders the following methodsare most helpful:– Practical methods that do not only talk about standards,but work with precise examples and allow for supervised“learning by doing” and direct feedback.– Practical workshops and academic seminars.– Mentoring and consulting through external expertsworking inside MNB for some time (helping to produceprograms and supporting the administrative processes).– Establishment of a forum for nominating members for theNational Council.– Training courses to familiarize stakeholders withinternational standards, new trends and technologicaladvancements and support them in the implementation.– Exchange of experiences.To conclude, apart from the existing challenges MNB alreadyfulfills important public service broadcasting functions: Itprovides the Mongolian society with diverse programmingof national coverage, which gives a voice to different parts ofsociety. Despite the increasing competition from commercialrivals, it is still the broadcaster with the highest ratings andmost credibility. This is the foundation that should be builton and that should serve as motivation for further advancement.All stakeholders interviewed for this study pointed outthe great importance of the collaboration with internationaldevelopment organizations and foreign experts, who fuel andaccelerate MNB’s transformation process.In Mongolia, where private TV and radio stations and thepress are politically affiliated and mainly represent views ofruling elites, where the media market is extremely fragmented,where community radio stations and local media in thecountryside are weak, there are no real alternatives to wellfunctioningpublic service media. The significant and highlyvaluable improvements achieved during MNB’s transformationprocess so far, prove that the efforts made by the differentactors were and will be worth it.– International study trips for NC members and MNBmanagers.– Exchange programs for journalists to public servicemedia abroad, so that they can gain hands-on experience.– International study trips for administration employeesand engineers.– Overall: Systematic planning of activities and collaborationwith a broad diversity of players: Media, national NGOs,politics, international actors, etc.89Batzorig Tuvshintugs,Munkhmandakh Myagmar andOyuntungalag Tsend,in interviews.90Munkhmandakh Myagmar,in interview.91Ibid.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 107

Status of MNBCharacteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsChannels, distributionTV: Two nationwide channels: main channel broadcasts17–18 hours daily and second channel MNB2, broadcasts inminority languages 17 hours daily.Radio: Four channels, two nationwide: Main channel andsecond channel for minorities (nationwide), youth-orientedchannel P3 FM (in capital and online only), and overseas station“Voice of Mongolia” for Mongolians living abroad andforeigners.In 2011, establishment ofsecond channel MNB2 forminorities. P3 FM has becomea very popular stationin Ulan Bator.Legal framework Law on Public Radio and Television, adopted in 2005,regulates MNB. The law is generally evaluated positively,controversial aspects are financing of MNB, advertisingand nomination of National Council members. Further,Constitution of Mongolia and Law on Freedom of Media.No amendments so far, butpotential changes of thelaw are being discussed.Public service remitThe Law on Public Radio and Television stipulates that MNBis a non-profit legal entity, which “serves only for publicinterests, holds responsibility before them, and carries out itsoperation under the public control.”–Regulatory system/governing bodyThe highest governing body of MNB is the National Council(NC), which consists of 15 members and appoints MNB’s GeneralDirector. The law stipulates that individuals should benominated by civil society/NGOs and appointed by the President(4), the Parliament (7) and government (4). Problems:Although the Law prohibits nominating politicians and otherofficials, in reality there is a political closeness of the NC anda lack of transparency of its nomination process.While the first NC memberswere nominated and appointedtransparently, thenew ones were not. Today,it is assumed that at least80% of the members aredirectly connected to thegovernment.Engagement of civil societyAs stated above, the NC members should be nominated bycivil society. However, there are problems with the nominationprocess of the NC.–FinancingMNB has three main sources of funding: Direct governmentsubsidies (51%), license fees (21%) and advertising/sponsorship(2%/26%).Problems: First, MNB is heavily dependent on direct statesubsidies, which have to be negotiated annually. Second,small Mongolian population, many nomads, and license feewith 50 Euro cents per month relatively low. Third, Law onlyallows 2% of the daily broadcasting time to be used for advertising.Commercial advertising is completely forbidden.License fees are collectedthrough cooperation withpower companies. Manyprograms are paid-forprograms.108

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingCharacteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsUse of mobile and internetcommunication/modern technology/challenges of digitalizationMNB originally planned digitalization by July 2014. However,there is a lack of policy – neither does a strategy or a realisticplan exist nor financial security. MNB has an online presenceand broadcasts P3 FM for example also via internet.–Regional structures andreportingThere are only few correspondents in the countryside andnot enough regional programs, strong focus on Ulan Bator.Regional topics are covered when politicians travel to thecountryside. Citizens of rural areas complain about a lack ofstories about their own issues.–Capacity buildingA training center within MNB was established, but it is notvery active. MNB staff has had various training opportunitiesthrough the cooperation with donor organizations (e.g., SIDA,DWA) as well as provided by the local NGO “Press Institute.”–Ethic codices,newsroom guidelinesMNB does not have proper newsroom guidelines or an ethicscode. The only existing documents regarding rules are thelaw, MNB’s general statutes, and the press codex, which containsonly very few paragraphs as well as a document aboutelection coverage–Public perception andsupport for the mediaorganizationOverall, MNB has a good reputation among citizens. Its daily“Tsagiin Khurd” is the news program with the highest ratingsand opinion polls show that MNB enjoys the highest credibility.However, due to the high competition through privatechannels MNB’s ratings are decreasing and especially youngviewers perceive the broadcaster’s programming as boringand old-fashioned.–Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 109

General Functions I: Political SphereFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Information:comprehensive, balanced,objective – and alsoregional news.PartiallyMNB is the broadcaster with the most extensive coverage. Its programmingis more diverse and professional than private TV channels. However,on average the quality of news is not very high – not only becauseof paid-for news items but also due to a general lack of basic professionalskills. There should be more regional programs and less focus on UlanBator.All political parties havethe opportunity to speakin the program and arepresent in interviews,sound bites, etc.YesThough the voices of the ruling party dominate in the news, all politicalparties are given a voice. But journalists interview predominantly governmentrepresentatives.Criticism of politicalactors (government,administration, otherpolitical actors)NoCriticism of opposition party only, no criticism of the ruling partyand government.Societal criticism(social actors, individuals,problems in society)PartiallyProblems in society are criticized very cautiously and quite generally.Moderation of debate/democratic facilitationYesIn general MNB offers a wide range of programs that try to enhancepublic debate on various issues.Social/politicalorientationPartiallyMNB offers a wide range of programs that help citizens to get an overallunderstanding of the issue or situation, even though some of these programsare somewhat biased.Agenda setting/investigative journalismNoOverall, in Mongolia investigative journalism is underdeveloped. MNBpublishes only very few investigative stories. However, since the broadcasterruns the most important news program it definitely has thepotential to set the agenda of public topics.110

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingGeneral Functions II: IntegrationFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Participation, voice,empowermentPartiallyBoth MNB television and MNB radio have a separate channel that broadcastsin minority languages. Further, there are programs for young audiences.However, there are too few regional programs that deal with theissues of the population outside of the capital. Therefore, their participationand voice is limited.Cultural expression,strengthening ofidentity, values andcultural cohesionYesMNB’s programming puts a strong focus on Mongolian culture and traditions.The function is fulfilled through a wide range of programs that conveytraditional and modern knowledge and cultural practices to the public.MNB’s informational, cultural and entertainment programs providereference for what is good or important and in this sense the broadcastercontributes to creating /developing common values in society.MNB distinguishes itself from commercial broadcasters through a highshare of domestic production content that promote traditional culturalvalues and the national identity.Entertainment Yes MNB provides entertainment programs: 10% of MNB’s programming areentertainment shows and 27% movies and documentaries. However, criticssay the entertainment shows often lack quality.Education Partially MNB provides various specific educational programs. But their quality isquestionable and programs for political education are missing.Innovation No MNB has no reputation as an innovator on the Mongolian media scene.While MNB started the youth-oriented channel P3 FM, this radio andonline product is only available to citizens in the capital. Generally, MNBis still perceived as traditionalist and rather old-fashioned.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 111

International Media Development PartnersPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/progress/problemsSwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency (SIDA)(2006 – 2010)Focus on MNB radio: increasingmanagement capacity,increasing news and currentaffairs capacity, developmentof a third radio channel focusingon the youth and a publicservice approach on the coverageof elections.Around 50 different trainingactivities: top-level seminarsand workshops; classroomlecturing and workshops forjournalists and technicians;on-the-job training; setting uppractical routines and/ortechnical installations;practical hands-on consultation;study700 MNB employees participatedin SIDA’s activities. SIDA’s workled to significant improvementsregarding the quality of MNBradio and professionalism of itsjournalists – both in terms ofpractical skills and knowledgeand with regard to the understandingof the role and functionof public service media. Establishmentof popular P3 FM station.Denmark’sDevelopmentCooperation(DANIDA)(1990s)Among the first organizationsactive in the field. As part ofthe Free Press project, in 1995the Press Institute was establishedand in 1996 the FreePress Printing house.No information available.Establishment of the Press Instituteand the Free Press Printinghouse.Internews(officialrepresentativesince 2011)Improvement of electioncoverage, strengthening ofnew media and investigativejournalismTelevision workshop aboutelection coverage with focus onsocial media; workshop aboutinvestigative journalism anddata visualizationThe election coverage ismentioned as a positiveexample of MNB coverage.UNESCO(UNESCO’sBeijing office,active in thecommunist eraalready)Focus on labor law and improvingthe working conditions forjournalists; improving thesituation of minoritiesEstablishment of communityradios for minorities in tenisolated districts (sums); establishmentof MNB2, MNB’s secondchannel for minorities; comprehensiveanalysis of the mediasector; courses on photojournalismand media for transparentgovernance; publication of apractical guide for journalistsImproved access of informationand representation of minorities,support of MNB’s public serviceremit.112

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/progress/problemsDW Akademie(2011 – ongoing)Transformation of MNB,especially organizationaldevelopment; establishmentof a media council; developmentof a module of educationand training for investigativereporting.Planning workshop; workshopon the development of a strategicplan; workshop addressing thetopic of communication andcoordination; television trainingon election reporting; assessmentand HR workshop; analysis workshopwith the Board of Directors;workshop on the strategic plan;round table discussion with oldand new members of the NationalCouncil; human resource workshopSignificant improvements regardingthe transformation processof MNB, but remaining problemsthat need to be tackled (see textfor details). Since the establishmentof the media council andthe development of the modulefor investigative reporting, juststarted at the beginning of 2014,no results and/or methods areavailable yet.Friedrich EbertFoundation(FES)Foundation of a journalists’trade union, the developmentof an independent mediacouncil (in cooperation withDWA) and journalistic training.E.g., workshops on media selfregulationand independenceof media councils.–N.B. All the information given in the tables above is based onthe interviews, observations and document analysis made bythe author of this chapter. The tables provide very rough summariesof what is being elaborated in the texts. Many of theissues mentioned here are, of course, subject to change.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 113

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingMNB Organizational ChartNon Staff CommitteeComplains Solving CommitteeNational Board15 membersAudit CommitteeAssistant toGeneral Director1General Director1Secretary1Administration124Internal AuditSection3IT Section6Public Information &Researching Center11MNB-TVTotal 250MN2-TVTotal 23Mongolian NationalPublic Radio185MMNews Agency58Strategy & FinanceDepartment82Total staff 760Source: MNBEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 115

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingAppendixReferencesBMZ – Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeitund Entwicklung (2014), Mongolei - Situation und Zusammenarbeit,retrieved from: http://www.bmz.de/de/was_wir_machen/laender_regionen/asien/mongolei/zusammenarbeit.htmlCRC – Communications Regulatory Commission of Mongolia(2014), Introduction and structre, retrieved from: http://www.crc.gov.mn/en/main.php?cid=1&do=2&did=0GI – Globe International (2007), Introduction, retrieved from:http://www.globeinter.org.mn/old/en/index.phpMendel, Toby (2010), Report on Current Regulatory Issues andNeeds in Mongolia, retrieved from: http://www.law-democracy.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/10.01.Mongolia.Media-Situation.pdfMNB – Mongolian National Broadcaster (2014), MNB brief -Unpublished document provided by MNB’s InternationalRelations Department for the purpose of this study onJanuary 22, 2014.UN Data (2014), Country profile Mongolia, retrieved from:http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=MONGOLIAWalsh, Bryan (September 27, 2011), The 10 Most Air-PollutedCities in the World, in: Time, retrieved from: http://science.time.com/2011/09/27/the-10-most-air-polluted-cities-in-the-world/White, Brian (January 9, 2013), Ulaanbaatar is the Coldest Capital,in: The Mongolist, retrieved from: http://www.themongolist.com/blog/society/43-ulaanbaatar-is-the-coldest-capital.htmlWorld Bank (2013), Mongolia: Portable Solar Power for NomadicHerders, retrieved from: http://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/08/portable-solar-power-for-nomadic-herdersZiyasheva, D. (2007), The Mongolian Media Landscape, SectorAnalysis, Beijing.MRG – Minority Rights Group International (2005), MongoliaOverview, retrieved from: http://www.minorityrights.org/4860/mongolia/mongolia-overview.htmlNSO – National Statistical Office of Mongolia (2014), Social andeconomic situation of Mongolia, retrieved from: http://www.nso.mn/files/web201401en.pdfPress Institute (2013), Mongolian Media Today, Ulan Bator.Press Institute (2014), Role of Press Institute and Mission,retrieved from: http://www.pressinst.org.mn/engls/index.php/pi-about/pi-role-of-press-institutePress Institute (2014a). Training, retrieved from: http://www.pressinst.org.mn/engls/index.php/pi-training-research/pitraining#Tuvshintugs, B. & Helgesson, P. (2010), Implementing PublicService Radio as an important tool for the development ofthe Mongolian democracy, Final Report, Document providedinternally.UBstat – Statistics Department of Ulaanbaatar (2012). Populationand Economic Activities of Ulaanbaatar, retrieved from:http://www.ubstat.mn/upload/reports/ub_khotiin_khun_am_ediin_zasag_angli_ulaanbaatar_2012-08.pdfEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 117

List of InterviewsBat-Ochir, Undraa;Director of MNB’s Department Strategy and Finance andmember of MNB’s Board of Directors, interview conductedin Ulan Bator on January 21, 2014.Damba, Gantumur;Member of the National Council and researcher, interviewconducted in Ulan Bator on January 26, 2014.Demberel, Tserenjav;Executive Director of the Transparency Foundation Mongolia(NGO) and blogger on media issues with a focus on MNB,interview conducted in Ulan Bator on January 20, 2014.Hashhuu, Naranjargal;Director of Globe International (NGO), interview conducted inUlan Bator on January 22, 2014.Lonkhoo, Narantsetseg;Head of MNB’s Department Strategy and Planning, interviewconducted in Ulan Bator on January 21, 2014.Myagmar, Munkhmandakh;Executive Director of the Press Institute (NGO), interviewconducted in Ulan Bator on January 22, 2014.Tsend, Oyuntungalag;Former MNB radio journalist and researcher focusing onMNB’s transformation process, interview conducted inUlan Bator on January 23, 2014.Tuvshintugs, Batzorig; Head of MNB’s Center for PublicCommunication and Research and University Professor,interview conducted in Ulan Bator on January 21, 2014.Jurmed, Zanaa;Director of the Centre for Citizens’ Alliance (NGO) and formermember of the National Council (2006–2008), interviewconducted in Ulan Bator on January 24, 2014.118

Part II Mongolia: Achievements Through Public Service Capacity BuildingEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 119

07Moldova: Slow but Successful Reform,Need for Visible Journalistic QualityErik Albrecht120

Part II Moldova: Slow but Successful Reform, Need for Visible Journalistic QualityMoldova: Slow but Successful Reform, Need for Visible Journalistic QualityTeleradio-Moldova (TRM) has managed to fulfill some of its public service functions through institutional reform. After havingserved as a propaganda instrument of the ruling Communist party for years, the media outlet entered into a transformation processtowards public service media when a pro-European coalition came to power in 2009. DW Akademie supported this processover many years. Since Moldova’s media landscape is economically very weak and practically no media organization is makingmoney, private media are not capable of fulfilling public service functions. This explains TRM’s relatively strong position on themarket. At the beginning of the reform process, the management opted to slow the speed of transformation in order to avoidconflict with the staff. Nevertheless, the content of its news and current affairs programs has become much more balanced andindependent. With its new programs and talk shows, TRM is creating a public sphere open to debate. However, it still neglects itsagenda-setting function. As to supporting integration, TRM has programs targeting various social groups. However, poor qualitymeans the public’s concerns are often not addressed adequately. The case of TRM shows that media development can assist inassuring some basic information services to the public – through processes of organizational reform.Teleradio-Moldova (TRM) embarked upon the transformationprocess towards a public service broadcaster when a pro-Europeancoalition came to power in 2009. Although the transformationprogressed much more slowly than expected, TRMtook significant steps towards fulfilling some of its publicservice media (PSM) functions. This study examines TRM’sachievements and challenges in the course of the process.Furthermore, its role within society is put into perspectivewithin Moldova’s media landscape.Moldova – A Brief OverviewThe Republic of Moldova gained independence in 1991. Formerlyknown as the “fruit basket” of the Soviet Union, it isnowadays one of the economically poorest countries in Europe.The Republic has a population of 3.56 million people. 1,2The biggest cities are the capital Chişinău with 650,000 inhabitantsand Bălţi in the north of the small country withroughly 150,000. According to the National Bureau of Statistics,78,0 percent of the population speak Moldovan/Romanianas their native language, 8.3 percent Ukrainian, 5.9 percentRussian, 4.3 percent Gagauz, and 1.9 percent Bulgarian. 3After gaining independence, Moldova fought a bloodycivil war with Transnistria, the separatist republic on the leftbank of the Nistru river. Since August 1992, the Transnistrianconflicthas been considered a frozen one with a peacekeepingforce under Russian leadership guaranteeing the status quo.The self-proclaimed “Pridnestrovian Moldovian Republic” isheavily dependent on Russian support, especially natural gas.Experts consider it to be a vital element in Moscow’s attemptto wield control in the region. A peace process moderated bythe OSCE has been without tangible results so far. Transnistriaremains de facto a separate state that has not been recognizedby any country in the world, including Russia.The Republic of Moldova is divided into 32 districts, 3 municipalitiesand two territorial units, one of them being Transnistria,the other one the autonomous territorial unit of Gagauzia,a region with autonomy in culture, education and otheraspects concerning local development, budget, taxation andsocial security. For Gagauzia, ties to Russia and the Russianlanguage remain important. In February 2014, the autonomousregion voted in a referendum for closer ties with Russiaover EU integration. After the annexation of the Crimea byRussia, Transnistria officially appilied in Moscow to be integratedinto the Russian Federation, as well.Politically, Moldova is a unitary parliamentary democracy.In April 2009, the controversial results of the parliamentaryelections granting victory to the ruling Communist Partysparked civil unrest in the capital Chişinău. In the end, theelections were repeated in July of the same year. Since then,a pro-European coalition has been governing the country invarious constellations. Business and politics are tightly intertwined.More than once business interests affected the rulingcoalition. The Republic of Moldova has signed an EU associationagreement in summer 2014. An agreement on visa-freetravel for Moldovan citizens to the counties of the Schengenagreement has been put into effect in spring of the same year.Economically, Moldova is heavily dependent on agriculture.Wine and produce are the main export goods. In addition, thecountry exports textiles and machinery. 4 Most of the industryof the former Soviet Republic was built on the left (Transnistrian)bank of the Nistru river and is thus now lost to theMoldovan economy. Because of the dire economic situation,roughly one third of the Moldovan work force (an estimatedone million people) is currently making a living as migrantworkers in Europe, Russia, and other post-Soviet countries.Their annual remittances of $1 billion make up a substantialshare of the Moldovan GDP. 51Biroul Național de Statisticăal Republicicii Moldova 2014a.2This data is valid only forMoldova proper, withoutTransnistria.3Biroul Național de Statisticăal Republicicii Moldova 2014b.4CIA 2014.5Ibid.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 121

Media LandscapeIn terms of language, Moldova’s media landscape is as dividedas the country as a whole. The media report in Romanian andin Russian. A lot of them even broadcast or print content producedin Romania or Russia. Media experts consider this to be“dangerous for Moldovan society” 6 as it hinders the media infulfilling their two basic functions for society: creating a nationalpublic sphere and supporting social integration. Accordingto experts, Russian-language media frequently assumea pro-Russian and Euro-critical stance while Romanian-languagemedia often are more in line with pro-European politics.Major players in the TV market such as Prime TV (Russian) orPro TV (Romanian) mainly rebroadcast channels from abroad.There is skepticism towards the accuracy of audience ratingsin Moldova. However, according to existing data, Prime TV hasa market share of 50 percent. Nevertheless, its newscasts are ofvery low quality. Entertainment content produced in Moldovahas a hard time competing with foreign programs which areoften of much higher quality, while informational programsare usually produced locally.Television is the dominant media in Moldova. According toopinion polls, 7 71 percent of Moldovans use TV as the primarysource of information. For another 16 percent, it constitutesthe second most important source. Newspapers play a minorrole (2 percent/11 percent). In terms of TV channels, 60 percentof Moldovan viewers receive most of their informationthrough Prime TV, 39 percent through Teleradio-Moldova’sMoldova Unu which rates second. 8 Newspaper circulationfigures are low; most national papers sell the largest shareof copies in the capital. Media from Russia often have muchhigher circulation, and subsequently lower production costsas well as higher ad revenues. This distorts the market as awhole. Strong independent regional papers exist throughoutthe country, often with only a few thousand copies and veryfew journalists. Most of them are organized in the AsociaţiaPresei Independente. Equally strong regional TV and radiobroadcasters exist as well. There have been attempts at foundinga national regional channel, run by an association of regionalbroadcasters.For the association agreement with the EU, Moldova hadto tailor its media legislation to the standards of the OSCE andthe Council of Europe.Moldova’s TV market is highly concentrated, politicizedand non-transparent. According to Ion Terguta, “it did notevolve from the audience’s need for information to a developedTV broadcasting industry, but actually from the need forpolitical influence on the masses to a controlled and profitableeconomic instrument.” 9Most television channels are used as a means of propagandaby their owners. Ludmila Andronic, head of the Moldovanpress council, deprecates the fact that their bias is so strongthat critical viewers can guess the owner by analyzing the coverageof certain events. 10 The most important players on themarket are Vladimir Plahotniuc (oligarch, media owner, sometimevice-head of the ruling democratic party and vice-head ofParliament) and Chiril Lucinschi (businessman, media owner,head of the media committee of Parliament).In addition, Plahotniuc allegedly owns Casa Media, the biggestadvertising company in the country. “Large operators inthe advertising market continue to concentrate their resourcesto maintain a monopoly on the market,” writes Terguta. Plahotniuc’sPrime TV realizes 8 million of the 16 million-eurostrongMoldovan advertising market. Casa Media dominatesthe market of ad agencies with a share of 60 and 72 percent. 11„The question of whether it is possible to do business in themedia sector in Moldova is answered by the market itself. Andthe answer is negative,” writes Terguta. 12 Even with reliabledata in short supply, experts estimate that few media outletsmake a profit. 13 While independent newspapers survive ongrants, “commercial” TV channels fill the shortfall betweenad revenues and production costs with their owners’ “private”money which has the expected effect on their coverage.All in all, Moldova’s Broadcast Coordinating council (BCC)had issued 238 broadcast licences by 1st January 2014. 65 werelicences for TV stations, 56 for radio stations and 112 to cableoperators. 14 In 2012, there were 207 newspapers. Taking intoconsideration the fact that Moldova has a population of 3.6million people, it becomes clear that there is very tough competitionfor audience shares, even if not all registered outletsare actually functioning. In addition, Moldova has some strongonline media outlets, which are a very important source ofinformation for the large migrant work force of the country.There are 1.3 million internet users in Moldova. 15 Annual advertisingrevenues are rather low with 16 million euros for TV,about 5 million euros for newspapers and 1.5 million eurosfor radio stations. 16 Altogether, the Moldovan economy is tooweak to support independent journalism – at least in the presentconfiguration of the media market.Teleradio-Moldova (TRM)In Soviet times, Instituţia Publică Naţională a Audiovizualului(IPNA) Compania “Teleradio-Moldova” (TRM) was the regionalchannel of Gosteleradio, the All-Union radio and televisionnetwork. In 1990, it became the national broadcaster of thenew Republic of Moldova. Initially, TRM was legally organizedas a state company before it was turned into a “national publicinstitute” in 2004.However, gaining the legal status of a public broadcasterdid not come with the freedom and independence that thisshould imply. Moreover, Vladimir Voronin’s communist government(2001-2009) that initiated the reform never meant itto do so. Voronin’s party turned TRM into a propaganda instrumentwith very limited access to airtime for the opposition.Pluralism of opinion was thus drastically diminished whilegovernment successes were overemphasized. 17 When the Voroninregime was toppled in 2009, the new pro-European gov-122

Part II Moldova: Slow but Successful Reform, Need for Visible Journalistic Qualityernment installed a different leadership at TRM as one of itsfirst acts in office. The new management, in office as of February2010, started a reform process with the declared aim oftransforming TRM into a genuine public broadcaster servingthe interest of the public. During the first five years of transformation,the company closed down its international channelsin TV and radio and created a new multimedia news portal anda youth radio station.Today, TRM has one TV channel, three radio stations, notablyRadio Actualități (news) and Radio Tineret (youth) on-air,as well as Radio Muzical (music) online, and the multimediadepartment, producing and distributing content on www.trm.md and through social media. TRM mostly broadcasts in Romanian.There are TV programs for ethnic minorities in Russian(including a news show) and radio programs in Russianand other minority languages such as Ukrainian and Bulgarian.In addition, Gagauz Radio and Television (GRT), the publicbroadcaster of the autonomous territory, cooperates withTRM. Although GRT is associated with TRM it operates completelyindependently from it as part of the cultural autonomyof the Gagauz territory. Although Gagauz are a Turkic nationof Orthodox religion, only a few journalists speak and work inGagauzian which is why the majority of the programming ofGRT runs in Russian.TRM has set itself clear objectives, as well as a clear vision,mission, and values stressing its public service remit. 18 The objectivesinclude “fast, complete, and objective information ofthe citizens,” “assuring the right to information on the base ofpluralism of opinions, impartiality,” “assuring access to informationto all citizens,” “presenting events, contributing to theformation of public opinion,” “promotion of national values,”as well as presentation of the socio-political reality of the Republicof Moldova. The production of programs for childrenand young people is mentioned explicitly.TRM’s vision is to promote the restructuralization processon a managerial, organizational, editorial, technological,and human resource level in order to be able to function ina competitive media environment with topically and artisticallydiverse formats, with the aim of improving the qualityof content. 19TRM’s mission states that the PSM is “to produce radio andTV programs for all segments and categories of the public.” Itsvalues include responsibility, credibility, editorial independence,political, and social pluralism.Overall, TRM has the program structure a public broadcasterneeds to fulfill its service functions. This applies to specialprograms for ethnic minorities as well as young audiences, butalso to other shows for specific social groups such as rural populations,children, and families. It is the question of contentwhich might decide to what extent it can live up to the needsof the audience.Stakeholders in the Transformation ProcessAlthough the Moldovan media landscape is very small, it has avery vibrant media community with strong media NGOs andcompetent media experts. The community has taken an activerole in the transformation process of Teleradio-Moldova withthe most important actors being the Independent JournalismCentre (IJC) and the Electronic Press Association (APEL). BothMoldovan NGOs have received grants from foreign donors ona regular basis. 20 In 2010, Angela Sârbu was elected director ofthe television department of TRM by the Council of Observers.Before this, Sârbu had headed the IJC for ten years. Thus, civilsociety was directly involved in the transformation processfrom the very beginning. However, Sârbu resigned in 2012,declaring she lacked support from the rest of TRM’s managementfor her reform strategy. 21The transformation of Teleradio-Moldova into a genuinepublic broadcaster has been supported by various internationaldonor organizations: the Council of Europe fundedthe creation of the new multimedia department. The UnitedNations Development Program (UNDP) financed a “Study onthe restructuring options for the public Company Teleradio-Moldova” elaborated by the Business Consulting Institute 22 incooperation and a consultant from the European BroadcastingUnion EBU with NPI [National Public Institute] ‘Teleradio-Moldova’”in August 2011 that serves the management as a basicguideline for the reform process.Soros Foundation MoldovaThe Soros Foundation Moldova supported the transformationprocess at TRM up until early 2014. Through a long-termpartnership with APEL, it provided Teleradio-Moldova with assistancein producing a set of internal normative acts (regulationsand other documents necessary for the implementationof reform). Furthermore APEL advised TRM’s managementon reforms to the company’s salary system and monitoredits programs in order to evaluate the progress made. It alsomonitored the manner in which TRM was managed in order topush forward reforms. All reports and monitoring are publiclyaccessible through APEL’s website (www.apel.md). The Soros6Perunov 2012.7Institutul de PoliticiPublice 2013, 24.8ibid.9Terguta 2012, 22-24.10Ludmila Andronic, Head ofthe Press Council of Moldova.11Terguta, 2012, 22-24.12Ibid.13Various interviews with mediaexperts, see Annex.14CCA 2014.15CIA 2014.16IREX 2012, 210.17Study by APEL quoted inMoldova azi, March 13, 2009.18Teleradio-Moldova.19Ibid.20Such as Soros FoundationMoldova, European Commission,SIDA, Eastern EuropeFoundation, and USAID.21Unimedia, March 23, 2012.22A Moldovan NGO offering consultancyservices to private and publiccompanies, financed by donors.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 123

Foundation Moldova ended its cooperation with TRM at thestart of 2014 in order to focus on other fields that had not receivedas much support as TRM in the past years.Furthermore, the Soros Foundation Moldova fostered cooperationbetween TRM and independent audio-visual producers.To this end, it organized round tables for TRM’s managementand the producers and issued a grant worth 30,060US dollars (about 22,000 euros) for TRM to buy independentcontent – a step that was aimed at improving the quality anddiversity of its programs.Another Soros Foundation initiative was aimed at professionalizingthe outlet’s Council of Observers, in particular byfunding a study trip to the Czech Republic in 2011.DW AkademieDW Akademie has been involved in the transformation processfrom the beginning. It assisted with institutional reformas well as with the improvement of TRM’s journalistic products.On the institutional level, DW Akademie’s activities wereaimed at enabling the TRM management to steer the reformprocess and involve a larger part of the staff – at a minimumthe middle management – in this. Together with TRM’s executivelevel management, it drew a road map for organizationalrestructuring that was updated on a regular basis.On a journalistic level, DW Akademie assisted in setting upTRM’s new multimedia department – a project funded by theCouncil of Europe and implemented by DW Akademie. It alsohelped TRM create Radio Tineret, the newly-established youthstation, and assisted with its programming. Professionalizingthe news departments in radio and television was anotherpart of DW Akademie’s engagement with TRM. Furthermore, ittrained reporters at radio and TV, for example staff working onthe program “Baştina,” a program specifically targeted at therural population.In addition to management consulting and journalistictraining, DW Akademie assisted TRM with the developmentof a new approach to making news at TV Moldova 1. Consultingwas provided in 2012 to introduce additional news casts,change the focus of single news programs, improve the newspresentation and adopt a citizen-focused approach in reporting.The implementation is underway, the process is nowplanned to be finished by the end of September 2014. Therefurbishment of its main television studio was meant as avisual signal that the content of its main news and current affairsshows has changed, as well as a way of making TRM moreattractive to the Moldovan TV audiences.There was no coordination of the support to TRM reformby any of the donors – with the exception of 2011, when theCouncil of Europe contracted DW Akademie on two occasions,to build the new Multimedia Department and to trainlocal correspondents of Radio and TV, and the OSCE coordinateda conference branded “Re-Think TRM” in order to insurepolitical and public support as well as donor money forthe restructuring.Status of the Media OrganizationLegal Framework, Governance, EthicsTeleradio-Moldova is legally speaking a public broadcaster, butits governance and financing structure render it prone to politicalinfluence.The Moldovan constitution guarantees freedom of expressionand speech as well as access to information as basic humanrights. The pro-European government is firmly set on apolitical course of European integration. In the media sphere,this implies bringing legislation into line with the guidelinesof the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe(OSCE) and the European Convention on Human Rights. Thisis a condition for the EU association agreement Moldova is tosign in 2014.A new law on freedom of expression was adopted in2010, making it more difficult to sue journalists for libel incivil courts by introducing a state fee of three percent of theamount of the legal claim. According to assessments of the implementationof the law in practice, the newly introduced statefee discourages plaintiffs, as intended, from claiming millionsof Moldovan lei (MDL) from journalists. 23 Generally speaking,media NGOs consider Moldovan press legislation to be “almostperfect” apart from aspects of transparency of ownershipand media concentration. 24 However, there are problemswith its implementation, mostly due to the lack of knowledgeof the laws on the part of judges. Nevertheless, there are provisionsthat need to be amended, namely in the aforementionedfield of ownership transparency in the media sector and in theaudio-visual codex, Moldova’s broadcasting law.The latter is the basic piece of legislation for Teleradio-Moldova, defining the structure of governance of the publicbroadcaster. Adopted in 2006 under the communist government,the Broadcasting Code stipulates that TRM is a publiccompany that is “to assure the right of information of all categoriesof citizens of the Republic of Moldova, including nationalminorities.” It is to provide a public service “with an independenteditorial board that offers program services to alllayers of society on the whole territory of the Republic of Moldova.”Furthermore, the Broadcasting Code defines the structureof the governing bodies of TRM: the Council of Observers,the president of TRM and the directors of radio broadcastingand of television. The highest governing body is the Councilof Observers. It approves the company’s statute and its annualtask schedule, including the budget. Furthermore, it evaluatesthe company’s performance. The Council of Observers is supposedto consist of nine members of civil society, selected as“persons of public life with professional qualifications in differentdomains.” 25However, the current appointment procedure does notguarantee that the Council remains free of political influence.Its members are selected by Parliament from a field of 18 candidateswho are nominated by the national Broadcasting Commission(CCA). Although formally independent, the CCA itself124

Part II Moldova: Slow but Successful Reform, Need for Visible Journalistic Qualityelected, they have very little leeway within their respectivedepartments. Budget decisions are a prerogative of the president.Thus, the two directors have only very limited possibilitiesto act. This means that although they were elected by theCouncil of Observers for a certain program, they do not havethe power to implement it. Furthermore, TRM lacks a middlemanagement which could make independent decisions withinits range of responsibility. Developing an organizationalstructure with clear responsibilities for each department wasone goal of the reform process. This could have resulted in asystem of checks and balances between the different levels ofmanagement. However, the suggested structural reforms werenever fully implemented.Furthermore, reforms were carried out very differentlyin the radio and the television department due to constantchanges in leadership at TV Moldova 1. In 2010, Angela Sârbuwas appointed director of television. Having previouslyworked as director of the media NGO Independent JournalismCenter, she was dedicated to high speed reforms but facedstrong resistance from within TRM. She resigned in February2012, citing a lack of support as the reason for this step andleaving Moldova 1 in the hands of an interim director. “Theleadership, instead of encouraging reform with a nice word atleast, was mainly concerned about the comfort of those whoopposed the reform for the sake of their convenient jobs,” shesaid in an Interview with Jurnal de Chişinău. 31 At the same time,Sârbu was criticized for her leadership style and her expertise.Internally, her management style was controversial, leading tostrong divisions between the employees in particular at thenews department. In addition, her managerial decisions – forexample, to completely abolish the network of local correspondentsin the regions or to change the broadcasting timeof the evening news cast in Russian language – have provokeddissatisfaction with external and international observers. 32A permanent successor was not found until 2013 with MirceaSurdu. Surdu has worked at TRM since 1985. The MediaSustainability Index qualified his election as the “return of theold guard,” 33 as Surdu looks back at a long career at Moldova 1.Other experts criticized that Surdu had not been the best candidateby any means. 34 According to one interviewee, Surduonly presented an agenda for the first two years of his fiveyear-termto the Council of Observers. Surdu is a journalistspecialized in talk shows and documentaries. His long affiliahasvery strong party affiliations. Thus, the formation of themain governing body of TRM is prone to political influence ontwo levels, at the pre-selection by the CCA and at the selectionby Parliament.In 2013/14, six new members of the Council of Observershad to be appointed. The process illustrated very clearly towhat extent the decision is a political one. The CCA presented12 candidates to the parliamentary committee for media issues.Among them were acknowledged media experts suchas Ion Bunduchi, former head of APEL, the independent ElectronicPress Association that had assisted TRM in reformingthe company from the outset. Also among the candidates wasPetru Macovei, head of API, the Association of IndependentPress. In April 2014, the parliamentary committee postponedits decision. The three ruling parties were unable to agree onhow many members each of them was allowed to send intothe Council of Observers. According to interviews with mediaexperts, independent candidates were told that they did notstand a chance of being selected since they did not have anyparty affiliation. Only months before parliamentary electionsin Moldova, scheduled for 30th November 2014, the parties ofthe governing coalition seemed set on strengthening their influenceon TRM instead of rooting it firming in civil society.So the mechanism for selecting the supervisory body makesthe broadcaster’s independence subject to the good will of thecountry’s political elite. According to Victoria Miron, head ofthe mass media program at the Soros Foundation Moldova,the outgoing Council of Observers acted very unprofessionally.Thus, it was not capable of supporting the managementin the improvement of the quality of TRM. 26Constantin Marin has acted as president of TRM since February2010. In personal conversation, he seems to be dedicatedto transforming the company into a public broadcaster.However, many media experts in Moldova complain that reformprocesses are stretched out over too long a period. TheCentre of Independent Journalism (IJC) in Chişinău writes inits 2013 report on media freedom that “the reforms launchedin 2011 had stagnated.” 27 In 2012, the independent media expertEugenio Rîbca resigned as head of the Council of Observersbecause he was dissatisfied with the slow speed of reformat TRM. Ion Bunduchi, head of Radio Moldova Actualități andformer director of APEL, stated in August 2013: “Reforms areproceeding very slowly. Nevertheless, the content of the programschanges.” 28This is supported by studies monitoring TRM radio andtelevision news which suggest that although the programshies away from assuming a strongly critical position towardsthe government, it provides pluralism of opinion on a regularbasis. “While there are visible efforts by TRM to reflect all theviews on the political spectrum, journalists are still cautiouswhen covering controversial political topics.” 29Critics inside and outside of Teleradio-Moldova agree that thecompany has a serious problem in its governance structures. 30Although the directors of radio and television are publicly23Hanganu 2012.24Interview in 201325Codul Audiovizualuluial Republicii Moldova.26Victoria Miron, Head ofMass-Media Program SorosFoundation Moldova.27IJC 2013, 8.28Interview with Bunduchiin August 2013.29IREX 2013, 198 and 203.30Interviews with variousMoldovan media experts andTRM staff in August 2013.31Quoted from IJC 2012.32Filip Slavkovic, CountryManager, DW Akademie.33IREX 2013.34Interviews with media expertsin August 2013.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 125

tion with Moldova 1 makes him a director very dedicated to thechannel and therefore much interested in improving Moldova1’s programming. On the other hand, Moldovan media expertsclaim, he is opposed to drastic institutional reform that wouldinvolve laying off staff (most of whom he has worked with foralmost 30 years). To DW Akademie Surdu stated several timesto be urging laying off old staff and employing new young peoplebut lacking administrative support. 35 In contrast, structuralreforms could be implemented much more rigidly in the radiodepartment, as Alexandru Dorogan served his whole fiveyearterm as director of radio broadcasting, according to TRMmanagement. DW Akademie project manager, Filip Slavkovic,states that Radio Moldova has changed the name of its flagshipnews program to Actualități and introduced youth radio Tineret,first just online and then on-air too (although only in aboutone third of the country, covering only about one fourth of thepopulation, notably not the capital Chişinău, but the town ofBălți), and the online radio Muzical. According to Slavkovic, inActualități, though, little changes in the program have beenmade (daily shifts have been partly introduced). New job positions(for example, producer) have been introduced on paperbut not in practice. While older employees have retired, newreporters and editors have been employed, so that overallthe number of staff remained the same – making a more efficientproduction not possible, since its costs remained high,Slavkovic criticizes.TRM endorsed a code of ethics in 2007. The 59-page documentcovers all important aspects of journalistic ethics, fromaccuracy and impartiality to the question of how to coverelection campaigns and how to deal with sources, the right toprivacy of crime victims and methods for gathering information.36 However, the code was adopted at a time when TRM actedas the government’s most important propaganda tool, thusviolating principles of impartiality and pluralism of opinion,stipulated in the code, on a regular basis. In 2013, the Councilof Observers approved a new statute which states impartiality,editorial independence, and political pluralism among thecompany’s mission goals, principles, and values. 37Capacity Building and Human ResourcesHuman resource management is probably the single mostpressing problem of Teleradio-Moldova. The company’s originsdate back to Soviet times and the human resource policyof that time has survived the fall of the Soviet Union bymore than 20 years. In April 2014, TRM employed 794 peopleto broadcast one TV program (347 employees) and three radioprograms (268 employees). The multimedia department had18 people on its payroll, general services 161. 38 At the beginningof the reform process, TRM employed a workforce of roughly1000 people. A large part of TRM’s employees started workingfor the company before 1991.Most independent experts estimate that the broadcastercould do without a third to a half of its staff. 39, 40 A substantialnumber of them were not only trained in Soviet times, mostthem have also seen many presidents and directors comingand going as well as editorial policies changing. It is, therefore,a major challenge to motivate these employees to help transformthe old (post-)Soviet radio and TV station into a genuinepublic broadcaster. Furthermore, it is obvious that not all employeesof TRM have the commitment and the skills requiredfor the task.When the new management took over, it was decidedto reduce the number of staff in order to free resources. Thefreed financial means were to be used to improve TRM’s programming.However, the management claims that Moldovanlabour laws make it almost impossible to lay off staff. Severalmedia experts, interviewed for this study, think that this is afalse pretence.In 2010, TRM started to reform its salary system. Accordingto Soviet tradition, journalists used to receive a rather low basicmonthly salary. In addition, every single report made by a journalistwould raise the employee’s salary by a fixed amount. Thissystem rewarded quantity instead of quality as it did not provideincentives for high quality output. Its reform was deemedto be crucial to the success of the reform process at TRM.The Soros Foundation issued a grant in 2011 for an expertto work out a system to monitor the performance of TRMstaff over the course of six months. The aim was to establisha constant monitoring mechanism to evaluate the quality ofwork. The supervision system would have shown clearly whichmembers of staff were able to fulfill their tasks according totheir job description and who was unable to cope. This systemwould have led to layoffs. With close monitoring of performance,workers’ insufficiencies could have been documented.In addition, these records could have been used in eventualcourt cases to justify the layoffs. 41 However, TRM’s managementdismissed the proposed system, saying that they lackedthe human resources to implement it. 42Instead, the TRM management decided to put a bonus systemin place, in which a basic salary is combined with bonusesaccording to the performance of the staff. In the words of aTRM executive, the reform process has been “painful” but hasmade some progress – even if only very slow. This process wasalso delayed several times. The Electronic Press Association(APEL) received a grant from the Soros Foundation Moldovato monitor the process closely. Four years after the processstarted, only Radio Actualităţi and the TV department Știri şiDezbateri (News and Debates) had implemented the new salarysystem. 43 40 percent of employees were working in linewith the new bonus system by spring 2014. 44In its report, APEL states that the staff has a very criticalview of the way this process has been handled so far. APELpoints out that “the leadership of TRM did not sanction thoseresponsible for exceeding the time-limits and the non-executionof the orders.” 45 The report also finds that the methodsof performance evaluation need to be simplified, and that theimplementation of the new system was incomplete in the TVdepartment. This illustrates yet again how crucial a function-126

Part II Moldova: Slow but Successful Reform, Need for Visible Journalistic Qualitying middle management would be for TRM, as all decisionsdepend on the directors of the departments.In fact, says the Soros Foundation, the bonuses are rathersmall compared to the basic salary, 46 and do not provide incentivesfor high-quality reporting. According to Victoria Miron,TRM’s flawed salary reform constitutes a missed opportunityto make its internal processes more effective. This, in turn,would have given more room for manoeuvre for the continuouslyunderfunded company. 47 Miron argues that TRM’s managementwas not willing to step into conflict with its staff inorder to push through a stringent salary reform. 48The new payment system is “difficult given errors by managementas well as the resistance of the employees,” APEL criticizesin its report. Nonetheless, it considers the framework forthe payment system “satisfactory for ensuring the continuationof reforms.” 49In early 2014, none of the TRM top managers was satisfiedwith the reform and the president showed readiness to abandonit, if a new system could be adopted. 50With regard to capacity development, the situation at TRMis rather dire. The broadcaster still relies heavily on externaltraining by foreign experts to enhance its employees’ professionalism.In addition, it organizes training courses and seminarswith heads of department or public figures as speakers.The installation of a training center is on the agenda of TRM’smanagement. 51 The Independent Journalism Centre (IJC) stateshowever that the plan for the training center could have beenrealized a long time ago. According to the NGO, the problemwas that the TRM alleged it was not able to pay an employee torun the training center. All in all, TRM is throwing away a vitalopportunity by failing to invest sufficiently in staff training.Financing, Management and Newsroom StructuresFinancing is crucial for a public broadcaster. It determines itseditorial independence as well as the quality of its servicesrendered to the public. For TRM, financing has always beena difficult question. The audio-visual codex stipulates thatthe “Parliament guarantees that financing is secure and correspondsto the needs of the activities of the company.” 52 Inreality, TRM has always lacked sufficient funding. In the taskschedule for 2014, it has been estimated that the company willneed 139 million MDL (7.5 million euros). However, the companywill receive only 82 million MDL (4.4 million euros) fromthe national budget. In addition, it expects to be able to earnanother 15 percent of its budget (20 million MDL or 1.08 millioneuros) through other sources of income (advertising andsponsoring). This leaves 26 percent of its budget unfunded,meaning that TRM cannot fulfill certain tasks that are partof its responsibilities as a public broadcaster. The potentialto generate revenue from advertising is limited. TRM namesthe small advertising market in Moldova and its monopolystructure as the main hurdles. 53 The fact that TRM’s fundingis assigned on an annual basis from the state budget makesthe broadcaster prone to political influence in various regards.This may imply cuts to TRM’s budget because the governmentdeems other spheres more important than the financing of anindependent public broadcaster. With various private TV stationsin Moldova being owned by very influential politicians,it could also mean that TRM is hindered in its development inorder to reduce its competitiveness. Finally, there is, of course,always the danger that the government asks for reporting tobe weighted in its favor in return for sufficient funding. For2014, the Ministry of Finance cut TRM’s budget by 12 millionMDL (0.64 million euros), the part of the budget that was intendedfor the (technological) development of the channel.At present, the media experts interviewed for this studydon’t believe that political influence has been exerted throughthe financing of the company so far. However, all experts havestressed that the mode of TRM financing may pose a potentialrisk for the future. 54TRM can hardly compete with the private channels, as ithas been notoriously underfinanced throughout its existence.A lot of its shows still exude the atmosphere of early post-Soviettelevision. Studios have not been modernized since the fallof the Soviet Union. In 2013, TRM started on a project to updateits main television studio out of which Moldova 1’s mainnews and current affairs programs are broadcast: the news,the morning show, and the most important talk-show format.By renovating the studio, the channel wanted to make theseprograms more attractive to the audience (after all, informationis the core mandate of a public broadcaster). The new lookof the shows was also meant to be a visible sign to the publicthat TRM is changing. However, the process was stalled for along time as the Council of Observers refused to approve the35Filip Slavkovic, Country Manager,DW Akademie.36Standardele profesionale şi principiileeticii jurnalistice inemisiunile IPNA Compania„Teleradio-Moldova.“ Regulamentdin 7.11.2007.37Statutul Instituţiei PubliceNaţionale a AudiovizualuluiCompania „Teleradio-Moldova”(în redacţie nouă).38Constantin Marin,President of TRM.39IREX 2013.40Interview in Chişinăuin August 2013.41Victoria Miron, Head ofMass-Media Program of theSoros Foundation Moldova.42Ibid.43APEL 2014.44Constantin Marin,President of TRM.45APEL 2014.46Victoria Miron, Head ofMass-Media Program of theSoros Foundation Moldova.47See 7.5.3.48Victoria Miron, Head ofMass-Media Program of theSoros Foundation Moldova.49ICJ 2012, 9.50Filip Slavkovic, Country Manager,DW Akademie.51Constantin Marin, Presidentof TRM.52Codul Audiovizualului,Articolul 64 (1) Bugetulcompaniei.53Constantin Marin,President of TRM.54Various interviews conductedby the author in 2013 and 2014.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 127

udget for the studio refurbishment. As a further blow to themanagement’s plans, the Ministry of Finance cut TRM’s budgetas mentioned above. After that, the management tried tofind a cheaper solution for the studio as well as other sourcesof funding. In the end, the Polish government offered TRM aloan of approximately 120,000 euros. The Norwegian and theUS embassy both granted roughly 65.000 euro. TRM’s managementconsiders the renovation of the studio as a core investmentwhich should eventually increase the competitivenessof the program compared to rival commercial stations.Generally speaking, insufficient funding impairs the company’sability to compete with other channels for the best journalists.To date, TRM pays substantially lower salaries than privatechannels in Moldova. This means that the best-qualifiedjournalists will not want to work for public television or radio.This brain drain from public to commercial media is a viciouscircle hard to break, given TRM’s current very weak efforts atcapacity development. In interviews, media experts quotedthe Moldovan Minister of Finance as justifying this restrictivehuman resources policy by saying that unless TRM acceleratesits reform process, improving the funding situation willonly mean throwing more money into a black hole. 55 Substantiallayoffs as advocated by experts would enhance efficiency,free financial resources, and offer the possibility to pay welltrainedjournalists competitive salaries.In August 2011, TRM presented a “Study on the restructuringoptions for the public Company ‘Teleradio-Moldova.’” Thisstudy was conducted by the Business Consulting Institute, anon-governmental organization that was created as a spinofffrom a USAID project and is currently funded by the EuropeanUnion. The study proposed three possible restructuringoptions for TRM’s institutional reform. The “slow restructuring”scenario implied “an insignificant personnel reduction,”alongside with “efficiency increase of costs and productionprocesses.” The “progressive restructuring” scenario included“an essential restructuring of the staff, and also of the productionprocess.” The “radical restructuring” scenario involved“deep, courageous and significant changes,” including a newoffice building for TRM, modern technology and an integratedmanagement concept. 56According to Constantin Marin, TRM opted for the slowmodel of restructuring with “elements of the progressivemodel.” This decision was allegedly mainly motivated byTRM’s financial situation. 57In the course of institutional reform, TRM adopted a newstatute, overhauled the internal normative framework and applieda new organizational chart for the broadcaster as a whole,as well as sub charts for the radio, TV, and multimedia departments.58 Furthermore, TRM’s top management adopted a roadmap for change with the assistance of DW Akademie. Thereby,TRM defined its vision, mission, values, and principles as wellas objectives for all levels of the organization. 59 It developedPSD’s (products, services, and distribution channels), and definedits organizational structure and the workflows within it.Whilst the process of development of PSDs, after more thanthree years, has been completed at the time of writing for theradio and multimedia departments, this redefining exercisewas not completed with the television unit.Nadine Gogu, head of the IJC, is supportive of TRM’s reformplan. She criticizes, however, that it is not being implemented.60 According to her, Angela Sârbu resigned as directorof Moldova 1 due to a lack of reform will in top-level management.Gogu argues that 2013 has only seen marginal progresshappening: Notably, the optimization of the programmingscheme and the broadcaster’s Web page have improved. 61As far as TRM’s management is concerned, “the majorityof candidates (for the Council of Observers) pleaded for amodernization of the management of the institution,” reports“Media-Azi” (Media today), a media news website edited by theIJC. 62 Media experts criticize mainly the distribution of responsibilitiesbetween TRM’s president and the directors of radioand TV. In addition, as previously mentioned, the companylacks an efficient middle management. 63The relationship between the president of TRM and the lastCouncil of Observers was characterized by repeated disputes.This meant the Council did not fulfill its function of supportingthe management in governing the public broadcaster efficiently.Victoria Miron from Soros Moldova blames a blatantlack of professionalism of the members for at least part of theproblem and fears that the next Council of Observers will havethe same deficits. 64TRM has two newsrooms – one for radio and one for TV. Inaddition, the multimedia department takes news reports fromradio and TV and adapts them for the internet. The radio andtelevision newsrooms cooperate, partly also with the multimediadepartment, in setting their agenda. For the sports section,a joint service was created.TRM has to go digital by July 2015, according to internationalagreements. Digitalization of the program was a priorityin 2013. Nevertheless, as in many fields of reform, progressis slow. In the words of TRM president Marin, the process isadvancing, albeit slowly. In April 2014, digital equipment wasinstalled in the first of four television studios. Work on twofurher studios has not even started, as TRM still lacks the fundingfor it. Marin points out that the video editing suites arealready digital, but that they do not comply with the technicalstandards of digital television. This also seems to be the casewith some other equipment, such as cameras. New camerasare now being purchased for the new studio which will hostnews and shows, since the majority of the few existing onesare outdated.All in all, half of television and about 70 percent of radio arenow digital. 65 The broadcaster has entered into negotiationswith the European Bank for Reconstruction and Developmentfor a loan of 5 million euros that should help to digitalizethe whole channel. 66 Digitalization could have representeda chance for substantial modernization of TRM equipment.However, it seems as if this chance is being missed.128

Part II Moldova: Slow but Successful Reform, Need for Visible Journalistic QualityPerception, Participation and Public EngagementThe “Study on the restructuring options for the public Company‘Teleradio-Moldova’” was presented to the public in 2011 inthe presence of the prime minister. Thus, the goals and methodsof the reforms were communicated to the public from thevery beginning.The transformation process of TRM has been closely monitoredby civil society and in particular by the media community.Teleradio-Moldova makes a clear point of publishingrelevant documents on its website. This includes importantlegislation such as the audio-visual codex, internal regulationslike the bonus system, the principles, standards, and recommendationsfor TRM products or its code of ethics. Moreover,the agenda of the meetings of the Council of Observers as wellas the task schedule are accessible to the public. 67Furthermore, civil society organizations have closely monitoredthe transformation process through various studies. 68APEL has been particularly active in this. For its analysis of theimplementation of the new bonus system, the organizationwas able to monitor the whole evaluation process with datafrom within the company thanks to the cooperation of theTRM management.Thus, TRM’s reform process is very open to the public withthe broadcaster itself being the object of various news items inthe course of recent years. Despite all criticism, TRM’s managementhas offered deep insight into its structures to civil society.This must be used in the future to gain new momentumfor the transformation process.Public Service: General FunctionsThis chapter will evaluate Teleradio-Moldova with regard toits public service functions. TRM is part of Moldovan societyand the country’s media landscape. As a public servicebroadcaster, it acts within this framework and its constraints.This has to be taken into consideration for the assessment ofTRM’s public functions.Creating a Public SphereAccording to the audio-visual codex, Moldova’s broadcastinglaw, one of the tasks of Teleradio-Moldova is the “fostering ofdemocratic debates, the exchange of opinions between differentgroups of the population, as well as the integration ofall citizens into society.” Its programs and the information itbroadcasts are to be “pluralistic” and “impartial.” 69Although there are no valid surveys, all media experts interviewedfor this study agree that TRM’s news and currentaffairs programs are nowadays much more balanced and independentthan they used to be under the previous management.Miron from the Soros Foundation Moldova perceives aradical change. According to her, TRM’s editorial policy fulfillsthe requirements of balance portraying pluralistic views andindependence. The Media Sustainability Index report on Moldovastates: “While there are visible efforts by TRM to reflectall the views on the political spectrum, journalists are stillcautious when covering controversial political topics.” 70 Atthe same time, the authors see a tendency that TRM’s “editorialpolicy accommodates the politics of the government as itavoids reporting on certain topics less favourable to it.” 71Political reporting in election campaigns changed fundamentally.In the past, TRM used to report almost only on theCommunist party. In the 2011 election campaign, all partiesparticipated in public debates on screen and were able to getairtime for their TV spots.In parliamentary debates, TRM makes an effort to featuregovernment politicians as well as MPs of the opposition.Since the Republic of Moldova is a parliamentary democracy,these debates are crucial to the country’s political life. However,political decisions of the government are often presentedwithout critical comment from the opposition. Generallyspeaking, criticism of political and societal actors is rare. TRMconcentrates on its basic informational function instead.Gogu objects that the opposition seldom appears on thepublic channels. 72 She reports that the opposition Communistparty recently complained about this, but points out a contradictionin this since representatives of TRM have frequentlydeclared that the opposition refused to participate in its programswhen it was invited. This applies mostly to the two talkshowformats “Bună seara” (Good Evening) and “Moldova înDirect” (Moldova Direct) broadcast workdays on Moldova 1.All in all, both programs do create a platform for public debate.They offer discussion between politicians, experts, andcommentators and integrate questions from the studio audienceas well as from viewers via telephone into the shows.Similar shows exist on radio. The topics discussed in these talkshows are relevant to society, say some media experts. Furthermore,TRM focuses on social as well as political topics. 73Its private competitor PublikaTV, a 24h news channel, on theother hand, limits itself to solely politics. Gogu proposes thatTRM should focus more on the daily problems of the Moldo-55Interviews with Moldovan mediaexperts in 2014.56BCI 2011.57Constantin Marin,President of TRM.58Ibid.59Teleradio-Moldova, see also 7.3.0.60Nadine Gogu, Head of IJC.61Ibid.62Media Azi, April 2, 2014.63Jochen Walter, Project Managerat DW Akademie.64Victoria Miron, Head ofMass-Media Program of theSoros Foundation Moldova.65Constantin Marin,President of TRM.66IJC 2013.67Teleradio-Moldova.68For the numerous studiesconducted by APEL, see apel.md. IJC analyzes TRM’s reformprocess annually, as in: IJC 2013.69Codul Audiovizualului.Articolul 51 (a,j).70IREX 2013, 203.71Ibid., 198.72Nadine Gogu, Head of IJC.73Victoria Miron, Head of Mass-Media program of the SorosFoundation Moldova.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 129

van citizens. 74 Social topics are often reported through statementsof politicians and economists but rarely through theeyes of ordinary citizens.Meanwhile however, TRM does not fulfill its agenda-settingfunction. Most experts criticize that the broadcaster mainlyreacts to events instead of putting topics forward for publicdebate that are relevant to its audience. The broadcaster alsolacks a department for investigative journalism. The audio-visualcodex stipulates that TRM should strive to obtain a rate of20 percent in terms of content bought from independent producers75 – a regulation aimed at increasing the production ofcontent in Moldova. In the past, TRM bought programs from aproduction company associated with the newspaper Ziarul deGarda, which is famous in Moldova for its investigative journalism.However, the cooperation was part of a project of theSoros Foundation Moldova and it remains to be seen whetherthis cooperation will continue.Overall, the general quality of TRM’s programs remainspoor in comparison to those of its private competitors. However,since the start of the reform in 2011, some departments,such as the news section, have improved the quality of theiroutput. Notwithstanding various deficits, their programsshow a pluralism of views and offer a forum for public debate.Whilst TRM’s news programs are still perceived as “boring”and “old-fashioned,” the outlet nonetheless beats its competitorsin terms of information value and balance.Supporting IntegrationTeleradio-Moldova has the task “to assure that all categoriesof citizens of (the) Republic of Moldova can exert the right toinformation, including minorities.” 76 TRM takes this seriously,which can be illustrated by the following facts: The companybroadcasts in the languages of all minorities on Radio Moldova,as well as in Russian and Gagauz (the latter through theregional Gagauz public broadcaster GRT, affiliated with TRM)on TV. Furthermore, it has a radio channel especially designedfor young people (Radio Tineret) and there are plans to distributespecial programs for children via podcast. TRM producescultural and educational programs as well as shows for youngaudiences and children in Moldova, although the quality is notalways satisfactory. Shows like “Baştina” (Native) and “La Noiîn Sat” (With Us In The Village) focus on issues affecting ruralpopulations. However, many of the minority programs are oftencriticized for their low quality, which is considered muchworse than that of the general programming. Some media expertsargue that this is due to the fact that these minority programshave not yet been affected by the reform process. Moldova1 covers virtually the entire Moldovan territory, whichis significantly more than its private competitors. Thereforeit has a much stronger position among the rural population.In fact, its news show “Mesager” is the second most-viewednewscast in the country, according to polls by the Institute forPublic Politics. 77The fostering of cultural expression and the strengthening ofidentity, values, and cultural cohesion are stipulated in TRM’sstatute. The media in Moldova, a small and poverty-strickencountry, are very much dominated by foreign content, mostlyfrom Russia or Romania. Media content and programs inboth languages can be aired in Moldova without subtitling ordubbing. In the time of the Ukrainian conflict, Moldova ordereda stop of rebroadcasting of Russian TV channels due tohate speech. Increasing the rate of content produced locallyis therefore vital for the country, a position held by manyexperts. TRM constantly monitors how much local contentit produces. In the last year, it was able to add several hoursto the overall annual amount. The aforementioned cooperationwith independent producers is also part of an attemptto increase the original content broadcast on TRM. Media thatbroadcast mainly foreign content cannot function as a forumof public debate for a society. Locally-produced content – beit information or fiction – fosters inclusiveness and cohesionof society.All criticism notwithstanding, most media experts interviewedfor this study do not see an alternative to TRM. Thecommercial channels are interested in ratings and sales, andare therefore unlikely to make an effort to air programs thatrepresent the interests of all categories of citizens. 78 In addition,TV channels are highly politicized in Moldova. Legal ownershipremains non-transparent, even though it is obvious which majorpoliticians use them as their instruments of propaganda.Achievements and ChallengesIn the years of reform, Teleradio-Moldova has changed, butnot nearly as much as it could have. Today, it fulfils the functionsof a public broadcaster to a much higher degree than itdid under the previous management. However, huge opportunitiesto implement substantial change were missed.TRM has a potentially very strong position on the Moldovanmedia market. It has the widest coverage across Moldovanterritory, and numbers among its assets the most importantnews and current affairs channel in radio. Radio Actualităţihas undergone substantial organizational reform. With RadioTineret, a youth-oriented radio station with modern programmingthat has been created from scratch, even if it lacks anFM frequency in the capital. In addition, TRM has establisheda new multimedia department that offers news and makesthe broadcaster’s TV and radio content available online. Its TVchannel produces the second-most important news programin the country. In the course of reform, TRM closed its foreignchannels Moldova International in TV and Radio in order tofree up financial resources for other purposes. Thus, the channelstrengthened its focus on its key audience as demanded bythe statute.Certain limitations notwithstanding, TRM does serve todayas a platform for public debate. Its programs strive to supportintegration by broadcasting different shows for different soci-130

Part II Moldova: Slow but Successful Reform, Need for Visible Journalistic Qualityetal groups. The outlet has also become much more pluralisticin its reporting. News on TRM’s television and radio channelshas become more balanced and impartial in the course of reform.In a media system in which the agenda of media outletsis often set by their owners, this is a vital achievement, crucialfor Moldovan society.Even with all its financial problems, TRM has the great advantageof not depending on advertising revenues in the pooreconomic climate of Moldova – as its competitors do. As allcommercial channels depend heavily on financial supportfrom their oligarchic owners, all experts agree on the fact thatthere is no alternative to TRM as the public broadcaster forMoldovan society.However, the quality of TRM’s products remains poor. Themanagement was not able to raise the necessary resources inorder to improve the overall appearance of its programs. Institutionalreform has stalled in the course of the last few years.With its strategy of slow and gradual reform, the TRM managementhas not been able to create the organizational frameworkfor quality journalism. Therefore, the organization doesnot have the position on the media market that a genuinelyhigh-quality public broadcaster should have. It would have toinvest much more in superior, showcase journalistic productsin order to completely fulfill its role in creating a public sphere.TRM’s achievements in the course of the reform process arethe following:– TRM’s radio department has undergone an organizationalreform that enables it to fulfill its public service function toa greater extent.– TRM has built up a new radio program for young audiencesand a multimedia department.– TRM’s journalistic programs have become much morebalanced and impartial.– An institutional reform was started that reconfiguredthe organizational structure of the public company.– TRM has begun to cooperate with independent producersin order to increase the diversity and the quality of itsprogramming.TRM’s recurrent problems on the way towards public servicebroadcasting remain:– The low quality of TRM’s journalistic products prevents thebroadcaster from improving its audience ratings.– With the speed of institutional reform being as slow as it is,TRM is not able to improve its efficiency in order toincrease the quality of its programs.– Although TRM fulfills vital functions as a public broadcaster,its organizational structure remains vulnerable to politicalinfluence. This applies especially to its financing and theselection process for members of the Council of Observers.Transformation ApproachesThe case study shows that there are clear achievements inTRM’s progress towards becoming a genuine public broadcaster.However, the media outlet needs further reform to tap itsfull potential. All in all, it seems that – although slowly movingin the right direction – TRM lacks the necessary resolvefor a genuinely successful transformation. This applies to themanagement’s will for fast change as well as to funding andoutward support. Among national as well as internationalstakeholders in the transformation process, the following approachesare being discussed to give new momentum to thetransformation process:– A new broadcasting code is needed. APEL wrote a newdraft that would solve some of the management issuesat TRM, most notably the politicization and unprofessionalismof the Council of Observers and the strongconcentration of power with the president of TRM. Atthe time of writing, the draft was pending in parliament.Further lobbying by Moldovan media NGOs and externalpressure from the EU could help it pass parliament.The association agreement between Moldova and theEuropean Union provides leverage for this. In addition,Moldova has to adopt a new system of financing thepublic service media organization (different suggestionshave been made, one of them suggesting a combinationof fees for the citizens and cable network operators aswell as obligatory contributions by the private broadcasterswhile in return TRM would give up advertising).– TRM needs to adopt a more decisive strategy to layoff employees in order to increase efficiency and freeresources for the improvement of its content. This constitutesthe broadcaster’s only chance to increase itspopularity with the public. To achieve success in this,external assistance is crucial. Management structureshave to be decentralized. Heads of departments andsubdivisions need to play a more active role in the reformprocess. They are vitally important in ensuringthat layoffs do not destroy support for reform. Withmore managerial independence within its respectivesubdivisions, middle management can be made one ofthe motors of reform at TRM.74Nadine Gogu, Head of IJC.75Codul Audiovizualului.Articolul 51 (2).76Codul Audiovizualului.Articolul 51 (1) g.77Institutul de Politici Publice2013, 24.78Nadine Gogu, Head of IJC.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 131

– The Council of Observers has to be professionalized.On the one hand, this means adopting a new broadcastingcode that prevents members from being elected forpolitical reasons (see above). On the other hand, electedmembers have to be prepared for the tasks that awaitthem in the Council of Observers – be it with seminarsor study trips to other European broadcasters. Onlythen can the Council fulfill its task of controlling andsupporting the TRM management adequately.– TRM has to stick to the road map for the transformationprocess. Delays in the past have to be analyzed inorder to find out which management structures have tobe amended for more efficient reforms. A steering teamfor the change process has to take a more active role.At the same time, the Council of Observers has to beinvolved in all decisions of the transformation processfrom the beginning. This way, it will be able to supportand monitor TRM’s management much more efficiently.– The quality of TRM’s news and current affairs programshas to be improved, since they constitute thecore competence and the central mandate of a publicbroadcaster. TRM has to strengthen its journalistic competencein key topics, such as the country’s EU associationprocess as well as questions relevant to nationalminorities. Given the current financial situation, TRMhas to shift resources from entertainment programstowards information-oriented programs. This mightalso imply raising salaries or bonuses for journalistsworking on the programs in order to attract the bestprofessionals available in Moldova. This way, institutionalchange could be combined with visible changesin TRM’s content to strengthen public support (in termsof both ratings and civil society support) for the reformprocess. In addition, TRM has to work on structural reformsaimed at introducing citizen participation, forexample through an ombudsperson, and through cooperationwith other media, national and international.– In addition, in order to make these flagship news andcurrent affairs programs successful, TRM needs to adoptand implement a strategy of capacity development. Thishas to include a standard training curriculum for youngjournalists as well as a mechanism for systematic professionalimprovement for all its staff. 79 Should the mediaoutlet express the genuine will to invest in systematiccapacity building, it could attract the assistance of internationaldonors as well as local media NGOs. The IJChas great experience in this sphere thanks to the Schoolof Advanced Journalism Studies it has run in Chișinăusince 2006. At the same time, TRM could invest in professionalizingyoung journalists by forming a partnershipwith the journalism faculties of various universitiesin Chișinău. This could help the broadcaster acquire motivatedand well-trained young journalists. In addition,programs created by students of the faculties could enhancethe diversity of TRM’s content.79Interview with DW Akademie Project Managers.132

Part II Moldova: Slow but Successful Reform, Need for Visible Journalistic QualityStatus of Teleradio-Moldova (TRM)Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsChannels, distributionTV: One nationwide channel Moldova UnuRadio: three channels: the news channel Radio MoldovaActualităţi, the youth channel Radio Moldova Tineret, andthe music channel Radio Moldova Muzical. Radio Tineretdoes not have an FM frequency in the capital Chişinău.Online: News website made by a multimedia desk.The website also provides live streaming of all radio andTV programs of TRM.TV Moldova Internationalwent on air in 2007, but wasclosed at the start of thereform process in order tofree funds for the reformof programs aimed at theinterior market. The sameapplies to Radio MoldovaInternational.Legal frameworkThe legal framework for TRM is set by the Broadcasting Codeof the Republic of Moldova (BCC), adopted in 2006. It definesTRM as a public channel with an independent editorial policy.The law is generally evaluated positively, controversial are thefinancing of TRM and the political selection process for thecontrolling bodies of TRM.No changes so far. Amendmentsto the broadcastingcode are discussed in therespective parliamentarycommittee. Media NGOshave drafted alternativeBCCs for further discussion.Public service remitThe Broadcasting Code stipulates that TRM is a public companythat is “to assure the right of information of all categoriesof citizens of the Republic of Moldova, including nationalminorities.” It provides a public service with an independenteditorial board that offers program services to all layers ofsociety throughout the territory of the Republic of Moldova.–Regulatory system/governing bodyThe highest governing body of TRM is the Council of Observers(CO) consisting of 9 members (persons of public life withprofessional qualifications in different domains). The CO approvesthe statute of TRM and the task schedule, supervisesthe management and appoints the president of TRM as wellas the directors for radio and TV.Problems: The 9 members of the CO are selected by parliamentout of 18 candidates proposed by the BroadcastingCouncil. Thus, party politics have a large influence on the CO.–Engagement of civil societyThe members of the Council of Observers are meant to bepart of civil society, however, due to the nomination processthere is always the danger that political affiliations of themembers of the CO will play a role in their election. Civil societyactively monitored and accompanied the reform process.–Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 133

Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsFinancingTRM is funded by the state budget, sponsoring, and advertisement.The BCC states the parliament is to guaranteesecure funding according to the needs of TRM.In 2013, however, the ministerof finance cut additionalfunding that was meant forlong-term development ofTRM and had already beenallocated by the company.Use of mobile and internetcommunication/modern technology/challenges of digitalizationTRM’S website offers a mobile version as well as podcasts.It offers its content via facebook and twitter, too.The creation of TRM webappearanceis part of thereform process.Regional structuresand reportingThey exist. –Capacity buildingEmployees are mainly trained by agents outside the company(mostly by donors). The installation of a training centerwithin TRM is planned by the management.–Ethic codices,newsroom guidelinesDo exist and comply with international standardsUpdated in the course ofthe reform process.Public perception andsupport for the mediaorganizationThe reform process has been open to the scrutiny ofcivil society. Various media NGOs assumed a critical andconstructive role in it.–134

Part II Moldova: Slow but Successful Reform, Need for Visible Journalistic QualityGeneral Functions I: Political SphereFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partiall /no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Information:comprehensive, balanced,objective – and alsoregional news.YesInformation is presented overall in a balanced and impartial way.All political parties havethe opportunity to speakin the program and arepresent in interviews,sound bites, etc.PartiallyIn parliamentary debates all parties are present in sound bites. However,government policies are explained without the critical voice of the opposition.The same applies to talk shows. TRM claims opposition politiciansrefuse to participate in its programs.Criticism of politicalactors (government,administration, otherpolitical actors)PartiallyCriticism of political actors takes place without barriers in talk shows andin parliamentary debates. However, TRM rarely puts critical topics on thenational agenda.Societal criticism(social actors, individuals,problems in society)PartiallySee above.Moderation of debate/democratic facilitationYesTRM’s talk shows create a public sphere that fosters debate. They offer discussionsbetween politicians, experts with questions from the audience.Social/politicalorientationYesTRM’s talk shows pick up important social and political topics and offerorientation. The same applies to its news programs.Agenda setting/investigative journalismNoTRM limits itself to its informative function. It does not set the agendaproactively, nor does it engage in investigative journalism.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 135

General Functions II: IntegrationFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Participation, voice,empowermentYesTRM offers programs for minorities, young audiences, rural population,and families. Although the quality of some of these programs is ratherpoor, they still give a voice to those groups and empower them by givinginformation vital to them.Cultural expression,strengthening ofidentity, values, andcultural cohesionYesA lot of Moldovan media content is produced either in Russia or in Romania.Therefore, TRM plays a vital role in strengthening cultural cohesion.Entertainment Partially TRM does offer entertainment but its programs often cannot competewith its commercial competitors.Education Partially TRM does have some educational programs. Furthermore, it plans to setup a podcast service for children’s radio.Innovation No TRM is not very innovative.136

Part II Moldova: Slow but Successful Reform, Need for Visible Journalistic QualityInternational Media Development PartnersPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/progress/problemsDW Akademie(2010–2014)Transformation of TRM,especially organizationalreform; creation of a youthbasedradio station and amultimedia department,reform of news departmentsin radio and TV.Planning workshop, interviewswith employees andmanagement of different levels,training, consultancy.Youth radio station and themultimedia department arefunctioning. Institutional reformhas been started although themanagement chose a very slowspeed for it. The news programsin radio and TV started to seekbalance in their reports.Soros FoundationMoldovaTransformation of TRM;institutional reform as wellas professionalization of TRMjournalists, consolidation ofthe company’s news department,while not neglectingprograms for children, youth,and ethnic minorities.Assistance through its long-termpartner APEL (Electronic PressAssociation) in producing a setof internal normative acts,including specifications forprofessional employee performanceappraisal; monitoringof programs and departments;assisting with the creation ofmechanisms to buy independentcontent; study trip for theCouncil of Observers.News department improved itsproduct significantly; the speedof institutional reform has beenvery slow; core regulations havebeen adopted; mechanisms forcooperation with independentproducers established.N.B. All the information given in the tables above is based onthe interviews, observations and document analysis made bythe author of this chapter. The tables provide very rough summariesof what is being elaborated in the texts. Many of theissues mentioned here are, of course, subject to change.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 137

AppendixReferencesAPEL (2014), Aplicarea noului sistem de salarizare la nivel dedouă subdiviziuni ale IPNA Compania Teleradio-Moldova:Redacţia Actualităţi Radioşi Departamentul Știri şi DezbateriTv. Studiu de caz. Chişinău.BCI (2011), Study on the restructuring options for the publicCompany “Teleradio-Moldova.”Biroul Național de Statistică al Republicicii Moldova (2014a),Demographic situation in the Republic of Moldova in 2013,retrieved from: www.statistica.md/newsview.php?l=ro&idc=168&id=4415Biroul Național de Statistică al Republicicii Moldova (2014b),Populatia după naționalitățile de bază, limba maternă și limbaîn care vorbește de obicei, retrieved from: http://www.statistica.md/recensamint/Nation_Limba_vorbita_%20materna_ru.xlsCodul Audiovizualului al Republicii Moldova, retrieved from:www.trm.md/ro/legislatie/CCA (2014), Raport cu privire la activitatea Consilului Coordonatoral Audiovizualului din Republica Moldova în anul 2013,retrieved from: http://cca.md/files/RAPORT%20CCA%202013.pdfCIA – Central Intelligence Agency (2014), The World Fact Book:Moldova, retrieved from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/md.htmlHanganu, Janeta (2012), The impact of the law on freedom ofexpression. In: IJC (2012), Mass Media in Moldova.IJC (2012), Press Freedom Report. Republic of Moldova.IJC (2013), Press Freedom Report. Republic of Moldova.Institutul de Politici Publice (2013), Barometrul de OpiniePublică. Republica Moldova, Aprilie 2013, retrieved from:http://www.ipp.md/public/files/Barometru/BOP_aprilie_2013_Final.pdfIREX (2013), Media Sustainability Index 2013. Developmentof Sustainable Independent Media in Europe and Eurasia,retrieved from: http://www.irex.org/sites/default/files/u115/Europe%20%26%20Eurasia%20MSI%202013.pdfMedia Azi (April 2, 2014), Comisia parlamentară de media aamânat din nou selectarea membrilor CO al TRM, retrievedfrom: http://www.media-azi.md/ro/stiri/comisia-parlamentară-de-media-amânat-din-nou-selectarea-membrilorco-al-trmMolodova Azi (March 13, 2009), Teleradio-Moldova continuesto favor Communist leader and to denigrate opposition,retrieved from: http://www.azi.md/ro/print-story/1762Perunov, S. (2012), What Kind of Support does an IndependentPress Expect From the State? In: IJC (2012), Mass Media in Moldova,June 2012.Standardele profesionale şi principiile eticii jurnalistice inemisiunile IPNA Compania „Teleradio-Moldova.“ Regulamentdin 7.11.2007, retrieved from: www.trm.md/ro/documente/Statutul Instituţiei Publice Naţionale a Audiovizualului Compania„Teleradio-Moldova” (în redacţie nouă), retrieved from:www.trm.md/ro/documente/Teleradio-Moldova, Despre Noi, retrieved from:http://www.trm.md/ro/despre-noiTerguta, I. (2012), Digitalization of Broadcasting in the Republicof Moldova: The Zero Moment of Truth, or A New Form of Monopolyon the Broadcasting Market. In: IJC (2012), Mass Mediain Moldova, December 2012.Unimedia (March 23, 2012), Directorul M1, Angela Sîrbu, explicăde ce a renunțat la funcția sa, retrieved from: http://unimedia.info/stiri/directorul-m1--angela-sirbu--explica-de-ce-a-renuntat-la-functia-sa-45802.htmlIREX (2012), Media Sustainability Index 2012. Developmentof Sustainable Independent Media in Europe and Eurasia,retrieved from: http://www.irex.org/system/files/u105/EE_MSI_2012_Full.pdf138

08Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New TransformationChallenges Radio and TelevisionLina Hartwieg140

Part II Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and TelevisionMyanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and TelevisionIn Myanmar, the transformation process of the state broadcaster MRTV was launched in late 2012. It is far too early to speakabout real improvements in the quality of the broadcaster’s programming. MRTV is still widely considered the mouthpiece ofthe government, a program filled with state propaganda. After decades of top-down control, trust in MRTV’s programs is limited.Gaining the public’s trust is one of MRTV’s biggest obstacles to reform. The lack of basic journalism and technical skills as wellas operational management skills is extensive. Small improvements, however, can be witnessed. MRTV launched the NationalRaces Channel (NRC), a TV channel committed exclusively to ethnic minorities, broadcasting ethnic songs, news, documentaries,dances, and movies in eleven languages. Furthermore, the program broadcasting from parliament, featuring sound bites fromdifferent political parties, can be considered a first. The implementing and drafting of new media laws, most notably the PublicService Media Law, is essential for the right to freedom of expression. Even though the draft Public Service Media Law still hassignificant shortcomings, it would provide a legal framework for MRTV, which in itself would be a major achievement. In Myanmarin the coming years, media development organizations can prove the worth of supporting transformation towards PSM.In September 2012, U Aung Kyi, the Union Minister of Information,announced at a conference on public service broadcastinghis aim to transform Myanmar’s state-owned mediaoutlets into public service media. The objective of this chapteris to assess where Myanmar’s state-owned media stand in thistransformation process. The following analysis will primarilyfocus on the transformation of Myanmar Radio and Television(MRTV), 1 which is at the center of the transformation process.But it should be mentioned here that the government is alsotransforming state-owned newspapers as well. In order to effectivelyexamine the role of the future public service media inMyanmar, the political and social context in which MRTV operatesas well as the rapidly developing media landscape andvarious characteristics related to the structure and operationof MRTV are taken into consideration. Throughout this chapterthe reader should, however, keep in mind that MyanmarRadio and Television (MRTV) has, at the time of writing, beenoperating less than two years under the new agenda. This analysiscan therefore only provide an early snapshot of the statusof the organization in a rapidly evolving environment.Myanmar – A Brief OverviewMyanmar 2 was ruled for more than five decades by a militaryjunta that isolated the country from the rest of the world. Butin 2011 the situation changed fundamentally. The military regimewas dissolved and a new quasi-civilian government ledby President Thein Seine was inaugurated. Since then an inclusivetop-down transformation process has paved the way fora series of significant political, economic, and social changes:Hundreds of political prisoners were released, including theleader of the National League for Democracy (NLD) Aung SanSuu Kyi, who was kept under house arrest for years. Later, severalNLD party members were elected as members of parliament,and new laws were drafted that provide greater space forfreedom of expression and the right to freedom of assembly.Notably, better labor protection rights were also implementedand sanctions on international trade have been lifted. 3 In essenceMyanmar changed in a way the world community couldhave not foreseen a couple of years earlier.Nevertheless, the process is far from being complete and severechallenges to peace, democratization, and developmentremain present, also due to continuous problems with cronyism,environmental destruction, land-grabbing, and ethnicand religious conflicts. Despite the fact that it is a resourcerichcountry, it still suffers from political and economical mismanagement.Today, Myanmar is one of the region’s least developedcountries, with around one quarter of its populationestimated to be living in poverty (below US$ 1.25 per day). 4 Thedevelopment gap between urban and rural areas is particularlyhigh, with rural poverty at 29.2 percent, sharply higherthan urban poverty at 15.7 percent in 2010. 5 Increasing demonstrationsagainst land-grabbing, working conditions andenvironmental destruction indicate that inequalities and socialinjustice, which have been suppressed for decades, are nolonger being tolerated. 6A brief look at the ethnic and religious composition ofthe country seems particularly important, as few other Asiancountries are ethnically as diverse as Myanmar. The approximately57 million inhabitants belong to eight national ethnicities,which comprise 135 different ethnic groups. 7 The ethnicgroup of Bamar (or Burman) makes up about two-thirds of thepopulation. Other ethnic groups are relatively small, amongst1According to internal documents,the spelling would be “MyanmaRadio and Television”. Nevertheless,Myanmar Radio and Televisionis consistently usedthroughout this article as it is themost widespread spelling inarticles, documents etc.2The official name of the country“Burma” was changed into“Myanmar” by the militarygovernment in 1989. “Myanmar”is used by the United Nations,therefore it will be used throughoutthis article. This is not meantas a political statement.3Effner 2013, 2.4The UNDP’s Human DevelopmentIndex ranks Myanmar149th out of 187 nations.See UNDP 2013, 143.5UNCT in Myanmar 2011, 13.6Effner 2013, 4.7Estimations of Myanmar’spopulation rank between47-60 million people. The lastofficial census was conductedin 1983. For details see CrisisGroup 2014.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 141

them Shan, Kayin, Rakhine, Mon, Chin, Kachin, Kayah, and afew other small indigenous and foreign ethnic groups, eachwith distinct cultures and languages. 8 Over 100 living languagesare listed in Myanmar. 9The Bamar dominance has been one major source of substantialethnic tensions. Ethnicities have repeatedly foughtfor greater equality as well as political influence and culturalautonomy. Even though the authorities have signed ceasefireagreements with the majority of the armed ethnic groupsthe longstanding history of ethnic conflicts has not yet beenovercome. 10 The picture is complicated by the fact that ethnicidentities are tightly bound to religious beliefs: over 80 percentof Myanmar’s populations, particularly Bamar citizens,are Buddhists. The other 20 percent are Muslim, Christian,Hindu or Animist. 11 It would be an oversimplification to defineMyanmar’s conflicts as religious per se, but they increasinglydo follow religious lines as ethnicity and religion are oftenclosely intertwined.One severe inter-communal conflict between BurmeseBuddhists and the Rohingya population, which are largelyMuslims, erupted mainly in the Rakhine State in 2012. Thepublication of a picture of a Buddhist woman, who had beenallegedly raped and murdered by Muslims, provoked violentriots in the Rakhine State as well as religious and ethnic violencein other areas – Miektila, Lashio and Sagaing Region.Such a publication was unheard of in the country. Beforethe transformation process, mainly state media reported oncommunal violence, “which did not allow the same scope andspread of information as the current online and legacy mediaspace.” 12 The Rohingya conflict is long-standing but variousinternational experts raise awareness about the opening ofthe information space and the lack of capacity to deal withthis newly won freedom. 13Against this backdrop, it is crucially important that Myanmardevelops a pluralistic, tolerant and well-informed society.Media play a key role as the availability and accessibility ofinformation is central in this process. The process, however, isby no means a linear one.Media LandscapeFor over fifty years, Myanmar’s media landscape had beensuppressed by an omnipresent censorship system. Media lawsprevented journalists and media organizations from publishingfreely. It was only in late 2012 that the announcement ofa series of upcoming media regulation and licensing reformsled to an ease of governmental control that gave independentmedia organizations the opportunity to become part of Myanmar’srapidly developing media landscape. Undoubtedly, theworld is witnessing a radical change in the entire media sector,which has affected private as well as state-owned media.The print sector is best characterized by its diversity andits fast pace of development. A growing number of weeklynewspapers 14 and magazines are available. According to of-ficial government reports, 385 journals and 260 magazineswere offered in July 2013, with about 90 percent operating inYangon. 15 For the first time in fifty years, private daily newspaperswere allowed to publish as of 1st April 2013. For Myanmara revolutionary development, as this used to be an exclusivedomain for state media. There are some ten private 16 andsix state-owned newspapers published on a daily basis. 17 Thethree daily nationwide newspapers – New Light of Myanmar(English Edition), Myanmar Alin, Kyehmon (The Mirror) – areoperated and run by the Ministry of Information (MoI) andshall be transformed into public service media. 18 Despite thelasting absence of private daily newspapers, the print sectoris considered to be the opinion leader of the ongoing mediareform process, discussing, analyzing, and criticizing politicalactions. 19 The end of the prepublication censorship in 2012 andthe lifting of the prohibition of certain topics further strengthenedthe print media in their new role. Nevertheless, notablyself-censorship is a common practice amongst journalists, especiallywhen it comes to sensitive topics such as ethnic conflicts,land-grabbing, the military or corruption. 20Yet, due to high levels of poverty and illiteracy, as well aspoor infrastructure and distribution networks, the reach of theprint sector is particularly limited to the cities, especially Yangonand Mandalay and local-language print media are scant asthe ban to publish in ethnic languages was only lifted in late2012. 21 Therefore, broadcast media, especially radio (62%), remainsthe primary source of information and news, followedby TV (45%) and print (15%) (as of 2011/2012). 22 It should benoted, however, that there are striking differences in mediausage between people living in cities and those living in ruralareas where two-thirds of the population lives. To give just oneexample, while 67 percent of the urban population uses TV tolisten to news at least once a week, this number stands at 35percent in small towns and rural areas. 23While print media are experiencing a new dimension offreedom, the situation in the broadcasting sector is quite differentas it is still primarily controlled by the state and far lessfreedom has been granted to it. 24 “I think the government stilllikes to control the broadcast media because they understandwell the impact of broadcast media,” 25 said the director of anonline broadcaster in an interview conducted by BBC MediaAction. Currently, it comprises the state-run Myanmar Radioand Television (MRTV), the army-run Myawaddy and a handfulof TV broadcasters, which are predominantly joint venturesbetween the state and private sector. 26 In addition to the threeexisting nationwide AM radio programs, run by the government,few FM licenses to private companies to cover one ormore of Myanmar’s eight regions had been granted at the endof the last decade. 27 But similar to the print market, radio coverageis concentrated on and produced in central areas. Againstthis backdrop, community based broadcasters producing anddisseminating local news and information in ethnic languagesseems particularly important. Currently there appears to be nolegal community broadcaster in Myanmar due to the absence142

Part II Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and Televisionof an official regulation, explicitly the Broadcasting Law. 28 Interms of access to information, particularly in the rural areasof Myanmar, state-owned broadcasting is and most likely willremain the largest provider of nationwide coverage.This stands in contrast to the fact that the broadcastingsector is mainly focused on entertainment, infotainment andedutainment. Producing their own news instead of rebroadcastingstate media-produced news, is so far not on top ofthe agenda of most private broadcasting organizations. 29 Butsome changes are being reported, e.g., Mandalay FM increased“their civil society programming” allowing the youth to addressissues that concern them, notes BBC Media Action. 30In complete contrast is the performance of several formerlyexile media organizations, which have been among thefew sources of reliable and critical information for a long time.Organizations such as Democratic Voice of Burma, MizzimaMedia or Irrawaddy have recently returned to Myanmar, producingin-depth background news coverage for their radio andTV as well as for their print and online programs.Even though internet and mobile penetration are still intheir infancy, social media and in particular Facebook havebecome very popular in Myanmar, especially in urban areas. 31It is estimated that roughly one percent of Myanmar’s populationhas a Facebook account, meaning that almost the entireinternet-using population is on Facebook. 32 Facebook isalso the most popular social network among politicians, usingthe platform to disseminate information, like Y Htut, theDeputy Minister of Information of Myanmar. Freedom House(FH) names Facebook “the sole source of online news.” 33 Takinginto account the fact that even though the accessibilityof governmental information has improved, the informationgiven out by public authorities still seems to be inconsistentand imbalanced, interviewees welcomed Facebook as an additionalinformation platform. 34 Alongside potentials like openlysharing and discussing news and information, there are alsonegative aspects: Facebook and other social networks are alsobeing used as a public relations tool – spreading selective informationinstead of answering journalistic inquiries. Observerspoint out that Facebook is also being used to spread hatespeech among different ethnic groups, particularly betweenBuddhist and Rohingya Muslims. 35To sum up, a space has opened up for people to exercisetheir right to freedom of expression. This relates in particularto the development of a greater press freedom, whichconstitutes one of the cornerstones of a democracy. 36 In 2014,the Press Freedom Index of Reporters without Borders ranksMyanmar 145th out of 180 countries. 37 However, Tomás OjeaQuintana, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of humanrights in Myanmar, highlights, “that there is a long way togo before Myanmar has a free, uncensored and unhinderedpress.” 38 Nonetheless, the world community is observingMyanmar’s transformation with great interest, waiting to seeif the country will become Southeast Asia’s benchmark forfreedom of information.Myanmar Radio and Television (MRTV)To date, Radio Myanmar and Television Myanma (MRTV) arestill entirely governed by the Ministry of Information (MoI).Founded in 1946, the MoI is the regulator for the entire mediaindustry in Myanmar and consists of two departments: MRTVand the Information and Public Relation Department and hasthree further organizations under its supervision: MyanmarMotion Picture Enterprise, Printing and Publishing Enterprise,and News and Periodicals Enterprise. The state-run MyanmarNews Agency (MNA), which was founded in 1963, is under theNews and Periodical Enterprise. It functions as the main sourceof information as it is still the only news agency with accessto government meetings authorized to cover the visits of seniorgovernment officials. The MoI has, however, granted fourinternational news agencies official permission to open newsbureaus in Myanmar, according to media reports. 39MRTV’s television service was first introduced in 1979 andwas formally launched in 1980. Today it operates two nationwidetelevision channels, Myanmar Television (MRTV) and thenewly launched National Races Channel (NRC) (2013). MyanmarTelevision is the main TV channel of MRTV with a limited set ofpredominantly traditional programs in Burmese language. Anexternal program evaluation is currently not available. But accordingto MRTV, the programming is divided into 40 percentof information, which would mean an increase of 20 percent,25 percent education and 35 percent entertainment. The programmodification was scheduled to start in April 2013. 40 Themain news bulletin is at 8 p.m.8CIA 2014.9Lewis, Simons & Fennig (eds.) 2014.10HRW 2014, 4.11CIA 2014.12Dolan & Gray 2013, 12.13Ibid., 11-12.14Weekly newspapers are also commonlycalled journals in Myanmar.15According to data provided bythe Copyright & RegistrationDivision, Ministry of Information.16As of July 2013, authorities approved25 dailies, but only a handfulis available for purchase oneyear later. See: KalansooriyaApril 11, 2014.17IMS 2012, 16.18Lwin, Min, November 9, 2012.19BBC Media Action 2013a, 11.20BBC Media Action 2013a, 12.21Patrick Benning, CountryManager of DW Akademie.22Broadcasting Board ofGovernors & Gallup 2012, 22.23Ibid., 23.24Lwin, Sandar, October 10, 2014.25BBC Media Action 2013a, 10.26Foster 2013, 11-14.27IMS 2012, 17.28Foster 2013, 6.29U Khin Maung Htay, Director andCo-Founder of Forever Group (FG).30BBC Media Action 2013a, 16.31According to the Worldbank,only 1.1 percent of the populationis using the internet, butpeople increasingly access onlineinformation on mobile devices.32Fui, Chen Shaua, Sept. 11, 2013.33Freedom House 2013, 10.34U Khin Maung Htay, Director andCo-Founder of Forever Group (FG).35Freedom House 2013, 11.36Quintana 2014, 6.37Reporters Without Borders 2014.38Quintana 2014, 6.39Horrocks, December 2, 2013.40According to informationprovided by U Tint Swe in 2013.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 143

The newly launched NRC, broadcast from Tatkone, consists ofseveral programs, such as music, dance, news, documentary,and movies, in 11 ethnic languages, running from 6 a.m. to 12noon, before the program repeats itself for the rest of the day.Currently, programs in Kachin, Kayah, Mon, Rahkine, Shan, andWa are 60 minutes long, while the five remaining languagesare 30 minutes each. According to U Myint Aung, Director ofthe National Races Channel, there are 166 people working forNRC, with up to 13 employees for each ethnic program. 41Additionally, MRTV holds shares in MRTV-4 and MyanmarInternational TV and provides the technical platform for MyawaddyTV, produced and controlled by the military and theFarmer Channel, primarily run by the Ministry of Agricultureand Irrigation. The latter was launched in September 2013 onMRTV in order to disseminate agricultural knowledge andskills to farmers across the country. MRTV-4 started airing in2004 as a joint venture with the Forever Group and is now a 24-hour free-to-air channel. The channel broadcasts in Burmese,carrying entertainment and infotainment programs, whichare mainly produced by the Forever Group. In cooperationwith Shwe Than Lwin Group, MRTV broadcasts Myanmar InternationalTV, a 24-hour English-language program directedtowards an international audience and the diaspora.Myanmar National Radio Service, formerly known as BurmaBroadcasting Service, went on air in February 1946 andcurrently consists of three channels: the government-ownedMyanmar Radio and two further channels for ethnic minorityprograms. The main radio channel, Radio Myanmar, broadcastsa traditional program schedule. From April 2013 onwards,the number of hours of information programs during primetime has been doubled from 30 to 60 percent. 42 Almost theentire program is pre-recorded, except news. MRTV also producessome 15 ethnic language programs for the minorityprogram channels. Similar to the TV cooperation, MyanmarNational Radio Service has joint ventures with several privateFM stations, but is not contributing to their program. Whilesome observers find that “Myanmar Radio seems to have lostvirtually all its appeal and listeners,” 43 media researchers stillcome to the conclusion that 44 percent of the populationlisten to Myanmar Radio at least once a week, which meansthat it still has the highest rating among the radio channels inMyanmar. 44 However, at this point one should bear in mindthat access and usage of information in rural areas is primarilysubject to availability.In 2012, Myanmar Radio and Television had approximately3,000 staff positions but one third are currently vacant. 45MRTV’s enormous difficulties to recruit and retain staff arepartly linked to the special characteristics and constraints ofthe relocation. In 2007/2008, MRTV moved its headquartersentirely to Tatkone, a remote area of the country outside thecapital Naypyidaw. As will be discussed later in more detail, thelocation may hinder MRTV’s transformation process not onlyin terms of retaining and recruiting personnel but fulfillingpublic service functions as well.Stakeholders in the Transformation ProcessMany countries are responding favorably to the opening up ofMyanmar and the government’s commitment to reform of itsmedia sector. This is attested to by a significant increase in theamount of development assistance. In 2012 and 2013, the EuropeanUnion (EU) spent over 200 million Euros on developmentassistance, and is planning to increase its further assistancesubstantially by up to 90 million Euros per year (2014–2020). 46Along with other countries, Germany has re-established its bilateraldevelopment cooperation with Myanmar in 2012 andcommitted 46.8 million Euros. 47The enhancement of official development assistance is justone indicator out of many that the international interests inMyanmar, including in the media sector, increased significantly.In 2012, a Media Conference was held in Yangon, whichconstituted a forum for government representatives as wellas international and local media organizations and initiativesto exchange and discuss current media developments. 48 Asfor the transformation of MRTV the broadcaster works withinternational media organizations as well as former exile media.The most important ones will be briefly introduced below,starting with former exile media.Democratic Voice of Burma (DVB) and Mizzima MediaSeveral exile media organizations have returned to Myanmar,which can be interpreted as a positive sign for Myanmar’sreporting landscape. For many years, exile media have beencommitted to the task of criticizing and questioning the rulingparty, a function local media from within the system could notfulfill. Nevertheless – or perhaps exactly for that reason – thegovernment requested that the former exile media (DVB andMizzima Media) assist in the training process of MRTV’s personnelearly in the transformation process. The organizationsheld short-term journalistic training sessions focussing onbasic news writing and basic video production. Moving froma critical opponent to a cooperation partner, the engagementwithin MRTV caused some arguments, within the organizationsand the media landscape in general. The cooperationwas phased out within a very short period of time. Intervieweesdid not specify why the cooperation was stopped. 49 Butit may be assumed that the organizations were worried thatthe engagement with the government could have jeopardizedtheir editorial independence.International Media Support (IMS)Still active in this field is International Media Support (IMS),one of the leading media training organizations in Denmark.IMS was amongst the first active international organizationsin Myanmar, starting as early as 2006 with the support of exilemedia. Since 2012, IMS has worked closely with members ofthe government and with civil society groups, private mediaorganizations and institutions and has implemented variousmedia projects in the following areas: “Supporting Peace and144

Part II Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and TelevisionDialogue, Media Laws and Regulations, Expand Media Outreachand Access to Information; Coordination of Media Supportand Partnerships and Building the Skills and Capacity ofMedia.” 50 Within the scope of the transformation process ofMRTV, IMS is active in the field of capacity building and training.In cooperation with ABC Australia, IMS offers radio journalistsa variety of journalistic training events that are focusedon hands-on learning. The training focuses on news productionand presentation, mainly for young journalists, turningthem into professional journalists according to internationalstandards. But it also offers middle-management training thataims to foster the managers' understanding of their employees’journalistic work. 51BBC Media ActionFor almost two years BBC Media Action has been active inMyanmar and recently opened an office in Yangon mainly totrain journalists and offer long-term support to several mediaoutlets, state and privately owned. Since early 2013, BBC MediaAction has engaged on several different levels with MRTV. Onthe one hand the organization is training journalists, introducingthem to the fundamentals of journalism: conductingresearch, interviewing, writing, and editing. Throughout 2013,employees have also been introduced to the fundamental conceptsof journalism ethics and the idea and concept of publicservice media. To date BBC Media Action has trained around250 journalists, mainly in the area of television. On top of thisBBC Media Action focuses on structuring newsroom procedures,establishing efficient recruitment strategies to changethe personnel structure of MRTV and conceptualizing a convergentnewsroom structure. 52Interviewees from IMS as well as BBC Media Action have highlightedthe importance of establishing and fostering a longtermrelationship between international media developmentorganizations and local actors. It was generally agreed amongthe interviewees that flying different consultants in and out isnot a consistent strategy. It takes continuous engagement forsustainable change.DW AkademieWithin the above-mentioned context of international supportthrough several actors DW Akademie focuses on the strategicand organizational development of MRTV into public servicemedia. In 2012, DW Akademie was involved in the organizationof a study tour, introducing and promoting Europe’s publicservice broadcasting landscape to a media delegation fromMyanmar. One year later, a fact-finding mission assessing thepresent situation of MRTV on its path to transformation wasconducted. This was followed by the development of a strategyto accompany the broadcaster through all stages of its transformationprocess: analysis, strategy, and organizational andmanagement development. A new organizational structurethat reflects the reality of a public service broadcaster was developedin cooperation with MRTV and implementation beganfrom late 2013 onwards. As part of this process the position ofa chief editor was created, according to MRTV interviewees. 53From 2014 on, workshops with the middle management areplanned in order to foster a more decentralized work environment– for journalists as well as technical staff. Another majorproject that DW Akademie is aiming for is the development ofan editorial charter that may serve as a basis for several fieldssuch as the corporate vision and mission, working principalsand standards as well as rights and obligations for employees. 54Status of the Media OrganizationLegal Framework 55 , Governance and EthicsAs the Deputy Minister of Information stated in 2013, Myanmaris in the second phase of a profound legal media reformprocess – transforming state-owned media into public servicemedia. 56 The first phase could be characterized by a decreasein press restrictions, particularly by the abolition of the prepublicationcensorship in August 2012. This phase can be consideredas a learning phase for practicing press freedom as wellas for setting up the stage for future media laws. These movesaimed at easing the control over the media are in accordancewith the new constitution of the Republic of the Union ofMyanmar, which was enacted in 2008. Section 354 of the constitutionstates “that freedom of expression and the right topublish one’s beliefs and opinions are guaranteed as long asthey are not contrary to the country’s laws, security, law andorder, and public decency.” 5741U Myint Aung, Director NationalRaces Channel (MRTV).42U Ze Yar, Director of MyanmarRadio (MRTV).43Cheeseman, Skidmore & Wilson2012, 198.44Broadcasting Board ofGovernors & Gallup 2012, 14.45Document provided internally.46European Commission 2014.47Federal Ministry for EconomicCooperation and Development2014.48Conference on Media Developmentin Myanmar: http://myanmarmediadevelopment.org/49Soe Myint, Managing Directorof Mizzima Media.50IMS 2013.51Glen Swanson, Country ProjectCoordinator of InternationalMedia Support (IMS).52BBC Media Action expert.53Patrick Benning, CountryManager of DW Akademie.54DW Akademie 2013.55The statements made in thischapter are mostly based onthe translated draft laws, evaluationsof international NGO andinterview partners. It should benoted that none of the discussedlaws to enshrine media freedomin Myanmar has been enactedyet. Another difficulty is the factthat the laws are under currentrevision and amendments couldhave been made withoutinforming the public.56Tuazon & Manowalailao 2013.57Reporters without Borders 2014, 19.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 145

Even though the constitution can be seen as a great improvement,it has also been harshly criticized, as it does not include“the obligation to respect, protect and fulfill the right to freedomof expression and information, in accordance with internationalstandards.” 58According to media reports, two new media laws were approvedby Myanmar’s parliament early in March 2014: thePrinting and Publishing Law and the Media Law. 59 But the reactionsregarding the enactment are controversial. Experts arequoted that, e.g., the Printing and Publishing Law, drafted bythe MoI, puts too much power in the hands of state authorities,as it requires all media to register with the governmentand bans issues that could insult religion, display nudity orharm ethnic unity. 60 Violations of these regulations are a punishableoffence and may lead to heavy fines or the withdrawalof the license.To this day, the legal broadcasting rights remain exclusivelyin the hands of government authorities. Despite the laws,which continue to prevent private media groups, community,and exile media from officially broadcasting in Myanmar,broadcasting licenses were assigned to private companies. 61 Internationalbroadcaster and NGO representatives disapprovethe lack of transparency in granting broadcasting licenses. Accordingto BBC Media Action analysts, “participants believedthat licenses were only given to government cronies or thosewith close relationship with the government.” 62 Consideringthat television and radio are the most important sourcesof information in Myanmar, particularly in rural areas, it iscrucial that the country establishes independently regulatedbroadcast media. The Broadcasting Law, which was submittedto the parliament in March 2014, 63 is to enable private mediacompanies to broadcast in the country – for the first time inthe history of Myanmar. Even if it is expected that the BroadcastingLaw will relieve decades of rigid state control over thebroadcasting sector, it is still likely that the bill contains severalrestrictions of press freedom, according to media reports. 64Particular concerns have been raised about the two regulatingbodies, the National Broadcasting Development Authority andthe National Broadcasting Council, whose independence hasbeen called into question: “Under the proposed structure anyruling party would effectively control the broadcast media,” 65says Aye Chan Naing, executive director at DVB.The second phase of the media reform process started withthe ongoing initiatives to draft and enact the Public ServiceMedia Bill, 66 which will not only transform MRTV, but also stateprint media such as Myanmar Ahlin New, Light of Myanmar andKyemon (The Mirror) into public service media. The draft wassubmitted to Parliament’s lower house in March 2014. 67 The aimto transform Myanmar Radio and Myanmar Television into avalid public service media outlet is mainly welcome. However,all interviewees raise questions regarding the transformation ofthe state-owned newspapers to public service media. Membersof the Interim Myanmar Press Council pointed out that mainlydue to the proposed financing structure for broadcasting andprint media - 70 percent of the budget would consist of governmentfunding and 30 percent from commercial advertising. Thebill would therefore create unequal conditions that would putprivately owned media at a disadvantage. 68The law would transform state-owned media into publicservice media with an institutional structure, principles, andstandards as well as two governing bodies for the broadcastingsector: Public Service Media Council and Public ServiceBroadcasting Enterprise (PSBE) Governing Board. 69 The prospectivePublic Service Media Council (PSC) will, according tothe planned bill, consist of fifteen members. They are to be appointedand dismissed by politicians, and to oversee the wholePSBE Governing Board. Its top management is to be appointedthrough the PSC, whereby nominations by civil society organizationsare not binding. 70 The Governing Board will overseethe internal policy and function of MRTV and according toChapter 7 (50) “has the responsibility to formulate ethics, workprocedure rules and basic operational regulations for the PublicService Media.” 71Concerns remain among others due to insufficient safeguardsto guarantee the independence of MRTV, especially editorialindependence and the absence of binding obligationsto carry a diverse range of opinions and perspectives. 72 Morespecific information about the Draft Public Service Media Lawwill be given throughout the next chapters. Until late 2013 severalexperts expressed their doubts that the law may not beenacted by the election in 2015. 73Capacity Building and Human ResourcesMedia in Myanmar are facing fundamental changes and soare their journalists. But 50 years of harsh dictatorship haveleft Myanmar with few professional reporters and editors.Even though the level of journalistic standards and ethics variesfrom one media outlet to another, it can be said that thereis a severe need for capacity building for Myanmar’s journalistsand media organizations. 74 Official data on the number ofjournalists are not available, but IMS estimates it to be around1,000 as of 2012. 75 Journalists entering the profession and journalistsworking in the media without formal journalism educationrequire quality training in basic journalism skills, specializedreporting as well as editorial values. 76Since 2007, the Yangon University’s National ManagementCollege has offered the only academic journalism course inMyanmar, with around 50 students enrolling each year. Differentjournalists and media practitioners have criticized it as alow-quality program with a heavy focus on theory. Moreover,it is widely seen that its curriculum has been influenced by theMinistry of Information. As a consequence, many journalistshave preferred to be trained by international organizationslike BBC Media Action, IMS, DW Akademie, Canal France International(CFI), and Fojo Media Institute, as well as privatelyowned local institutions such as the Myanmar Media DevelopmentCenter, Yangon Journalism School and Myanmar Egressor the Interim Press Council.146

Part II Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and TelevisionBeing a state-owned media organization under authoritarianrule for over 50 years, one has to consider that people workingfor MRTV not only lack basic journalistic skills, but alsoindependent thinking and a professional attitude. Characteristicsand attitudes of the old regime are still manifest, especiallywithin MRTV. All interviewees pointed out that beyondinstitutional changes and improvement of journalistic skills,the biggest obstacle to the public service media reform maybe changing the mindset of the employees working for MRTV.They have not yet developed an understanding of the conceptof public service broadcasting and its implications. MRTV’sstaff is more accustomed to a culture of obedience, broadcastinggovernmental press releases without questioning or addingto the information it contains.This situation is complicated by the fact that most peopleworking for MRTV were recruited as civil servants andnot journalists. Until today, they are not considered to bequalified journalists or reporters, but rather fall into the employeegroup of technicians. 77 In this context, one has to takea closer look at the tasks and responsibilities of journalistsworking for MRTV’s news program, which mainly consistsof official announcements provided by MNA. As Bill Hayton,a former consultant at MRTV, puts it: “Newsgathering usedto be a fax in the corner of the office.” 78 Neither sound bitesnor interviews were allowed on the news and newsgatheringon the ground remained infrequent. Proper reporting, professionalinterviewing, and editing were barely needed. Forprogress, however, it is crucial that journalists are not onlywell equipped with reporter skills to produce quality newsbut establish a professional journalistic role perception. Theway journalists perceive their work and its social functionhas a strong influence on journalists’ professional behaviorand how they interact with news sources. Experts from internationalmedia organizations point out that journalistsworking for Myanmar Radio and Myanmar Television have tolearn to put audience interests at the heart of their work andcover stories that matter to the people. Moreover, they aresupposed to learn the rights and responsibilities that comewith the role of a public service broadcaster. 79So far MRTV does not have its own organizational structurefor journalism capacity building. As described above,international and local media organizations like DW Akademie,BBC Media Action, and IMS offer editorial guidance,mainly focusing on news and current affairs output as wellas technical training. To achieve such objectives and bearingin mind that one third of staff positions are vacant, MRTV’smanagement should also make reasonable adjustments inthe current staff recruitment process. Almost the entire managementcircle, explicitly the Board of Directors, was replacedin 2012. 80 But it would be presumptuous to say that the recruitmentwas based on a fair and transparent process witha performance-based assessment. Unfortunately, the sameseems to apply to ongoing recruitment processes for ordinarystaff. The Ministry of Information not only retains thepower to control the contents distributed by the broadcaster,but it also holds the right to appoint and remove staff as well.Financing, Management and Newsroom StructuresSeveral studies have shown that the capabilities to carry outthe mandate and responsibilities of a public service broadcasterlargely depend on a sustainable financing structure.There are many possible funding models for public servicemedia, such as the license-fee model, the government modelor hybrid solutions. Being a state-owned media organization,MRTV’s budget is at this time entirely determined by the Ministryof Information.According to the draft Public Service Media Law, MRTV,respectively the Public Service Broadcasting Enterprise GoverningBoard (PSB), shall directly receive a mix of an annualstate grant, allocated by the Hluttaw, Myanmar’s parliament,as well as advertising revenue and sponsorship. 70 percent ofits funding is to come from the state’s budget in the form ofan annual parliamentary grant or a “precise amount of it fromsome kind of tax income.” 81 Additionally, it shall be allowedto raise funds from sources other than government appropriation.Consequently, 30 percent shall be generated throughadvertising and sponsorship but the proportion of advertisementtime may not exceed 10 percent of daily programmingin TV and radio. 82 The draft bill does not outline, however, ifMRTV is required to raise the revenue through supplementarysources, once the law has been ratified and enacted. Lookingat Myanmar’s economic situation and other transformationprocesses, it seems advisable to increase the percentage of thesupplementary sources progressively up to around 30 percentover a longer period of time.A license fee is not included in the draft. Such a financingsystem could encourage a link between MRTV and the publicit serves and create a sense of public ownership. It could alsoprotect it from political and commercial interference. But takinginto consideration that around one quarter of Myanmar’s58Article 19 2013a.59Radio Free Asia 2014.60Ibd.61Lwin, Sandar, May 5, 2013.62BBC Media Action 2013a, 16.63Lwin, Sandar, May 5, 2013.64Hindstrom, October 11, 2013.65Ibid.66Tuazon & Manowalailao 2013.67Zaw, Htet Naing, March 20, 2014.68Members of the interimMyanmar Press Council (IMPC).69Draft Public ServiceMedia Bill 2013.70Article 19 2013b.71Draft Public ServiceMedia Bill 2013.72Article 19 2013b.73Roughneen, November 23, 2013.74U Khin Maung Htay, Director andCo-Founder of Forever Group (FG).75IMS 2012, 6.76BBC Media Action expert.77Patrick Benning: CountryManager of DW Akademie.78Barrett November 4, 2013.79BBC Media Action expert.80U Ze Yar, Director ofMyanmar Radio (MRTV).81Draft Public ServiceMedia Bill 2013.82Draft Public ServiceMedia Bill 2013.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 147

population is estimated to live below the poverty line, 83 it isquestionable if a license fee could yield a stable stream of revenue.Moreover, as MRTV has been for decades the old regime’smouthpiece, significant public resistance to the implementationof a license fee would be likely. 84In countries where media freedom from political interferenceis particularly threatened, funding from governmentgrants should be questioned critically. MRTV’s budget seemshighly uncertain in terms of independence, adequacy, andstability, especially because MRTV has to negotiate the budgeton an annual basis. 85 A longer-term budgetary cycle, e.g., threeyears, would allow for a greater stability in financial planning.Therefore, it is even more important that a procedure for anindependent budget distribution is put in place. Otherwise,there will be the constant risk that budget allocations are usedto influence decision processes within MRTV.Another problem with the recently submitted draft PublicService Media Law consists in the fact that it does not containa procedure to reallocate the budget internally. 86 The situationis aggravated by the fact that there is still uncertainty concerningthe amount of the budget. Parliament should provide herefor a stable source of revenue, not only to reflect society’s commitmentto MRTV but also to enable its sustainable developmentand independence. 87 At the same time it is necessary totake the salaries into consideration. The draft PSMB does notoutline adequate salaries for journalists, editors and other staffworking for MRTV, nor does it specify salaries for governorsof the Council. 88 Currently, MRTV’s staff receives fixed wages.Additional bonuses based on the journalistic performance arenot prevalent. 89 Even though there has been an essential increasein the average employment income of journalists, salariesare still comparatively low. Broadly speaking, Myanmar’sjournalists working for private media companies earn about150 Euros a month, depending on the media they are workingfor. 90 Within MRTV, earnings are even lower. The average wageof journalists working for MRTV lies at around 85,000 Kyat(approximately 80 Euros) per month. 91 These rather low wagespaid by MRTV could influence editorial independence, fosterwidespread corruption, lower motivation as well accelerate ahigh level of staff fluctuation. Considering MRTV is not able tofill one third of vacancies, adequate salaries become critical forthe future of the broadcaster. 92Looking closer at the organizational structure of MRTV,it appears to be overly bureaucratic and hierarchical. A cleardistinction between the journalistic core business (e.g., journalisticnews and current affair production) and the supportstructure (e.g., technical support) is currently nonexistent. 93The MRTV management has identified the need to build upand centralize the news production in one department. Currently,MRTV has three newsrooms – for Myanmar Television,MITV and Radio Myanmar. According to Ze Yar, MRTV and BBCMedia Action are conceptualizing a convergent newsroomstructure, but at the time of this research there was no assessableresult available. 94Perception, Participation and Public EngagementMyanmar has recently taken more steps in the direction of democracythan it has done for many decades. A rapid developmentthrough top-down changes by the new government hasoccurred in all sectors. But a study by BBC Media Action identified“a lack of awareness and discussion of this issue amongcitizens, which may prevent them making their voices heardin the reform process.” 95 But how should people participate ina transformation process, if they possess neither the knowledgenor the awareness to do so? As noted, print media can beconsidered the opinion leader in the ongoing media reformprocess. As a result, the discussion focuses primarily on theprint sector.For a new awareness with respect to MRTV, timely and comprehensiveinformation about the reform process are needed.In this the audiences could be encouraged to participate in theongoing process by scrutinizing and commenting on relevantissues regarding the transformation process. But most of theinterviewees from within and those from outside the broadcaster,still consider MRTV as the mouthpiece of the government,an unattractive program filled with state propaganda. 96After decades of top-down control, trust in MRTV’s programsis limited. Gaining the public’s trust is MRTV’s biggest obstacle,notes U Ze Yar, Director of Myanmar Radio (MRTV). 97 Nonetheless,the interviewees acknowledge the efforts to transformMRTV into a public service broadcaster. (As far as state-ownednewspapers are concerned the picture is completely different:here they are mostly against this process). They emphasizedthat the audience is starting to recognize the gradual progressMRTV’s program has already achieved. 98At this point, no reliable long-term audience research dataabout MRTV is available. But it seems that the loss of audiencesfor MRTV is within limits. At least at the present stage,the majority of the population seems to stick to their viewinghabits. This may be due to the fact that so far MRTV is not yetoperating in a highly competitive broadcasting landscape – afterall, the transformation in the past two years has broughtfar less freedom to the broadcasting media than to the printmedia. Nevertheless, influence of private media organizationsis increasing. In this respect, BBC Media Action found out, that“young people in Burma [Myanmar] consumed news and informationand trusted media broadcasters in different waysdepending on their location.” 99 Compared to residents livingin rural areas, the urban youth relies on a wider range of informationplatforms and competition is becoming more profound.The more choices people have the more selective theyget. This means for MRTV’s program that it not only has to informthe citizens in an accurate and independent way. It alsohas to be tailored to their needs and interests to keep a highrange in the future.Not only the current, but also the prospective participationof Myanmar’s civil society within MRTV is questionable.Even though the bill states that MRTV should carry minorityprograms in diverse languages, the NGO Article 19 stresses its148

Part II Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and Televisionfailure “to encourage media pluralism or diverse viewpointsand perspectives” within the program. 100 The extremely centralizedstructure aggravates this situation, as the size and diversityof Myanmar is not reflected appropriately. If one looksat all the aspects discussed here it seems likely that MRTVmight encounter major difficulties in gaining public supportand credibility.Public Service: General FunctionsCreating a Public SphereU Aung Kyi, the incumbent Minister for Information, madethe following statement at a conference on public service in2012: “Public broadcasting performs a crucial role in ensuringthe public’s right to receive a wide diversity of independentand non-partisan information and ideas. It also serves as ameeting place where all citizens are welcomed and consideredequals and where social issues are discussed. It has probablybeen the greatest of the instruments of social democracy to beaccessible to all and meant for all.” 101Encouraging dialogue and interaction between diversecommunities, through a program that represents diverse politicalaffiliations and viewpoints is primarily important in amulti-ethnic state like Myanmar. But to this day, the Ministryof Information governs MRTV. Programs that cover issues ofpublic concern or help citizens to evaluate the performance ofthe government barely exist. Instead of keeping a skeptical eyeon those in power, MRTV is informing the public about governmentpolicies and actions. So it is still acting as a mouthpieceof the government.But some positive changes can already be observed: InMRTV’s current affairs programs not only voices of the establishedruling party are broadcast, but also members of the oppositionparty are present, at least to a limited extent. 102 Furthermore,the government has lifted its ban on the coverage ofcertain topics. So now information on women and youth, thepoor and marginalized groups is issued in the program. This isa major advancement although a diversity of viewpoints is notgiven and background stories or in-depth research stories arenot available in the program. It should be stated, however, thatMRTV is not a public service media organization operating in aclearly distinguished legislative framework yet. So this limitedcontribution to the public sphere comes as little surprise. Thecurrent stage of the transformation process, similar to the legalsituation, should be understood as a learning phase for theefforts to be made in the future.Overall it must be concluded that MRTV is not driven bypublic interest, yet, and the contribution it makes to the publicsphere does not reach its potential by far.Supporting IntegrationProviding quality educational and informational training,serving the needs of minorities and other communities, publicservice media can foster a greater sense of national iden-tity, democratic and social values – these are the ambitionsof Information Minister U Aung Kyi for MRTV. 103 The gap betweenthe desirable and reality is overt at the moment but thedraft Public Service Media Law also gives rise to doubts as towhether MRTV’s program will really be able to support the integrationof society. Although the draft contains the mandateto broadcast in different languages, a specific requirementthat compels MRTV to include specific languages and minoritiesin their programming is missing. 104 The management cantherefore decide which minorities are provided with contentin their own language.Nevertheless, it should be acknowledged that MRTVlaunched the National Races Channel (NRC), a TV channelcommitted exclusively to ethnic minorities, broadcasting ethnicsongs, news, documentary, dances, and movies in elevenlanguages. In that respect it should be stressed that the teamsnot only consist of different ethnicities, but also of local staff. 105As noted, MRTV is located in a relatively remote and desolateregion of the country. Regional offices, which would providefor more pro-active newsgathering and interaction withthe public, are not yet fully established. Therefore, employinglocal journalists appears to be a promising approach to providingalternative information to the public, fostering publicparticipation and uniting multi-ethnic groups. Up to now, theprogram mainly consists of ethnic music and dance, but it is apromising starting point of social integration and could play apart in strengthening the unity and harmony of people fromdifferent ethnical backgrounds. Due to the fact that privatemedia are primarily based in urban areas and mainly concentrateon urban news and barely any community media existto represent the interests of their community, it is even more83UNCT Myanmar 2011, 13.84Soe Myint, Managing Directorof Mizzima Media.85Draft Public ServiceMedia Bill 2013.86Article 19 2013a.87Patrick Benning, CountryManager of DW Akademie.88Article 19 2013a.89U Ze Yar, Director of MyanmarRadio (MRTV).90Khin Maung Win, DeputyExecutive Director at DemocraticVoice of Burma (DvB).91Internal MRTV document.92Patrick Benning, CountryManager of DW Akademie.93Van Leupen & Grolmann 2013, 3.94U Ze Yar, Director of MyanmarRadio (MRTV).95BBC Media Action 2013b.96Zin Lynn, Journalist and vicepresident of the BurmaMedia Association.97U Ze Yar, Director of MyanmarRadio (MRTV).98Cheri Mangrai, Consultantat International Media Support(IMS), seconded from AustralianBroadcasting Cooperation Radio.99BBC Media Action 2012.100Article 19 2013.101New Light of MyanmarSeptember 26, 2012.102U Khin Maung Htay, Directorand Co-Founder of ForeverGroup (FG).103Conference on Media Developmentin Myanmar: http://myanmarmediadevelopment.org/.104Article 19 2013.105U Myint Aung, Director NationalRaces Channel (MRTV).Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 149

important that MRTV is reflecting Myanmar’s diversity. Theindentation to establish and to further build up regional officescould foster the inclusions of a diverse range of regionalissues in the future.Achievements and ChallengesMyanmar’s first elected president after a half-century of militaryrule said in his new year’s message of 2013: “The worldwas amazed at Myanmar’s impressive political progress in2012.” However, while almost every international and nationalmedia organization welcomed the government’s intentionto increase media freedom, concerns about the forthcomingcommitment to a freer journalistic environment are beingraised. After three years of Thein Sein’s government, politicaltransition continues to be top down, with basically the samepolitical elite. This applies to all governmental institutions,including MRTV. It can be concluded that despite official declarationsthe political influence on the strategic direction aswell as on editorial processes of MRTV will likely be presentin the mid-term. It will take time to build and strengthen theindependence of this broadcaster.As the transformation process of MRTV is still in its veryearly stages, it is difficult to identify particular achievementsas milestones but some seeds for the future have been planted.The implementing and drafting of new media laws, mostnotable the Public Service Media Law, is essential for right tofreedom of expression. Even though the draft Public ServiceMedia Law still has significant shortcomings, it would providea legal framework for MRTV, which in itself would be amajor achievement.At the time of writing it is far too early to speak about realimprovements in the quality of broadcasters programming.The lack of basic journalism and technical skills as well as operationalmanagement skills is prevalent. Small improvements,however, can be witnessed. Up till recently, MRTV broadcastedonly mute pictures, interviews and sound bites were not includedin the news. The audiences could only listen to the voicesof the presenters, reading out the script provided by MNA.At least during special events, e.g., the Southeast Asian Gamesin 2013, radio reporters started to conduct interviews and usedsound bites in news. The daily program broadcasting from parliament,featuring sound bites from different political parties,can also be considered a first.There are 135 officially recognized ethnic groups living inMyanmar, which are hard to reach due to language barriersand location. Ongoing ethnic and religious conflicts make thepromotion of ethnical diversity and the support for culturalexpression also of minorities, involving civil society, communityand private media, even more important and should be apriority of the transformation process. This is in line with thefindings of the United States Institute of Peace, which concludedthat broadcast media in Myanmar have a severe influenceon ethnic and conflict-affected areas and “the need to bridgethe divide between Burmese and other ethnic communitiesthrough media.” 106 The establishment of the National RacesChannel can therefore be seen as a promising development.It holds the potential to serve as a platform of information forthe ethnic minorities and it could strengthen MRTV’s programin terms of diversity and inclusion. It is therefore not onlynecessary that MRTV ensures not only broadcasting in diverselanguages but reporting in a balanced and impartial way toease the long-lasting tensions within society.One major challenge in the transformation process ofMRTV is the location of the headquarters in Tatkone. Only acouple of years ago MRTV moved its broadcast center to an isolatedlocation outside the capital Naypyidaw. This is in strongcontrast to MRTV’s future role as a public service broadcaster,serving the diverse needs of audiences. The isolated locationrequires the entire personnel to live on site, excluded fromsocial life and often separated from family and friends. But tobe able to cover socially and politically important issues in atimely and local manner, journalists should not only live withbut be integrated within society, as public service is all aboutserving the public. Inviting interviewees, experts, artists, andother guests to the studio also remains difficult due to the location.Another challenge that comes with the special characteristicsand constraints of the relocation of the broadcasteris MRTV’s problem filling one third of their vacancies and retainingtheir staff. It appears, that especially younger peopledo not want to relocate to such an isolated work place, far awayfrom a vibrant lifestyle. As a consequence, new untrained staffis being recruited from neighboring communities.As media organizations, particularly public service media,can play an essential role for a functioning democracy and ahuman rights culture, they should act as an independent observerof power and as a servant of citizens. To fulfill public servicefunctions, journalists must inform, analyze, investigateand sometimes also advocate for a certain political programor perspective. In this context, MRTV is not only facing a majorchallenge in terms of professional skills, but also in mindsets,including values and attitudes of the personnel. Being understate control, journalists were not capable of developing professionalstandards. They are accustomed to a working culturethat can be characterized by ‘blind’ obedience, one-sidednessand a passive newsgathering approach. They need to be encouragedto think and act independently. At present it seemsthat they are not aware that public service broadcasters arebroadcasters with a specific function and that it comes withcertain responsibilities. 107Transformation ApproachesAt the beginning of 2014, more and more observers have askedif Myanmar’s recently-begun democratization process willbe sustained, questioning the government’s sincerity. Internationaland national experts consider political events likeimplementing the first census after more than 30 years and150

Part II Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and Televisionhosting the Association of Southeast Asian Nations in 2014as important benchmarks on the path to elections in 2015.Undoubtedly these elections will be a critical milestone inthe transition to a more democratic society. 108 And in this, ofcourse, MRTV will have a decisive role to play in enhancing thepeople’s understanding of electoral processes as only educatedcitizens can make informed choices.As other transformation processes demonstrate, it is particularlyimportant that all stakeholders involved cooperateto support MRTV’s transformation process towards genuinepublic service media. Based upon the assessment of the transformationprocess of MRTV as well as upon individual recommendationsby diverse stakeholders interviewed for this chapter,the following possible measures can be assembled here:As the transformation process is only just beginning an alterationon all levels within MRTV as well as in its legal frameworkseems necessary – but it may be acknowledged that the firstpromising steps have been made thanks to the commitmentof the government to transform MRTV into a genuine publicservice media organization.– Creating a legal environment for public service media,which enables MRTV to do their work freely – editoriallyand financially.– Strengthening regional coverage through regionalnews offices, so the whole country and all sectors ofsociety are included – reflecting Myanmar’s ethnic andlinguistic diversity.– Investing in specific training and capacity buildingso that MRTV broadens the range of stories, issues andevents covered and leaves behind the official politicalagenda.– Finding ways to support and safeguard editorial independence,credibility and accountability – in order togain the public’s trust.– Offering management training is of the same importance,as a functioning public service broadcaster needsefficient managers.– Improving salaries for MRTV staff not only to fightcorruption and encourage independence but also tofind and keep suitable employees.– Strengthening a new understanding of the meaningof public service media on all levels of the organization.This should go in line with an enhanced education ofjournalists on their rights and responsibilities as well asregional and communal issues. Reflecting on the inclusionof all groups in society, including the weakest. Understandingthe bigger picture of the society in Myanmarwill be very significant in the forthcoming reformprocess.106Dolan & Gray 2013, 22.107Zin Lynn, Journalist and vicepresident of the Burma MediaAssociation.108Reporters without Borders2012, 13.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 151

Status of Myanmar Radio and Television (MRTV)At the time of writing MRTV can still be considered as stateownedmedia. No more than two years ago, in September 2012,the Information Minister U Aung Kyi announced the government’sintention to transform state-owned media into publicservice media. The following tables can therefore only providean early snapshot of the status of the organization within anew and evolving legal environment.Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsChannels, distributionTV: Operates two nationwide channels: Myanmar Television(Broadcasting mainly traditional programs); National RacesChannel (Carrying mainly music, dances and documentariesin 11 ethnic languages)MRTV holds shares in two 24-hour free-to-air-channels:MRTV-4 (infotainment and entertainment); MITV (Englishlanguageprogram)It also provides the technical platform for Myawaddy TV(military channel) and the Farmers Channel (Ministry ofAgriculture and Irrigation).In September 2013 MRTVlaunched the NationalRaces Channel and startedtransmitting the programof the Farmers Channel.Radio: MRTV operates three radio channels; MyanmarRadio and two channels for minority programs (15 minoritylanguage programs, broadcasting 12 hours on each of thetwo minority channels) and has joint ventures with severalprivate AM stations.In mid-2013 PadaukmayRadio and Myanmar RadioService were merged.Legal frameworkEven today MRTV is part of the Department of the Ministryof Information and is not functioning within a legal framework.MRTV operates under the constitution of the Republicof the Union of Myanmar and other existing laws like theEmergency Provisions Act or the Television and Video Law.The Draft Public ServiceMedia Law is being discussedin parliament at thetime of writing and itis expected to be implementedin late 2015. Additionally,the Media Law andPrinting and PublishingLaw were approved inMarch 2014 and the BroadcastLaw is being drafted.Public service remitMRTV does not have a clearly defined public service remityet. But the drafted Public Service Media Law indicates that itshall “provide services, as a non-profit enterprise” and “workin the public interest.”–Regulatory system/governing bodyAn independent governing body does not yet exist. MRTV isentirely controlled by the Ministry of Information.–Engagement of civil society Civil society is at the moment not represented at MRTV. –152

Part II Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and TelevisionCharacteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsFinancingIn principle, MRTV is funded and handled by the Ministryof Information. Therefore, responsibilities for the financialmanagement are not in the hands of MRTV.–Use of mobile and internetcommunication/modern technology/challenges of digitalizationMRTV has an online presence and is streaming several TVand radio programs via internet, but online and social mediaproducts are still in their early stages.The studios in Tatkone are technically mainly state-of-theart(digitally-equipped studios, virtual reality TV studio,non-linear editing systems). Problem: Newsrooms are notequipped with desktop computers.–Regional structuresand reportingAlmost all employees are based at the headquarters inTatkone, an isolated rural location outside of Naypyidaw,and only few are based at the office in Yangon. Further officesin the region or urban areas do not yet fully exist, but arecurrently under development. Nevertheless, there are notenough reports covering issues that reflect the wholecountry yet.Despite the absence ofwell-equipped regionalnews bureau, MRTV hasstarted to work with somecorrespondents based inthe countryside, mainlyproducing for NRC.Capacity buildingMRTV has over 3,000 staff positions, but one third are vacant.The training need at MRTV is extensive, but only little trainingwas offered over decades. Most staff learned on the job orwere being mentored by more experienced colleagues.Recently, MRTV staff hadseveral training workshops,conducted by internationaland national media organizations.Ethic codices,newsroom guidelinesIndependent newsroom guideline or ethics codices are notimplemented within MRTV. Currently MRTV is officiallyworking with external guidelines such as the Code of Ethicsfrom the MoI and editorial guidelines from the BBC.–Public perceptionand support for themedia organizationMRTV is still perceived as the mouthpiece of the governmentand lacks public trust. Especially young urban people loseinterest in MRTVs program. Nevertheless, official data stillrank Radio National Service as the top source of news,followed by Myanmar Television, which is also due to itsnationwide reach.–Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 153

General Functions I: Political SphereFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Information: comprehensive,balanced, objective –and also regional news.NoMRTV remains the major broadcaster with nationwide reach, but theoffered program remains limited and one-sided. The news agenda isdominated by official announcements, government and protocol news.MRTV has limited reports covering regional or urban news from theground. It therefore lacks credibility and comprehensiveness andpeople do not feel that they are represented within the program.All political parties havethe opportunity to speakin the program and arepresent in interviews,sound-bites, etc.NoEven though some members of opposition parties are present or representedat MRTV to a limited extent, MRTV is clearly broadcasting infavor of the government. A wide range of views and opinions is notpresented.Criticism of politicalactors (government,administration, otherpolitical actors)NoAs MRTV still receives their news mainly from the state-run MyanmarNews Agency (MNS) and does not have the right to edit scripts, apartfrom shortening them, criticism of political actors, except the opposition,is not heard.Societal criticism(social actors, individuals,problems in society)NoDespite the increasing number of social problems that exist in Myanmar,issues like land-grabbing, poverty and health problems are, if at all, beingcovered in a narrow and superficial way. Whereas several print media andexile media are valued for their reliable news coverage on social issues.Moderation of debate/democratic facilitationNoAt the time of this writing MRTV lacks current affairs programs. A platformfor debates and analysis is not integrated within the program.Social/politicalorientationNoMRTV’s program is still characterized by a limited range of traditionalprograms that clearly miss the opportunity to inform Myanmar’s citizensabout the ongoing transformation that affects all parts of society.Agenda setting/investigative journalismNoMRTV is not setting the agenda, but following the government’sagenda. Consequently, not only investigative journalism but independentnewsgathering and solid reporting on the ground remain highlyunderdeveloped.154

Part II Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and TelevisionGeneral Functions II: IntegrationFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Participation, voice,empowermentNo to PartiallyMRTV is carrying programs in 15 local languages as well as Englishlanguageprograms. But almost all programs are produced in Tatkoneand a limited number in Yangon, concentrating on urban issues. Localnews and real participation, except some recorded call-ins or lettersfrom readers, are too limited.Cultural expression,strengthening of identity,values and culturalcohesionNo to PartiallyBoth, radio and TV, offer a limited range of mainly traditional programming,including documentaries about traditions and cultural values.But whether the program strengthens cultural stereotypes or contributesto a better appreciation of the unique cultures and values of the differentethnic groups requires further research.Entertainment No to Partially Broadcasting media in Myanmar are known for their entertainmentand infotainment focus, and so is MRTV. Myanmar Radio and MyanmarTelevision are broadcasting entertainment programs to a large extent.However, audiences as well as analysts criticize the quality of the programming.Education No to Partially MRTV provides several educational programs. Their quality and perspective,however, are often questioned.Innovation No to Partially. In 2008, as MRTV moved to Tatkone, the technical equipment is mainlystate-of-the-art of that time. And even though MRTV has an online andsocial web presence and, e.g., the news presentation style was adjusted,the program may still be characterized as traditional.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 155

Part II Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and TelevisionAppendixLiteratureArticle 19 (2013a), Myanmar: Recommendations for constitutionalreform, retrieved from: http://www.article19.org/resources.php/resource/37456/en/myanmar:-recommendationsfor-constitutional-reformArticle 19 (2013b), Myanmar: Public service media needed butproposed bill inadequate, retrieved from: http://www.article19.org/resources.php/resource/37123/en/myanmar:-public-servicemedia-needed-but-proposed-bill-inadequate#sthash.Z5EufH8E.dpufBarrett, Claire (November 4, 2013), Bill brings bit of BBC toBurma. IN: Ariel, retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ariel/24726936BBC Media Action (2012), Research Summary Exploring theBurmese media: Understanding media training and audienceneeds. Unpublished document provided by BBC Media Action.BBC Media Action (2013a), “It’s just the beginning of the show”Practitioner Perspectives on Media in Burma. Research andLearning.BBC Media Action (2013b), Citizen awareness and voice inBurma’s reform process, retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/where_we_work/asia/burma/burma_overview.html.Broadcasting Board of Governors & Gallup (2012), Media Usein Burma. Findings from the 2012 International AudienceResearch Project.Cheeseman, Nick/ Skidmore, Monique & Wilson, Trevor (2012),Myanmar’s Transition: Openings, Obstacles and Opportunities.ISEAS Publishing. Singapore.CIA – Central Intelligence Agency (2014), The World Factbook:Burma, retrieved from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.htmlCrisis Group (2014), Counting the Costs: Myanmar’s ProblematicCensus. Update Briefing. Asia Briefing N°144.Dolan, Theo & Gray, Stephen (2013): Media and Conflict inMyanmar. Opportunities for media to advance peace. UnitedStates Institute of Peace. Draft Public Service Media Bill (2013),Translation – Article 19, retrieved from: http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs15/2013-Public-service-media-bill-en.pdf.DW Akademie (2013), Support to transforming Myanma Radioand Television (MRTV), into a Public Service Broadcaster. Unpublisheddocument provided by DW Akademie.Effner, Henning (2013), Myanmars Reformprozess. Eine Bestandsaufnahme.Perspektive| FES Myanmar, Friedrich EbertStiftung.European Commission (2014), Development and Cooperation –EUROPEAID, retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/where/asia/country-cooperation/myanmar/myanmar_en.htmFederal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development(2014), Countries – Myanmar, retrieved from: http://www.bmz.de/en/what_we_do/countries_regions/asien/myanmar/profil.htmlFoster, Michelle (2013), The Business of Media in Myanmar,2013. Internews.Freedom House (2013), Burma Freedom on the Net 2013,retrieved from: http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedomnet/2013/burma#.U1qwOfnbpTk.Fui, Chen Shaua (September 11, 2013), The New Internet WaveSweeping Burma. In: The Irrawaddy, retrieved from: http://www.irrawaddy.org/media/the-new-internet-wave-sweepingburma.htmlGrigo, Andreas (2013), Analyse: Medien- & Akteurslandschaftin Myanmars Provinzen. Unpublished document provided byDW Akademie.Hindstrom, Hanna (October 11, 20132013), Burma’s draftbroadcasting law fuels censorship concerns. In: DemocraticVoice of Burma.no, retrieved from: https://www.dvb.no/news/burmas-draft-broadcasting-law-fuels-censorship-concernsmyanmar/33385Horrocks, Peter (December 2, 2013), A BBC bureau for Burma.In: BBC News Editors, retrieved from: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-the-editors-25186835HRW – Human Rights Watch (2014), Country Summary Burma,retrieved from: https://www.hrw.org/burmaIMS – International Media Support (2012), Change is in the Air.An assessment of media development challenges and opportunitiesin Myanmar.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 157

IMS – International Media Support (2013). What we do inMyanmar, retrieved from: http://www.i-m-s.dk/areas/asia/myanmar/Kalansooriya, Ranga (April 11, 2014), Myanmar’s private dailiesfight to stay alive, retrieved from: http://www.i-m-s.dk/privatedailies-in-myanmar-fight-fierce-battle-to-survive/Lewis, M. Paul, Simons, Gary F. & Fennig, Charles D. (eds.).(2014), Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition.Dallas, Texas: SIL International, retrieved from: http://www.ethnologue.com/country/MMNew Light of Myanmar (September 26, 2012), Public servicebroadcasting expected to emerge soon, retrieved from: http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs14/NLM2012-09-26.pdfQuintana, Tomás Ojea (2014), Report of the Special Rapporteuron the situation of human rights in Myanmar. United NationsHuman Rights Council.Radio Free Asia (March 5, 2014), Myanmar ParliamentPasses First Legislation Granting Media Freedom, retrievedfrom: http://www.rfa.org/english/news/myanmar/media-03052014163116.htmlTuazon, Ramon R. & Manowalailao, Rojana (2013), Myanmarpursuing the next phase of media reform, retrieved from:http://www.unescobkk.org/news/article/myanmar-pursuingthe-next-phase-of-media-reform/UNCT – United Nations Country Team in Myanmar (2011),Achieving the Millennium Development Goals in Myanmar.Thematic Analysis 2011.U Tint Swe (2013), Presentation: From MRTV to Myanmar PSB.Document provided internally.Van Leupen, Lem & Grolmann, Florian (2013), Report fact-findingmission MRTV, Tatkone. Unpublished document providedby DW Akademie.Zaw, Htet Naing (March 20, 2014), Burma Govt Says ‘PublicService,’ Journalists See Propaganda. In: The Irrawaddy.org,retrieved from: http://www.irrawaddy.org/burma/burma-govtsays-public-service-journalists-see-propaganda.htmlReporters without Borders (2012), Burmas Media Spring, retrievedfrom: http://en.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/rsf_rapport_birmaniegb-bd_2_.pdfReporters without Borders (2014), World Press Freedom Index2014, retrieved from: http://rsf.org/index2014/data/index2014_en.pdfRoughneen, Simon (November 23, 2013), Public Service MediaUnlikely Before 2015 Elections: Minister. In: The Irrawaddy.org, retrieved from: http://www.irrawaddy.org/media/publicservice-media-unlikely-2015-elections-minister.htmlLwin, Min (November 9, 2012), Gov’t to transform mouthpiecesinto public service media outlets. In: Democratic Voice of Burma,retrieved from: http://www.dvb.no/news/gov%E2%80%99tto-transform-mouthpieces-into-public-service-media-outlets/24687Lwin, Sandar (October 10, 2013), Broadcasting law bound forthe hluttaw, In: Myanmar Times, retrieved from: http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/national-news/8425-broadcastinglaw-bound-for-the-hluttaw.htmlLwin, Sandar (May 5, 2014), Government keeps muzzle onbroadcasters. In: Myanmar Times, retrieved from: http://www.mmtimes.com/index.php/in-depth/10260-government-keepsmuzzle-on-broadcasters.html158

Part II Myanmar: New Media Freedom, New Transformation Challenges Radio and TelevisionList of InterviewsBBC Media Action expert, interview conducted in Yangon onJanuary 22, 2014.Benning, Patrick; Country Manager of DW Akademie, interviewconducted in Bonn on September 16, 2013.Mangrai, Cheri; Consultant at International Media Support(IMS), seconded from Australian Broadcasting CooperationRadio, interview conducted in Yangon, on January 23, 2014.Khin Maung Win, Deputy Executive Director at DemocraticVoice of Burma (DvB), interview conducted in Yangon onJanuary 21, 2014.Members of the interim Myanmar Press Council (IMPC);interview conducted in Yangon on January 21, 2014.U Khin Maung Htay, Director and Co-Founder of ForeverGroup (FG), interview conducted in Yangon on January 23,2014.U Myint Aung, Director National Races Channel (MRTV),interview conducted in Tatkone on January 24, 2014.U Ze Yar, Director of Myanmar Radio (MRTV), interview conductedin Tatkone on January 24, 2014.Soe Myint, Managing Director of Mizzima Media, interviewconducted in Yangon on January 21, 2014.Sucker, Eberthard; Country Manager of DW Akadmie, interviewconducted in Bonn on August 19, 2013.Swanson, Glen; Country Project Coordinator of InternationalMedia Support (IMS), interview conducted in Yangon on January23, 2014.Zin Lynn, Journalist and vice president of the Burma MediaAssociation, interview conducted in Yangon on January 21,2014.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 159

Part III: Alternatives to State Broadcaster Transformation09Serbia: B92 and RTS, Two Very DifferentModels of Successful Public Service MediaLaura Schneider160

Part III Serbia: Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service MediaSerbia: B92 and RTS, Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service MediaThe case of Serbia shows that despite their contrasting preconditions, both privately-owned B92 and the public broadcaster RadioTelevision of Serbia (RTS) managed to serve as public service broadcasters in their respective time and context. In the 1990s,B92 was among the very few media outlets that were accountable to the Serbian population by covering all topics relevant to thedifferent parts of society, including sexual and national minorities. However, the financial crisis of 2007/2008 severely affectedB92, and forced it to sell the majority of shares to a private businessman. Hence, today, B92 has a less analytical approach to journalism;it has become less diverse and is characterized by infotainment.On the other hand, RTS is an example that shows that a successful transformation from a former state broadcaster to a publicservice media organization is possible. Today, RTS fulfills the main public service functions: It offers balanced and objective news,ensures participation, gives Serbian citizens a voice, moderates the public debate and offers social orientation and criticism.Moreover, it does not suffer from strong political pressure anymore. However, agenda setting and serious journalistic researchare rare. And RTS has never been as innovative as B92 at its best. Despite the remaining severe financial problems, the networkgenerally has sufficient professional and physical resources to further advance its transformation process. RTS is an example ofthe very successful transformation of a state media outlet with the help of a committed media development organization: BBCMedia Action supported the former propaganda broadcaster in its development into a public service media outlet that creates apublic sphere and supports integration in Serbia.This chapter aims to introduce two different approaches topublic service broadcasting in Serbia: the two broadcasters B92and RTS (Radio-Televizija Srbije or Radio Television of Serbia).At different times in recent Serbian history both media outletsfulfilled or rather still fulfill important public service functions –in each case under particular circumstances that could not bemore contrary. On the one hand, there is B92, which started asa local youth radio station in 1989 and which developed from abanned, semi-pirate radio station into a nationwide broadcaster,providing crucial public service content during the mostturbulent times of the country’s recent conflict-prone decades.On the other hand, there is the former state broadcaster RTS,which acted as a propaganda tool and even a war instrumentduring the Milošević era in the 1990s. After extensive reconstructionit is Serbia’s official public service broadcaster today,though is still in the process of transformation.B92 and RTS – individually and when compared – are interestingexamples of different public service broadcastingmodels. This chapter introduces both media outlets and examinesto what extent the two broadcasters fulfill the mainfunctions of public service media – both in the past and today.The transformation process of Serbia’s national public servicebroadcaster RTS will be analyzed in detail following the patternof the other country cases included in this study. B92, onthe other hand, is a private media network today that is notundergoing any transformation process. Therefore, the focuswill lie on its role as a public service broadcaster mainly in the1990s and its developments to date.Serbia – A Brief OverviewSerbia became a sovereign republic in 2006, after roughlytwo decades characterized by conflict and war. After WorldWar II, Serbia together with Montenegro, Slovenia, Croatia,Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia became part of the newSocialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia proclaimed in 1945.Under the authoritarian communist leader Josip Broz Tito,who governed the country for 35 years, ethnic tensions wererepressed. 1 The federation fell apart in the 1990s under theSerbian nationalist leader Slobodan Milošević, who becamePresident of Serbia in 1989. Two years later, after the fall ofcommunism in the rest of Eastern Europe and due to economicand political crises, Slovenia, Macedonia, Croatia, andBosnia-Herzegovina broke away from Yugoslavia. As a consequence,the remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegrodeclared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. 2Under Milošević’s leadership, 3 Serbia led various militarycampaigns to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring republics into aso-called ‘Greater Serbia.’ 4 After bloody wars in Croatia and Bosniaand Herzegovina in the first half of the 1990s the situationescalated again in 1998, when an ethnic Albanian insurgency inthe formerly autonomous Serbian province Kosovo provoked abrutal crackdown launched by Serbian forces. This led to NATO’sbombing of Serbia in 1999, 5 – while Serbian forces conductedmassacres and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians – andresulted in Kosovo gaining the status of a UN protectorate. In2000, due to extensive street demonstrations after an attemptto rig lost elections, Milošević stepped down as the President ofSerbia and a democratic government was installed. 6 The hugeimportance of the Milošević era for the development of bothbroadcasters analyzed here will be pointed out later in the text.1BBC News 2014.2The Federal Republic of Yugoslaviaexisted between 1992 and 2003,when the Yugoslav parliamentconsigned Yugoslavia to historyby approving the constitutionalcharter for the new, looser Unionof Serbia and Montenegro(BBC News 2014).3Milošević was not only reelectedas the Serbian President, but alsobecame President of Yugoslaviain 1997.4CIA 2014.5Ibid.6Milošević, for his part, wasarrested and put on trial oncharges of genocide and warcrimes in the subsequent years.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 161

After Serbia and Montenegro had been united in one form oranother for nearly 90 years, the latter voted for independencein a referendum in 2006. Two years later, the UN-administeredKosovo declared itself independent of Serbia – an action Serbiarefuses to recognize, though today there is de-facto recognitionof sovereign territorial integrity of Kosovo. 7Today, Serbia carries the status of candidate member of theEuropean Union; the country’s EU membership talks began inJanuary 2014. The Balkan nation has long been mired in a deepeconomic crisis and faces further painful reforms as a conditionof EU membership. 8 Serbia has a population of around 9.8million people (including the roughly two million people livingin Kosovo), 9 of which 41% live in rural areas. 10 The ethniccomposition of the country’s population is as follows: 82.9%Serbian, 3.9% Hungarian, 1.8% Bosniak, 1.4% Roma, 1.1% Yugoslavian,0.9% Croatian, 0.9% Montenegrin, 0.8% Albanian,0.5% Vlah and 0.3% Bulgarian. 11 The country’s capital is Belgrade;the second largest city, Novi Sad, is the administrativeseat of the northern province of Vojvodina.Media LandscapeThe lack of proper regulation of the Serbian media sector duringthe Milošević era led to a media boom in the 1990s. In almostevery major community, television and radio stationswere founded, though most of them transmitted without avalid license. This was not only true for the private media sector,but also for public media: Suddenly, each town had a TVchannel, which was owned by the state through the local administration/municipalities.12 In the course of his presidency,however, Milošević founded a centralized media collective,RTS (Radio Television of Serbia), which was completely subordinateto the government. In subsequent years, many localchannels were integrated into RTS in order to create a homogeneouspropaganda unit. 13 However, despite the rapid transformationprocess of the Serbian media system right after theoverthrow of Milošević’s regime and its extensive privatizationapproaches, many of the local state broadcasters still existtoday: There are 120 TV and radio stations, 14 which are ownedand funded mainly by local municipalities, i.e., 26% of TV and25% of radio broadcasters are state-owned. 15In all, there are around 1050 media outlets in Serbia, 16 representingthe highest per capita number of media in Europe. 17The most prominent medium in terms of use is television;98.2% of Serbian households possess a TV set, while 44.5%have access to cable TV. 18 98% of the population older thanfour years stated to watch television regularly; 87% listen to radio,though 69% of them consume mostly music programs. 19The Serbian public broadcaster RTS, and especially its flagshipchannel RTS 1, is among a handful of outlets, which dominatethe country’s television market. In addition to RTS, in 2006,the media regulatory agency RRA (Republicka radiodifuznaagencija) also awarded national TV licenses to the private stationsTV B92, TV Pink, Prva, TV Avala and a license share toHappy TV. 20 Further, it granted five private national radio licenses:B92, Radio Index, Radio S, Roadstar, and Radio Focus. 21All other stations were transformed into local channels or disappearedcompletely. In 2013, out of the top five national TVchannels Pink had the biggest audience share with 21.4%, RTS119.9%, Prva 16.2%, B92 7.7% and Happy TV 4.0%. 22 In March2014, however, RTS1 was the most viewed TV channel with 22%,followed by Pink with 20.5%. 23In addition to the national public broadcaster RTS, there isRTV (Radio Television of Vojvodina), which is the public broadcasterof the Serbian province of Vojvodina based in Novi Sad.Until 2006, RTV officially belonged to Radio Television of Serbia,which was then divided into two public broadcasting systems:The national public network RTS and the regional publicnetwork RTV.Since 2006, digitization has significantly impacted therange and consumption of media content in Serbia, i.e., anincreasing number of Serbians go online and most mediaoutlets invest in their online presence. Serbia has a strategyfor switching over from analog to digital broadcasting, preparedwith broad public consultation. 24 In 2012, 47.5% of allSerbian households had an internet connection 25 and almosthalf of the population (48.4%) claimed to have used the internet“within the last three months.” 26 While television isstill, by far, the main source of news and information, 27 theinternet is catching up: 29% of persons between 12 and 29 usethe internet for many of their information needs. However,there is a digital divide: rural areas lag behind cities when itcomes to computer ownership and internet connections. 28 In1999, much of the terrestrial broadcasting equipment was destroyedby NATO bombing. In spring of 2014, some cable networkswere damaged in severe flooding.B92In order to understand how B92 practically served as a quasipublic service broadcaster during the conflict period in the1990s and to what extent it still fulfills public service functionstoday, both the history of the broadcaster and its recent developmentshave to be taken into account.B92: From a Banned, Semi-Pirate Local Radio to a NationalBroadcasterThe beginnings of B92 as a local youth radioB92 was founded in 1989 as a youth radio station in the Serbiancapital. While the B stands for Belgrade, the 92 representsits frequency 92.5 Mhz, and was also the Serbian emergencypolice number at that time. Until then, in former Yugoslaviathere was only one youth radio station in Zagreb. Encouragedby a sense of competition and jealousy, a group of around 30young journalists took the opportunity of the month of May,which was dedicated to youth, to establish the first Serbianyouth radio. 29 After B92’s temporary license expired after sixmonths, the radio continued as a semi-pirate station.162

Part III Serbia: Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service MediaFrom the outset, B92 was completely different from anythingelse the country’s media landscape had ever seen: The stationdid not broadcast folk music, but served the taste of the younggeneration and – most importantly – established the firstregular nightly news show covering independent news. Due toits reputation as something new and different, the station attractedbroad public attention. However, in the early years B92broadcast from a tiny room not larger than 15 square meters,covering the area of downtown Belgrade only. Thus, althoughmany people were talking about the station, only few wereable to actually listen to it. As B92 continued to broadcast, thenumber of curious people wanting to listen to its programs increased– and with it B92’s importance as one of the leadingrepresentatives of independent journalism. 30Under the authoritarian Milošević regime in the 1990s, whichinvariably repressed all independent and critical media, B92quickly became the most important alternative media outlet.The radio station followed the basic approach of the rights prescribedin the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of HumanRights. In contrast to almost all other media outlets in Serbia, itwas dedicated not only to independent news coverage but alsoto the promotion and equal treatment of sexual and ethnicminorities. 31 Despite the increasing tensions in the 1990s andeventually the beginning of conflict due to people’s dissatisfactionwith the government, B92 always continued to criticize thepeople in power. Moreover, the media outlet put taboo topicssuch as violence, intolerance, war crime and other social problemson the agenda. The former youth station quickly becameone of the very few sources for news that was not controlled bythe government during the Serbian conflict period.main target. The government illegally took over the station andappointed new management. As a consequence, from shortlyafter the beginning of the NATO bombing (April 1999) untilthe resignation of Milošević (October 2000) B92 was run for18 months by people loyal to the regime and pro-governmentcontent was broadcast. 33 Since the original B92 journalists refusedto cooperate with this new management, after the bombingsthey started to broadcast again under the name B2-92.In May 2000, B92 (called B2-92 at that time) was banned forthe fourth time, but managed to broadcast its program within24 hours via internet as well as using the BBC satellite. With thedemocratic changes in October of the same year, the station’semployees were able to return to their premises, to their oldfrequency 92.5 MHz, as well as to their old name B92. At thesame time, TV B92 was launched in Belgrade. In 2006, B92 wasgiven its first legal national license, both for radio and for TV.International Support of B92As one of the few critical media outlets in the decade of conflict,B92 constantly received extensive international support,not only financially but also in terms of technical resources. In1996, with the help of a Dutch internet provider, B92 startedbroadcasting its programs over the internet. Further, when theradio was banned in the same year, it sent its signal to foreignnews services such as Voice of America, BBC World, DeutscheWelle or Radio France International, who then rebroadcastB92’s programming. This international support significantlyincreased B92’s popularity, so that the authorities decided thatit would be the lesser evil to bring the station on air again. 34B92’s guerilla struggle with the Milošević regimeUnsurprisingly, B92 paid a high price for its independent reporting.It fought an endless battle with the Milošević regime.From its establishment until the democratic changes in 2000,the outlet had to broadcast under extremely difficult conditions.In the course of this guerilla struggle it was closed downfour times: The first two bans were imposed after the station’sunbiased reporting on mass demonstrations against the governmentin 1991 and 1996. Both bans were lifted within days inresponse to massive pressure from the Serbian public and theinternational community. 32 In addition to its radio programming,B92 was also actively engaged in any form of anti-waractivism, organizing numerous activities on the street.Extensive international support – both financially and withregard to technical resources (see 3.2) – together with increasingdomestic solidarity due to the growing repression, madethe station even stronger and more influential. By 1997, citizensin almost all parts of Serbia could listen to B92 throughlocal stations that unofficially rebroadcast its programs.The only period when despite the constantly difficult conditions,B92 had to stop broadcasting its critical content wasin the context of the third closure in 1999. Before the Kosovowar Milošević increased the pressure and made B92 the state’s7BBC News 2014a.8BBC News 2014.9UNdata 2014.10OSF 2011.11Ibid. information from the StatisticalOffice of the Republicof Serbia.12Milutinović 2011, 135.13Ibid. 115.14Matic 2012, 7.15ANEM 2012.16Ibid. 9.17Ibid. 136.18Statistical Office of the Republicof Serbia 2012.19Milutinović 2011.20BBC News 2012.21Ibid.22Television Audience Measurementby the Nielsen Company, documentprovided by Jobanka Matic.23Document providedby Djordje Vlajic24Ibid. 6.2538% of all households had accessto broadband internet (StatisticalOffice of the Republic of Serbia2013).26Statistical Office of the Republicof Serbia 2013, 345.27Three quarters of the populationstill use TV as their main sourceof information (OSF 2011).28OSF 2011, 7.29Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information.30B92 2014.31Saša Mirković; AssistantMinister for Information.32B92 2014.33Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information.34Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 163

During the decade of conflict, B92 could not have survivedwithout the financial support of international donors. Amongthe organizations that financially supported B92 during theconflict time were the Soros Foundation, USAID, the SwedishHelsinki Committee, NED, and Norwegian People’s Aid. 35 However,the donor support completely stopped a few years afterthe end of the Milošević era.In 2003, 30% of B92’s capital was sold at auction and boughtby the Media Development Loan Fund (MDLF) 36 – a fact thatenabled the broadcaster to be a serious competitor of otherprivate channels for a number of years. 37B92 as a Public Service Broadcaster in the Conflict PeriodThere is general agreement 38 that B92, though privatelyfunded, served as a quasi public service broadcaster fulfillingall major public service functions during the conflict periodin the 1990s and in the first years after the establishment ofdemocracy. From its foundation, the broadcaster was basedon international standards of independent and free media.And from the beginning B92 journalists were driven by a verystrong public service ideology, as will be seen below. Further,as a new, young, and innovative media outlet it also had a specificstyle and taste in its approach and manner of communicationwith its listeners. 39Creating a Public SphereDuring the conflict period in the 1990s, B92 was among thevery few media outlets that provided the Serbian citizens withindependent information. B92 had a strong focus on news,which was comprehensive and generally objective. However,B92 was against the policies of the authoritarian Miloševićgovernment and therefore pro-opposition. Its daily eveningnews program quickly became very popular: The B92 journalistVeran Matic even claims that the radio featured the “best,the most credible and the most objective current affairs andnews program.” 40B92 indeed offered balanced programming, in which allpolitical parties were represented. The overall approach wasa very critical one, meaning that both political and social actorswere regularly criticized. Moreover, B92 was one of thefew media outlets which covered the whole range of relevantissues, putting taboo topics such as discrimination, violence,war crimes and other social problems on the agenda too.B92 had an analytical approach, providing not only factualnews but also background information and debates. Both politicaland social actors and topics were critically reflected andquestioned. Thus, the broadcaster offered social and politicalorientation and moderated the public debate. 41 Further, fromthe beginning B92 attributed great importance to in-depthjournalism, as far as this was possible under such difficult conditionsand with limited resources.Supporting IntegrationB92 was accountable to the Serbian population by coveringall topics relevant for the different parts of society, includingsexual and national minorities. 42 The station ensured participationthrough call-in programs and live debates and furthergave different sections of society a voice by regularly includingvox pops in its programs. 43 Due to the analytical approach,which meant that topics were not only presented but also criticallyreflected and questioned, B92’s programming also hadan educational aspect. Moreover, not only with its programsbut also by supporting protests and other civil activities, thebroadcaster contributed to strengthening the Serbian identityas well as fostering cultural cohesion.B92 commonly had a reputation of being a young andinnovative media outlet. In fact, since it operated under extremelydifficult conditions – including recurring bans andshut downs – the journalists were forced to be innovative sothey could broadcast their program. Consequently, B92 wasamong the first media outlets to provide content via the internet.44 Overall, and particularly in comparison to the traditionaland very formal state media, the station’s characteristicsof broadcasting were and still are perceived as innovative.The interviews conducted for this study show that, for mostpeople, B92 has more rhythm, more dynamics in its programmingand that its news is easier to watch and understand thanthat of today’s official public service broadcaster RTS. 45Despite the fulfillment of general public service functions,it is important to remember, however, that until 2000 B92was only a radio station and did not distribute its content viatelevision. Further, until 1996 it was a local broadcaster witha signal that mainly reached the capital Belgrade. Thus, manyparts of the Serbian population, especially in the rural areas,did not have easy access to B92. The station’s coverage increasedconstantly and eventually reached the national levelwhen, in 2006, B92 got national licenses for both its radio andits TV channels.Yet, in the first years after the democratic changes, B92 – bythen both a radio and television broadcaster – still fulfilled thecrucial public service functions mentioned above. Indeed, asthe Assistant Minister for Information, Saša Mirković, pointedout in the interview, after the end of the Milošević regime theformer youth network offered perfect conditions for becominga formal public service broadcaster: 46 Its staff, whose numberhad grown from around 30 in 1989 to ca. 100 in 2000, wasdriven by a strong public service ideology; its program wasbalanced, critical, of a high journalistic standard and B92 wasvery popular and enjoyed high credibility among the Serbianpopulation. However, according to the interviewees, the newpeople in power did not have sufficient understanding of itsimportance and future potential. Some even worked againstthe critical broadcaster. 47164

Part III Serbia: Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service MediaRecent Developments of B92The financial crisis of 2007/2008 severely affected B92. Thecrisis increased the pressure on advertisers and the moneythat B92 could generate through advertising decreased significantly.On top of this problem the broadcaster had adversariesin the economic sphere due to its critical journalism. Togetherwith the withdrawal of the international donor support thisled to serious financial problems.So despite the strong public service ideology of B92 journalists,the lack of financial resources forced them to act andsell the majority of the broadcaster to a private businessman.As a consequence, in 2010, the majority of B92 shares were soldto the Greek investor Stefanos Papadopoulos. Today, 84.99% ofB92 belongs to his company Astonko d.o.o., 11.35% to the B92Trust and 3.66% to other small shareholders. 48The B92 Trust is a limited liability managing companyowned by ten executives, editors, and founders of B92, whoaim to ensure the continued independence of the station’seditorial policy as well as its viability. 49 However, this changein the ownership structure quickly led to an increasing commercializationand thus lack of program quality, as will be explainedin the following.B92 as a Public Service Broadcaster TodayDespite the fact that Veran Matic, one of B92’s founders, isstill the president of the broadcaster’s board of directors, theeditor-in-chief of its news department and the main owner ofthe B92 Trust, B92 can no longer be understood as an alternative,quasi public service broadcaster. Rather, it is a commercialbroadcaster, which is profit-driven and has a clear market-orientedbusiness model. Since B92 has to compete withother private media outlets on the market, it is controlled bygeneral business values. In order to attract new audiences thenew owners completely changed the programming. 50 As mediaresearcher Jovanka Matic stated in an interview conductedfor this study: “Everything depends on money.” 51 As a result,poor quality entertainment and reality shows such as BigBrother, which attract masses and therefore also advertisers,have become more prominent in B92’s programming. Hence,today B92 has a less analytical approach, is less diverse andcharacterized by infotainment. 52Nevertheless, all interviewees emphasized that B92 is stillnot a typical private broadcaster, i.e., it is believed to be differentfrom – and better than – other private media outlets. 53 Despitethe increasing commercialization B92 still has a certainmission to fulfill public service functions: According to thebroadcaster, “independence, impartiality and objectivity arethe backbone of B92. Our audience is our primary focus in theprovision of high-quality and credible current affairs broadcasts,as well as entertainment and educational programs. Wesupport social responsibility and education. We advocate creativity,universal respect and cultural diversity.” 54Despite the commercialization and general decrease ofprogram quality, B92’s informative section is still character-ized by the station’s history. 55 That means that the editorialline of its news programs is still shaped by its original ideology;the news programs are still good quality and are muchbetter than those of other commercial channels. 56 The newsis balanced and objective, and all political parties are equallyrepresented. Both political and social actors and topics arecriticized and reflected. 57 And B92 has retained a different,younger, fresher and livelier rhetoric, which is directed towardsthe audience and makes its content easier to understand.58 Further, the broadcaster still targets critical topicsand has popular and high-quality debate and interview programs.59 Moreover, B92 is one of the few Serbian media outlets,which provide investigative journalism, with its investigativeprogram called Insider. In addition to its main radioand TV channel it also runs the cable television channel B92Info, which focuses on news and information.Overall, despite the general disappointment caused byB92’s commercialization, all interviewees stressed that comparedto other private media B92 is still the best and most crediblesource of information. Further, although many journalistshave left the station, its staff is still highly professional and welleducated. 60 The fact that the B92 Trust intends to keep the originalideology is important and the reason why the broadcasterproduces better quality than other commercial channels. 6135Ibid.36Today it is called Media DevelopmentInvestment Fund (MDIF).37Saša Mirković; AssistantMinister for Information.38Not only among all peopleinterviewed for this studybut also in studies and amonginternational experts, e.g.Julia Glyn Pickett and SimonDerry from BBC Media Action.39Matic, 2004.40Matic, 2004, p. 160.41Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information.42Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information.43Julia Glyn-Pickett, SeniorProgramme ManagerBBC Media Action.44Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information.45Aleksandra Krstić; PhD Candidateat the University of Belgrade.46Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information.47Ibid.48B92 2014a.49Ibid.50Jovanka Matic; Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences.51Ibid.52Ibid.53All interviewees, see full list at theend of this chapter.54B92, 2014b.55All interviewees.56Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information, in interview;Aleksandra Krstić; PhD Candidateat the University of Belgrade.57Result of the interviews conductedfor this study.58Aleksandra Krstić; PhD Candidateat the University ofBelgrade.59Jovanka Matic; Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences;Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information.60Jovanka Matic; Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences;Aleksandra Krstić; PhD Candidateat the University ofBelgrade.61Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 165

Consequently, although B92 cannot be understood as an alternativepublic service broadcaster anymore, it still featurescertain public service characteristics. Out of all commercialmedia in Serbia B92 comes closest to PSB. 62Radio Television of Serbia (RTS)Under the first law on Public Broadcasting, which was adoptedin 1991, the hitherto independent broadcasters Radio TelevisionBelgrade (RTB), Radio Television Novi Sad and RadioTelevision Pristina were merged and became part of the newcentralized media conglomerate Radio Television of Serbia(RTS) – which from the beginning was completely controlledby the Milošević government. 63 Around 1,000 journalists werefired because they were considered politically problematic bythe regime. 64 The control of the authoritarian government ledto a deterioration of professional standards, which resulted indecreasing credibility and influence of the formerly successfulbroadcaster. RTS quickly became Milošević’s propaganda instrument– and thus its headquarters the main place of assemblyfor the mass protests in the 1990s. During the NATO bombingsin 1999, the broadcaster was even declared a military goalbecause it was seen as the main promoter of the Milošević regime.65 Consequently, transmitter masts, technical equipmentsuch as studios and RTS’s headquarters were destroyed by theNATO; 16 employees died. 66 Although never declared a warcrime, the bombing of RTS was sharply criticized by internationalmedia and human rights organizations. The dissatisfactionand anger of the Serbian population towards RTS becameeven more apparent during the huge protests in 2000, whichfinally resulted in the fall of Milošević: Protesters occupiedboth the parliament and RTS’s headquarters, and even set thelatter on fire. 67Under the Broadcasting Law, RTS was formally transformedinto a public service broadcaster on April 30, 2006. 68 Currently,RTS employs around 3,500 people. 69 As will be seen later, thishuge number of employees is one of the biggest problems RTSis facing.RTS television consists of the following three nationwidechannels: The main channel RTS 1 broadcasts mainly informationand entertainment. RTS 2 focuses on educational andcultural programs as well as sporting events and parliamentarysittings. RTS Digital 70 is available through DVB-T2 and airsclassical music, jazz and ballet performances and broadcastsvarious concerts. Further, RTS SAT is RTS’s satellite service createdto serve the Serbian diaspora across the world, broadcastingthe most popular programs from RTS 1 and RTS 2. The twochannels have the following program structure:RTS 1Genre Percentage (%)Information/news 31,83TV Series 20,82Movies 13,78Documentaries 7,71Entertainment 5,76Live sports 4,90Advertising 4,54Children 2,79Music 1,85Self-promotion 1,65Education/Science 1,49Sports 1,42Culture/Arts 0,76Religion 0,68RTS 2Genre Percentage (%)Live sports 15,23Information/news 13,99Documentaries 13,37Education/Science 12,48Music 10,92Culture/Arts 7,30Children 6,85TV Series 4,34Entertainment 3,68Movies 3,04Advertising 2,83Religion 2,63Sports 2,43Self-promotion 0,92Source: RRA, 2012 (p. 16 & p. 59)166

Part III Serbia: Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service MediaRTS radio consists of four nationwide channels: Radio Belgrade1, which is the main channel – and also the second-mostlistened-to channel in Serbia – broadcasting news, current affairs,educational, cultural and entertainment programs. RadioBelgrade 2 is a cultural station, which broadcasts documentaries,religious discussions, jazz and classical music 14 hours daily(6 a.m. until 8 p.m.). Radio Belgrade 3 shares the same radiowaves as Radio Belgrade 2 and is broadcast from 8 p.m. until 6a.m. focusing on artistic music, philosophy, radio dramas andsocial and political sciences. 71 Further, Radio Belgrade 202 is directedtowards a younger audience, broadcasting short newssegments, rock and pop music, and current cultural, social andpolitical trends. As mentioned above, RTS 1 is Serbia’s televisionchannel with the highest daily reach (market share of 22%, see2.0). Further, its daily news program Dnevnik (the flagship eveningedition) remains Serbia’s most-watched news program. 72Overall it can be said that today, eight years after becominga public service broadcaster, RTS fulfills the basic public servicebroadcasting functions. In the course of around 15 years it hasdeveloped from the propaganda tool of an authoritarian regimeto a respected and professional broadcaster, whose reputationand credibility is constantly improving. 73 However RTS is still inthe middle of a complex transformation process. Its differentaspects and remaining problems as well as the agents involvedin the changes will be discussed in the following.Stakeholders in the Transformation ProcessOverall, the European Union, USAID through the InternationalResearch & Exchanges Board (IREX), the Swedish HelsinkiCommittee for Human Rights, and the OSCE have been themain players in supporting the Serbian media system. 74 However,while especially USAID has focused on private media, theEU in cooperation with BBC Media Action has concentrated onthe public broadcaster RTS.European UnionThe European Union has been a key player in developing independentmedia in Serbia, supporting projects focused on devisinga positive legal and regulatory framework, journalismtraining and improving the economic sustainability of independentmedia. The EU has invested around ten million Eurosin projects for RTS. 75 Between 2003 and 2005 it provided a newnews studio, technical equipment such as an ENG (electronicnews gathering) van for broadcasting from the street as well asextensive journalism training. Further, in 2003 a full audit andscanning of the whole structure of RTS was conducted providingrecommendations for improvement. The results, however,were never taken into account by RTS’s management. 76BBC Media ActionThe major project that RTS has benefitted from since thedemocratic changes was implemented between May 2007 andNovember 2009 by BBC Media Action, with EU funding. Ac-cording to BBC Media Action, the project, called “Technical Assistanceto RTS, Serbia”, had a very positive impact on RTS andis considered one of BBC Media Action’s flagship projects. Theproject’s primary objective was to assist RTS, through training,in its transformation process. The focus was on the improvementof the journalistic output, particularly the quality ofnews and current affairs programs in TV and Radio Belgrade1 and Radio 202. For this purpose, BBC Media Action providedtrainings in three major areas: (1) Journalism skills: Improvementof craft skills at RTS within the TV and radio newsgatheringteams; (2) production skills: Improvement of technicalskills both within the newsgathering teams and at the TV studios;(3) management skills: Improvement of the capacity ofeditorial managers to produce focused, participatory and costeffectiveoutput, which responds to audience needs; as well asenhancing wider managerial know-how and financial systemsat RTS. 77 Prior to the implementation of the in-house trainingprogram the key training needs as well as the key stakeholdersfrom across the organisation were identified.Over the 30-month lifespan of the project, BBC Media Actionmanaged to train more than 100 journalists across TVand radio and more than 100 production and technical staff. 78In addition to the journalism and news editor courses, whichincluded practical exercises, on-the-job mentoring was partof the project. That means that mentors were present in theworkplace, able to give direct feedback and provide continuousconsultation on the whole production process of the programs,including planning, editorial meetings, going out onstories, workflows of newsrooms, managing the process ofnews as well as HR selection of staff. 79 Moreover, through studyvisits the project aimed to raise awareness of best practice atpublic service media across Europe.62Aleksandar Djordjević; Mediaand Information Officer,Delegation of the EuropeanUnion to the Republic of Serbia.63Milutinović, 2011.64Ibid. p. 115.65Ibid.66Ibid.67Milutinović, 2011,. 117.68Ibid., 126. As mentioned already,another regional public servicebroadcaster for the Northernprovince of Vojvodina (RTV)was established as well.69Matic 2012; Saša Mirković;Assistant Minister for Information.70RTS digital started in 2008 as anexperimental channel testingdigital broadcasting.71Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chiefof Radio Belgrade 1, in interview72All interviewees.73Ibid.74European Commission 2009;final report of the major BBCMedia Action project “TechnicalAssistance to RTS, Serbia”implemented with EU funding;document provided byBBC Media Action.75Aleksandar Djordjević; Mediaand Information Officer,Delegation of the EuropeanUnion to the Republic of Serbia.76Ibid.77European Commission 2009.78Ibid., 3.79Simon Derry , Regional Directorat BBC Media Action.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 167

The project’s main objective was met: RTS’s news and currentaffairs output is now more professional (both technical andeditorial), human and more relevant to its audience than priorto BBC Media Action’s intervention. 80 Apart from the improvementof the journalistic content the project brought othersuccesses, such as more effective organisation structures inthe newsrooms, a heightened awareness of the public serviceethos due to management trainings as well as more professionalismand production in RTS’s regional bureaus as a resultof training efforts outside Belgrade. 81 Due to the aforementionedachievements it can be said that the project significantlycontributed to the overall success of RTS’s transformationprocess. Recently, RTS has received support from the EuropeanBroadcasting Union (EBU), which assisted the digitalization ofRTS’s archives and provided training for trainers at the beginningof 2014. 82 These, however, were smaller projects, and currentlythere are no international organizations active in RTS.Status of the Media OrganizationLegal Framework, Governance and EthicsThe most important law with regard to the Serbian mediasystem remains the Broadcasting Law, adopted in 2002. Itwas drafted in cooperation with national media and law expertsas well as international experts and stipulates both theoverall principles of Serbian broadcasting and the regulationof public service and private broadcasting. 83 However, the lawis considered outdated and currently three new laws for theregulation of the Serbian media landscape are being drafted:the Law on Public Information, the Law on Electronic Media,and the Law on Public Service Broadcasting. 84 These laws weredue for ratification by early autumn 2014. They were developedby local as well as EU and OSCE hired experts. 85 So far,it is known that a central element of these new laws will beprovisions to privatize the remaining state media whichare owned and funded mainly by local municipalities. 86 It isconsidered important that the state withdraws from mediaownership in order to ensure independence of media outlets.Further, the new Law on Public Service Broadcasting will containregulations of a new financing model for RTS. 87 These newprovisions are urgently needed, since currently the financingis among the main problems hampering the broadcaster’stransformation process (see 6.3).The most important topics of the present BroadcastingLaw are the guarantee of freedom of expression, the prohibitionof censorship and all forms of interference with the workof public service media, freedom, professionalism, and independenceof public service media as well as objectivity andtransparency with regard to license allocation. 88 Moreover, inaccordance with the law, the Republic Broadcasting Agency(RRA) was established, an independent organ that controls andensures the implementation of the law, monitors all broadcastersand guarantees the protection of minors or copyright,among other things.The RRA is also the regulatory body of RTS; it appoints RTS’sboard of directors. 89 RRA’s most important organ is its council,which consists of nine people nominated both by civil society(universities, church, journalists associations, and localmedia NGOs) and by the state. The candidates need to haveprofessional expertise in relevant areas; among them aremedia experts, legal experts, economists, and engineers. 90The four civil society sectors and the regional parliament ofVojvodina each nominate two candidates. Out of these tensuggestions, the parliament selects five people and appointsthree members itself. These eight members, in a next step, determinethe ninth member – a native of the Kosovo province,considered by Serbia to be its southern province. 91 Generally,the legal provisions with regard to RTS’s regulatory body tryto reduce both the political and the economic influence to aminimum: Article 25 prohibits the nomination of governmentrepresentatives, deputies, party officials and all persons whoprofessionally deal with the production or transmission ofmedia content. Further, family members of these people areexcluded from the nominations. 92However, the interviews conducted for this study revealedthat the RRA council suffers from significant political influence.Moreover, the media researcher Jovanka Matic pointsout that the criteria to ensure that the council members areexperts are not taken seriously. Matic questions the way theRRA monitors RTS’s programming: In its yearly “Report on thefulfillment of legal and programme obligations” 93 the controllingagency has repeatedly stated that everything is fine exceptthe compliance with the 10% quota of independent productions.94 According to the media researcher the problem istwofold: First, the RRA is not critical enough, e.g., regarding thepercentage of cultural and educational programs, and second,the law only stipulates that the PSB’s programming shouldbe diverse but does not clearly determine what the structureshould be like in detail. 95RTS’s governing body, the board of directors, is appointedby the RRA council and consists of nine people, for which similarcriteria as for the RRA council apply, e.g., they have to beexperts and must not be politicians or members of the RRA.However, according to the interviews currently only two membersfulfill the criteria, i.e., are real experts. 96 Moreover, theabove-mentioned political influence within the RRA councilresults in the fact that the members of RTS’s governing boardare not independent either. 97 The main tasks of the governingbody include the implementation of strategic plans, informingthe public, the parliament and the RRA about RTS’s activity,appointing the director general as well as dealing with suggestionsof the programming council. 98RTS does not have an individual ethics code, but ratherworks according to the national code – the Codex of Journalistsof Serbia – adopted by all media. The public broadcasterdoes not have official editorial guidelines either.168

Part III Serbia: Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service MediaCapacity Building and Human ResourcesAll interviewees pointed out that one of the biggest problemsthat RTS is facing is its huge number of staff. Currently, thebroadcaster employs around 3,500 people, 99 of which only 30%work in the content production while 70% are administrativestaff. 100 One obvious problem is the financial burden that thislarge number of employees constitutes. Another problem isthe fact that the excessive number of staff negatively influencesthe internal structure of RTS. There is a lack of coordinationand effectiveness, which leads to the fact that sometimestwo different TV teams of RTS show up at the same event. 101An analysis has shown that 1,000 employees less would stillbe enough for RTS to operate properly. 102 However, the Serbianlaw dictates that the broadcaster would have to pay compensationto each employee it lays off; at a cost of between seven andten million Euros. 103 As RTS simply does not have enough moneyto pay this compensations, it is not able to reduce its employmentstructure – and solve the problems caused by it. 104However, the new laws on labour and pension funds that werepassed by parliament on 18th July 2014 should allow easier andcheaper layoffs while government directives prohibit new employmentsin public companies as of 1st January 2014. 105Overall, RTS’s journalists are decently educated and workprofessionally – the extensive training conducted by BBC MediaAction (see 5.0) still shows effect. Further, RTS used to havea very good own training center of its own (until around tenyears ago), which provided training mostly for technical skillssuch as camera work and editing. However, due to financialrestraints this in-house training unit does not exist anymore.However, some RTS journalists are appointed a kind of mentorwho support young journalists in their work. 106Financing, Management and Newsroom StructuresAll interviewees pointed out that the difficult financial situationof RTS is the main problem that currently hinders thefurther transformation of the public broadcaster. According tothe law, RTS is financed primarily through license fees. Further,it is allowed to generate income by providing services to thirdparties (sale of programs and services such as teletext, organizingconcerts and events 107 ) as well as through advertising.The Broadcasting Law does not stipulate any specific restrictionsregarding advertising. The Law on Advertising (Articles15 and 16), though, determines that RTS is allowed to have tenpercent of advertising in its overall broadcasting time, i.e., sixminutes per hour. In reality, however, RTS violates these limitsand places more advertising in its programs. 108 The amount ofadvertising in RTS’s programming shows that despite the absenceof major violations of the law, not all legal provisions arefully respected and control by the RRA is fragmentary.The license fee amounts to 500 Serbian Dinars (around4.30 Euros) per month and is paid via the electricity bill. 109However, since the economic crisis in 2007/2008 the feeshave been decreasing constantly. Today, only 25% of Serbianhouseholds pay the fee. 110 One reason for that is of course thegenerally difficult financial situation of the country. Anothermain reason, however, is the fact that before the last electionsa political campaign proposed state funding of RTS and toldthe population not to pay fees anymore. 111 As a consequence,the amount of fees further dropped (it was 60% of householdsbefore that) and RTS (and RTV) came close to a financial meltdown,112 which led to the allocation of state budget to the twopublic broadcasters: In 2014, RTS will receive 50 million Euros,and RTV 15 million Euros from the state. 113 The state financingof Serbia’s public service media has been widely criticized andreveals the urgency of a new financing model, which is currentlybeing developed by a working group in the context ofthe new Law on Public Service Broadcasting.80European Commission 2009.81Ibid.82Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chiefof Radio Belgrade 1.83Milutinović 2011, 119. Althoughsince then other laws have beenadopted, such as the Telecommunications Law, the Law onPublic Information, and theAccess to Information Law, theLaw on Broadcasting hasremained the fundamentalcorpus of legislation of theSerbian media landscape.84Aleksandar Djordjević; Mediaand Information Officer,Delegation of the EuropeanUnion to the Republic of Serbia.85Ibid.86Aleksandra Krstić; PhD Candidateat the University ofBelgrade.87Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chiefof Radio Belgrade 1.88Milutinović 2011, 119f.89Ibid.90Ibid., 121.91Ibid.92Ibid.93RRA 2012.94Jovanka Matic, Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences.95Ibid.96Jovanka Matic, Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences.97Jovanka Matic, Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences,in interview; Djordje Vlajic,Editor-in-Chief of Radio Belgrade 1.98Milutinović 2011, 132.99Matic 2012, Saša Mirković;Assistant Minister for Information.100Aleksandra Krstić; PhD Candidateat the University of Belgrade.101Ibid.102Jovanka Matic, Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences.103Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chiefof Radio Belgrade 1.104All interviewees.105Information provided by FilipSlavkovic, Country Manager,DW Akademie.106Vanka Matic, Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences.107Broadcasting Law, Article 80.108Jovanka Matic, Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences.109Saša Mirković, Assistant Ministerfor Information.110Ibid.111Aleksandra Krstić, PhD Candidateat the University of Belgrade, ininterview; Djordje Vlajic, Editorin-Chiefof Radio Belgrade 1.112Birn, 2013.113Saša Mirković; Assistant Ministerfor Information.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 169

In Serbia, the average net salary of journalists is around30,000 Serbian dinars, 114 which equals roughly 260 Euros.The general average salary is around 415 Euros. 115 The averagepayment of RTS staff is approximately 400 Euros. 116 Thatmeans that in comparison with other media RTS employeesare relatively well paid, though their salary still lies under thenational average. While editors with 20 years of experience ormore earn around 450 Euros, 117 younger journalists receive lessmoney. So-called star journalists, e.g., presenters of programs,earn much more – though their salary is kept secret. 118 Due tothe enormous financial problems of the public broadcaster inthe last two years, RTS was not able to pay its staff regularly.Thus, salaries were paid significantly later and RTS employeesremained unpaid for months. 119Currently, RTS television and RTS radio operate in two differentbuildings and have two newsrooms, one for TV and onefor radio. The management plans to merge these newsroomsin the future. However, they already share the same systemand material today and are electronically connected. 120 RTS hasover 30 correspondent offices in all Serbian regions and majorcities. Like the broadcaster in general, its regional officesare also over-staffed. RTS’s office in the city Kragujevac, for instance,– population 150,000 – has 30 employees. 121Perception, Participation and Public EngagementOn the one hand, RTS’s reputation suffered considerably for along time from its past as the propaganda instrument of theMilošević regime. In order to mark a turning point and a rebirthin the broadcaster’s history, after the end of the authoritarianera RTS was officially called “Nova RTS” (New RTS) to symbolizeliberation from political control. Further, in May 2011 RTS officiallyapologized for its role in supporting the regime duringthe 1990s. 122 In the last decade, the broadcaster has been recoveringfrom the Milošević era, though this process will still needtime; people are still critical towards the network. RTS’s struggleto collect enough license fees has also partly to do with itsreputation: The fact that people do not pay the fees shows thatthey do not want to support the public broadcaster. 123On the other hand, the public perception of RTS has beenconstantly improving. It is fair to say that today – 14 years afterthe democratic changes – RTS has a good reputation. Its newsprogram is the most watched of all television news and enjoysa high level of credibility. 124 Further, the broadcaster’s domesticTV series as well as its morning program are hugely popular. 125Overall, today Serbians trust RTS – a fact that reveals the generalsuccess of the broadcaster’s transformation process.Public Service: General FunctionsCreating a Public SphereRTS provides the Serbian public with comprehensive andmostly balanced and objective news; its news program is themost watched of its kind. 126 Further, the broadcaster’s informationprograms enjoy high credibility. Generally, all politi-cal parties are represented in the news and all political playershave the opportunity to speak. However, there is a slightpro-government tendency, i.e., the attention given to partiesin news programs corresponds to their representation in parliament.127 This tendency is also reflected in the criticism ofpolitical actors: Although there are political talk shows withguests from the whole political spectrum, the opposition ismore frequently criticized than the government. 128 However,an analysis of the pre-election coverage of Radio Belgrade 1 revealedthat there was a difference of only 30 seconds in thetime attributed to the different parties during all 45 days of theelection campaign. 129While RTS generally covers all major social problems andalso criticizes the involved actors, the interviewees stressedthat some topics are only addressed when a scandal comes up,but no follow-up or background coverage is provided. Socialissues such as unemployment and child diseases are regularlyaddressed, whereas more controversial social problems suchas extremism, LGBT issues, or war crimes are often only dealtwith superficially. There is a lack of investigative journalism atRTS. One problem certainly is financial constraints. The intervieweesalso pointed out, however, that many journalists donot want to dig deeper or sometimes even exercise self-censorshipin order to avoid problems. 130Supporting IntegrationGenerally, RTS’s programming ensures participation and givesSerbian citizens a voice. There are call-in programs as well asprograms with a live audience. Further, for example, RadioBelgrade 1 has a contact program every first Monday of themonth, whose sole aim is to measure the public’s reaction andopinion. In the one-hour live program listeners can call anddiscuss what they think about the program, criticize and makesuggestions. 131 In addition, both RTS 1 and RTS 2 broadcast programsfor families and children. However, RTS does not offermany programs for national and linguistic minorities. Whilethe regional public broadcaster RTV broadcasts more than 68percent of its own production of television programs in minoritylanguages (in total ten languages), 132 RTS television hasonly one program, Citizen, which addresses national minoritiesand is broadcast in minority languages. Radio Belgrade1, in addition, provides a 40-minute Roma program in Romalanguage every day. 133RTS 2 and Radio Belgrade 2 are the cultural and educationalchannels of the main public television and radio stations.They, as well as to some extent also the main channels RTS 1and Radio Belgrade 1, offer numerous cultural programs thatprovide for cultural expression and give orientation with respectto identity and values. Around 33 percent of RTS 2 andnine percent of RTS 1 are documentaries, educational and culturalprograms. 134 However, the focus of these programs liesmore on historical traditions; they often do not represent theculture and modern society of today. 135 RTS is not known forbeing especially innovative as a media outlet. But it does have170

Part III Serbia: Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service Mediaa website as well as smart phone apps that provide content.Further, the broadcaster has put some effort into digitalizingits technology. For example, the television channel RTS Digitalhas existed since 2008 and the big radio studio was digitalizedat the beginning of 2014. In addition, the radio master(the module where all signals are sent to), has been digitalizedrecently. 136Achievements and ChallengesDespite the remaining problems all interviewees stated thatin the last decade RTS has achieved major improvements andthat overall the transformation process has been successful:Today, RTS fulfills the main public service broadcasting functions;the quality of its programming has constantly been improving.There is agreement that the broadcaster has a generalunderstanding of the public service mission. RTS’s staff notonly understands but mostly also intends to comply with thismandate. Further, it was stressed that the public broadcaster’sprograms, especially the news, which used to be fully controlledby the government, have become more and more balancedand objective. Also, the broadcaster provides politicaltalk shows and debate programs that give the population bothpolitical and social orientation. The programming generally ismore diversified; RTS offers a wide spectrum of genres, includingeducational, cultural and children's programs. Further, thespectrum of voices represented has widened. The fact thatRTS’s news program is the most watched and is considered themost credible news show also reveals an important success ofthe transformation process. With regard to domestic productionsRTS is the forerunner. Especially its domestic TV seriesenjoy high popularity. 137 Moreover, RTS does not suffer fromstrong political pressure anymore; it is much more independentfrom political actors than it used to be and does not favorcommercial interests. The network does not broadcast hiddenadvertising and has internal norms that determine that economicinterests are not promoted. Moreover, RTS’s journalistsmostly have a generally high level of professionalism, which inthe interviews to a large part was attributed to the extensivetraining program implemented by BBC Media Action.Nevertheless, some challenges that currently deceleratethe further transformation process of the broadcaster remain.The two main problems that RTS is facing are its financing andthe fact that it is overstaffed including all problems resultingfrom that, e.g., a lack of effectiveness and an unclear internalstructure. The broadcaster’s current dependence on state financingmakes it more vulnerable to political pressure andthus endangers its independence. Further, due to the fact thatthe RRA council suffers from political influence, the governingboard of RTS is not sufficiently independent and professional.Too often its members do not meet the criteria determinedby the law. Another problem is that despite the numerousregional offices there is a focus on the capital Belgrade andtoo few reports that address the concerns of the rural popu-lation. Moreover, RTS neither has its own training center noran ethics code regarding editorial guidelines, which guide thejournalists’ work. The major problem of the media laws beingoutdated is addressed by the currently ongoing developmentof three new media laws, to be adopted in the course of 2014.Transformation ApproachesThe research conducted for this study reveals the major problemsthat hinder RTS’s further transformation process. Accordingly,the following recommendations can be given:– The new Law on Public Service Broadcasting shouldstipulate a new financing model for RTS, which guaranteesthe broadcaster’s independence, both from politicaland from economic pressures. This model shouldensure sufficient income for RTS mainly through licensefees and advertising. RTS should not be dependenton state funding.114Matic 2012, 9.115Jovanka Matic, Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences.116Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chief ofRadio Belgrade 1.117Jovanka Matic, Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences.118Ibid.119Birn 2013a.120Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chief ofRadio Belgrade 1.121Aleksandar Djordjević, Mediaand Information Officer,Delegation of the EuropeanUnion to the Republic of Serbia.122Freedom House 2013.123Saša Mirković, Assistant Ministerfor Information.124All interviewees.125Aleksandar Djordjević, Mediaand Information Officer,Delegation of the EuropeanUnion to the Republic of Serbia.126RTS 2014.127Jovanka Matic, Media Researcherat the Institute for Social Sciences.128Aleksandar Djordjević, Mediaand Information Officer,Delegation of the EuropeanUnion to the Republic of Serbia;Aleksandra Krstić, PhD Candidateat the University of Belgrade.129Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chief ofRadio Belgrade 1.130Saša Mirković, AssistantMinister for Information, ininterview ; Aleksandar Djordjević;Media and Information Officer,Delegation of the EuropeanUnion to the Republic of Serbia.131Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chief ofRadio Belgrade 1.132Valić-Nedeljković 2013.133Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chief ofRadio Belgrade 1.134RRA 2012.135Aleksandar Djordjević, Media andInformation Officer, Delegationof the European Union to theRepublic of Serbia.136Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chief ofRadio Belgrade 1.137Djordje Vlajic, Editor-in-Chief ofRadio Belgrade 1.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 171

– According to the interviewees, the internal structureof RTS has to be modernized; both people and costsshould be reduced and the effectiveness increased. Currently,RTS has too many employees. A plan is neededfor a systematic reduction of staff.– Independence of the RRA council should be guaranteedand it must be ensured that all members fulfill thedetermined criteria, i.e., are real experts and thus workprofessionally.– The RRA should take its task seriously and rigorouslymonitor and control RTS’s programming. It should bemore critical and make sure that all legal provisions arefulfilled. Further, the RRA council should appoint a governingboard of RTS, which is free of political influenceand consists of high level experts of the field.– RTS should develop and implement an ethical coderegarding editorial guidelines, which are adopted by allemployees.– In order to ensure that its staff is constantly trained,RTS should establish its own systematical journalismtraining program such as an in-house traineeship. Inparticular younger journalists who have not benefittedfrom the training provided by BBC Media Action wouldprofit and be able to better meet international professionalstandards. For continuing education it would befurther advisable to establish the internal training centeragain.– Regarding its programming, RTS should not favorthe political party in power and equally criticize andcover all political and social actors and topics. Further, itshould enlarge its programs that provide follow-up andbackground information and thus offer political andsocial orientation. Investigative journalism should bestrengthened.– RTS should be aware of the communication needs ofSerbia’s national minorities and take them into accountin their programs. The same is true for the regionalpopulation – regional issues should not be constantlyunder-represented.Overall, RTS is one example that shows that a successful transformationfrom a former state broadcaster to a public servicebroadcaster is possible. Despite the remaining problems thenetwork generally has sufficient resources – both physical andprofessional – to further advance its transformation process.Moreover, the potential EU membership of Serbia is likely tohave an additional positive impact on its public service broadcaster,as the country is forced to meet EU standards. The inter-viewees pointed out that further international support suchas topical training workshops (e.g., on EU issues) or supportin the organizational development of the broadcaster in thecontext of the modernization of its internal structure mightbe helpful. However, there was a general consensus that currentlyno major international interventions are necessary – afact that further supports the assumption that generally RTS’stransformation process has been successful. DW Akademiestill supports some initiatives for innovation among PSM inthe Balkans: Currently, a center of excellence is being establishedwhich aims to promote public service media in SouthEast Europe and ensure the participating media a close exchangeabout the individual reform processes. The center willbe located at the Serbian regional public service broadcasterRTV in Novi Sad and supported by national and regional PSMsof Serbia’s neighboring countries (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo,Macedonia, Montenegro) as well as RTS.B92 and RTS: Different Approaches to Public Service BroadcastingB92 and RTS could not be more different: On the one handthere is B92, the commercially-funded formerly public service,ideology-driven, innovative, critical and banned semi-pirateyouth radio, which due to changes in the ownership structurehas become a profit-driven, less public service-oriented commercialnational media network. On the other hand there isRTS, the traditional and well-established former mouthpieceand propaganda tool of the authoritarian Milošević regime,which after a complex transformation process is Serbia’s officialpublic service braodcaster, offering socially responsiblemedia content.This chapter shows that despite their differing preconditions,both B92 and RTS managed to serve as public servicebroadcasters in their respective time and context. While B92from the beginning followed an ideology of social responsibilityand was always led by strong public service principles, themedia outlet had very limited technical and financial resourcesat its disposal. In order to be able to survive and guaranteesustainability, B92 journalists gave their media outlet into thehands of profit-oriented businessmen; a fact that, not surprisingly,led to an increase in commercialization and a decreasein the fulfillment of public service functions. RTS, in contrast,lacked public service principles for a long time, but always hadat its disposal generally secured resources through the statebudget and later license fees. This shows that in one case thelack of resources and in the other case the lack of public serviceideology prevented the media outlets from being realpublic service broadcasters. Consequently, from the examplesof B92 and RTS, the following basic assumption can be derived:In the ideal case public service media should act in an environmentof both strong, deeply-rooted public service principlesand sufficient and secured resources in order to be able to fulfillits public service functions without major obstructions.172

Part III Serbia: Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service MediaIn the 1990s, the two Serbian examples did not reflect the idealcase, but rather the existence of an absolute public serviceideology with strong innovative force but restricted resources(in the case of B92) on the one hand, and no inherent publicservice principles, but adequate resources (in the case of RTS)on the other. Today, due to political developments and thuschanges in the ideology as well as trainings, RTS is characterizedby a public service ideology and generally has sufficientfinancial and technical resources. Therefore, it comes closestto the ideal type of public service media. B92, in contrast, hadto exchange its strong public service ideology for secured resources.Due to its increased commercialization and focus onentertainment it cannot be viewed as a public service broadcasteranymore. However, as was pointed out, some of itsprinciples remain; they are the reason why the commercialbroadcaster still has more public service characteristics thanall other Serbian private media. Since Veran Matic, one of thefounders of B92, is still the editor-in-chief of the broadcaster’snews department, B92’s news and information programs arestill of high quality. Other examples for this are its investigativeprograms as well as its high-quality political talk shows,among others.A comparison of the program structure of RTS and B92 showsthat, in 2008, B92 dedicated more time of its overall broadcastingto informative and news programs (43.3%) than RTS 1(33.8%) or RTS 2 (37.5%). 138 However, with 23.1% it had a significantlystronger focus on entertainment than RTS 1 (13.3%) andRTS 2 (4.7%). In contrast to the official public service broadcaster,B92 did not offer any culture and arts, religious or hobbyprograms. Further, compared to RTS it provided very few educationaland children's programs. 139 This comparison was madein 2008, however, and since then B92’s programming (with thechange of the owners) has been even more commercialized.As this chapter points out, in Serbia it was opted for implementinga public service ideology in a well-established mediaoutlet rather than guaranteeing stable resources for a publicservice ideology-driven young media outlet. This is one possibleoption, as the generally successful transformation processof RTS reveals. However, it can be assumed that introducinga completely new ideology in an institution with more than3,000 employees is more difficult and risky than developinga financing model that secures resources for an institutionwhere the ideology is truly inherent already. After the end ofthe Milošević era in 2000, as revealed earlier, B92 offered idealconditions for that. It would have been highly interesting to seethe results.Program Structure of DifferentChannels in Comparison (in 2008)Genre RTS 1 RTS 2 B92 PINK RTV1 RTV2Informative/news 33,8 37,5 43,3 15,4 27,5 24,1Films and series 24,4 8,6 12,6 34,6 28,3 24,0Entertainment 13,3 4,7 23,1 31,7 8,2 3,1Commercials 9,4 3,6 11,6 16,7 4,6 2,7Total (4 genres) 80,9 54,4 90,6 98,4 68,6 53,9Sports 3,9 17,9 2,2 1,6 1,9Total (5 genres) 84,8 72,3 92,8 98,4 70,2 55,8Educational 2,4 9,8 4,5 9,6 7,8Children 6,2 5,1 2,7 0,4 5,4 3,9Culture and arts 2 6,6 7,0 20,8Hobby 4,6 4,4 1,2 4,8 5,1Religion 1,7 0,7 1,1Youth 0 0,8Other 0,1 2,3 4,7Source: Matic, 2009138 139Matic 2009. Ibid., full table can be consultedin the Appendix.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 173

Status of Radio Television of Serbia (RTS)Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsChannels, distribution TV: Three nationwide channels: main channel RTS 1; RTS 2,focusing on educational and cultural programs, sportingevents and parliamentary sittings; and RTS Digital, whichbroadcasts mainly musical events. Further RTS SAT (satelliteservice) for the Serbian diaspora across the world.Radio: Four nationwide channels: main channel RadioBelgrade 1; cultural channel Radio Belgrade 2; Radio Belgrade3, which broadcasts artistic music, philosophy, social andpolitical sciences; Radio Belgrade 202 focusing on a youngeraudience (news, rock/pop music, social and political trends)Since 2012, RTS Digital isavailable nationwide.Status of the legislativeframeworkThe Broadcasting Law, adopted in 2002, regulates RTS. Thelaw is outdated and does not provide clear provisions for advertisingand the program diversity of the public broadcaster.Currently, a new law on Public Service Broadcasting has beendrafted; it was developed by local groups as well as EU andOSCE hired experts.Three new laws for theregulation of the Serbianmedia landscape are beingdrafted: the Law on PublicInformation, the Law onElectronic Media and theLaw on Public ServiceBroadcasting. It is expectedthat these laws will beadopted by late 2014.Public service remitThe Broadcasting Law stipulates that RTS’s programs shouldbe free from political and economic influences. RTS shouldprovide content for all parts of society, including childrenand minorities. Its programming should strengthen thecultural identity of the population and allocate the sameamount of time for all political parties ahead of elections(Article 78).The new Law on PublicService Broadcasting willalso include provisions fora clear public service remit.Regulatory system/governing bodyThe Republic Broadcasting Agency (RRA), which controlsand ensures the implementation of the law, is the regulatorybody of RTS. It appoints RTS’s board of directors. RTS’sgoverning body is the board of directors, consisting of ninepeople.Problem: Although there are specific criteria for RRA’s counciland RTS’s governing body (e.g., they have to be experts andmust not be politicians), the criteria are often not taken seriously,so that the members are no real experts.According to the researchconducted currently onlytwo members fulfill thecriteria, i.e., are real experts.174

Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsPublic perceptionand support for themedia organizationDespite its past as a propaganda instrument of the authoritarianMilošević regime, RTS has a generally good reputationamong citizens today. Its news program Dnevnik is the newsprogram with the highest ratings and RTS enjoys high credibilitywithin the Serbian population.–176

Part III Serbia: Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service MediaGeneral Functions I: Political SphereFunction B92 RTS Comment/ConclusionInformation: comprehensive,balanced, objective – and alsoregional news.1990s: YesToday: Yes1990s: NoToday: PartiallyB92: Since Veran Matic, one of the foundersof B92, is still the editor-in-chief of thebroadcaster’s news department, its informationprograms are still of high quality andcharacterized by public service principles.However, the general focus of B92 today lieson entertainment and people say that thequality of news programs, though currentlystill high, is decreasing.RTS: The quality of RTS’s news has significantlyimproved; today, the broadcasterprovides generally balanced and objectivenews. However, a slight pro-governmenttendency is sometimes criticized and thecoverage focuses on Belgrade despitenumerous regional offices.All political parties have theopportunity to speak in theprogram and are present ininterviews, sound bites, etc.1990s: YesToday: Yes1990s: NoToday: YesB92: The high quality of B92’s news andinformation programs ensures that allpolitical parties have the opportunity tospeak and are well represented.RTS: In RTS’s news programs as well as forinstance in political talk shows all politicalparties have the opportunity to speak.Criticism of political actors(government, administration,other political actors)1990s: YesToday: Partially1990s: NoToday: PartiallyThe interviewees pointed out that althoughthere is public criticism of political actors,both broadcasters are careful when theycriticize the government.Societal criticism (social actors,individuals, problems in society)1990s: YesToday: Yes1990s: NoToday: YesGenerally, both broadcasters criticize socialactors and cover social problems. However,RTS tends to cover topics mainly when ascandal or crisis exists and lack follow-up andbackground coverage. Some topics suchas extremism, football hooligans, and LGBTare dealt with only cautiously, since criminalor extremist groups have a history ofthreatening or even using violence againstreporting journalists.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 177

Function B92 RTS Comment/ConclusionModeration of debate/democratic facilitation1990s: YesToday: Yes1990s: NoToday: YesBoth broadcasters with their news andinformation programs moderate the publicdebate. For example, their political talkshows, which are of good quality, are givengreat importance.Social/political orientation1990s: YesToday: Yes1990s: NoToday: YesBoth broadcasters offer a range of programsthat help citizens gain an overall understandingof political and social issues.Agenda setting/investigative journalism1990s: YesToday: Yes1990s: NoToday: PartiallyB92: One, if not, the strength of B92 is theimportance the broadcaster attributes to investigativejournalism. Of all Serbian mediait is the forerunner in that field, especially itsinvestigative program Insider.RTS: Since RTS runs the most importantnews program it has the potential to set theagenda of public topics. However, investigativejournalism is under-represented withinRTS.178

Part III Serbia: Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service MediaGeneral Functions II: IntegrationFunction B92 RTS Comment/ConclusionParticipation, voice,empowerment1990s: YesToday: Partially1990s: NoToday: PartiallyB92: From the beginning, B92 has giventhe disadvantaged sectors of society a voice.However, in the context of commercializationthis has decreased. The broadcasterdoes not offer programs in minoritylanguages and has shifted its focustowards entertainment.RTS: RTS offers a few programs for minoritiesin minority languages, e.g., Citizen. Althoughit ensures participation and gives citizensa voice, the general focus lies more on politicaland institutional voices.Cultural expression,strengthening of identity,values and cultural cohesion1990s: YesToday: No1990s: NoToday: YesB92: According to the program schedule,B92 does not offer cultural programs.RTS: Especially RTS 2 and Radio Belgrade 2provide cultural programs that, among otherthings, deal with values and traditions andthus strengthen the national identity.Entertainment1990s: YesToday: Yes1990s: YesToday: YesB92: B92 programming increasingly focuseson entertainment, e.g., Big Brother and otherreality shows.RTS: RTS provides domestic TV series, whichare very popular among the population anddiffer from private channels, which mainlybuy international entertainment programs.Education1990s: YesToday: Partially1990s: PartiallyToday: YesWhile RTS (especially the second channels)provides specific educational programs,B92 educational offers are marginal.Innovation1990s: YesToday: Yes1990s: PartiallyToday: PartiallyB92: Due to its past as a semi-pirate radiostation B92 was always forced to find innovativeways to broadcast. It was among thefirst Serbian media to use the internet inthe 1990s. Today, its style, i.e., rhythm andspeed of its programming is still innovative.RTS: RTS has digitalized various facilitiesand is still in the process of digitalization.Further, it runs a website and smart phoneapps that provide content.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 179

International Media Development PartnersPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/advancements/problemsEU/EuropeanCommission(variousinterventions)The European Union has beena key player in developingindependent media in Serbia,supporting projects focusedon devising a positive legaland regulatory framework,journalism training andimproving the economicsustainability of independentmedia. The EU has investedaround ten million Eurosin projects for RTS, whichconcentrated on technicalsupport and training.Establishment of a new newsstudio; provision of technicalequipment such as an ENG van;full audit and scanning of thewhole structure of RTS; journalistictraining (BBC Media Actionproject)The technical support hasimproved RTS’s broadcastingcapabilities and modernized itsequipment. The recommendationspointed out in the contextof the full audit/scanning of RTS’sstructure were not clearly takeninto account. The training programimplemented by BBC MediaAction has had a major positiveimpact (see below).BBC MediaAction(2007–2009)Assist RTS’s transformationprocess through training. Thefocus was on the improvementof the journalistic output,particularly the quality of newsand current affairs programsin TV and Radio Belgrade 1and 202. Trainings in threemajor areas: Journalism skills(improvement of craft skills atRTS within the TV and radionewsgathering teams); productionskills (improvement oftechnical skills both within thenewsgathering teams and atthe TV studios); managementskills (improvement of thecapacity of editorial managersto produce focussed, participatoryand cost-effective output,which responds to audienceneeds; as well as enhancingwider managerial know-howand financial systems at RTS).Identification of training needsand key stakeholders; launchconsultancy involving membersof the RTS senior managementteam to explain project activities;journalism and news editor trainings(reporting, editing, camera,picture editing, newsroom consultancy,documentary production,talk shows, TV presenting,IT skills, multi skilling, training fortrainers, radio technical skills, understandingaudiences, programdesign, interview techniques,radio trails and promotion, etc.)including practical exercises;training in regional bureaus;on-site consultancy, i.e., mentorswere present in the work place,being able to give direct feedbackand provide continuous consultationon the whole productionprocess of the programs, includingplanning, editorial meetings,going out on stories, workflowsof newsrooms, managing the processof news production (generaland financial management) aswell as human resource selections;study visits.Over the 30-month lifespan of theproject, BBC Media Action managedto train more than 100 journalistsacross TV and radio andmore than 100 production andtechnical staff. The project’s mainobjective was met: Increasedprofessionalism of RTS’s news andcurrent affairs programs (bothtechnical and editorial), outputmore relevant to its audience,more effective organisation structuresin the newsrooms, heightenedawareness of the publicservice ethos due to managementtrainings as well as more professionalismand production in RTS’sregional bureaus as a result oftrainings outside of Belgrade. Theproject significantly contributedto the success of RTS’s transformationprocess.180

UNdata (2014), Country profile Serbia, retrieved from: http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=SerbiaValić-Nedeljković, Dubravka (2013), Flash report 2: Serbia,retrieved from: http://mediaobservatory.net/radar/flashreport-2-serbiaList of InterviewsDerry, Simon; Regional Director at BBC Media Action, interviewconducted in London on March 5, 2014.Djordjević, Aleksandar; Media and Information Officer,Delegation of the European Union to the Republic of Serbia,interview conducted in Belgrade on April 7, 2014Glyn-Pickett, Julia; Senior Programme Manager, Middle Eastand Europe at BBC Media Action, interview conducted inLondon on March 5, 2014.Krstić, Aleksandra; PhD Candidate and Teaching Assistant,University of Belgrade, Faculty of Political Sciences, Departmentfor Journalism and Communication, interview conductedin Belgrade on April 7, 2014Matic, Jovanka; Media Researcher and Research Fellow at theInstitute of Social Sciences, interview conducted in Belgradeon April 8, 2014.Mirković, Saša; Assistant Minister for Information, Ministryof Culture and Information of the Republic of Serbia, interviewconducted in Belgrade on April 8, 2014Vlajic, Djordje; Editor-in-Chief of Radio Belgrade 1, interviewconducted in Belgrade on April 8, 2014.182

Part III Serbia: Two Very Different Models of Successful Public Service MediaEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 183

10Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African PrivatePublic Service RadioJackie Wilson-Bakare184

Part III Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service RadioNigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service RadioFreedom Radio is a privately-owned commercial radio station based in the northern Nigerian city of Kano. It is an example ofhow private media can take over some functions of public service media in an environment in which only state-run and privatemedia exist. It shows some of the features of community radio – involving local audiences, giving a voice to local issues andconcerns – but goes beyond that. Freedom Radio has clear ambitions to fulfill the primary tenets of public service media whileremaining a private enterprise. It strives both to create a public sphere, a forum for the discussion of political and social issues,and to support the education, empowerment, integration, and entertainment of its audiences. The context within which it operates,however, remains a difficult one. The outlet is – by its own admission – strongly reliant on international partners to delivercertain values, including journalism training and sector-specific management training. Another main challenge is the extremelydifficult environment that journalists have to work in. Freedom Radio has gained the loyalty and support of a broad segment ofthe population, a circumstance which allows it to wield an impressive amount of power. So this case shows that privately-ownedpublic service media represent a model with advantages and challenges. The most important reforms that need to be made applyto the media sector itself, so as to generate a climate more supportive of initiatives and outfits, like Freedom Radio, that canmake a valuable contribution to a media landscape in Nigeria that focuses on serving the public.For more than half a century, since some time before independence,broadcasting in Nigeria has been well ensconced instate hands. Not until 1992 was a move made to break the governmentmonopoly in audio-visual media, and since then theprivate sector has grown enormously. State-run media howeverremains largely that – state run; community media are nonexistent,so for a measure of independence in broadcasting,one must look to the private sector. In the following, we take alook at one of the leading private broadcasters in the north ofthe country, Kano-based Freedom Radio, and examine to whatextent it fulfils public service functions.Nigeria – A Brief OverviewSince gaining independence from Britain in 1960, Nigeria –the ‘Giant of Africa’ – has had a checkered history, with militarydictatorships following in rapid succession, interspersedwith attempts to establish civilian rule.The First Republic, established shortly after independencein 1960 and imbued with the sense of huge optimism thatswept the continent at the time as one country after anothergained their independence, only lasted until 1966. The Nigeriangovernment was from the start an uneasy coalition of twoof the three main ethnic groups which formed the larger bodyof Nigerian society: these three groups, the mainly MuslimHausa/Fulani, 1 the Igbo (from eastern Nigeria) and the Yoruba(mainly based in the south west) were divided by marked culturaland political differences. 2In January 1966, the first of several military coups tookplace and in 1967 the Igbo in the eastern region of the country,who had been a prominent target of violence in the mostrecent coup, voted to declare independence as the Republic ofBiafra. A nearly three-year ruinous civil war followed, resultingin the deaths of between one and three million people inthe region.During the oil boom of the early seventies, the countrybegan to profit more from its mineral wealth, although thegeneral standard of living for most people did not improve,nor did the infrastructure. In 1979, the Second Republic wasestablished when then military leader Olusegun Obasanjohanded over power to a civilian government. This brief returnto democracy, however, proved short lived, and theincompetence and corruption of the civilian regime meantthat people viewed the military coup of January 1984 as practicallyunavoidable:“Many Nigerians initially saw the army as the most effectivebody to control the country, but with the understandingthat military rule was an interim measure and that plans mustgo forward for the transition to democratic government.” 3That transition, however, took a further 15 years to effect.There was another failed attempt to elect a civilian presidentin 1993 under General Ibrahim Babangida. The grip of the militarytightened. When finally, in 1999, elections were held andformer military leader Olusegun Obasanjo was elected President,these elections, though deeply flawed, were nonethelessgreeted with relief, both nationally and internationally. It waswidely felt that the military had had their day.Following elections, in 2003 and 2007, were far from satisfactory:“EU observers witnessed many examples of fraud, includingballot box stuffing, multiple voting, intimidation of voters,alteration of official result forms, stealing of sensitive pollingmaterials, vote buying and under-age voting.” 41The Hausa and Fulani aregenerally grouped together asthe Hausa-speaking, largelyMuslim ethnic group predominantin the north of the country.2Altogether there are an estimated250 to 400 ethnic groups inNigeria, depending on sourceand method of definition, andaround 400 different languages.Hausa and Fulani make uparound 29% of the population,Yoruba 21% and Igbo 18%.See IREX 2012.3Mother Earth Travel.4European Union Election ObservationMission to Nigeria 2007, 2.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 185

The next elections, in 2011, were felt to be a marked improvement.5 As the EU Observation Mission stated, these elections“marked an important step towards strengthening democraticelections in Nigeria,” but added that “challenges remain,” 6 notleast the fact that most electoral offenses could be committedwith complete impunity. The results returned President GoodluckJonathan to office.However, despite having committed itself to the democraticprocess, the country’s leadership still has not rid itselfof many dictatorial practices. Long-ingrained habits of corruptionand discontinuity between government and citizenry arefar from being overcome. This is a pluralist society on mostlevels, political, religious, and ethnic, but the divisions rundeep. Inter-communal violence has threatened governmentstability on a local level – over the last 18 months in particular,terrorist attacks by the militant Islamist group known asBoko Haram have torn apart whole communities in parts ofnorthern Nigeria and even rendered the capital Abuja unsafe.Most recently, these attacks have been targeted particularlyat innocent groups of civilians, including schoolchildren. Thecountry’s media have also been targeted. The government’s responsehas been at best insufficient, at worst brutal, and hasdone little to protect ordinary citizens.Corruption in the country is entirely endemic – most ordinaryNigerians refer to the frequent solicitation of bribesfor even the simplest bureaucratic tasks as ‘tax.’ TransparencyInternational ranks Nigeria 144th (out of 177 countries/territories)on its Corruption Perceptions Index 2014 7 – a slight drop(from rank 139) compared to the previous year. The establishmentin 2002 of the Economic and Financial Crimes Commissionhas made little or no difference. Of only 30 arraignmentsof high-ranking office holders for corruption in nearly a decadeof work, a mere four resulted in convictions. 8However, despite its problems on the domestic front, Nigeriais still Africa’s main economic force, the most populousnation on the continent with around 174 million inhabitants, 9and, as of early 2014, the continent’s largest economy with aGDP of $510 billion in 2013, an increase “largely driven by athriving service sector and, increasingly, by manufacturing.” 10This wealth as yet is massively unfairly distributed:“Nigeria has a quarter of Africa’s extreme poor, with 100million of a population of 158 million living on less than £1a day. Every day 136 women die due to complications duringpregnancy. Over 2,300 children under five die every day frommalnutrition or preventable diseases, and 10.5 million childrendo not go to school, the most of any country in the world.” 11With its return to democracy in 1999, the country againbecame a major player on the international stage and hasbeen taking an increasingly active role in international powerpolitics, particularly on its own continent. Nigeria is a memberof the African Union (the AU, successor in 2002 to theOAU), the Commonwealth of Nations, OPEC and the UnitedNations (and could even become the first African representativeon an expanded Security Council). It’s an influentialmember of the Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS) and a major contributor to peacekeeping forces inthe region and beyond.Media LandscapeNigeria’s media sector has been variously described as “vibrant,”12 “combative,” 13 and “outspoken.” 14 Terms such as thisare used most often about the print media, which have a longtradition of challenging the status quo. The first newspaperin Nigeria was established in 1859 by a British missionary; bythe 1930s, some newspapers were agitating for independencefor Nigeria. Most of the print media landscape was and still isprivately-owned and there is still a strong tradition of advocacy15 – often to the detriment of independence. There are morethan 100 newspapers and news magazines in Nigeria, mainlyin private ownership – the most influential titles, The Guardian,Punch, Tribune, Daily Trust, This Day, The Sun, to name afew, are all in private hands. There is a plethora of lifestyle andspecialist publications, which tend to have a wide readership.In 2011, the Nigerian Press Council (NPC) counted 427 presstitles in the country. 16 Only a handful of titles have nationalreach; circulation figures are not made available and readershipfigures are even harder to estimate, since every paper incirculation is likely to be passed from hand to hand. There arean increasing number of indigenous-language newspapers,the most influential of which are Gaskiya (Hausa) and Alaroye(Yoruba). 17The broadcast media sector is far less varied and lively, havingbeen initially entirely in government hands:“...state-run broadcasting organizations in the South are usuallyill-prepared for their public-service role in the new, democraticera. They are often poorly funded, and still bound bythe same ‘rules of the game’ that governed them prior to thedemocratic era.” 18The sector is dominated by the Nigerian Television Authority(NTA) and the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN),both of which are owned and run by the federal government.These two have nationwide coverage. In addition, each statehas its own stations – run by the state government - usuallyone each for radio and television. All of these state broadcastersfrequently operate in competition to one another – a stateof affairs that is entirely at variance with the principles of publicservice broadcasting.For decades, “the industry led a sheltered life shielded fromthe winds of free market forces as successive regimes ensuredthat the sector remained an exclusive monopoly of the Centralgovernment.” 19 The constitution of 1979, adopted with thebeginning of the Second Republic, made provision for the establishmentof a free press and private electronic media. Liberalizationdid not begin, however, until 1992, President IbrahimBabangida established the National Broadcasting Commission(NBC), “charging it to ensure that private radio and televisionlicenses are issued before the end of his administration.” 20186

Part III Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service RadioSince then, the broadcast sector has expanded vigorously:“In April 2011 there were 187 radio, 109 TV, 35 cable and 4 satellitebroadcast stations on air. All of them operate either at Federalor State level. Even though more than a half of the householdshave access to television, radio remains the key mediumin Nigeria.” 21Radio is a key medium particularly in the north, wherepoverty precludes the access of most households to a TV, andilliteracy levels are shockingly high. Since 1993, the NationalBroadcasting Commission (NBC) has issued more than 120 privateradio, television, and cable TV licenses. 22There are numerous constraints on editorial independence,right across the media sector in Nigeria. Financialinstability as well as harassment and intimidation are widespread:journalists on all levels frequently take bribes (knownas ‘brown envelopes’) to either elaborate or ignore a story;or they practice self-censorship in order to avoid being pressured,injured or worse. 23Libel is still both a civil and a criminal offense in Nigeriaand carries heavy penalties, including a tendency to awardsubstantial damages, which has two consequences, both ofthem potentially very costly for any outlet. First of all, if anoutlet finds itself accused of libel and damages are awarded –and the higher the rank of the complainant, the greater thesums likely to be awarded in damages – these sums can be ruinousand can mean the shutdown of the outlet. In April 2012,the courts dismissed a defamation suit for one billion naira(6.4 million US dollars) brought by a former state governoragainst TheNews magazine for reporting his role in an allegedpoultry-farm scam. 24Secondly, individual journalists may find themselves beingcriminalized and shut out from their profession if they arefound guilty of spreading libelous or defamatory material. Theweight of the law rests primarily on the side of officialdom,and there are few competent professional associations to offerjournalists support in such a case. “Some of the professionalassociations are effective and their membership is growing.” 25However, some media outlets ban their staff from joining orforming any such association, and often, when membershippayments prove insufficient to keep the organization going,“the associations solicit and receive sponsorships from governmentsand corporate bodies” 26 – with conceivable consequencesfor their independence.Legal shortcomings also mean that no outlet has verymuch hope of protecting its independence legally, even shouldit wish to. Press freedom and freedom of speech are nominallyguaranteed in the constitution of 1999 (as amended) and aFreedom of Information Act that spent over a decade in limbowas finally enacted in 2011. However, in practice, lack of claritymeans that interpretation and application of the laws is difficultin the extreme. In fact:“The laws establishing government owned media, includingthe Nigerian Television Authority, the Federal Radio Corporationof Nigeria, the Voice of Nigeria, and the News Agencyof Nigeria make it clear that they are to take instructions fromthe responsible minister, which is the minister for information,and that they are obliged to comply with those instructions.” 27In the IREX Media Sustainability Index for 2012, the scorefor Freedom of Speech has “improved significantly from previousyears due to the panelists’ assessment of the availabilityof public information and the existence of a right of access toinformation for media, journalists, and citizens.” 28 This is inreference to the aforementioned Freedom of Information Act,a major gain but one which has been restricted and compromisedby numerous exemption clauses, “with the overall effectthat access to information is not adequately guaranteed.” 29Furthermore, the domestic news agency (NAN) is practicallyguaranteed a monopoly for the gathering and distribution ofnews to outlets throughout the country, in the News Agency ofNigeria Act with which it was established in 1976. 30Community radio is as yet non-existent in Nigeria: a communityradio development policy document was drawn up in2006 and a presidential declaration was made in 2010, statingthat licensing by the regulator should start. 31 In January/February2013, it was widely reported that 800 community radiostations were to be set up by mid-year, “to ensure that informationon programs and policies of the Federal Governmentget to the rural communities.” 32 Not a single station had beenestablished at the time of writing. 335Nossiter, April 16, 2011.6European Union Election ObservationMission to Nigeria 2011, 1.7TI 2013.8Freedom House 2013a.9Reliable statistics are notoriouslyhard to come by for Nigeria;some sources cite slightlydifferent figures.10Birrell, April 16, 2014.11DFID 2013.12Freedom House 2013b.13UNDP Nigeria.14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_of_Nigeria15UNDP Nigeria.16As cited in: European UnionElection Observation Mission toNigeria 2011, 30.17Open Society Initiative for WestAfrica 2010, 9.18Milligan & Mytton 2009, 492.19Ariye 2010.20Ibid.21European Union Election ObservationMission to Nigeria 2011, 29.22Open Society Initiative for WestAfrica 2010, 9.23Freedom House 2013b.24Ibid.25IREX 2012, 320.26Ibid.27Ibid., 316.28Ibid., 315. The score for Freedomof Speech is 2.19 (out of apossible 4) which just pushesit into the ‘Near Sustainability’section on the scale: “Countryhas progressed in meetingmultiple objectives, with legalnorms, professionalism, and thebusiness environment supportiveof independent media.” (p.314).29Ibid., 317.30Ibid., 319. It will be noted, lateron, that many news outletsnonetheless make use of foreignnews agencies and channels,particularly for internationalnews.31Open Society Foundations 2013,34.32Agbakwuru, January 22, 2013.33Dadamac.net 2014.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 187

Nigeria is a country renowned for its entrepreneurial spiritand, as such, it would be surprising if the age of the Internethad passed it by. According to Google Nigeria, some 44 millionNigerians, or just under 29% of the country’s total populationuse the Internet: “a fourfold increase in six years, from just 6.7percent in 2008.” 34 Access is of course concentrated in urbanareas and restricted to those who can afford it, and thereforehardly improves the public media access situation in the countryfor those who really need it.Freedom Radio Nigeria – Muryar Jama’a (Voice of the People)Freedom Radio is a privately-owned commercial radio stationbased in the northern Nigerian city of Kano. It is one of theforemost radio stations of the region, and its mission statementidentifies its ambitious objectives:“To be an Independent Radio Station that promotes NationalUnity, gives voice to the voiceless through informative,educative and entertainment programs in an objective,diligent and fearless manner ... while raising the standards ofBroadcast Journalism in our areas of coverage.” 35Since the traditional three levels of broadcasting – public,commercial, community – do not exist in Nigeria, the supposedpublic broadcasters being state broadcasters and thecommunity sector being entirely non-existent, small, and toall intents and purposes commercial broadcasters find themselvessometimes taking on additional roles. In the followingwe want to look at whether or not Freedom Radio might besaid to fulfill – in part or more comprehensively – the remit ofpublic service media.The station was founded in 2003 by a group of men andwomen – from within one family – who had been frustratedby local politics and felt there was a need for an outlet specificallyfor the voices of the local people. None of the foundermembers were journalists, which meant, as one of thesefounder members put it, “a steep learning curve.” 36 They werebusinessmen and law practitioners, which to a degree was anadvantage, as it meant that they proceeded with the requisiteamount of caution 37 in setting up what was in essence a businessventure.The purpose of the Freedom Radio Project was howeververy clear, and right from its inception, Freedom Radio askedthe people what it was that they wanted from the broadcaster.38 One of the first issues they picked up was a truly hot potato– that of HIV/Aids and its impact on society, something noother radio station or media outlet would touch because of thestigma attached.By 2005, Freedom Radio had already established an onlinepresence and live streaming of a selection of programs. Thewebsite now also offers apps for Android, iPhones, and iPads,for listeners to download. There are two FM stations in Kanoitself (Freedom Radio and Dala FM, Da swag station, for youngmusic fans, established in 2011), another was established in2007 in Dutse, and most recently, in 2013, a further FM stationwas opened in Kaduna. There are plans to open a fifth station,in Maiduguri (Borno State), and a sixth in Sokoto 39 – the licenseshave already been granted. They employ around 320 peopleacross all four stations and in their offices. The Managing Directorestimates that at present they reach audiences right acrossa region of some 32 to 35 million people, from Kano State itself,to Katsina, Kaduna, Bauchi, Jigawa, even as far afield as PlateauState (to the southeast), Yobi (northeast) and into the Niger Republic(in the north). 40 And of course the online presence opensthem up to a listenership across the globe.Stakeholders in the Transformation ProcessOf the innumerable development agencies with a presence inNigeria, a surprisingly small number are to be mentioned inconnection with media development in the north of the country.The UK Department for International Development (DFID)and the US Agency for International Development (USAID) areboth strong presences, and both work with Freedom Radio onseveral levels, primarily in the areas of equipping and training,with some minor funding involved. 41 The German KonradAdenauer Foundation has worked with the outlet on variousoccasions: so, for example, during the election period in April2011, when Freedom Radio set up the first-ever political debatefor gubernatorial candidates in Kano to be broadcast live. TheDFID also collaborated on this, and was involved, togetherwith the Konrad Adenauer Foundation and Bayero UniversityKano, in the follow-up in July 2011 when the successful candidate(Dr. Rabiu Musa Kwankwasu) held a meeting in the townhall with a “broad spectrum of stakeholders.” 42The outlet has strong links with Bayero University (the oldestinstitute of tertiary education in Kano City) and sometimesuses the facilities in their Centre for Democratic Research andTraining (larger conference halls, for example) when debate ordiscussion programs threaten to strain their relatively limitedstudio spaces. Equally, the teaching staff at the university is oftencalled upon to participate in programs or offer expertise,and students from the faculty go to Freedom Radio for theirinternships. 43 Civil society organizations – women’s interestgroups, child health organizations or, on a regular basis, theNational Youth Service Corps – are involved with the stationon a programming level: the NYSC has a weekly half-hour slotbroadcast by Freedom Radio Kaduna and Dutse. As the managingdirector puts it, they (Freedom Radio) provide the CSOswith a platform for their messages and objectives, and, fortheir part, they gain content. 44Further, Freedom Radio collaborates with German internationalbroadcaster Deutsche Welle and DW Akademie, theBBC and BBC Media Action, Voice of America (VOA), and ChinaRadio International. Private radio in Nigeria has to ensure that80% of content is produced locally (60% in the case of privateTV); 45 so while some programs are made available by the internationalpartners for rebroadcast, collaboration also takesother forms, that of co-production of programs or series – e.g.,188

Part III Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service RadioLearning By Ear (DW) – or the provision of expertise. DW Akademieprovides training for Freedom Radio staff, both journalisticand technical.Freedom Radio also works with ENABLE (Enhancing NigerianAdvocacy for a Better Business Environment), a DFID-fundedorganization that aims to improve the quality of businessadvocacy and public-private dialogue, and hence the overallbusiness environment in Nigeria:“In 2009 ENABLE partnered with Freedom FM, a commercialradio station based in Northern Nigeria, to support thelaunch of a new radio program, Da Rarafa, which discussesissues affecting small- and medium-sized businesses in theNorth. The program has now been on air for over one yearwith no financial support from ENABLE.” 46State of Affairs: Analysis of the BroadcasterLegal Framework, Governance and EthicsFreedom Radio, as has been mentioned, is a privately-ownedoutlet, one of the first to set up in Kano (which it should benoted is Nigeria’s second most populous city and a primaryhub in the north). Its declared purpose is to provide the peopleof the region with a mouthpiece, but the only alternative tofederal or state ownership was – and still is – a license as a privatemedia outlet.Licensing, however, whilst nominally in the remit of theNational Broadcasting Commission (NBC), is neither an independentnor a transparent process, since the final decision asto who gets a license always rests with the president. It is alsoan expensive privilege, with average fees for a license amountingto tens of thousands of US dollars, even for small ruralaspirants. 47 In 2010, President Goodluck Jonathan announcedthat the government was to give the NBC full authority overthe licensing process, provided certain stipulated conditionswere met. There has, however, “been no indication that anamendment to the law establishing the NBC and its charter, tosupport the change in the commission’s mandate, is pendingbefore the National Assembly.” 48In addition to the 25,000 US dollars initially laid out for thelicense (and for each subsequent license), the outlet pays a further10,000 US dollars annually. 49 It also has to hand over 2.5%of its turnover annually to the NBC, and every infraction of theCommission’s rules brings with it a hefty fine. Given the generalconsensus that the NBC is both inefficient and ineffective,as well as being handicapped by legislation limiting its powers,it comes as no surprise that journalists and media ownersin the region have recently set up the Northern IndependentBroadcasters’ Association, and eventually intend to challengesome of the conditions imposed. 50 The Commission’s actionsare often felt to be random and it is under no obligation to offeran explanation for any decisions.The outlet is run by a Board of Directors, consisting of eightmembers, five of whom are from within the founder family.They are primarily businessmen, and one woman. The chairmanis a retired Air Vice Marshal and former military governorof Kaduna State; the vice chairman is a prominent banker. TwoBoard members are engineers, the only members with priorexperience in the broadcasting sector. New Board membersare generally contacts or associates of the owning family, andwill be recommended by at least one member before acceptance.They are not elected for a limited term.Aside from the previously-mentioned mission statementwhich the station carries on its website, there were hithertono published Ethics Codices or other editorial guidelines. Thestation used as its guide the National Broadcasting Code publishedby the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC). TheEditorial Board is, however, working on the outlet’s own setof Editorial Guidelines, with the help of partner organizationDFID – a process still ongoing at the time of writing. 51Capacity Building and Human ResourcesAs previously quoted, part of the mission statement of FreedomRadio is the intent to raise the standards of broadcastjournalism in the region. The outlet is commercial, whichmeans of course that they set out to generate a profit, but anyprofit made is – according to the will of the Board of Directors –not to be shared out among the stakeholders but to be re-investedin training and equipment. 52 The partners BBC MediaAction, DFID, and DW Akademie provide training programsin-house, and DFID provides mentoring (but no funding) forthe production of business programs. This mentoring, as theoperations manager points out, and the attendant on-the-34Opara, March 20, 2014.35Freedom Radio.36Faruk Dalhatu, ManagingDirector Freedom Radio, Boardof Directors, founding member.37Dr. Balarabe Maikaba, Head ofMass Communications Dept.,Bayero University, Kano.38Umar Saidu Tudunwada,General Manager Operations,Freedom Radio.39Faruk Dalhatu, ManagingDirector Freedom Radio, Boardof Directors. Mr. Dalhatu notedthat the equipment for the newstation in Maiduguri was alreadyin storage but that the projecthad been delayed because of thestate of emergency imposed inthe wake of the Boko Haramattacks.40Faruk Dalhatu, ManagingDirector Freedom Radio,Board of Directors.41Ibid.42Ibid.43Prof. Dr. Abdallah Uba Adamu,Dept. of Mass Communications,Bayero University Kano.44Faruk Dalhatu, Managing DirectorFreedom Radio,Board of Directors.45Freedom House 2013b.46ENABLE.47Ojo & Kadiri 2001, 17f.48Freedom House 2013b.49Umar Saidu Tudunwada,General Manager Operations,Freedom Radio.50Faruk Dalhatu, Managing DirectorFreedom Radio,Board of Directors.51Faruk Dalhatu, Managing DirectorFreedom Radio,Board of Directors – by telephone,June 24, 2014.52Ibid.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 189

job polishing of skills such as reporting and production, filterdown through other areas. 53 The managing director is inno doubt that Freedom Radio has some of the best and mosthighly-trained staff of any outfit in Nigeria. He points outthat the station has 4 interns with the BBC; two of the BBC’scorrespondents in the region are from Freedom Radio; theVOA stringer in Kano is a Freedom Radio journalist, as is theDeutsche Welle stringer in Kano. 54 However, Freedom Radiohas no dedicated organizational structure for capacity building.Most training is provided as just described, either on thejob by more experienced colleagues or with the help of internationalorganizations.Training is also provided in the use of modern recordingequipment. A major concern within the broadcasting sectoris the lack of modern and well-maintained equipment: often,even if the studios are well equipped, the individual journalist,rarely financially secure, cannot afford up-to-date tools ofhis or her own. Freedom Radio makes sure that each journalistworking for the outlet has, at the very least, a laptop or a tabletwith the necessary software and access to digital recordingequipment. As an interviewee explains, in order to encourageresponsible care and use of the equipment, the journalistsare required to purchase them from Freedom Radio, but atjust 40% of the actual price, which they can also pay in instalments,if necessary. Thus they are co-owners and bound to bemore careful. The station then also employs an IT expert whocomes into the station to train staff in the use of the equipment.55 There is an IT department, responsible primarily formaintaining and updating the website (which is hosted out ofthe USA).Most journalists enter upon their professional careerswoefully unprepared; this level of support for staff is highlyunusual in the media sector. It engenders a degree of loyaltyamong those who work for the outlet, although a note of cautionwas sounded by an independent source with regard topay, since it is widely known that pay is not high across theentire sector. (This leads to journalists being only too happyto accept the ‘brown envelopes’ that buy their loyalty or theirsilence.) The interviewee cited one example of a Freedom Radiojournalist who worked for the station for 9 years on a casualbasis but was “poached” by another station that offeredhim something more solid. 56Financing, Management and Newsroom StructuresAs a commercial outfit, Freedom Radio has at the top of itsmanagerial structure a board of directors, the highest policyformulatingbody, and, overseeing the professional sphereof activity, an editorial board, which is set up to include thestation managers and the general manager of operations,members of civil society, including veteran journalists, andtwo representatives from the board of directors. 57 On the nextlevel, there is the headquarters management team, headedby the managing director and overseeing business development,operations, administration and finance, and Engineer-ing, with each department headed by a general manager.Alongside this there is also a station management team: eachstation is headed by a station manager and has four departments:news and current affairs, programming, marketing,and engineering. 58Each of the station managers reports back to the headquartersmanagement team and the managing director. Eachstation is encouraged to be largely independent, on an administrativeand an editorial level, since in this part of Nigeria, regionaldifferences can run deep, beginning with the languages.As the managing director put it, “What you can broadcastin Kano will probably set Kaduna on fire.” 59 There is a managementmeeting, with the station managers, every two weeks;the editorial board meets every quarter, to review programsand timetables; and the board of directors meet “wheneverthey want.” 60 There are also regular external audits.The biggest headache for management is the sourcing offunds for a rapidly expanding outfit with a sizeable staff. Revenueis generated primarily from advertising; some advertiserswill also sponsor a program on a regular basis. But the biggestproblem, says one interviewee, is the fact that many oftheir advertisers or sponsors don’t pay on time. 61 In February2004, just months after first going on the airwaves, FreedomRadio opened a commercial office in Lagos, staffed by a smallteam whose sole purpose is to generate – and collect – advertisingrevenue. These days the team numbers six people, plusa car with driver. The state government also advertises withFreedom Radio but this is the least viable source of income,since not only do they have the worst record of non-paymentof all advertisers, they will also not hesitate to use their statusas an income source as leverage. On several occasions in thepast, when the station’s output has in some way ‘displeased,’government advertising has been withdrawn, somethingwhich the station does not easily cope with, since it operateswithin a very tight budget. 62The extent of audience loyalty and the general popularityof the station’s programs are Freedom Radio’s most importantasset when it comes to attracting advertisers. Some advertisersconduct their own surveys, and a media sales andmarketing company called mediaReach also conducts readershipand audience surveys on behalf of the most influentialclients. mediaReach publish the West and Central African MediaFacts Book (mediafacts), a publication that puts the ratingsout there and is widely used by marketers: The radio listenershipdata (North West) in mediafacts 2011 put FreedomRadio at the top of the list by a substantial margin, with 22%of listeners (actual number cited as 30,680,402) saying theytuned in to the station the day before; in distant second placeis KanoBBC (Hausa Service) with 9%. 63 The station has occasionallydone surveys of its own with the collaboration of theBayero University Sociology Dept. which designed audiencequestionnaires for distribution in the surrounding area. 64This area of activity – audience and market research – is onewhich could profitably be improved and expanded upon.It is190

Part III Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service Radioalso possible to buy airtime. All program slots except for newsand current affairs slots are ‘for sale,’ which generally meansthat they are open to sponsorship. Sponsored programs carryannouncements or advertisements of the sponsors. News relatedprograms are not open to sponsorships, this, of course, inorder to “maintain the station’s editorial controls and ensureindependence to broadcast news without undue interference.” 65Freedom Radio’s news output is mainly fed by the agencies,first and foremost by NAN (News Agency Nigeria) which, asmentioned previously, is state-run and has a legally protectedmonopoly in Nigeria. Access to other sources is not prohibitedor monitored, so that the newsrooms also use internationalagencies (Associated Press and Agence France Presse were specificallymentioned here 66 ), and cable networks such as CNN,AlJazeera, and BBC World are fed into the newsrooms. Thereis a small staff of reporters available for local news and events,but the station cannot afford a large enough pool of reportersto enable them to cover a wider region. Apart from Kano,they have reporters in Kaduna State and in the capital, Abuja.A Freedom Radio/Bayero University audience survey conductedin Kano in 2011 put the news and current affairs programmingvery near the top of the popularity list out of over 100programs a week. 67 The general perception is that the stationmade its name in news and political programming. 68There are four main news slots a day, at 9 a.m. (Monday toFriday as part of a ‘live interactive talk show’ 8:30–10 a.m.), at12:00 (News at Noon, seven days a week), a brief bulletin at 4p.m. (as part of the Evening Show) and at 7 p.m.. Most bulletinsare 15–20 minutes, the 7 p.m. slot is half an hour of GlobalNews and Reports followed by half an hour of Mu Leka MuGano, with “news of the day, with reports from all parts of thestate” 69 (vice versa in Kaduna and Dutse Stations), seven daysa week. There are several other slots – such as Kowanne Gauta,which features comments on daily politics “from a cross sectionof the public” 70 – reserved for magazine-style news and politics.The newsroom is headed by a Manager as the overall supervisor.He is assisted by a Head of News Desk, who holdsdaily editorial meetings to review the previous bulletins andchart the course of the day. The newsroom operates a two-shiftsystem, 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. and 5 p.m. to midnight. Each regionalstation has its own newsroom and operates independently,though they share important stories.Perception, Participation and Public EngagementConducting the interviews in preparation for this report, it wasnoted that every interviewee, at some point early on in the interview,said that Freedom Radio asked the people what theywanted from the outlet, what programs they wanted to hear,what kind of content they hoped for. One of the first programsto be taken up – by public request – was a program about peopleliving with HIV/Aids. Freedom Radio was the first station todo this and the program has now been running for ten years,every Thursday, inviting sufferers, their doctors, and medicalexperts into the studio to report on their experiences and an-swer questions from listeners. 71 The managing director statesthat the funding for the program is generated entirely by thestation itself, since no sponsor wants to be associated with thesubject, and that offers to farm the program out to other networkshave so far elicited no take-ups.The ratings as established by mediaReach have been citedand are confirmation of another statement made by everyinterviewee: namely, that Freedom Radio is the most popularand widely-used radio station in the local area and the widerregion. 72 Programming is interactive to an unusual degree,continually encouraging the audience to participate, not leastby inviting members of the public directly into the studios.The phone-in format is widely used. As at least one intervieweepointed out, this means that audiences are being educated;people are learning that radio provides a forum, where theiropinions are just as valid as anyone else’s. 73Through Freedom Radio a culture of debate is beingformed – we look more particularly at this below (10.6.1 Creatinga Public Sphere). This was not an overnight process andFreedom Radio occasionally made itself the target of publicire because of something that guests on the air said. Onat least one occasion, as most interviewees mentioned, anarmed crowd gathered at the gates of the station, and in 2006,the station buildings were badly damaged as the result of afire-bomb attack. 7453Umar Saidu Tudunwada, GeneralManager Operations,Freedom Radio.54Faruk Dalhatu, Managing DirectorFreedom Radio,Board of Directors.55Umar Saidu Tudunwada,General Manager Operations,Freedom Radio.56Dr. Balarabe Maikaba,Head of Mass CommunicationsDept., Bayero University, Kano.57The Chairman of the EditorialBoard is a journalist of somestanding and the only personthus far in Nigerian media historyto have headed both state television(NTA) and state radio (FRCN).58Umar Saidu Tudunwada, GeneralManager Operations,Freedom Radio.59Faruk Dalhatu, Managing DirectorFreedom Radio, Boardof Directors.60Ibid.61Umar Saidu Tudunwada,General Manager Operations,Freedom Radio.62Faruk Dalhatu, Managing DirectorFreedom Radio,Board of Directors.63mediaReach OMD 2011, 32.64Umar Saidu Tudunwada,General Manager Operations,Freedom Radio.65Ibid. – information providedvia email on June 21, 2014.66Faruk Dalhatu, ManagingDirector Freedom Radio,Board of Directors.67Ibid.68Dr. Balarabe Maikaba, Headof Mass CommunicationsDept., Bayero University, Kano.69See Freedom Radio homepage.70Ibid.71Faruk Dalhatu, ManagingDirector Freedom Radio,Board of Directors72mediaReach OMD 2011, 32.73Prof. Dr. Abdallah Uba Adamu,Dept. of Mass Communications,Bayero University Kano.74Faruk Dalhatu, ManagingDirector Freedom Radio,Board of Directors.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 191

Part III Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service RadioThe equally long-running program about HIV/Aids has alreadybeen mentioned in another context. There is also a programestablished with the specific purpose of enhancing women’sparticipation in society and enabling them to discuss theirissues. The program has a female anchor and invites mainlyfemale guests – women entrepreneurs, those involved in localpolitics, as well as ‘ordinary’ women. 89 A program produced byBBC Media Watch and re-broadcast by Freedom Radio concentrateson the difficult subject of pregnancy and childbirth – therate of death in childbirth and infant mortality in this part ofNigeria is extraordinarily high.Another very popular program is known as One God, DifferentTowns (in Hausa) and is a kind of travelogue. Kano isa hub for this region of Nigeria and people from all over theworld travel through or to the city. Every week a reporter goesout into the city and talks to people from different parts of theworld. He asks them to describe where they come from, habitsand customs peculiar to their own place of origin, or to talkabout their travels. 90Specifically educational programs are rarer: There is a longrunningprogram that takes up various themes in an educationalcontext, Learning By Ear, provided for re-broadcast byDeutsche Welle. The Kano outlet has a creative writing programon a Sunday morning.A glance at the program schedule shows the variety of theoutlet’s programming: There is a Top Ten countdown, a reggaeslot and a slot called Musical Express. There is Hausa classicalmusic, Arabic music and, as stated, francophone music. Thereare sports broadcasts, including English Premier League soccer.The station was one of the first to include a weather forecastin its schedule – and winds it up with the phrase “by theGrace of God.” This, says an observer, helps convey respect forthe local culture and mentality. 91Apart from an innovative approach to programming –particularly debate programs, as mentioned – the station hasalso led the way in technical innovation, introducing apps foriPhone and smartphones on its website, live streaming facilities,and the use of social media networks such as Twitter.Achievements and ChallengesThe main challenge facing any media outfit in Nigeria today isthe climate of intransigence and intolerance that permeatessociety at the level of governance. Corruption is endemic andthere is no real recourse to rule of law, nor any reliability inthe status quo. This has proved to be a major problem for theoperation of Freedom Radio on several occasions in the past,when they have found themselves at odds with the NBC.The other main challenge, and closely bound up with theaforementioned, is the extremely difficult environment thatjournalists have to work in. Journalism is a dangerous professionin Nigeria, and many journalists do whatever they have toin order to get through. The kind of persecution they face “isnonetheless also indicative of the immense power that jour-nalists still wield as watchdogs. They make it possible for thepopulation to see and hear, and they make sense out of scrapsof information, fashioning it into something intelligible to alland thereby maintaining their importance.” 92This is a power which Freedom Radio seems to have beenable to tap, and by eliciting the support of a broad public, theyhave been able to carve a niche for themselves which neithercorruption nor bullying has been able to greatly encroach upon.Nigeria experienced its most credible election to date in2011. A freedom of information act which was a decade in themaking was finally signed into law in May 2011 and not onlyare the people of Nigeria becoming increasingly aware of theirentitlements, they are being supported in this by a growingnumber of media outlets and by the country’s unhesitatingembracing of social media.Nonetheless, as far as the country’s media are concerned,and the improvement of conditions for its professionals, thereare still massive reforms to be initiated:“People in many parts of rural Africa remain reliant on thestate broadcaster ... This may take some time to change, becausethe poor have little purchasing power. As a consequence,the poor can be ‘squeezed out’ of the programming content ofcommercial radio stations, and commercial outlets see littlefinancial gain in reaching remote areas.” 93Freedom Radio has achieved a great deal in convincing avery observant stakeholder sector in the country that commercialoutlets can overcome this apparent shortcoming andmake a worthwhile contribution. The broadcaster has gainedthe loyalty and support of a broad segment of the population,a circumstance which allows it to wield an impressive amountof power. It provides staff as far as possible with regular trainingand up-to-date equipment – both basics which are otherwisesingularly lacking in the media sector.75Prof. Dr. Abdallah Uba Adamu,Dept. of Mass Communications,Bayero University Kano.76Ibid.77Faruk Dalhatu, Managing DirectorFreedom Radio,Board of Directors.78Ibid.79Punch, February 7, 2014.80Faruk Dalhatu, ManagingDirector Freedom Radio,Board of Directors.81Ibid.82Prof. Dr. Abdallah Uba Adamu,Dept. of Mass Communications,Bayero University Kano.83Ibid.84European Union Election ObservationMission to Nigeria 2007, 25.85European Union Election ObservationMission to Nigeria 2011, 34.86Faruk Dalhatu, Managing DirectorFreedom Radio, Boardof Directors. See also FreedomRadio Website.87Umar Saidu Tudunwada,General Manager Operations,Freedom Radio.88Faruk Dalhatu, Managing DirectorFreedom Radio,Board of Directors.89Ibid.90Prof. Dr. Abdallah Uba Adamu,Dept. of Mass Communications,Bayero University Kano.91Ibid.92Reporters Without Borders 2014.93Milligan & Mytton 2009, 492.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 193

Nonetheless, whilst the outlet prides itself on its financial selfsustainability,it recognizes the value of the input, particularlywith regard to training, of the partner organizations. 94 FreedomRadio doesn’t have the financial resources, nor does thesector have the practical resources, to provide quality capacitybuilding measures. The involvement of international partnerstherefore continues to be vital. In particular, training andmentoring of young talent is mentioned, as well as supportwith marketing and networking strategies. 95 In the last segmentof the chapter, we look at what needs to be addressed inorder to enable reform and progress.Transformation ApproachesThe most important reforms that need to be made apply tothe media sector itself, so as to generate a climate more supportiveand encouraging of initiatives and outfits, like FreedomRadio, that can make a valuable contribution to a mediasector in Nigeria that focuses on serving the public.– First and foremost, legislative reforms need to beeither completed or carried through: the Freedom ofInformation Act, the Code of Ethics, the National CommunityRadio Policy and many other half-hearted reformattempts should be reviewed so that they can fulfillthe original objectives.– Repressive legislation such as that on sedition andon criminal defamation should be repealed entirely, sothat journalists are not criminalized unnecessarily.– Legislation governing digitalization needs to beoverhauled and reviewed in collaboration with independentexperts. The Federal Government has beenpostponing the deadline for the switch from analogueto digital for close on a decade now, and “stakeholdersbelieve that the level of awareness concerning this allimportantdate is still abysmally low.” 96 It is feared thatmany media outlets will find the cost more than theycan cope with and that huge segments of the populationwill once again be shut out, particularly from TV viewing,because of the potential cost of new equipment.– Civil society and other stakeholders, such as theNational Union of Journalists (NUJ), professional associations,and industry experts, should become involvedin the process, by establishing an interest groupor a committee. 97– The National Broadcasting Commission (NBC) Actneeds to be reviewed and the NBC made entirely independentof government, political parties or mediainterests. Political party members and other interestedparties should be banned from seeking a position with-in the NBC. The licensing procedure should be madetransparent, independent and should allow for an appealsprocedure.– Licensing needs to go ahead for the private mediasector, and above all for the community radio sector.– Financing models need to be established that makeit possible for media outfits to be self-sustaining andindependent of commercial imperatives.– Degree courses in the country’s tertiary institutionsneed to be improved and modified to keep up withthe demands of the fast pace of change in the sector.Here, too, there are developments to be supported andencouraged: “The Mass Communication Departmentof Bayero University, Kano (BUK) may soon be transformedinto a school of communication to allow forthe introduction of new degree programs in the fieldof journalism. ... [Head of the Department, Dr BalarabeMaikaba,] said some of the programs to be introducedin the school include degrees in broadcast journalism,print journalism, public relations, media and culture,and development communication.” 98Within Freedom Radio itself – noting that these can at best berecommendations:– Support for the newsroom and its staff through consultancyand training can be improved upon and financingmodels set up specifically for that purpose.– this would probably require more involvement frominternational partners. Investigative reporting – or atthe very least, better research habits – and presentingare the areas particularly mentioned. 99– An improved human resources management strategyis vital. In particular staff – and particularly journalists’– salaries should be better regulated 100 so thatthere is less danger of them going elsewhere once FreedomRadio has trained them to a high standard.– Audience polls and market research could be improvedupon, perhaps in cooperation with the Universityas has been the case in the past.– Journalists should be encouraged to join or formpress associations and to regularly pursue networkingand professional self-improvement activities. Access tothese opportunities can be made much easier via theinternet and social media.194

Part III Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service Radio– Generation of revenue needs to be diversified so thatthe station isn’t solely dependent on a small number ofmajor advertisers.– Development and discussion of editorial guidelines.So far Freedom Radio only has an oral culture of sharingvalues, principles, and practices. It could be of helpto put them down in writing to assure a general agreementon the newsroom’s operations.– Improved maintenance and management of the websitesand the therein published program schedules; intoday’s web environment, the station’s profile must beseen to be kept scrupulously up-to-date.Freedom Radio has clear ambitions to fulfill the primary tenetsof public service media. It strives both to create a publicsphere, a forum for the discussion of political and social issues,and to support the education, empowerment, integration, andentertainment of its audiences. The context within which itoperates, however, remains a difficult one. Educational standardsin the country are disappointing even at secondary level,and solid, multi-faceted vocational training in universities andcolleges is practically non-existent, so that training on the jobis a must. There is also insufficient appreciation of the need forwell-founded market and audience research.The outlet is – by its own admission – strongly reliant on internationalpartners to deliver these values, journalism training,and sector-specific management training. There is a livelydesire to continue profiting from the training standards of thepartner organizations. More generally speaking, there is alsoa need for guidance in the development of better professionalsupport networks, which in turn could lead to greater professionalconfidence amongst journalists. Existing associationsneed support in developing sustainable financing structuresand combating ingrained corruption. Both media organizationsand the journalists themselves should be encouraged toview such networks as an integral and necessary part of themedia landscape. An outlet like Freedom Radio could easilytake the lead in this.94Faruk Dalhatu, Managing DirectorFreedom Radio, Board ofDirectors – by telephone,June 24, 2014.95Umar Saidu Tudunwada,General Manager Operations,Freedom Radio – informationprovided via email, June 21, 2014.96Ofose.97Dr. Balarabe Maikaba, Headof Mass Communications Dept.,Bayero University, Kano.Dr. Maikaba points out thatthis is in fact already in process,with the NUJ “and other relevantstakeholders” calling for a reviewof the Code of Ethics, amongstothers.98Faggo, February 27, 2014.99Umar Saidu Tudunwada,General Manager Operations,Freedom Radio.100This should be a task for the outletitself but the individualjournalist should have recourseto regulatory frameworksand support networks in caseof conflict with the outlet.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 195

Status of Freedom Radio Muryar Jama’aCharacteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsStations, distribution4 FM stations; 2 in Kano (Freedom Radio and Dala FM), 1 inDutse (opened 2007), 1 in Kaduna (opened 2013).Distribution across a region of some 32 to 35 million people,from Kano State itself, to Katsina, Kaduna, Bauchi, Jigawa, thenas far as Plateau State (to the southeast), Yobi (northeast) andinto the Niger Republic (in the north). Also an online presence.Plans (licenses alreadygranted) to open a fifthstation in Maiduguri(Borno State) and a sixthin Sokoto.Legal frameworkFreedom Radio is a privately-owned station. The licensingprocess is neither cheap nor transparent, the National BroadcastingCommission (NBC) is in charge of licensing but finaldecision lies with the President. Initial outlay is $25,000, then$10,000 annually, plus 2.5% of turnover to be paid to NBC.Hefty fines for any transgression, whereby there is no appealsprocess.President GoodluckJonathan announced in2010 that he was to put thelicensing process entirelyin the hands of the NBC –no sign as yet, however, ofany amendment to the lawgoverning the NBCPublic service remitFreedom Radio as a private station does not have an officialremit. Its mission statement is to be an independent radiostation that “gives voice to the voiceless through informative,educative and entertainment programmes in an objective,diligent and fearless manner ... while raising the standards ofBroadcast Journalism in our areas of coverage.” The sector isotherwise dominated by the Nigerian Television Authority(NTA) and the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN),both of which are owned and run by the federal government.Freedom of speech andof expression is nominallyguaranteed under theconstitution of 1999 – butstate-owned outlets are underthe jurisdiction of theMinister for Information.There is as yet no communityradio sector.Regulatory system/governing bodyThe board of directors is the highest policy-formulating body,consists of eight members, five of whom are from the owningfamily. Members are chosen by the board itself, often beingcontacts or associates of incumbent members. Overseeingthe professional sphere of activity is an editorial board,chosen by the directors; candidates should preferably have ajournalistic or broadcasting background. editorial board includesstation managers and the operations manager, membersof civil society, and two representatives from the boardof directors. Below this there is a headquarters managementteam (Business Development, Operations, Administrationand Finance, and Engineering) and each station has its stationmanager plus team.Obviously a functioningmodel, no major changes.Members to both mainboards are elected fora non-specified periodof time. Each station isencouraged to be independent– regional differencescan be quite profound.196

Part III Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service RadioCharacteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsEngagement of civil societyThe editorial board includes representatives from civil society:the only woman member is a former USAID programmanager and a leading member of Women in CommunityDevelopment; there is also a professor of sociology, and aveteran journalist and traditional title holder. There are – orwere - no media or journalists’ associations, no unions, andno representation otherwise.Journalists and media ownersin the region have recentlyset up the NorthernIndependent Broadcasters’Association, in an attemptto protect their interestsand provide a lobby.FinancingMainly through advertising, otherwise through sale ofairtime. The station has a commercial office in Lagos, with astaff of six (plus driver) whose sole job is to generate advertisingand collect the revenue. Donor contributions are few andfar between.Market research or audiencepolling is underdeveloped.There is one marketingoutfit that operates inthe larger region (W andC Africa), it produces anannual ‘mediafacts’ ratingsand research publication:The radio listenership data(North West) in mediafacts2011 put Freedom Radioat the top of the list by asubstantial margin.Use of mobile andinternet communication/modern technology/challenges of digitalizationFreedom radio established an online presence in 2005 andhas a website which also enables live streaming. The webpageprovides listeners with a selection of apps for their smartphones,so that they can listen to Freedom radio on the go.The outlet also has a social networking presence.Plenty of potential for stillmore and more efficientuse. Very popular withlisteners, particularly theyoung. The outlet seemsto have helped spreadawareness of social mediawhere before this hadbeen limited.Regional structuresand reportingA large proportion of programming is shared between thestations but there also has to be an awareness of regional differentiationwhich can be considerable. The stations employlocal reporters in Kano, Kaduna, and in the capital Abuja. Nofunding for a larger pool of reporters.Room for expansion/improvement.Capacity buildingThe station lays claim to some of the best and most highlytrainedstaff of any outfit in Nigeria. The station has 4 internswith the BBC; two of the BBC’s correspondents in the regionare from Freedom Radio; the VOA stringer in Kano is aFreedom Radio journalist, as is the Deutsche Welle stringer inKano. A large part of international partner activity (DFID, BBCMedia Action, DW Akademie) is in training.The outlet also makes surethat all journalists areequipped with at least alaptop, and access to digitalrecording equipment, andprovides training with theequipment.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 197

Characteristics Status Changes and progressover the past yearsEthic codices,newsroom guidelinesPart of the mission statement of Freedom Radio is the intentto raise the standards of broadcast journalism in the region.The NBC’s National Broadcasting Code provided the station’seditorial and ethics guidelines up until now.The station is puttingtogether its own set ofeditorial guidelines, withthe help of the DFID –process ongoing at thetime of writing.Public perceptionand support for themedia organizationBoth ratings (‘mediafacts’) and word of mouth place FreedomRadio at the top of the popularity scale in Kano and beyond.Programming is highly interactive and many programs takenup by request. The phone-in format is widely used. Audiencesare being educated; a debate culture is being formed.Freedom Radio has alsoundertaken some audienceresearch of its own, withthe help of the SociologyDept., Bayero Universityin Kano. The use of socialnetworking has furtherengaged the audience.198

Part III Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service RadioGeneral Functions I: Political SphereFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Information:comprehensive, balanced,objective – and alsoregional news.PartiallyThere are four main news slots a day, at 9 a.m. (Monday to Friday aspart of a ‘live interactive talk show’ 8:30–10 a.m.), at 12:00 (News at Noon,seven days a week), a brief bulletin at 4 p.m. (as part of the Evening Show)and at 7 p.m.. Most bulletins are 15–20 minutes, the 7 p.m. slot is half anhour of Global News and Reports followed by half an hour of Mu LekaMu Gano, with “news of the day, with reports from all parts of the state.”Funds, however, do not allow reporting ‘from the field’ beyond the localarea, therefore mainly reliant on domestic and foreign news agenciesand outlets such as CNN.All political parties havethe opportunity to speakin the program and arepresent in interviews,sound bites, etc.YesThe outlet’s increasing acceptance as a forum for debate has given riseto a lively use of its facilities by the so-called ‘oral army’ – meaning theclass of political party followers who are very vocal in their support fortheir chosen party.Criticism of politicalactors (government,administration, otherpolitical actors)YesAt Freedom Radio voices opposing the government are regularly heard.The outlet’s relationship with state government can at times be volatilebecause of the fact that the studios are available to representatives of allparties. State government itself has come to realize that it is more usefulto work with Freedom Radio.Societal criticism(social actors, individuals,problems in society)YesThe station’s HIV/Aids program – a regular Thursday slot with audienceparticipation for 10 years now – has helped to overcome some of thestigma attached to the disease. No other outlet will tackle the subject.Moderation of debate/democratic facilitationYesIn the elections of 2007, the station was mentioned by EU observers tohave provided more critical coverage than other radio stations. Similarlyin the 2011 polls, the EU observers noted that the privately-owned FreedomRadio offered the most equitable coverage to the political partiesand their candidates. Freedom Radio was the only radio station wherepresidential candidates from opposition parties received more airtimethan the incumbent President.Social/political orientationYesNumerous programs are audience participation and ask civil societyorganizations into the studio to report on social issues such as childand maternal health.Agenda setting/investigative journalismPartiallyInvestigative journalism or in-depth research is completely underdevelopedin Nigeria, but there are cases where Freedom Radio successfullyputs something on the public agenda, e.g., in 2006, Freedom Radio tookon the subject of the Almajiri, street beggars, who are all too often children.After years of campaigning, in December 2013 a law was enactedby state government to get the beggars off the streets – and find alternativesfor some of them.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 199

General Functions II: IntegrationFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Participation, voice,empowermentPartiallySome social minorities (HIV sufferers, women) are heard; numerousminority languages are represented, some only for half an hour perweek; ethnic minorities such as the non-indigenes are also heard ina program called One God, Different Towns. (Kano is a type of mixingpotfor cultures from all over this part of Africa and there are manywho are regarded as ‘not belonging’ though they might have livedthere all their lives.)Cultural expression,strengthening ofidentity, values andcultural cohesionPartiallyFrench was included when the station management discovered thatthere were more migrants from francophone Niger Republic to thenorth than they had realized. A francophone music program wasinitiated and has now been running for nearly ten years.Also, Hausa classical music and Arabic music (see below), as well asmusic programs for a younger audience.Entertainment Yes There is a Top Ten countdown, a reggae slot and a slot calledMusical Express. There is Hausa classical music, Arabic music andfrancophone music. There are sports broadcasts, including EnglishPremier League soccer.Education Partially One God, Different Towns: Every week a reporter goes out into the city andtalks to people from different parts of the world; he asks them to describewhere they come from, habits and customs peculiar to theirown place of origin, or to talk about their travels. There is LearningBy Ear, a general education program (provided by Deutsche Welle),and a creative writing program once a week.Innovation Yes Numerous of the above can be seen as innovative: the live politicaldebate with the newly-elected governor; asking HIV sufferers andtheir doctors into the studio to talk about problems they face; thestation has gained itself a reputation as an innovator. It was also thefirst in Kano to introduce live streaming on its website; the websitealso offers apps for smartphone and iPhone; and has a Facebook page,a Twitter account and a Google+ profile.200

Part III Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service RadioInternational Media Development PartnersPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/progress/problemsDFID – DepartmentforInternationalDevelopment,UKCapacity building withtraining programs, mentoring;guidance with a set ofeditorial guidelines.Provides mentoring of businessprograms.Has collaborated – together withKonrad Adenauer Foundation –on a political debate program duringelections for state governor.The debate program was sosuccessful, a follow-up with thesuccessful candidate was alsoconducted.BBC MediaWatchCo-production, someprogramming for re-broadcast.Regularly provides a program onmother and child health.–DeutscheWelle,DW AkademieCapacity building,also technical educationIn-house training programs,co-productionsAn understanding and appreciationof in-depth journalisticresearch is initiated in the newsroom.One reporter won internationaljournalism awards forenvironmental reporting.VOA Re-broadcast, co-production VOA has a regular almost-dailyslot on programming schedule.Private radio in Nigeria has toensure that 80% of content isproduced locally so while someprograms are made available bythe international partners forre-broadcast, collaboration alsotakes other forms.ENABLE(EnhancingNigerianAdvocacy for aBetter BusinessEnvironment)A DFID-funded organizationthat aims to improve thequality of business advocacyand public-private dialogueCollaborated in the launch ofa new radio program, Da Rarafa,which discusses issues affectingsmall and medium sizedbusinesses in the North.The program has now been onair for over one year with nofinancial support from ENABLE.N.B. All the information given in the tables above is based onthe interviews, observations and document analysis made bythe author of this chapter. The tables provide very rough summariesof what is being elaborated in the texts. Many of theissues mentioned here are, of course, subject to change.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 201

AppendixReferencesAgbakwuru, JohnBosco (January 22, 2013), “Nigeria: FG Sets Up800 Community Radio Stations”, in: Vanguard, retrieved from:http://allafrica.com/stories/201301220471.htmlAriye, E.C., The Impact of Private Broadcasting in Nigeria, in:Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences, Vol.7 - n°6 (2010),p. 415–423.Birrell, Ian, (April 16, 2014), Africa Is Refuting the Usual EconomicPessimism, in: The Wall Street Journal.Dadamac.net (2014), Community Radio Update, retrieved from:http://www.dadamac.net/blog/20140324/community-radioupdateDFID – Department for International Development (2013),Summary of DFID’s work in Nigeria 2011–2015.ENABLE, The ENABLE Programme in Nigeria, pp.1–9, retrievedfrom: www.enable-nigeria.com/marketdonors/download/6European Union Election Observation Mission to Nigeria(2007), Final Report: Presidential, National Assembly, Gubernatorialand State House of Assembly Elections, retrieved from:http://www.eods.eu/library/FR%20NIGERIA%202007_en.pdfEuropean Union Election Observation Mission to Nigeria (2011),Final Report on the 2011 General Elections, retrieved from:http://eeas.europa.eu/eueom/pdf/missions/final-report-nigeria2011_en.pdfFaggo, Nura (February 27, 2014), BUK Mass Comm Dept to beupgraded, in: Daily Trust, retrieved from: http://dailytrust.info/index.php/education/17759-buk-mass-comm-dept-to-beupgradedFreedom House (2013a), Freedom of The World 2013: Nigeria,retrieved from: http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedomworld/2013/nigeria#Freedom House (2013b), Freedom Of The Press 2013: Nigeria,retrieved from: http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedompress/2013/nigeria#Freedom Radio, Brief, Vision, Mission, retrieved from:http://www.freedomradionig.com/index.php/about-usKazaure, Musa Umar, Nigeria: Freedom Radio Sanctioned forPlaying Anti-Third Term Music, March 30, 2006, in: Daily Trust,retrieved from: http://allafrica.com/stories/200603300261.htmlmediaReach OMD (2011), Mediafacts 2011; Nigeria, West andCentral Africa, retrieved from: http://www.mediareachomd.com/media_facts/2011_MFB/mfb’11-ENGLISH-nigeria-FA05052012.pdfMilligan, Simon & Mytton, Graham, From mouthpiece topublic service: donor support to radio broadcasters in newdemocracies, in: Development in Practice, vol.19 – n°4–5 (2009),p. 491–503.Mother Earth Travel, History of Nigeria, retrieved from:http://motherearthtravel.com/nigeria/history.htmPunch (February 7, 2014), Kano constitutes 100-man panel tofight street begging, retrieved from: http://www.punchng.com/news/kano-constitutes-100-man-panel-to-fight-street-begging/Nossiter, Adam (April 16, 2011), Nigerians Vote In PresidentialElection, in: The New York Times.Ojo, Edetaen & Kadiri, Maxwell (2001), Broadcasting in Nigeria:Unlocking the Airwaves, a report for Media Rights Agenda andARTICLE 19, p.17-18, retrieved from: http://www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/publications/nigeria-broadcasting-in-nigeria.pdfOfose, Goddie (undated), Is 2015 digital broadcast deadlinerealistic? in: Daily Independent,retrieved from: http://dailyindependentnig.com/2013/08/is-2015-digital-broadcast-deadline-realistic/Opara, Stanley (March 20, 2014), 29% of Nigerians use Internet– Google, in: Punch, retrieved from: http://www.punchng.com/business/business-economy/29-of-nigerians-use-internetgoogle/Open Society Foundations (2013), An Overview, from Taylor,Sarah; Minnie, Jeanette; Bussiek, Hendrik, Open Society FoundationsPublic Broadcasting in Africa Series: AfriMAP, retrievedfrom: http://www.afrimap.org/english/images/report/Afri-MAP_PBA_Overview_Nov2013.pdfIREX (2012), Media Sustainability Index 2012: Nigeria, pp.312-321, retrieved from: http://www.irex.org/sites/default/files/u115/Nigeria%202012%20MSI%20Proof.pdf202

Part III Nigeria: Freedom Radio, an African Private Public Service RadioList of InterviewsOpen Society Initiative for West Africa (2010), Nigeria: A Surveyby the Africa Governance Monitoring and Advocacy Project,Akingbulu, Akin; Bussiek, Hendrik (ed.) in: Open Society FoundationsPublic Broadcasting in Africa Series, AfriMAP, retrievedfrom: http://www.afrimap.org/english/images/report/Afri-MAP_Nigeria_Broadcasting_2011.pdfReporters Without Borders (2014), World Press Freedom Index2014: Africa, retrieved from: http://rsf.org/index2014/en-africa.phpTI – Transparency International (2013), Corruption PerceptionsIndex 2013, retrieved from: http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2013/results/UNDP Nigeria (undated), A Guide To The Nigerian Media,retrieved from: http://web.undp.org/comtoolkit/reaching-the-outside-world/docs/Best%20Practices/AGuidetotheNigerian-Media.pdfFaruk Dalhatu, Managing Director Freedom Radio,Board of Directors, founding member – interviewed bytelephone March 23, 2014.Umar Saidu Tudunwada, General Manager Operations,Freedom Radio – interviewed by email March 3, 2014,by telephone March 27, 2014.Dr. Balarabe Maikaba, Head of Mass Communications Dept.,Bayero University, Kano – interviewed by telephoneApril 8, 2014.Prof. Dr. Abdallah Uba Adamu, Dept. of Mass Communications,Bayero University Kano – interviewed by telephoneApril 6, 2014.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 203

11Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha,an Asian Community Radio PioneerPriya Esselborn

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio PioneerNepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio PioneerIn 1997, Radio Sagarmatha went on air as the first community radio station in Nepal and South Asia. Today, the 250 communityradio stations in Nepal play an important role. For most of the citizens who live in the more remote areas of the country, communityradio is the sole source of information. Radio Sagarmatha set the standard for independent, public-interest radio in thecountry. It also contributes to the empowerment of local communities. As a means of social mobilization, the station is raisingits voice to discuss many hidden issues or taboo topics in society, reflecting the shortcomings of Nepal’s fledgling democracy. Inthe 17 years since its establishment, Radio Sagarmatha has groomed and transformed itself into a professional media house. Nevertheless,the community station struggles to maintain the high level of professionalism in times when international donors arepulling away. This case shows how much community media in Asia can achieve on behalf of the public in the absence of publicservice media. But also what their limitations are.It was a struggle that lasted many years before Radio Sagarmatha1 went on air in 1997 as the first community radio stationin Nepal and South Asia. Since then, Radio Sagarmatha has becomea role model for community radio in the region: in termsof content, agenda setting, and courageous broadcasting evenin times of crisis. In order to understand what makes RadioSagarmatha different from other community radio stationsand what its impact on the media scene in Nepal is, an analysisof Radio Sagarmatha’s role shall be delivered.Radio Sagarmatha’s growth and success is especially impressiveand it is therefore worthwhile to take a closer look atthe different services it delivers to the public. The followinganalysis is based on the definition of a community radio as“a radio station that is owned and controlled by people in thecommunity, is usually smaller and low-cost in comparison tocommercial radio stations, provides interactive two-way communication,is non-profit and autonomous, therefore noncommercial,has a limited coverage or reach, utilizes appropriate,indigenous materials and resources, reflects communityneeds and interests, and its programs or content support communitydevelopment.” 2 To begin with, a brief overview of Nepal’smain characteristics and the country’s media landscapeshall be outlined.Hindus. They follow the caste system strictly, thus deepeningthe rift in society even further. Furthermore, the landlockedHimalayan state is one of the poorest countries in the world.It ranks 157th out of 186 nations in the United Nations HumanDevelopment Index 2013. 5Media LandscapeAll the aforementioned challenges that Nepal as a country isfacing have a direct impact on its media scene. Nepal is farfrom having a state-run or public service network that providesthe majority of its citizens with access to information.The majority of the 30 million Nepalese still rely mainly onradio for information, news, and entertainment as some 80percent of the people live in rural areas where electricity is aproblem and the literacy rate is low. 6,7Radio Nepal was founded in 1951 and had a monopoly onradio broadcasting for the next 46 years. Its broadcast area coverssome 80 to 90% of the country. 8 State-run Nepal Televisionstarted broadcasting in 1985. Not until the end of the 1990s didNepal’s government allow private FM stations to go on air, fillinga vacuum, and giving citizens from then on a choice. Thefirst private TV station, Channel Nepal, got its license in 2002.Nepal – A Brief OverviewNepal is a young and fragile democracy that abolished itspowerful 240-year-old monarchy in 2008. The monarchy hadbeen in trouble since Maoists began a civil war in 1996. A massacrein the palace that left King Birendra, Crown Prince Dipendraand many other members of the royal family dead in2001 traumatized Nepal even more. According to figures fromthe Nepalese government 17,265 people were killed and thousandsdisplaced before the Maoists finally agreed to a trucein 2006. 3 Despite general elections in 2008, which the formerMaoist rebels won by a large majority, and second generalelections in 2013, the process of writing a new constitutioncould not be completed because of fundamentally differentgroup interests. Moreover, Nepal is ethnically a very diversecountry. The National Census of 2011 reports more than 120different ethnic groups and tribes that often have very differentcultures and languages. 4 80 percent of the Nepalis are1Radio Sagarmatha 2014a.2Definition based on Masloget al. 1997.3Nepal Monitor, July 23, 2011;Real Clear Politics,March 29, 2011.4Central Bureau of Statistics 2013.5UNDP 2012.6The literacy rate overall is 57.4 %.It is higher for the male population(71.1%), but significantlylower for women because oftheir low status in society 46.7%.See CIA 2014.7Infoasaid 2011, 5.8The Website of Radio Nepal(http://radionepal.gov.np/) isdirectly connected to theGovernment, which shows thatit is not a public service broadcaster,but a state-run network.The government still views RadioNepal as its official voice andthis, local and commercial radionews in general are more trusted.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 205

Today, there are over 250 community radio stations broadcastingin Nepal. For most of the citizens who live in the remoteareas of the country, community radios are the solesource of information.Media laws and regulations are decades old and thereforedon’t address the most recent developments in technologyand new media. 9 Moreover, reviewing the laws is not a priorityfor lawmakers. 10 The reason for this is simple: since the firstgeneral elections after the end of the civil war in 2008, therehave been seven prime ministers. Some of these governmentsremained in power for a few months only. 11 This developmenthas unveiled deep cleavages in society and political instabilitythat is not only prevalent in all spheres but is also a hindrancefor progress.Despite these challenges, Nepal’s media scene is diverseand vibrant. Nepal has some 100 daily newspapers as well as15 TV stations. Across the country, some 300 radio stations –commercial and community-based are on air. The capitalKathmandu alone has more than 30 FM stations that mainlyfocus on entertainment, gossip, and call-in shows. As these stationsin general rarely offer a forum for debate or feature programsdealing with social issues for the people, station loyaltyis low. Urban listeners who have a choice tend to turn the dialto a different station several times in an hour. 12 The concentrationof media houses in Kathmandu 13 shows that Kathmanduis not only the administrative, economic, and cultural centerof Nepal. It also shows how extreme the urban-rural divide inNepal is. Quality and standards of media outlets vary greatlyas news stories are often manipulated in order to please politiciansor powerful industrialists that finance the media houses,especially in the capital. Even after the establishment of RadioSagarmatha, radio licensing remains restricted only to theelite as it was regarded as an “attractive business.” 14Very few journalists have studied journalism or mass communicationat three universities – Tribhuvan University, KathmanduUniversity and Purbanchal University – or the manyhundreds of colleges that have been offering such coursessince 1976. But they often lack practical knowledge and arevery far from the realities of professional media houses. 15 It isvery common that journalists receive their knowledge as internsand through training on the job only. In 2001, the privateCollege of Journalism and Mass Communication basedin Kathmandu started to offer B.A. and Master courses. For sixsemesters, students, however, have to pay tuition fees of morethan 200,000 Nepalese Rupees, about 1,500 Euros. 16 Despitethese hurdles, a poll of 4,500 people conducted by the BBC in2008 people revealed that an overwhelming majority (92%) ofthe respondents said they trusted the media more than anyother institution in Nepal. 17 Experts describe the role of themedia for Nepal especially after the end of the civil war both aspositive and negative. The media, on the one hand, has beenplaying “a very good role in terms of sensitizing the people ofhaving a constitution” and that it should be a “democratic”one. But many journalists, especially in the big media houses,are “members of political parties” and can therefore not trulyfulfill their role as watchdogs in society. 18Government censorship is rare. In 2005, however, whenthen King Gyanendra declared a state of emergency, manymedia outlets including Radio Sagarmatha were closed, theirequipment was seized and staff detained. To this day, manyjournalists avoid hot topics and practice self-censorship asintimidation and harassment of media professionals is common.19 In the Press Freedom Index of Reporters Without Borders,Nepal ranks only 120th out of 180 nations. 20 Ten journalistsand media owners lost their lives between 2002 and 2010.Moreover, Radio Nepal and Nepal Television are not allowed tobroadcast anything which is in contradiction “to the unity andcultural identity of Nepal” leading to a strongly-filtered selectionof content. 21Already back in 1985, it was demanded that Radio Nepaland Nepal Television should act as public service broadcasters(PSB). A transformation process was started with the goal tomake both bodies more independent from the government,but also bring more transparency into decision making. Butmany academics deem the transformation unsuccessful:“Broadcast culture calls it to be a PSB, funding compulsionsdrag it towards market forces, while the government wouldlike it to remain its mouth piece.” 22 Therefore, due to continuedgovernmental intervention the majority of the people inNepal “have lost trust” in Radio Nepal and Nepal Television. 23In view of this discrepancy between the mandate and actualperformance, community radios, especially Radio Sagarmatha,have taken over many functions of public service mediaas will be described in the following.Internet Penetration in Nepal is growing rapidly. Althoughthe overall rate at around 9% is still very low, it is significantlyhigher among the urban population giving them more choicesof consuming different media and informing themselves. 24Some 75% of the Nepalese population uses mobile phones andevery month some 300,000 new people are added. 25 Especiallythe Nepalese youth are listening to radio and using the internetthrough their mobile phones. 26Radio SagarmathaThe unique characteristics of the media scene in Nepal makeit understandable why Radio Sagarmatha has been hailed inthe international media and by academics as a “pioneer,” 27 the“voice of a nation” 28 that offers “a conduit for the wide range ofvoices and opinions that were previously unheard on Nepal’sradio channels.” 29 Established in 1997, Radio Sagarmatha (MHz102.4) views itself as a “defender of democracy and freedom ofspeech.” 30 Radio Sagarmatha is run by The Nepal Forum of EnvironmentalJournalists (NEFEJ). This NGO was formed in 1986by journalists with a high interest in development and environmentrelated issues. 31 “Sagarmatha” is the Nepalese namefor Mount Everest, the world’s highest mountain situated inNepal, and which is considered holy. It literally means “fac-206

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio Pioneering the ocean with its forehead.” Some translate it as “motherof the universe.” Either way, the name is highly symbolic anddeeply rooted in the Nepalese mythology.Radio Sagarmatha is proud to be the first independentcommunity radio of South Asia. However, the very first “independent”radio broadcast in South Asia was not quite free fromstate control. To get its license, the station needed to adhereto 17 conditions that included, for example, not to broadcastnews and current affairs programs, to only broadcast for twohours a day using only a 100 Watt transmitter and that governmentofficials would monitor the programming and would beinformed about the content. 32 That is why in the early years thefocus was on programs that dealt with issues connected to theenvironment, the preservation of Nepal’s natural resources,and sustainable development since these issues were consideredto be non-political. As Radio Sagarmatha became moreand more popular, it gradually shedded the restrictions thatwere initially connected to its license, including the broadcastof news and current affairs programs. At the same time thecommunity radio movement as a whole gained momentumin the rest of Nepal. Thus, Radio Sagarmatha set the standardfor independent, public-interest radio in the country. 33 Despitethe fact that many countries in the region such as Sri Lanka,for example, were experimenting with the set-up of communityradio stations, countries like India needed many moreyears to develop a clear strategy for the establishment of communityradio stations. That is why the establishment of RadioSagarmatha in 1997 is now widely seen as a “milestone” 34 forthe entire community radio sector in the region.Currently, Radio Sagarmatha broadcasts 18 hours of programsdaily, from 5 a.m. to 11 p.m. It uses a 1 Kilowatt transmitter(1,000 Watt) which makes it possible for people in theentire Kathmandu valley to listen to programming. 35On its website 36 , Radio Sagarmatha highlights its objectives:– To promote open public discourse on issues of publicinterest as part of the effort to carry out advocacy forsocial justice– To set standards in public interest broadcasting– To produce a pool of journalists in community broadcasting10The Radio Act dates back to the year 1957. It was reviewed, amendedand extended in the National Broadcasting Act of 1993. In 1997, theTelecommunication Act came into existence. The Right to InformationAct of 2007 can be considered as a milestone, as it declares the citizen’sright to information and the government responsible in a democracyto work in a transparent and accountable manner. But till date, thereis for example no act that is describing or dealing with the role ofcommunity radios and regulating their work. For Acts and Regulationssee: Ministery of Information and Communications 2014.11The prime ministers were Girija Prasad Koirala (28.05.2008 – 18.08.2008,Nepali Congress), Prachanda alias Pushpa Kamal Dahal (18.08.2008 –25.05.2009, Unified Communist Party of Nepal),Madhav Kumar Nepal (25.05.2009 – 06.02.2011, Communist Partyof Nepal), Jhala Nath Khanal (6.2.2011 – 29.08.2011, Communist Partyof Nepal), Baburam Bhattarai (29.08.2011 – 14.03.2013, Unified CommunistParty of Nepal), Khil Raj Regmi (14.03.2013 – 11.02.2014,Nonpartisan), Sushil Koirala (since February, 11 2014, Nepali Congress).See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Nepal.12Infoasaid 2011.13The population of Kathmandu according to the National Census of 2011is 975 453. In 2001, it was only 671 846. The population of the wholeKathmandu valley is estimated to be 2.5 million. 20% of the urban populationlive in Kathmandu. See Kathmandu Metropolitan City Office 2014.14Dhungel 2012.15Analysis by Pant, Pant 2009.16CJMC Fee Structure, see: http://cjmc.edu.np/home/insidepage/6717Infoasaid 2011, 21 and 22.18Nishchal Pandey, Director of the Centre for South Asian Studiesin Kathmandu.19See NGO Reporters Without Borders’ website on Nepal:http://en.rsf.org/nepal.html20Reporters Without Borders 2014.21Settekorn & Kannengießer 2007, 48.22Adhikarie, March 3, 2011.23Kafle 2010.24Internet World Stats: Nepal Usage and Population Statistics.25Kathmandu Post, February 13, 2013.26Nepal is a very “young” country. More than half of its population isunder 24 years old (54,2 %), see: CIA 2014. For the use of the internetthrough mobile phones and listening of programs over mobile phonesplease see Infoasaid 2011, 7.27Dahal & Aram 2011.28Taylor 2007.29UNESCO 2008.30Quote from Radio Sagarmatha’s website.31NEFEJ 2014a.9Nishchal Pandey, Director of the Centre for South Asian Studies inKathmandu: “Well our laws are quite lax. As far as media are concerned,most of these laws were inacted some 25-30 years back. That’s why lotsof the business persons nowadays criticize them. Especially the onlinemedia, the web-based media resorted to criticism and yellow (press)journalism. And if I go to the court the judiciary will ask for a penaltyof a meager amount of money like 200 – 300 rupees. So these laws wereinacted many years ago and the media has benefitted from that.” (sic)32Dahal & Aram 2011.33Pringle & Subba 2007.34CRSC 2011.35Ghamaraj Luitel, Former Station Manager of Radio Sagarmatha:“Radio Sagarmatha reaches 4.5 million people.” Estimations say that2.5 million people are listening to Radio Sagarmatha on a regular basis.36http://www.radiosagarmatha.orgEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 207

– To educate the masses in issues of their interest– To contribute to the proliferation of community radiostations in the country– To sensitize government and policy makers on issuesfrom constitutional process to gender relations– To facilitate the democratization process by increasingaccess to information to the people including womenand excluded groups as a responsible communityradio–To strengthen democratic culture, peace, sustainabledevelopment and the environmentEspecially popular is the evening talk of Radio SagarmathaAaja ka Kura (Today’s Talk) from 8 to 8.30 p.m. daily in whichcurrent affairs topics related to major social, economic or politicalissues are discussed. In this program, senior governmentofficials such as department secretaries and ministers,but also parliamentarians, are invited and questioned “usinga mixture of interviews, round table discussions, and listenerphone calls.” 37 The program is so successful that its host KiranPokhrel, who was in his twenties when he started at RadioSagarmatha, soon became a celebrity. The newspaper “NepaliTimes“ stated in August 2002: “Kiran Pokhrel hosts RadioSagarmatha’s best-known prime time radio talk programAaja ka Kura. He has talked day-in, day-out, seven days a weekabout everything under the Nepali sun: the dissolution of parliament,life without local governments, mismanagement ofhospitals, vehicle emission standards, the marital rape bill,duped Nepali migrant workers, you name it. It’s now come tothe point where you’re nobody unless you have been grilled byKiran on Aaja ka Kura.” 38In the program schedule social issues related to children(Bal Chautary, Children’s Forum and Lukamari, Hide & Seek),women and senior citizens, good governance (Hamro Sarokar),environment (Batabaran Dabali, Aankhijhyal), education,health as well as discussion rounds (Radio Talk with Dr. PrakashRaj Regmi, Jyoti Baniya, Sulochana Manandhar etc.), the BBC’sNepali Service Re-Broadcast, music programs (Mirmire Bhaka,Yuwa Sangeet, Mera Geet, etc.) and news bulletins (RadioKhabar Patrika, Haalchal) can be found. 39 The popularity ofRadio Sagarmatha’s news bulletin Haalchal in particular datesback to February 2005 when the station was shut down for thefirst time by armed soldiers on the orders of the King. “Haalchaal”isn’t the correct term for news in Nepali which wouldbe “samachar”. “Haalchal” means just a casual conversation.A few days after the first shutdown in February 2005 the stationdecided to fight censorship by broadcasting news sungand proclaimed in a comedy form that is traced back to Nepal’stradition of oral folk media. And thus the name Haalchaalhas stuck for news bulletin to this day. 40 Besides programmingin Nepali, there are programs for other communities too, forexample, for the Newar community (Our Collective Voice/Munasa),Maithil, and Tamang communities. All in all, some 80different programs are broadcast throughout the week. Manyof them are well established and extremely popular.Radio Sagarmatha does not have correspondents or contributorsoutside of the Kathmandu valley. The station, however,provides other community radio stations in the countrythrough a pool set up by the Association of Community RadioBroadcasters Nepal (ACORAB) with its programs and news. Italso receives programs and content from community radiosfrom other parts of the country that are dealing with issues ofshared interest. 41 This exchange of programs was institutionalizedby ACORAB in the year 2009 by establishing the CommunityInformation Network (CIN) that connects all membersof ACORAB – some 250 community radio stations – through asingle satellite network. The network dispatches for exampleready-to-broadcast news twice every day and in a customizablemanner. This means that a 30 minute program, for example,contains 10 minutes of national news, 10 minutes oflocal news that is of relevance for community radio stationsthroughout the country, and 10 minutes of interviews or talks.CIN has a production studio in Kathmandu for which some 8producers work. 42 The network was established because mostcommunity radios are located in remote areas of the countryand this system can overcome hurdles for diverse reportingsuch as the reliability of air networks, slow and interruptedphone and internet connections, or continued closures andstrikes. This system makes local content nationally available.The CIN studio also produces feature programming, for example,on social issues such as public health or women empowermentwhich are then shared. Community radio stations canmake their content available to others through this platformtoo. Besides the news programs that are rebroadcast by overa hundred stations, the amount of stations that rebroadcastfeature programs differs depending on the topic. 43Stakeholders in the Transformation ProcessNepal relies heavily on international aid from governments,international institutions such as the World Bank or the UnitedNations, and civil society organizations such as NGOs. Thishas become a problem when it comes to Nepal’s media landscapefor international organizations and donor agencies impingeupon media function and policies in Nepal. 44UNESCOUnder the International Program for the Development ofCommunication (IPDC) UNESCO played a major role in supportingthe community radio sector in Nepal. Between 1997and 1999 UNESCO helped Radio Sagarmatha set up and establishitself with 60,000 US Dollars. This start-up supportincluded training of staff, consulting, computer, transmissionand studio equipment. Over time, IPDC supported other com-208

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio Pioneermunity radios as well as the ACORAB, established in the year2002. IPDC also helped to prepare different studies assessingthe needs and state of the community radio sector in Nepal.Furthermore, UNESCO has been very active in the educationand qualification of journalism students. Since the 1980s theorganization supported, for example, the Department forMass Communication and Journalism at the Ratna Rajya LaxmiCollege at the Tribhuvan University in Kathmandu. UNES-CO helped in designing the curricula as well as in the trainingof lecturers in the use of interactive teaching methods andknowledge transfer. Some of the lecturers were sent abroad toattend such trainings, among them also to Germany to the InternationalInstitute for Journalism (IIJ) in Berlin. 45BBC Media ActionAlready in the late 1990’s Radio Sagarmatha agreed on a partnershipwith the BBC World Service as well as with BBC MediaAction. Until today, the station rebroadcasts the programs ofthe BBC’s Nepali Service on a daily basis. But an exclusive interviewwith the former leader of the Maoist rebels, Prachandaalias Pushpa Kamal Dahal, by the BBC’s Nepali program createda stir in 2005 and almost put the station’s existence at risk.After Radio Sagarmatha decided to rebroadcast this interviewin November 2005 the station was shut down for the secondtime in that year, equipment was seized, and some employeeswere detained. After heavy protests, the station got its licenseback a few days later.Radio Sagarmatha also airs two popular programs preparedby BBC Media Action in the evening: the radio soap operaKatha Mitho Sarangiko (Bittersweet Tales of the Sarangi) 46that deals with problems and challenges in the life of womenand men in the villages and cities in Nepal through the eyesof the main character Dilu. The mix between poetry, socialdrama, and music has been hailed in Nepal by the media. 47 TheFacebook page of Katha Mitho Sarangiko 48 shows more than109,000 fans, although the production of the program was terminatedin August 2013 after almost 240 episodes. Moreover,Radio Sagarmatha airs another radio magazine SarangikoBhalakusari produced by BBC Media Action which supportsthe fight against gender-biased violence. 49 Both issues arerelevant because Nepal is currently undergoing a sometimespainful transformation process as questions relating to traditionand modernity as well as gender and urbanization aresometimes violently debated in society. BBC Media Action hasextensively trained journalists and staff of Radio Sagarmathain different areas of radio and multimedia journalism. The organizationnow employs 27 people that work on different mediaprojects. 50 BBC Media Action has in total some 100 broadcastpartners in Nepal, among them Radio Sagarmatha andACORAB. Besides producing programs, BBC Media Action aimsto build capacity strengthening partnerships in the FM sector.It also engages in extensive research and works on issue-basedcommunication activities such as climate change.DW AkademieAs Germany’s leading organization for international mediadevelopment, DW Akademie has been active in consulting,coaching, and training journalists at Radio Sagarmatha sincethe late 1990s. DW Akademie has coached employees on manylevels in developing the organizational structures, workedwith the management on workflows and professionalized theprogramming too. In a three-week workshop in 1999 – whichwas part of a series of workshops – DW Akademie trained journalistsin preparing improved programs in terms of content(training in research and writing skills), interactivity (phonein,call-in, write-in, drop-in), and liveliness (integration ofsound bites, vox pops, interviews, music and natural sounds).In terms of organizational structure, new elements were discussedand put into practice: editorial meetings, planningtools, times for air-checks, and team-building measures werepart of the consulting process.The daily morning show was modernized to incorporatedifferent voices in the program and to offer a platform fordiscussion and the inclusion of as many actors as possible.As a regular part of every morning broadcast, vox pops wereintroduced and trained. Until today, these lively elements area regular feature in programming and reporters go out to collectthe voices of people from all walks of life on the burningissues of the day. Moreover, the technicians were trained toimprove the technical quality of live- and pre-produced radiocontent. Jingles and the marketing of the station (off– and onairpromotion) were other fields that were touched upon in theintensive training period. In all, 32 employees were coached.Some other 20 people, including the station manager and therepresentatives of the management board, took part in theconsulting groups and discussion sections.37UNESCO 2008.38Nepali Times, August 16, 200239Radio Sagarmatha 102.4 MHzProgram Schedule, see: http://www.radiosagarmatha.org/programm-list-with-grid.html40Taylor 2007.41Tirtha Koirala, President of NEFEJand Chairman of the Board ofRadio Sagarmatha.42Mohan Chapagain, Chairman ofthe Association of CommunityRadio Broadcasters Nepal(ACORAB).43Ibid.44Raghunath, January 16, 2014.45See Website of Department ofMass Communication andJournalism at Tribuhan University:http://www.journalism.edu.np/introduction/index.html46The Sarangi is a bowed, shortneckedstring instrument fromSouth Asia made out of wood.It is the most popular instrumentin the region.47A selection of newspaper articlesthat praise the almost 150 episodesof “Katha Mitho Sarangiko”can be found at BBC 2014a.48http://www.facebook.com/kathamithosarangiko49BBC 2014b.50Ibid.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 209

The methods that were applied to design this project were theresult of intense talks and negotiations with the station managerand other representatives at the station. The aim was tohelp Radio Sagarmatha to fulfill its own targets as a communityradio station and to cater to the needs of the involved communitiesthrough better programming. Helmut Osang, projectmanager, and Goetz Buerki, technical consultant, of theDW Akademie noted in their final report. “There is a tendencytowards narration overload. And there is a tendency towardsexpert overload. Many programs are talk dominated, thusnot making full use of radio’s wealth of formats and boringthe listener. Furthermore, most programs are studio-based,with guests being invited to the studio rather than talkingwith them where they work, meet or simply live.” 51 The reportemphasized how important field trips are as they showed thevalue of going out, as the “results are lively and down-to-earthinterviews, reports, and packages, making the program richerand more colorful.” 52In recent years the following cooperation projects were carriedout: A 30-minute radio feature on the education for marginalizedgroups in Nepal was co-produced in 2005 by an editorfrom Radio Sagarmatha together with an editor from DeutscheWelle. It was aired in German and English by Deutsche Welleand in English and Nepali by Radio Sagarmatha. In 2007, differentworkshops were designed to cater to the needs of the differentstake holders in Nepal: a follow-up workshop for RadioSagarmatha, training and consulting sessions for members ofACORAB as well as for technicians of ACORAB. Journalists ofRadio Sagarmatha were also trained in other workshops in Nepaland Germany on issues such as “News and Online Journalism”or “Reporting” (2003, 2009, 2010). The European Unionfunded a study in 2008 about the challenges that communityradio stations are facing in Nepal which was carried out by DWAkademie together with ACORAB.The International Institute for Journalism (IIJ), BerlinThe International Institute for Journalism (IIJ) 53 organizedon a regular basis trainings and workshops for Radio Sagarmathaand other community radio stations in cooperationwith the German Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung and the Nepal Forumof Environment Journalists (NEFEJ). Besides journalisticmultimedia-workshops, “Train the Trainer” workshops wereorganized in Berlin. 54 Journalists from Nepal also took part insummer schools and other specific programs in Germany thatwere organized by the IIJ.DANIDANepal became a priority country for Denmark’s developmentcorporation, DANIDA, in 1989. 55 The objectives for DANIDA inNepal are to contribute to “poverty reduction, political stability,and to strengthen inclusive economic growth and accessto renewable energy.” Every year, Denmark provides approximately35 million US Dollars in assistance. Besides training RadioSagarmatha’s staff on a regular basis, DANIDA organized in1999 a unique concept with the station: Safa Radio-The CleanAir Campaign. 56 “Safa” is the Nepalese word for “clean.” Fivedays a week a three wheeled electric van that could carry halfa dozen or more people would measure the level of air pollutantsin the city. Heavy smog and air pollution are serious problemsin Kathmandu. Many call the city “unlivable” and that itis “choking” its residents. 57 According to Yale’s 2014 EnvironmentalPerformance Index (EPI), Nepal’s air quality ranks 177thout of 178 countries. 58 In 1999, results of the samples from 30rotating locations that the Safa Tempo collected were analyzedin a lab, then explained the same day during the stations eveningnews bulletin, Haalchaal. In a monthly press conference,results would be presented to the media and the public.Free Voice/Free Press UnlimitedFree Voice was established in 1986 to support independent mediain developing countries. It stated as its objective to “strivetowards establishing reliable journalism and press freedom inthose regions.” 59 Free Voice was founded by the Dutch Associationof Journalists (NVJ), the Association of Dutch NewspaperPublishers (NDP), the Dutch Society of Editors, and Radio NetherlandsWorldwide. In 2011 Free Voice was merged with othersto form Free Press Unlimited. In Nepal, Free Voice supportedthe Community Radio Support Centre (CRSC) that was formedby NEFEJ, the license holder of Radio Sagarmatha. Free Voicehas been actively supporting the growth and strengthening ofcommunity radios – in rural areas too – through workshops,the establishment of a help desk, grant fund, technical andmanagement inputs, producers capacity building, referencematerials development, advocacy and lobbying, and a radioknowledge center among others. 60Radio Sagarmatha states on its website 61 that it worked inthe past with a variety of other development organizationssuch as Action Aid, Oxfam GB, Transparency International, USAID and the US embassy, Water Aid, and the WWF among otherson a topic-based basis. It was highlighted in the interviewsthat in general the training activities were of great help andimportance for Radio Sagarmatha as well as for the communityradio sector. Workshops, however, were only useful whenthe needs and wishes of the station were taken into account.Only by “inviting people in a five-star-hotel” far away from thereality of their daily routine and work environment, many topicsdiscussed could not be integrated in the daily work. Thus, insome projects “time and resources were wasted.” 62Status of the Media OrganizationLegal Framework, Governance and EthicsRadio Sagarmatha is run by The Nepal Forum of EnvironmentalJournalists (NEFEJ). 63 NEFEJ is the current license holder. Atthe time of Radio Sagarmatha’s founding, three other NGOs –the Himal Association, Worldview Nepal, and the Nepal PressInstitute – had campaigned together with NEFEJ to get the licenseand are therefore included in the Radio Sagarmatha210

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio PioneerBoard too. 64 It meets monthly to review and plan activities.Currently, the five member board is elected for two years andheaded by a chairman. NEFEJ appoints the station manager asthe executive chief of the station and the deputy station managertoo.Generally, there are three types of “owners” or licenseholders of community radio stations in Nepal: NGOs, corporativesand others such as village bodies or municipalities. 65 Byfar most of the community radios in the country are run byNGOs although the level of financial aid to the different stationsvaries greatly. This has led to widespread criticism if theconcerned stations can truly be independent from the agendaof the NGO to whom they are attached.Despite the fact that Radio Sagarmatha started its operationsin 1997 already, there is still no legal framework underwhich the now more than 250 community radios in 70+ districtsof the country work. Up until now, rules and regulationsregarding the media in general and the role of the press in Nepalin particular can be found in the Radio Act of 1957, 66 that hasbeen amended many times, as well as in the Broadcasting Actof 1993, and the interim constitution of 2007. Meanwhile thegovernment has established a nine-member working groupand is hopeful to finally come up with binding regulations bythe end of 2014 in order to give the community radio sector a“separate identity.” 67 As of now, community radios were onlymentioned as being “non-profit-making FM stations.”All in all, the growth of the sector has been somewhat chaoticin the past years. As one expert has said, it was based “on sentiments,emotions, and ideals” 68 rather than a planned strategy.Especially after the end of the civil war in 2006, when the governmentwas no longer afraid that airwaves could be used bythe former Maoist rebels for their propaganda, licenses wereissued en masse. Between April 2006 and July 2007 about 150licenses were issued and in early August 2011, the governmenthad issued 393 licenses and of these, 228 were community stationsand the remainder commercial radios. 69 One of the reasonsfor this rush is that receiving the license is quite cheap.For a 100 Watt transmitter, the license fee is 20,000 NepaleseRupees, approx. 150 Euros. A small station can be run on a budgetof ca. 1.5 million Nepalese Rupees (11,200 Euros) a year. 70In the absence of governmental regulations and guidelines,ACORAB – the Association of Community Radio Broadcastersin Nepal – has come up with its own “constitution,” a set of criteriaits members should adhere to. This includes that “at least60% of the programming should be localized. The programs ofthis category should be either dealing with local issues of thecommunities the concerned stations are serving or should bein the local language to give the communities a platform andsupport dialogue. The remaining 40% of the programmingcan deal with issues of national interest, can be rebroadcastsfrom other stations or could be entertainment based. 71The absence of a clear definition and binding criteria hasmade it in many cases difficult to differentiate clearly betweencommercial and community radio stations in Nepal as the stationselects most of the times its label on its own. A report submittedin December 2012 by ACORAB and the United NationsDemocracy Fund (UNDEF) states: “Community radios face anumber of governance and accountability related challengesincluding: inconsistent application of community radio principles,domination by elite groups, increased politicizationand loss of local control and content. Despite large numbersof stations that use the label ‘community radio’, many of thesestations would score low or fail if a well-researched set of criteriawere applied to their operations.” 72Three Nepali organizations in particular need to be mentionedwhen it comes to journalistic ethics. In 2003 (amendedin 2008), The Press Council Nepal 73 has come up with a “Codeof Journalistic Ethics.” 74 The Press Council Nepal is an autonomousand independent body set up by the government in 1972to monitor originally the print media only and promote freedomand ethical standards of behavior. It now also deals withcomplaints against journalists, publications, and broadcastersand advises the government on media development policy.51Osang & Buerki 1999.52Ibid.53The IIJ was founded in 1962 andseeked to improve the performanceof print and onlinejournalists It later becamepart of Deutsche Gesellschaft fürInternationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ), and in 2013 its operationswere taken over by DW Akademie.54NEFEJ 2014b.55See Ministery of Foreign Affairsof Denmark 2014.56Noronha, May 22, 1999.57Lodge, March 21, 2014.58Yale University 2014.59Free Press Unlimited 2014.60NEFEJ 2014c.61Radio Sagarmatha 2014b.62Mohan Chapagain, Chairman ofthe Association of CommunityRadio Broadcasters Nepal(ACORAB).63NEFEJ 2014a.64See: Shivakoti.65In 2011, out of 242 licensedcommunity radio stations183 were run by an NGO, 54 by acorporative and the rest byvillage council, a municipalityand educational institutions.In: CRSC 2011.66The original text of the RadioAct of 1957 can be foundunder http://www.asianlii.org/np/legis/laws/ra201463/.67Mohan Chapagain, Chairman ofthe Association of CommunityRadio Broadcasters Nepal(ACORAB).68Ibid.69Pringle & Subba 2007, 10.70According to data provided bythe Association of CommunityRadio Broadcasters Nepal(ACORAB).71Mohan Chapagain, Chairman ofthe Association of CommunityRadio Broadcasters Nepal(ACORAB).72ACORAB 2012.73Press Council Nepal 2014.74Press Council Nepal 2008.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 211

Despite its mission statement, many are skeptical how independentthe Council is and if it can really fulfill its role as awatchdog. The chairman of the council for example is appointeddirectly by the government which led in last year’s appointmentof former Supreme Court Justice Avadesh Kumar Yadavto serious controversies. Moreover internal reforms are overdue.75 Despite that, the Nepal Press Council is for many communityradios the only acknowledged entity that gives themguidance and orientation. That is why Radio Sagarmatha’scurrent station manager Tika Ram Rai states that the stationis “strictly following the code of conduct that the Nepal PressCouncil has prepared” and that there are “other directivesdealing with journalistic standards especially for the news editorsat Radio Sagarmatha in place.” 76 Besides the Press CouncilNepal, the Federation of Nepalese Journalists (FNJ) also aimsto engage itself in the “development of a responsible and accountablemedia and promote the idea of press freedom.” 77 FNJwas formed back in 1956, then under the name of Nepal JournalistsAssociation. Today more than 8.000 journalists andmedia persons that work in print, electronic, and online mediaall over the country are represented by this body.The Nepal Press Institute (NPI) is the only notable Nepaleseinstitution that offers training to journalists and acts as aresearch institution for the media of Nepal. This NGO has itsheadquarters in Kathmandu, but the institute also runs threeregional media resources centers in Biratnagar, Butwal, andNepalgunj. 78 It is a membership-based organization. It fundsitself from fees for services, membership dues, grants and donations.NPI emphasizes that it does not receive any grantsor subsidies from the Nepalese government. On its website,the NPI further states that it receives funding from DANIDAwhich is its most important international partner and donoras well as the Danish School of Journalism, UNESCO, PanosSouth Asia and Save the Children US. 79 Its mission is to promote“the development of independent media, free accessto information, human rights and pluralism of thoughts andideas” and of “upholding the ideas of press freedom, humanrights and democracy.” 80Capacity Building and Human ResourcesCurrently, some 80 people work for Radio Sagarmatha. The stationmanager is heading the station and is represented in hisabsence by the deputy station manager. The station is dividedthen further into six departments: the program section withthe chief producer as its head, the news section with the newseditor as its head, the technical section headed by a technicalmanager, the finance section with a finance manager as itshead and the human resources section headed by the humanresources manager. According to the organization chart 20people work in the program section and 22 in the news section.The interviewees emphasized the fact that Radio Sagarmathaespecially values the participation and the capacity building ofwomen. Station Manager Tika Ram Rai stated that about 60%of the journalists and program contributors at Radio Sagar-matha are women. 81 Tirtha Koirala as chairman of the RadioSagarmatha board said that out of 31 journalists that are employedin one way or the other with the station, 17 are maleand 14 are female, but that there are more female volunteersthan male volunteers. 82 Radio Sagarmatha’s own website talksof about 40% women. 83 Whatever the true number is, it is a bigsuccess for gender equality, for in the beginning, staffers andcontributors were primarily men.Generally speaking, Community Radio stations have todeal with a great fluctuation among their staff. The reasonsare that community radio stations usually cannot pay greatamounts of money to their staffers and volunteers. ACORABstrongly emphasizes that there are no salaries, 84 and it estimatesthe average compensation amount for contributorsfor a feature program of 20-25 minutes in a small communityradio station based in a remote district to be about 300–400Nepalese Rupees which is about 3 Euros. If the station is a bitbetter off it can also pay up to 800 Nepalese Rupees for a weeklyprogram. According to ACORAB, small community radiosrun operations with just 20–25 staffers.Financial sustainability is one of the biggest challengesthat these stations are facing. Radio stations that have a bitmore resources would have altogether some 40–50 staffers. 85Operations with 80 employees, such as in the case of RadioSagarmatha, are only possible in the big cities such as in Kathmandu,Pokhara or Biratpur.Generally there is quite a big interest to work for a communityradio station, despite the fact that the amount of moneypaid as a fee for transportation or research bears no proportionto the time and efforts volunteers put in their work forthe community radio station. The background of the volunteersis quite diverse and ranges from teachers to advocates,health workers, doctors, housewives or students. 86 In the caseof Radio Sagarmatha at least 10 university students per year dotheir internship at the station for 45 days. 87 After finishing theirinternship and completing their undergraduate degree, RadioSagarmatha gives them the opportunity to apply at the stationas volunteers. The best are selected and receive an amount ofabout 6,000 Nepalese Rupees monthly for transportation andas compensation for their efforts. 88Staffers and contributors are qualified by senior colleaguesin the different stations through trainings that range from 10to 15 days. Within this time, issues such as “how to identify topicsof programs, criteria for radio journalism, and voice training”are discussed. 89 ACORAB also sends trainers to conducttrainings in remote areas in order to help small communityradio stations to improve the quality of their programming. 90Since they are operating isolated from national news and informationin local languages other than Nepali, professionalizingprogramming and management remains a big challenge.Also the question of establishing regional training and resourcecenters was discussed many times but they could neverbe satisfactory established. 91 But what must be noted is that asRadio Sagarmatha has been a pioneer in the community radio212

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio Pioneermovement in Nepal and has transformed itself into a stationthat has a high quality of programming for which many notedjournalists work. Radio Sagarmatha is today even able to givetrainings to staffers from other community stations itself.In 2007 recommendations from an assessment of the communityradio sector highlighted the urgent need to come upwith a long-term vision for the sector and to include stakeholdersfrom various government departments (education,human resources, rural development, etc.) to colleges and universitiesin this process. 92 The aim should be “to build nationaland local capacities to ensure a dynamic and sustainable communityradio sector, one that makes appropriate contributionsto national development.” 93Through a specific strategic capacity development plan forthe community radio sector that is endorsed by all stakeholdersissues that needed to be addressed were identified as universityand college curricula, the role of different communityradio groups, national and regional training centers, distancelearning programs, internships, and government support forhuman resource development, among others. 94 In 1999 whenDW Akademie conducted an initial three-week consultancyworkshop including an assessment of the organizationalstructure of Radio Sagarmatha, it highlighted the challengesmany community radios that started their operations butalso established ones that have to deal with the high levelof fluctuation among their staff will face: “Only by involvingstaff can one build a team. Teambuilding however also impliessharing work load, sharing responsibility.” 95 As in someorganizations payment and contract schemes are not transparentthis adds to frustration and might bring down motivation.“Salaries, working time, actual performance, work load,job descriptions, and job perspectives for volunteers need tobe constantly reviewed.” 96Financing, Management and Newsroom StructuresThese days, Radio Sagarmatha states that only about 30% ofthe funds that are required to run the station come from differentNGOs including NEFEJ, the license holding NGO. The stationtherefore relies on local public service announcements –in short PSA - to generate income as most of the communityradio stations in general do. 97 Such kinds of PSA are in the caseof Radio Sagarmatha mostly related to issues dealing with “environment,sanitation, rule of law, gender relations, social justice,education, child rights, human rights, rights of women.”Co-productions as paid sponsored programs are also possible.Under this agreement, the sponsor has the editorial say withRadio Sagarmatha providing airtime and technical support,as Radio Sagarmatha’s website explains. 98 Major internationalagencies, foundations, and institutes can also spread their programs,thus raising awareness, when they pay for the preparationof the program.In 2011, a detailed study assessing 15 of the most renownedcommunity radio stations in Nepal already looked upon sevenkey challenges that are common for all community radios inNepal: Participation and ownership, radio governance, radioprograms, resource structure and resource management, radiostation management, financial management, and networking.Radio Sagarmatha was ranked in third place outof the 15 stations that were analyzed. 99 The station was verystrong in terms of programming, but recommendations weregiven regarding its financial management especially as its performancein this area was below par. General problems thatsmaller community radio stations have are, for example, thatstill until today not all maintain a bank account, don’t knowhow to use and generate income from different sources, don’thave an inventory of goods and equipment nor review theirfinancial situation periodically. 100 Many studies have foundthat the quality of programming has improved considerablyin recent years. But still, financial sustainability remains achallenge and is in many cases directly linked to the quality ofprogramming when journalists are poorly paid, proper equipmentis missing or not correctly installed.Radio Sagarmatha is very proud of its news bulletin Haalchaaland news are broadcast throughout the day. It is one ofthe core issues for Radio Sagarmatha. Topics of the programand news are “collectively chosen” and an editorial meetingis convened “three times a day.” 101 Besides the news editor, theorganization chart shows that senior and assistant editors,co-reporters and junior reporters work in the news section toensure proper research, unbiased reporting and cross-checkingof information through a defined working pattern. Centralplanning is important as well as proper organization andguidance by senior journalists at the station. For international75Dhungana, January 27, 2013;Freedom Forum, Jan. 28, 2013.76Tika Ram Rai, current StationManager at Radio Sagarmatha.77Federation of Nepali Journalists2014.78Nepal Press Institute 2014.79Ibid.80Ibid.81Tika Ram Rai, current StationManager at Radio Sagarmatha.82Tirtha Koirala, President of NEFEJand Chairman of the Board ofRadio Sagarmatha.83Radio Sagarmatha 2014c.84Mohan Chapagain, Chairman ofthe Association of CommunityRadio Broadcasters Nepal(ACORAB).85Ibid.86Ibid.87Tika Ram Rai, current StationManager at Radio Sagarmatha.88Ibid.89Mohan Chapagain, Chairman ofthe Association of CommunityRadio Broadcasters Nepal(ACORAB).90Ibid.91ACORAB 2008.92Pringle & Subba 2007, 36 and 37.93Ibid.94Ibid.95Osang & Buerki, 1999.96Ibid.97Tika Ram Rai, current StationManager at Radio Sagarmathaand Ghamaraj Luitel, HeadMedia Academy Nepal andFormer Station Manager RadioSagarmatha.98Radio Sagarmatha 2014d.99Radio Lumbini and RadioMenchhyayem scored bestaccording to CRSC, see CRSC 2011.100Ibid.101Tika Ram Rai, current StationManager at Radio Sagarmatha.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 213

news, Radio Sagarmatha has subscribed to the national NewsAgency Rastriya Samachar Samiti (RSS) 102 that is workingclosely together with international agencies such as AP, Xinhua,PTI, etc. Meanwhile other stations – especially those inrural areas – that cannot afford to subscribe to a news agencysometimes face the problem that they rely on old news fromnewspapers only.Perception, Participation and Public EngagementRadio Sagarmatha is undoubtedly one of the most successfuland powerful community radio stations of Nepal. 103 It is verypopular in the Kathmandu valley and eagerly monitored bydecision makers. The audience is diverse as are the programsthat address all levels of society: from shop owners to housewives,from children and students to senior citizens and womento farmers and decision makers. Radio Sagarmatha joinedFacebook in October 2013 and the station is slowly buildingup a community of fans. 104 The page is maintained by the programproducers who post links and information about theirprograms on a regular basis, but sometimes there is a day gapor even more in updating the page. One can also find teamphotos or other information of NGOs that were featured onthis page. “Excellent,” “best,” or “informative” were the wordsused by users to describe Radio Sagarmatha. 105Public Service: General FunctionsBased on the analysis of the media scene in Nepal it is clearthat the state broadcaster Radio Nepal is in many ways nota public service broadcaster. But Radio Sagarmatha is a verygood example for a community radio station that is able totake over for its audience many functions of public service mediaas the following chapter shows.Creating a Public SphereRadio Sagarmatha is proud to have been in many instancesan agenda-setter and that through its investigative reportingmany issues of domestic and foreign interest came intolight. Some examples are mentioned on the Radio Sagarmathawebsite: 106– The Nepalese government had agreed back in 2007on a controversial extradition treaty with the Indiangovernment. According to this treaty – it has been anissue that came up from time to time since the 1950s –even individuals with third country nationality neededto be handed over to India when demanded. InteriorMinister Krishna Prasad Sitaula was traveling to Delhito sign the deal. The Dashain festival – Nepal’s longestand most auspicious festival – was celebrated on thesedays and all the newspapers were shut. Radio Sagarmathaorganized a studio discussion and after it, thegovernment backed down from its previous decisionbecause of public pressure.– At the Supreme Court the case file belonging to TulasiDevi Ghimire 107 had suspiciously gone missing. RadioSagarmatha reported on the issue and interviewed theJoint Registrar and renowned judge, Til Prasad Shreshta.Eventually the file was retrieved.– Radio Sagarmatha also states that the intensive reportingand open debate on issues related to genderwas helpful as the country came up with an improvedand gender-friendly legislation including reproductivehealth for women. 108 If it was Radio Sagarmatha’sreporting alone that changed the law or if Radio Sagarmatha’sreporting was only part of a combined effortof many stakeholders cannot be proven. 109 But it can besafely said that this certainly was a case where the stationoffered an important forum and platform for debates,opinions and dialogue.– Natural disasters are another area where Radio Sagarmathahas been effective. Its broadcasting has informedpeople during crises about details of the emergency,rescue operations, restitution that victims can expect,and how to protect themsleves from illnesses. Exampleswere floods and landslides that hit especially westernNepal in 2002 or the Kosi river floods in 2008. 110 RadioSagarmatha is running a program on issues relatedto earthquakes too, which is called Bhukampiya Surakshya.This is a very relevant topic as Nepal is earthquakeprone and considered to be a “high-risk country.” 111 Inmodern history, approximately every 75 years a majorearthquake has occurred. The last one happened in1934. The United Nations Office on Disaster Risk Reductionestimates that up to 100,000 people could losetheir lives if an earthquake destroyed large parts of theKathmandu valley. 112Supporting IntegrationRadio Sagarmatha is educating, informing, and entertainingpeople through its programs, raising awareness, supportingintegration and preserving the national and cultural heritage.One example is Uhile Bajeka Palama - In the time of our forefathers.The concept for this program was already drafted in1999 during a first consultancy by DW Akademie. In its finalrecommendation the team noted: “Recording oral history isan essential task of public service broadcasting. Elders in thecities and villages in the valley certainly have stories to tell andsongs to sing.” 113 The 30-minute program values the culturalidentity of the Nepalese people and educates the younger generationabout history. It is a unique and creative way of constructinga local identity and emphasizing the sense of a localbelonging. Moreover, Radio Sagarmatha is proud to have morethan 25,000 sound tracks saved in its archives, preserving thecultural heritage of the communities it is serving.214

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio PioneerRadio Sagarmatha also contributes to the empowerment of localcommunities. As a means of social mobilization, the stationis raising its voice to discuss many hidden issues or taboo topicsin society, reflecting the shortcomings of Nepal’s fledglingdemocracy. Through this, marginalized groups can also participatein the public sphere. For example, programs dealing withthe plight of the Dalit community - Untouchables as they aretermed - are also produced on a regular basis in order to overcomethe discrimination that the caste system has imposed onthem which has deeply divided the Nepalese society. 114Another approach that was greatly valued by one of the interviewedexperts was when Nepal was engulged in the civil war,Radio Sagarmatha tried to calm down sentiments and advocatedfor negotiations rather than the use of violent force. In thisregard, Radio Sagarmatha was not only moderating, but in someways also mediating the peacebuilding process. 115 The station’swork has been acknowledged nationally and internationally.Radio Sagarmatha received in 2006 the AMARC InternationalSolidarity Prize 116 and in 2007 the ONE WORLD Special Award 117 .The Supreme Court of Nepal, the Dalit Sewa Sangh, Nepal Centerfor Disaster, and the Commission for the Investigation of Abusehave sent formal letters of appreciation to the station. 118Achievements and Challengesalive, to integrate the concerns of the communities RadioSagarmatha is serving and balancing this with other sectorsof society. On top of this Radio Sagarmatha is also strugglingwith the general challenges the media sector in Nepal is facing.– In the absence of a legal framework and because ofthe continued political instability as governments keepchanging within a short period of time, the lines betweencommercial and community radio stations arenot very clear. All the interviewed experts said that newlegislation is urgently needed to restructure and reorganizethe sector which has grown so rapidly and in manyways uncontrolled.– It is also important to ensure that the communityradio idea or its philosophy is not misused in order tosimply generate funds or grants. The tendency for thisdevelopment became clear in the 2012 study of ACORABand the UNDEF. It stated that many stations that considerand label themselves as “community radios” wouldin fact fare very low, if they were analyzed by a set ofcriteria, such as: application of community radio principles,domination by elite groups, increased politicization,and loss of local control and content. 121Radio Sagarmatha has achieved a large reputation, credibilityand respect not only in the communities it serves, but alsoamong academics and in the community radio scene worldwide.It is considered by its listeners as a trustworthy sourceof information, a role model as well as a trendsetter and asource of inspiration for many in Nepal. 119 The fight for an independentsource of information by journalists and activistsfor over five years that finally led to the foundation of RadioSagarmatha in 1997 has been a milestone for the communityradio scene, not only in Nepal but for the whole of South Asiaas described in detail before. In the 17 years since its establishment,Radio Sagarmatha can be proud of the fact that it hasgroomed and transformed itself into a professional mediahouse. In the beginning, the station was only able to broadcasta few hours of programming with a handful of people using a100 kilowatt transmitter. Today, some 80 people work for thestation that broadcasts 18 hours of programming a day. Theenthusiasm of the founding days is described by then technicaldirector Upendra Aryal. “I thought it was a big fantasy totransform an outfit with a single mono Sony EV500 compactcassette recorder into a sophisticated FM station. It was verydifficult to even get a building for the proposed station. Finallythe station was in my house, and I was ready to rent out theland and the building for the next fifteen years. I had the transmitterhidden in my residence and at night kept it as if it weremy pillow.” 120 To keep this enthusiasm and identification alivefor the cause of community radio journalism is seen by manyof the interviewed experts as a big challenge. It will also alwaysremain a big challenge to keep the diversity of programming102http://www.rss.com.np/103A list of national and internationalawards that RadioSagarmatha received can befound on the radio’s website.104https://www.facebook.com/#!/sagarmathafm – on April 22,2014 the number of likes was1435.105Ibid.106Radio Sagarmatha 2014e.10729 year old Tulasi Ghimire wasstaying with her husband andher two months old daughter ina hotel. She and the baby died asthe oxygen level in the room wastoo low during the night becausea heater had been installedto warm the room by the hotel.The family belonged to a veryremote area of Nepal. Thehusband, a carpenter, survived.See: The Himalayan 2014.108Radio Sagarmatha 2014e.109Adhikary, Dhruba Hari;Noted journalist, author, analyst,former head of the NepalPress Institute and now memberof the Board of Directors.110Ibid.111For more information pleasesee DPNet Nepal 2014.112UNISDR 2012.113Osang & Buerki 1999.114Estimations of how manypeople in Nepal belong to theDalit community vary greatlybetween around 13 % up to 20 %(between 3.5 to 5 million people).See: IDSN 214; DWO 2014;ILO 2005.115Nishchal Pandey, Director of theCentre for South Asian Studiesin Kathmandu.116AMARC 2006.117One World Media 2007.118Radio Sagarmatha 2014a.119Mohan Chapagain, Chairman ofthe Association of CommunityRadio Broadcasters Nepal(ACORAB).120Communication Initiative 2001.121ACORAB 2012.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 215

– One big issue is financial sustainability as this is importantto make the community radio stations independentfrom their “owners” or financing institutionsin terms of the content of programming and managerialas well as other important decisions. A mix of sourceswhen it comes to the money that is needed to run thestation is recommendable. 122– To maintain a high level of journalistic standards anemphasis must be laid on training and monitoring staffersand contributors on a regular basis with air-checksand proper feedback. This is especially important asonly a few people at the various stations have studiedjournalism and have gained sufficient experience inthis field. 123 One of the interviewed experts mentionedthat in some cases Radio Sagarmatha was criticized inthe past for not paying adequate attention to maintainits editorial and language standards. 124Transformation ApproachesThis analysis shows that Radio Sagarmatha’s success is remarkableand all the interviewed experts as well as the literaturereferred to emphasized that the station has undoubtedlyachieved much. However, a few recommendations for furtherimprovement shall be given. These recommendations aremade on the basis of the challenges the community radio sectoras a whole in Nepal is facing, but are also specifically dealingwith issues that Radio Sagarmatha should address in thefuture to modernize itself further.Recommendations for the community radio sector as a whole:– The absence of governmental regulations and guidelinesis harmful for the community radio sector in Nepal.It is in some cases not possible to differentiate onthe basis of content between commercial FM stationsand community radio stations. This is undermining thephilosophy and vision of the community radio idea. Itis therefore important that the legal status and the regulatoryframework for community radio stations in Nepalare drafted and put into practice in order to ensurethat community radio stations contribute to pluralismin media. This would also give them the legal backing tobecome truly a strong “third sector.”– A clear media strategy in general is lacking in Nepal.Laws and regulations as described in detail before aredecades old. Community radio stations cannot takeover all the roles of public service media just becauseRadio Nepal’s transformation to a public service broadcaster,despite many efforts, could not be fulfilled. 125– Until today, Radio Nepal is still widely considered themouthpiece of the government. That is why private mediain general are considered to be more trustworthy.Although some responsibilities can be shared betweenthe public, private, and community radio sector, itshould be understood that private stations have a limitedreach. 126– A clear governmental strategy could also be helpful instandardizing the education and qualification of journalists.This would lead to more professionalism in Nepal’smedia sector.– The experiences of Radio Sagarmatha as well as theknowledge 127 the station gathered since its establishmentin 1997 should be better used in order to strengthenthe community radio sector as a whole in Nepal.Having better access to resource material for new communityradio stations in the remote areas would be inthis regard very helpful. As Radio Sagarmatha is basedin the capital Kathmandu resources were and are moreeasily available than is the case in remote areas of thecountry. 128 A more effective staff exchange could be atool to transfer knowledge. ACORAB is already trying toconnect the different community radio stations witheach other in a better way. But the exchange of ideas,best practices, the drafting of binding technical standards,consulting, and training should be organized ina more effective and systematic way.– Training of staffers or incentives such as reporting opportunitiescould also help in cutting down the fluctuationamong the staffers. Many talented young journalistsleave the community radio stations to start a careeras professional journalists in other media houses, especiallyif payments are low and no other incentives canbe provided.– It is very important for community radios to findtheir niche and character that is in many ways not acopy of successfully running stations, but a self-confidentinterpretation of their mandate: a balanced mixbetween informative, social, and entertainment programsthat attract all fractions of the communities theyserve. If the mandate is successfully delivered, inequityin society can be at least diminished.– It is especially important for community radios tofulfill their mandate even though television is now themain source of broadcast news and entertainment inthe urban areas. 129 TV is seen as the medium for peoplewith better incomes and therefore owning a TV set isa kind of status symbol for many. Furthermore, TV is216

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio Pioneerespecially popular among the youth. Nevertheless, radiostill is the most preferred medium overall in Nepal.Here community radios need to take their stand andcater to the needs of the young generation too.– Competition is growing as more and more radio stationshit the airwaves – commercial stations are comingup in Nepal. The market share of each station is shrinkingand the demands and interests of the audienceare also changing rapidly. An honest introspection isneeded to understand the needs of the audience in thisnew environment and atmosphere that is consideredby many as “unhealthy” especially regarding financialsustainability. 130and a platform to exchange views. An effectively workingmultimedia department could better deal with suchissues in the future. A few interviews and discussionrounds that were filmed by different NGOs when theiremployees or other activists were interviewed by RadioSagarmatha can be found on YouTube. Instead of sporadicallyputting up individual interviews by variousprivate or NGO accounts, Radio Sagarmatha as an institutioncould use YouTube as a tool for further spreadingits message.Recommendations for Radio Sagarmatha:– It is important that senior colleagues at Radio Sagarmatha– who are in most cases training younger staffersand contributors – have gained qualifications through“Train the Trainer”-workshops. As this analysis reveals,international organizations have been very active intraining journalists and working with Radio Sagarmathain recent years. But gradually, interest has dropped asthe station professionalized its operations more andmore. To keep the high quality of programming alive,it is important that every staffer or contributor receivesthe same amount of information and knowledge whenhe or she begins working for the station. This knowledgeshould not only include radio skills (how to conductan interview, how to write a report and a lead, technicalskills, voice training, etc.). It is equally importantthat every new colleague is familiar with the history, thephilosophy and the aim of the station and the communityradio sector as such.– It has been pointed out that Radio Sagarmatha wasvery popular because of the fact that it would bringmost of it reports back from the field and assign reportersto go out. But nowadays, more and more interviewsare conducted over phone right from the studio whichis undermining the credibility of the station. 131– New media and new technologies need to be made notonly available, but integrated into the workflow. This isa challenge that many media houses in Nepal face currently.For example, Radio Sagarmatha’s Facebook pagewas started in October 2013. But while an estimated over1,3 million people in Nepal use Facebook, 132 Radio SagarmathasFacebook page currently has just about 1500 followers.Also Twitter could be an interesting tool to buildup a kind of a Radio Sagarmatha community feelingespecially among its younger audience and to offer aninteractive and immediate tool for dialogue, criticism,122Radio Sagarmatha states thatonly some 30 % of funds comefrom different NGOs, money isalso generated through PSAand paid sponsorship ofprograms. For more informationplease see 5.3. Financing,Management and NewsroomStructures.123For detailed information pleasesee chapter 5.2. Capacity Buildingand Human Resources.124Dhruba Hari Adhikary, notedjournalist, author, analyst,former head of the Nepal PressInstitute and now member of theBoard of Directors.125Please see chapter 11.2 of thisanalysis with regard to fn. 22 aswell as Kafle 2010.126Adhikarie, March 3, 2011.127“Knowledge“ refers, for example,to things such as how to run astation, how to develop aprogram schedule keeping thespecific needs of the communitiesthat the station serves in mind,how to recruit the right people,how to generate different sourcesof funds, networking andmarketing etc. However,especially when it comes tofunds, the community radiostations in Nepal are alsocompetitors.128Mohan Chapagain, Chairman ofthe Association of CommunityRadio Broadcasters Nepal(ACORAB).129Infoasaid 2011, 64.130Dhruba Hari Adhikary,noted journalist, author, analyst,former head of the Nepal PressInstitute and now member ofthe Board of Directors.131Ibid.132Socialbakers 2013.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 217

Status of Radio SagarmathaCharacteristics Status Changes/Advancementsover the past yearsChannels, distributionRadio Sagarmatha was established in 1997 as the first communityradio station of Nepal and in South Asia. Since thenit broadcasts programs on 102.4 MHz. It reaches today some4.5 million people in the entire Kathmandu valley. 2.5 millionpeople tune in to Radio Sagarmatha on a regular basis.Radio Sagarmatha broadcasts 18 hours of program daily from5 a.m. to 11 p.m. It uses a one Kilowatt (1,000 Watt) transmitter.When Radio Sagarmathastarted its operations itwas allowed to broadcast 2hours of programs using a100 Watt transmitter only.These conditions were partof 17 conditions that RadioSagarmatha needed to adhereto in order to receiveits license. Others were, forexample: not to broadcastnews and current affairsprograms, that governmentofficials would monitorthe programming andwould be informed aboutthe content among others.Legal FrameworkThere is no legal framework that would give Radio Sagarmathaand the community radio sector in Nepal a separateidentity. The Radio Act of 1957 (amended many times),the National Broadcasting Act of 1993 and the Right toInformation Act (2007) were important milestones. Butthe differences in mandate between commercial andcommunity radio stations in Nepal are not very clear. Thegovernment established a working group to draft a bindinglegal framework for the community radios as there are nowhundreds of stations spread over all districts of Nepal. Butdespite continued discussions and a working group it isstill unclear if such a framework will be there in writing asbinding legislation.–Public service remit(officially defined)There is no official defined law for the community radiosector. The Association of Community Radio Broadcastersin Nepal that was established in 2002 - has come up with itsown “constitution,” a set of criteria its members should adhereto. This includes that “at least 60% of the programmingshould be localized.” The programs of this category shoulddeal with local issues of the communities the concernedstations are serving or should be in the local language togive the communities a platform and support dialogue.The other 40% of the programming can deal with issues ofnational interest, can be rebroadcasts from other stations orcould be entertainment based. Besides that the station mustserve a defined community and must be 100% non-profitmaking.–218

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio PioneerCharacteristics Status Changes/Advancementsover the past yearsRegulatory system/governing bodyRadio Sagarmatha is run by The Nepal Forum of EnvironmentalJournalists (NEFEJ). NEFEJ is the current license-holder andforms the Radio Sagarmatha Board that meets regularly andplans activities. Currently, the five member board is electedfor two years and headed by a chairman. NEFEJ appoints thestation manager as the chief executive of the station and thedeputy station manager too.–Engagement of civil society No. –FinancingRadio Sagarmatha states that only about 30% of the fundsthat are required to run the station come from differentNGOs, including NEFEJ, the license-holding NGO. The stationis therefore relying on local public service announcements –in short PSA – to generate money. These are mostly relatedto issues with a social message for example issues relatedto “environment, sanitation, rule of law, gender relations,social justice, education, child rights, human rights, rightsof women.” Paid sponsorship of programs is also possible.This is a gray area as the editorial control lies with the sponsorand Radio Sagarmatha is only providing air time andtechnical help in production. This way of generating moneyneeds to be viewed with caution as sponsored programscan be a way of influencing public opinion, although thegenerated money is essential to run the station.–Use of mobile and internetcommunication/modern technology/challenges of digitalizationRadio Sagarmatha is proud to have fully digital programmingand more than 25,000 sound tracks in its archive. The newsroomis equipped with computers. Since October 2013 RadioSagarmatha has also used Facebook to expand distributionof and to increase its presence to a wider audience.Facebook and other newtechnologies are still notfully implemented in theworkflow. A look onto theFacebook page shows thatsometimes there are noposts for days, resulting infewer discussions and interactions.In order to build acommunity and especiallyattract younger people, thefrequency and the activitiesin Facebook should be improvedand diversified. Theintegration of new technologiesand other socialmedia platforms should beconstantly observed.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 219

Characteristics Status Changes/Advancementsover the past yearsRegional structuresand reportingRadio Sagarmatha does not have correspondents or contributorsfrom outside of the Kathmandu valley in the regions ofthe country. The station does provide other community radiostations in the country through a pool set up by ACORABwith its programs and news. It also receives programs andcontent from community radios from other parts of thecountry.–Capacity buildingVolunteers and staffers receive training-on-the job by seniorcolleagues for a time period of 10 to 15 or more days whenthey start their job. There is the chance for university studentsto do a 45-day internship too. Radio Sagarmatha alsosends staffers to trainings that are organized on a nationallevel by ACORAB or NGOs. Moreover, trainings in cooperationwith international organizations are also offered.The various journalistictrainings by internationalorganizations offeredhelped Radio Sagarmathato evolve further. Asinternational funds in thepast years have shrunk,however, networking andmore effectively using theknowledge already gainedbecomes vital, but alsodifficult looking at thefluctuation that is commonfor the community radiosector overall. 17 years afterits establishment, longtermmentoringprogramscould be an effective strategictool for internationalorganizations too to helpRadio Sagarmatha to growfurther.Ethic codices, newsroomguidelines– –Public perceptionand support for themedia organizationRadio Sagarmatha is hugely popular in the Kathmandu valleyand has built up a reputation and respect for itself by beinga pioneer in its field. Especially decision makers use RadioSagarmatha to access information and to share their perspectivein public discussions.–220

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio PioneerGeneral Functions I: Political SphereFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Information:comprehensive,balanced, objective –and also regional news.PartiallyRadio Sagarmatha has a limited scope and mandate as it is servingthe Kathmandu valley only and the communities living there. It offersregional news only on a limited basis as part of its news block or whencontent is shared from other community radio stations. The programsaired as such are comprehensive, balanced and objective in general, butthe topics are filtered as the target group is only a fraction of society.All political parties havethe opportunity to speakin the program and arepresent in interviews,sound-bites, etc.YesHowever there is all over Nepal the tendency to invite the same actorsalways in the studio and interview them, as this is especially under timepressure more convenient.Criticism of politicalactors (government,administration,other political actors)YesThe station was shut down in 2005 during the civil war in Nepal when itdecided to air an interview with then Maoist leader Prachanda.Societal criticism(social actors, individuals,problems in society)YesProblems in society are addressed on a regular basis such as programsdealing with the Dalit community, issues related to women and genderequality, hot topics such as prostitution, trafficking or HIV/AIDS.Moderation of debate/democratic facilitationYesMany debate and talk programs are on air, for example, the evening talkshow Aaja ka kura or in the morning a radio talk show.Social/politicalorientationYesRadio Sagarmatha gives a voice to the representatives of differentpolitical and social groups and thus orients its listeners.Agenda setting/investigative journalismYes Two examples are highlighted on Radio Sagarmathas website: 1)Controversial extradition treaty was halted after a debate about thistopic on Radio Sagarmatha 2) Missing files in the Supreme Court regardingthe Tulasi Devi Ghimire case were retrieved after public pressure.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 221

General Functions II: IntegrationFunctionIs it fulfilled?(Yes/partially/no)To what extent is the function fulfilled/not fulfilled?Participation, voice,empowermentYesWomen, children, senior citizens, and youth are important target groups.For example, Hidda Hiddai is dedicated to the “man on the street” andYuwa Awaj is designed for young people.Cultural expression,strengthening ofidentity, values, andcultural cohesionPartiallyPrograms are generally broadcast in Nepali language plus three othercommon languages of the country: Newar, Maithili, and Tamang.Therefore, Radio Sagarmatha reaches only a fraction of society, as Nepalis multi-ethnic. For these communities, as well as for the Kathmanduvalley, Radio Sagarmatha offers programs aimed at strengtheningidentity. Cultural cohesion is in general a problem in Nepal as theinhabitants are geographically scattered.Entertainment Partially Entertainment programs play a minor role. There are programs forchildren that are lighter in their approach. Programs with contemporary,Bollywood or youth-oriented music can be heard, too.Education Yes There are many programs designed in order to raise awareness. Forexample, programs dealing with health (Arogya, Sanjivani), with waterand sanitation (Pani Ra Sarsaphai, Chitikka) or with earthquake precautionand safety (Bhukampiya Surakshya). Another popular program(Uhile Bajeka Palama) deals with the history and cultural heritage ofthe country. Such programs could act as source of inspiration for othercommunity radio stations too.Innovation Partially Radio Sagarmatha has many “firsts” credited to its name. It was the firstcommunity radio station of the country that came up with innovativeformats, such as talk shows when nobody thought that such a programcould become popular on radio. In 2005, the then station manager decidedto fight censorship by broadcasting news sung and proclaimed ina comedy form that is traced back to Nepal’s tradition of oral folk media.However, Radio Sgarmatha could make better use of the new media andshould also integrate them in its set-up and work flow.222

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio PioneerInternational Media Development PartnersPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/advancements/problemsUNESCOTechnical support andcapacity buildingUnder the International Programfor the Development of Communication(IPDC), UNESCO helpedRadio Sagarmatha between 1997and 1999 in setting up and establishingitself with an assistance of60,000 US Dollars. This start-upsupport included training of staff,consulting, computers, transmission,and studio equipment.The assistance was importantin the first few years when thestation struggled to establishitself given the fact that it wasa pioneer and it had scarceresources.BBC MediaActionCapacity buildingSince the late 1990s Radio Sagarmatharebroadcasts the programsof the BBC’s Nepali Service on adaily basis. Besides that, RadioSagarmatha also airs two otherpopular programs prepared byBBC Media Action in the evening:the radio soap opera Katha MithoSarangiko that deals with problemsand challenges in the life ofwomen and men in the villagesand cities in Nepal and the radiomagazine Sarangiko Bhalakusariwhich supports the fight againstgender-biased violence. The mixbetween poetry, social drama, andmusic has been hailed in Nepalby the local media. The Facebookpage of Katha Mitho Sarangikorecords more than 109,000 fans.Many workshops were conductedto train staffers of Radio Sagarmathatoo.Professionalization, improvedcontent could be achieved. Sometraining workshops, however,were too general and did notfully address the realities in thenewsroom.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 223

PartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/advancements/problemsDW AkademieTechnical support; capacitybuilding; qualification;consultancy in the newsroomDifferent intensive workshopsdealing with issues such ascontent (research and writingskills), interactivity (phone-in,call-in, write-in, drop-in) andliveliness (moderation/presentation,integration of sound bites,vox pops, interviews, music,natural sounds). Moreover, thetechnicians were trained in orderto improve the technical qualityof live- and pre-produced radiocontent. In terms of the organizationalstructure, editorialmeetings, planning tools, timesfor air-checks, and team buildingmeasures were discussed. Jinglesand the marketing for the station(off– and on-air promotion) wereother fields that were addressed.Co-production of 30-minutesradio feature on education formarginalized groups.Very good contacts still remain.But cooperation stopped in thelate 2000s, as Nepal was no moreconsidered a priority country inGerman development.The InternationalInstitutefor Journalism(IIJ), BerlinCapacity building,qualificationSenior colleagues from RadioSagarmatha took part in journalisticmultimedia-workshopsas well as in “Train-the-Trainer”workshops that were organizedin Berlin. With effect as of January1, 2013 the IIJ’s funding was haltedand its operations were takenover by the DW Akademie.Highly valued, knowledge transferwas addressed in order tohave sustainability at the stationregarding the quality of programmingand management.224

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio PioneerPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/advancements/problemsDANIDACapacity building; qualificationand training of journalists;multimedia awarenesscampaignsBesides training Radio Sagarmatha’sstaff on a regular basis,DANIDA organized in 1999 aunique concept with the station:Safa Radio-The Clean AirCampaign. Five days a week athree-wheeled electric van wouldmeasure the level of air pollutantsin the city. Results of the samplesfrom 30 rotating locations thatthe Safa Tempo collected wereanalyzed in a lab, then explainedthe same day during the stationsevening news bulletin, Haalchaal.In a monthly press conference,results would be presented tothe media and the public.The Safa Radio campaign wassuccessful as air pollution andits consequences are not onlytopics that are relevant, but topicseveryone can relate to. Moreoverit is a core concern for RadioSagarmatha as it was related topreserving the environment.Besides raising awareness, a lotof publicity could be generated.Free VoiceNetherlands/Free PressUnlimitedTechnical support;qualification;capacity buildingIn Nepal, Free Voice supportedthe Community Radio SupportCentre (CRSC) that was formedby NEFEJ, the license holder ofRadio Sagarmatha. Free Voiceactively supports the growthand strengthening of communityradios – in rural areas too -through workshops, the establishmentof a help desk, grantfund, technical and managementinputs, producers capacitybuilding, reference materialsdevelopment, advocacy andlobbying and a radio knowledgecentre among others.Development of reference buildingmaterial, building of radioknowledge centers were positivesteps as Free Press Unlimitedtouched upon areas other organizationsdid not address before.N.B. All the information given in the tables above are based oninterviews, observations, and document analysis made by theauthor of this chapter. The tables provide very rough summariesof what is being elaborated in the texts. Many of the issuesmentioned here are, of course, subject to change.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 225

AppendixReferencesACORAB – Association of Community Radio broadcastersNepal (2008), Concept note on technical strengtheningof Community Radio Stations in Nepal, Submitted toDW Akademie, Kathmandu.ACORAB – Association of Community Radio BroadcastersNepal/ UNDEF – United Nations Development Fund (2012),Social Accountability status: Community radios in Nepal,Kathmandu, retrieved from: http://acorab.org.np/docs/publicationManagement/ca9e53e919d3b1d0700405a76114a103.pdfAMARC (2006), Radio Sagarmatha wins AMARC InternationalSolidarity Prize, retrieved from: http://lists.amarc.org/pipermail/asiapacific-general/2006-November/000114.htmlAdhikarie, Mahesh P. (March 3, 2011), Reviving Public ServiceBroadcasting, in: República.com, retrieved from: http://archives.myrepublica.com/portal/index.php?action=news_details&news_id=29874BBC (2014a), Media, retrieved from: http://www.bbcnepalidrama.com/main/press/mediaBBC (2014b), Nepali Drama, retrieved from: http://www.bbcnepalidrama.com/main/CIA – Central Intelligence Agency (2014), The World Factbook:Nepal, retrieved from: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/np.htmlCentral Bureau of Statistics (2013), National Population andHousing Census 2011, Kathmandu, retrieved from: http://cbs.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Caste%20&%20ethnicity.pdfCommunication Initiative (2001), Making Waves: Radio Sagarmatha,retrieved from: http://www.comminit.com/node/1665CRSC – Community Radio Support Center/ NEFEJ – NepalForum of Environment Journalists (2011), Community Mhz:Assessing community radio performance in Nepal. A pilotassessment of 15 stations, Kathmandu.Dahal, Sudhamshu/Aram, Arul: Crafting a community radio‘friendly’ broadcast policy in Nepal. Published in: Observatorio(OBS*) Journal, vol.5 - nº4 (2011), p. 69–91.Dhungel, Binod: Broadcasting in Nepal. A situation paper.Presented on February 24, 2012 to the International Fact Findingand Media Advocacy Mission to Nepal (February 23–27,2012).Dhungana, Siromani (January 27, 2013), Press Council Nepal:From a Watchdog to the Maoist Lapdog, retrieved from: http://blog.com.np/2013/01/27/press-council-nepal-from-a-watchdogto-the-maoist-lapdog/DPNet – Desaster Preparedness Network Nepal (2014),Earthquake, retrieved from: http://www.dpnet.org.np/index.php?pageName=earthquakeDWO – Dalit Welfare Organization (2014), retrieved from:http://www.dwo.org.np/dalit.phpFederation of Nepali Journalists (2014), About FNJ, retrievedfrom: http://www.fnjnepal.org/media/?page_id=5Free Press Unlimited (2014), Our History, retrieved from:http://www.freepressunlimited.org/en/our-historyFreedom Forum (January 28, 2013), Concern over Yadav’s Appointmentin Press Council Nepal, retrieved from: http://www.freedomforum.org.np/content/news-and-events/242-concernover-yadavs-appointment-in-press-council-nepal.htmlIDSN – International Dalit Solidarity Network (2014), countryinformation Nepal, retrieved from: http://idsn.org/countryinformation/nepal/ILO – International Labour Organization (2005), Dalits andLabour in Nepal: Discrimination and Forced Labour, retrievedfrom: http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@asia/@ro-bangkok/@ilo- kathmandu/documents/publication/wcms_112922.pdfInfoasaid (Internews/BBC Media Action), Federal DemocraticRepublic of Nepal. Media and Telecoms Landscape Guide 2011,retrieved from:http://infoasaid.org/sites/infoasaid.org/files/nepal_media_landscape_guide_final_011011_19.12.12.PdfInternet World Stats, Nepal Usage and Population Statistics,retrieved from: http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia/np.htmKafle, Tulasi R., Public Service Broadcasting in Nepal. Paperpresented at the University of Nicosia, January 21, 2010.Kathmandu Metropolitan City Office (2014), Introduction,retrieved from: http://www.kathmandu.gov.np/Page_Introduction_1226

Part III Nepal: Radio Sagarmatha, an Asian Community Radio PioneerKathmandu Post (February 13, 2013), Nepal to have 20m PhoneSubscribers by March-end, retrieved from: https://www.ekantipur.com/the-kathmandu-post/2013/02/12/money/nepal-tohave-20m-phone-subscribers-by-march-end/245257.htmlLodge, Andrew (March 21, 2014), Has air pollution made Kathmanduunliveable? In: The Guardian, retrieved from: http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/mar/21/air-pollution-kathmandu-nepal-liveable-smog-parisMaslog, Crispin C./ Navarro, Rex L./ Tabing, Louie N./ Teodoro,Luis V. (eds., 1997), Communication for People Power: An Introductionto Community Communication, UNESCO-TAMBULIProject, Quezon City.Ministery of Foreign Affairs of Denmark (2014), Denmark inNepal, retrieved from: http://nepal.um.dk/en/danida-en/Ministery of Information and Communications (2014), Acts andRegulations, retrieved from: http://www.moic.gov.np/acts-andregulations.phpNEFEJ – Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists (2014a),28 Years : Journalism for Sustainability, retrieved from: http://www.nefej.org/NEFEJ – Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists (2014b),ToT Berlin 2009, retrieved from: http://www.nefej.org/mediatraining-center/73-tot-berlin-2009.htmlNEFEJ – Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists (2014c),Community Radio Support Centre (CRSC), retrieved from:http://www.nefej.org/crsc.htmlNepal Monitor (July 23, 2011), Recording Nepal Conflict:Victims in Numbers, retrieved from: http://www.nepalmonitor.com/2011/07/recording_nepal_conf.htmlNepal Press Institute (2014), retrieved from:http://www.npiktm.orgNepali Times (August 16, 2002), Kiran, the radio guy, retrievedfrom: http://nepalitimes.com/news.php?id=5914Noronha, Frederick (May 22, 1999), Nepal: S. Asia’s First CommunityRadio Station offers Cleanup Hope, published in:nettime.org, retrieved from: http://www.nettime.org/Lists-Archives/nettime-l-9905/msg00219.htmlOne World Media (2007), Awards 2007, retrieved from:http://archive.oneworldmedia.org.uk/awards/previous_awards/2007/Osang, Helmut/ Buerki, Goetz (1999), Observations andrecommendations concerning programming, organizationalstructure and technical set-up of Radio Sagarmatha. Reportsubmitted to the Deutsche Welle Training Centre (predecessorof the DW Akademie), Kathmandu.Pant, Laxman Datt (2009), Journalism and Media Educationin Nepal. In: Bodhi: Interdisciplinary Journal, Kathmandu University,p. 21–34, retrieved from: http://www.ku.edu.np/bodhi/vol3_no1/03.%20Laxman%20Datt%20Pant.Journalism%20and%20Media%20Education%20in%20Nepal.pdfPress Council Nepal (2008), Code of Journalistic Ethics-2003(Amended and revised – 2008), retrieved from: http://www.presscouncilnepal.org/codeofconduct.phpPress Council Nepal (2014), retrieved from: http://www.presscouncilnepal.org/Pringle, Ian/ Subba, Bikram (2007), Ten Years on: the state ofCommunity Radio in Nepal. A study prepared for UNESCO.Radio Sagarmatha (2014a), Background, retrieved from:http://www.radiosagarmatha.org/Radio Sagarmatha (2014b), Partners, retrieved from:http://www.radiosagarmatha.org/partners.htmlRadio Sagarmatha (2014c), Editorial Team, retrieved from:http://www.radiosagarmatha.org/editorial-team.htmlRadio Sagarmatha (2014d), Program description, retrievedfrom: http://www.radiosagarmatha.org/programm-list-withgrid/about-the-programs.htmlRadio Sagarmatha (2014e), We may impact, retrieved from:http://www.radiosagarmatha.org/we-may-inpact.htmlRaghunath, Preeti (January 16, 2014), Everybody loves a goodconflict? Radio Broadcasting Policy in Nepal, retrieved from:https://blogs.worldbank.org/publicsphere/everybody-lovesgood-conflict-radio-broadcasting-policy-nepalEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 227

Real Clear Politics (March 29, 2011) Nepal revises civil war deathtoll to 17,265+, retrieved from: http://www.realclearpolitics.com/news/ap/politics/2011/Mar/29/nepal_revises_civil_war_death_toll_to_17_265_.htmlReporters Without Borders (2014), World Press Freedom Index2014, retrieved from: https://rsf.org/index2014/en-index2014.phpSettekorn, Wolfgang/Kannengießer, Sigrid (2007), Radio Global.Radiokultur in Ländern der „Dritten Welt“. In: Hamburger Heftezur Medienkultur, Institut für Medien und Kommunikation derFakultät für Sprache, Literatur, Medien der Universität Hamburg,Hamburg, p. 44–53.Shivakoti, Murari (without date), Radio Sagarmatha’s licensestill on hold, retrieved from: http://europe.amarc.org/index.php?p=Nepal:_Radio_Sagarmatha%27s_licence_on_holdSocialbakers (2013), Nepal Social Marketing Report, retrievedfrom: http://www.socialbakers.com/reports/regional/november-2013-social-marketing-report-nepal-regionalTaylor; Jerome. Radio Censorship: From pirate radio to voice ofa nation. Published in: The Independent: June 25, 2007.The Himalayan (2014), Mother, infant die of asphyxiation inLalitpur, retrieved from: http://m.thehimalayantimes.com/full-News.php?headline=Mother%2C+infant+die+of+asphyxiation+in+Lalitpur&NewsID=272441List of InterviewsAdhikary, Dhruba Hari; Noted Journalist, Author, Analyst,former Head of the Nepal Press Institute and now Memberof the Board of Directors, interview conducted over mail onMay 19, 2014.Chapagain, Mohan; Chairman of the Association of CommunityRadio Broadcasters Nepal (ACORAB), interview conductedover phone from Bonn on April, 2 2014.Koirala, Tirtha; President NEFEJ and Chairman of the Boardof Radio Sagarmatha, interview conducted over phone fromBonn on March 29, 2014.Luitel, Ghamaraj: Head Media Academy Nepal and FormerStation Manager Radio Sagarmatha, interview conducted overphone from Bonn on March 29, 2014.Neupane, Sushil; Communication & Translation officer,BBC Media Action, Kathmandu, Nepal, interview conductedby mail on May 20, 2014.Pandey, Nishchal; Director of the Centre for South AsianStudies in Kathmandu, interview conducted over phonefrom Bonn on March 24, 2014.Rai, Tika Ram; Current Station Manager at Radio Sagarmatha,interview conducted by mail on April 3, 2014.UNDP – United Nations Development Programme, 2012 HumanDevelopment Index, retrieved from: https://data.undp.org/dataset/Table-1-Human-Development-Index-and-its-components/wxub-qc5kUNESCO International Programme for the Development ofCommunication (2008), Pioneering Community Radio. Impactsof IPDC Assistance in Nepal, retrieved from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001585/158500e.pdfUNISDR – United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction(2012), Nepal’s tragedy in waiting, retrieved from: http://www.unisdr.org/archive/29755Yale University (2014), Environmental Performance Index,retrieved from: http://epi.yale.edu/epi/issue-ranking/air-quality228

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12Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador:Three Examples From Latin AmericanCommunity MediaCletus Gregor Barié230

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaBolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaPublic broadcasting has not played an important role in the last three decades in Latin America. Therefore, this chapter focusseson the social contribution of independent non-profit community radios, usually organized by civil society. Three stations areanalyzed: Radio Pio XII in Bolivia is historically one of the first community media outlets. Vokaribe, in Colombia, shows the innovativeside of community radio today when used in an urban context and with a focus on youth culture. Finally, as a rather newprivate radio station with a community orientation, the case of Radio Intag in Ecuador gives insight into the challenges facingcommunity radio when it takes a stance defending the local environment against extractive megaprojects. Community radiocan make a very significant contribution to pluralism in media, to empowerment of local communities, the construction of multipleidentities, the sense of local belonging, and the defense of human rights, especially the right to freedom of expression andaccess to information. Although often under pressure, it compensates for profound gaps in the mainstream media landscape,where state media so rarely fulfill a public service function, and where the concentration of media leads to a unified and simplifiedimage of social reality and even discrimination.Media development organizations need a more strategic and comprehensive approach for community radio, embracing thelegal and political framework, the strengthening of national and international networks for radio communities, the facilitationof knowledge management processes, and the support for selected community communication projects. However, in spiteof the fact that community radio stations fulfill important public functions of social integration and the building of a publicsphere, they can and should not be a substitute for public service media.Public service broadcasting has not played an important rolein the last three decades in Latin America. Therefore, thischapter focusses on the social contribution of communityradio, as independent non-profit broadcast media, usuallyorganized by civil society. We begin with an introduction toLatin America as a region, will have a look at the media landscapeand describe then briefly the rise of community radio inthe Latin American region. Based on three concrete examplesof community radio stations in Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador,we analyze different aspects related to the public servicefunctions of these stations and the contributions of mediadevelopment partners. The chapter concludes with some reflectionson how to enhance the potential of community radiowhich often turns out to be an underestimated and evendespised bottom-up democracy promoter.Latin America – A Brief OverviewLatin America refers generally to 21 countries of the Americaswhere Spanish or Portuguese as well as indigenous languagesare official languages. The population of this sub-region is estimatedat more than 500 million inhabitants and its surfacearea comprises approximately 20 million km 2 . UN organizationsand development agencies generally divide Latin Americainto South America (e.g., Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador), MiddleAmerica (including Mexico) and the Caribbean countries(Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti and Puerto Rico). In the lastdecade the middle class in the region has grown by 50 percent,and extreme poverty diminished significantly, according to aWorld Bank survey. 1 Latin America is now becoming a middleclassregion, but historical challenges related to social inequity,violence, and lack of good governance persist.Latin America is (still) not a politically and economically integratedregion comparable to the European Union or the USA.A country like Brazil, an industrial power and airline manufacturercannot be easily compared with smaller countries likeNicaragua or Honduras. However, social scientists still findthe concept of Latin America useful, based on the fact that theregion shares strong social and cultural traditions and institutions.When analyzing the media sector there are importantreasons to maintain a regional perspective: There are manysimilarities in terms of the role of the private media, the emergenceof community radio, the expansion of regional mediaenterprises, and patterns of cultural consumption, includingpopular music and soap operas. 2For the community radio stations in Bolivia, Ecuador,and Colombia we are going to analyze, it is useful to takeinto account three aspects, which are also valid for the entireregion: cultural diversity, economic dynamism, and increasingself-confidence.Cultural diversity refers first of all to the indigenous peoplesin the region, who are descendants of the original inhabitantsof the Americas and were colonized and subjugated by theSpanish and Portuguese. Nowadays, there are still more than40 million people living who identify themselves as a memberof one of the 600 indigenous peoples or nations of the continent.3 Indigenous people are important political players inthe region, especially in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Guatemala,and they are recognized, along with transnational organizations,within the UN system. However, in spite of someachievements in political representation and legal reforms,extreme poverty in Latin America still has the face of indigenouswomen and children. 41Ferreira 2013, 1.2Merayo 2007.3IWGIA.4Hall & Patrinos 2012, 344.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 231

Culturally, Latin America is seen as one of the most diverse andeffervescent regions worldwide with high levels of social organization,as Nohra Rey de Marulanda and Francisco BernadiniTancredi found in a best practice survey on participative projects:“Latin America and the Caribbean explode in creativityand social innovation... The driving force behind most of theseinitiatives is non-governmental organizations or groups thatemerge from local communities.” 5Since the late 1990s, the region has been experiencing dynamiceconomic growth and considerable advancement inthe fulfillment of the Millennium Development Goals. Aftermany years of unsuccessfully applied “neo-liberal” economicreforms, seeking privatization, deregulation, and open markets,several Latin American countries adopted a much morepragmatic economic approach, based on stronger state interventionand on social investment. These heterodox strategieshave yielded startlingly good results, reports the World Bank:“Steady growth and sound economic policies improved thelives of millions in the region over the past decade, with morethan 70 million people lifted out of poverty and 50 millionjoining the ranks of the middle class between 2003 and 2011.For the first time ever, the number of people belonging to themiddle class surpassed the number of poor, a sign that LatinAmerica and the Caribbean is progressing toward a middleclassregion.” 6The new Latin American left-wing presidents – for example,Evo Morales in Bolivia, Dilma Rousseff in Brazil, Rafael Correain Ecuador, Michelle Bachelet in Chile or José Mujica in Uruguay– are much more self-confident 7 and make explicit use oftheir right to national self-determination; this is also evidentwhen negotiating with development agencies. Many of theseleaders were persecuted and suffered torture during the yearsof dictatorship in the 1970s and contributed significantly tothe movement for democratization in the 1980s. They focuson national development issues, at least in discourse (whichis often interpreted as “populism”), reject US interference indomestic issues, and are skeptical about classical technical cooperation,seeking instead strategic partnerships at eye level.In spite of the positive changes mentioned, many structuralproblems related to social exclusion, the fragmentationof civil society and an informal workforce persist. After all, theeconomic boom is based on the massive extension of extractiveindustries with very low added value in the productionchains and with massive socio-economic and environmentalimpacts. Latin America is still the most unequal and most violentregion in the world. 8Additionally, new expressions of violence obstruct developmentand affect good governance, as a comprehensive bibliographicrevision on this topic concludes: “No other regionof the world knows higher homicide rates nor has it such a varietyof violence as the Latin American countries. Political violence,guerilla movements and civil wars, bloody revolutions,brutal dictatorships, domestic violence, criminal violence, andyouth violence are all well known throughout history.” 9Media LandscapeContrasting with the great cultural diversity and the manysocial and institutional challenges the region is addressing,Latin America’s media landscape appears to be poorly differentiated,with a reduced variety of only a few formats and onlysome mainstream communication channels: Conventionalmedia like TV and radio still dominate the consumer’s preferencesin most countries, and only recently has a rising middleclass begun to use internet-based platforms to access informationor to use their cultural consumer goods. Because of thepersistence of illiteracy and an undeveloped culture of reading,the print media have small print runs and their use is confinedto a rather limited group of urban readers – a fact thathas been analyzed for many years and is still valid today, asPhilip Kitzberger confirms: “Despite the growing importanceof new media and information technologies, the traditionalmedia, especially television, are predominant in forming publicopinion.” 10 Media consumption on digital platforms is nowincreasing considerably in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, andMexico, including online viewing of TV shows, radio listening,and reading of online magazines. 11In addition to the concentration of media and the oversimplificationand depoliticization of complex and multifacetedsocial realities, another key problem is the restriction ofthe right of access to information and the recurrent violationof freedom of expression. In the last decade, Latin Americancountries have been adapting rapidly advanced legislationbased on international standards for the right of access toinformation. This legislation relates mainly to proactive publicationobligations of the state, to procedural arrangementsto exercise this right, and to legal ways to appeal breaches ofthe rule. 12 Nevertheless, in practice, the implementation of thismodern legislation is still embryonic, and even when journalistsfinally get the access to relevant information, they oftencannot analyze and publish it without personal risks: 670 journalistshave been killed in the region in the last 20 years witha very low detection and prosecution rate; death threats andjudicial complaints against journalists are very common, especiallyin Colombia, Honduras, and Mexico, a recent reportreveals:“On the one hand, there is total impunity for serious violationsof freedom of expression, and an environment wherelow intensity physical violence is not actively prosecuted bythe states. On the other hand, impunity is manifested in newmechanisms of indirect censorship with a severe chilling effecton free expression.” 13For this chapter it is important to consider the nationalcontexts in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Colombia: In Bolivia the medialandscape has been changing dramatically since the rise ofa popular peasant and indigenous movement in recent years.The new Constitution of 2008, which is one of the most participativeelaborated legal documents worldwide, guaranteesnot only the right of access to information, but also the right232

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community Mediato communicate actively through self-governed communitybroadcasting stations (arts. 106 and 107); anti-trust regulationsare strict, and the state has a much more proactive rolein the communication sector than ten years before. Analystssay the government is now taking direct or indirect controlover the main private media, like the TV channels PAT andATB, the radio network Panamericana, and the prestigiousnewspaper La Razón. This could lead to a monopolistic situationin the media sector, where critical voices have no chanceto be heard by the massive public and where self-censorshipof journalists is common. 14Similarly to Bolivia, the Ecuadorian political context isstrongly influenced by the emergence of new reformist governmentssince 2006 with charismatic leaders. Ecuador’s PresidentRafael Correa refers in a rather confrontational mannerto his opponents, especially in the media sector. Major socialinvestments of his government are directly linked to the expansionof extractive industries; the local communities usuallyreact with distrust. Concretely, the Ecuadorian governmentis now planning large-scale copper mining operationsprecisely in the region where the radio station which we willanalyze has given a voice to the local leaders, opposed to thismegaproject because of the expected ecological damages.Colombia is known to be one of the most violent placesworldwide, according to the Global Peace Index. However,there have also been significant improvements made in thelast decade in terms of citizen security, especially in the maincities. 15 After more than 50 years of violent conflict betweengovernment, paramilitary groups, and left-wing guerrillas,violence in its different expressions is still a major issue inColombia. Since 1984 more than 220,000 persons have beenkilled, 4,150,000 have suffered displacement, 25,000 havebeen reported missing; local journalists in particular workunder very difficult conditions. 16 Colombian President JuanManuel Santos began peace negotiations with the guerrillagroup FARC in 2013, after ten years of non-communication.On the other hand, it is also true that Colombia is the countrywith the most local territorial peace initiatives in the world; 17 acomparative explorative study suggests the widespread use ofinnovative and cultural approaches in communication initiatives,mainly related to violence prevention. 18In Colombia, community radio has been legally recognizedand promoted in almost all rural municipalities since 1994.Today, there are 650 recognized community radio stations. 19Community radio here has the important function of reconstructingsocial relations in an environment of fear and dayto-dayviolence: “Currently in Colombia, community radiostations are perceived as spaces to strengthen the social fabricthat has been deteriorated by the violence of war and drugtrafficking,” writes the media expert Manuel Chaparro. 20As in many other regions and countries, the media in thethree countries we are analyzing is legally organized in threesectors. 21 According to this rather simplified categorization,public broadcasting is organized and financed by the statewith the task of promoting responsible citizenship. Althoughconstitutionally the outlets in this category are usually definedas public media, analysts also refer to them as state media,as they often seem to reflect mainly the official governmentline and do not to fulfill a complete range of public functions.Commercial broadcasting is controlled by private enterprisesfor the sake of economic benefits. Finally, community broadcastingis locally organized, and involves and represents theinterests of the community.The first sector, public (or state) broadcasting, has notplayed an outstanding role in the last three decades in LatinAmerica: Since the 1980s, the participation of the state in themedia sector has diminished almost systematically, favoringthe private sector model. Historically, from the 1950s, stateownedmedia served almost entirely as propaganda machineryin authoritarian regimes, for instance in Argentina, Brazil,Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Arturo Merayo Pérez recalls inhis historical review: “Once the coup leaders came to power,the first goal was often the direct control of broadcasting.” 22The most recent attempt to establish a public service media(PSM) system in Brazil was only partially successful, as it didnot succeed in establishing an autonomous entity with somelevels of participation of civil society. 23Nowadays, analysts associate PSB in the region with lowprofessionalism, political manipulation, and a high degree ofcorruption. After all, the concept is not really widely understood:at least not as the ideal of an autonomous media sector,depending on and financed by the state but focused on thepublic interests of the citizenship. 24 A public debate on the roleand relevance of PSB is only just beginning. Analysts usuallymake a distinction between state broadcaster (as official organof the government) and PSB (with independent educationalfunctions). 25 Despite an increasingly wide debate on this issue,in practice there has been no significant change, concludesKitzberger: “In Latin America's media landscape, there hasbeen hardly any public media service with an educational missionand a minimum of diversity of opinion.” 265Rey de Marulanda & Tancredi2010, 5.6World Bank.7Schoepp 2011.8Ehlers 2013, 16.9Imbusch, Misse & Carrión2011, 2.10Kitzberger 2013, 1.11Adlatina.com, February 11, 2014.12Mendel 2009, 162.13Ifex 2013, 1.14Guthmann & Salazar Tórrez2013.15IEP 2013.16Semana.com, February 8, 2014.17Preti 2010.18Barié & Legatis 2014.19Mónica Valdes, Responsible forCapacity Development, AMARC,Colombia.20Chaparro 2008, 162.21Chaparro 2008.22Merayo 2007, 14.23Cabral & Taveira 2009, 14.24Matthias Kopp, Country ManagerColombia, DW Akademie,Germany.25Becerra 2014, 63.26Kitzberger 2013, 2.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 233

In contrast, the second sector, commercial radio, has playeda dominant role in the development of the radio and TV, asMerayo points out: “Latin American commercial radio wasthe origin and engine of radio on the continent, as had happenedin the U.S. and in opposition to the European model.” 27However, this initial positioning of commercial media as aninnovation factor later turned out to be a disadvantage for themedia landscape: During the 1980s, governments radically reducedthe participation of the state in public policies relatedto communication and the private media sector began to havean overwhelming prevalence. Today, big media enterprises likeGrupo Clarín in Argentina, like Televisa in Mexico, Globo inBrasil or Cisneros in Venezuela dominate the television market(cable or satellite TV). They have a strong affinity with conservativeelites and multinational corporations that hold commercialinterests in the region, there are even transnationalarrangements and commercial products like the soap operasthat are broadcast simultaneously in most Latin Americancountries. Most analysts make a rather negative assessment ofthis process of media privatization:“Today, in the territory that extends from Mexico to Tierradel Fuego, the turnover linked to the information businesscomes close to forty billion dollars a year. This impressive figure,however, has not translated into growth for the region noran opportunity to achieve independent, participatory, autonomousand high-quality communication.” 28Thus, the monopolistic and privileged position of the secondmedia sector is now increasingly part of a strong publicdebate on the role of the media and on the necessity of legalreforms. The abovementioned New Leftist governments inArgentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Uruguay, and Venezuelahave a tense relationship with media groups, for instance,Argentina's president Cristina Fernández with the powerful“Clarín” corporation. Frequently, these governments tendto centralize and control state power over media, whetherthrough the expansion of state broadcasting, the participationin private media enterprises or the restriction of press freedombased on laws and regulations. 29The third sector is community broadcasting, which can becharacterized as an independent, civil-society-based non-profitbroadcasting sector. 30 There are approximately 15,000 communityradio stations in the region, from a total of 25,000 registeredoutlets. In Brazil alone, there are 6,000 community radiostations. AMARC (World Association of Community RadioBroadcasters), the leading umbrella organization of communityradio broadcasters worldwide, counts 1,500 members inLatin America. For decades, these stations were considered “pirate”or informal initiatives; the private sector engaged activelyin lobbying against this “unfair competition” and the stateslimited or even prohibited the allocation of frequencies. 31Research on community radio in Latin America is still inits infancy. There are only estimates of the number of communityradio stations in existence and of the recent developmentof this sector; few case studies demonstrate their impactempirically. 32 ALER (Latin American Association of Radio Education)published a study in 2001 on the development and roleof “popular” radio in the region. 33 One of the first volumes thataddresses the radio landscape of the region as a whole (ratherthan just community radio), was edited by the Spanish communicationscientist Arturo Merayo. 34Brief History of Community Radio 35The first modern community radio stations worldwideemerged in Latin America, namely when Bolivian unionistsstarted to establish local radio in tin-mining communities inthe 1940s. The local mining company in the small town Cataviin the Andean region used to inform the workers abouttheir daily duties and activities through public loudspeakersinstalled in a public square. Inspired by this communicationsystem, the mining workers decided to install their own transmittersin 1947. Initially, they founded Radio La Voz del Minero(Radio Voice of the Mineworker) and Radio Sucre.At almost the same time, the catholic priest José JoaquínSalcedo Guarín began to use radio as a means of deliveringeducation to the indigenous peoples, as he found that the majorityof the population was illiterate. Additionally they hadvery strong oral traditions and access to their communitieswas difficult. As Reyer Fernández explains, these educationalprograms were based on local knowledge: “Salcedo developeda methodology with members of the community of Sutatenzato produce radio content based on their own experiences inagriculture, health, education or cultural expression.” 36 Thiseducational approach adopted by Radio Sutatenza, enrichedwith elements of the participative pedagogy of Paulo Freire,was later taken as a model for many other community radiostations in the region and is still valid for the case of Radio PioXII described below.The mining radio stations in Bolivia were self-governedand financed by the contributions of each worker. Many otheroutlets emerged following the example of La Voz del Minero.By 1954, 24 stations had already sprung up, forming a powerfulnetwork, as Reyero Fernández explains: “In the 1950s thesestations played a relevant role in the Bolivian revolution andcontributed to the recognition of universal suffrage, the rightsof indigenous peoples and land reform.” 37 In 1979, this networkof local radio stations resisted the media censorship imposedby a military junta and broadcast for a period of 16 days as theonly independent news and information source. The networkwas called “Channel for Democracy” and contributed to thefall of the dictatorship. These broadcasters opened up theirmicrophones to the people in the streets, in the markets andin the mines and they are considered by many analysts to bethe forerunners of participatory communication. 38The mining companies were privatized in the 1980s andthe trade unions forced to disband. Only few radio stationswere left. In the 1980s, local community radio made a substantialcontribution to the process of democratization, accordingto María Pía Matta, President of AMARC: “In the time of post-234

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaRadio Pio XII (Bolivia) – Radio for the People With a Long TraditionRadio Pio XII was founded in 1959 by Oblates Missionaries inthe tin miners’ colony Siglo XX in the Bolivian Andean Highlands.Initially, it had the explicit mission to “work against thegrowing influence of leftist ideology that spread” in a “miningcamp considered a nest of communist agitation in the country.”45 Soon, the Oblates began to question their own approach,and even changed it drastically after 1965, when faced with themassacre of mining workers in the camp by the Bolivian army.Ever since, “Radio Pio XII, radio for the people” has been, notsimply a slogan and corporate claim, but also a guiding ethicalprinciple (Una radio que se hace pueblo). The station’s officialmission and mandate is to further the cause of the excludedpeoples and to denounce injustice: “The essence of our workas reporters is to physically be with the people in the streetsand the small towns, not in the studio. This closeness to thepeople is our strength and part of our moral authority,” saysRoberto Durette, director of Pio XII and priest. 46Since the 1970s, the radio station in the miners’ camp SigloXX has had to cope with numerous physical attacks. Successivemilitary regimes tried several times to close the studioand prohibit the continuation of broadcasting. In 1976, thelocal population surrounded the central offices to protect thestation from military forces. The first radio station in Siglo XXmainly served the miners and rural population; later, in the1990s, the Oblates built additional stations in two provindictatorship,community radio played a key role in memoryrecovery, the reclaiming of public freedom and the empowermentof women” 39 Since then, local radio in Latin America hassupported the revival of indigenous languages, helps shapelocal identities and has even turned out to be the most effectivecommunication platform in times of emergencies or socialunrest.In Latin America, the concept of community radio is usedin a much more malleable way than in other regions, says CarlosRivadeneyra, AMARC coordinator for Latin America: “Usuallythe main criterion to be considered community radio isthe non-profit, associative, and participative character. For us,the main aspect is its role as spokesperson and mouthpiece ofcivil society, not its formal status. Community radio adapts recursivelyto specific local and national contexts; therefore wehave a broad spectrum of situations in terms of legal status,coverage and institutional support. These variations make itso difficult to estimate the number of community radio stations,because they aren’t always registered as communityradio.” 40 Recently, AMARC introduced the concept of citizens’radio (radios ciudadanas) to emphasize its mission to promotethe exercise of civil rights. 41Regardless of its low public profile and generally precariousfinancial situation, this often underestimated sector isconsidered today in specialized literature a “worldwide referenceas an instrument of social mobilization,” 42 performingan “educational, informative, formative and transformingrole.” 43 For analysts like Steve Buckley, Latin America’s broadcastershave inspired many other community radio sectors:“The Latin American experience has profoundly influencedthe growth of the international community radio movement,particularly as we have come to better understand the role ofmedia in development.“ 44Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaWe will briefly describe and characterize three communityradio stations which illustrate the scope of impact and socialcontribution of community radio. Radio Pio XII from Boliviais historically one of the first radio stations in the region. Thecase illustrates how a miner’s radio station has been adaptingto its changing intercultural context. The second case, Vokaribein Colombia, shows the innovative side of community radiotoday when used in an urban context and with a focus onyouth culture. Finally, as a recently-established private radiostation with a community orientation, Radio Intag in Ecuadorgives some insight into the challenges community radiofaces when it defends the local environment against extractivemegaprojects. It is important to note that these three cases arenot really representative for all Latin American communityradios but they show important aspects and issues, related tothe problems of intercultural societies, of urban youth subculturesand of environmental protection. Additionally, DWAkademie has supported two of the three radio stations andhas learned some thoroughly documented and useful lessons.The case analysis should enrich the general conclusion we willtry to draw from a broader Latin American perspective.27Merayo 2007, 14.28Bosetti 2007, 38.29Peter Deselaers, Project Manager,Research and Development,DW Akademie, Germany.30Buckley 2008, 4.31Lamas 2011.32Ernesto Lamas, FoundingMember of Radio La Tribu,Buenos Aires, Argentina.33Geerts & van Oeyen 2001.34Merayo 2007, 10.35Thanks to Caty Luz Zárate, internationaldevelopment consultant,for her valuable contributionsand reflections relatingto the history and role of communityradio in Latin America.The comments and observationsof Peter Deselaers, Richard Fuchs,Matthias Kopp andJan Lublinski from DW Akademiehave also been very useful.36Reyero Fernández 2012.37Ibid.38Gumucio Dagron 2001.39El Expectador (2011)40Carlos Rivadeneyra, Coordinatorfor Latin America, AMARC, Peru.41Geerts & van Oeyen 2001, 38.42Chaparro 2008, 158.43Reyero Fernández 2012.44Buckley 2008, 1.45Torrez Miranda 2007, 2.46Roberto Durette, DirectorGeneral Radio Pio XII in Bolivia.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 235

cial capitals, Oruro and Cochabamba. Together, all three stationsare part of the network Pio XII. In the 1980s, the miners’unions were disbanded and 34,000 workers had to abandonthe highlands. Since then, Pio XII has focused much more onlocal development issues, on the issues of indigenous peopleand on democratization matters, but it still has a very activelistening community of ex-miners who migrated to otherplaces in Bolivia.Pio XII is the only broadcaster offering continuous programmingfor the northern part of the department of Potosiand is the preferred news and information channel of 85 percentof the 245,000 inhabitants of the region. 47 It broadcasts 8hours every day in Spanish and in the indigenous languagesQuechua and Aymara. The core team in Siglo XX consists of 6journalists and the director, and about 30 local reporters in thecommunity, most of them trained by Pio XII. The combinationof FM, MW, and SW broadcasting together with Real Audio anda complete internet platform assures a good access to differenttarget groups.Besides local and international news and information,the focus is on local development news and social participation.Recent issues are the implementation of a new constitutionwhich strengthens the rights of indigenous peoples, e.g.,through local self-government. Pio XII produces pilots withsmall FM stations in other rural communities. More than 50percent of the content is locally produced; a lot of the news isshared with or taken from the Catholic national radio networkERBOL, which connects more than 100 radio stations nationwide.Its colorful history means the station is very well known,as a report by the Institute of Development Studies in Brightonconfirms: “Pio XII is one of the leading popular radio stationsin Latin America.” 48Vokaribe (Colombia): Urban Community Radio in MarginalizedNeighborhoodsIn contrast to Radio Pio XII as a consolidated rural broadcaster,we would like to look here at a recent urban project from Colombia.Radio Vokaribe is based on a community project in marginalizedneighborhoods of Barranquilla on the Caribbean coast.In 1995, a small interdisciplinary group of artists, journalists,anthropologists, and local representatives foundeda neighborhood association to promote local culture in thesouthwestern part of Barranquilla, notorious for its problemswith gangs and various types of violence. After several yearsof experimenting with the production of participative audioformats and its publication in parts of the neighborhood andon the internet, in 2008 the association decided to initiate theofficial certification process for community radio.In 2012, Vokaribe finally obtained the authorization for a50-watt broadcast station and began its test run with a fourhourproduction three days a week. The focus was on localidentities, a sense of remaining relevant in a conflictive context,and the local culture to mobilize citizens against violenceand discrimination. After a technical problem with the radiomast in December 2013, Vokaribe stopped transmitting as FMradio and shifted back to the internet. It maintained, however,a strong community educational involvement, a training programfor young community reporters, for instance. “Our radiostation was suddenly switched off but it continues to resonate.We decided to bring it out onto the streets,” explains the projectmanager. 49 As the culmination of research conducted withthe inhabitants of the area on local culture and the historyof the neighborhood, Vokaribe launched several public radioevents with local figures like hip-hop singers, and is now preparingto restart with a new mast.Radio Intag (Ecuador): Engagement for the Community andthe EnvironmentRadio Intag, 60 km distant from the city Cotacachi, ImbaburaProvince in Ecuador, was founded in 2006 as a private radiostation with a strong community approach. The audience isthe local peasant population. As in the case of Radio Pio XII,Intag fills a communication and information gap in the regionand was until recently the only source of local news forthe communities. Programming is 18 hours every day mainlyin Spanish. In addition, it broadcasts music and national andinternational news which they get from support networks.Almost all contents are produced by local initiatives andschools, especially background information. In 2012 the collaboratorsof the Foundation Casa Palabra y Pueblo, whichis a direct partner of Radio Intag, stopped printing a localnewspaper because of financial constraints and transformedits popular reportage format into an audio report for RadioIntag. Today, you can call up 95 installments of these audioreports, called “Radio Revista.” The main issues of Radio Intagare local news, live stories, and ecology. In election timesit promotes debates between local candidates. As in the twoother cases, Radio Intag has a direct community approach,training, for instance, peasant leaders and farmers in radiocommunication for their own organizations.“We want to raise awareness for preservation and conservation.But we do not adhere to any political platform,”affirms the director. 50 “Radio Intag has been threatenedand even suffered sabotage, possibly because it publishedsensitive information about the environmental impacts ofa planned mining project. Now that the views of the localpopulation can be heard worldwide through Real Audio andinternet, these actions have stopped,” says Andreas Postrachfrom the German support group INTAG e.V. 51 At present, RadioIntag is dealing with serious challenges related to politicalrestrictions and financial limitations: “Our main goal isjust to continue broadcasting.” 52236

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaStakeholders in Support of Community RadioRadio Pio XII“Bolivians not only listen a lot to radio, they also love to beon air. Countless small stations provide the population withnews and entertainment,” according to a recently publishedsurvey of the community radio landscape. 53 Active NGOs andinternational actors support community broadcasting andparticipative media initiatives. There are national networkswith experience in capacity development, such as ERBOL(association of community radio communication and educationalinstitutions of Christian inspiration), Teko Guaraní(support network for Guarani Radio), AMARC Bolivia (WorldAssociation of Community Radio Broadcasters), and SECRAD(Research and Development Unity of the Catholic University);ONADEM (Observatory of Media Landscape of the FoundationUNIR Bolivia) is an important think tank, reflecting on criticalissues like censorship and access to information. The DanishfundedNGO IBIS was involved until 2013 in the support ofindigenous people. But it was then accused of “interferencein internal affairs” and expelled from the country. Since then,there has been widespread nervousness among internationaldevelopment organizations.Pio XII has been receiving support from various organizationsand institutions and has built up solid alliances, e.g., withALER (Latin American Association of Radio Education), RadioNetherlands, and OCLACC (Catholic Organization of LatinAmerican and Caribbean Communication). Based on a longstandingpartnership with ERBOL, DW Akademie in collaborationwith GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale ZusammenarbeitGmbH) recently supported this network (from 2010to 2013), seeking to strengthen the quality of local reporting ina project called “Ondas en Red” (waves in a network).VokaribeIn Colombia there have been numerous initiatives relatingto community radio as a vehicle to raise public awareness inremote areas, which are often dominated by illegal groupingssuch as paramilitary and guerrilla groups. There are supportnetworks for community radio, like the Association ARDEMAG(Asociación Red de Emisoras Comunitarias del Magdalena Medio)and the indigenous networks AMCIC (Red de Emisorasindígenas) and ACIN (Asociación de Cabildos). Several universities,such as the Universidad Minuto de Dios and the Universidadde los Andes analyze the role of community media,whilst foundations like FNPI (Fundación Nuevo PeriodismoIberoamericano) and Medios para la Paz (actually in crisis)stand for journalistic innovation and professionalization. Internationaldevelopment agencies like UNDP, GIZ, and IMS(International Media Support) have been supporting local andcommunity media in a conflictive and violent environment.Vokaribe has several strategic allies: a religious foundationwith whom they share the public library (where Vokaribe hasits main office) and arrange coordination for activities with thelocal community (Comunidad de los Ministros de los EnfermosCamilos). Vokaribe is also integrated into the Caribbeannetwork Intermundos and Red Caribe, explains project managerPatricia Rendón: “The concept of region evokes the identitythat connects to the history and culture of the Caribbeanthat transcends even the borders of Colombia and connects uswith our roots, Afro-descendant and indigenous.” 54 Additionally,Vokaribe implemented cultural projects in the neighborhoodfinanced by the Ministry of Culture. The German publicbroadcaster SWR donated used technical equipment and theGerman Embassy financed the antenna. A project with WACC(World Association for Christian Communication) focusedon radio training for community members. Vokaribe is partof an ongoing project with DW Akademie to strengthen fourrecently-founded urban community radio stations and helpthem become economically sustainable platforms with attractiveand socially relevant programming.Radio IntagWith a new constitutional framework and an anti-monopolistCommunication Law approved in 2013, community radio inEcuador now has a solid legal base and should receive financialand technical support from the state. However, implementationis still a challenge, 55 especially for projects that are not inline with the current government stance, such as those relatedto environmental questions and youth culture: “There is nowa certain reluctance to express criticism openly in the broadcastingcommunity.” 56 Most community radio stations are attachedto religious institutions (about 70 percent), the rest arepart of local communities, mainly indigenous peoples. Thereare few national organizations that have been supportive ofthe community media sector: Corape (Coordinadora de RadiosPopulares y Educativas del Ecuador) is an umbrella group with35 affiliated members; the Latin American Association for RadioEducation (ALER) has its headquarters in Quito.In this rather tense context, Radio Intag can count on afew allies: The associated Foundation Casa Palabra y Pueblooffers substantial support, producing a popular program (RevistaIntag) with local news and background information. Thefoundation has full autonomy over the content of the programs.Radio Intag has the support of an international solidaritynetwork for the protection of the Intag region, with veryactive volunteers 57 and receives news content form ALER and47Pío XII 2008.48id21 2006, 1.49Patricia Rendón, ProjectManager, Vokaribe.50Miguel Andrade, Director ofRadio Intag, Ecuador.51Andreas Postrach, Coordinator,German Association for theIntag region.52Miguel Andrade, Directorof Radio Intag, Ecuador.53Guthmann & Salazar Tórrez2013, 1.54Patricia Rendón, Project Manager,Vokaribe, Colombia.55El Comercio.56Ana María Acosta,Wambra Radio, Quito, Ecuador.57http://intag-ev.de/Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 237

CORAPE. There is an institutional agreement with some universitiesfor an intern program; two local secondary schoolsproduce their own program.Media Support OrganizationsAMARCIt is important to mention three media support organizationswith a Latin American and international scope: AMARC’s(World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters) missionis to support and contribute to the development of communityand participatory radio. It has a special focus on Latin America,related to the development of legal frameworks for communityradio, the promotion of gender sensitivity, the use of new technologies,and treatment of socio-environmental questions.AMARC produces regular international news to be used bycommunity radio and offers legal advice and orientation.Friedrich Ebert StiftungThe Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, a German political foundation,is working on a long-standing project for media developmentand communication consulting in the Latin American region(in Spanish: C3, Centro de Competencia en Comunicación)with three main working areas: political and legal frameworkfor press and radio, social participation through local andcommunity media, and dialogue between media professionalsand political and civil society. Its services include legal advice,research, expert discussions, a panel with representatives andjournalists, seminars, and international conferences.DW AkademieDW Akademie works primarily with local and national mediapartners in Latin America and has implemented a rangeof long-term projects to support balanced and independentreporting. It sets priority topics in each country; in Nicaraguafor instance, DW Akademie is assisting with the trainingof journalists enrolled in a Masters of Environmental Reportingat the University of Managua. In Bolivia, work is focusedon strengthening vocational training for journalists. In Guatemala,DW Akademie has prioritized youth as a topic, andin Colombia the focus is on consolidation of community radiosand on independent information platforms. Recently,DW Akademie has been adjusting its global strategy, includingthat for Latin America. It now has a stronger focus on capacitydevelopment and continual follow-up counselling: “We feelthat our role now is to strengthen and to connect existing expertise,not so much to bring knowledge from outside,” commentsthe regional coordinator. 58Status of the Media OrganizationsLegal Framework, Governance and EthicsRadio Pio XII is formally a private Catholic radio network, butis generally considered a community radio station, as directorRoberto Durette pointed out: “We are community radio in thesense that, since our foundation, we have been walking withthe miners and indigenous peoples.” 59 As a result of the abovementionednew constitution, a recent Communication Lawguarantees 33 per cent of all Radio frequencies for communityand indigenous radio (Communication Law, art. 10). The supervisoryand controlling body ATT (Autoridad de Fiscalización yRegulación de Telecomunicaciones y Transportes) is responsiblefor the licensing process for new community radio outlets,particularly in urban areas, but it is a time-consuming procedureto obtain a license. 60 Some journalists suspect that ATTapplies political criteria in the application process.In theory, Pio XII could now officially try to get a license asa community broadcaster, but as Peter Deselaers, former coordinatorof the project “Ondas en Red,” explains, that couldjeopardize the continued existence of the network as there isnot necessarily a social organization in the region with sufficientcredibility and capacity to manage it. In addition thereis no reason for the Oblates to let go of a good and prestigiousproject that they care about. 61Radio Pio XII has established journalistic principles andstandards for its reporters. Its official mission is to “contributeto a just, participatory and fraternal society through educationalcommunication and support of indigenous communities,miners’ colonies and marginal urban sites.” The editorialteams identify with an ethical imperative to be “objective” inthe treatment of information and to foster constructive, participatorysolutions for the marginalized population.Vokaribe is one of the first community radio stations inan urban setting in Colombia. The Ministry of ICT and communicationestablished a new policy in 2008, sanctioning andpromoting urban radio for the first time. The licensing processwas tedious; for close to four years the core team had to delivertraining, define goals, establish a program timetable, set up aprogramming committee, and formulate an ethics code anda style manual. DW Akademie’s Matthias Kopp, who offeredsupport and technical advice as country manager, finds thecertification procedure is useful: “The long process was worthwhilefor Vokaribe and contributed to the consolidation of acommunity as stakeholders. It helps to clarify goals and to testcapacity and motivation.” 62Radio Intag was founded as a private radio station by anelectronic engineer, Miguel Andrade: “Legally it was almostimpossible at that time to get a community radio license, sowe opted for private status.” 63 By law, all radio outlets have topublish an ethics code (código deontológico). Radio Intag hasa rather standardized code with basic journalistic and ethicalprinciples. 64 The broadcasting authority (Superintendencia dela Información y Comunicación) is observing Radio Intag very238

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community Mediaclosely, and recently sent a written warning because it supposedlyexceeded the power limit of 100 Watts by 3 Watts. Becausethe government seems to have taken the decision to proceedwith an extensive mining project in this ecologically fragileregion, Radio Intag could have problems renewing its licensein the future. Miguel Andrade has developed a plan B for thisscenario, which would involve transforming the station intoa community radio station. It is important to mention theinternational framework and legislation as it applies to communityradio, for instance, the Advisory Opinion of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights. 65Capacity Building and Human ResourcesRadio Pio XII has been training local multilingual reporters foryears in basic journalistic skills and standards. The strategy isto have at least one person in nearly every indigenous communitythat is qualified to submit a news report. This is considereda precondition for news coverage from the highlandregion. As a result, Pio XII has a pool of reporters whose skilllevels are constantly maintained by the main editing staff.Vokaribe relies mostly on capacity building through internationalorganizations like WACC (World Association forChristian Communication) and DW Akademie. The core team(known as coordinators) are high level professionals, for instance,the director Walter Hernández is a well-known musician,and the project manager Patricia Rendo is a PhD studentspecialising in participative media. The coordinators considerthat reflecting on own practice is also a good way of capacitybuilding and they have regular meetings and internal workshopswith a focus on knowledge management.Finally, the core team at Radio Intag, responsible for localcontent such as “Revista Intag,” has had basic training in printjournalism and participates in workshops for communitybroadcasters held by the national radio organization CORAPE.The students on internship at Radio Intag are offered basicscholar’s training with the aim of producing small programsrelated to their everyday reality.Financing, Management and Newsroom StructuresRadio Pio XII is financially self-sustaining. Its main source ofrevenue is advertising, for example for NGOs and developmentagencies working in the region. It also receives strongfinancial aid for its community programs: The German CatholicBishops’ Organization for Development Cooperation MISE-RIOR, for instance, is a longstanding technical and financialpartner; the directors of Pio XII receive support as priests fromthe Oblates. 66 The core team in Siglo XX consists of 6 journalistsand the director, and about 30 local reporters in the community.Decisions on the editorial line and the treatment ofnews are mainly taken in the weekly editorial meeting. Thecombination of FM, MW, and SW broadcasting together withReal Audio and a fully-fledged internet platform ensure goodaccess to the target groups.Vokaribe is run by volunteer work on the part of all participants,who usually have other, paying jobs. There are specificprojects and activities (like a fair for community radio)financed by external organizations such as foundations, theMinistry of Culture or the WACC (World Association for ChristianCommunication). Vokaribe has an upgraded webpagewith many video and audio files on their work; they use Facebookand have more than 1,000 active followers.Radio Intag generates little revenue and is sustained by itsdirector. There are some revenues through advertising and aregular donation of 1,500 US dollars per year from a local environmentalfoundation. Radio Intag has an internet platformwith Real Audio player. Since the director of Radio Intag has afull-time job as an engineer, he uses remote control software(ZaraStudio). Financial sustainability is a serious issue, exceptin the case of Pio XII, and there is always the risk of extremeself-exploitation, fatigue or low personal motivation throughexcessive voluntary work.Perception, Participation and Public EngagementPio XII is popular with its audiences, according to several surveys,especially in rural areas, where the network is the onlyprofessional source of news. 67 The public appreciates the localinformation and the cultural programs, the most famousbeing Tuta Chasquita, an entertainment program with localQuechua musicians. Pio XII reporters meet with focus groupsseveral times a month to evaluate programming and to detecthidden issues for future programs. There is also an annualevaluation with social organizations.Criticism is heard about the music style, because the twomain target groups – miners and indigenous people – haverather different tastes. There are also interest groups who opposespecific issues. For instance, miners’ cooperatives dislikethe coverage of environmental issues and reports on dangerousworking conditions. Critics also question the “neutrality” of religion-basedradio: “Similarly to private enterprises, the Catholicchurch also has its own agenda, sometimes discreetly hiddenbehind good principles like the love of one’s neighbor.” 6858Rodrigo Villarzú,Coordinatorfor Latin America, DW Akademie,Germany.59Roberto Durette, DirectorGeneral Radio Pio XII in Bolivia.60Santos Condori, Journalist ofRadio Station Chasqui inEl Alto, Bolivia.61Peter Deselaers, Project Manager,Research and Development,DW Akademie, Germany.62Matthias Kopp, Country ManagerColombia, DW Akademie,Germany.63Miguel Andrade, Directorof Radio Intag, Ecuador.64Código Deontológico de“Radio Intag”.65AFSCA 2009.66Roberto Durette, DirectorGeneral Radio Pio XII in Bolivia.67Pío XII 2008.68Comment of Claudia Benavente,Director of Bolivia nationalnewspaper “La Razón”, duringa public discussion on censorship,La Paz, MUSEF;18th of march.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 239

With regard to Vokaribe, no systematic study has yet beenmade of the approximately 500,000 inhabitants in the neighborhood.Vokaribe has an active fan group and in recent meetingsfor its relaunch many local representatives and communitymembers were actively involved. Vokaribe has systematizedsome lessons learned about participative processes, as PatriciaRendón explains: “You never can speak for others. Everyonehas his or her own voice. The most we can do as Vokaribe is topromote and help to get that voice heard.” 69Radio Intag makes an important social contribution forthe region, strengthening local identities and defending itsenvironment. For many inhabitants, this radio station is amain reference and they even feel that they can visit the radiostation and share their concerns. Its core team makes skillfuluse of modern technologies, including the internet. There aresome well-prepared programs and reports and solid supportthrough international solidarity networks. However, the outletis under pressure: In a global political context in relationto the massive promotion of extractive industries in the region,it finds itself in the middle of a political conflict betweenecologists and enterprises authorized by the government. Itsformal status as a private radio station is no longer adequatefor its social goals. There are signs of “fatigue” related to lowparticipation of the community, political pressures, and financialconstraints.In order to better understand the audience, Javier Torres,an Ecuadorian scholar, carried out a survey of Radio Intag'slisteners. One of the main results is that almost 75 percent ofthe population (about 19,000 people) listen regularly to RadioIntag, and that radio reception and use in mining areas isweak. Until recently, the most popular program with the audiencewas the live transmission of early morning mass; anotherpopular format is the local background information program“Revista Intag” and a participative cultural program wheremusicians from local communities come into the studio toplay their rhythms and tell anecdotes from a peasant’s life.Public Service: General FunctionsCreating a Public SphereRadio Pio XII undoubtedly contributes to the creation of apublic sphere. It offers comprehensive information on provincialand local dynamics, and promotes a pluralistic forum onimportant development and governance issues – especiallyin a highly polarized national context. In many cases, Pio XIIis the only source of information relating to indigenous andpeasant people from small Andean villages.The editorial policy seems to be focused on constructivecriticism with regard to the solution of visible dysfunctionsand of responsibilities for wrongdoing. Pio XII has the credibilityto moderate debates and facilitate between conflictingpolitical organizations and actors. In recent years, the editingteam has been trying to respond to the management’s qualityrequirement to be more “educative,” gives much more socialand contextual orientation and has improved the backgroundreporting. Nevertheless, the range of journalistic formats usedis still limited and the quality of many concrete communicationalproducts could be still significantly improved. The useof investigative journalism is in very early stages.Vokaribe is still in its pilot phase, and it is difficult to drawany conclusions as to its general functions. The radio teamseems to have a clear idea of journalistic standards with regardto balanced information and inclusion of pluralistic opinions.But Vokaribe radio does not play the role of “watchdog” andcritical observer of public policies in the area. Nor does it seekto uncover irregularities through investigative journalism –which would no doubt mean increased security risks for reporters.The focus is on local cultural life and its potential. 70Radio Intag is similar to Radio Pio XII in that its goal is tooffer comprehensive local news. Additionally, it uses the newsservice of independent agencies like ALER (Latin American Associationof Radio Education), CORAPE (Coordinator of PopularEducational Radio of Ecuador), and Radio Netherlands to coverthe national and international news. However, Radio Intag hasits own political agenda and a mission against mining projectsfor the sake of environmental protection, and it does not treatthese issues without bias, giving the same space to the supportersof these extractive projects. In some of its programs,President Rafael Correa is criticized severely for his extractiveindustry policy. On the other hand, the broadcaster gives theofficial government channel (including live transmissionsof presidential speeches) almost three hours for its standardprogram. This fact shows that Radio Intag is committed to itsconvictions, but not in an “obsessive” or “dogmatic” way. Evenif investigative journalism is not very well-developed, somebackground programs raise awareness about certain hiddenissues, such as the migration of young people to the big cities.Supporting IntegrationRadio Pio XII plays an important role for social integration inthe region. It promotes cultural expression which would otherwisenever be heard on the radio and it thereby empowersdisadvantaged and repressed people. It has several participativemechanisms of consultation and reflection with civilsociety, but the final decisions are taken by the establishedinternal instances. One recent innovation is a target-grouporienteduse of new technologies, such as a webpage (mainlyfor journalists interested in local news), Twitter (for media experts),and Facebook (for people who had to leave the area andwant to stay in contact). 71Initially, Vokaribe involved local leaders and members of thecommunity, together with a group of professionals from otherneighborhoods. The integration of different cultural voices isits main strength. There have been several training cycles incommunity radio production, the use and combination of newtechnologies via Facebook, Twitter and internet platform is innovative.One of the best examples of community integrationis an annual fair of community radio stations in Barranquilla,240

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community Mediawhich is unique in the Caribbean region and where more than100 radio broadcasters meet, swap stories, and run a live showin a local community to be transmitted by radio.In the case of Radio Intag, community involvement has diminishedand the instances of participation (like the steeringcommittee) are not very active. There seems to be a kind of“fatigue”: “People enjoy the program and are used to it. Theydon’t see the necessity to be more actively involved. Perhapsthey are not aware of the unstable situation at Radio Intag.” 72The cultural approach with focus on local identities is strong;a new program, for example, which looks at the life stories ofelderly members of the community, is in the making.Achievements and ChallengesThe Bolivian Congress is dominated by the socialist politicalmovement MAS, which is skeptical about the influence of theCatholic church. In December 2013 this Congress awarded RadioPio XII a prestigious national distinction for its defenseof democracy and human rights. The key to maintainingthe broadcaster’s significance in the region seems to be thelong-term community approach, the institutional anchoragein the Catholic radio network, the intransigent engagementwith human rights and vulnerable groups, the adaptability tonew audiences and issues, and its capacity building approachinvolving vocational and practical training for its local multilingualjournalists.Pio XII has been skillfully using and integrating the ser vicesof existing radio networks like ERBOL. Evidently, it builds oncultural potential in a socially divided region where extremepoverty predominates. Its focus on local development issuesis an adequate strategy to avoid political confrontation in ahighly polarized national context. However, there are manychallenges, mainly related to investigative journalism and theinnovation in formats and products. The mechanism of participationseems rather conventional still, and the incorporationof civil society in the programming and management process,for instance, through a steering board in the same way as otherstations, could be a worthwhile discussion. This conclusion isin line with the findings of a comparative study on participationmechanisms in community radio. Fröhlich examines theinvolvement of communities in programming, management,ownership, and funding, and concludes that “Latin Americanradio stations top participation in programming, but they arefar below average in management and ownership.” 73The Radio Vokaribe case demonstrates how to patientlybuild up an urban community station, based on an interdisciplinarycultural approach and strong local participation: “Theconvergence between neighbors, students, and artists makingradio in a very popular urban area is the particularity of Vokaribe.The mix between conventional and new radio via internet isvery promising,” says expert Ernesto Lamas, who has been givingVokaribe technical support. However, numerous challengesremain to be tackled, e.g., related to continuous programmingand financial sustainability. After all, Vokaribe will have to findits “niche” and specific audience in a landscape where manyother commercial radio stations compete for listeners.When it comes to lessons learned for media support, weshould mention two DW Akademie projects which involve PioXII and Vokaribe, as well as AMARC and the Friedrich EbertFoundation (see table 4). The DW Akademie-supported project“Ondas en Red,” which included the Pio XII network as one ofeight cooperation partners, yielded important findings froman external evaluation. 75 Based on a previous detailed needassessment, the project, under the coordination of a Germanmedia expert, focused on the improvement and quality ofdifferent journalistic formats, online journalism, and the improvementof the processes in the editorial office. 76 The supportconsisted of a mix of methodologies related to horizontallearning and professional exchange between different cooperationpartners, and included practice-orientated training,input from international experts, and personalized coachingand organizational counseling. The feedback of the journalistsand participants involved has been positive: “The project improvedthe reporters’ professionalism significantly,” acknowledgesdirector Roberto Durette. 77 As a result, Radio Pio XII hasenhanced its background reporting, developed new formatsand established a strong partnership with the radio networkERBOL. Furthermore, the editorial team transformed the webpageinto a journalistic platform and introduced the use of socialmedia like Twitter and Facebook.Vokaribe is included in a project which aims, with supportfrom DW Akademie, to strengthen four recently-founded urbancommunity radio stations and to help transform theminto economically sustainable platforms with attractive andsocially relevant programming. DW Akademie’s main contributionis in the areas of organizational development, journalisticcapacity building, advice on the design and structure ofprogramming, and consultation with international experts,e.g., on financial sustainability. The project is still ongoing: Inthe case of Vokaribe, the core team expressed satisfaction withthe “process-oriented counseling” and the practical technicalinput. They also feel that this project offers a different type ofsupport to that of previous projects, where certain goals establishedby the donor organizations had to be accomplished.In this case, the team perceives that the coaching process involvesquestioning essential elements (like visions and goals)69Barié & Legatis 2014.70Patricia Rendón, ProjectManager, Vokaribe, Colombia.71Peter Deselaers, ProjectManager, Research and Development,DW Akademie, Germany.72Andreas Postrach, Coordinator,German Association for theIntag region.73Fröhlich et al. 2012, 1.74Ernesto Lamas, Foundingmember of Radio Tribu,Buenos Aires, Argentina.75Dietz 2013.76Peter Deselaers, Project Manager,Research and Development,DW Akademie, Germany.77Roberto Durette, DirectorGeneral Radio Pio XII in Bolivia.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 241

of community radio and establishing a joint working route.The relationship is more that of partners rather than that ofclient and technical advisor.AMARC is a leading reference for community radio in LatinAmerica. Its methods include lobbying, alerts on violations ofjournalists’ human rights, conferences and visiting missions,workshops, political dialogue, comparative studies, and supplyof news content. At the introduction of the new Argentineanlegislation on communication (Ley 26.522 de Servicios de ComunicaciónAudiovisual), AMARC made a significant contributionby means of discussion, consensus building, and legaladvice. The new legislation guarantees up to 33 percent of thefrequencies for “community-oriented media of popular nonprofitorganizations.” There are several good practices facilitatedby AMARC, so, for instance, methods for the interactionwith audiences and for impact assessment. “AMARC is a wellestablishednetwork that facilitates the exchange of programcontent. Its legal advice services for community radio are essential,”remarks Petra Berner. 78The Friedrich Ebert Foundation’s C3 Project is a kind ofthink tank and has been publicly positioning key issues relatedto the transformation of the Latin American media landscapeand the use of new technologies. It is a solid source of informationon Latin American tendencies and has a good network ofpolicy makers, media organizations, and journalists with severalpublications related to community radio.Transformation ApproachesCommunity radio should be considered a third media sector,on equal terms with private and public media, as recent legislationsin Latin America established, for instance in Argentina,Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Accordingto this new approach, community radio should have itsplace in the media landscape, dispose of a part (usually onethird) of the frequencies and should have the support of thestate to be enabled to adequately develop. The idea of threetypes of broadcasting with equal relevance is the result ofmany years of international discussions, best summarized inan international declaration written by representatives of theUN system, experts, academics and policy makers in Amsterdamin 2007:“Different types of broadcasters – commercial, public service,and community – should be able to operate on, and haveequitable access to, all available distribution platforms. Specificmeasures to promote diversity may include reservation of adequatefrequencies for different types of broadcasters... Communitybroadcasting should be explicitly recognized in law asa distinct form of broadcasting, should benefit from fair andsimple licensing procedures, should not have to meet stringenttechnological or other license criteria, should benefit from concessionarylicense fees, and should have access to advertising.” 79Community radio in Latin America can make a very significantcontribution to pluralism in media, to empowermentof local communities, the construction of multiple identities,the sense of local belonging and the defense of human rights,especially the right to freedom of expression and of access toinformation. In some cases, it can even serve as mediator andmoderator in social conflicts and has proved to be the mosteffective communication channel in the case of emergencies(such as earthquakes). Community radio networks areresourceful and creative in using new technologies and theyrapidly pick up on hidden issues and urgent social questions,for instance, on intercultural issues or environmental matters.As we have seen in the three case studies presented here, thetransition from informal (or private) radio stations into fullysustainable community broadcasting is a long one. The newlegislation in the region is a window of opportunity to reorganizeand restructure this rather informal and underestimatedsector. This would mean community radio could interact in acordial and complementary fashion with the two other mediasectors, which are much better positioned and organized.This analysis suggests that there are very few examples ofstrategic and long-term commitment of media developmentorganizations with community radio in Latin America likethe abovementioned involvement of DW Akademie. UN anddevelopment organizations (the World Health Organization –WHO, the United Nations Development Programme – UNDP,German Development Cooperation GIZ, and the US AgencyUSAID) have been working with community radio in the regionfor many years. However, generally these developmentagencies use community radio as a vehicle to reach marginalizedpopulations and to promote developmental goals. 80 Theydo not usually perceive it as a strategic partner in the longtermtransformation of the media landscape or as a key elementof a coherent development strategy. Community radionetworks usually receive financial support to implement theprojects and goals of other organizations. They are rarely seenas a sector to be developed for its own sake, as Kivikuru pointsout: 81 “Public Service Broadcasting has not been assessed as achallenge, but rather as an institution belonging to the past.” 82Certainly, there are many understandable reasons for thisreluctance to support them directly: Firstly, it is difficult toidentify and select the few good practices and eligible initiativesfrom hundreds of “fake” community radio stations, suchas those, for instance, that are converted into political propagandamachines during election periods or are simply lucrativeprivate enterprises. 83 In addition, Latin American governmentspossibly don’t want development agencies to supportdemocratic platforms where critical voices predominate, especiallywhen those platforms use disrespectful and unconventionallanguage. Finally, many community radio stations havelimited impact in specific communities and it is not clear howto scale these results up to a more aggregated impact on a nationallevel. These challenges could be adequately addressed ina more comprehensive strategy which we will propose below.Community radio compensates for profound gaps in the242

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community Mediamainstream media landscape, where state media rarely fulfilla public service function, and where the concentration of medialeads to a unified and simplified image of social reality andeven discrimination, as Becerra confirms: “The concentrationof ownership in Latin America in few groups tends to result inan editorial unification and reduces and simplifies diversity.” 84Referring to the television sector, Kitzberger maintains thateven mainstream media reinforce inequity:“By propagating the lifestyle of the upper class as desirable,television as a place of symbolic representation contributessignificantly to stabilization of the existing social divide in societies.At the same time, the rich barely experience anythingabout the living conditions of the poor on television. Theseusually appear only in the context of insecurity and crime.Thus, Latin American media today reproduce the existing socialinequality.” 85Media development organizations should seek to supportthe consolidation of the third sector and should ask how theycan contribute to a much more strategic use and developmentof the community media sector as promoters of a pluralisticpublic sphere and as supporters of social integration in highlydivided and fragmented societies.However, in spite of the fact that community radio fulfills importantpublic functions of social integration and the buildingof a public sphere, it can and should not substitute public servicemedia: “It is important to stress that community broadcasting,while it may perform certain public service broadcastingfunctions, does not replace public service broadcastingwith its broader outlook and national scope.” 86Public service media should take community broadcastingas an inspiration and example, but states must not interpretthe existence of a dynamic community radio sector as an easyway to get rid of their obligation (often constitutionally established)to guarantee the rights of access to information andpolitical education. Public service broadcasting has an entirelybroader mission than community radio, which can perfectlycomplement and reinforce the mission of community radiobut not replace it.As we have seen, the concept of public service media asfirst sector is still not widespread and often misunderstoodin the region. However, the idea should not be abandoned,as Rodrigo Villarzú, Coordinator for Latin America at DWAkademie points out: “There is now more openness for thenotion of public broadcasting and media development organizationsshould take advantage of that and promote thisdiscussion.” 87 This would imply working with those who couldlobby for public broadcasting and seek political influence, as arecent report suggests: “Too many broadcasting conferencesare aimed just at the broadcasters. The real need is to addressthose with the power to alter things. It is no use preaching justto the converted.” 88Community radio emerges prompted by the urgent needs ofdiverse local communities, unions, groups, indigenous peopleor minorities to articulate their concerns, to make their interestsvisible or to counterbalance information of the mainstreammedia. Community radio makers feel and perceivethat something is missing in the overall media landscape, thatsome groups or issues are not adequately represented andthey want to fill that gap. They fulfill public media functions,but not necessarily in a conscious way, seeking the creation ofpolitical spheres and the promotion of social integration. Forinstance, Radio Intag has a clear political position against miningprojects, and objectivity is not the main goal in this case.Thus, it seems that the communicational needs perceived byspecific communities or groups are the incentive and drivingforce that defines the roles and functions, rather than an abstractidentification with public and social functions. In thecase of Radio Pio XII, civil society organizations and religiousgroups perceived initially that the indigenous population ofthe Bolivian Highlands was disconnected and affected by extremepoverty. In reaction, Radio Pio XII tried to involve them,using their language, in local development issues. A group ofactivists and communication professionals was concernedabout violence amongst the young people in the neighborhoodand the weak sense of local belonging. As a consequence,they got together and established a radio station to helpstrengthen the local identity of young people (Vokaribe). Journalistsand social leaders in the Intag region were concernedabout the misinformation on the impact of extractive industries.So they founded a radio station to take up these environmentalissues and offer a critical point of view.Some community radio stations even respond to veryspecific needs: Las Voces del Secuestro, for instance, is a radiostation aimed entirely at giving out information relevant tokidnapped persons and their dependents in Colombia, andLa Colifata in Buenos Aires (Argentina) is produced by and forpatients of a mental hospital. In conclusion, based on severalinterviews and the empirical data, we can imply that these78Petra Berner, Head Research andDevelopment, DW Akademie,Germany.79There are many other documentsrelating to this issue, for instance,the study “The state of CommunityMedia in the European Union”submitted by the EuropeanParliament in September 2007.80Mónica Valdes, in charge ofcapacity development, AMARC,Bogota, Colombia.81Carlos Rivadeneyra, Coordinatorfor Latin America, AMARC,Lima, Peru.82Kivikuru 2006, 7.83Matthias Kopp, Country ManagerColombia, DW Akademie,Germany.84Becerra 2014, 64.85Kitzberger 2013, 2.86Banerjee & Seneviratne 2005, 13.87Rodrigo Villarzú,Coordinator forLatin America, DW Akademie,Germany.88Smith 2012, 40.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 243

oadcasters emerge as a collective action to meet perceived(subjective) communicational needs of a community or evensmaller interest groups.When analyzing the functions of community radio, it is importantto focus on the practical role, content, and the perceptionof the audience, rather than on the legal status and theofficial mission. For many years, community radio stations operatedillegally and were seen as “pirate radio stations.” Eventoday, many outlets have not completed a formal certificationprocess or, for practical reasons, operate as private radio witha community approach (like Radio Intag); some only have an“illegal” or “semi-legal” status. Meanwhile, many communitybroadcasters are commercial in practice, as Matthias Koppnoticed in Colombia: “Of around 1,000 community radio stations,only a few really fulfill a social function.” 89Almost all those interviewed said that the motivation for theirparticipation in these projects was a social and political one;radio is seen as one of the best and most effective instrumentsof communication to contribute to a common good. For instanceAna María Acosta, radio afficionado from Ecuador: “Radiois the meeting place to articulate our demands and proposalsas young people and to accompany our organizationalprocesses.” 91 The AMARC Coordinator Carlos Rivadeneyra isoptimistic about the future of community radio: “As long ascommunities feel that they have something to say, to singtheir songs, and to dance their dances, community radio willexist, whether legally or informally.” 92 The local journalist ÓscarGómez from Colombia thinks that social compromise willalways be a precondition for the engagement with communityradio: “The future of community radio depends on the enthusiasmand altruism of its promoters and on their willingnessto pursue the dreams of Don Quijote of an equitable world inharmony with our planet.” 93Community broadcasting seeks therefore to compensatefor the insufficiencies of formal democracy: “There is no discomfortwith democracy, but there is discomfort in democracy,”remarks Dante Caputo, director of the UNDP report onDemocracy in Latin America. 94 Communities express this unease,and enrich and deepen democracy often by non-conventionaland even insolent and provocative ways.All sectors together, public, commercial, and communitymedia, should have public service functions and obligations,but with different emphases and responsibilities. This is thereason why all media sectors together are defined as “socialcommunication media” in more recent legislation (for instance,Ley Orgánica de Comunicación in Ecuador). Similarly,Blumler and Nossiter suggest that all media, including that ofthe private sector, should be guided by a philosophy of publicservice: “Public service broadcasting must be defined in termsof a commitment to a set of principles rather than in terms ofthe ownership or financing of broadcasting bodies; it is thereforenot a philosophy which can be confined to national broad-casters or state corporations, but through various legislativeand regulatory frameworks must also imbue privately ownedstations and channels.” 95The potential of community radio in Latin America is still seriouslyrestricted by legal barriers, low budgets, and politicalinterference. In spite of the impressive formal advancement,today community radio in Latin America confronts seriouschallenges: In a context of increasing concentration of mediaownership in Latin America and the consolidation of left-winggovernments in some countries (like Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador,and Venezuela) community broadcasting is under strongpressure. Restrictive legal frameworks, limited access to theradio spectrum, censorship, lack of economic sustainability,political persecution, and social polarization are challengingthe endurance of this historical media form. Meanwhile, manycommunity radio stations are changing and adapting to newand sometimes adverse circumstances: They are making increasinguse of information and communications technology(ICT), for instance, combining internet and FM radio. Accordingto Ernesto Lamas, there is no crisis of community radio,since even when some disappear, new stations are created: “Almostevery day I receive a mail, asking for advice on setting upa new community radio outlet.” 96 Most new legislation seemsto facilitate the process of formalization and consolidation.Media development organizations should have a morestrategic and comprehensive approach for community radio,which could embrace the legal and political framework, thestrengthening of national and international networks for radiocommunities, the facilitation of knowledge managementprocesses, and support for selected community communicationprojects with high potential.A first field of intervention could be supporting the discussion,consolidation, implementation, and accompaniment ofa more progressive legal framework and policy on communityradios, focused on questions like: How to overcome legaland bureaucratic obstacles? How could state policy activelypromote this community radio sector without political interference?How to avoid the misuse and manipulation of thecommunity radio idea? How could community radio be madefinancially sustainable? How could the third sector operate ina coherent manner with the other sectors? How to guaranteean impartial and independent certification process?89Matthias Kopp, Country Manager Colombia, DW Akademie, Germany.90See also Barié & Legatis 2014; and Buckley 2008.91Ana María Acosta, journalist, Wambra Radio, Quito, Ecuador.92Carlos Rivadeneyra, Coordinator for Latin America, AMARC, Peru.93Óscar Gómez, Journalist in Manizales, Colombia.94UNDP 2004, 19.95Blumler & Nossiter 1991, 24.96Ernesto Lamas, Founding member of Radio Tribu, Buenos Aires, Argentina.244

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaThe Table (below) shows typical communicational needs covered and met by community radios, taken from the informationgathered from the case studies and from the interviews: 90Communicational needs Aspects ExamplesAccess to information – Access to qualified information inremote and rural areas– Communication emergencies,such as natural disastersPio XII and Radio Intag are radiostations covering (almost exclusively) aspecific region.Empowerment and participation– Instrument of social mobilization,protest and political advocacy(e.g., trade union and studentmovement stations)– “Voice of the voiceless” – empowermentand participation ofminorities or marginalized groups,ignored by the mainstream media– Accountability and social control– Dialogue platforms and discussionforumsRadio Pachamama in Bolivia speakson behalf of the indigenous urbanwomen.Education – Formal education(distance courses)– Training– Local knowledgeRadio Irfeyal in Quito, Ecuador, hasmainly educational programs withcontent for young students.Conflict transformation and violenceprevention– Conflict transformation– Peaceful coexistence inviolent contexts– Reconstruction of thesocial fabricRadio La Voz del Secuestro in Colombiais motivated by the armed conflictand transmits messages to kidnappedpeople.CulturePromotion and strengthening ofsubcultures and local identities andlanguagesRadio Hamalali Garinagu broadcaststo the Garifuna communities of theCaribbean coast and promotes theirmusic and cultural traditions.Development Local development issues Radio Intag has a focus on developmentissues, like tourism and impactof extractive industries.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 245

A second field should be the strengthening of and partnershipwith the numerous national and international networks,which have been the main support of local radio stations inthe region, like AMCIC (Network of Indigenous Broadcasters)in Colombia and CORAPE (Popular Radio Education Coordinatorof Ecuador) in Ecuador. There are also transnational organizationslike AMARC (Latin America Section of World Associationof Community Radio Broadcasters) and FELAP (LatinAmerican Federation of Journalists). According to our interviewees,these networks play an important role for the promotionof public policies related to community broadcastingand are a key success factor for many local radio stations inhighly vulnerable situations.Third, one of the main needs of these community radio stations,identified by other investigations, is a sharing of knowledgewith other projects on successful methods and practicalstrategies for overcoming the numerous obstacles they haveto tackle, as Mónica Valdez from AMARC underlines: 97 “How todesign a good programming plan? How to share responsibilitieswithin the organization? How to make communities participatemore actively? There are so many lessons learned andexpert knowledge which should be systematized and availablefor all the new community broadcasters in the region.” 98 Certainly,the aforementioned radio networks could contribute toa profounder exchange and knowledge management, but theypossibly need strong methodological and technical support.Lastly, it is important to select and support promisingcommunity radio practices and, in a broader sense, innovativecommunity media projects. DW Akademie, for instance,has been accompanying the whole process of formation, legalization,qualification and consolidation of some identifiedcommunity initiatives with high potential. The concept of a“critical friend” which comes from the study of learning environmentscould be useful in the counseling process: a trustedperson who upholds the success of the project through technicalinput and constructive questions, part of a process-orientatedcounseling approach. The main criterion for a selectionof such projects with high potential should be their communityapproach, the ambition to develop contents with a certainjournalistic standard and organizational conformation as apossible “change agent” group. As a result, there could soon bewell-documented “good practices” of community radio whichserve as example and motivation for other projects.“Community radio stations that impressed me”A personal selection by Ernesto Lamas, internationalexpert and co-founder of one of Argentina’s mostimportant radio stations, Radio TribuRadio Vokaribe in Colombia has a mix of traditionaland modern approachesRadio Vos Matagalpa in Nicaragua was built up by afeminist theatre groupLa Azotea in Mar de Plata in Argentina is a good exampleof a platform articulating social organizationsFe y Alegría in Venezuela is a Catholic network thatcombines the traditional radio schools with high qualityjournalismMocase Via Campesina is a network of peasant groupsin Argentina promoting the creation of local radio forthe defense of land rights and sustainable development97Barié & Legatis 2014.98Mónica Valdes, Responsible for Capacity Development, AMARC, Colombia.246

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 247

Status of Radio Pio XII, Vokaribe and Radio IntagCharacteristics Radio Pio XII, Siglo XX (Bolivia) Vokaribe (Colombia)Channels, distributionRadio Pio XII was founded in 1959 by OblatesMissionaries in the tin miners’ colony SigloXX of the Bolivian Andean Highlands; in the1990s, the Oblates set up additional stationsin two provincial capitals, Oruro and Cochabamba.Pio XII focuses particularly on localdevelopment issues, on indigenous peoples,and democratization. It is the only radionetwork offering continuous programmingfor the northern part of the department ofPotosi. Broadcasting is eight hours every dayin Spanish and in the indigenous languagesQuechua and Aymara. The combination ofFM, MW, and SW broadcasting together withReal Audio and a complete internet platformensures good access to the target groups.More than 50 percent of the content is locallyproduced; a lot of their news is sharedwith or taken from the Catholic nationalradio network ERBOL, which connects morethan 100 radio stations nationwide. Pio XIIproduces pilots with small FM stations inother rural communities.Urban community radio in marginalizedneighborhoods of Barranquilla on the CaribbeanCoast. After many years of experimentingwith the production of participativeaudio formats and its publication in theinternet, a group of artists and students ofcommunication got serious. They finallyobtained the authorization for a 50 Watturban broadcast station called Vokaribe in2012 and began a test run with four hoursown production three days a week. The focusis on local identities, a sense of relevance ina conflictive context, and the local cultureto mobilize citizens against violence anddiscrimination. After a technical problemwith the antenna mast in December 2012,Vokaribe stopped transmitting as FM Radioand shifted back to the internet and communitywork; re-launch is planned in 2014.Legal frameworkFormally, Pio XII is a part of the Catholicradio network but it’s generally considered acommunity radio network. New legislationin Bolivia could affect in the future the currentlicense which needs to be renewedVokaribe is one of the first community radiostations in an urban area in Colombia. TheMinistry of ICT and communication establisheda new policy in 2008 sanctioning andpromoting urban radio for the first time.Public service remitThe official mission is to “contribute to ajust, participatory and fraternal societythrough educational communication anddirect accompaniment of indigenous communities,miner’s colonies and marginalurban sites.” There are guiding principleslike the Bible as main source of inspiration,commitment to the poor, human rights, andrespect for different cultural identities. Allmedia in Bolivia have to fulfill a social function,according to the new constitution andthe Communication Law.The radio station has the goal to highlightthe “social, cultural, and political dynamics inSouth-Western Barranquilla” and to empowerand qualify social organizations for the useof community radio. Vokaribe has the slogan:Make your own Radio! Community radio inColombia has an explicit public function andmust “promote spaces of expression, information,education, communication, cultural promotion,training, discussion, and consultationleading to the encounter between differentsocial identities and cultural expressions ofthe community” (Act 1981 from 2003).248

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaRadio Intag (Ecuador)Changes and progress over the past yearsRadio Intag was founded in 2006 as a privateradio station with a community educationalapproach; it is nearly the only source oflocal information for the communities.Programming is 18 hours every day, almost30 percent of content is produced by localinitiatives and schools, especially the backgroundinformation. Main issues are localnews, investigative journalism, live storiesand ecology, in election times it promotesdebates between local candidates. There isan educational approach for peasant leadersin radio communication.Importance of long-term engagement and institutional support in timesof change and crisis, Role of Catholic church, all three radios have directeducational community activities, differences between urban and ruralcommunity radio and between young and well-established radioRadio Intag gives a voice to local leadersopposed to extractive megaprojects; has todeal with serious challenges related to politicalrestrictions and financial limitations.Private radio for community purpose, supportedby a non-profit foundation (Fundación CasaPalabra y Pueblo). Under the new CommunicationLaw (Ley Orgánica de Comunicación),Radio Intag must fulfill some requisites (e.g.,there should be at least one professionaljournalist in the team) and it is not clear whetherits license will be renewed. Possibly it couldnow be transformed into community radio.The promotion of urban (and not only rural) community radio stations israther innovative in Colombia.Pio XII and Radio Intag are formally not community radio, because whenthey were founded there was no adequate legislation.The process to obtain or renew the license implies sometimes complexadministrative procedures.Community radio sometimes feels exposed to administrative controlinstances and is suspicious about the political use of licensing.Radio Intag wants to provide the people andsocial organizations in the Intag region withbasic tools for communication and to enablethem to interact constructively between differentlocal actors considering local needs andproblems. The station got a private license onthe explicit condition that it would have a communityeducational approach and support theconservation and protection of the environment.All media must publish their own code of ethicswith references to social functions and professionalstandards, according to a new CommunicationLaw (Ley Orgánica de Comunicación).All three have the goal of empowerment and accompaniment of localcommunities, the reference to public service functions is not alwaysexplicit, but generally the national legislation makes reference to thesocial functions of media in general.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 249

Characteristics Radio Pio XII, Siglo XX (Bolivia) Vokaribe (Colombia)Regulatory system/governing bodyEngagement ofcivil societyThe editorial team, headed by the director,makes the main decisions on the treatmentof information; there are also coordinationmeetings between the directors of the threelocal stations (Siglo XX, Oruro, Cochabamba)for organizational decisions. The managingeditor has a margin of discretion withregard to the application of his professionalcriterion on how to approach and analyzethe information. 99There are several participative mechanisms;the main one is regular discussions withfocal groups. Pio XII also has annual participativeevaluations with representatives ofcivil society and local organizations. Everyfew years the reporters visit and interviewhundreds of listeners as part of an audiencesurvey, which is later published.Formally, there is a Programming Board with20 representatives of social organizationswhich have to take decisions on the generalorientation of the programming and tocontrol the fulfillment of the social serviceobligations, established by law.From the beginning local leaders andinhabitants were involved in the constructionprocess and program planning.FinancingPio XII is financially sustainable. Its mainsource of revenue is advertising from localor national government and NGOs, it also receivesstrong financial aid for its communityprograms, for instance, from the GermanCatholic Bishops’ Organizationfor Development Cooperation MISERIOR,and the directors of Pio XII station receivesupport as priests from the OblatesVokaribe is based on volunteer work of allparticipants who usually have other professionalpaid activities. There are specificprojects and activities (like a Fair for CommunityRadios) which are financed by externalorganizations like foundations, Ministryof Culture or WACC (World Association forChristian Communication).Use of mobile andinternet communication/modern technology/challenges of digitalizationThe programs are transmitted in FM, MW,SW and Real Audio in good quality and aninternet news portal at www.radiopio12.com.The audience is growing and MW and SW areadequate for very remote areas. Pio XII has awell-designed social media strategy and increasinglyuses mobile phones for transmissionin remote communities.Vokaribe has an upgraded webpage withmany video and audio files on their work;they use Facebook and have more than1000 active followersRegional structuresand reportingRadio network with three main radio stations.The station in Siglo covers the completeregion of the North of the department Potosi.Pio XII has a pool of local multilingual reportersin almost all communities and a few pilotstations in indigenous communities.Vokaribe has a strong presence in theneighborhoods through workshops,events, and local reporting.250

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaRadio Intag (Ecuador)Changes and progress over the past yearsThe director together with the local reporters(volunteers) defines the annual programming.The allied foundation (Fundación CasaPalabra y Pueblo) has full autonomy over thecontent of its own programs.Community radios usually do not have very highly formalized internalregulations. Communication laws often establish certain controlinstances like programming committees integrated by representativesof local social organizations.During the first years of foundation, an advisorycommittee with social representativesguided the programming process, but in thelast years participation has diminished, andthe director and involved participants wouldlike to have a more active community involvement.Still there are meetings with localcommunities and the radio station is open toall visitors from the rural areas who used tobring news from remote areas. By law, theremust be a public event this year with socialrepresentatives to render public account.There are different levels of involvement and participation fromincorporation of voices to co-management. 100Radio Intag receives almost no revenues andis sustained by its director. Minor revenuescome from advertising and donations ofaround 1,500 US dollars a year from a localenvironmental foundation.Except in the case of Pio XII, financial sustainability is a serious issue.Also organizations that rely on excessive self-exploitation throughvoluntary work are risky and unstable undertakings in the long run.Radio Intag has built up an internet platformwith Real Audio player. Because the directorof Radio Intag has a full-time job as anengineer, he uses remote-control software(ZaraStudio).In all three examples there is a strategic use of internet and social medial,making different use of each channel of communication (internet, Twitter,Facebook).Digitalization is still not an important issue in Latin America.Real Audio is a good way to bypass regulations, as it does not needauthorization.Some programs like “Revista Intag” giveinterviews with local representatives;there are special productions from localbachelor schools.Pio XII has a strong local presence; Vokaribe's presence is intermittent(festival, workshops, and public events), and Radio Intag's public presenceis only incipient.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 251

Characteristics Radio Pio XII, Siglo XX (Bolivia) Vokaribe (Colombia)Capacity buildingRadio Pio XII has been training local multilingualreporters for several years in basicjournalistic standards. As a result it has apool of reporters who are constantly trainedby the main editing staff. In almost all indigenouscommunities there is one personqualified to submit a news report. In theproject “Ondas en Red” with the support ofDW Akademie the Pio XII network was oneof the eight cooperation partners. Focus wason the improvement and quality of differentjournalistic formats, online journalism, andimprovement of the processes in the editorialoffice (see table 4).The radio station relies mostly on capacitybuilding through international organizationslike WACC (World Association for ChristianCommunication) and DW Akademie(see table 4).Ethic codices,newsroom guidelines“We use the standards of the NationalJournalist Association as guidance. Objectivityand honesty are the most importantprinciples” 101 There are basic principles andethics standards for all involved journalists,but nothing publicly available. Bolivia nowhas a new regulatory entity, ATT (Autoridadde Regulación y Fiscalización de Telecomunicacionesy Transportes).In the process of legal authorization,Vokaribe elaborated its own ethics codeand principles based on pluralism and localparticipation. This style manual is obligatoryfor all community radios in Colombia.Public perceptionand support for themedia organizationThe radio station in Siglo XX covers thenorthern part of the department of Potosiwith approximately 243,000 inhabitants.According to audience surveys 85 percentof this population listen regularly to theprograms, in rural areas it has almost a monopolyposition, as there is no serious competition.The Bolivian congress, dominatedby the socialist political movement MAS,which is rather skeptical about the influenceof the Catholic church, gave Pio XII anaward in 2013 for its defense of democracyand human rights. Radio Pio XII in SigloXXis one of the most popular community radionetworks in Latin America.So far no systematic evaluation, there areabout 500,000 inhabitants in the region,Vokaribe has an active fan group and ata recent meeting for the relaunch, localrepresentatives and community membersparticipated in great numbers. Vokaribe willstill have to find its place in a rather complexurban broadcasting landscape with a lot ofcommercial radio stations.252

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaRadio Intag (Ecuador)Changes and progress over the past yearsThe core team has basic training in printmedia and has been taking part in a workshopfor community broadcasters run bythe national radio organization CORAPE. Thestudents doing internships are offered basicscholar’s training with the aim of producingsmall programs related to their everydayreality.There are two levels: the direct capacity building of core team and trainingof local reporters or other community members to contribute to the radiostation.By law, all radio stations have to publish an –ethics code (código deontológico). Radio Intaghas a rather standardized code with basicjournalistic and ethical principles. 102Javier Torres, an Ecuadorian scholar, dida survey on the audience of Radio Intag:almost 75 percent of the population (about19,000 people) listens regularly to RadioIntag, but radio reception in mining areas isweak. The favorite program of the audienceis the live transmission of early morningmass; another popular format is the localbackground information program “RevistaIntag” and a participative cultural programwhere musicians from local communitiescome to the studio to play.–99Peter Deselaers, Project Manager, Research and Development,DW Akademie, Germany.100Fröhlich et al. (2012)101Roberto Durette, Director General Radio Pio XII in Bolivia.102Código Deontológico, http://www.flipsnack.com/B7DA786BDC9/ftcfg39nEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 253

General Functions I: Political SphereFunction Radio Pio XII, Siglo XX (Bolivia) Vokaribe (Colombia)Information:comprehensive, balanced,objective – and alsoregional news.YesBut journalistic quality of news varies andcommentaries are not always based onbroader fact checking; national news comesfrom network ErbolPartiallyFocus on local cultural news, programmingis still in pilot phase, comprehensive newscoverage is not the main goalAll political parties havethe opportunity to speakin the program and arepresent in interviews,sound bites etc.YesSympathies with President Evo Morales wereevident in the first years of his government.YesDifferent local actors are generally involvedin the programs.Criticism of politicalactors (government,administration,other political actors)YesNo direct confrontation, criticism is basedon specific technical aspects, e.g., contaminationand working conditions in miningcooperatives.PartiallyIt is not the goal of Vokaribe to promote politicaldebates, as the focus is much more onculture and urban peaceful coexistence.Societal criticism(social actors, individuals,problems in society)PartiallyBut problems are criticized cautiously.PartiallyFor instance, related to situation of violencein the neighborhood.Moderation of debate/democratic facilitationYesPio XII facilitates debate.Not clear, as the radio is still in pilot phase.Social/politicalorientationYesThere is a good information spectrum andspecific local issues, like intercultural relationships,discrimination, and autonomy(self-government) are addressed, sometimestoo superficially.Not clear.Agenda setting/investigative journalismPartiallyPio XII has registered improvement inbackground information but research andinvestigative journalism is only incipient.Not clearVokaribe has positioned the idea ofcommunity radio for this area, which isalready an impact.254

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaRadio Intag (Ecuador)To what extent is the function fulfilled /not fulfilled?YesIntag uses the news service of independentagencies like ALER (Latin American Associationof Radio Education), CORAPE (Coordinatorof Popular Educational Radio of Ecuador)and Radio Netherland.Own production on local news, there is an explicitpolitical commitment against miningexploitation and for environmental protectionUse of independent agencies for national and international news.Community radio does not necessarily pretend to be objective (e.g., RadioIntag has an explicit commitment with environmental questions) or togive comprehensive information on all issues (e.g., Vokaribe with a specificcultural focus)YesSome programs of Radio Intag criticizePresident Rafael Correa severely for hisextractive policies. Nevertheless it givesthe official government channel almostthree hours of airtime for its standardtransmission.On a local level, it is much easier to involve different political partiesthan on a national level, where polarization is high and the governmentis watching the media landscape much more intensively. 103YesMainly related to environmental questions.As licenses depend on national control entities, there is always a risk of(self-)censorship. “There is the danger of losing autonomy with ‘friendly’governments such as the Venezuelan government.” 104 One of the mainchallenges in the future is how to guarantee the administrative autonomyof the certification offices.PartiallyNot an important aim, but part of someprograms.Societal criticism requires research and investigative journalism,which is not the strength of community radios.PartiallySome programs promote debate.Pio XII is a good example of a radio station with high credibility,enabling it to moderate debate.PartiallyOnly related to the main issues,like environment–PartiallySome background programs help to raiseawareness about certain hidden issues, likemigration of young people to the big citiesIt takes many years to set an agenda, investigative journalism is stillunderdeveloped in community radio.103Roberto Durette, Director General Radio Pio XII in Bolivia.104AMARC (2007), p. 28.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 255

General Functions II: IntegrationFunction Pio XII Vokaribe (Colombia)Participation, voice,empowermentYesLocal inhabitants and communities havea voice and are considered; their point ofview is taken in focal groups, but they donot really manage the broadcasting stationor decide on strategies.YesStrong participation in the preparationprocess of this community radio station.Cultural expression,strengthening of identity,values and culturalcohesionYesThere are several cultural programs,indigenous languages are consistently used.YesMain strength of Vokaribe is building onlocal culture.EntertainmentYesSome programs in the evening are forcultural entertainment.YesMusic and cultural programs.EducationYesPio XII was an educational radio stationoriginally.YesCommunity radio training.InnovationYesStrategic use of internet platform andsocial media.YesComplementary strategy of Facebook,Twitter and internet platform.256

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaRadio Intag (Ecuador)Some ConclusionsPartiallyAt the beginning, strong participation,but now diminishing.All community radios give a voice to civil society and social organizations,but there are differences in grades of involvement.YesRecently for instance, Radio Intag developeda program about the life stories of elderlyindividuals in the community.Typically a strong area of community radios.YesMainly different (local) music styles.Many educational programs have an appearance as entertainment.However, entertainment is not a typical strength. It is not clear whatentertainment (another function of public broadcasting) for communityradio means, beyond playing some local music.YesEducational component with two schools.As one original purpose of community radio was education, in all threeexamples this component is strong.YesUse of remote control for programming.Community radio used to be “resourceful,” many commercial radiostations have copied more participative formats from community radio. 105105Ernesto Lamas, Founding Member of Radio Tribu, Buenos Aires, Argentina.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 257

International Media Development PartnersPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/progress/problemsAMARCAMARC (World Associationof Community Radio Broadcasters)has the mission tosupport and contribute to thedevelopment of communityand participatory radio. It has aspecial focus on Latin America,related to the development oflegal frameworks for communityradio, the promotion ofgender sensitivity, the use ofnew technologies, and treatmentof socio-environmentalquestions.News agency with many productsto be used by community radio(http://www.agenciapulsar.org/)Database on legal framework andlegal advice (http://amarcalc.org/infoderechos/)Declarations and lobbying incase of critical issues related tocommunity radio includinghuman rights alertsInternational conferences andvisiting missions with concludingstatements and recommendations(like the UN visitors andrapporteurs)Workshops and panelsPolitical dialogue eventsComparative studiesSupply of qualified newsAMARC is a leading referencefor community radio in LatinAmerica.At the introduction of the newArgentinean legislation oncommunication (Ley 26.522 deServicios de ComunicaciónAudiovisual), AMARC madea significant contribution bymeans of discussions, consensusbuilding, and legal advice. 106 ThisLaw guarantees up to 33 percentfor “communitarian media ofpopular nonprofit organizations.”There are severalgood practices facilitated byAMARC, for instance, for theinteraction with audiencesand impact assessment. 107DW Akademie(urban communityradioin Colombia)Ongoing project (2011 – 2014)with the aim of strengtheningfour recently founded urbancommunity radio stations andsupporting their transformationinto economically sustainableplatforms with attractiveand socially relevant programming.DW Akademie has beenadjusting its strategy for LatinAmerica; it now has a strongerfocus on capacity developmentand the long term accompanimentof community radio.Organizational development,capacity building in journalisticquality, advice for design, andstructure of programming,professional exchange.Project is still ongoing; in thecase of Vokaribe, which is oneof the five community radiostations participating, the coreteam expressed satisfactionwith the “process-orientedcounselling” and the practicaltechnical input. 108258

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaPartnerAim of the cooperation(e.g., transformation of statebroadcaster, technical support,capacity building, etc.)Methods appliedMain results/progress/problemsDW Akademiein cooperationwith GIZ(Project Ondasen Red,Bolivia)From 2010 to 2013 DW Akademiesupported the ERBOLnetwork seeking to strengthenthe quality of local reporting.The Pio XII network with itsthree radio stations was one ofthe eight cooperation partners.Focus is on journalistic formats,online journalism, andimprovement of the processesin the editorial office.Horizontal learning and professionalexchange betweendifferent cooperation partners,practice-oriented training, inputfrom international experts andpersonalized coaching, and organizationalcounseling.Programs of Pio XII have improvedwith regard to backgroundreporting, new formatshave been developed and thenational network ERBOL is nowa much stronger ally for Pio XIIin capacity development. Thewebpage of Radio Pio XII has beentransformed into a journalisticplatform and the use of socialmedia was introduced.FriedrichEbert Stiftung(transnationalprogrammeC3)The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung,a non-profit German politicalfoundation, is working on thelongstanding transnationalproject Media Developmentand Communication Consulting(in Spanish: C3, Centrode Competencia en Comunicación)with three mainworking areas: political andlegal frameworks for pressand radio, social participationthrough local and communitymedia, and dialogue betweenmedia professionals andpolitical and civil society. 109Legal advice, research, expertdiscussions, panel with representativesand journalists, seminars,national and internationalconferences.C3 is a kind of think tank and hasbeen publicly positioning keyissues related to the transformationof the Latin American medialandscape and the use of newtechnologies. It is a solid sourceof information on Latin Americantendencies and has a good networkwith policy makers, mediaorganizations and journalistswith several publications relatedto community radio.106Ernesto Lamas, Founding Member of Radio Tribu, Buenos Aires, Germany.107Mónica Valdes, Responsible for Capacity Development, AMARC, Colombia.108Patricia Rendón, Project Manager, Vokaribe.109Medienförderung und Kommunikationsberatung in Lateinamerika:Das Projekt C3, http://www.fes.de/lateinamerika/in_la/medien.htmEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 259

AppendixReferencesAdlatina.com (February 11, 2014), El Consumo de Medios EnLatinoamérica crece en Todas Las Plataformas, retrieved from:http://www.adlatina.com/medios/el-consumo-de-medios-enlatinoam%C3%A9rica-crece-en-todas-las-plataformasAMARC – World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters(2007), Community Radio Social Impact Assessment. RemovingBarriers, Increasing Effectiveness.AFSCA – Autoridad Federal de Servicios de ComunicaciónAudiovisual (2009), Comments to Argentinian Media Law,retrieved from: http://www.afsca.gob.ar/web/Varios/ley/AU-DIOVISUAL-%20MEDIA-SERVICES.pdfBarié, Cletus Gregor & Legatis, Rousbeh (2014), InnovacionesComunicativas Al Servicio de Las Comunidades, Bogota/ NewYork, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung.Banerjee, Indrajit & Seneviratne, Kalinga (2005), Public ServiceBroadcasting: A Best Practices Sourcebook, Sigapore, UNESCO,AMIC.Becerra, Martín (2014), Medios de comunicación: AméricaLatina a contramano, in: Nueva Sociedad, N° 249, pp. 61–74.Blumler, Jay G. & Nossiter, T. J. (1991), Broadcasting Finance inTransition : A Comparative Handbook, Oxford University Press.Bosetti, Óscar Enrique (2007), La radio en Argentina. In:Merayo Pérez, Arturo (ed.), La Radio en Iberoamérica: Evolución,Diagnóstico, Prospectiva, Sevilla/ Zamora, p. 26–48.Buckley, Steve (2008), Community Broadcasting: Good Practicein Policy, Law and Regulation. Paper Prepared for UNESCO forWorld Press Freedom Day 2008, UNESCO.Buhr, Grant (2012), Somos Seres Humanos: Radio, Comunidady Vida En Intag. Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection,retrieved from: http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/1338Cabral, Filho; Vaz, Adilson & Cabral, Eula Dantas Taveira(2009), State as a Builder of Public Iniciatives in Lula’s Government:An Analysis of Public System of Communication inBrazil. In: Revista de Economía Política de Las Tecnologías deLa Información Y Comunicación XI (2): 1–16.Chaparro, Manuel (2008), Las polítias públicas en la transformacióndel espacio audiovisual. Europa y Latinoamérica:contrastes. In: Políticas de comunicación en España y Latinoamérica:medios convencionales, tercer sector audiovisual yalfabetización digital ; [Encuentro Iberoamericano sobre Políticasde Comunicación, Madrid ,20 y 21 de noviembre de 2006],edited by José María García de Madariaga Miranda, 155–78.Ciencias de la Comunicación 15, Madrid, Univ. Rey Juan Carlos.Código Deontológico de “Radio Intag”, retrieved form:http://www.flipsnack.com/B7DA786BDC9/ftcfg39nDe la Torre, Carlos (2013), Populismus in Lateinamerika.Zwischen Demokratisierung und Autoritarismus, Berlin, FriedrichEbert Stiftung.Dietz, Christoph (2013), Stärkung von Lokalmedien in Bolivien –Ondas En Red (OER). Evaluierungsbericht (intern), DW Akademie.Ehlers, Torben (2013), Soziale Proteste in Lateinamerika. ImRingen um Bedeutungsmacht zwischen Neoliberalismus undNeokeynesianismus. In: Soziale Proteste in Lateinamerika:Bolívars Erben Im Kampf um Eigenmacht, Identität und Selbstbestimmung,Hamburg.El Comercio, La radio comunitaria debe superar carencias,retrieved from: http://edicionimpresa.elcomercio.com/es/052300007f4bba91-8285-4ced-bb51-643568a8ecf6El Expectador (March 1, 2011), La Voz de La Radio Comunitaria.Ferreira, Francisco H. G. (2013), Economic Mobility and the Riseof the Latin American Middle Class, Washington, D.C., WorldBank Latin American and Caribbean Studies.Fröhlich, Julia/ Däschle, Daniel/ Geerts, Andrés & Sofie Jannusch(2012), Community Participation at Local and CommunityRadio Stations. An Explorative Study in Africa, Asia, LatinAmerica and the Pacific, Practice Series, CAMECO.Gellman, Mneesha (2004), Radio Para El Cambio Social. TheMainstream Media Project, Mediadores En Red, L@ Revista,n° 5.Gumucio Dagron, Alfonso (2001), Haciendo olas: historias decomunicación participativa para el cambio social, New York,N.Y.: Rockefeller Foundation.260

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaGuthmann, Thomas & Tórrez, Coral Salazar (2013), InfoblattCommunity Radios: Bolivien, Nachrichtenpool Lateinamerikae.V., retrieved from: http://www.npla.de/de/materialien/33-infoblatt/4605-infoblatt-community-radios-bolivien.Hall, Gillette H. & Patrinos, Harry Anthony (eds., 2012), IndigenousPeoples, Poverty, and Development, Cambridge UniversityPress.IEP – Institute for Economics and Peace (2013), Global PeaceIndex 2013, retrieved from: http://www.visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/2013_Global_Peace_Index_Report_0.pdfid21 – Institute of Development Studies (2006), CommunityRadio for Development. Email Discussion, Brighton.Ifex – The Global network. Defending and promoting freeexpression (2013), Annual Report on Impunity 2012: Faces andTraces of Freedom of Expression in Latin America and theCaribbean (Executive Summary), Geneva.Imbusch, P.; Misse, M. & Carrión, F. (2011), Violence Research inLatin America and the Caribbean: A Literature Review. InternationalJournal of Violence and Conflict, vol. 5 (1) 2011, p. 2.IWGIA – International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs,.Indigenous Peoples in Latin America – a General Overview,retrieved from: http://www.iwgia.org/regions/latin-america/indigenous-peoples-in-latin-americaJakubowicz, Karol (2007), Public Service Broadcasting: A NewBeginning, or the Beginning of the End?Kitzberger, Philip (2013), Medien in Lateinamerika: Zeit FürReformen, in: GIGA Focus Lateinamerika, n° 6, Hamburg,retrieved from: http://www.giga-hamburg.de/de/publication/medien-in-lateinamerika-zeit-f%C3%BCr-reformen.Lamas, Ernesto (2011), La voz del pueblo. La lucha de las radioscomunitarias en América Latina, Matices. Zeitschrift für Lateinamerika,Spanien und Portugal, vol. 18 (2011) n° 66, pp. 33–35.Ligabo, Ambeyi, et al. (2007), Joint Declaration on the Diversityof Broadcasting by Rapporteurs of the UN, the OSCE, the OASand the ACHPR, Amsterdam.Marulanda, Nohra Rey de & Tancredi, Francisco Bernadini(2010), From Social Innovation to Public Policy: Success Storiesin Latin America and the Caribbean, United Nations, ECLAC.Mendel, Toby (2009), The Right to Information in Latin America:A Comparative Legal Survey, Quito, retrieved from: http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL%5FID=28958&URL%5FDO=DO%5FTOPIC&URL%5FSECTION=201.htmlMerayo Pérez, Arturo (2007), La Radio en Iberoamérica: Evolución,Diagnóstico, Prospectiva.Mranda, Adrián (2013), Televisión Pública, Nuevas Realidades,Nuevos Contextos, ¿Qué Modelos? In: Pensar La TelevisiónPública. ¿Qué Modelos Para América Latina?, edited by Institutode Estudios sobre Comunicación RTA, p. 21–53, Tucumán.Pío XII (2008), Resultados Sondeo de Audiencia Radio Pio XII,Siglo XX.Preti, Alessandro (2010), Presentación Anuario 2010 dePaz, retrieved from: http://www.pnud.org.co//img_upload/36353463616361636163616361636163/PALABRAS_DE_PNUD_ANUARIO_DE_PAZ_2010_AP_1.pdfRadios Comunitarias _ Vokaribe (2013), retrieved from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBp9S3cuy8g&feature=youtube_gdata_player.Reyero Fernández, María (2012), La Senda de la Palabra Comunitariain Latinoamérica. Experiencias de ComunicaciónPopular y Radio Comunitaria, Instituto de Estudios Políticos deAmérica Latina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, retrievedfrom: http://www.cesag.org/ghcs/tempsdecomunicar/?p=318Schoepp, Sebastian (2011), Das Ende der Einsamkeit: was dieWelt von Lateinamerika lernen kann, Frankfurt.Semana.com (February 8, 2014), Seis millones de víctimas dejael conflicto en Colombia, retrieved from: http://www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/victimas-del-conflicto-armado-en-colombia/376494-3Smith, Elizabeth (2012), A Road Map to Public Service Broadcasting.Kuala Lumpur, Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union.Torrez Miranda, Félix (2007), Radio Pío XII. Una Radio que sehace pueblo, Cochabamba, Red Pío XII.UNDP (2004), La democracia en América Latina, Buenos Aires.World Bank, Latin America and Caribbean Overview, retrievedfrom: http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/lac/overviewEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 261

List of InterviewsAcosta, Ana María; Journalist of Wambra Radio in Quito,Ecuador, interview conducted via skype, March 8, 2014.Andrade, Miguel; Director of Radio Intag, Ecuador,interview conducted via mail and phone betweenMarch 4 – 27, 2014.Berner, Petra; Head Research and Development,DW Akademie, interview conducted via skypeon February 11, 2014.Carrión, Carolina, Journalist of Radio Intag, Ecuador,interview conducted via skype on May 13, 2014.Rivadeneyra, Carlos; Coordinator for Latin America,AMARC, Peru, interview conducted via skypeon April 3, 2014.Valdes, Mónica; Responsible for Capacity Development,AMARC, Colombia, interview conducted via skypeon April 1, 2014.Villarzú, Rodrigo; Coordinator for Latin America,DW Akademie, interview conductedon March 4, 2014 in Berlin.Condori, Santos; Journalist of Radio Station Chasquiin El Alto, Bolivia, interview conducted in El Altoon March 13, 2014.Deselaers, Peter; Project Manager, Research andDevelopment, DW Akademie, interview conductedvia skype on March 26, 2014.Durette, Roberto; Director General Radio Pio XII in Bolivia,interview conducted via phone on March 28, 2014.Geerts, Andrés, and Víctor van Oeyen (2001), La radiopopular frente al nuevo siglo: estudio de vigencia eincidencia. Madrid: ALER (Asociación Latinoamericanade Educación Radiofónica).Gómez, Óscar; Journalist in Manizales, Colombia,interview conducted via mail, March 1, 2014.Hernández, Walter; Coordinator, Vokaribe in Barranquilla,Colombia, interview conducted via skypeon March 28, 2014.Kopp, Matthias; Country Manager Colombia, DW Akademie,interview conducted on March 4, 2014 in Berlin.Lamas, Ernesto; Founding Member of Radio Tribu, BuenosAires, interview conducted via skype on March 3, 2014.Postrach, Andreas, Coordinator, German Association for theIntag region, interview conducted via skype, March 27, 2014.Rendón, Patricia; Project Manager, Vokaribe(studying now in Leipzig, Germany),interview conducted via skype on March 28, 2014.262

Part III Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador: Three Examples From Latin American Community MediaEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 263

Part IV: The Way Forward13Organizational Development:Approaching Change Processes TowardsPublic Service BroadcastingAchim Toennes264

Part IV Organizational Development: Approaching Change Processes Towards Public Service BroadcastingOrganizational Development:Approaching Change Processes Towards Public Service BroadcastingIntroductionThe aim of this final chapter is to provide a description of anideal-type consultancy operation as part of a change processtransforming a state broadcasting station into a public servicemedia organization (PSM). In this, the focus is on practicalimplementation of the required consultancy as a targetedreorganization process. Therefore, the matter of transformationin terms of a change process is treated primarily fromthe organizational perspective, while (media) policy, legal andeconomic aspects are merely of indirect significance. Nonetheless,it is to be emphasised here that these factors are criticalfor a successful transformation process. Thus, to a certainextent they have to be seen as prerequisites for such a process.The preconditions of such a transformation process arerather difficult. Concerning content, the station program oftenhas the form of a kind of “court circular” reporting on acountry’s government and presidency, which is not only dueto political influence but at times also due to the respectivejournalists’ conception of themselves. 1 Badly-trained journalistsor the loss of qualified ones to private broadcasters oftencontribute towards an old-fashioned program and a generallack of credibility.At the broadcasters’ structural level, the situation is notany better in many cases. The absence or lack of a regulatoryframework makes the broadcasters vulnerable to all kinds ofpolitical influence and instrumentalization. At the same time,preferential treatment of private broadcasters on the part ofpolicy makers can be observed frequently. Additionally, onetends to find the usual excesses of bad management: lack offunding, overstaffing, and corruption. And floating above allof this may also be the aura of an authoritarian and repressiveorganization culture which throttles any remaining selfinitiative,motivation, and creativity.To address these challenges appropriately, no mere collectionof methods shall be presented here, but rather a conceptualframework in which the organizational aspects describedabove can be dealt with. Yet even by means of such a conceptualframework, not all items of such a transformation processcan be explained. The claim here is therefore not to provide acomplete solution. Instead, by focusing on the structure andprocedure of such an endeavor, a blueprint shall be createdwhich can be of use for future transformation processes in thesense of a change process. Broadcasting managers and consultantsare invited to use the resources provided for their ownconsultancy processes. Also experts in media developmentwho are involved in similar processes can make use of thisoverview as an orientation guide. Whether an overall processis to be defined by this or a “change nest” is to be initiated atfirst is of little relevance, as long as in the latter case the “completepackage” is considered and the intersections with the activitiesof other parts of the organization are managed well.Although the focus of this essay is on practical application, thisdoes not mean that such practical application takes place withoutbeing connected to theoretical (and normative) hypotheses.In order to make these transparent, the matter to be addressedat the beginning of this essay will be fundamental principles.What will be explained are the theoretical reference frame aswell as the forms of consultancy which are to be employed inthis blueprint for making change processes productive.In the further course of this chapter the most importantaspects of a transformation process from an organizationalpoint of view will be described: the process operation andprocess architecture as well as the actors and their steeringresponsibilities. To describe the process as concretely aspossible, individual aspects will be demonstrated using theexample of a fictitious broadcasting station. In conclusion,some central items of such a transformation process will beconsidered separately: interface management, resistance, andtypical pitfalls.In the great majority of publications on transformationprocesses from state broadcasters to public service media(PSM) the actual organizational change process plays a merelyimplicit part at best. 2 On its web site, the Asia-Pacific Institutefor Broadcasting Development (AIBD) provides a few more details.3 For that reason one depends on the insights and experiencesof colleagues who are engaged in these real transformationprocesses. 4Fundamental PrinciplesAlthough this presentation is to a great extent practice-oriented,a certain degree of theoretical foundation is still required.The basis of any kind of consultation for organizations is theorganizational theory or theories a consultant refers to whenfinding an approach to the respective organization. In the relevantliterature on organization theory, the historically grownorganization theories are represented more or less coherently.1Wakili (2013), 167ff.2e.g. UNDP (2004);Banerjee/Seneviratne (2005);Jakubowicz (2007);Backovic (2011);Milutinović (2011);Wakili (2013).3http://www.aibd.org.my4At this point, I wish to thankErik Albrecht, Lina Hartwieg,Astrid Karg, Eva Mehl andLaura Schneider, whose experiencesand observations haveprovided me with importantreferences on the organizationalaspects of a transformationprocess.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 265

Thus, the range spans from the physiological technical approachvia Max Weber’s bureaucratic-administrative approachto the system theoretical (e.g., Amitai Etzioni) and interactionorientedapproach by Edgar Schein. 5None of the approaches of organization theory can coverthe complexity of the concept in its entirety, and even less thereality of an actual organization. Rather, the significance of amultitude of approaches is based on the idea of being able todraw upon all available knowledge to find solutions to complexorganizational problems, no matter what theoretical approachsuch knowledge stems from. Such an eclectic attitudemay be one of the reasons for the vast multitude of consultancyapproaches in use nowadays.On Theoretical Access Paths, Approaches and AttitudesThe matter of a clear definition of organization developmenton the one hand and organization consultancy on the otherappears above all to be a theoretical question. In practice, bothterms are mostly used as synonyms and in connection withvarious adjectives such as “process-oriented,” “systemic” oreven “holistic.” It is rarely possible at first glance to find a clearreference back to the theoretical approaches behind them.The fact that the term “systemic approach” tends to be usedrather gratuitously should – with a proper understanding –not keep us from approaching changes to organizations witha systemic attitude. 6Thus, what is of relevance to the practice of consultancy isless the terminology, but rather a system of values that preventsconflict between human being and organization andhas the obligatory purpose of making change possible accordingto defined objectives and by means of participation of thepeople involved.From such a foundation, three systems, or expressed a littleless loftily, references emerge for the consultancy process: aclient system, a consultant system, and something both createtogether: the consultation system. In the course of a changeprocess, all three references must, firstly, be consistently separatedfrom one another, and secondly, must be subject to continuous(self-)reflection.ClientsystemConsultationsystemConsultantsystemA further important element which is part of a change processsuch as the transformation of a state broadcasting stationinto a PSB is the competent combination of business-/industry-specific consultation and organizational consultation.Such an approach, termed “Komplementärberatung” in (German)literature (“complementary consultancy”), 7 reacts on theone hand to the necessity of quickly bringing together scatteredknowledge from a consultation context characterized bydisintegration, simultaneity, and differentiation, and on theother hand to the clients’ realization that they will not be ableto solve their dilemmas (e.g., in the case of a PSB the contradictionbetween the short-term interests of changing politicaltrends and long-term organizational interests) in a sustainablemanner by means of the duality of strictly industry-relatedconsultation on one track and soft systemic organizationalconsultation on another track.Within the complementary model, consultants work inteams with both industry-specific expert knowledge and organizationalor process know-how, and with a systemic attitudesupport the client system on the technical/material, contentrelatedlevel as well as on the process-related, emotional level.In this, it must be determined in reflection loops at which ofthe client system’s levels there is a need for compensation(knowledge and experience as input from the consultant system).For this kind of oscillation between industry-specificand process consultation to become possible, the duallycomposedteam of consultants must develop a new attitudewhich is more than just a meeting of two “world views” and“faiths,” but which in a synthesis of both approaches developssomething completely new, for example, on the basis of therequirements of the client system to create a constructive relationshipof tension between efficiency and “slowing down”as opposites.And in conclusion, on the matter of attitudes, keeping inmind the approach of “complementary consultancy,” we cantake a quick glance at the principles and values in a consultationprocess is given. In an organization, the change can bestimulated, demanded, or even extorted from the bottom.Nevertheless, the formal starting signal for a change processmust always come from the top. And also, “the top” is the keyposition for the steering of such a process. To reconcile thisfact with the values and principles of transparency, participation,and self-responsibility and to creatively use the contradictionsresulting from this situation for the change process isa great challenge. This challenge is not infrequently joined by asecond one: “the top” acts according to a different set of valuesand partially or completely ignores its responsibility for beingthe “switchboard” in the process. In the course of the entireprocess, both these challenges should be taken into considerationas undercurrents.Sample BroadcasterOur station to be used as an example is located in Happylandand is called National Happyland Broadcasting (NHB).With one television channel and two radio stations (info andyouth), NHB reaches the entire territory of Happyland with itspopulation of about 15 million. On the one hand, NHB is notreally popular and is increasingly losing viewers/listeners tothe new private stations, but on the other hand, it still representsa point of reference in the public perception as well as in266

Part IV Organizational Development: Approaching Change Processes Towards Public Service Broadcastingthe surveys of viewing and listening figures. With a total of approx.1,100 employees, the station is completely overstaffed.In the past decades it has been used as a place to push peopleaside, especially individuals who were punished or rewardedas part of the political business. Within the corporation, thistraditional practice is reflected in the numerous networksand cliques within the organization, cooperating and workingagainst one another in varying constellations. Due to thissituation, not only has further development of the organizationand the program come to a standstill, but also matterssuch as digitalization, convergence, etc., have been handledwith little success.For our ideal-type consultation process, we shall assumethat all necessary parameters for starting a transformationhave been addressed, such as the legal basis, the regulatoryframework, funding, and willingness of the management. Theproject is run by the media development organization “Mediafor the People,” it is part of a long-term strategy and fundedappropriately. A Memorandum of Understanding has beensigned, providing a basis for agreement between both partiesto cooperate.The Transformation ProcessLooking at NHB from the outside, the key question arises inwhich areas of the organization and in what order the changeprocess is to be implemented. Both qualitatively and quantitatively,the program is in serious need of reform, the technologyis partially outdated, management has little experience andis rather naive concerning new management and leadershipmodels. Additionally, the station’s administration is distinctiveto a great extent only by its size and inefficiency. As noorganization would be able to cope with a situation where allof its structures and processes are crowbarred open simultaneously– and thus would refuse to accept it – the fundamentalquestion is now: What should be tackled first? The functionalunits, such as editorial staff, management, administration?The segments radio and television? Or start with one participatoryprocess for everybody: draw up a mission statement?And who plays or is to play what part?ActorsLet us first take a look at who needs to be actively involvedand has to play what part. Within the organization, the centralactors in the change process are, besides the General Director,the TV and radio directors as well as the directors of thehorizontal and support functions (Executive Board), such asfinance, technology, HR, etc. In addition, at least one GoverningBoard representative and one from the Broadcasting Commission(if possible the respective chairpersons) should beinvolved. On the part of Media for the People the key figure isthe Project Manager (PM). In our case, he/she enters the scenetogether with an organizational consultant and an expert consultantfor program development.In the course of the process, the constellation actors willchange, but it is absolutely necessary for the entire processthat at least one person from upper management, the projectmanager (PM) and the organizational and expert consultantscooperate continuously. Although this circle is part of a steeringcommittee (see below) to be established, as the “strategygroup” in its function as the hub for the power centers of theorganizations involved, it is situated above the steering committee.It is important that the parts to be played are definedat an early point:– Thus, the managers are the ones to pave the way forthe change process into the organization. They are alsoresponsible outwardly for the process, towards the public,the political system and the ministries of Happyland.Further, they are officially in charge of content.– The project manager (PM) must implement overall logisticmanagement of the process. At a meta-level, he/she has to reflect the consultant, client and consultationsystem and take care of coherence of consultation resultswith Media for Development’s policy (e.g., implementationof fundamental ideas of public service media).– The organizational consultant steers the transformationprocess by means of reflection loops (diagnosis –formation of hypotheses – intervention – evaluation),and together with the expert consultant supervises theprocess operation. He/she is officially in charge of theprocess. As long as the required capacities are availablelocally, this function should be assigned there (on possiblepitfalls, see Chapter 4.2).– The expert consultant focuses on the change tasks inhis/her field and thus also lends an ear to the practicalside in the consultation process. From this perspective,he/she complements the reflection on the transformationprocess.5More recent fundamental literature complements these descriptionswith variations such as the decision-oriented and situative approaches,the transaction cost theory, the games theory as well as constructivistand structuration theory approaches. The system-oriented approachesalone are subdivided into organization sociological, system theoreticalcybernetic and contingency theoretical approaches.6On the basis of contingency, autopoiesis, reduction of complexity andpartial autonomy, such an attitude may include (according toKrämer-Stürzel 2006): Complexity and selection,; principle of selforganization;creation of meaning; creation of relations; creation ofcontexts and environments; principle of the learning organization;principle of ‘continuous feedback’.7Königswieser et al (2006); Königswieser/Lang (2008).Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 267

In the steering committee mentioned above, apart fromrepresentatives from middle and upper managementfrom the different areas of operation, there are also staffmembers and – to the extent that they exist – representativesof in-house interest bodies and of employeegroups (women, trainees, disabled, etc.). When selectingstaff members, what should be of particular importanceapart from professional competence is whether theyhave a positive attitude towards the process and can assumethe function of promoter.In the further course of the process, the different occupationgroups of NHB are to be included in temporaryproject and working groups.Process OperationFor the systematization of an organizational developmentprocess, there are various models. 8 For the work with NHB, wehave agreed upon a fairly clear and simple model.Preparation – Analysis (system diagnosis)– Formulation of objectives– Design of the process architecture– Resource and communication planningChange – Start– Implementation of Part Projects– Crisis management– Reflection loopsSecuring – Evaluation– Adjustment– Securing– CompletionPreparationJust as in any consultancy process, our transformation processat NHB also begins with an analysis of the organizational realities.Preliminarily, the management has informed the staffabout the imminent process and announced that the consultantswant to get to know the organization. The team of consultantstalks with all members of upper and middle managementat NHB. For this purpose, a semi-structured interviewguideline is employed. The questions refer to the program, themarket, resources, visions and objectives, and to consequencesof change or failure to change. Classic sets of questions forfirst interviews are used here. It is important at this point – justas for the entire analysis – to ask not only deficiency-orientedquestions, but also resource-oriented ones. This is also a wayof expressing appreciation for the old style and the past on thepart of the consultant system. Such appreciation is vital for theprocess to be accepted.After the interviews we carry out short workshops with selectedelements of the organization: the TV news editorial team,the youth radio presenter and producer team, the personneldepartment, etc. The function of these short workshops (approx.2 h) is, on the one hand, to survey the actual and targetcondition from the point of view of the staff. On the otherhand, they are intended to make the consultant system visibleand build trust.Only afterwards, a questionnaire is used. The questions focuson contentment with the employees own work situationand the perception of the organization culture as well as possiblesuggestions for improvements. In any case, a very highlevel of feedback must not necessarily be the case (possiblereasons are reservations, anxiety, lack of staff motivation).The consultant team analyzes the results from the interviews,workshops and questionnaires and draws up hypotheseson the state of the organization. A report on all this ispassed on to the general director, upper management andthe chairpersons of the supervisory bodies, with a request forcomments. An abridged form is distributed throughout thehouse as a first result of the change process.The response rate of comments from the NHB managementlevels is relatively modest, both in quantity and quality.The relatively new general director, who is highly committedto beginning the transformation process, wants to convincethe consultant team that the lack of comments on the partof the supervisory body representatives is not a problem. Theconsultant team points out that without such comments, theprocess cannot continue. The problem emerging here of involvementof the hierarchy as power sponsors for the transformationprocess is a central one and will be addressed oncemore in Chapter 4.On the basis of the analysis, the consultant team togetherwith the general director formulates the objectives, i.e., the systemof goals for the transformation process. These can – forcompatibility purposes in regard to international cooperation– be structured as overall goals, project purpose, resultsand activities, or respectively in “impact analysis terms,” as impact,outcomes, outputs, and inputs. NHB’s general director istemporarily represented by an upper management colleague.Since the feedback works well, this does not cause a problem.The system of goals describes the desired state of NHB at theend of the consultation process at the level of project objectives.At the level of results, the desired state of partial areas ofthe organization is described, i.e., television, radio, administration,bodies, etc.Overall goals: The people of Happyland have access to informationfrom a broad range of sources, they participate in publicdiscourse and make their voices heard.Project purpose: NHB works as a public service broadcaster forits audience.268

Part IV Organizational Development: Approaching Change Processes Towards Public Service BroadcastingResult I: NHB-TV delivers balanced and objective news andprograms in good quality for social and political participation,cultural expression, education and entertainment.Result II: Radio 1 (info channel) delivers balanced and objectivenews programs and educational formats in good quality.All regions and languages are covered and forums for local andnational dialogue are offered.Result III: Radio 2 (youth channel) delivers balanced and objectivenews and social and cultural orientation for its specificaudience. Young citizens are integrated not only as the audiencebut also as editors and reporters.Result IV: Administration works efficiently supporting thestaff and work flow.The goal system is fed into the organization in the same wayas the report on hypotheses. Once it has been passed – by authorityof the General Director – it represents the compass forthe transformation process. Only after this basis has been established,is the process architecture is drawn up accordingly.For the purpose of project management, the process architecturecombines the individual interventions within the frameworkof the part projects of the transformation process. Thisalso means that a number of strategic decisions – what shallwe start with and in what sequence? – are expressed here.For NHB, on the basis of the analysis and in accordancewith the formulation of goals, decides to employ the followingmodel:A lighthouse project in the program segment (Part Project 1).A campaign to communicate the transformation process internallyand externally (marketing and distribution/sales department(Part Project 2).Restructuring of administration (Part Project 3).An overview shows what a flow chronology – depending onpassage of the goal system – could look like.Flow OverviewYear I Year II Year III Year IV Year VPreparationPart Project 1Part Project 3Part Project 3Part Project 3Part Project 1Part Project 3Working group(WG) FinancingWG TechnologyPart Project 2Part Project 3WG InteriorConstructionPart ProjectYouth RadioPart ProjectDigitalizationPart ProjectMission StatementPart ProjectYouth RadioPart ProjectInfo RadioPart ProjectDigitalizationPart ProjectInfo RadioPart ProjectDigitalizationWG ConvergenceWG PersonnelDevelopmentWG PersonnelDevelopmentWG ConvergenceWG ConvergenceEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 269

The change process is intended to start out where the core reasoningcontext is to be found – in the program department.Concretely, the news editorial team is supposed to design andproduce new formats for the various news programs. This PartProject 1 is supposed to radiate “change energy” inwardly, andoutwardly is intended to convince the public and political decisionmakers of the necessity and added value of the transformationprocess by means of the campaign “NHB – our newPSB” (Part Project 2).An accompanying restructuring process for administrationis also initiated (Part Project 3). Here, in a first step, superfluousadministrative procedures are to be cleared out. This canbe done relatively quickly and generally has the effect that thestaff begins to feel less burdened. This is a welcome quick winevery long-term change project should score in order to createmotivation for change right at the beginning of the process.Parallel to this, two working groups are established with a focuson the matters of technology and finances. The task hereis to draw up inventories, target/actual comparisons, and implementationconcepts. These working groups are composedcross-departmentally and are separate from the WGs to be establishedfor the part projects.Each of the part projects is supervised by an expert consultant.These consultants, together with the project participants,design the roll-out for the respective part projects. The finaldecision which interventions (expert consultation, training,coaching) are to be implemented when is also taken here. Also,a certain degree of flexibility must be maintained, so that requirementsemerging unexpectedly can also be handled. (Seetables 1 and 2 for examples on how such processes (Part Projects1 and 3) can be set up.)Process ArchitecturePreparationKick-offPart Project 1Part Project 2Part Project 3WG FinancesWG TechnologyStrategy GroupSteering CommitteeMid-term reviewhalf-year 1 half-year 2 half-year 3 half-year 4270

Part IV Organizational Development: Approaching Change Processes Towards Public Service BroadcastingPart Project 1: Lighthouse Project in the Program Segment: New News FormatsPriority Subject Goal Milestones Days1stOverview of newsproduction processesAssessment madeof all news productionprocesses, roles andstaff involved.– Initial visits/observation inthe newsroomList of people to be interviewed– Interview questions developedInterviews conducted and analyzed10 days2ndNewsrooms standardsand conceptsFeedback on currentnews programs discussed,journalistic standards,values and newsroomspecificconceptsdescribed, new ideascollected– First audience research results on newsprograms and expectations available– Workshops with newsroom staff onaudience research, NHB’s newsprograms and international examplesconducted and documented (feedbackand discussion on news sources,writing style, formats, etc., ethics)– Editorial guidelines discussed andimproved– Possible new format ideas discussedin workshop20 days3rdDevelopment ofnew formats, andpreparation ofprogram reformNew programmingschedule and formatsdeveloped and tested,general editorialprinciples andcriteria established.– Pilot production team assembled– Target audience defined and analyzed– Development and definition of newsformats and profiles (audience, claim,forms of presentation, editorial rulesetc.)– Production of first pilot programs,feedback– Plan for program formats andnewsroom organization finalized– Directors and top managementamend/accept the plan and set startdates for the transition/relaunch20 days4thRealization ofprogram reformNews programs innew format and newproduction processesare operational– Training for trainers/leading editorswithin the newsroom– Training of staff and new colleaguesfor new formats and productionprocesses– Development of new shift-plan,visual/acoustic design, studio,newsroom roles, style guide, etc.– One week of transition: parallelproduction of new formats(which are not broadcast yet)– Production and broadcastingformats according to new schedule– Feedback on the new work processes30 daysEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 271

Part Project 3: Restructuring of NHB’s AdministrationPriority Subject Goal Milestones Days1stElimination ofsuperfluous administrativeproceduresEfficient administrationprocedures are set up,guaranteeing accountabilityand flexibility inequal measure– List of identified procedures– Definition of alternatives– Approval– Forms, instructions up to date202ndDetermine personnelrequirementsNHB has a personnellevel in accordancewith the broadcastingmandate and thefinancial resources– Personnel review– Target/actual comparison– Implementation plan– Severance plan903rdAppointment schemeand descriptionsNHB has an instrumentfor intelligent personnelrequirement planning– Appointment scheme is completed– job and task descriptions are completed604thDefinition ofcontribution marginsand cost centersNHB has an efficientinstrument for financialcontrol of theorganization– Cost center plan– Training staff - new IT system2005thDrawing up of HRconcepts– Concept PD– Concept Leadership– Personnel selection40Members of the project group:– Expert consultant– Head of administration (periodically)– Department heads in administration– One staff member each per department– Temporarily: resource personsSteering:– Meetings of project group: weekly– Reporting to steering committee:Head and expert consultant– Head is member of the steering committee– WGs as requiredAnd concerning the last important items which are part ofpreparation: the management is in charge of drawing up a resourceand communication plan (if required with support fromthe consultants).In the third year, new part projects are defined (amongthem a part project “Mission Statement” to reflect the broadcaster’schanged identity).ChangeFor the official start of the transformation process, we carryout a kick-off workshop at NHB. The top of the organization,the consultants and the representatives of the supervisorybodies present the change project to the entire staff. Thisworkshop has a duration of no more than two hours. Importantis that a) the employees realize that the process is investedwith power and that b) the overall process, but especially thepart projects, take shape.During the kick-off workshopThe implementation of the part projects is presented withstarting point, goals, major contents, and milestones as well asthe people involved.The consultant system introduces itself, explains the interiordynamics of the transformation process, and sets forththe steering and decision structures. As part of crisis management,the consultants point out the tension field between participationand decisive power, in order to give possibly emergingconflicts concerning creative leeway a direction already atthis point.272

Part IV Organizational Development: Approaching Change Processes Towards Public Service BroadcastingFurther, it is emphasized that the changes do not take placeautomatically. Only after various reflection loops and in considerationof the old ways, are the new ways implemented.SecuringIn the course of the transformation process, the securing cyclefor part projects, working groups, ad-hoc groups, etc. becomesnecessary to ensure fixation of the change.This cycle applies to the main activities within the transformationprocess, but also to the process in its entirety. Thismeans that in conclusion, the core results of the transformationprocess are subject to an evaluation. Where necessary,an adjustment needs to be done (last few settings). As partof securing, it must be examined whether the results are appropriatelydocumented in handbooks, procedures, processes,regulations, etc. Only then can the transformation process canreach its completion. One part of securing should be an annualreview within the organization for the first three years.This serves the purpose of later improvement, but above all ofcontinuation and stabilization of the changes. 99One might remark ironically that if the process was successful,NHB will soon start the next major change process anyway.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 273

SteeringThe complexity of the process architecture clearly demonstratesthat steering of the transformation process is a criticalsuccess factor. This is why at this point, the entire steeringstructure should be outlined.The OD consultant and expert consultants monitor the transformationprocess and in coordination with the SteeringCommittee adjust the planning as required. The OD consultantfocuses less on the plausibility of contents, but rather onoverall communication within the process and its coherencewith the intended goal. The OD consultant has to reflect suchcommunication at a meta-level and form hypotheses in referenceto the change process. Where, how and when do changedcommunication patterns indicate (intended and unintentional)change? Such hypotheses must be verified together withthose involved. In abstract words: the OD consultant has toanalyze the client system, the consultation system, and his/her own consultant system – in close cooperation with the expertconsultant.Who?Max.participantsMeetings What? Reports towhom?Strategy GroupGeneral directoror deputy, consultantteam, projectmanagers4 1x monthly Highly strategic,critical, pressingdecisionsExecutive board,supervisorybodiesSteeringCommitteeStrategy groupplus representativesfrom executiveboard, onerepresentativefrom governingboard andbroadcastingcommission,in-house staffrepresentationIf possible nomore than 152x monthly Overall process Supervisorybodies &executive boardand staffPart projectgroupsExpert consultants,heads ofdepartmentsinvolved, staff,periodicallyOD consultantNo more than 12 weekly Detail work SteeringcommitteeWorking groupsStaff, head andperiodically expertconsultantsAs required,keep them smallAs required Core work Part Project groupAd-hoc groupsStaff, expertconsultantswhen requiredAs required As required Detail matters Part Projectgroup,working group274

Part IV Organizational Development: Approaching Change Processes Towards Public Service BroadcastingWhat Needs to be Paid Attention to?As part of the consultants’ steering capacity, one main taskis control of the interfaces within the consultation process.The term interfaces here means those areas in the organizationwhich are not in direct contact with the changes, but areindirectly connected, e.g., via internal services provided. Forexample, many of these interfaces can be found between programproduction and administration. Also, new interfaces candevelop, such as at NHB due to the so-called lighthouse project“Innovative News Formats.” What emerges in the courseof work on that part project is that there are several new interfacesbetween the radio editorial teams and a “New Media”unit which so far only exists as a working group. Theseinterfaces require specific interface management, as they aredecisive positions from where the effect of the transformationprocess is broadened. This means that as part of complementaryconsultancy, the consultant system organizes targetedsupport to avoid mutual recriminations about why, when andwhere something goes wrong, and who is responsible. Proper“mediation” at these interfaces can generate “change energy”and provide a serious contribution to the lasting success of thetransformation process.This is also the reason why in NHB’s transformation process,administration is constantly included as a part project.A broadcaster’s administration not only has a profound effectin general via its procedural operations, but also on thehouse’s innovation capacity as part of its organization culture.If the head of the editorial team has to ask the general directorabout every little release, this does not exactly encourage autonomousand forward-looking work. Even if the perception issometimes different: every administration does not functionaccording to its own interior dynamics alone, but also in accordancewith the rules of the organization which are recognizedas “correct.” And even if this appears insane from the outside,there is an inner meaning to the matter. To understand suchcontextual meanings and to change them in a subtle manneris a central task of complementary consultancy.Interference and ResistanceAny change process has its ups and downs. There are numerousmodels which address these emotional phases. In general,after an initial shock once the change process has been announcedcome phases of annoyance and misery, until finallythe new way becomes acceptable. In the course of these phases,there will be active and passive resistance against the changes.What is important is to decipher the messages transportedby means of such resistance. Though “to decipher” should notbe mistaken for “to give way.” The messages contained in resistantbehavior provide the consultant system with significantindicators for understanding the organization and for furthershaping of the change process.Passive resistance is more difficult to interpret than activeforms. Is it arising due to lack of motivation, due to fear ordepression? In this, the consultant system is challenged tosupport the process with a high degree of analytical alertness.Closely connected to resistance is the situation where in keyunits of the organization, no or hardly any “change energy”can be found. At NHB, the new general director has committedhimself to the transformation process with a lot of passion.This source of “change energy” initially does not havea counterpart in the reactions of the TV editorial team. Whatemerges after careful questioning is that there is actually nopassive resistance, but that interested circles have intimatedthat the new general director is in his position only temporarily,preparatory to his launch into a post as secretary of state.Also, any existing networks or cliques represent a form ofpassive resistance. Of course they can do lasting damage toa change process, but it is nevertheless necessary to find outwhat exactly the functions are that they actually perform.How can the paths of such networks be identified? What canthe consultant system offer to dissolve these networks? Whenand where does the organization’s power need to be broughtto bear in order to break up networks or cliques?PitfallsFinally, a number of typical pitfalls on the path of such a transformationprocess will be looked at:The pressure to produce results quickly: Indeed, the consultantsystem is under pressure from the clients, or at leastappears to be. In such a situation, there is the tendency toproduce first-order results. This means that what takes place isnot in-depth work, but merely a treatment of the symptoms –which then may even be labeled as a quick win. In such cases,consultants may tend to quickly invent new organigrams orbriskly initiate a mission statement process (which can thenalso be sold as a participatory element of the process...).– Middle management is at fault: In the consultancybusiness, a few years ago, middle management wasdiscovered as the ultimate obstacle to change. It haseven been nicknamed the “layer of clay,” preventingthe “water of change” from reaching all levels. Accordingly,entire management strata were bulldozed, middlemanagement were hassled with executive personneldevelopment training and forced in their entiretyto newly apply for their own jobs, etc. Nowadays, thetendency goes more towards a realization that in manycases, middle management is a mainstay of changeprocesses, and therefore, needs to be included constructivelyin the process.– Instrumentalization of consultation: When consultantsare commissioned, the respective organizationwishes to signal to the outside world: We are active, wewant things to change, etc. Unfortunately, consultationEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 275

often also serves the purpose of ensuring that nothingactually does change, according to the motto: Let’schange everything so everything stays the same.– Or the result is that instead of being permanently overloaded,the organization turns out to be constantly underchallenged.In any case, a change process will hardlybe sustainable that way. As a test of motivation, expectingan appropriate own share should contribute towardshedging in such tendencies. Another strategy for theinstrumentalization of consultation is the assimilationof the consultant system into the client system. The bordersof the two systems begin to merge, and instead ofmaintaining the outside perspective, the consultant’seyes get used to the comforting view from inside.– Sometimes the consultants are simply put underpressure. Especially local consultants can be affectedby this, because in a structure where everybody knowseverybody, it may be of essence to actually “irritate” theclient system.– Fund outflow pressure: If the transformation processis financed with public funding, two fields of gravitationoverlap: the consultant system on the one hand,whose intention it is to draw up the transformationprocess as clearly as possible from the beginning in theform of a structured assignment clarification. On theother hand, there is the project manager of the fundingorganization, who wishes to get a clear, binding overviewof the activities in order to assign the appropriatefinancial resources. As a consequence, the assignmentclarification may be formulated unclearly, increasinglyobscuring what the client system’s own responsibilitiesshould be. Concomitantly, no exit strategy is agreedupon. It is important as part of the assignment clarificationto define working packages which each constitutea passage, a gate, to the next working package.Both sides thus have the option in case of non-performanceor general dissatisfaction with the situation inthe change process to back out of it.or coaching unit. As part of a larger publically fundedproject, a build-up of external capacities in cooperationwith a university can be considered.– Lobbying work for the transformation process: Everychange process is a construct which is as complex asit is fragile, subject to a multitude of influences anddisruptions. This applies to an even greater extent toa transformation process, as both the general politicallevel and the level of media policy are stretched acrossit in two layers. In the case of NHB, we have thereforedefined the campaign “NHB - our new PSB” as a partproject. In any case, lobbying work should be a fixed elementof planning.ProspectsNo matter how comprehensively a transformation process isdefined at the start, it must be clear to everyone involved thatsuch a process costs a lot of time and money. Besides this, politicalincalculability and financial restrictions remain. As a resultthe prospects for success are less favorable than for conventionalchange processes. This is why all those involved shouldbe well aware of what responsibilities they are assuming. Thisapplies in particular to top management also and especiallywhen the consultancy service is provided more or less for freeby an international organization for media development.– Avoidance of dependencies: The client system hasa tendency to become dependent on consultation(avoidance of responsibility, the consultant is the onedoing the nasty things, etc.). This does not only meanthat the consultant system needs to keep an eye out soit can avoid becoming increasingly monopolized. Rather,this also means that it must work towards becomingsuccessively superfluous. This also includes that internal,and if required, external consultancy authorityneeds to be built up. Such a build-up can take place bymeans of method transfer such as advice to colleagues,mentoring programs or an internal orientation unit276

Part IV Organizational Development: Approaching Change Processes Towards Public Service BroadcastingAppendixLiteratureBackovic, Lazar (2011), Der Zusammenhang zwischenDemokratisierung und der Entwicklung des Mediensystemsin den postsozialistischen Staaten Südosteuropas. Die Rolleder Medien im kroatischen Transformationsprozess, in:Internationaler Studiengang Politikmanagement (ed.),Schriftenreihe ISPM-Arbeitspapiere, Bremen.Banerjee, Indrajit & Seneviratne, Kalinga (2005), Public ServiceBroadcasting – A best Practices Sourcebook. Paris, UNESCO.Jakubowicz, Karol (2007), Public service broadcasting: A newbeginning, or the beginning of the end? Knowledge Politics.Königswieser, Roswita; Sonuc, Ebru & Gebhardt, Jürgen (ed.)(2006), Komplementärberatung- Das Zusammenspiel vonFach-und Prozess-Know-how, Stuttgart, Klett-Cotta.Königswieser, Roswita & Lang, Erik (2008), Wenn 1 plus 1mehr als 2 macht: Erfahrungen zur Komplementärberatung,Zeitschrift für Unternehmensentwicklung und Change Management‘OrganisationsEntwicklung’, vol. 2., pp. 28–39.Krämer-Stürzel, Antje (2006), Organisationsberatung –Modelle, Methoden, Instrumente, Studienbrief PersonalentwicklungTU Kaiserslautern.Milutinović, Vladimir (2011), Fernsehen im ehemaligen Jugoslawien:Die Transformation zum öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunk,PhD Thesis, Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nürnberg.United Nations Development Program (2004), SupportingPublic Service Broadcasting Learning from Bosnia and Herzegovina’sexperience, United Nations Development Programme,Bureau for Development Policy Democratic Governance Group.Wakili, Merjam (2012), Medien und Öffentlichkeit im Demokratisierungsprozessin Afghanistan: Die Transformation desStaatssenders Radio Television Afghanistan in einen öffentlichenSender, Berlin.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 277

Conclusions and Recommendations278

Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsPublic service media systems in their various forms are complex,and the attempt to seriously support transformation fromstate media is ambitious. It requires – in every single case –a detailed and broad understanding of characteristics, processesand possible solutions to be able to decide where andhow an intervention should be carried out. The first and mostimportant result of this study, therefore, is the wealth of informationprovided above, in the individual reports on mediaoutlets in various countries of different regions in the world,their specific environments, and the changes they undergo. Ina final step we now look at all our case studies together anddraw some general conclusions. In doing so we are aware thatwe may be neglecting some relevant peripheral aspects andcontext-related questions. So the following analysis is tentative.And yet there are some general lessons to be learned.RQ 1: Which public service functions can be provided today by(former) state broadcasters?In the following we assess our findings with the theoretical approachproposed in chapter 2.1 as a basis. Here we had identifieda number of public service functions and differentiatedbetween the two general functions creating a public sphereand supporting integration.The three broadcasters in our study that are still officiallystate broadcasters – RTA in Afghanistan, NBC in Namibia, andMRTV in Myanmar – do not fulfill the function of creating apublic sphere. They offer in general one-sided information,and they do not let the opposition speak, or at best to a limitedextent only. Critical voices are generally not heard in the programs.The state media do not facilitate open public debate,nor do they offer independent orientation and thus fail intheir responsibility to create a public sphere.A little more surprising is the fact that these state broadcastersdo much better with respect to the general function ofsupporting integration: They offer services in a range of languagesto include minorities, and programming in culture,education, and entertainment. And these less prominent programsin minority languages will also sometimes include criticalvoices, as the case of Namibia shows.So the state media have something to offer even thoughthey do not deliver the functions related to the creation ofa public sphere. And in the cases analyzed here, they are theonly media in their country that offer services to the wholepopulation, even in remote areas. Therefore, they need to betaken into consideration by development actors.An open question here is whether these integrative servicesdelivered countrywide by state media really meet the needsof the population. More detailed analyses are needed here, focussingamong other things on the extent to which state propagandais distributed in minority languages.Compared to the three cases above, the Mongolian broadcasterMNB and OTRK in Kyrgyzstan are quite advanced. Notonly are they officially called Public Service Broadcasters (PSB)or Public Service Media (PSM), they perform much better thanthe aforementioned outlets in creating a public sphere for thecountry: All political parties have opportunities to speak andbe heard. While MNB also offers a wide range of programs toenhance public debate, OTRK at least rebroadcasts the popularpolitical talk show “Inconvenient Questions” produced by RadioAzattyk (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty).There are nonetheless also shortcomings in these mediaoutlets. The quality of the news still has a lot of room for improvement,the ruling party and the government are not criticizedby journalists, there is a strong tendency to self-censorship,and very little agenda setting and in-depth research bythe journalists of the former state media. The news reportingon regional issues is rather limited.Meanwhile, the general function of supporting integrationis fulfilled in many ways in these PSM: MNB, for example,offers a high share of domestically produced content on traditionalculture and values. OTRK, too, has moved in that direction.Yet, both broadcasters could do more to include theirregional audiences.The highest performance with respect to public servicefunctions is delivered by the two broadcasters TRM in Moldovaand RTA in Serbia. In our sample they are the only onesthat generally offer balanced and objective news, democraticdebate, and social orientation and criticism. However, theystill seem to find it difficult to criticize the government andits administration. And again, agenda setting and serious journalisticresearch are rare. Both broadcasters fulfill overall thegeneral function of supporting integration although they arenot the most innovative media outlets.To sum up, we have seen so far that there are a numberof functions that are provided by public service media whichare in the process of transformation. And a small number ofmedia outlets in our sample have even come a comparativelylong way in their reform process and deliver an importantcontribution to the creation of a public sphere through basicjournalism and forums for dialogue. They have reliable, comparativelyobjective news services which inform and orientatecitizens on current affairs. And all these media organizations,whether state or public service, contribute with their programmingto the integration of their society through cultural expression,participation, education, and entertainment. This isof particular importance as these media are in most cases theonly ones providing universal access in their countries.It should also be mentioned at this point that we have identifiedprivate or community-based media outlets which havedeveloped and expanded their services so that they also fulfillbroader public service functions. As we will go on to discussbelow in RQ3, these can be called Alternative Public Service Media(APSM).Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 279

Based on these considerations we differentiate between variousstate and public service media types (See the box below):media that remain state media, PSM in initial transformation,PSM in advanced transformation and Alternative Public ServiceMedia (APSM).Related to the general functions is the question of whetherthe populace value these services and actively support theirpublic service media: Do people use and trust their state mediaor public service media? And do the organizations thatwork on behalf of citizens, the civil society, act in support ofpublic service media?Our case studies overall show rather different relationshipsbetween the public and the media outlets. The threestate broadcasters in Afghanistan, Myanmar, and Namibiaare accepted by the population to some extent because theystand for national unity and the respect for minorities. At thesame time these broadcasters have little credibility amongthe population. They know that these broadcasters have agovernment bias and accordingly their support for them issomewhat limited. Civil society is in these cases not involvedin the governance of these state broadcasters and not very activein demanding changes.In Mongolia and Moldova civil society is officially part of thegoverning body of the PSM. Both PSM enjoy a good reputationamong citizens, particularly in the rural areas. But in Mongoliathe government has recently made the nomination processmore and more non-transparent, and in Moldova party politicshave a strong influence on the nomination of candidates.RTS in Serbia is more advanced in this respect. It enjoys agood reputation with audiences, despite its history as a propagandabroadcaster. Today independent actors from civil societyare represented in the governing body. In Kyrgyzstan thecivil society organizations are particularly active on behalf ofOTRK. Its supervisory board is one of the success stories ofthis transformation.Initial and advanced transformation – When can a mediaoutlet be considered public service media (PSM)?Based on our case studies of media that have a historyas state broadcasters we differentiate three types of mediaoutlets:Media that remain state media: Their contribution tothe general function of creating a public sphere is generallypoor. Nevertheless they may support the integrationof a society through strengthening of cultural cohesionand expression. They may also offer educationaland entertaining content. These latter functions areimportant as these media often are the only ones thatcan reach the whole population. (See the case studies ofAfghanistan and Namibia.)PSM in initial transformation: More independent contributionsto the public sphere are made by these media.They offer basic information services and forumsfor public debate. They let the opposition speak, andthey offer some societal criticism and orientation. Andthey support the integration of a society through variousfunctions: Education, entertainment and strengtheningof identity, cultural cohesion and expression.They have a legal basis including a public service remitand an independent governing body in which civil societyis represented.(See case studies of Kyrgyzstan and Mongolia)PSM in advanced transformation: These media offerobjective and independent news journalism in acceptableprofessional quality, forums for public debate, societalorientation, and criticism. However, criticism of thegovernment and its administration as well as agendasetting and in-depth journalism may be rare. These mediafulfill many functions relevant to the integration ofsociety, such as education, entertainment, and strengtheningof identity, cultural cohesion and expression. Butthey may not be particularly innovative with respect totechnology or programming. They have a legal basis includinga public service remit and an independent governingbody in which civil society is represented.(See case studies of Moldova and Serbia)In addition to this, we have also assessed cases of exceptionalmedia that differ in origin and purpose, organizationalstructure and content from state media and PSM:Alternative Public Service Media (APSM). These privateor community-based media have developed and expandedtheir services to also fulfill broader public servicefunctions. Some of them are comparable in theirfulfillment of key functions with “PSM in advancedtransformation.” On the other hand, most of the APSMoffer their services only to a selected part of the countryor community. And they usually do not have a governingboard which represents different parts of society.Yet, they have a clear and institutional commitment toprofessional journalism standards and to servicing abroader public. They may take over roles as neutral andindependent actors in society while still pursuing specificcommunity radio agendas or commercial interestsin other parts.(See the case studies from Nigeria (Freedom Radio), Nepal(Radio Sagarmatha), Serbia (B92), and Bolivia (RadioPio XII).)280

Conclusions and RecommendationsRQ 2: Which changes in former state broadcasters provedachievable through media development in the past and whatwere the challenges and limitations of this work?One aim of media development certainly is to achieve measurableand sustainable changes through interventions. Butbesides this, media development should be seen as part of abroader and more complex process where all the factors contributingto this process should be analyzed and evaluated. Sonext we summarize information from our case studies wherechanges in the media took place and where, at the same time,media development organizations were active in one way oranother. And we do this in accordance with the areas of strategicaction of the DW Akademie approach (See chapter 2.4).Political and legal frameworks:Media development actors have in some of our cases helpedto advance legal reform processes: In Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan,Serbia, and Myanmar they have cooperated with civil societygroups and other political actors and thus made more or lessdirect contributions to lawmaking processes and the establishmentof more independent governing bodies controllingthe media outlets. Kyrgyzstan is a particularly promising bestpractice case in this respect. Civil society here has achieved alot, the president of OTRK managed to advance reform and inall of this, consultancy with Internews certainly played a role.In many other cases this kind of work has been neglectedor not done systematically enough. Continuous efforts to supportcivil society and the lobbying for the improvement oflegal frameworks are still rare in media development effortsrelated to PSM.One reason for this is probably that the challenges andlimitations of this work are considerable. It is difficult to continuouslyadvocate freedom of expression and public servicemedia amidst shifting political agendas and power games. Inmany cases media development actors in the past did not toattempt to tackle these important long-term processes.To achieve anything in this area, media development needsstrong partners and a general political climate that is in favorof PSM. In the countries mentioned above, this was the caseand important opportunities were seized. But if the conditionsare less favorable only small steps can be made. Mediadevelopment is faced here with challenges in the area of governancethat, on the one hand, are not unknown to developmentin general. But on the other hand, the issue of liberating mediafrom state control is an issue that requires media developmentactors to build their capacity.Capacity buildingMedia development actors are traditionally very strong inthis area. But most of their activities in the past were shorttermtraining events, and it is uncertain what was eventuallyachieved through them. One exception was the engagementof BBC Media Action with Serbia’s RTS. This was an extensivecapacity-building intervention conducted over more thantwo years. The whole project, which was not simply a series oftraining sessions but a broad capacity-building effort withinthe organization, also had a long-term effect on the organizationalstructures and eventually the quality of the contentproduced.The key to success here seems to have been that beforethe intervention, the groundwork had been laid for reformthrough a new legal framework and also the will within themedia outlet to change the way it operated. During the interventionitself, it was important that several consultants andexperts worked and lived in Belgrade for long periods of time.They became mentors and could help to improve the wholeproduction process. They received full support in this from thesenior management of RTA.In several of the country reports the need for a continued capacity-buildingprocess is stressed, even in those cases wheregood progress has already been achieved. Capacity building injournalism, media management, and the related areas shouldbe developed so that they can be offered continuously. Thisshould not be the only area of work, but it is one with whichtransformation can be made sustainable.In the past, however, most of the capacity building was providedby the media development organizations themselves.Only in a few cases did they attempt to build sustainable structuresin the country for journalism capacity building. In thecase of Kyrgyzstan, the broadcaster was encouraged to set upits own training center, and in Moldova the management is atleast planning to establish such a department. In Mongolia theNGO “Press Institute” has been offered support in its capacity-buildingefforts in journalism by Western organizations.In Myanmar an independent journalism school is currentlybeing built with the help of several international partners. Sooverall the key to sustainable success for media developmentin this domain is to establish mechanisms for staff capacitybuilding, in cooperation with the media organizations, earlyon in the intervention programs.Professionalism and economic sustainability ofthe media sectorIn several cases the work of media development actors focussedon new journalistic formats and on organizational andmanagement reform. In Kyrgyzstan, Serbia, and Mongolia,technical support was granted.In most cases new programs and formats were developedand with them new teams and departments. Dedicated radiochannels for minorities were established (Mongolia and Myanmar),news and current affairs departments were restructured(Serbia and Moldova), networks of regional correspondentswere set up or revitalized (Myanmar and Serbia), youth radioand children’s programs and new multimedia departmentswere set up (Moldova and Namibia).In Mongolia and Serbia structural reform was achievedwithin the media organization, mostly based on new conceptsin programming or ideas for professional capacity building. InEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 281

Namibia the state broadcaster undertook its management reformto a large extent on its own, while the Swedish and Germansupport focused on the reform or build-up of selectedcontent-related departments.But generally in organizations of this size it takes time todevelop and establish new ideas or technologies. Some ofthem struggle with the provision of elementary equipmentlike computers just as with the introduction of new workflows. And they are completely at a loss with regard to bigchallenges like the upcoming digital switchover in the TVsector. The cases of the multimedia department in Moldovaand the internet and mobile services in Kyrgyzstan and Serbiashow however that some innovative approaches have been realized.Media development actors overall can do more here, itseems, by integrating innovation, technological support, andsustainable media development into broader PSM strategies.The question of financing was generally not in the focus ofthe media development work, although it is a crucial issue. Inone case, Kyrgyzstan, financial audits were held to make betteruse of the budget and identify new ways of funding. And insome cases the media organizations and their governing bodiesinitiated a process of financial restructuring, independentlyof any support, as in the cases of Namibia and Mongolia.General human resources management in the PSM has alsoso far been a smaller issue in the interventions overall. Thisfinding is a surprise given the fact that the large size of thestaff and the usually rather limited financial means is one ofthe major problems of many (former) state broadcasters.Needless to say, this issue is one of the difficult ones in thetransformation process. Even if it is legally or socially impossibleto dismiss a large number of the staff, other paths needto be identified. For example, the staff’s ownership of changeprocesses in these organizations has, for the most part, notbeen dealt with adequately. As elaborated in chapter 13, peopleworking in a large organization need to be given the occasionto understand and actively take part in reform. Overallthere are as yet very few cases in which media developmenthas managed to support processes of organizational development.But it can now build upon the experience garnered inKyrgyzstan, Moldova, Mongolia, and Serbia.Social participationIn the cases we assessed here some PSM have made efforts toadvance the participation of citizens. We can differentiate twoareas here: Firstly, the participation of citizens from differentpopulation groups in the organization and its programming;and secondly, the appearance and participation of civil societytherein.In our case studies a number of new participatory formatsfor minorities, and also for the public at large, were developedwith the support of media development organizations. Theaforementioned cases of Moldova and Namibia show thatnew channels and formats for children and young peoplecan be developed, as well as new multimedia departmentsthat allow for new forms of interaction. Overall, however, thejournalistic skill of including ordinary people in the reportingand giving them a voice, for example through sound bites,storytelling or discussion formats, remains a challenge. A lotmore can be done in this domain, not only through journalistictraining, but also through capacity building of staff withrespect to PSM and its obligations.In some cases the media development organizations haveturned away from the objective of transformation but continuedtheir work with the state broadcaster, focusing on certainareas. In Afghanistan BBC Media Action has limited itsengagement to establishing national dialogue formats at RTA.This concept, which has also been applied in several othercountries, has proven to be very successful. The dialogues attractthe population and encourage it to participate. At thesame time, these new formats are intended as lighthouseprojects within the state broadcaster that have influence onother departments.In spite of their immediate and impressive success, thesedialogue concepts remain somewhat limited with respect tothe question of sustainability. Once the project is over, it remainsuncertain if the media outlet will be able to continueproducing these special formats or to advance the reform processin other domains.As far as the strengthening of civil society is concerned, ouranalyses overall do not show much progress. There are onlya few positive examples in which civil society was seriouslyand successfully integrated in transformation processes. Kyrgyzstanis one of them. In Moldova civil society was active onthe governing board but was disappointed overall by the slowtransformation process. Here again, more fundamental workby media development actors is called for. After all, a transformationwithout the active involvement of civil society seemshardly possible. And media development needs to take thetime for such long-term processes.In sum, media development actors have in the past beenable to support journalists and technical staff in state broadcastersand PSM through training activities. They were involvedin the restructuring of the related newsrooms andother departments, and this has also successfully helped todevelop new formats for journalistic content. But all in allthe international media experts have provided the trainingand consultancy themselves, instead of supporting capacitybuilding and human resources structures in or near the supportedmedia outlets.Generally, it seems that a large part of the more complexprocesses were pursued and advanced by the partners in thecountries themselves, such as the legal reforms and the variousactivities related to the governing board, as well as thestructural change within the broadcaster. In a small numberof cases media development actors managed to successfullyplay their role as catalysts and moderators of these processes,but in many others it seems they never got this far. Overallmany limitations of the transformation processes are related282

Conclusions and Recommendationsnew PSM, was ongoing. Nevertheless, B92 still provides an importantand comprehensive service to the public, certainly incomparison to its competitors.Universal, national coverage is not fully provided in thesecases: Freedom Radio only broadcasts in some regions in thenorth of Nigeria. It offers internet streaming but of course thisis not available to all. 1 Until 1996 B92 was a local communityradio station which could only be heard in Belgrade. After thatthe program was rebroadcast by numerous stations in almostall parts of the country. It wasn’t until 2006 that this mediaoutlet received nationwide licences for radio and TV.Another issue is that these media outlets have no governingbodies representing different elements of society to assure thediversity, distinctiveness, and independence of the programming.The contribution Freedom Radio makes to the publicsphere and to social integration depends upon the decisionsof a board of directors which mainly belong to one family. Sothere’s always a risk that the public service functions of thisstation could suffer if this family were to choose other prioritiesor if the ownership structure changed.At B92 it was always the founders who assured the publicservice ideals. They are still active in the B92 Trust which assuresthe editorial independence and viability of the mediaoutlet. Nonetheless, it is now the main investor who has thestrongest influence on the company.Both B92 and Freedom Radio have always been very innovativeas far as programming and the use of modern digital technologyare concerned. B92 was first present on the internet asearly as 1996. Freedom Radio was one of the first in Nigeria tooffer live streaming and apps for smartphones as well as socialmedia. It is clear that in this respect they have always performedbetter than the state media and public service media.These special private media outlets are close to their audiencesand enrich their media landscapes.According to the approach of the “public service ethos”(Chapter 2.2), these exceptional organizations deliver an importantcontribution to their media landscape. They advancethe ideas of media in service of the public and create a healthyquality-oriented competition towards a public service systemof media. We therefore call them Alternative Public ServiceMedia (APSM) (see also Box p. 280).APSM offer objective and independent news journalism inprofessional quality, forums for public debate, societal orientation,and criticism. However the criticism of the governmentand its administration as well as agenda setting and in-depthjournalism may be limited, depending on the general journalismculture and situation in the media landscape. These mediaare, in contrast to most former state broadcasters, particularlyinnovative with respect to technology or programming. Theyfulfill at least some of the functions relevant to the integrationof society, such as education, entertainment, and strengthtolack of political will and to the difficult situations within andaround the PSM: bureaucratic structures, limited engagementfor change by the staff, and a want of leadership by the managers.But scarcity of funds to advance change processes, bothon the part of the media outlets as well as media developmentactors, is also a decisive factor.In many cases there was also a lack of long-term planningand coordination among international actors. Only very limitedmonitoring and evaluation systems were in place. Insteadof carrying out needs assessments, identifying local partners,and building the required expertise and sustainable structures,media development actors limited themselves to doingwhat they were good at, mostly capacity building in short terminterventions. They missed the opportunity to take a structuredand more complex methodological approach towardsorganizational development.RQ 3: Which public service functions can be provided by communityand private media?To answer this question we assess our findings from the casestudies according to the public service functions, with thedifferentiation between the two general functions, creatinga public sphere and supporting integration, as developed inchapter 2.1. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the objectivesof community and private media are not necessarily tofulfill these functions in the way a PSM would be required to.The two private media outlets in our study – Freedom Radioin Nigeria and B92 in Serbia – both fulfill a large number ofthese functions. Freedom Radio is strong with respect to facilitationof debate, balanced election reporting, criticism, andsocial orientation. It broadcasts regular news programs severaltimes a day which offer both national and internationalnews items. Nonetheless, in some journalistic fields such asregional news, in-depth research, and agenda setting there isroom for improvement. But in the context of the Nigerian medialandscape, this performance is already extraordinary. Thebroadcaster also supports integration with programming in 13languages, cultural programming, entertainment, and education– just as a PSM should. From a PSM one would possiblyexpect more service in the latter areas, but given the fact thatFreedom Radio only has one channel in each region it covers,its performance here is still admirable.B92 generally performs well in all aspects of journalism –from debate to investigative journalism. In the 1990s underthe Milošević regime it was one of the few media outlets thatoffered Serbian citizens independent and well-researched information.It also gave a voice to disadvantaged sectors of society,enabled cultural expression and cohesion and providededucation.But since new owners took over following the financial crisisin 2007/2008, the quality of the news has deteriorated andintegrative functions have been reduced. B92 has given up onsome of its public service ideals and become a commercialbroadcaster – in a time when the transformation of RTS, the1Only 38% of all Nigerians used the internet in 2013.Source: http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspxEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 283

ening of identity, cultural cohesion and expression. But theymay offer their services to citizens in just one part of a country.They do not usually have a governing board, as would aPSM, which represents different parts of society. But they havea clear and institutional commitment to professional journalismstandards and to servicing a broader public. They may takeover roles as neutral and independent actors in society whilestill pursuing specific community radio agendas or commercialinterests in other parts.Especially in countries with no public service tradition theAPSM deliver a major contribution to society. They create apublic sphere and support integration. Because they are oftendriven by idealism and a sense of responsibility for the population,especially in times of crisis, they certainly deserve internationalsupport.How do community media fit into this picture? They differ inorigin and purpose, organizational structure and content fromPSM and private commercial media (See Box p. 16, Chapter 1.3).In chapter 12 we have already discussed the importance and potentialof this third media sector for the good of civil society,minorities, and the public discussion of pressing problems.But beyond this our research shows that it is possible thatcommunity media also fulfill broader public service functions.Among our case studies are community media outlets whichdeliver, in the absence of PSM, a broad spectrum of services.Radio Sagarmatha in Nepal is one of these exceptional communityradio stations, and it is instructive to look at it froma public service perspective. Its strong points with regard tothe general function of creating a public sphere are that thebroadcaster is independent and it facilitates debate, it letsall political parties speak and yet it dares to voice critique. Itoccasionally even sets the agenda with cases of investigativereporting. On the other hand, Radio Sagamartha primarilyserves the population in the Kathmandu Valley and its newscontent is focused on the events and the people in this region.Regarding the general function of supporting integration thesituation is similar. Radio Sagamartha offers services in threelanguages and enables cultural expression and education andit is innovative in using Facebook to distribute its content toa wider audience. Nevertheless, the outlet’s contribution tostrengthening identity and cohesion is limited to the peoplein the Kathmandu Valley.To explore this issue further, it might be useful here to lookat the cases from Latin America.Radio Pio XII, which is officially a private station but operatesas a community outlet, has some similarities with RadioSagamartha. It fulfills most of the PSM functions: It facilitatesdebate and offers a good spectrum of orientation on local issues.It broadcasts national news from the Erbol network, ofwhich it is a member. It runs a well-established internet platformwith numerous sections, including social media. Therange of journalistic forms, however, is somewhat limited andthe in-depth research could be improved. An indicator for theprofessional character of this organization is the fact that it isinvolved in the vocational training for young journalists offeredby the Erbol network.Meanwhile the young urban community radio station Vokaribe(Colombia) and the community- and environmentorientedRadio Intag (Ecuador) chiefly pursue specific agendasand exchanges within their communities. Comprehensive orobjective news are not necessarily among the first priorities.Nor are neutral facilitation of public debate and a broad socialorientation of their listeners as important to them as they areto PSM. All three Latin American community radio stationsare strong on the integration of society – in their specific regionor community.So overall we can see a certain overlap here between theservices community media can deliver and what is expectedof a PSM. Radio Sagarmatha and Radio Pio XII are first of allcommunity media – but they can also be called APSM. A largeportion of their content could have been broadcast by a PSM,too. In certain parts of their programming they take over rolesas neutral and independent actors in society (while still pursuingspecific community radio agendas in other parts). Theyhave professionalized their work and the structure of their organization.Their main difference to PSM is that they may offerservices with respect to public sphere and integration only toa small segment of the population of their country. And whilePSM are controlled through multi-stakeholder governingboards, Radio Sagarmatha is run by an NGO and Radio Pio XIIis controlled by representatives of the Catholic church. So, likethe private stations B92 and Freedom Radio discussed above,they are only controlled by a small group and not by representativesfrom different parts of society.In a nutshell, APSM – i.e., exceptional private commercialmedia as well as exceptional community media – deliverconsiderable public services to the broader public. They dothis along with their primary objectives, namely, competingsuccessfully on the commercial media markets (private media)and offering their specific forms of social participationand advocacy to smaller sectors of the population (communitymedia).APSM are able to fulfill a large portion – but not all – of thepublic service functions in question here. The capacity and themore cost-intensive forms of journalism are often particularlydifficult for them, as is the combination of diversity and distinction.The private commercial organizations may emphasizethe integrative functions a little less while the communityoutlets address a specific part of the population only. Butmany PSM and former state media have difficulty deliveringthese functions, too.For media development the support of APSM is certainly ofparticular importance. Depending on the situation of a particularmedia landscape, APSM can be considered as an alternativeto state broadcaster transformation.Two general cases can be differentiated here: Firstly, ifthere is no political will for a reform of state media or evenan authoritarian regime is in place, it may be a good choice to284

Conclusions and Recommendationsstrengthen community radio and selected private stations totake over more public service functions. And secondly, in caseswhere the transformation of state media is ongoing and supported,it can be helpful to work with community and privatemedia at the same time. By strengthening different selectedmedia a dynamic landscape and healthy competition can becreated that help build a public service ethos.If the goal for media development is to strengthen theunique public service ideas – universal, diverse and distinctivemedia services of good quality for citizens – its perspectiveshould be extended beyond state broadcaster transformation.With APSM, too, a lot can be achieved on behalf of the public.To sum up: Ideally a media landscape has both types, PSMand APSM – in fruitful competition with the PSM offering abroader set of services, and the APSM being more innovativeand adapting better to the needs of specific communities andaudiences. Meanwhile, in countries where the reform towardsPSM is not realistic, APSM can step in and take over importantfunctions, even if some considerable limitations will remain.So if, in a given country, there is no political will for the transformationof a state broadcaster, media development shouldlimit its engagement and focus on strengthening APSM. Onthe other hand, if both media types show potential for progress,a strategic decision is needed based on the particular situationin the particular media landscape in question.RQ 4: Which changes in private and community media wereachieved through media development in the past and whatwere the challenges and limitations of this work?We can answer this question based on the information assessedin a small number of case studies only. As with the PSMabove, we describe the changes in the media which can be relatedto the involvement of media development actors. We dothis again in correspondence with the areas of strategic actionof the DW Akademie model (See chapter 2.4).Political and legal frameworksOur case studies show that media development actors seemto prefer to focus on training and newsroom-related consultanciesonly. But there can be no doubt that more long-termengagement for the improvement of political and legal frameworksis necessary to advance private and community mediaand to establish coherence between the two sectors.Community and private media often struggle with nontransparentand bureaucratic licensing processes, difficult orabsent frameworks, and political restrictions. In spite of this,most media development actors invested their resources inother areas.But there are exceptions. The AMARC network for communityradio has helped to structure this third media sectorthrough lobbying, dialogue, and supply of knowledge, especiallyin Latin America. The Friedrich Ebert Stiftung has alsoprovided and assembled legal expertise in different forms inthis region. In Nepal, the Dutch organization Free Press Un-limited supported the growth of community radio througha broad approach which included a support center as well asadvocacy and lobbying.In Colombia, DW Akademie has worked with a well-chosenselection of community media and supported the licensingprocesses, as in the case of Radio Vocaribe. Here the licencingprocesses were used to consolidate and strengthen the teamsinvolved. In their course, goals for the community radio projectwere defined and ethics and newsroom guidelines developed.The exceptional case of B92 in Serbia in the 1990s shows,however, that even without any leverage in regulatory questions,successes in other strategy fields can raise the pressureon the authorities to amend the political and legal framework.Here the international media actually worked against the politicaland legal framework in Serbia to support the news outlet.When the broadcaster was banned by the government theinternational media rebroadcast its program. This helped toincrease its popularity, and in the end the government preferredto bring the station back on air again in the country.QualificationsA large part of international support for private and communitymedia is training of journalists, technical staff, and trainers.In our cases this was an important element of support,especially for the younger and smaller news outlets whichcould not afford to invest in staff capacity building. And yetthis type of intervention remains limited and unsustainable,unless structures for continuous qualification are built.Radio Sagamartha (Nepal) and Radio Pio XII (Bolovia) arecases where basic structures for the training of staff withinthe organization were successfully developed with supportfrom DW Akademie. Furthermore, a system of vocationaljournalism training was established at the Erbol network, ofwhich Radio Pio XII is a member. Especially in the latter casea comparatively broad and sustainable structure of qualificationwas initiated.Professionalism and economic sustainability ofthe media sectorMedia development actors have, in some cases, helped small,nascent news outlets on a very basic level. Radio Sagamartha,for example, received initial start-up support from UNESCO:hardware, but also elementary training and consultancy.In the stages that followed, the media outlets used newsroomconsultancies in various forms to reorganize productionprocesses and improve the programming. A general professionalizationcould be achieved by developing new formatsand presenting improved content. Through the production ofsoap operas, for example, which dealt with the problems ofpeople in the villages and cities of Nepal, the team involvedat Radio Sagamartha and with them the entire organizationlearned to operate in new ways.In most of our cases the use of new digital technology playedan important role for the operation of the news outlets. TheEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 285

support for Radio Pio XII in Bolivia included the strategic use ofan internet platform and social media but also radio broadcastingon different bands. Vocaribe in Colombia is a project whichbrings a community together with the help of the internet,radio, and sometimes live events. And the program of Serbianradio station B92 was already available on the internet as earlyas 1996, thanks to the help of a Dutch provider.Another important factor in the development of these smallmedia organizations is team building and human resources.Here media development organizations supported the communityradio stations in dealing better with the high level offluctuation among their staff by building teams that developa working culture of shared responsibility. They have establishedpractices of internal training by senior staff and routinesof quality improvement through deliberation within theteams. – And yet these efforts are often limited by high fluctuationof the staff.Equally the issue of economic sustainability of communityand private media is an area in which media development organizationshave recently tried to increase support. But in manycases this is a major challenge both for the media outlets andthe consultants. It is a complex task to professionalize a mediaoutlet that first started out as a non-professional organization.One possible path towards sustainability is the building ofcommunity radio networks, as in the case of Bolivia. Professionalexchange not only of experience but also of broadcastingcontent can help these stations to improve. The aforementionedsupport centers in the country can also be valuable,providing practical help, as well as know-how with referencematerials and consultancy. Certainly more work beyond thesepiloting projects needs to be done.Social participationIt goes without saying that social participation is the mostimportant strategic area for community media. So all thesupport given to them is there to include the people from thecommunities, local initiatives, and civil society groups, notonly as audience or interviewees but as those responsible forthe content and its broadcasting. But occasionally communitiesalso show signs of fatigue, as in the case of Radio Intag inEcuador, and become less active.The work of DW Akademie in Latin America encompassespromising cases where care was taken to first identify localinitiatives that looked auspicious, to assess their needs andthen to support them through a broad approach. In doingso, various participative mechanisms of consultation andreflection within civil society were established. Besides radiobroadcasting, webpages, Twitter, and Facebook are usedas additional channels of communication for specific partsof a community.Overall we find that more strategic and long-term commitmentsby media development actors for community mediaand private media are needed. Too often development agenciessimply perceive them as a vehicle or tool to spread theirmessages. Instead they should recognize and support thesemedia as actors in their own right.For coherent development strategies these media need tobe taken more seriously. They can close gaps in the mainstreammedia landscape, they can inform and empower localcommunities, they can help to resolve conflicts and they caneven be professionalized and deliver a number of PSM functions.But to do so, they must be helped to operate independentlyand sustainably.At the same time, community and private media should notbe expected to entirely replace PSM. Although they can andshould provide some public service functions, they cannot fulfillall the varied and yet distinctive PSM tasks. Nevertheless,development actors need to help to consolidate communityand small private media as a third, distinctive, and importantmedia sector.To do this, media development has in the past developedtechnical, journalistic, and management capacity. Changeprocesses in the organization were also supported. Innovativeways have been found to improve the quality of the products,and advance the human resources and financial sustainabilityof community media. But these results will remain limitedunless there is also advancement with respect to political andlegal frameworks. Therefore, media development actors needto further explore ways to build networks of media outlets, assembleexpertise, search for ways to work with the licensingbodies, and strengthen lobbying work. Only on the basis of fairand supportive licensing processes can community media dotheir work well and empower minorities, put their issues onthe agenda, strengthen human rights, and thus, advance societiesas a whole.RQ 5: Which approaches and methods of media developmentwere taken in our case studies?The most successful approaches in our case studies werethose with broad strategies that included activities in severalareas of the DW Akademie model (See chapter 2.4). In thecase of Mongolia, intensive work in the field of qualificationswas combined with work in the area of professionalism andeconomic sustainability of the media sector. Additionally inSerbia and Moldova, some headway in social participationwas made. The same can be said, in a general sense, aboutthe DW Akademie work with community media in Boliviaand Columbia.In all these cases the political and legal frameworks weresupportive of or at least not a hindrance to a PSM transformationprocess or, respectively the operation of community media,at the time when the media development actors came in.In Kyrgyzstan special emphasis was placed on advancingpolitical and legal frameworks. The success in this strategicarea, in particular brought about by an active civil society,made the overall progress possible. Meanwhile in Afghanistanthe intervention was halted because no progress withrespect to the regulatory frameworks could be made.286

Conclusions and RecommendationsSo overall progress in the area of political and legal frameworksseems fundamental for a broad transformation. But ifthis is not possible there are still other paths that can be taken.It always seems worthwhile to further the fourth strategic areaof social participation, even in situations where the frameworkscannot be advanced. Because individual citizens as wellas civil society organizations hold the potential for long-termchange in the media system – through public service, communitymedia, or both.In our case studies we could see that media development actorshad applied a number of methods. The most important are:Assessments and studies: organizational needs assessments,financial audits, audience surveys, etc., but also systematic assessmentsand selection of partners,Documentation and supply of information, data bases, e.g., onlegal frameworks and legal advice,Political dialogue events,Political lobbying and support of advocacy, human rightsalerts,Capacity building of journalists, managers, technicians in variousforms, e.g., basic professional training, training of specialskills, capacity building in project teams, mentoring,Initial technical support,Consultancy on human resources/capacity building/vocationaltraining within organizations or networks of organizations,Professional exchange, “horizontal learning” between cooperationpartners, study trips,Expert discussions, panels, conferences,Help desk for community radios,Provision of reference material,Co-productions of programming content between differentmedia outlets,Consultancies with specialized expertise, e.g., financial management,broadcasting law, ethics standards and guidelines,Consultancies related to the work in the newsroom: processesin the newsroom, formats, live production, call-in, onlinejournalism, etc.,Consultancies related to the development and introduction ofnew programming formats: lighthouse programming projects,in particular audience orientation, participation, innovativeformats,Consultancies related to special public events: election reporting,multi-stakeholder dialogues, town-hall meetings,Consultancies related to the strengthening of selected departmentsof the PSM, e.g., training centers or regional offices.The suggestions made by the experts who were interviewed forour case studies mostly focussed pn the solution of concreteproblems for the media outlets. Many of the following suggestionsidentify not only a need but at the same time point tomissed opportunities in the past. Relating to the frameworks,governance and finance, the following were mentioned:– Develop and advocate models for the financing of themedia outlet– Strengthen the capacities of governing board membersand NGOs representatives– Generate support for the civil society sector that is ofrelevance to PSM– Integrate universities into the case of the PSM– Advocate independent commissioning bodies andtransparent licensing processes– Advocate legislative reforms on behalf of community media– Advocate against impunity and legislation that criminalizesjournalists unnecessarilyOther suggestions they made were related to journalists andto the work in the media organization:– Consultancy in newsroom and studio management– Consultancy in revenue and budget planning– Consultancy in human resources management– Consultancy of team building processes withinthe broadcaster– Consultancy in website management– Raising awareness and understanding of PSM on all levelsof the organization– Support for professional associationsFurther suggestions are related to the audiences of the differentmedia:– Establish platforms for public debate and interactiveformats on PSM– Combine institutional reform with visible changes– Find ways to safeguard editorial independence, credibilityand accountability – in order to gain the public’s trust.– Build up and improve audience and market researchEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 287

This list of possible solutions and interventions should in anycase be integrated into a holistic methodological approach accompanyingtransformation processes. Many of the projectsso far seem to have been piecemeal approaches only. It hasto be taken into account that organizational change can bebetter achieved through adequate methods which use a widerange and a combination of result-oriented interventions.At the same time the interventions need to be synchronizedas much as possible between the different (media development)actors. The ambition to transform a media outlet – orthe whole media system – is often voiced but then not alwaysconsistently carried out. What is needed here is an overallstrategy for change processes.RQ 6: Which recommendations can be made for future mediadevelopment projects supporting public service functions?Transformed state media that have been successfully turnedinto PSM are able to fulfill a number of important public servicefunctions. With this study we have been able to showcasea few examples where this has been made possible. But thesemedia outlets are not the only ones that deliver public servicefunctions. As we have seen, special community media andAPSM (alternative public service media) can also deliver somepublic service functions.The strategic question now is under what conditions is abroad transformation process towards PSM a worthy endeavor,and when is it better to limit the engagement with formerstate broadcasters? When should more attention be given tocommunity media and aspiring APSM? And how can all thisbe put into practice? We shall try to answer these questions,based on the results and considerations above.If, in a given country, there is a general will by political andcivil society actors for a change process towards a public servicemedia system, a broad effort seems justified. An agenda ofcooperation and a strategic plan for reform needs to be developed.To achieve this a number of basic processes should bestarted that are fundamental to development in many sectors:– An inclusion of a maximum of local expertise, not onlyat the onset,– An effort by international actors to understand localcontexts and cultural settings,– The integration and synchronization/coordination ofall stakeholders, on different levels,– A continuous coordination of donors and developmentactors,– General assessments of the media sector and its actors,including not only media outlets but also universities,press councils, networks of journalists, unions, legalexperts, etc.– Specific assessments of the ( former) state media andother (potential) PSMs in several areas, e.g., financial,organizational, content,– A long-term involvement and approach. Many processeshere take time and are subject to backlashes,– A holistic methodological approach consideringinterventions on different levels and areas.Early on in the process legal frameworks and their applicationneed to be on the agenda. They are an important basisfor working in the media sector. In an ideal situation, improvementsin legislation and regulation are made at the outset ofa change process. But often this is only done partially or nevergets beyond the planning stage. As a consequence, media outletsas well as media development struggle with adverse andunclear situations. So long-term work is needed here fromseveral actors towards special laws that guarantee freedom ofinformation and expression, the independence of PSM andtheir governing bodies, laws for community media, fair andtransparent licensing procedures, etc. For media developmentit is important here to– Build their own legal expertise and contacts to politicalactors,– Cooperate with national and international organizationswith expertise in the governance sector,– Support networks of experts for media law with actors fromjournalism, law, academia and civil society,– Develop or support projects, networks and coalitions foradvocacy, lobbying and communications, including specificstrategies for reaching out to selected individuals and targetgroups by using different channels of communication fromface-to-face communications to social media,– Develop a process for the supply of legal knowledge andadvice, e.g., through competence centers.In the consultation of any media outlet the question of economicsustainability should be made an issue from the outset.And it should be part of the overall process. Financial questionsas well as issues related to human resources need tobe dealt with, in conjunction with technical support and thestrengthening of journalistic quality. Media development hasadvanced in this direction over the past years but more workneeds to be done.For the transformation processes related to large media outlets,such as former state media, a broad organizational developmentapproach has to be planned and carried out systematically.As described in chapter 13, a number of elements needto be fed into the overall process. The most important are:– The establishment and continuous work of a strategy group(consisting of a person from the upper management, theproject manager, the organizational consultant and anexpert consultant)– The establishment and continuous work of a steeringcommittee with representatives from different levels and288

Conclusions and Recommendationsdivisions of the organization. The middle managementbut also the general staff need to be included here.– A full process operation which includes the three mainphases of 1) preparation, 2) the change process itself, and3) securing of the results.– Intelligent interface management to broaden thetransformation process within the organization– Part projects which advance the concrete reforms in theorganization in different areas. Depending on the specificsituation and strategy, the following should be takeninto consideration:– Administrative reform projects. In the past, mediadevelopment actors have often either underestimatedthe importance of administrative reforms for the overallchange process or they have shied away from them.– Strategic projects related to communication andlobbying for the transformation inside and outside theorganization: because very often the PSM staff themselvesare not aware of the new public service ideas. Andin many cases the political actors and the public at largedo not support their PSM, because they do not see andappreciate the changes that have taken place.– Reform and innovation projects in journalistic departments,newsrooms, regional offices, etc.– A framework for monitoring and evaluation of thisprocess. This should be established right at the outset.As for the latter content-related projects in newsrooms, thequestion often arises in which area to invest the available resources.This question is also relevant in smaller interventionswhere an entire transformation is not the objective. Especiallyin past years, “lighthouse” projects have been created that yieldsome impressive results and, ideally, show the other departmentsthe way.Careful consideration is needed here, on the part of all partners,as to whether it really is a good idea to change TV newsdepartments first of all. The fact that many media developmentexperts began their own careers in these environments doesnot mean that these are the best choice for their intervention.In many former state broadcasters, the TV news department is ahighly political and thus difficult section of the media to work in.If one nevertheless chooses to work with the news departments,small steps are important: The appearance of soundbites from both the opposition and government is a majorstep. Criticism of the government is difficult even in comparativelyadvanced PSM. Media development actors should moderatethe discussions on what is possible and what can be doneto improve the news.In many cases, major progress has been achieved with departmentsthat produce other formats such as public debate oreducational soap operas. Working with economic, health or environmentprograms may also be a good choice. And, last butnot least, the strengthening of regional offices and minorityprograms is often also a good possibility.The latter suggestions may also be an option if a media developmentorganization decides to work with state mediathat will most probably remain state media for some years tocome. Here it is certainly sensible to seriously consider who islikely to benefit from an intervention. In many countries, programmingfor minority groups or populations in remote areascan only be provided by state media, so in such a case cooperationmay make sense.If small private and community media exist in the regionsalong with the state media, they deserve support. This can createhealthy competition and hopefully improved content onbehalf of the people.The support for well-selected community media is alwaysan additional option. They are an alternative sector within amedia landscape, through them people are given a new voice,and civil society can put their issues on the public agenda.In situations where PSM are weak, however, communitymedia can achieve even more for their audiences. They can beprofessionalized and supported to deliver important publicservice functions. The same holds true for those small privatemedia that show a genuine interest in the people from theirregion. These existing and aspiring APSM deserve support.But this support should not be blind. An important part of themedia development work here is to identify those media outletsthat really have potential for this process, and to consideradequate and different methodological approaches.Smaller media outlets generally face numerous limitations,problems and obstacles. Media development actors can helpas consultants here – and strengthen the teams in what theywant to achieve.Capacity building needs to be revisited. Although this is thearea in which media development traditionally has a lot ofexperience and expertise, capacity building must be understoodin a much broader sense than so far. Firstly, it shouldgo beyond training. Secondly, it should go beyond journalismcapacity building to other areas such as, in particular, managementcapacity in media outlets, legal and advocacy capacityin civil society organizations. Thirdly, capacity building shouldbe part of a human resources strategy that is part of the organizationaldevelopment process.– In all media outlets continuous processes of capacitybuilding and a culture of learning are needed.– Larger media need to be supported in building andsustaining their own departments for capacity building.– Smaller organizations need to be supported in establishingsimple and basic forms of capacity building on the job. Thisis especially true for community radio stations that have toaccommodate for frequent staff changes.– On top of this, outside structures can be used, e.g., cooperationwith universities or other media. Networks for jointcapacity building and vocational training can be built.Edition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 289

In sum, media development actors should not be there tobuild capacities only, but also to enable structures for capacitybuilding as a fundamental part of a professional organizationalsetting.New ways need to be explored to bring PSM and their audiencescloser together. Participation does not only meanbeing heard in a discussion but also actively shaping the waythe interaction takes place. Furthermore, citizens need to beinformed and involved in debate, not only on current affairsand issues of relevance to them, but also about the mission,ambitions and opportunities of their PSM. The better the generalacceptance, trust and engagement for PSM, the easier it isto advance things in other areas, too.One way of doing this is to integrate the younger generationinto new projects, for example, with youth formats andchannels including new media. The creativity and innovativeforce of the young needs to be tapped into. In doing so, however,it needs to be assured that the older generations are fullysupportive of such a policy. Such a focus helps to make mediaoutlets more attractive to the population, but also attractivefor those interested in a career in the media.Media development actors need to engage in a broad processof learning themselves. This means, first of all, a broadengagement in monitoring, evaluation, and research. Basedon this, they can work towards well-grounded strategic criteriaon why they choose a particular process in a given situation.But in doing so, media developers should insist less on offeringonly what they are already good at. They should ratherseek to provide whatever is required in the particular processin question. For this they need to build their own capacitiesand bring in new expertise. So a change in perspective is needed.Instead of saying only “This is what we offer,” the questions“What is needed here?” and “Who can provide it best?” shouldbe asked more often.290

Conclusions and RecommendationsEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 291

Authors292

AuthorsErik AlbrechtErik Albrecht works as a researcher and editor for DW Akademie. After completinghis thesis that studied journalistic culture and its effect on press freedom in Russiahe has specialized in post-Soviet countries. Mr. Albrecht has worked as a foreign correspondentfor DW, the German press agency dpa, and other German media outletsfrom Moscow reporting mainly on Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, and Belarus. At DWAkademie, he has been working as country manager and regional coordinator fordifferent parts of the former Soviet Union. Mr. Albrecht has completed his diplomadegree in journalism at the TU Dortmund University. Today he works as a freelancejournalist based in Berlin.Erik Albrecht,Researcher/Editor,DW Akademieerik.albrecht@dw.deJackie Wilson-BakareJackie Wilson has been a broadcaster and journalist for over 25 years, many of whichwere spent working – as freelance editor and producer, newscaster, and studio host –for Deutsche Welle, Germany’s international broadcaster. She has worked in WestAfrica, in Southern Africa and in Central Asia, and has more recently brought herconsiderable experience and acquired skills to bear on the fields of training and research.Having worked with journalists from all over the world, Ms. Wilson knowsfrom personal experience how vital a confident and skilled media community is atall stages of societal development.Jackie Wilson-Bakare,Journalist/Editor,DW Akademiejacki_wilsonbakare@yahoo.co.ukCletus Gregor BariéCletus Gregor Barié is advisor and analyst for international development cooperationagencies with a focus on media development, conflict transformation, human rights,and social dialogue. He held several positions at Deutsche Gesellschaft für InternationaleZusammenarbeit (GIZ) abroad, lastly as coordinator for innovative approachesand methods in violence prevention for the German Peace Building Program CER-CAPAZ-GIZ in Colombia (2009–2012). In addition, he has worked as organizationaladvisor, facilitator, and evaluator with Civil Peace Service Programmes (ZFD), FriedrichEbert Stiftung, UNDP and World Bank. He has a BA in Latin American Studies atUNAM in Mexico and an MA degree in Human Rights with supporting qualificationsin project design, management and evaluation. His PhD project at CEDLA Amsterdamdetailed conflicts between indigenous peoples and states over the use of naturalresources in Bolivia and Ecuador. Since 2014 he is permanent advisor for DeutscheWelle Akademie’s Department Strategy and Consulting. As an amateur documentaryfilmmaker and radio broadcaster, he had the opportunity to take a close look at communityradios in Bolivia and Colombia.Cletus Gregor Barié,Researcher/Editor,DW Akademiegregor.barie@web.dePetra BernerPetra Berner is the head of the Strategy and Consultancy Department at DW Akademieand oversees teams for strategy development, knowledge management, internationalrelations, and evaluation. In the past two years she has led the redirection processof DW Akademie towards long-term projects, organizational capacity building, andnew evaluation frameworks. Before this she was in charge of the Latin American teamand ran numerous innovative media development projects in this region. Her master’sdegree is in geography and history from the University of Cologne, and she hascompleted several advanced trainings in organizational management and organizationaldevelopment, among them the certified course Systemic Organizational Developmentat Fritz-Simon-Berlin. Her areas of expertise are also in strategic consultancy,capacity building, human resources development, and development policy.Petra Berner,Head Strategyand Consultancy,DW Akademiepetra.berner@dw.deEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 293

Priya EsselbornPriya Esselborn is the Regional Coordinator for South Asia at DW Akademie. After herMA in drama (Theaterwissenschaft), political science, and Indology from the Universityof Munich, she joined Deutsche Welle in 2003. After completing her editorialtraining, she reported on crises and conflicts as well as elections across all of SouthAsia. She has covered, for example, the aftermath of the Tsunami 2004, the electionsin Nepal and Sri Lanka in 2008 and 2010, and has produced many documentarieson issues such as human rights, women empowerment or education. Her work hasbeen aired and published in Hindi, Urdu, English, and German for Deutsche Welleand distributed in the ARD, the network of German public broadcasters. For one coproduction,Priya spent three weeks at Radio Sagarmatha in 2005 and has stayedin close touch with the station ever since. Before joining DW Akademie in 2013, shebecame the team leader of the Hindi department at Deutsche Welle in 2013 and conceptualizedmany multimedia projects as well as the science magazine “Manthan.”Priya Esselborn,Regional Coordinator,DW Akademiepriya.esselborn@dw.deRichard A. FuchsRichard A. Fuchs has been working since 2008 as political correspondent for the parliamentarydesk of Germany's international broadcaster Deutsche Welle in Berlin. Asa freelance journalist, he is also engaged with DW Akademie's international mediadevelopment unit in charge for large-scale project development and in-depth mediamarket analysis. He is an experienced multimedia author, publishing for numerouspublic service broadcasters in Germany. In the past, he has regularly worked as a mediatrainer and university lecturer. In 2014, he published his first book on Europeanpolitical affairs. After studying political science and English philology at the Universityof Freiburg (Germany) and the University of Michigan (USA), Mr. Fuchs graduatedin 2006 from the renowned postgraduate institute College of Europe in Bruges.Various research trips have taken him to Africa, either as media analyst or as fieldreporter on natural resource and energy-related topics. In regular intervals, Mr. Fuchsis invited as conference host and skilled bilingual moderator of live events.Richard A. Fuchs,Media Trainer andPolitical Correspondent,DW Akademierichard.fuchs@dw.deLina HartwiegLina Hartwieg works as a research associate for DW Akademie’s Strategy and Consultancydepartment. Prior to joining DW, she worked as an editor for private televisioncompanies as well as for the North Rhine-Westphalian public service broadcasterWDR, as a freelance consultant for the United Nations Regional Information Centre(UNRIC) and as project assistant for the Deutsche Gesellschaft für InternationaleZusammenarbeit (GIZ). Ms. Hartwieg studied Social Sciences – Media, Politics, Society(BA) at Heinrich Heine University and the University of Auckland. To furtherher understanding of media and development this was followed by the InternationalMedia Studies Master’s Program at DW Akademie. Her master thesis focused on thefunctions of social media e-campaigning, analyzing the capacity of NGOs to enterinto a direct dialog with the user.Lina Hartwieg,Researcher,DW Akademielina.hartwieg@dw.de294

AuthorsJan LublinskiJan Lublinski is project manager at DW Akademie and in charge of evaluation andresearch at this media development institution. As a media expert he has trainedand consulted in numerous media outlets in Africa and the Arab world, and he is anexpert in monitoring and evaluation frameworks in media development projects.Jan Lublinski started his career as a journalist with the daily newspaper FrankfurterRundschau and worked 20 years as a freelance reporter for various print media, includingthe magazine GEO, as well as for German Public Radio and Television (ARD).He has won several journalism awards for his work, among them the HoltzbrinckPrize for Science Journalism (2011) and the German Development Media Award(2010). For his PhD in journalism studies, he conducted newsroom research in aproject at the TU Dortmund University.Jan Lublinski,Project Manager,DW Akademiejan.lublinski@dw.deLaura SchneiderLaura Schneider works as project manager for DW Akademie. Her area of expertiseis media freedom measurement, particularly international press freedom indices.Her PhD thesis provides ideas for a new instrument for assessing media freedomglobally. Ms. Schneider has been a consultant for UNESCO, an analyst for FreedomHouse, and project coordinator at the International Media Center in Hamburg. Shehas worked as a journalist for several German media outlets such as Spiegel Onlineand the German press agency dpa, and was a radio and newspaper reporter in Mexico.Laura Schneider completed her BA and MA degrees in journalism, media andcommunication science, and Latin American studies at the universities of Hamburg,Guadalajara (Mexico), and Sydney.Laura Schneider,Project Manager,DW Akademielaura.schneider@dw.deAchim ToennesAchim Toennes has worked as a freelance consultant, coach and trainer for organizationaland human resource development, for clients from both the profit and thenon-profit sectors. He has worked as a consultant and trainer at DW Akademie forseveral years now, with particular focus on Latin America. Mr. Toennes studied politicalscience, Latin American studies and journalism at the University of Hamburg. Afterwards,he worked as a consultant in the field of media project promotion and consultancyin Latin America and Africa. Today, the focus of his work lies on the supportof change processes as well as the development and coaching of senior executives.For the furtherance of these projects he went on to gain an MA in Human Resources,advanced training in organizational development, coaching and consulting as well aslicensing in assessment tools MBTI I&II, 16PF, FIRO B.Achim Toennes,Consultant/Trainer,DW Akademieinfo@toennes-consult.bizMerjam WakiliMerjam Wakili works as a project manager and trainer for DW Akademie’s MediaTraining department. In her PhD thesis she examined the transformation process ofthe Afghan state-broadcaster RTA in the context of democratization. Her thesis providesan insight into the perspective of three groups of actors – RTA, media developmentactors, and civil society actors. Wakili studied journalism and philosophy at theTU Dortmund University. She has worked as a freelance journalist for several Germannewspapers and Deutsche Welle Radio and Television.Merjam Wakili,Project Manager/Trainer,DW Akademiemerjam.wakili@dw.deEdition DW Akademie In the Service of the Public 295

About UsDW Akademie is Germany’s leading organization for international media development.It supports the development of free and transparent media systems, quality journalism andexpertise. DW Akademie helps countries rebuild their media sector following crises and conflicts,and contributes internationally to the training of media professionals.In its offices in Bonn and Berlin DW Akademie offers traineeships for future DW journalists aswell as intercultural and professional media training workshops.DW Akademie also runs the “International Media Studies” Master’s program which combinesthe areas of media development, media management, journalism and communications.Please contact us for further informationDr. Jan LublinskiProject ManagerDW AkademieT +49.228.429 22 81jan.lublinski@dw.deDeutsche Welle53110 Bonn, GermanyPetra BernerHeadStrategy and ConsultancyDW AkademieT +49.228.429 35 39petra.berner@dw.deDeutsche Welle53110 Bonn, GermanyScan the QR code forfurther information.www.dw-akademie.de info@dw-akademie.de www.facebook.com/DWAkademie

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