Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine Park - Marine Parks ...

Naturalvalues of theSolitary IslandsMarine Park

Published by: Marine Parks Authority New South WalesRecommended citation: Marine Parks Authority 2008, Natural values of the SolitaryIslands Marine ParkAvailable from: Solitary Islands Marine Park or www.mpa.nsw.gov.auPh: (02) 6652 0900Email: solitary.islands@mpa.nsw.gov.auResearch into ecosystems, habitats and species in the marine park is ongoing, so thisdocument will be updated to incorporate new, relevant information.Scientific and common names are used in this report to identify species. Wherereaders are likely to be more familiar with the common name of a species, only thecommon name is provided. Where the scientific name is more informative, or thereis no common name, only the scientific name is provided. Where a combination ofcommon names and scientific names will add value to the report, both are provided.© Copyright State of NSW and NSW Marine Parks Authority 2008The NSW Marine Parks Authority is pleased to allow this material to be reproduced inwhole or in part, provided the meaning is unchanged and its source, publisher andauthorship are acknowledged.AcknowledgementsThis document was prepared by the NSW Marine Parks Authority. The habitat mapswere developed from data generated by the Department of Environment andClimate Change NSW and NSW Department of Primary Industries. Thanks to externalcontributors Steve Smith, Richard Taffs, and Bob Edgar.Thanks to the following individuals and agencies for supplying the photographs in thereport:David Harasti – all photos on cover and photo on reverse of contents page; Figures 19,21–26, 29, 45, 47, 50; Roger Dwyer and Associates Mapping Consultants – Figure 37; IanShaw – Figures 10, 18; Ray Faggoter – Figure 46; Brett Vercoe, MPA – Figures 5, 9, 12,25, 30, 31, 34, 35; Daniella Marks, MPA – Figures 32, 33; David Greenhalgh, MPA – Figure36; Toby Waters, MPA – Figure 48; Hamish Malcolm, MPA – Figures: 7, 8, 16, 27, 28, 39,41–44, 49; Paul Reebuck, MPA – Figure 38.DECC 2008/112ISBN 978 1 74122 754 3March 2008Printed on recycled paper

ContentsGlossary1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11.1 About the marine park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11.2 Plants and animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11.3 Purpose of this document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 Physical environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42.1 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42.2 Ocean currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42.3 Broad-scale bathymetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72.4 Geology and geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 Ecosystems and habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104 Ocean ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124.1 Subtidal rocky reef habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124.1.1 Inshore reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144.1.2 Mid-shelf reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154.1.3 Shallow offshore reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.1.4 Intermediate offshore reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.1.5 Deep offshore reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.1.6 Mobile fauna of rocky reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.2 Subtidal soft-sediment habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214.3 Rocky intertidal habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.4 Ocean beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Estuarine ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265.1 Seagrasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.2 Mangroves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295.3 Saltmarsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305.4 Soft-sediment unvegetated habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Pelagic ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327 Other marine species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337.1 Sharks and rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337.2 Marine mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337.3 Marine reptiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347.4 Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347.5 Threatened, protected, rare and endemic species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Glossaryascidian: sea-squirtamphipod: crustacean with a compressed body and no protective shell-like coveringassemblage: a community of species occupying a particular habitat or areabarrier lagoon: a large lagoon with great variations in salinity, and a high diversity ofmarine and brackish water plantsbathymetry: depth of the seabedbenthic: living on the seabedbioregion: an ecologically-based area characterised by natural features andenvironmental processes that influence the functioning of ecosystemsbivalve: mollusc with two shells such as an oyster, mussel or clambryozoan: small aquatic animals that are usually grouped together in a mat or corallikecolony, such as sea-mats and lace coralchert: silica containing quartzchiton: mollusc that lives on rock and has a shell consisting of eight overlappingcalcareous platesconsolidated habitat: seabed habitat consisting primarily of rocky reefcoralline algae: algae with a coral-like, calcareous outer coveringdecapod: crustacean such as a shrimp or crab with ten legs, each one joined to thethorax, or a mollusc such as a squid or cuttlefish with ten tentaclesecosystem: a dynamic combination of plants, animals and micro-organiccommunities and their environment interacting as a functional unitechinoderm: marine invertebrate, such as a starfish or sea urchin, with an internalcalcareous skeleton and often spinesfoliose algae: leafy algae with fronds and a holdfast which attaches itself to theseabed or a rockfoliose coral: coral with a skeleton like a broad, flattened plategastropod: a class of mollusc, including snails, that has a shell with one valve and amuscular footgorgonian: coral with flexible, often branching, skeletongreywacke: hardened sandstonehabitat: a specific environment inhabited permanently or temporarily by plants,animals and organisms and based on factors such as substrate type and amount oftidal exposureholothurian: sea cucumberhydrozoa: a class of multi-cellular animals such as blue-bottle jellyfishinfauna: fauna living in the sedimentisopod: type of small crustacean with a flattened body and seven pairs of legs, suchas sea lice

littorinid snails: species of mollusc characterised by thick walled, turban-shapedshells that mostly live in the intertidal zonemacroalgae: large aquatic photosynthetic plants such as kelp that can be seenwithout a microscopemacrofauna: animals visible to the naked eyemeiofauna: very small animals which live within sand and which are from 63 micronsto 1 millimetre long.mesopelagic species: species living underwater at depths of between 180 and900 metresoctocorals: a subclass of sedentary, colonial corals with polyps that always have eighttentacles, such as sea fanspelagic: associated with the surface or middle depths of the open seaplankton: microscopic animals or plants that drift in the seapolychaete: segmented marine worms with bristles along the bodyquartzose: material resembling or containing quartzsessile: attached by the base, generally to the seabedsiliceous argillite: metamorphic rock containing silicasurrogates: components related to biological diversity that are more easily measuredor mapped than biological diversity itselfturbite: fossilisedunconsolidated habitat: seabed habitat consisting primarily of soft sedimentssuch as sand or mudurchin barren: area where populations of sea urchins have overgrazed kelp bedszoanthid: invertebrate which incorporates sand or other small pieces of material intoits structure, such as types of coral or sea anenome

1 Introduction1.1 About the marine parkThe Solitary Islands Marine Park was declared on 2 January 1998 under the MarineParks Act 1997. Before this it was a marine reserve, initially declared in May 1991 underthe Fisheries and Oyster Farms Act 1935. The marine park extends for 75 km fromMuttonbird Island in the south to Plover Island in the north, and from the mean highwater mark and upper tidal limits of coastal estuaries to the limit of the NSW Statewaters (Figure 1). It covers an area of approximately 71,000 hectares of estuarine andmarine habitats.There are five main islands in the marine park; North Solitary Island, North WestSolitary Island, South West Solitary Island (Groper Island), South Solitary Island and SplitSolitary Island. Other significant rocky outcrops and submerged reefs are dispersedthroughout the marine park.The Solitary Islands Marine Park caters for many different recreational and commercialactivities, including beach walking, swimming, surfing, other beach activities,commercial and recreational fishing, scuba diving, whale and dolphin watching,research, boating and other water sports. Revenue generated from the local fishingand tourism industries benefits the region economically, and is a valuable asset to thecommunity. The Marine Park is culturally important to local Aboriginal communities,with many significant cultural and spiritual sites located within or adjacent to theMarine Park.The Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (Commonwealth waters) is adjacent to theSolitary Islands Marine Park (state waters) (Figure 1). The Commonwealth Reservewas proclaimed a marine reserve in 1993 under the Commonwealth National Parksand Wildlife Conservation Act 1975, and is now managed under the CommonwealthEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. The CommonwealthReserve extends from the state boundary to the 50-metre depth contour, and sharesnorthern and southern boundaries with the state marine park.A management plan for the Commonwealth Solitary Islands Marine Reserve cameinto effect in April 2001. For the purposes of this document ‘the marine park’ refers tothe combined Solitary Islands Marine Park (NSW) and Solitary Islands Marine Reserve(Commonwealth).The extensive terrestrial Yuraygir National Park that adjoins the northern section ofthe marine park contains several important intermittently closed and open lakes andlagoons (ICOLLS) and barrier lagoons which are some of the most pristine waterwaysin NSW.1.2 Plants and animalsThe marine park contains a diverse range of habitats including intertidal and subtidalreefs, soft sediments, beaches, seagrass beds, mangroves, saltmarsh and open waterswhich all support distinct groups of plants and animals. As the park extends fromthe high tide mark to at least 70 metres deep and 20 kilometres offshore in someareas, there is considerable diversity in flora and fauna. Such diversity is due to thevariations in depth, various dominant sessile assemblages (communities of speciesattached by their base to the seabed), oceanographic influences and the presence of

2 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine Parkoffshore islands. These factors have resulted in a unique environment where tropical,subtropical and temperate marine fauna and flora co-exist.Reef habitats, in particular, are very diverse. Swath-mapping of these habitats hasrevealed considerable details of their extent, distribution and structure, and indicatedthat there are large areas of complex reef at depths of more than 25 metres in boththe northern and southern ends of the marine park. There are some distinct patternsin the distribution of sessile assemblages, with corals tending to be dominant onreefs more than 1.5 to 2.5 kilometres from the coast and less than 25 metres deep.At depths greater than 25 metres, the sea bottom is dominated by sponges andinvertebrates including stalked ascidians (sea-squirts), sea-whips, gorgonians (coralswith flexible, often branching, skeletons), hydrozoans (multi-cellular animals such asblue-bottles, in which the cells are derived from two layers) and black coral.Figure 1.Extent of Solitary IslandsMarine Park and SolitaryIslands Marine Reserve.

Introduction 3Inshore reefs (those less than 1.5 kilometres from the shore) are characterised byabundant macroalgae, dominated by the kelp Ecklonia radiata, and various species ofSargassum and Caulerpa, with an understorey of coralline algae (algae with a coral-like,calcareous outer covering) and foliose algae (leafy algae with fronds and a holdfastwhich attaches itself to the seabed or a rock). Sponges and other sessile invertebratescan also occur on shallow reefs, but are not generally dominant. There are also strongcross-shelf differences in reef fish assemblages, with the number of tropical speciesand overall reef fish diversity increasing offshore.Mobile invertebrates are highly diverse, with more than 700 species of molluscs (snailsand shellfish) alone, recorded in the marine park. The overall number of these species islikely to be much higher as they are often inconspicuous, through being camouflaged,living in the reef matrix, being nocturnal, or being very small, and many groups havenot yet been systematically sampled.The region also supports more than 150 species of algae, 90 species of coral and over530 species of reef fish. About 12% of these fish species are endemic to the east coastof Australia, with about 5% endemic to the subtropical region of the east coast.Some fishes are threatened or protected, some have high conservation value due totheir endemism or their ecological role, and some are valued by fishers. Mammals,reptiles and birds are also a distinct part of the fauna, being permanent residents,seasonal visitors, or individuals just passing through.For more information on the physical and ecological values, particularly the biologicaldiversity of the region, see Rule et al 2007.1.3 Purpose of this documentThe purpose of this document is to consolidate information regarding the physicaland ecological values of Solitary Islands Marine Park, particularly new informationacquired since the zoning plan was introduced in 2002. This publication is one ofseveral documents that will be considered by the public during the review of thezoning plan in 2008. It provides information on the natural values of the marine park,so the public can consider these and contribute to discussion about current zoningarrangements. It complements a report on the social, cultural and economic usesof the marine park that has also been developed for reference during the reviewof zoning. It is envisaged that this document will be updated as new informationbecomes available.

2 Physical environment2.1 ClimateThe Solitary Islands Marine Park is situated on the north coast of NSW. The climateis subtropical, with average air temperatures ranging from 13.9°C in winter to 23.2°Cin summer. Easterly trade winds are dominant and regulate the temperature fromSeptember to March, providing warm humid conditions (Zann 2000a). Average rainfallfor the area is 1700 millimetres, with most rainfall occurring between December andMay (Copeland et al 1993).Figure 2.Sea surface temperatureimage of the NSW andsouthern Queenslandregion in January, showingthe EAC influence inthe marine park. Imagetaken 19 September1991, Copyright 1999,CSIRO Division of MarineResearch, Hobart.Coffs Harbour2.2 Ocean currentsThe oceanography of the region’s shelf waters is determined by a combinationof large-scale oceanographic circulation, local wind stress and bathymetry(underwater depth). It is dominated by the warm, stratified, nutrient-poor waterof the East Australian Current (EAC), and cooler, well-mixed water from the south.The EAC brings tropical and subtropical waters down from the Coral Sea, GreatBarrier Reef and southern Queensland into the more temperate areas of thecontinental shelf (Zann 2000b).Sea surface temperature images indicate that thewarm waters of the EAC generally dominate thewaters of the marine park, particularly those on themid and outer continental shelf, between Januaryand March. During the cooler months, the marinepark is dominated by cooler inshore currents,although these can also occur in summer due toupwelling (Zann 2000b).The influence of the EAC often extends onto thecoast, creating a southward flowing current inshore(Figure 2). The presence of the EAC near the coastfrequently results in complex currents downstreamof headlands and reefs, and cooler northwardflowingcounter currents.In the marine park, annual maximum and minimumsea temperatures range from about 17°C duringwinter to 27°C during summer (Malcolm 2007),although slightly lower and higher values have beenrecorded in some years, mostly due to variations inthe dominance of the EAC.Sites near the shore such as Muttonbird Island havea lower annual average sea temperature (about20.9°C) than offshore sites such as North SolitaryIsland (about 21.8°C). During summer, the watertemperature at North Solitary Island is on averageabout 0.5–1°C warmer than the water temperatureat North West Solitary Island, and 1–1.5°C warmerthan at inshore sites (Figure 3), although thetemperature differences are reduced slightlyover winter.

Physical environment 5Sea temperature also decreases with depth. A difference in average temperature ofabout 1°C was recorded between the depths of 22 metres and 27 metres at NorthSolitary Island over a five-month period. This difference was consistent over summerand winter (Figure 4). The difference in temperature from depths of 5 metres to 22metres was about 0.5°C, based on data from temperature loggers deployed at 5-metreintervals and recording temperature every 30 minutes (Figure 5).At all sites, temperatures can vary significantly in short time spans. Fluctuationsin temperature may be as extreme as 4.5°C in one day (Figure 6). Temperaturefluctuations are generally greater during summer when temperatures are warmer, andreflect the variable nature of the EAC. The high level of temperature fluctuations islikely to influence the structure of both pelagic communities (i.e. species living in openoceans rather than waters near the shore or inland waters) and benthic communities(i.e. species living on the bottom of the sea) in the region.Ocean waves reaching the mid-NSW coast tend tobe generated from the south-east to the east, andare strongly influenced by low pressure systemsin the Tasman Sea. There are occasional easterly tonorth-easterly cyclonic swells during summer.Wind-driven continental shelf waves are a primarysource of current variability in the area (Zann 2000a,Rule et al 2007).Figure 3.Average daily seatemperature (fromtemperatures recordedevery 30 minutes) forthree cross-shelf positions– inshore (less than 1.5kilometres from theshore), midshore (1.5 to 6kilometres from the shore)and offshore (more than 6kilometres from the shore)– from December 2000 toAugust 2006.Figure 4.Sea temperature from different depths atNorth Solitary Island, 2007,recorded every 30 minutes.

6 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkFigure 5.Deploying a hydrophonelistening station and a seatemperature logger.Figure 6.An example of dailyvariation in seatemperature (NorthSolitary Island 8/3/02 and9/3/02), showing a 4.5 o Cdifference in less than24 hours, for temperaterecorded every 30 minutes.Currents vary on a range of temporal and spatial scales. Fluctuations over a few daysto weeks occur in response to the passage of weather systems, with water circulationin sheltered inshore waters often dominated by tides and local winds. Broader regionalfluctuations over months occur in response to seasonal and large-scale changes inoceanography. These changes are superimposed on longer-term cycles such as ElNino, or on decadal-scale cycles.There is considerable variation in the exposure of the coastline to swells in some areas,due to its complex shape and the presence of shallow offshore reefs. The obliqueaction of predominant southerly swells hitting the coast can also set up a northwardsweep around the headlands and along the beaches. This current is responsible fortransporting sediment northward along the northern NSW coast.Based on long-term data collected from three Waverider buoys located offshore innorthern NSW, there is little variation in mean monthly wave height across the year,with the highest mean wave height occurring in March (1.8 metres at Byron Bay)and the lowest in December (1.4 metres at CoffsHarbour). However, large waves over 4 metres highare more common in winter, with wave directionusually from the south-east through to the east.Occasionally, a north-east swell can result fromintense low pressure systems forming locally in theCoral Sea (Figure 7).Tides are semi-diurnal, with a maximum tidal rangeof 2 metres (Middleton 1996). Low tides of lessthan 0.3 metres generally occur during night-timein winter and during the afternoon in summer(Figure 8).

Physical environment 72.3 Broad-scale bathymetryThe marine park has a complex bathymetry, whichreflects the presence of numerous coastal andoffshore reefs and islands. Overall, the water in themarine park is relatively shallow, being 50 metresdeep or less. Inshore and mid-shelf islands, includingSplit Solitary Island, South West Solitary Island andNorth West Solitary Island, are generally locatedalong the 20-metre depth contour. However, theoffshore islands of North Solitary Island and SouthSolitary Island are closer to the 40-metre depthcontour. These outer islands are shallower on theirwestern and north-western sides, and are deeperwith more dramatic drop-offs on their eastern andsouth-eastern sides (Figure 11).2.4 Geology and geomorphologyThe geological formations of the marine park are mostly derived from marinesediments of the Coffs Harbour Sequence. This sequence is of late Carboniferous ageand is approximately 350–280 million years old (Korsch 1980). The rocks have beenfolded and metamorphosed into a turbite (i.e. fossilised) sequence of greywacke (i.eindurated sandstone) and chert (i.e. silica containing quartz) (Korsch 1980) (Figure 9).To the north of Coffs Harbour is a zone of rocks known as the Coramba Beds. Thesebeds also contain greywacke, and were laid down as deep oceanic sediments as theyflowed off the continental shelf following earthquakes. They consist of alternatingbands of sand and mud which have been heated and pressurised into siliceousargillite (i.e. metamorphic rock containing silica), mudstone and sandstone. NorthSolitary Island, which is situated in the Coramba Bed zone, is atypical of other islandsbecause sandstone is virtually absent (Copeland et al 1993).Rocks on the islands and headlands generally range from north to south, parallel tothe coast. Weathering and erosion have selectively removed softer strata, leaving moreresilient rocky outcrops (Mau 1997), and resulting in the formation of swim-throughsand gutters underwater (Figure 10). These occur especially on the eastern side ofislands, due to wave action, and include E-gutters at North West Solitary Island.Figure 7.Storm waves smashingover the north breakwaterwall of Coffs HarbourMarina.Figure 8.Exposed sandflat,Corindi River.

8 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkFigure 9.Resistant layers of rockstrata in a fossilisedsequence of induratedsandstone.Figure 10.A swim-through and gutterformation on a shallowrocky reef.Throughout the Coffs Harbour area, hard metamorphosed slates jut out over muchof the seabed from Sawtell to Brooms Head. These slates form numerous submergedreefs, washes and emergent islands, islets and rocks, including the five main islands inthe Solitary Islands group and at least 10 smaller islets and rocks (e.g. North-west Rock).These outcrops are a seaward extension of the adjacent coastal range, which has astrong influence on the coastline of the marine park.Variations in sea level have also influenced the geomorphology of the marine park,with the sea level being considerably lower during the last glacial period around20,000–15,000 years ago. Different erosionaland depositional forces acted on the rocks andsediments of this area during that time. A linear reef,paralleling the coastline in places, occurs at a depthof about 60 metres, and this may be a previouscoastline (paleocoastline).The coastal streams and rivers immediately adjacentto the marine park are very short due to theproximity of the coastal range, and this shortnessinfluences sediment rates and inputs.Shelf sediments in the area consist mainly ofmaterial from rivers and streams, relic quartzose(i.e. material resembling or containing quartz) andcarbonate rich sands (Zann 2000a). The structureof the ocean beaches is strongly influenced bywave exposure, resulting in sand bars, troughsand gutters, and rip channels that are frequentlychanging (Short 2003) (Figure 12). While the seabedmorphological zones can be defined by differencesin slope, relief and distance from the shore, apartfrom the bedrock areas they are dominated by sand.The wide distribution of sand throughout the innercontinental shelf reflects the absence of coastalsediments finer than sand; high-energy, strong tidalcurrents; and oceanic swells (Boyd et al 2004).

Physical environment 9Figure 11.Available broad-scalebathymetry of themarine park.Figure 12. Beach showing inshore gutter formation.

3 Ecosystems and habitatsBiological diversity can be described and classified at a number of levels, andinformation about the spatial distribution of biodiversity at most levels is very limited.The Integrated Marine and Coastal Regionalisation of Australia (IMCRA v4.0) is a spatialframework for classifying Australia’s marine environment into bioregions that areecologically based and are at a scale useful for regional planning (Commonwealthof Australia 2006). They are based on collated data and inferred patterns across avariety of spatial scales and assist in the description of ecosystem boundaries andprovide a framework for subsequent finer levels of planning and management. Thisbuilds on the inshore regionalisation (IMCRA v3.3) which defined bioregions using arange of biological and physical information (ANZECC TFMPA 1998a). This hierarchicalclassification has been used by all governments in Australia to develop a NationalRepresentative System of Marine Protected Areas (ANZECC TFMPA 1998b).Further classification of estuarine and ocean environments can be applied at thefollowing levels:• ecosystem: a dynamic combination of plant and animal communities and theirenvironment interacting as a functional unit;• habitat: a specific type of environment inhabited permanently or temporarily byorganisms, and based on factors such as substrate type and tidal exposure;• community: a number of species occupying a particular habitat or area;• estimated distributions and abundances of species and populations.Physical parameters such as ocean currents, climate, bathymetry and coastalgeomorphology result in the formation of many types of marine ecosystems, whichsupport a variety of habitats, communities and populations of animals and plants.These ecosystems are interconnected as species move between them and currentspass in and out of the marine park, transporting larvae, sediments and nutrients. Theecosystems can be broadly split into oceanic and estuarine ecosystems, which arefurther divided into smaller units based primarily on the dominant geomorphology,aquatic vegetation, benthos or depth, and distance offshore.The most distinct separation of assemblages occurs between habitats which are:• consolidated: that is, made up of rocky reef;• unconsolidated: soft-sediment that generally consists of mostly sand, silt or mud.Unconsolidated habitats can be further divided based on the presence or absenceof vegetation cover (e.g. seagrass), sediment size and composition, the dominantseagrass species and the spatial structure. Such separation recognises that differentspecies of seagrass, or those of varying density, often contain different assemblages offish (Rotherham and West 2002) and invertebrates (Webster et al 1998).The distribution and structure of consolidated habitats can vary widely, primarilydue to differences in rock type and size (e.g. boulders), complexity (e.g. gutters, walls,pinnacles) and patchiness.As detailed spatial information on the distribution of many individual species islimited in the marine park, ecosystems and habitats are used as ‘surrogates’ for speciesdiversity in the planning process. Surrogates are components shown or assumed to berelated to biological diversity that are more easily measured or more capable of beingmapped than species diversity itself. The distribution and measures of biodiversity areinferred from the distribution and measures of surrogates.

Ecosystems and habitats 11There is evidence that the use of habitats as surrogates for species diversity iseffective, provided they are validated (Ward et al 1999) and all representative habitatsare included (Roff et al 2003). However, the effectiveness of habitat classification asa surrogate for biodiversity will depend, to some extent, on how well it representspatterns of biodiversity (Gladstone 2007). To improve the likelihood that habitats arerepresented in appropriate marine park zones, and to facilitate discussion of possiblelocations based on the inclusion of other planning criteria, seabed habitat maps havebeen developed from several sources.Firstly, unconsolidated vegetated habitats in the estuaries of the marine park weremapped using ground-truthed aerial photographs as part of the NSW ComprehensiveCoastal Assessment (West et al 2006).Island boundaries were based on the Australian Maritime Boundaries InformationSystem provided by Geoscience Australia. Shallow inshore reefs were digitised fromaerial photographs provided by the then NSW Department of Land and WaterConservation (now Department of Environment and Climate Change NSW) (seeBreen et al 2004). Many offshore reefs were digitised from contours on AustralianHydrographic Office 1:150,000 charts and from reefs identified along transects inMau et al (1998).To expand the available information on the distribution of subtidal marine habitatsin the marine waters of the SIMP, a seabed swath-mapping program was instigatedin late 2004. A bathymetric sidescan sonar that collected geo-referenced depth andsidescan backscatter data generated high resolution bathymetric and backscattermosaics of the seafloor. The swath width of the instrument was mostly around 160–200 metres depending on water depth and sea conditions. The information on depthand sediment roughness and texture was used to develop habitat maps of rocky reefand unconsolidated areas in the marine park.As at June 2007, around 115 km 2 of seabed in the marine park had been swathmapped. The areas targeted were a combination of reefs of particular interest (e.g.40 Acres Reef), continuous reefs around selected islands, sanctuary zone areas withunknown seabed habitats types, and areas where there was some evidence ofdeeper reefs.

4 Ocean ecosystemsConsolidated areas consisting of bedrock identified above the seabed, andunconsolidated areas primarily consisting of sand, have been identified. Theseareas have been further divided in order to better reflect the spatial patterns ofbiodiversity in the marine park. As depth is an important determinant of the dominantassemblages on rocky reefs (Edgar 1984, Barrett et al 2001), it is important that depthis considered in the classification of habitats. As there is a lack of detailed biologicaldata about ocean ecosystems, the continental shelf has been divided into three depthzones: shallow (0–25 metres), intermediate (25–60 metres) and deep (over 60 metres)for marine park planning purposes.These depth zones were applied to reef habitats defined through the swath-mappingto assess the distribution of shallow, intermediate and deep rocky reef throughout themarine park. The division at 25 metres is based primarily on changes in the dominantreef assemblages at this depth (e.g. from coral to sponge-dominated assemblages),and data showing a regular change in sea temperature at around 25 metres deep.4.1 Subtidal rocky reef habitatThere are extensive subtidal rocky reefs throughout the marine park, and while manyof these are adjacent to the mainland and the offshore islands, other reefs are presentas discrete subtidal features (Figure 13). While the swath-mapping has revealedconsiderably more rocky reef throughout the marine park than was defined from thebroad-scale bathymetry, the location and extent of all subtidal reefs has not beenmapped, particularly those in depths greater than 20 metres.In many areas, the swath-mapping identified reef located considerable distancesoffshore. This is particularly evident on the eastern and southern sides of SouthSolitary Island, where reef extends several kilometres offshore of the island, muchof it being at depths of 25–60 metres (Figure 13). There is also extensive reef offthe coastline between Corindi and Wooli Wooli rivers. Reefs in the Minnie Water toSandon area are also more extensive and complex than previously identified.The high resolution of the swath bathymetric data has also revealed considerablevariations in the geomorphic structure (e.g. in boulders, gutters, walls and pinnacles)and patchiness of reefs, often within the same continuous reef system (Figs. 14 and15). This variability in reef complexity is likely to influence the diversity of species inthe region, as reef complexity can significantly influence diversity and assemblages(Harman et al 2003).Overall, the rocky reefs throughout the marine park contain a mix of tropical,subtropical and temperate benthic assemblages, reflecting latitudinal and cross-shelfgradients of water temperatures and ocean currents (Zann 2000a). From reef-fishdiversity surveys carried out across the marine park (Malcolm unpubl. data), and basedon surveys and observations of benthic communities (e.g. Harriott et al 1994, Mau1997, Mau et al 1998, Smith and Edgar 1999), rocky reefs in the marine park can beseparated into three groups based on general distance offshore, depth and dominantbenthic community. These are:• inshore reefs – those less than 1.5 kilometres from the shore, containing shallow reefsless than 25 metres deep;• mid-shelf reefs – those around 1.5 to 6 kilometres offshore, containing shallow andintermediate reefs less than 60 metres deep;• offshore reefs – those more than 6 kilometres offshore containing shallow andintermediate reefs, and deep reefs over 60 metres deep.

Ocean ecosystems 13These classifications are based on information current as at February 2008, and arelikely to be refined over time as further mapping and video surveys are conducted.Ongoing detailed video and sediment ground-truthing surveys in the marine parkwill allow maps of reef habitats to be based more on ecological characteristics. Suchmaps will improve understanding of the spatial distribution of benthic and otherfaunal assemblages on the continental shelf, especially in the deeper sections of themarine park.Figure 13.Map of known seabedhabitats in the marine park.

14 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkFigure 14.High resolutionbathymetric image of theseabed of 40 Acres Reef(Sidney Shoals) in themarine park.4.1.1 Inshore reefsThere are inshore reefs in much of the marine park, mainly adjacent to headlands thatalso contain intertidal rocky shores. Large inshore reefs occur between Jordans Creekand Moonee Creek, between Woolgoolga Headland and Arrawarra Headland, andbetween Station Creek and Wooli Wooli River. Smaller areas of reef occur adjacent toother headlands and intertidal platforms (Figure 13). Reefs closer to shore are morecommon in the southern half of the marine park.Like most shallow inshore reefs in NSW, reefs in the marine park are characterisedby abundant macroalgae (Millar 1990, 1998), dominated by the kelp Ecklonia radiata(Figure 16), and various species of Sargassum and Caulerpa (Smith and Simpson 1991a,Harriott et al 1994, Mau et al 1998). They generally contain an understorey of corallinealgae and a diverse range of foliose algae, including species of Zonaria, Rhodymeniaand Ulva (Kennelly 1995, Edgar 1997). There are also sponges and sessile invertebrates(those that attach themselves to the seabed or other species) on shallow reefs, butthese are not generally the dominant assemblages.The species composition of algal assemblages is determined primarily by depth,exposure to swell, distance offshore and patterns of recruitment and grazing, andtherefore varies within and between reefs. Generally, throughout the marine parkthe cover of larger macroalgae decreases with distance offshore (Harriott et al 1994).However, at any one particular site, there may be zonation (particular distributions ofspecies in zones).Barnacles and solitary ascidians (sea squirts), such as the pyurids Herdmania momusand cunjevoi Pyura stolonifera, can also be dominant on shallow exposed reefs, as canareas of bare rock with microalgal communities. Corals do occur on these reefs butprimarily as a small component of the understorey assemblage. Some inshore reefshave specific values that are significant to the region. For example, the reefs fringingMuttonbird Island have high algal diversity, with occurrences of two rare endemicalgae species Valeriemaya maculata and Baldockia verticellata (Millar pers. comm.).

Ocean ecosystems 154.1.2 Mid-shelf reefsMid-shelf reefs occur extensively throughout the marine park, including fringingreefs around three of the main islands in the Solitary Islands Group – Split SolitaryIsland, South West Solitary Island and North West Solitary Island – and numerousfully submerged reefs (Figure 13). Many mid-shelf reefs are less than 25 metres deep,although several reefs, particularly on the eastern side of the mid-shelf region, aredeeper. Given the limited swath-mapping of mid-shelf habitats in the marine park, it islikely that there is much more reef than is represented in Figure 13. Mid-shelf reefs thathave been mapped include:• full subtidal reefs (e.g. 40 Acres Reef – also known as Sidney Shoals);• island-associated reefs (e.g. around South West Solitary Island, also known as GroperIsland).The 40 Acres Reef consists of a continuous central reef area, surrounded by a large areaof patchy reef with a lower profile and level of complexity (Figs. 14 and 15). Most of thereef is shallow, extending into intermediate depths only to the south and east. Anotherlarge mid-shelf subtidal reef system, that is considerably more extensive than indicatedfrom earlier mapping, occurs between Station Creek and the Wooli Wooli River, withshallow reef on the western side extending into intermediate depths further east.A large area of continuous shallow reef surrounds South West Solitary Island. Furthereast and south-east, the reef extends into intermediate depths and becomesincreasingly patchy. Shallow, mid-shelf reef systems are also present around SplitSolitary Island and North West Solitary Island.Benthic habitats around several mid-shelf islands have been mapped at a fine scale,including at Split Solitary, South West Solitary and North West Solitary islands (Smithand Edgar 1999). Islands are fringed by a range of different reef habitats, includingthose dominated by coral, kelp, boulders, gravel, algae and urchin barrens (areas wherepopulations of sea urchins have overgrazed kelp beds) (Smith and Edgar 1999). HabitatFigure 15.Three-dimensionalbathymetric image of theseabed at 40 Acres Reef,looking westward.

16 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkFigure 16.Shallow inshore Eckloniadominated reef.Figure 17.Average percentage ofhard coral cover at 16sites on mid-shelf reefssurveyed in 2002, 2004 and2006.diversity is greatest round North West Solitary Islandand coral cover is highest round Split Solitary Islandand South West Solitary Island.As benthic assemblages are influenced by exposureto waves and currents, corals and other fragileassemblages generally have greater densities on themore sheltered western and north-western sidesof the islands. However, as the islands are small, noarea is fully sheltered, and the same aspect at twodifferent islands can contain very different dominantsessile assemblages (Smith and Edgar 1999). Despitefine-scale differences in the distribution of the mainhabitat types such as kelp and coral, most habitatsare generally present around each island. However,the species in each habitat type round each islandare somewhat different.Coral cover on these mid-shelf reefs varies betweenand within sites, and between reefs over time(Figure 17) (Malcolm unpubl. data). This is mostlikely due to variability in natural processes such asgrowth, recruitment, competition and predation.Other influences include mortality due to bleachingand disease, storm removal of coral, and possiblylocalised competition with spreading corallimorphs(species that resemble coral but do not have askeleton and have tentacles, often in radiating rows)at some sites. It is not clear if or by how much theseprocesses are influenced by human activity.A spreading coral disease, recently termed Subtropical White Syndrome (Dalton et al2007), that can kill Turbinaria spp. and Acropora solitaryensis in particular, is present in themarine park (Dalton 2003) (Figure 18). A reduction in coral cover at South West SolitaryIsland during 2002 was partly due to this disease (Edgar et al 2003).The coral assemblages in the marine park are formed as a veneer over rock (Figure 19).Although these can be relatively diverse – 91 hard coral species have been recorded inthe marine park – and can have a high percentage of cover (e.g. the mean coral coverat Chopper Rock is about 45%), carbonate reef-building by corals and other carbonateproducing plants and animals does not occur in the marine park.Settlement patterns of mobile invertebrates aroundNorth West Solitary Island are highly variable overdifferent spatial scales, and consistently differfrom those around the offshore islands. Samplesfrom North West Solitary Island are dominatedby an assemblage of polychaetes (segmentedmarine worms) and bivalve molluscs, with thebivalve Hiatella australis, in particular, being highlyabundant. Although a few species are mostlyresponsible for differences in the spatial patterns,many rare species also contribute to the overalldiversity of the area (Rule and Smith 2005). Thereare also seasonal patterns in species recruitment

Ocean ecosystems 17which are similar from year to year. It appears that,for many species, a large proportion of recruits arisefrom a localised source (Rule 2004).Very little is known about the benthic assemblagesat intermediate depths on mid-shelf reefs in themarine park, as few surveys have been conducted.The few sites surveyed by Mau et al (1998) andFitzpatrick (2003) suggested that reefs which areapproximately 30 metres deep support encrustingand turfing algae, sponges with a range ofmorphologies (elongate, encrusting, branching),stalked ascidians, hydrozoans, bryozoans, seawhips,black coral and gorgonian sea-fans. Furtherinformation on the diversity of invertebrates in theregion is presented in Rule et al 2007.4.1.3 Shallow offshore reefsShallow reefs occur adjacent to all offshore islands in the marine park, including NorthSolitary Island, North West Rock and South Solitary Island (Figure 13). Most shallowreefs adjacent to North Solitary Island occur as a narrow fringe around the island,although there is a ridge that extends south of the island and an extensive area of reefon the northern end that extends north through to North-West Rock (Figure 13). Thearea of shallow reef is greater around South Solitary Island, extending several hundredmetres offshore around much of the island. A smaller area of shallow reef is alsolocated north-west of the island.On the more exposed eastern side of these islands and reefs, coral diversity and coveris often reduced and communities are dominated by species such as filamentousturfing algae and large ascidians such as Herdmania momus and Pyurastolonifera (Smith and Edgar 1999). Denser coral and anemone assemblages arecommonly located on the western and northern sides of the islands (NSW MarineParks Authority 2000). These include the dense aggregation of host anemones atAnemone Bay on the northern end of North Solitary Island, which has the highestdensity of host anemones recorded in the southern hemisphere (Richardson 1996,Richardson et al 1997).In general, the richness of coral species increases in an offshore direction, and thenorthern islands generally support a higher cover of coral and a lower cover ofturfing and calcareous algae than the southernislands (Veron et al 1974, Smith and Simpson 1991a,Veron 1993, Harriott et al 1994). There is a trendtowards tropical coral species in offshore areas andsubtropical to temperate species on inshore sites(Wilson 1998).The greatest diversity occurs at North Solitary Island,where 43 species have been recorded, althoughsome of these are ephemeral (Harriott et al 1994).Compared to more tropical areas, soft corals areless abundant here, being replaced by a mixedinvertebrate assemblage of solitary ascidians,barnacles and other sessile, suspension-feedingspecies.Figure 18.Spreading coral disease inthe marine park. Recentmortality is indicated bythe white band.Figure 19.Corals attached to therocky reef.

18 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkShallow benthic assemblages around North andSouth Solitary islands differ greatly. South SolitaryIsland has a higher cover of foliose coral (coralwith a skeleton like a broad, flattened plate) andcompound ascidians, and a lower cover of largeanemones, zoanthids, algae and soft coral (Smithand Edgar 1999). The mobile benthic invertebratesthat occur round these islands also differ (Rule andSmith 2005).Figure 20.Massive sponge.Figure 21.Spindle cowrie shell onsponge.4.1.4 Intermediate offshore reefsSwath-mapping has revealed considerable areas ofreef at intermediate depths in the offshore region ofthe marine park (Figure 13). Much of this occurs on the eastern side of South SolitaryIsland and western side of North Solitary Island. The coarse-scale bathymetry alsoidentifies a large area of reef several kilometres east of North West Solitary Island,associated with Wrights Reef and Woolgoolga Wash.In the NSW waters of the marine park, the extent of the intermediate reefs is greatestadjacent to South Solitary Island, with a large number of individual patches of reefextending to at least 3 kilometres east of the island.A large area covering about 10 kilometres by 5 kilometres at the northern endof the marine park also contains extensive intermediate reefs, including at leastfour individual continuous reefs that are at least 1 kilometre long, and numerouspatchy reefs that are generally less than 200 metres long. Reefs are separated byunconsolidated sediments that, from preliminary surveys, appear to be coarse sands.Most of these reefs are in the Solitary Islands Marine Reserve (Commonwealth Waters)(Figure 13). A towed video survey of the benthic environment in the marine reserveidentified five types of reef habitat: three types of patchy reef, continuous reef, andpinnacle reef (The Ecology Lab 2006).Many reefs more than 25 metres deep contain mixed ‘sponge gardens’. These aremade up of a community of sessile filter feeders that, as well as sponges, containinvertebrates such as stalked ascidians, black corals, hydrozoans, gorgonians,anemones, soft corals and bryzoans, in various stages of growth. Many of thesespecies also occur on shallow reefs where walls, overhangs and caves providesuitable habitat, or as part of the understorey beneath macroalgae. Very little isknown about the diversity of sponges, although at least 100 species of sponge arelikely to occur along the central coast of NSW, in shapes ranging from encrusting tomassive erect structures (Roberts and Davis 1996) (Figure 20).4.1.5 Deep offshore reefsOnly a small amount of deep rocky reef over 60metres deep has been mapped in the marine park,primarily east of North and South Solitary islands(Figure 13). Little is known about these deep reefs,but benthic assemblages are likely to be dominatedby sponges and ascidians, and some species mayonly be found at these depths. Based on resultsto date, and the potential for a paleo-coastline ata depth of about 60–70 metres, further swath-

Ocean ecosystems 19mapping is likely to reveal additional deep reefhabitat.4.1.6 Mobile fauna of rocky reefsRocky reefs in the marine park also contain a widediversity of mobile marine animals including manytypes of:• molluscs such as shellfish, nudibranchs andcuttlefish (Figs. 21 and 22);• crustaceans such as crabs, amphipods, rocklobsters and shrimps (Figure 23);• echinoderms such as urchins, brittlestars,holothurians (sea cucumbers) and seastars(Figure 24);• polychaetes such as feather duster worms.Some of these are common and abundant butmany are rarely recorded. Gastropods (a class ofmollusc, including snails, that has a shell with asingular valve and a muscular foot) were the mostdiverse group recorded during a recent study, with231 out of a total of 586 identified species recorded(Rule 2004). Over 700 species of mollusc more thanfive millimetres long have been recorded to date (S.Smith pers. comm.).Although some of these are an obvious and oftenvisually stunning component of marine life, manyare inconspicuous because they are camouflaged,living within the reef matrix, nocturnal or very small.Depth influences the presence of some species andalso influences assemblage patterns (Rule and Smith 2007).Rocky reefs in the Marine Park also contain a diverse assemblage of fishes thatrange from small cryptic species through to large sharks. There are resident fisheswith small home ranges and transient species that move between reef systems, aswell as migratory fishes with seasonal movements. This diversity is due to both theoceanographic and geomorphologic influences in the marine park. The overall reeffish community is a mix of tropical, subtropical and temperate species, which have anextensive system of reefs on which to settle.Over 530 species of reef fish have been recordedin the marine park to date, with over 50% of theseregarded as primarily tropical (Malcolm unpubl.data). About 13% are subtropical and 10% areprimarily temperate, while the rest are tropical–subtropical or subtropical–temperate. Over 30% ofthe species are endemic to Australia, with about12% restricted to the east coast and 5% restricted tothe subtropical east coast.Many of the other species are distributedthroughout the Indo-Pacific region. Althoughtemperate species make up only 10% of thespecies, some are highly abundant and contributeFigure 22.Nudibranch.Figure 23.Porcelain crab onanemone.Figure 24.Orange seastar.

20 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkFigure 25.Yellow moon wrasse.Figure 26.The Maori cod, asubtropical, endemic fishspecies.Figure 27.Fish Soup.considerably to the overall fish biomass. Suchspecies include planktivorous species (fish whichfeed mainly on plankton) like mado Atypichthysstrigatus, sweep Scorpis lineolata, pomfrets Schuetteascalaripinnis and the small schooling hulafishTrachinops taeniatus.The wrasse (Family Labridae) (Figure 25) is the mostdiverse family, with over 75 species recorded. Thedamselfish (Family Pomacentridae) is the secondmost diverse family with over 50 species recorded.These two families combined accounted for morethan 25% of the species recorded during a broadscalesurvey of 70 sites across the marine park(Malcolm unpubl. data).Depth influences the presence of some species andalso influences assemblage patterns. For example,the wrasse Bodianus unimaculatus, or pigfish, hasonly been recorded in the marine park belowdepths of around 30 metres.There is a strong cross-shelf pattern in reef fishassemblages, with the number of tropical speciesand overall reef fish diversity increasing offshore(Malcolm unpubl. data). The area with the highestrichness of reef fish species is the northern end ofNorth Solitary Island. Diverse tropical, subtropicaland temperate species are found at this location(Figure 26), including the four types of anemonefishes that occur in the marine park. These include a very large breeding colony of thethree-spot damselfish Dascyllus trimaculatus, and the greatest density of the endemicwide-band anemonefish Amphiprion latezonatus.A location on the western side of North West Rock, known as ‘Fish Soup’ (Figure27), also has a very high diversity of fishes and contains one of the most unusualfish assemblages in the marine park. Here, tropical predators like spangled emperor,bigeye trevally, mangrove jack, moses perch and brown sweetlips occur withmulloway, snapper, red morwong, silver trevally, bream and tarwhine.The fish assemblages on reefs 15–30 metres deep in the marine park are significantlydifferent from those in other marine parks in NSW (Malcolm et al 2007). Differencesinclude the high diversity of wrasse in the SIMP and the higher abundance of speciessuch as Guenthers wrasse Chaetodon guentheriand blindshark Brachaelurus waddi, which are bothendemic to subtropical eastern Australia.There are many species of reef-associated fish in themarine park which are sought after by fishers. Theyinclude snapper Pagrus auratus, tusk-fish Choerodonvenustus, blue morwong Nemadactylus douglasi,and pearl perch Glaucosoma scapulare, which isan endemic subtropical species (Figure 28). Reefassociatedpelagic species such as kingfish Seriolalalandi are also targeted.

Ocean ecosystems 21All these species vary in their habitat specificity,life-history, longevity and feeding behaviour. Somespecies only use the habitat as a nursery area, andthen move into deeper waters after several years,while others move to reefs after some time inestuarine habitats.4.2 Subtidal soft-sediment habitatUnconsolidated habitats are extensive throughoutthe continental shelf waters of the marine park.They are dominated by coarse sediments andare influenced by strong tidal currents and oceanic swells. A number of broadunconsolidated zones have been described for the north coast region, basedon differences in slope, relief and distance from shore (Boyd et al 2004). There isconsiderable along-shore and cross-shelf variation in these morphological zones thatreflect sediment processes at previous sea-levels and recent transport by currents.While a number of broad zones have been identified, swath-mapping data hasrevealed significant fine-scale structuring of unconsolidated habitats, influencedprimarily by the presence of sand ripples and waves, and variations in particle size andshell content (Ku 2007). There are also areas that contain small amounts of boulders,cobbles and pebbles, particularly adjacent to areas of rocky reef.These variations in sediment type, in combination with depth, can result inconsiderable differences in macrofaunal composition (Coleman et al 1997, Edgar etal 1999, Beaman et al 2005). Increased structural complexity will influence the faunalassemblage, as various taxa associate with microhabitat features such as shells,burrows and depressions (Auster et al 1995). There is often a strong relationshipbetween habitat structure and macrofaunal diversity in coastal soft-sediment habitats(Thrush et al 2001).Surveys of subtidal soft sediment habitats in the marine park identified 241 species(Smith and Rowland 1999). This figure excludes potentially diverse groups such aspolychaete worms and isopods (crustaceans with a compressed body and seven pairsof legs) that are yet to be fully identified. Despite extensive collections over the past12 years, approximately 85% of the species identified in the soft-sediment samples todate have not previously been listed in the marine park region (Smith and Rowland1999).Surveys identified increasing species diversity and composition from shallow sites20 metres deep to intermediate sites 50 metres deep. There were also significantdifferences in species composition in samples taken from the northern, central andsouthern sections of the marine park, with the southern and northern samples beingthe most diverse. Differences in species composition were also found betweensamples taken from coarser grained, gravely substrates, sand and mud areas (Smithand Rowland 1999).Most of the animals occur as infauna (living within the sediment). Dominant speciesare amphipods, bivalves and polychaete worms. Unconsolidated habitats on the innercontinental shelf also commonly contain larger sessile macrofauna such as sponges,ascidians, bryzoans and sea-whips (Bax and Williams 2001, Beaman et al 2005). Theseare particularly prevalent where higher currents flow adjacent to offshore islands andpinnacles.Figure 28.Pearl perch at South WestSolitary Island.

22 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkFigure 29.Stingray buried in sand.Figure 30.Diggers Camp rockplatform.Figure 31.Boulder habitat ArrawarraHeadland.In general, the abundance and diversity of sessilemacrofauna decreases with depth, with deepunconsolidated habitats containing few octocorals(soft corals and sea fans) and ascidians (Bax andWilliams 2001, Beaman et al 2005). While there islittle information on the distribution and diversityof soft-sediment assemblages in the SIMP region, itis likely that the considerable structural complexityseen in the swath-mapping data will influence thepatterns of faunal assemblages in this habitat.The distribution and structure of invertebratesare also likely to influence fish assemblages, givenfindings in other regions. Areas of low structuralcomplexity on the inner-shelf region of southernNSW differ significantly in fish species from morestructurally complex unconsolidated habitatscontaining sponges, sea-whips and bryzoans(Williams and Bax 2001).A very diverse range of fish, sharks, rays andcrustaceans occur in soft-sediment habitats on thecontinental shelf (Figure 29). See NSW Departmentof Primary Industries 2004 for details of speciescomposition; distribution; and biology such as growth rate, longevity, diet andfecundity of many of these species.4.3 Rocky intertidal habitatIntertidal rocky shores occupy a zone of transition between marine and terrestrialenvironments, and include the intertidal zone and the adjacent wave surge zone.These habitats are often characterised by local variations in the distribution oforganisms determined by levels of exposure, wave action, biological interactions andthe history of disturbances at individual sites (Underwood and Chapman 1995, Otway1999).The geomorphic structure of rocky shores can vary greatly, depending on:• the dominant rock type and structure such as a platform, cobble or boulder (Figs. 30and 31);• exposure, for example, protected or exposed;• slope, for example, steep, inclined or flat (Banks and Skilleter 2002, Otway andMorrison in prep).Rock pools, crevices and shallow gulches are alsoimportant areas as they generally retain seawaterduring low tide. There is evidence that an increasein the structural complexity of the rocky shore canresult in an increase in the diversity of species withinan area (Smith and James 1999, Smith 2005, Otwayand Morrison in prep).

Ocean ecosystems 23There is generally a broad pattern of dominance ofa suite of abundant, conspicuous species at differentlevels across the shore, including:• a high-shore area dominated by littorinid snails(snails with spiral globular shells);• wave-exposed, mid-shore areas occupied bybarnacles and limpets;• sheltered mid-shore areas dominated by barnaclesand grazing snails such as Nerita atramentosa,Bembicium nanum and Austrocochlea constricta;• low-shore areas dominated by the encrusting tubeworm Galeolaria caespitosa;• a low shore algal assemblage with a rangeof animals including solitary ascidians (Pyurastolonifera) and macro-algal grazing chitons (molluscs living on rocks with shellsconsisting of eight overlapping calcareous plates) (Underwood and Chapman 1995,Smith and James 1999, Otway 1999 and references within).While some organisms occupy a range of habitats, many are restricted to certain areason the rocky shore, such as rock pools and crevices. Some of the most diverse andabundant animals are gastropods such as whelks, chitons, and bivalves such as oystersand mussels (Smith and Simpson 1991b, Smith and James 1999, Smith 2005). Somecrustacean species are also common, particularly barnacles and crabs, as are severalconspicuous echinoderms (marine invertebrates with an internal calcareous skeleton,often with spines) such as sea urchins and starfish, and anemones (Figure 32).A diverse and conspicuous range of plant species often grow on these rocky shores,which are generally defined as encrusting, foliose and canopy-forming. Some of themore obvious species are Neptune’s necklace (Hormosira banksii) (Figure 33), severalgreen algae (Ulva spp. and Enteromorpha spp.) and assemblages of red algae.Coastal rocky shores are also important roosting and feeding habitat for many birds,including the threatened sooty oyster catcher. Rocky shores on the islands mayprovide an important refuge from disturbance and predators.There are coastal rocky shores on numerous small headlands in the marine park, andalong longer stretches of rocky coastline at Corindi, between Station Creek and Wooli,and at Sandon River. These coastal rocky shores are often associated with adjoiningareas of subtidal rocky reef.A number of specific habitat types have been described and surveyed on rocky shoresin the marine park (Smith and James 1999). These are:• scree – an intertidal area dominated by bouldersor scree;• shallow pools – intertidal rock-pools less than1 metre deep and less than 100 square metres insurface area;• deep pools – intertidal rock-pools more than1 metre deep and less than 100 square metres insurface area;• lagoons – intertidal pools more than 100 squaremetres in surface area.Figure 32.Waratah anemones.Figure 33.Neptunes necklace algae.

24 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkFigure 34.Minnie Waters Lagoon.Figure 35.Ocean beach habitat.Survey results indicate that Flat Top Point has thehighest relative diversity of any coastal rocky shorein the marine park (Griffiths 1982, Smith 1988, Smithand Simpson 1991a and b, Smith and James 1999).This site has the most southerly coastal record ofthe giant clam Tridacna maxima. It is also rich inmolluscs uncommon on other headlands in themarine park such as the murex shell Pterotyphisangasi, the bubble shell Hydatina physis, the flowerstromb Strombus mutabilis, and the nudibranchHexabranchus sanguineus or Spanish dancer. Otherheadlands in the marine park with high speciesdiversity include Station Creek, Diggers Camp–Wilsons Headland, Jones Point,Arrawarra Headland and Woolgoolga Headland (Smith 1988, Smith and James 1999).The rock platform at Sandon Bluff supports lower species diversity than some otherheadlands, but contains unusually dense aggregations of gold ring cowries andzoanthids (Smith and James 1999). The enclosed Minnie Waters Lagoon (Figure 34)is the only habitat of its type in the marine park, and along with the semi-protectedwaters at Diggers Camp, has a unique reef fish assemblage compared with other reefs.At sites close to estuary mouths, particularly near barrier lagoons, coastal rocky shorehabitats are important spawning locations for many fish species.4.4 Ocean beachesIn NSW, beaches are either intermediate (moderately sloping) or reflective (steeplysloping), depending on their exposure to waves and swell, which influence the typeof sediments present and the presence of bars and rips (Short 1993). Some oceanbeaches are interspersed with intertidal and subtidal rocky reefs, which reduce theirexposure to swell.There are about 40 sandy beaches ranging from 100 metres to many kilometres longin the marine park, from Sandon Beach in the North to Park Beach at Coffs Harbour inthe south (Figure 35). Sandy beach habitats are naturally dynamic, changing seasonallyas winter storms remove sand from the beach, and summer weather returns sand tothe beach. Intertidal sandy beach habitats are continuous with, and ecologically linkedto, the soft substrate habitats occurring immediately offshore.Different beach types and environments support characteristic assemblages,determined to a large extent by the size of particles making up the sediment. Adiverse range of invertebrate species often occur beneath the surface of the sand,the most obvious being the macrofauna which are dominated by crustaceans,polychaetes and molluscs (Jones and Short 1995).Typical invertebrate macrofauna associated withnorthern NSW beaches include isopods (e.g.Pseudolana elegans), amphipods (e.g. Urohaustoriiusgunni) and polychaetes (e.g. Scolelepis normalis)(Hacking 1998). Two of the more familiar species onsandy beaches are the pipi (Donax deltoides) andbeach worms (Family Onuphidae) as they are oftencollected for bait by recreational anglers.

Ocean ecosystems 25A study of sandy beach habitats in the marine parkrecorded between four and seventeen species oflarger invertebrates per sample (Hacking 1997, 1998),with beach type influencing the number of speciesfound. Higher species richness was generally foundon beaches with finer sand which were exposedto higher wave energy, such as Moonee Beach.Beaches exposed to lower wave energy and withcoarse sands such as Korora Beach tended to havelower species richness. Thirty macrofaunal specieswere recorded from seven beaches sampled in the marine park (Hacking 1997).Very small animals living in the sand are called meiofauna (animals ranging in size fromover 63 microns to 1 millimetre). Meiofauna assemblages are highly variable at spatialscales that range from tens of centimetres to kilometres, and these assemblagesare highly variable through time. Over 79 meiofauna taxa have been recorded fromArrawarra Beach alone (Bell 2005).In general, the species richness and abundance of invertebrate macrofauna increasesfrom low on reflective beaches to higher on intermediate beaches (Brown andMcLachlan 1990, Hacking 1998). Assemblages are likely to be more dynamic onbeaches with higher wave activity and swell. Detached macrophytic algal material,commonly found drifting in the surf-zone following heavy seas, also supportscharacteristic assemblages of organisms that are different from those found on plantsof nearby reefs.Sandy beach shallows are important nursery and feeding areas for a variety of fishspecies. The waters over beaches and intertidal flats also support characteristic fishsuch as pilchards, anchovies, silverside, whiting and mullet. The surf zones of exposedsandy beaches are important nursery grounds for some species of fish previouslyconsidered to be estuary dependent. See NSW Department of Primary Industries 2002for details of the distribution, biology and ecology of many of these species.Sandy beaches are also key feeding and roosting sites for shorebirds, seabirds, andmigratory wading birds. These includes threatened species such as the little tern, piedoystercatcher, and beach stone-curlew (Figure 36). Dunes and sand spits above theimmediate littoral zone also provide important nesting and feeding sites for wadersand seabirds. The little tern Sterna albifrons, an endangered species, has been recordednesting adjacent to beaches at Sandon River, Wooli, Station Creek, Red Rock, Arrawarraand Hearnes Lake (NPWS unpubl. data).Beaches are also important for migratory waders listed under internationalagreements, such as the whimbrel, red-necked stint and common sandpiper, withlocations including Moonee Beach, Corindi Beach, Red Rock South Beach, StationCreek Beach and Wooli Beach (Smith 1991, NPWS unpubl. data).Some beaches have changed due to the construction of breakwalls and trainingwalls. Park Beach and Wooli Beach currently require regular works by local and stateagencies to replenish areas that have lost sand during storms. During the 1960s and1970s, some beaches were affected by sandmining including Station Creek Beach,Arrawarra Beach, Mullaway Beach, Hearnes Lake Beach, Sandy Beach, FiddamansBeach, Emerald Beach, Moonee Beach, Charlesworth Bay, Diggers Beach and ParkBeach.Figure 36.Pied oyster-catchers.

Figure 37.Station Creek.5 Estuarine ecosystemsEstuaries are places where freshwater creeks and rivers meet the sea. In their naturalstate, they are productive systems supporting high levels of floral and faunal diversityand provide important nursery grounds for many species. The 15 estuaries in themarine park are either:• barrier lagoons, which have larger catchment areas, large variations in salinity, and ahigh diversity of marine and brackish water plant species, or;• intermittently closed and open lakes and lagoons (ICOLLs), which have smallercatchment areas, lower average salinity, brackish to fresh waters, a lower diversity ofmarine vegetation, and a higher diversity of brackish and fresh water vegetation.Sandon River, Wooli Wooli River, Corindi River, Moonee Creek and Coffs Creek arebarrier lagoons that, in most cases, are permanently open. Station Creek, ArrawarraCreek, Darkum Creek, Woolgoolga Lake, and Hearnes Lake are ICOLLs.The benthic macrofaunal communities in the barrier lagoons and ICOLLs are verydifferent. Significant differences between these two types are maintained throughtime, but are not as great when the ICOLLs are open. There are also macrofaunalcommunity differences between each individual estuary. These differences in andbetween estuary types are caused by catchment size, which influences environmentalconditions, with each estuary having highly individual characteristics (Hastie andSmith 2006). Nine key species, all common estuarine fauna along the coast of NSW,are consistently responsible for driving these spatial and temporal differences (Hastie2006).Within each estuary, there are also differences in macrofaunal communities movingfrom downstream to upstream in response to changes in environmental conditions(Hastie and Smith 2006).Station Creek is unique among the larger ICOLLs in the marine park. It is the mostextensive ICOLL, and it contains mostly freshwater vegetation (Figure 37). Althoughmany ICOLLs are affected by human activity due to their small size and being closedto tidal flushing for sometimes extended periods of time, the catchment of StationCreek is surrounded by Yuraygir National Park, meaning it is one of the catchmentsleast affected by human activity. This contributes to the overall high environmentalhealth of this estuarine system.The adjacent position of Yuraygir National Park hasstrongly benefited the health of estuaries in thenorthern end of the marine park. For example, withrelatively little development within its catchment,and 50% of the catchment protected, the SandonRiver was classified as near pristine during theNational Land & Water Resources Audit (GeoscienceAustralia 2007).Estuaries are important areas of productivity incoastal environments, exporting nutrients on whichother inshore marine environments rely. Estuariesprovide key nursery grounds and adult habitat formany species of marine life. More than 100 fishspecies have been recorded in marine park estuariesduring biodiversity surveys undertaken by NSWFisheries in 1995 (Gray et al 1995), and between

Estuarine ecosystems 272000 and 2002 a further survey found manyspecies only recorded in one estuary (R Williamset al unpubl. data). Some of these also occur innearshore waters. The most species-rich family wasthe Gobiidae (gobies) with 17 species. Generally,between 12 and 42 fish species were recorded ineach estuary, although this varied with season.Estuarine sediments are also rich in invertebratelife (Johnstone 1997, Sawtell 2002), with over130 species recorded in the marine park to date.Polychaetes, gastropods, bivalves, amphipodsand decapod crustaceans are the most species-rich groups. About 16 of thesespecies were in all or most estuaries surveyed (Hastie and Smith 2006, Hastie 2006).Invertebrates can increase estuarine productivity and value as nursery grounds forrecreational and commercial fish, as well as being valuable to biodiversity in their ownright.Estuaries are also key habitats for threatened bird species such as the osprey (Figure38), pied oystercatcher, and beach stone-curlew. The Corindi, Wooli Wooli and Sandonrivers are wetlands of key importance to seabirds on a statewide basis. They arenesting sites for the endangered beach stone-curlew in NSW (Smith 1991, Taffs 2006).Three highly productive estuarine vegetation communities are particularly important.These are mangrove forests, seagrass beds, and saltmarshes (Figure 39). Such estuarinevegetation is extensive in the Sandon River, Wooli River, the Corindi River System andMoonee Creek (Figure 40).5.1 SeagrassesSeagrasses are subtidal and intertidal plants found mainly in shallow waters ofprotected estuaries and bays. Like terrestrial grasses, they are anchored to thesubstrate by roots or rhizomes, have leaves with veins, reproduce using flowers andseeds, and require sunlight to grow. They areimportant contributors to coastal productivity andare particularly important in maintaining sedimentstability because the seagrass roots stabilise theunderlying sediment. They are also important inmaintaining water quality by using nutrients andstabilising sediments in shallow water.Seagrass beds are also important areas for algalproduction. Much of the seagrass and algaeproduced is not used within the area of the bedbut is exported as detritus, forming an importantcomponent of the food chain for fish andinvertebrates in adjacent coastal waters.Seagrass beds provide habitat for a diverse rangeof flora and fauna, including algal epiphytes, crabs,shrimps, fishes, hydroids, sponges, bryozoans,ascidians, amphipods, polychaetes, gastropods,bivalves and holothurians (Bell and Pollard 1989,Ferrell et al 1993, Hannan and Williams 1998, Howardand Edgar 1999).Figure 38.Osprey on nest.Figure 39.Mangrove, saltmarsh,seagrass and intertidalsandflat habitat in theCorindi River.

28 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkFigure 40.Map of seabed habitatswithin (a) Sandon River,(b) Wooli Wooli River and(c) Corindi River in themarine park.(a)(b)(c)

Estuarine ecosystems 29The beds contain a higher diversity and abundance of fish than unvegetated areas andare an important habitat for young fish such as snapper, yellow-fin bream, tarwhineand luderick (Hannan and Williams 1998).The fish communities in beds of different seagrass species are also often distinct, withmany species or life-history stages only found in that particular habitat (Middleton etal 1984, Rotherham and West 2002).Two seagrass species are found in the marine park, Zostera capricorni (eelgrass)and Halophila ovalis (paddleweed). Both species are generally limited to estuariessubjected to regular tidal flushing, such as the five barrier lagoons. They are also foundin Woolgoolga Reef, Minnie Water Lagoon and Sandon Headland which are the onlyseagrass communities recorded in oceanic locations in the marine park (Figure 40).5.2 MangrovesMangroves are found mostly in sheltered estuarine environments, growing primarilyon areas of soft sediment, and form a distinct habitat known as a mangrove forest(Chapman and Underwood 1995). They are an important component of estuarinewetlands which occupy the transitional zone between land and sea, and arecharacterised by the presence of water, either permanently or periodically.Two species dominate the habitat in the estuaries; grey mangrove (Avicennia marina)and river mangrove (Aegicerus corniculatum) (Figure 41).In most places, the mangroves occur in the intertidal area seaward of the saltmarsh,but variations in local topography often result in a highly patchy mosaic of the twohabitats in a small area. Figure 41.Grey mangrove(Avicennia marina).

30 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkFigure 42.Saltmarsh with Juncus andsalt-couch.Figure 43.Saltmarsh vegetationdestroyed by 4WD activityon Arrawarra Creek.Mangroves can contribute significantly to theproductivity of estuaries through nutrient cyclingand the trapping of sediments and detritus.They provide habitat for many fish, birds andinvertebrates (Bell et al 1984, Hutchings and Saenger1987, Chapman and Underwood 1995). The mostvisible species in temperate mangrove forestsare the larger snails and crabs, including the mudperiwinkle (Littoraria luteola), mudwhelk (Bembiciumauratum) and semaphore crab (Heloecius sp.).In the marine park, mangroves are found in allestuaries (Figs. 13 and 40). A transition from asubtropical to a temperate mangrove communityoccurs in the marine park from north to south. All seven species of mangroverecorded in NSW (when mangrove fern Acrostichum speciosum and Hibiscus tiliaceusare included) have been found in the Sandon River (Figure 40b) and Wooli Wooli River(Figure 40c), the two northernmost estuaries of the marine park (Taffs 2006).Only two species of mangrove are found in Coffs Creek, the most southerly of themarine park estuaries. This temperate Avicennia/Aegiceras community extends fromCoffs Creek to southern NSW. The subtropical community includes five mangrovespecies that are at, or are close to, the southernmost latitudinal limits of theirdistribution. Such species include stilted mangrove Rhizophora stylosa and large leafedorange mangrove Bruguiera gymnorhiza (Taffs 2006).There is variation in mangrove distribution and density within estuaries as well asbetween them. For example, Station Creek, the largest ICOLL in the marine park with asystem strongly influenced by freshwater, has a very sparse occurrence of mangroves,restricted mainly to a lower–mid section. Three mangroves species have beenrecorded here: grey mangrove, mangrove fern, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and milky mangroveExoecaria agallocha (Taffs 2006). In Sandon and Wooli Wooli rivers, red mangroveRhizophora stylosa is more common in midstream to upstream sections, and is a majorcomponent of the mangrove community, despite being at the extreme southern endof its range. Further north in NSW it is only sparsely represented. The Corindi River waspreviously recorded as the southernmost limit of a Rhizophora stylosa community inAustralia, but this species is now established in Moonee Creek.5.3 SaltmarshSaltmarsh is a habitat found in the upper intertidal area of shorelines dominatedby soft sediment in estuaries and bays. Most saltmarsh habitat contains a diverserange of grasses, saltbushes, rushes and sedges,although often a small number of species dominatea particular site. There is often distinct zonationof species across the habitat. The lowest zone inNSW is occupied almost exclusively by samphireSarcocornia quinqueflora, with salt-couch Sporobolusvirginicus covering large areas further up the shore(Morrisey 1995). However, the habitat can also haveconsiderable small-scale patchiness, with zonesoften consisting of a mosaic of species (Figure 42).

Estuarine ecosystems 31Saltmarshes are important for flood and erosion control, and pollution abatement.They may also provide organic material to detrital food chains in estuaries. They alsoregulate hydrology through transpiration, water-shading and sediment trapping.Significant saltmarsh communities are located in the Sandon, Wooli Wooli, Corindi andMoonee Creek estuaries (Figure 40). Saltmarsh habitat is also present in other systems.Saltmarshes are particularly susceptible to damage from 4WD activity. Vehicle trackscan destroy vegetation and increase erosion, and these impacts can take years torecover from. Some saltmarsh areas in the marine park have been damaged by vehicleuse (Figure 43).5.4 Soft-sediment unvegetated habitatsEstuaries can often be dominated by unvegetated soft-sediment areas, due to thedynamic input and movement of sediments from both marine and freshwater sources,and depths and turbidity that do not allow seagrass to grow. These habitats occur asintertidal sandflats down to deep muddy basins. They are important habitats for manyfish, crab, shark and ray species, including the mudcrab Scylla serrata (Butcher 1999,Butcher et al 2003) (Figure 44).The species often differ between sandy and muddy areas, contributing toestuarine diversity. Dominant fishes include ambassids, atherinids, bream, flatheads,leatherjackets, girrellids and mullets. Both adults and juveniles are caught in thesehabitats, indicating that they serve as more than just nurseries.A diverse range of macroinvertebrates are also found in subtidal unvegetated habitats,with brittle stars and dog whelks being among the dominant species. In shallow,sandy sites the dominant species are often polychaete worms, ghost shrimps,amphipods and molluscs. Dominant species differ between sandy and deeper muddysites (Hastie 2006).Figure 44.Mudcrab on muddy bank.

6 Pelagic ecosystemsOcean currents are a major influence on open ocean habitats in the marine park. TheEast Australian Current is active during the warmer months, and at times it movesclose inshore, bringing tropical organisms from the southern Great Barrier Reef. Thiscreates conditions which enable many tropical species to settle in the marine park.During the cooler months, the marine park is dominated by inshore currents movingnorthwards. These currents bring temperate species into the marine park, and createcooler conditions favouring the growth of temperate marine life.Open ocean habitats in the marine park are inhabited by a wide diversity of marineorganisms including whales and dolphins, large pelagic fish (Figure 45), and jellyfishand other invertebrates. Planktonic processes occurring in open oceans are importantto most marine organisms, as tiny planktonic plants and animals are a rich source offood.There is a close association between species in open oceans and other marinehabitats. Bottom-dwelling fish species rely on pelagic bait species, linking pelagic foodchains with those of seafloor communities (Smale 1992). Pelagic and mesopelagicspecies (species living at depths between 180 and 900 metres) are an integral partof marine communities found in the marine park. Pelagic species provide juvenilesas a source of food and to propagate their species; provide food through fish spawn;recycle nutrients; graze down algal beds; and prey on weak, sick and old individuals.There are seasonal influences on pelagic species of interest to fishers includingmackerel species being present in the warmer months (usually from January to May).Figure 45.Dolphinfish.

7 Other marine species7.1 Sharks and raysThe shark and ray fauna in Australia is particularly rich, and includes many endemicspecies. At least 35 species of shark and ray have been recorded in the marine park,with some of these occurring seasonally. A quarter of these are endemic to Australia,with four being endemic to subtropical eastern Australia. Endemic species includeblindshark (Brachaelurus waddi), eastern fiddler ray (Trygonorrhina sp. A.), spottedwobbegong (Orectolobus. maculatus) and crested Port Jackson shark (Heterodontusgaleatus).Whaler sharks include the bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas), bronze whaler (Carcharhinusbrachyurus), silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) and tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier).Some of the more seasonal visitors include the leopard shark (Stegostoma fasciatum)and manta ray (Manta birostris).7.2 Marine mammalsAround 30 species of marine mammal have beenrecorded in the region, with records based onsightings and strandings (Ganassin and Gibbs2005a,b).The common dolphin and bottlenose dolphinlive in the marine park throughout the year. Othermarine mammal species of national significancethat have been recorded in the region include the:• humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae);• southern right whale (Eubalaena australis);• sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis);• fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus);• blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus);• dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus).Humpback whales are regularly observed in themarine park in June and July (Figure 46) as theymigrate to winter breeding grounds off Queensland,and between September and November as theyreturn south. The whales often pass relatively closeto the coast, particularly near prominent headlands,and whale watching tourism is increasing.Southern right whales also pass through the region between May and November ontheir migration from Antarctica. They migrate close to the coast while heading north,but swim further offshore when migrating south.Figure 46.Humpback whale.Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus) also migrates to NSW seasonally, although the reasonsfor this are not known (Ganassin and Gibbs 2005b). Killer whale (Orcinus orca) podshave been sighted in the marine park over the past few years.The NSW Oil Spill Response Atlas identifies other marine mammals in the region,including Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni), false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens),long finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas), melon-head whale (Peponocephalaelectra), minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps),

34 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine Parksperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), short-finnedpilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus), straptoothbeaked whale (Mesoplodon layardii), Fraser’s dolphin(Lagenodelphis hosei), spotted dolphin (Stenellaattenuata), striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba),dugong (Dugong dugon), leopard seal (Hydrurgaleptonyx), and Australian fur seal (Arctocephaluspusillus). The distribution of these mammals extendswell beyond the marine park region. In the marinepark, several are at the extreme limit of their rangeand therefore uncommon.Figure 47.Green turtle.7.3 Marine reptilesMarine reptiles are common in the marine park. Four of the world’s seven species ofmarine turtle have been recorded (Ganassin and Gibbs, 2005a, b). Most often seen arethe:• green turtle (Chelonia mydas) (Figure 47),• loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta),• hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata).Leatherback turtles have also been observed, although rarely (NPWS unpubl. data,Zann 2000a).Sea turtle nesting, mainly of green turtles but also of loggerhead turtles, has beenrecorded on several beaches, including those at Red Rock, Diggers Camp, HearnesLake and Sandon. Some eggs have hatched successfully.While 11 species of sea snakes occur in NSW waters, sightings are uncommon. Only afew species have been recorded in the region (Ganassin and Gibbs 2005a), includingthe elegant sea snake Hydrophis elegans and yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus.See NSW Department of Primary Industries 2004 for more details on the distributionand biology of several of these species.7.4 BirdsBirds that depend on marine and estuarine habitats include true seabirds, shorebirds,waders, waterfowl and birds of prey (Higgins and Davies 1996, Higgins 1999). Thereare over 120 species of coastal and marine birds in the region. Of these, around 100species commonly occur on the coasts and inshore waters, many of them on aseasonal basis (Ganassin and Gibbs 2005a and b) (Figure 48).Figure 48.Winter visitors – gannets.Some vegetated offshore islands are important potential breeding sites for seabirds.The species recorded as breeding on these islands are the wedge-tailed shearwater,crested tern, silver gull, white-faced storm petrel, sooty oystercatcher and possiblythe fluttering shearwater and buller’s shearwater.Ospreys also nest on one of the islands (Figure 49),and this is the only record of ground nesting forosprey in NSW.Species found in estuarine habitat include variouswaders, such as whimbrel and eastern curlew.Summer migrant species include the mongolianplover, grey tailed tattler, bar-tailed godwit, sharptailedsandpiper and red-necked stint

Other marine species 35Many species of seabird also rely on the shores forroosting and resting, feeding along intertidal flatsand rocky shores, or capturing their food from theopen ocean waters.7.5 Threatened and protected,rare and endemic marinespeciesThreatened fish, including shark species in NSWare listed in the Fisheries Management Act 1994.A number of these occur in the marine park (seeTable 1).Threatened marine mammals and reptiles are listed in the Threatened SpeciesConservation Act 1995. Several threatened marine mammals and reptiles may be foundin the marine park at differing times of the year, often passing through on their yearlymigration along the east coast.Figure 49.Osprey groundnest.Many species are endemic to the subtropical east coast of Australia, or more broadly tothe east coast or southern parts of Australia. Some species are at their northernmostor southernmost limit of natural distribution when they are in the marine park, so mayrarely occur in this area, although they may not necessarily be rare across their overalldistribution. The marine park also provides feeding and nesting sites for migratorymarine species and shorebirds. While the management of the marine park aims toconserve all marine species occurring naturally in the region, particular emphasis isgiven to conserving threatened and protected species, and those that are endemic.In the marine park, the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) is the mostcommonly encountered of the seven whale or dolphin species listed as threatenedunder NSW and Commonwealth legislation.The marine park contains significant habitat for the endangered grey nurse shark(Carcharias taurus) (Figure 50). Grey nurse sharks may be found in the marine parkthroughout the year, but are generally most abundant between April and November,when water temperatures are around 18 or 19°C. Grey nurse sharks prefer gutters inreefs and submarine caves (Otway and Parker 2000).Historical accounts (Otway and Parker 2000), NSW Fisheries records and recent surveysindicate that South Solitary Island (Manta Arch) is the most significant habitat for greynurse sharks in the marine park. Other significant habitat is found at sites around NorthSolitary Island (gutters off Anemone Bay), North West Solitary Island (‘E’ gutters), SplitSolitary Island (Coral Cove) and Pimpernel Rock (in Commonwealth waters). However,these sharks occur throughout the marine park.Survey data also suggests a significant decline innumbers in the marine park since the 1970s, andgenerally throughout their range despite theirprotected status. Quarterly surveys were undertakenat 57 sites during a two-and-a-half year periodalong the entire NSW coastline, including sites in themarine park. These surveys revealed that grey nursesharks occur in very low numbers. The total numberof grey nurse sharks sighted totalled 292 (Otwaypers. comm.). A recovery plan is being implementedin NSW for the grey nurse shark, which will identifyFigure 50.Grey nurse shark(Carcharias taurus).

36 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine Parkthe actions needed to help the species recover. The Commonwealth Department ofthe Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts has implemented the national greynurse shark recovery plan at Pimpernel Rock in the adjacent Solitary Islands MarineReserve.All turtles are listed under State or Commonwealth legislation as threatened, anda national recovery plan for all species of sea turtles has been finalised by theCommonwealth Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts.A number of threatened seabird species occur in the marine park. Species such asthe pied and sooty oystercatchers, osprey, beach stone-curlew and the little tern,nest immediately adjacent to the marine park. Sooty oystercatchers generally nest onrocky shores just above the high tide mark. Pied oystercatchers nest above the hightide mark in estuaries, while little terns nest on sandy shores just above the high tidemark. The little tern nests at Sandon River, Diggers Camp, Wooli, Station Creek, RedRock, Arrawarra and Hearnes Lake (Smith, 1996, NPWS unpublished data). Osprey nestsadjacent to estuaries and wetlands have been recorded at Sandon River, Wooli, CorindiRiver, Sandy Beach and Moonee Creek.Seabirds are protected and managed under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 andthe Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Arecovery plan has been prepared for the little tern.Migratory bird species flying seasonally to breeding and feeding grounds passthrough the marine park and are present for only short periods each year. Somespecies, such as the little tern, wedge-tailed shearwater, whimbrel, eastern curlewand the red-necked stint, may reside in the marine park for part of the year to breedor feed. Of particular importance are the endangered little tern, the fleshy-footedshearwater (listed as vulnerable), and the wedge-tailed shearwater which has majornesting sites on islands in the marine park.Birds migrating between Australia and Japan, and Australia and China are protectedunder international agreements, the Japan–Australia Migratory Birds Agreement(JAMBA) and the China–Australia Migratory Birds Agreement (CAMBA). Under theseagreements, the NSW Government has a commitment to maintain populations ofmigratory waders and their habitats.Table 1.Endangered, vulnerable and protected marine species under NSW legislation likely tooccur in the marine park.COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME STATUSGrey nurse shark Carcharias taurus EndangeredGreen sawfish Pristis zijsron EndangeredLoggerhead turtle Caretta caretta EndangeredBlue whale Balaenoptera musculus EndangeredSperm whale Physeter macrocephalus VulnerableBlack cod Epinephelus daemelli VulnerableLeathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea VulnerableGreen turtle Chelonia mydas VulnerableHumpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae VulnerableSouthern right whale Eubalaena australis VulnerableGreat white shark Carcharodon carcharias VulnerableBallina angelfish Chaetodontoplus ballinae ProtectedBluefish Girella cyanea ProtectedEastern blue devil fish Paraplesiops bleekeri ProtectedElegant wrasse Anampses elegans ProtectedEstuary cod Epinephelus coiodes ProtectedAll Sygnathids Sygnathiformes Protected

Further readingANZECC TFMPA 1998a, Interim marine and coastal regionalisation for Australia. Anecosystem based classification for marine and coastal environments, EnvironmentAustralia, Canberra.ANZECC TFMPA 1998b, Strategic plan of action for establishing the national representativesystem of marine protected areas, Environment Australia, Canberra.Auster PJ, Malatesta R.J. and LaRosa SC 1995, ‘Patterns of microhabitat utilization bymobile megafauna on the southern New England (USA) continental shelf and slope’,Marine Ecology Progress Series 127, pp 77–85.Banks SA and Skilleter GA 2002, ‘Mapping intertidal habitats and an evaluation oftheir conservation status in Queensland, Australia’, Ocean & Coastal Management 48(8),pp 485–509.Barrett N, Sanderson JC, Lawler M, Halley V and Jordan A 2001, Mapping of inshoremarine habitats in south-eastern Tasmania for marine protected area planning and marinemanagement, Tasmanian Aquaculture and Fisheries Institute Technical Report SeriesNo. 7.Bax NJ and Williams A 2001, ‘Seabed habitat on the south-eastern Australiancontinental shelf: context, vulnerability and monitoring’, Marine and FreshwaterResearch 52, pp 491–512.Beaman RJ, Daniell JJ and Harris PT 2005, ‘Geology–benthos relationships on atemperate rocky bank, eastern Bass Strait, Australia,’ Marine and Freshwater Research 56,pp 943–958.Bell JD and Pollard DA 1989, ‘Ecology of fish assemblages and fisheries associated withseagrasses’ in Larkum AWD, McCoomb AJ and Shepherd S (eds), Biology of seagrasses: atreatise on the biology of seagrasses with special reference to the Australian region,pp 565–609, Elsevier, Amsterdam.Bell JD, Pollard DA, Burchmore JJ, Pease BC and Middleton MJ 1984, ‘Structure of a fishcommunity in a temperate tidal mangrove creek in Botany Bay, New South Wales’,Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 35, pp 33–46.Bell TA 2005, ‘The impact of four wheel drive vehicles on, and the natural variation of,sandy beach meiofauna’, M.Sc. Thesis, University of New England, Armidale, Australia.Boyd R, Ruming K and Roberts JJ 2004, ‘Geomorphology and surficial sediment ofthe southeast Australian continental margin’, Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 51,pp 743–764.Breen DA, Avery RP and Otway NM 2004, Broadscale biodiversity assessment of theManning Shelf marine bioregion, final report to the NSW Marine Parks Authority and theAustralian Government Department of Environment and Heritage, 137 pp.Brown AC and McLachlan A 1990, Ecology of sandy shores, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 328 pp.Butcher PA 1999, ‘The demographics of mud crab (Scylla serrata) populations caught indifferent marine park zones in the Wooli River, NSW’, Honours thesis, University of NewEngland, Armidale.

38 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkButcher PA, Boulton AJ, Smith SDA 2003, ‘Mudcrab (Scylla serrata: Portunidae)populations as indicators of the effectiveness of estuarine marine protected areas’,in Aquatic protected areas – what works best and how do we know?, Proceedings of theWorld Congress on Aquatic Protected Areas, Cairns 2002, Australian Society for FishBiology.Butler A 1995 ‘Subtidal rocky reefs’, in Underwood AJ and Chapman MG (eds), Coastalmarine ecology of temperate Australia, pp 106–120.Chapman MG and Underwood AJ 1995, ‘Mangrove forests’, in Underwood AJ andChapman MG (eds), Coastal marine ecology of temperate Australia, pp 187–204.Coleman N, Gason ASH and Poore GCB 1997, ‘High species richness in the shallowmarine waters of south-east Australia’, Marine Ecology Progress Series 154, pp 17–26.Commonwealth of Australia 2006, ‘A Guide to the Integrated Marine and CoastalRegionalisation of Australia Version 4.0’. Department of the Environment and Heritage,Canberra, Australia.Copeland C, Phillips S, Clayton D 1993, Solitary Islands Marine Reserve plan ofmanagement 1993–1996, NSW Fisheries.Dalton SJ 2003, ‘Stressors of scleractinian corals: coral bleaching and coral diseasewithin the Solitary Islands Marine Park’, Honours Thesis, University of New England,Armidale, Australia.Dalton SJ, Godwin S, Pereg-Gerk L, Smith SDA 2007, ‘Characteristic of the coral diseaseSubtropical White Syndrome: mode of transmission and temperature effects’, annualconference proceedings, Australian Coral Reef Society, Fremantle, WA.Edgar GJ 1984, ‘General features of the ecology and biogeography of Tasmanian rockyreef communities’ Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania 118,pp 173–186.Edgar GJ 1997, Australian marine life; the plants and animals of temperate waters, ReedBooks, Victoria, Australia.Edgar RJ, Malcolm HA, Dalton SJ 2003, ‘Coral bleaching in the Solitary Islands MarinePark, NSW’, unpublished report to Coastcare Australia.Edgar GJ, Barrett NS and Last PR 1999, ‘The distribution of macroinvertebrates andfishes in Tasmanian estuaries’, Journal of Biogeography 26, pp 1169–1189.Ferrell DJ, McNeill SE, Worthington DG and Bell JD 1993, ‘Temporal and spatial variationin the abundance of fish associated with the seagrass Posidonia australis in southeasternAustralia’, Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 44, pp 881–899.Fitzpatrick BM 2003, ‘Habitat heterogeneity of NSW marine protected areas’,unpublished Honours Thesis, Australian Maritime College, Tasmania.Ganassin C and Gibbs P 2005a, Broad-scale interactions between fishing and mammals,reptiles and birds in NSW marine waters, report prepared for NSW Department of PrimaryIndustries, Cronulla, 171 pp.Ganassin C and Gibbs P 2005b, Descriptions of the wildlife species that commonly occurin the marine and estuarine waters of NSW, report prepared for NSW Department ofPrimary Industries, Cronulla, 88 pp.Geoscience Australia 2007, Query of National Land and Water ResourcesAudit (NLWRA) 2001, visit http://dbforms.ga.gov.au/www/npm.ozcoast.search?domain=www.ozcoasts.org.au

Further reading 39Gladstone W 2007, ‘Requirements for marine protected areas to conserve thebiodiversity of rocky reef fishes’, Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems17, pp 71–87.Gray CA, McElligott DJ, Chick RC 1995, ‘Fish communities in northern NSW estuaries’,unpublished report, NSW Fisheries.Griffiths O 1982, Coastal headlands survey – a preliminary geomorphological andbiological survey of the intertidal rocks platforms of the major headlands along the NewSouth Wales Coast, report by the National Trust of Australia (NSW).Hacking N 1997, ‘Sandy Beach macrofauna of eastern Australia: a geographicalcomparison’, Ph.D. Thesis, University of New England, Armidale.Hacking N 1998, ‘Macrofaunal community structure of beaches in northern New SouthWales, Australia’, Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 49, pp 47–53.Hannan JC and Williams RJ 1998, ‘Recruitment of juvenile marine fishes to seagrasshabitat in a temperate Australian estuary’, Estuaries 21, pp 29–51.Harman N, Harvey ES and Kendrick GA 2003, ‘Differences in fish assemblages fromdifferent reef habitats at Hamelin Bay, south-western Australia’, Australian Journal ofMarine and Freshwater Research 54, pp 177–184.Harriott VJ, Smith SDA, Harrison PL 1994, ‘Patterns of coral community structure ofsubtropical reefs in the Solitary Islands Marine Reserve, eastern Australia’, MarineEcology Progress Series 109, pp 67–76.Hastie BF 2006, ‘Spatial and temporal variation of benthic macrofaunal communities inthe intermittently closed estuaries of the Solitary Islands Marine Park, Australia’, Ph.D.Thesis, University of New England, Armidale, Australia.Hastie BF and Smith SDA 2006, ‘Benthic macrofaunal communities in intermittentestuaries during a drought: comparisons with permanently open estuaries’, Journal ofExperimental Marine Biology and Ecology 330, pp 356–367.Higgins PJ 1999, Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic birds, OxfordUniversity Press, Melbourne.Higgins PJ and Davies SJ 1996, Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic birds,Oxford University Press, Melbourne.Howard RK and Edgar GJ 1999, ‘Seagrass meadows’, in Hammond LS and Synnot RN(eds), Marine Biology, Longman, South Melbourne.Humphries P, Potter IC and Loneragan NR 1992, ‘The first community in the shallowsof a temperate Australian estuary: relationships with the aquatic macrophyte Ruppiamegacarpa and environmental variables’, Estuarine and Coastal Shelf Science 34,pp 325–346.Hutchings PA and Saenger P 1987, Ecology of mangroves. University of QueenslandPress, St Lucia, Queensland.Johnstone S 1997, ‘An assessment of the effects of effluent on estuarine benthiccommunities in Yarrawarra Creek, mid north coast, NSW’, unpublished Honours Thesis,University of New England, Armidale, NSW.Jones AR and Short AD 1995, ‘Sandy beaches’, in Underwood AJ and Chapman MG(eds), Coastal marine ecology of temperate Australia, pp 136–151.Kennelly SJ 1995, ‘Kelp beds’, in Underwood AJ and Chapman MG (eds), Coastal marineecology of temperate Australia, pp 106–120.

40 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkKorsch RJ 1980, ‘Geology of the Coffs Harbour District’, in Korsch RJ, The natural historyof the Coffs Harbour District, University of New England, North Coast Regional Office,Coffs Harbour.Ku V 2007, ‘Sediments around rocky reefs: Solitary Islands, Australia’, unpublishedHonours Thesis, University of Sydney, 106 pp.Malcolm HA 2007, ‘Expansion of a sea temperature monitoring program in the NRCMAarea’, in Sustainable Marine Resource Management Project, Part A: Research, mapping,assessment and planning, report to the Northern Rivers Catchment ManagementAuthority, National Marine Science Centre, Coffs Harbour, NSW.Malcolm HA, Gladstone W, Lindfield S, Wraith J and Lynch TP 2007, ‘Spatial andtemporal variation in reef fish assemblages of marine parks in New South Wales,Australia – baited video observations’, Marine Ecology Progress Series 350, pp 277–290.Mau RT 1997, ‘A preliminary survey of continental shelf habitats of the Solitary IslandsMarine Park, New South Wales’, Honours Thesis, Southern Cross University, Lismore,NSW, 118 pages.Mau R, Byrnes T, Wilson J and Zann L 1998, The distribution of selected continental shelfhabitats in the Solitary Islands Marine Park, a report prepared for the New South WalesMarine Parks Authority, School of Resource Sciences and Management, Southern CrossUniversity, Lismore, NSW.Middleton J 1996, ‘The ocean’, in Zann L (comp.) State of the Marine Environment Reportfor Australia, technical summary pp 9–14, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority andEnvironment Australia, Townsville.Middleton MJ, Bell JD, Burchmore JJ, Pollard DA and Pease BC 1984, ‘Structuraldifferences in the fish communities of Zostera capricorni and Posidonia australis seagrassmeadows in Botany Bay, New South Wales’, Aquatic Botany 18, pp 89–109.Millar AJ 1990, ‘Marine red algae of the Coffs Harbour region’, Australian SystematicBotany 3, pp 293–593.Millar AJ 1998, Marine algae of the northern section of the Solitary Islands Marine Park,report to the NSW Marine Parks Authority. Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney.Morrisey N 1995, ‘Saltmarshes’ in Underwood AJ and Chapman MG (eds), Coastalmarine ecology of temperate Australia, pp 205–220.NSW Department of Primary Industries 2002, Environmental impact statement on theocean hauling fishery, NSW Fisheries, Cronulla, NSW.NSW Department of Primary Industries 2004, Environmental impact statement for theocean trawl fishery, NSW Fisheries, Cronulla, NSW.NSW Marine Parks Authority 2000, Planning issues and options paper, NSW Marine ParksAuthority, Coffs Harbour, NSW.Otway NM 1999, ‘Identification of candidate sites for declaration as aquatic reservesfor the conservation of rocky intertidal communities in the Hawkesbury Shelf andBatemans Shelf Bioregions’, NSW Fisheries Final Report Series, No. 28, 88 pp.Otway NM and Morrison N (in prep), ‘Identification of candidate shores for declarationas aquatic reserves for the conservation of rocky intertidal communities in theManning Shelf Bioregion’, draft report prepared for the NSW Department of PrimaryIndustries.

Further reading 41Otway NM and Parker PG 2000, NSW Fisheries Final Report Series, No. 19, NSW Fisheries,101 pp.Otway NM and Burke AL 2004, ‘Mark-recapture population estimate and movementsof grey nurse shark’, NSW Fisheries Final Report Series No. 63, NSW Fisheries, 53 pp.Otway NM, Burke AL, Morrison NS and Parker PC 2003,’Monitoring and identificationof NSW critical habitat sites for conservation of grey nurse sharks’, NSW Fisheries FinalReport Series, No. 47, NSW Fisheries, 62 pp.Parker PC 1998, ‘A study of grey nurse sharks (Carharias taurus) in northern New SouthWales’, unpublished integrated project for Bachelor of Applied Science, Southern CrossUniversity, 52 pp.Parker PC and Bucher DJ 2000, ‘Seasonal variation in abundance and sex ration of greynurse (sand tiger) sharks Carcharias taurus in northern New South Wales, Australia: asurvey based on observations of recreational scuba divers’, Pacific Conservation Biology5, pp 336–346.Richardson D 1996, ‘Factors influencing the ecology of anemonefishes(Pomacentridae: Amphiprion) and giant anemones (Actinaria) within sub-tropicaleastern Australian waters’, PhD Thesis, Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia.Richardson DL, Harrison PL and Harriott VJ 1997, ‘Timing of spawning and fecundityof a tropical and subtropical anemonefish (Pomacentridae: Amphiprion) on a highlatitude reef on the east coast of Australia’, Marine Ecology Progress Series 156,pp 175–181.Roberts DE and Davis AR 1996, ‘Patterns in sponge (Porifera) assemblages ontemperate coastal reefs off Sydney, Australia’, Australian Journal of Marine andFreshwater Research 47, pp 897–906.Roff JC, Taylor ME and Laughren J 2003, ‘Geophysical approaches to the classification,delineation and monitoring of marine habitats and their communities’, AquaticConservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13, pp 77–90.Rotherham D and West RJ 2002, ‘Do different seagrass species support distinct fishcommunities in south-eastern Australia?’, Fisheries Management and Ecology 9,pp 235–248.Rule MJ 2004, ‘Spatial and temporal variation in the recruitment of marine invertebrateassemblages to artificial substrata’, Ph.D. Thesis, University of New England, Armidale,Australia.Rule MJ and Smith SDA 2005, ‘Spatial variation in the recruitment of benthicassemblages to artificial substrata’, Marine Ecology Progress Series 290, pp 67–78.Rule MJ, Jordan A, McIlgorm A 2007, ‘The marine environment of northern New SouthWales. A review of current knowledge and existing datasets’, report to the NorthernRivers Catchment Management Authority, National Marine Science Centre, CoffsHarbour.Rule MJ, Smith SDA 2007, ‘Depth-associated patterns in the development of benthicassemblages on artificial substrata deployed on shallow, subtropical reefs’, Journal ofExperimental Marine Biology and Ecology 345, pp 38–51.Sawtell S 2002, ‘An analysis of ecological change in relation to human settlementpatterns and activities in estuaries in the Coffs Harbour Region’, M.Sc. Thesis, Universityof New England. Armidale, Australia.

42 Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine ParkShort AD 1993, Beaches of the New South Wales coast: a guide to their nature,characteristics, surf and safety, Australian Beach Safety and Management Program, TheUniversity Printing Service, University of Sydney, Sydney, 358 pp.Short AD 2003, ‘Australia beach systems – the morphodynamics of wave through tidedominated beach-dune systems’, Journal of Coastal Research 35, pp 7–20.Short JM 1995, Protection of coastal rock platforms in New South Wales, report to theDepartment of Planning and Total Environment Centre.Smale MJ 1992, ‘Predatory fish and their prey – an overview of trophic interactions inthe fish communities of the west and south coasts of South Africa’, Buenguela TrophicFunctioning 12, pp 803–821.Smith P 1991, The biology and management of waders (suborder Charadrii) in NSW, NSWNational Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney, NSW.Smith P 1996, Draft management plan for little tern (Sterna albifrons) colonies in theGrafton District, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Hurstville.Smith S 1988, An update of the proposal for a marine reserve in the waters of the SolitaryIslands, Coffs Harbour–Wooli area of New South Wales, and results from surveys of majorcoastal headland and rock platforms in the proposed marine park area, NSW Agricultureand Fisheries.Smith SDA and Edgar RJ 1999, ‘Description and comparison of benthic communitystructure within the Solitary Islands Marine Park’, unpublished report, Solitary IslandsUnderwater Research Group (SURG), Coffs Harbour, NSW.Smith SDA and James KA 1999, ‘Surveys of rocky shore habitats – Sandon Bluffs andStation Creek Headland, Solitary Islands Marine Park’, report to the NSW Marine ParksAuthority, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, 35 pp.Smith SDA and Rowland JM 1999, ‘Soft-sediment fauna of the Solitary Islands MarinePark: preliminary results’, Armidale, University of New England.Smith SDA and Simpson RD 1991a, ‘Nearshore corals of the Coffs Harbour region, midnorth coast, New South Wales’, Wetlands (Australia) 11, pp 1–9.Smith SDA and Simpson RD 1991b, Preliminary reconnaissance survey of the marinecommunities associated with Willis Creek and Flat Top Point. Part 1. Rocky-intertidal biota,report to the NSW Public Works Department, University of New England, Armidale,NSW, 24 pp.Smith SDA and Simpson RD 1991c, Preliminary reconnaissance survey of the marinecommunities associated with Willis Creek and Flat Top Point. Part 2. Beach fauna andsublittoral communities, report to the NSW Public Works Department, University of NewEngland, Armidale, NSW.Smith SDA, Simpson RD, Currie DR and Saenger P 1988, ‘Survey of corals at headlandsin the Coffs Harbour district’, University of New England, 70 pp.Smith SDA 1996, ‘The macrofaunal community of Ecklonia radiata holdfasts: variationassociated with sediment regime, sponge cover and depth’, Australian Journal ofEcology 21, pp 144–153.Smith SDA 2005, ‘Rapid assessment of invertebrate biodiversity on rocky shores: wherethere’s a whelk there’s a way’, Biodiversity and Conservation 14, pp 3565–3576.Taffs R 2006, Mangrove species of the Solitary Islands Marine Park, unpublished report.

Further reading 43The Ecology Lab 2006, Solitary Islands Marine Reserve. Baseline survey of the benthicenvironment, description of fish habitat relationships, and assessment of the mooringcode of conduct on Pimpernel Rock, report prepared by the Ecology Lab and Land andMarine Pty. Ltd. to the Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra.Thrush SF, Hewitt JE, Funnell GA, Cummings VJ, Ellis J, Schultz D, Talley D and NorkkoA 2001, ‘Fishing disturbance and marine biodiversity: the role of habitat structure insimple soft-sediment systems’, Marine Ecology Progress Series 223, pp 277–286.Underwood AJ and Chapman MG 1995, ‘Rocky shores’ in Underwood AJ andChapman MG (eds), Coastal Marine Ecology of Temperate Australia, pp 55–82.Veron JEN 1993, Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific, University of Hawaii Press,Honolulu.Veron JEN, How RA, Done TJ, Zell LD, Dodkin MJ, O’Farrell AF 1974, ‘Corals of theSolitary Islands, central New South Wales’, Australian Journal of Marine and FreshwaterResearch 25, pp 193–208.Ward TJ, Vanderklift MA, Nichols AO and Kenchington RA 1999, ‘Selecting marinereserves using habitats and species assemblages as surrogates for biological diversity’,Ecological Applications 9, pp 691–698.Webster PJ, Rowden AA and Attrill MJ 1998, ‘Effect of shoot density on the infaunalmacro-invertebrate community within a Zostera marina seagrass bed’, Estuarine, Coastaland Shelf Science 47, pp 351–357.West G, Williams RJ and Morrison D 2006, ‘Mapping of aquatic macrophytesthroughout New South Wales estuaries’, unpublished report by the NSW Departmentof Primary Industries.Williams A and Bax NJ 2001, ‘Delineating fish-habitat associations for spatially basedmanagement: an example from the south-eastern Australian continental shelf’,Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 52, pp 513–536.Wilson JR 1998, ‘Reproduction and larval ecology of broadcast spawning corals atthe Solitary Islands, Eastern Australia’, PhD Thesis, Southern Cross University, Lismore,Australia.Zann LP 2000a, ‘State of the Environment of the Solitary Islands Marine Park’, report toEnvironment Australia, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW.Zann LP 2000b, ‘The eastern Australian Region; a dynamic tropical/temperate biotone’,Marine Pollution Bulletin 41, pp 188–203.