Research Project Summaries 2002-2009 - Marine Parks Authority ...

Solitary Islands andJervis Bay Marine Parks:Research Project Summaries2002 - 2009

© Copyright State of NSW and NSW Marine Parks Authority 2010Published by: NSW Marine Parks Authority, c/o PO Box 1967, Hurstville, NSW 1481Phone: 1300 361 967Fax: (02) 9585 6544.Website: www.mpa.nsw.gov.auRecommended citation: NSW Marine Parks Authority 2010 Solitary Islands and Jervis BayMarine Parks: Research Project Summaries 2002–2009.Available from: www.mpa.nsw.gov.auSolitary Islands Marine ParkPh: (02) 6652 0900Email: solitary.islands@mpa.nsw.gov.auJervis Bay Marine ParkPh: (02) 4428 3000Email: jervis.bay@mpa.nsw.gov.auAs research in these marine parks is ongoing, this document will be updated toincorporate new, relevant information Future versions of this document will be clearlyidentified.DECCW 2010/320ISBN 978 1 74232 634 4May 2010

ContentsSummaryiii1. Introduction 12. Biodiversity and ecological processes 32.1 Solitary Islands Marine Park 42.1.1 Habitat knowledge 42.1.2 Biodiversity assessment 52.1.3 Ecosystem dynamics 122.2 Jervis Bay Marine Park 132.2.1 Habitat knowledge 132.2.2 Biodiversity assessment 133. Ecologically sustainable use 183.1 Solitary Islands Marine Park 183.1.1 Assessment of marine park zoning 183.1.2 Fishing and collecting 203.1.3 Population biology and assessment 213.2 Jervis Bay Marine Park 253.2.1 Assessment of marine park zoning 253.2.2 Population biology and assessment 274. Specific impacts 304.1 Solitary Islands Marine Park 304.1.1 Development and infrastructure 304.1.2 Pollution 314.1.3 Pests and disease 324.2 Jervis May Marine Park 334.2.1 Development and infrastructure 334.2.2 Pests and disease 355. Indigenous and non-Indigenous culture and heritage 365.1 Solitary Islands Marine Park 366. Socio-economic influences 376.1 Solitary Islands Marine Park 376.2 Jervis Bay Marine Park 40i

7. Appendices 427.1 Solitary Islands Marine Park 427.1.1 Completed research projects conducted or supported by theMPA 427.1.2 Completed external research projects relevant to the SolitaryIslands Marine Park 437.2 Jervis Bay Marine Park 447.2.1 Completed research projects conducted or supported by theMPA 447.2.2 Completed external research projects relevant to Jervis BayMarine Park 458. References and relevant literature 46ii

SummaryBuilding a network of marine protected areas to comprehensively represent marinebiodiversity is a priority of the NSW Government, and to evaluate the effectiveness ofmarine parks through quality science is a high priority (NSW MPA 2004). Knowledge ofspatial distributions and changes in species, habitats, and ecosystem processes iscrucial to effective conservation planning and management. Specific impacts such aspollution, infrastructure development, pests and disease are also an important researchpriority. Information on social, economic and cultural values helps to understand andmanage conflict, improves consultation, education and compliance, and optimisesbenefits of marine parks to the community.Research projects conducted within the Solitary Islands Marine Park and Jervis BayMarine Park over the review period 2002 to 2009 are directly relevant to marine parkplanning and management. These projects were conducted by the Marine ParksAuthority (MPA), supported financially or in-kind by the MPA, or carried out externallyto the MPA, primarily through universities. Research findings summarised in thisdocument came from all these sources.The MPA has conducted core programs to evaluate the effectiveness of the zoning andrelated management in fulfilling the objectives of the Marine Parks Act 1997 anddefined assessment criteria. Firstly, an acoustic seabed habitat mapping programprovided important information on the extent, distribution and structure of thesehabitats. Combining maps of seabed habitats from a number of sources withinformation on species composition has allowed improved assessment of theeffectiveness of zoning arrangements to represent biological diversity. For example, inthe Solitary Islands Marine Park, the current zoning plan uses a classification systembased on habitats, various depths, and elevation of reefs, as a surrogate forbiodiversity. Subsequent research indicated that species assemblages are stronglycorrelated with distance from shore and depth, and the current classification systemacknowledges this.To improve information on spatial patterns of biodiversity available for assessment ofzoning arrangements in the Solitary Islands Marine Park and Jervis Bay Marine Park,targeted surveys over the past seven years have built on surveys conducted beforedevelopment of the current zoning plan. In the Solitary Islands Marine Park, surveyshave focused on shallow and intermediate-depth reef fishes and molluscs primarilyoutside estuaries, macroinvertebrates in estuaries and other groups of fauna includingsome echinoderms and crustaceans at specific locations. Surveys in Jervis Bay MarinePark focused on fish, invertebrates and algae on shallow reefs and faunalassemblages (including polychaetes, molluscs and crustaceans) in estuarine softsedimenthabitats. Many of these projects were conducted over several years toexamine the effect of zoning on species diversity and abundance.Monitoring activities have also investigated specific impacts such as the effect ofmoorings on seagrass beds, introduced species, land use change, and causes andeffects of coral disease. In Jervis Bay Marine Park, research projects have alsoexamined the structure of pelagic fish assemblages and the distribution and behaviourof dolphins. Effects of zoning on recreational activities, including fishing, wereevaluated with long-term monitoring of usage patterns and recreational fishing catchrates. Visitor surveys throughout the Solitary Islands Marine Park also gave anassessment of the patterns of human use and visitor demographics and satisfaction.This diverse range of projects in the Solitary Islands Marine Park and Jervis BayMarine Park aims to help evaluate of the effectiveness of the current zoning andiii

elated management arrangements. The information is being used within the currentzoning review process for these two marine parks. This report is structured around theresearch categories identified in the NSW Marine Parks Strategic Research Plan2005–2010, although it is recognised that some research may fit under more than onecategory. A brief description of available studies and findings are provided, andrelevant references are listed.iv

1. IntroductionA network of marine protected areas to comprehensively represent marine biodiversityis a priority of the NSW Government. Evaluating the effectiveness of NSW’s system ofmarine parks through quality science is a high priority (NSW MPA 2004). Effectiveconservation planning relies on accurate knowledge of the spatial distributions ofspecies and changes in species, habitats, and ecosystem processes. Information onsocial, economic and cultural values helps understand and manage conflict, improvesconsultation, education and compliance; and benefits the community.The MPA’s research and monitoring programs are guided by a strategic researchframework and a strategic research plan (see www.mpa.nsw.gov.au). The StrategicFramework for Evaluation and Monitoring of NSW Marine Parks (NSW MPA 2004)provides a vision and structure for research and monitoring programs that contribute toa whole-of-government approach to sustainable management of marine resources inNSW.The strategic framework includes two overarching priorities for research andmonitoring. These are the need to:identify and select the location and nature of marine parks and their zones monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of marine park zoning and relatedmanagement arrangements.Under this current framework research and monitoring is categorised under five areas:1. biodiversity and ecological processes2. indigenous and non-Indigenous culture and heritage3. ecologically sustainable use4. specific impacts5. socio-economic influences.The NSW Marine Parks Strategic Research Plan 2005–2010 prioritises research withinthe individual marine parks. Research is also identified within annual park-based plans(see www.mpa.nsw.gov.au). A range of specific research projects has been conductedwithin each marine park, with either financial or in-kind support from the MPA,Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water NSW or Industry andInvestment NSW. In addition, independent research projects relevant to the planningand management of these marine parks have been conducted by researchorganisations, universities and individuals.In the Solitary Islands Marine Park, researchers from universities in NSW, Vic, Qld andoverseas have conducted projects on marine park planning and management. Inparticular, the National Marine Science Centre (NMSC) has contributed significantly tothe biological and ecological knowledge of this park, through specific research as wellas undergraduate and postgraduate projects.In Jervis Bay Marine Park, research and monitoring has been undertaken incollaboration with visiting scientists and university undergraduate and postgraduateresearch students from universities and research institutions including University ofNew South Wales, Tasmanian Aquaculture and Fisheries Institute, MacquarieUniversity, University of Western Sydney, University of Wollongong, AustralianMaritime College, Australian Catholic University, Southern Cross University,Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 1

Commonwealth Science Industry Research Organisation, Geoscience Australia andDefence Science Technology Organisation.This report summarises research programs and studies conducted in these marineparks over their five-year zoning plan review period (2002–2007). A full list of allrelevant research projects in the marine parks within this period is presented in Section7, and a list of publications directly relevant to these marine parks, including thosepublished before 2002, is available at www.mpa.nsw.gov.au.The intention of this report is to summarise research projects (both MPA and external)conducted within these two marine parks that are considered relevant to their zoningreview. The report indicates the direction and type of research conducted from 2002 to2009, since the last overviews were carried out by the MPA (NSW MPA 2000, Zann2000, NSW MPA 2001).Many of the described projects have built on research conducted before 2002, but suchresearch is generally not detailed in this report. A broader description is found in therelated reports Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine Park (NSW MPA 2008a)and Natural values of the Jervis Bay Marine Park (NSW MPA 2008b).Further details of many earlier studies in Solitary Islands Marine Park region are alsopresented in Rule et al (2007), and in the Jervis Bay Marine Park in Breen et al (2005).A number of projects that aim to provide information relevant to the zoning review arefound within the Solitary Islands Marine Park and Jervis Bay Marine Park Zoning PlanReview Reports.Several other reports or manuscripts, in conjunction with this report, provide specificinformation relevant to zoning reviews for these marine parks. These are:Malcolm, HA, Smith, SDA, Jordan A (2010). Using patterns of reef fish assemblages torefine a Habitat Classification System for marine parks in NSW, Australia. AquaticConservation: Marine and Freshwater EcosystemsMalcolm HA, Jordan A, Smith SDA (in press). Biogeographical and cross-shelf patternsof reef fish assemblages in a transition zone, Marine BiodiversityNSW MPA (2010). Mapping of seabed habitats in the Solitary Islands and Jervis BayMarine Parks.This report is structured around the research categories identified in the NSW MarineParks Strategic Research Plan 2005–2010, although it is recognised that someresearch projects may fit under more than one category. A brief description of availablestudy or studies and findings are provided. The principal researcher/s and theiraffiliation are listed for all studies described in this report (see Appendices).2 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

2. Biodiversity and ecological processesThe primary criteria for establishing marine parks in Australia are that they contain acomprehensive, adequate and representative selection of marine biodiversity.Comprehensiveness is the extent of the full range of ecosystems and habitats in andacross all bioregions; adequacy is the degree to which the size, boundaries andlocation of marine parks are adequate to maintain biodiversity and ecological patternsand processes, particularly in relation to managing impact on such patterns andprocesses; and representativeness is a reflection of the range of biological diversity ofcommunities within ecosystems and habitats (ANZECC TFMPA 1998).To ensure zoning arrangements meet the above objectives most effectively, it isimportant to include biodiversity and ecological information when planning. In manyregions, data on biotic composition or species distribution come from surveys atindividual sites, examining communities or life-history of abundant and ofteneconomically important species. However, detailed spatial information on thedistribution of a wide range of species is generally limited. There is increasing evidencethat habitats may act as effective ‘surrogates’ for species diversity in the planningprocess, provided they are appropriately validated (Ward et al 1999), and allrepresentative habitats are included (Roff et al 2003). Therefore, mapping the extent,structure and distribution of seabed habitats can be a cost-effective method ofbiodiversity assessment.However, since biological diversity can be defined at multiple levels, habitats must bemapped and classified at levels within a hierarchical framework. In the context ofseabed mapping, the upper levels in the hierarchy are specifically delineated throughremote sensing and associated ground truthing (visual observations of the seabed toidentify or validate features mapped remotely, e.g. using swath acoustic sonar), andare commonly based on geophysical features (Zacharias et al 1998, Greene et al 1999,Roff and Taylor 2000, Bax and Williams 2001) or a combination of biological andphysical features (Allee et al 2000). Recent advances in swath acoustic methods haveallowed increased resolution and spatial coverage of the seabed and examination ofthe biophysical extent and structure of various habitats (Kostylev et al 2001, Brown etal 2002, Beaman et al 2005). These advancements have led a number of seabedmapping programs in NSW providing important information on the planning andassessment of marine park zones.The zoning plans in Solitary Islands and Jervis Bay marine parks used a habitatclassification system as a surrogate for biodiversity, and this is likely to remain a keyplanning tool in NSW marine parks. However, its effectiveness will depend to someextent on how well it represents patterns of biodiversity (Gladstone 2002, Smith 2005,Winberg et al 2007a). The habitat classification system primarily uses depth todifferentiate habitat types; depth has been demonstrated to strongly influenceassemblages and species in different taxonomic groups including fishes (Connell andLincoln-Smith 1999, Williams and Bax 2001) and benthic organisms (Garrabou et al2002). While depth and habitat are often closely linked, if other factors were shown tohave a strong influence, a system based solely on depth may not be an ideal planningtool. Reefs can also be classified into different ‘reef types’ based on broadgeomorphologic categories, including whether it is attached to emergent rock (e.g.headlands, islands, islets, rocks) or is fully submerged at all tides.An important component of a marine ecosystem’s biological diversity and ecologicalfunction is reef-associated fishes (Shears and Babcock 2002). These fishes also havesocial, cultural and economic value, therefore are relevant for marine park planning intheir own right (Gladstone 2007). Combining information on spatial patterns ofSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 3

community composition with maps of seabed habitats will allow more accurateassessment of zoning to represent diversity (Williams and Bax 2001).As reef fish assemblages can be highly variable at different spatial scales such asacross or along a reef, and at different temporal scales (e.g. seasonal variation), it isimportant to adequately survey patterns of abundance within each marine park. Largerscales of variation may reflect factors such as past and present biogeographic andoceanographic patterns (Bellwood and Wainwright 2002), latitude (Meekan and Choat1997), geology (Harman et al 2003), temperature and productivity (Leathwick et al2006). In contrast, spatial variation in assemblage structure of fishes at smaller spatialscales (100s–1000s of metres) can be driven by complex interactions between manyfactors including habitat (Connell and Jones 1991, Curley et al 2002), environmentalgradients (e.g. aspect, exposure, turbidity, light, depth) (Warner et al 2000), andecological processes (Shima 2001). Such ecological processes can also influence localassemblages through mechanisms associated with population dynamics and species’life histories. These include: dispersal, recruitment and settlement; densitydependence, competition and predation; and trophic-dynamics and partitioning. Toinvestigate all potential factors and interactions between them is not feasible.To improve the spatial biodiversity information available for zoning plans in SolitaryIslands and Jervis Bay Marine Parks, comprehensive surveys over the past sevenyears built on surveys conducted before the current zoning plans commenced. In theSolitary Islands Marine Park, surveys have focused on reef fishes and molluscsprimarily outside estuaries; macroinvertebrates in estuaries and other fauna groupsincluding some echinoderms (marine invertebrates such as a starfish or sea urchins)and amphipods at specific locations. Similarly, work in the Jervis Bay Marine Park hasfocused on habitat research in shallow and intermediate-depth reefs usingassemblages of fish, invertebrates and algae, and soft-sediment habitat in estuariesusing polychaetes, molluscs and crustaceans.2.1 Solitary Islands Marine ParkThe Solitary Islands Marine Park experiences the overlap of tropical and temperatebiogeographic zones on the east coast of Australia (Zann 2000a). Tropical offshore andtemperate inshore currents, combined with the varied habitats of extensive reef andoffshore islands, have resulted in a biologically diverse system, with a spatially complexmix of species, assemblages and habitats. Key habitats include intertidal and subtidalreefs, soft sediments, seagrass beds, mangroves, saltmarsh, and pelagic waters, all ofwhich support distinct assembledges of plants and animals.2.1.1 Habitat knowledgeSeveral seabed habitat mapping projects in the Solitary Islands Marine Park since2002 build on earlier work on mid-shelf and offshore reefs (Mau et al 1998) and inshorereefs (see details in Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine Park) (MPA 2008a).Habitat mapping refers here to a range of spatial data in a Geographical InformationSystem (GIS) primarily from remote sensed imagery and often a bathymetric modelthat is ground truthed to generate a habitat map within a hierarchical classificationscheme.In brief, mapping of estuarine aquatic macrophytes (seagrass, mangrove andsaltmarsh) from aerial photographs was completed in this marine park as part of theComprehensive Coastal Assessment (West et al 2006). Mangrove diversity wasexamined further in the estuaries by Taffs (2006). This recent mapping has enabled thecomprehensiveness of the current zoning arrangements in the estuaries to beassessed, as the full extent of each vegetated habitat was mapped. Selected seabed4 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

habitats outside the estuaries of the marine park were also mapped as part of a largerstatewide swath acoustic mapping program.The acoustic mapping revealed extensive subtidal rocky reefs throughout the marinepark, and while many reefs are adjacent to the mainland and offshore islands, othersare discrete subtidal features. A comprehensive description of the distribution, extentand structure of seabed habitats in the Solitary Islands Marine Park is provided in NSWMPA (2010a).Outside the estuaries, subtidal habitats are categorised into consolidated (reef) andunconsolidated (primarily sand dominated) areas, within three depth zones: shallow(0–25 m), intermediate (25–60 m) and deep (more than 60 m). The above informationwas combined to provide a map of known distribution of seabed habitats in the SolitaryIslands Marine Park (Figure 1).More recent assessment of the patterns of reef fish assemblages indicates threedistinct assemblages occurred on reefs 50 m supporting theneed for a habitat classification scheme based on these three depth categories. Inaddition, habitats have also been separated into subgroups based on their distanceoffshore: inshore (less than 1.5 km offshore), mid-shelf (1.5–6 km), and offshore (morethan 6 km offshore) (Malcolm et al 2010). For the purposes of reviewing the extent ofspecific habitats in each zone type these revised habitat classes have been used.Intertidal work on boulder habitat has shown them to be a relic habitat of higherHolocene sea-levels. Two types of boulder habitat were identified: boulder pockets andthe less common boulder beaches (Wilkes 2009).2.1.2 Biodiversity assessmentA number of broad biodiversity studies have been conducted within the Solitary IslandsMarine Park over the past two decades on algae (Millar 1990, 1998), corals (Smith andSimpson 1991, Veron 1993, Harriott et al 1994, Wilson 1998, Smith and Edgar 1999),fishes (Malcolm et al 2010; Malcolm et al in press; Malcolm et al in review b) and softsedimentassemblages (Smith and Rowland 1999). Mammals, reptiles and birds arealso distinct fauna – permanent residents, seasonal visitors or individuals passingthrough. A summary of the marine biodiversity in the NSW north coast region ispresented in Rule et al (2007).Building on previous research, surveys since 2002 have examined the biologicaldiversity of particular habitats, communities or taxonomic groups. Many of these alsodescribe spatial and temporal patterns of diversity, abundance and communitycomposition.Further details of the flora and fauna associated with defined habitats in the marinepark are in Natural Values of the Solitary Islands Marine Park (NSW MPA 2008a). Asummary is presented below.Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 5

Figure 1. Map of known seabed habitats in the Solitary Islands Marine Park and SolitaryIslands Marine Reserve (Commonwealth)6 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Reef fish assemblagesReef fish are an important component of the diversity in the Solitary Islands MarinePark, with 280 temperate and tropical species identified when zoning in the marinepark was last reviewed (NSW MPA 2000). To improve understanding of the diversityand spatial and temporal patterns in reef fish assemblages, a comprehensive survey ofreefs has been conducted since declaration of the marine park. Fish were broadlysurveyed on shallow reefs (3125] increased as more fish within a species was observedduring each count) for all species encountered (Malcolm et al 2010, in press). Fishwere also sampled annually (2002–2007, 2009) at 16 sites (six 25 m transects per site)using Underwater Visual Census techniques (UVC). They were surveyed at 56 sitesusing Baited Remote Underwater Video (BRUV) (Malcolm et al 2007, Malcolm et al inreview b). BRUV is useful in sampling below safe SCUBA depths (e.g. Cappo et al2003, Cappo et al 2004, Watson et al 2009) and was used to compare fishassemblages from 15 m down to the marine park’s maximum depth (75 m). BRUV siteswere selected using swath acoustic mapping to broadly cover the extent of deep (>50m) and intermediate (25–50 m) reefs, with three replicate 30-minute sets per site.Some of the timed count and BRUV sites were also sampled over multiple years toexamine temporal patterns.Surveys since 2002, combined with previous data, have identified more than 530 reeffish species (Malcolm submitted), reflecting the overlap of the tropical/ subtropical Indo-Pacific fauna and the temperate/subtropical south-eastern Australian and south-westPacific fauna. The Indo-Pacific fauna is strongly represented, with more than 50% ofspecies in the marine park regarded as tropical. The temperate and subtropical speciesalso contribute substantial species richness and other marine park diversity. Many ofthe more abundant species, contributing considerably to overall fish biomass, aretemperate schooling planktivores. Overall, high levels of Australian endemic fishspecies (around 30%) in the marine park are strongly driven by higher latitudetemperate species, and lesser by more restricted subtropical species (around 5%),consistent with high levels of endemism in south-eastern Australia. This reef fishdiversity is likely to be underestimated, as many small cryptic species may not havebeen detected during the surveys.There are distinct cross-shelf patterns in shallow reef fish assemblages, used to definehabitats as inshore (less than 1.5 km from the coast), mid-shelf (1.5 km–6 km from thecoast) and offshore (more than 6 km from the coast) (Malcolm et al 2010). Whiletemperate and subtropical species are abundant from inshore to offshore, tropicalspecies are only abundant offshore, particularly on island-attached reefs with coraldominated benthic communities. Distance from shore has a much stronger influence onassemblage patterns than factors including benthic community, depth range, latitude,and if the reef were attached to emergent rock or fully submerged. Endemic species,especially subtropical east coast endemics, are best represented inshore and midshelf.There is also distinct assemblage on intermediate and deep reefs with many of thosespecies not recorded on shallow-depth reefs.To better understand the processes determining spatial patterns of assemblages, seatemperature monitoring began in December 2000. Increasing sea temperature fromglobal warming brings potential impacts such as coral bleaching. Temperature loggershave been deployed at seven sites generally at a depth of about 10 m, withtemperature recorded every 30 minutes (Malcolm 2007). There are now over1,000,000 temperature records that can be accessed and queried through the websiteSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 7

(http://adc.aims.gov.au: 9555/seatemp/do/index.doc). Since 2006, temperature loggershave also been deployed by Industry and Investment NSW at 10 acoustic listeningstation sites.Sea temperature data, in combination with sea surface temperature satellite images,demonstrate that the East Australian Current (EAC) varies from inshore to offshore,more frequently warming the offshore islands. This is partly due to the marine parkbeing positioned in the large regional embayment between Ballina and Smokey Cape.The EAC generally dominates the waters of the marine park between January andMarch, particularly on the mid and outer continental shelf, with the warmesttemperatures consistently recorded during February and March. During winter andspring, the marine park is influenced by cooler inshore waters, with sea temperaturesranging from about 17°C during winter to 27°C during summer (Malcolm 2007, Malcolmet al in review a). Some of the strongest variability occurs in spring, associated withcold water intrusions. There is some inter-annual variability, with slightly lower andhigher values mostly reflecting variations in the dominance of the EAC and coolerinshore waters. Large differences can also be detected over short periods (more than5ºC recorded in less than 12 hours), consistent with the vagaries of the EAC as itmoves in and out from the coast, as well as cold-water intrusions. These spatialpatterns of sea temperature are expected to play an important role to determine crossshelfvariation in reef fish assemblages in the marine park.Various tropical fish species recruit to the NSW coast between December and June.Regular visual surveys and collections at sites along the coast help to betterunderstand how patterns of recruitment are associated with nearshore (wind and tide)and offshore (EAC) flow dynamics (Booth et al 2007). This includes examiningmechanisms which allow for occasional over-winter survival of some fishes. Surveylocations in the marine park include North Solitary Island (Anemone Bay). Resultsindicate that the marine park may comprise the southernmost ‘year-round’ populationsfor breeding of many of these ‘tropical fishes’, especially several species of damselfish,and is likely a source of recruits as far south as Merimbula (Booth et al 2007).The reef fish assemblages on the deeper parts of the shallow reefs (around 15–25 m),those at intermediate depths (25–50 m), and deep reefs (50–75 m) have beensurveyed in the marine park with BRUV. Four sites on the deeper parts of the shallowreefs were surveyed every year between 2002 and 2009. A total of 137 species wererecorded, although only about 30 species were dominant and persistent (Malcolm et al2007, Malcolm et al in review b). The most common species were the schoolingspecies mado (Atypichthys strigatus) and silver sweep (Scorpis lineolata). Somespecies recorded on intermediate or deep reefs were not previously recorded in thismarine park.In 2006, a number of benthic surveys on nearshore reefs throughout the north coastregion examined, in part, the broad spatial pattern in fish assemblages and other taxa(Smith et al 2008). Results indicated considerable variation between locations, andamong reefs in a location. The small-scale variation was especially prevalent for fish,mollusc and benthic communities, with reefs separated by only a few hundred metressupporting different communities. Indeed, levels of small-scale variability were so highthey masked location effects for fish species richness (i.e. differences were sometimesgreater within reefs at scales of hundreds of metres than between reefs at scales ofkilometres or more). The abundance of fish was also highly variable, found to beprimarily associated with distribution of pelagic and schooling fish. Hot spots for reeffish diversity was also assessed at a range of island-associated sites from Cook Islandto South West Rocks, and this further indicated the regional importance of the marinepark to fish biodiversity (Smith et al 2006a).8 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

To further examine the influence of selected physical and biological factors on themarine park’s benthic communities, Harrison (2003) examined the role of habitatcomplexity and wave exposure to determine the structure of benthic macroinvertebratesand demersal fish assemblages, and the population structure of theurchin Centrostephanus rodgersii at South Solitary Island. The study found that habitatcomplexity and wave exposure help structure local patterns of macroinvertebrate anddemersal fish communities over a small spatial scale (hundreds of metres). Thepopulation structure of C. rodgersii was shown to depend on availability of structuralshelter provided by complex habitats. Defining spatial parameters such as seabedcomplexity through swath acoustic mapping will improve understanding of the role suchmorphological variables have on community composition over large spatial scales.Estuarine macrofaunaIn the marine park there are five permanently open estuaries and approximately tenintermittently closed estuaries (i.e. open and closed to coastal waters), some of whichare small. Seasonal sampling of benthic macrofauna was conducted in sixintermittently closed and three permanently open estuaries over two years to examinethe spatial and temporal patterns of community composition (Hastie 2006).Distinct differences were identified between the two estuary types consistent throughtime, despite a high degree of variation between estuaries of the same type (Hastieand Smith 2006). Interestingly, the two estuary types were most similar when all theintermittently closed estuaries were open. These community patterns within andbetween estuary types appear to be driven by catchment size, which influences thelikelihood of entrance closure and, hence, changes in environmental conditions.Temporal changes were most notable in the lower reaches of intermittently closedestuaries, where entrance closure resulted in assemblages becoming eitherdepauperate or dominated by species that were otherwise most commonly recordedfurther upstream. These trends were usually most strongly correlated with variation ineither salinity or sediment, especially organic content.These results confirm an ecological difference between the intermittently closed andpermanently open estuaries In addition to unique communities between estuary types,they also indicate high individuality between estuaries within each type. Suchinformation is important in the zoning process to ensure there is effectiverepresentation of the full range of biodiversity in sanctuary zones.Beach meiofauna variabilitySandy beach meiofaunal communities were examined at two locations (Bell 2005). Inone survey, samples were collected eight times over 128 days to examine temporalvariability. Significant variation was detected, with changes occurring in communitiesbetween each of the eight sampling events. At community level, only a slightcorrelation was found between meiofaunal communities and sediment characteristics,while a strong relationship was seen between populations of some species andsediment characteristics.Spatial variability was examined using a nested design across a number of spatialscales (kilometres, hundreds of metres, tens of metres and tens of centimetres).Variation in the meiofaunal community was detected across all scales, with sedimentcharacteristics (particularly grain size) the major factor in structuring the communityover most spatial scales examined, with strong correlations at the community andtaxon level.Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 9

This study highlights the variability in benthic assemblages on beaches, indicating thatlarge changes naturally occur in meiofaunal assemblages.MolluscsMolluscs are a diverse faunal group whose spatial patterns of diversity and communitycomposition were examined. There are currently 755 mollusc species identified withinthe marine park region (Rule et al 2007), with gastropods (excluding microshells) andbivalve molluscs accounting for around 600 species. These include many taxa thathave tropical (e.g. Harpa amouretta, Cypraea mauritiana) and temperate affinities(e.g. Cypraea piperita), with some at their southernmost extent (e.g. Tridacna maxima)(Smith in review). Several species had not previously been identified in the region,such as Mitra edentula, which was only known to occur on the southern Great BarrierReef (GBR) (Smith 2003).Mollusc assembladges (prosobranchs and bivalves) were surveyed on four nearshorereefs adjacent to Coffs Harbour (Smith et al 2006a). Species richness was highlyvariable between sites, even when separated by only hundreds of metres, and theoverall assemblage structure on these reefs was discrete (Smith and Harrison 2006).Comparisons between shallow rockpool assemblages at eight headlands also indicatedstrong variability (Birkbeck 2002).As part of a current PhD study, cross-shelf patterns of community structure weredescribed for subtidal molluscs in the marine park (Harrison unpubl. data). Two reefswere surveyed in each near-shore, mid-shelf and offshore region, with shelled molluscsmore than 5 mm long sampled at two sites on each reef, evaluating the effect ofseabed slope more than 45° and less than 45° on determining spatial assemblagepatterns. There was a clear difference in mollusc assemblages over the cross-shelfgradient but no significant difference between species richness and diversity. Slopehad no measurable effect on assemblage structure. Evaluating species responsible forthe patterns of assemblage structure indicated that offshore locations were dominatedby smaller grazing and predatory molluscs and sessile bivalves, especially Chama spp.Larger herbivorous molluscs, especially turbinids, increased in abundance at mid-shelflocations and dominated nearshore communities (Harrison et al 2006).AmphipodsThe biodiversity of amphipods in natural habitats and Artificial Substrata Units (ASUs)was examined, and taxonomic descriptions were developed for new species (Hughesand Lowry 2006, Hughes 2007). Initial surveys indicated that amphipod speciesrichness along a depth gradient (4–14 m) varied with exposure and location. At SplitSolitary Island, shallow depths supported the highest species richness, while at KorffsIslet, just south of the marine park, highest richness occurred at greater depths.Samples from 10 m deep, however, most often showed the highest species richness.Sampling using ASUs indicated distinct differences in assemblages between locations.Nine new species collected within the marine park during this study were described(Hughes and Lowry 2006). Other important taxonomic outcomes include the subgenusTelsosynopia (Karaman 1986) being given genus status; and reporting of Protohyalepusilla (Chevreux 1907) in Australia for the first time.Six types of ASUs were tested to develop a rapid assessment sampling packagespecifically to catalogue regional amphipod biodiversity (Hughes and Smith 2004). Foursites in the marine park were used to trial six ASU types, including new ‘scourers’successful in previous studies, and some untested scrubbers. Deployment was overtwo weeks, one month and four months, with one month proving optimum for bothabundance and number of species.10 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Different types of ASUs supported different levels of species assemblages andcommunities. Unique recruitment to each type of ASU made each valuable todetermine regional amphipod biodiversity, with five types providing an optimum solution(Hughes 2007). Amphipods readily colonised ASUs, which sampled more amphipodfauna than the general collection of natural habitats. Assemblages recruiting to thesampling package were strongly representative of the local and regional species poolwhen compared to master lists compiled from all available records. While significantdifferences were found between types of ASUs, recruiting assemblages more closelyreflected location-specific differences when compared across the four island locations.Surrogates for biodiversityReliable indicator taxa need to be developed to assess effectiveness of marineconservation monitoring programs and management actions. Using the rocky shores ofthe marine park as a model, macroinvertebrates were evaluated to determine whichtaxa:best reflected ecological patterns of the broader intertidal communitywere able to accurately predict species richness of assemblages of entireheadlands (Smith 2005)Both molluscs and crustaceans showed high levels of correlation with overall speciesrichness. However, molluscs, particularly prosobranchs, most closely reflected patternsin community data and provided the most accurate predictions of species richness atthe headland scale. Molluscs offer considerable potential time savings, with reductionsin field time by up to 40%, as well as reduced need for extensive taxonomic knowledgeof other invertebrate groups. They are widespread and easily sampled, with stabletaxonomy and well-known ecology relative to other marine invertebrate taxa. Their useas surrogates of biodiversity has great potential for future marine conservation studies.To test this, surveys of death assemblages (dead shells) were conducted on 10headlands. Species lists were analysed to determine:average taxonomic distinctness – the degree to which species in a sample arerelatedvariation in taxonomic distinctness – the evenness of distribution of speciesacross higher taxonomic levelsThese biodiversity indices were then compared with equivalent measures determinedfrom a regional species list (Smith 2004).Five headlands returned average taxonomic distinctness. Progressive, random poolingof data further indicated that a species list compiled from any three or more headlandsfully represented regional biodiversity determined by this index In contrast, only threeheadlands showed variation in taxonomic distinctness, and progressive pooling acrossheadlands did not improve the outcome. This was mainly due to over-representation ofsome gastropod families, and under-representation of most bivalve families in deathassemblages at most sites. The practical implications are that at least three headlandsneed to be surveyed to obtain representative estimates of average taxonomicdistinctness of molluscs in the region. The unevenness of taxonomic representationand, in particular, the under-sampling of bivalves, further suggests that data collectedfrom paired headland–beach surveys may be more representative of regional molluscbiodiversity (Smith and Harrison 2006).In a further experiment, community structure was compared between two dominantnatural algal habitats (kelp holdfasts and algal turf) and ASUs (nests of pan scourers)Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 11

deployed in close contact with, and 20 cm above, the substratum (Smith and Rule2002). Community structure and taxonomic distinctness between the four differenthabitats were compared to determine if the ASU provided a representative sample ofthe local epifaunal species pool, and thus could be a surrogate for sampling thisimportant faunal group. There were marked differences between community structuresin each habitat. Both sets of ASUs were dominated by tubicolous polychaetes,abundances greater than in the holdfast and turf samples. The fauna recruiting to theASU above the substratum showed the lowest values in the univariate diversity andevenness and were unrepresentative of the local species pool. ASUs in contact withthe substratum showed greater diversity and evenness but were still mostlyunrepresentative of the local species pool.Reef fish families that could be surrogates representing the assemblage patterns andrelative diversity in this marine park have also been evaluated (Malcolm and Smith2006, Malcolm and Smith in press). Concordance between a range of surrogatefamilies and the full reef fish assemblage was evaluated at 70 sites using multivariateanalyses to indicate the most effective surrogates for predicting relative speciesrichness.A total of 254 species in 66 families were recorded from these sites, with thetwo most diverse families being the wrasse (Labridae: 43 spp) and the damselfishes(Pomacentridae: 32 spp). These two families comprised 30% of overall speciesrichness, and closely reflected spatial patterns shown by the full assemblage, althoughwere less effective at estimating species richness (Malcolm and Smith in press). Theycovered a range of trophic groups, with a mix of tropical and temperate species. Theiruse as surrogates will assist in systematic planning and evaluation.It is clear that reefs near each other do not necessarily support similar benthiccommunities, either in terms of biodiversity and biotic composition. This indicates thatwhile broad maps of reef habitat based on depth and distance offshore are importantfor marine park zoning arrangements, detailed information from many reefs would berequired to maximise inclusion of representative samples of biodiversity in sanctuaryzones. Evaluation of areas within the Solitary Islands Marine Park that could mostefficiently meet representation targets has used a systematic algorithm approach(Marxan) for both habitat (as per the Habitat Classification System) and reef fish.Combining these abiotic and biotic data is the most effective approach (Malcolmsubmitted).2.1.3 Ecosystem dynamicsCoral communities are an important structural habitat in the marine park (Harriott et al1994, Harriott and Smith 2002). Climate change, which is causing increased seawatertemperatures and carbon dioxide saturation of oceans, has implications for reef health,particularly for coral communities. Hard coral is near the upper threshold of thermaltolerance, and coral accretion is limited in this region due to slow calcification rates andstorm damage. Generally, hard corals have acclimatised to abiotic factors such astemperature, light intensity and acidification over thousands of years, but increases inseawater temperature above upper threshold levels can lead to bleaching (loss ofmutualistic zooxanthellae). Coral colonies can die if high temperatures are maintainedfor several weeks.Anecdotally, extensive coral bleaching occurred in this marine park during the 1998mass bleaching, which resulted in extensive coral loss throughout the world’s oceans.During this period sea temperatures and coral community data were not recorded,which precluded analysis of bleaching thresholds of coral species found here, althoughanecdotal information suggests that water temperatures approached 28°C at the morenortherly sites. During coral bleaching threshold laboratory experiments, Dalton (2010)12 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

noted that colonies of Turbinaria mesenterina and T. frondens (dominant coral speciesat inshore and mid-shelf island reefs) bleached when seawater temperatures exceeded26°C. However, coral mortality only occurred in colonies bathed in seawater above28°C, following three weeks of higher temperatures. While mass bleaching alsoaffected dominant corals throughout the GBR in 2002 and 2006, only low levels ofbleaching occurred in the marine park. Edgar et al (2003) indicated only minorbleaching in some susceptible species such as pocilloporids and acroporids between2000 and 2003. Dalton (2010) found that between 2004 and 2006, bleaching increasedduring summer and was more prevalent in branching corals such as pocilloporidscompared with tabular and encrusting morphs.The sea temperature monitoring program found sea temperatures to be highest in 2002and 2006 at 27.5°C. The warmer temperatures in 2002 were related to a pulse of warmwater generated in the Coral Sea and responsible for the GBR’s strongest recordedbleaching event. However, in 2002 high sea temperatures dropped away rapidly, whichmay have prevented extensive bleaching in this marine park. Overall, 2006 had thegreatest range in sea temperature and appeared to have the strongest seatemperature variability. The yearly average sea temperature was highest in 2005 and2006 at the offshore site. The maximum temperature was highest in 2006 at both theoffshore and mid-shelf sites but not the inshore site. There is a strong correspondencebetween the position of the EAC, cold water intrusions and sea temperature.Temperature can also vary strongly within defined hours, with differences up to 6.5°Crecorded in less than 24 hours at North Solitary Island (Malcolm et al in review a).2.2 Jervis Bay Marine Park2.2.1 Habitat knowledgeSeabed habitat mapping projects conducted in Jervis Bay Marine Park since 2002 buildon earlier work on soft-sediment habitats (West et al 1985, CSIRO 1994) andnearshore reefs (see Breen et al 2004). Firstly, mapping of estuarine aquaticmacrophytes (seagrass, mangrove and saltmarsh) was completed throughout themarine park as part of the statewide Comprehensive Coastal Assessment (West et al2006). Mapping consisted of digitising habitat boundaries from existing aerialphotographs, with boundaries and dominant species composition confirmed throughground truthing. Around 40 square km of seabed was also recently mapped usingswath acoustic techniques. Much of this was conducted by the NSW Department ofEnvironment, Climate Change and Water using an interferometric side-scan sonar,although a large area offshore of Beecroft Head was mapped by Geoscience Australiausing a multibeam sonar system. In brief, swath acoustic mapping revealed extensivesubtidal rocky reefs throughout the marine park, with many extending immediatelyadjacent from the Bherwerre and Beecroft Peninsulas and offshore from CurrarongBeach and Wreck Bay. Subtidal habitats were categorised into consolidated (rockyreef) and unconsolidated (primarily sand and seagrass) areas in two depth zones:shallow (0–25 m) and intermediate (25–60 m). This information was combined toprovide a map of the known distribution of seabed habitats in the Jervis Bay MarinePark (Figure 2.). Further specific details of the distribution, extent and structure ofseabed habitats in the marine park are presented in NSW MPA (2010a).2.2.2 Biodiversity assessmentThe Jervis Bay Marine Park region is widely recognised as having high biologicaldiversity in a range of habitats including intertidal and subtidal reefs, soft-sediments,beaches, seagrass beds, mangroves, saltmarsh, and pelagic waters. A detailed studyof the biodiversity and spatial and temporal structuring of assemblages associated withSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 13

these habitats was conducted during the early 1990s (CSIRO 1994). Other studiesexamined specific taxonomic groups, such as algal communities, diverse throughoutthe marine park (Millar 1995). While some species were rare, others such as kelpEklonia radiata were common and influenced the composition of the many otherspecies associated with rocky reefs. Marine mammals and reptiles, and seabirds andshorebirds, are a distinct part of the fauna that include permanent residents, seasonalvisitors, and individuals passing through. Some are threatened species that benefitfrom the resources and condition of the marine park.Building on these previous studies, surveys conducted since 2002 have examinedbiodiversity of the marine park’s particular habitats, communities or taxonomic groups.Many also described the spatial and temporal patterns of diversity, abundance andcommunity composition. Further details of flora and fauna associated with habitats inJervis Bay Marine Park are presented in Natural values of the Jervis Bay Marine Park(NSW MPA 2008b).Reef habitats and assemblagesReefs are extensive in some areas of the marine park, and vary considerably in termsof depth, slope, exposure, distribution, structure and distance from shore. Thecomposition of the dominant benthic habitat or species has been identified throughvideo and SCUBA surveys. Firstly, towed video and echo soundings were conductedalong 250 m transects to examine benthic community structure (Fitzpatrick 2003).Benthic habitats contained coralline turf and macroalgae, sponges, ascidians, oysters,polychaetes, sand, silt and rubble.Surveys of shallow subtidal rocky reefs assessed fish abundance, diversity and size, aswell as macroinvertebrate and algal abundance (Barrett et al 2006), with 216 fishspecies recorded. Site-attached species such as wrasse, damselfishes, red morwongCheilodatylus fuscus and rock cale Crinodus lophodon provided the most temporally,and spatially, stable components of the fish assembladges. More mobile and schoolingspecies such as snapper Pagrus auratus and bream Acanthopagrus australis werehighly variable between sites and years. Newly-recruited juveniles of tropical species,which presumably die each winter, also added considerable annual variation.The long-spined urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii dominated the invertebrate fauna,while other species such as Turbo snails and red-throated ascidians Herdmaniamomus were locally abundant. Commercially and recreationally important abalone androck lobster species were extremely rare.A challenge to our understanding of the biodiversity of reefs is what processesdetermine assemblage. As for most habitats, reef biodiversity shows differentcombinations of species and/or abundances of particular species. Explanations forthese patterns include physical processes such as currents or substrate morphology.Understanding provides conservation of biodiversity and better management ofsustainable uses in marine parks.14 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 15Figure 2. Known seabed habitats in Jervis Bay Marine Park and Booderee National Park (Commonwealth)

To test the effect of reef substrate morphology on the diversity of invertebrateassemblages, reefs of different heights but at the same depth were studied (Davis et al2003). It was found that wall height correlated with diversity of invertebrates. Shortwalls (those less than 2 m tall) exhibited high populations of sea urchins, on or in closeproximity to them. Consequently, there was an abundance of grazer resistant crustosecoralline algae on short walls In contrast, tall walls greater than 3 m showed a highdiversity of invertebrate species and lower numbers of sea urchins; species thatcontributed included the ascidians Botrylloides leachi, Sycozoa cerebriformis,Didemnim sp., the bryozoan Celloporaria sp. and the sponges Euryspongia sp. andIrcinia sp. Such measurable differences in biodiversity need to be considered whendetermining reef biodiversity in marine parks.Intermediate reef fish assemblagesIntermediate depth rocky reefs, unsuitable for underwater visual surveys on SCUBA,had not been previously surveyed in the marine park. To overcome this BRUV surveyswere conducted in nine locations in 2005 and 2006 (Wraith 2007). There was littlevariation between the dominant species composition of fish and their relativeabundance in the 144 BRUV samples. However, several rarer species, includinghogfish Bodianus unimaculatus, wrasse Coris sandageri, leatherjacket Meuscheniascaber, butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera and mosaic leather jacket Eubalichthysmosaicus were found only at some sites, indicating some variability amongintermediate reefs. These assemblages were very different to shallow reefassemblages, with greater diversity and a higher abundance of reef fish in the deeperhabitats, consistent with research elsewhere confirming that sanctuary zones requirereefs of different depths to adequately represent the diversity of reef fish.Fauna of estuarine tidal flatsTidal flats are an important part of estuarine and marine ecosystems and also part of anetwork of crucial nursery habitats for many species in the marine park. Small faunaand sediments in Currambene Creek tidal flat, between Woollamia and Huskisson, wassampled before the current marine park zoning plan came into force in 2002. Thisdetermined which animals lived in the sediments of the tidal flat, how they weredistributed in the habitat, and what changes might be expected to occur followingsanctuary zone protection. For comparison, two tidal flats in estuaries outside themarine park were also sampled (Figure 3).The research provided clear information on the distribution of 80 species of fauna, withthe most dominant groups being polychaetes, molluscs and crustaceans. Differencesbetween groups of animals living in the sediment could change dramatically from onespot in a tidal flat to another only 100 m away (Winberg et al 2007b). The reasons arecomplex, but may include, for example, silt and clay content of sediment varying acrossthe same tidal flat. This means that it is important to protect a whole tidal flat habitat torepresent the suite of biodiversity. The most efficient ways to sample this habitat werealso determined in order to plan for future research and monitoring.16 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Figure 3. Study locations of three estuaries in the Batemans Shelf Bioregion. Threespatial scales were used to determine patterns of biodiversity within a Jervis Bay MarinePark sanctuary zone, as well as how well the sanctuary zone represented the biodiversityof similar habitat outside of the marine parkIn addition, it was shown that Currambene Creek tidal flat was rich in species andcontained abundant fauna that represented tidal flats up to 30 km away. This isimportant as tidal flats are a nursery for many invertebrates, and feeding grounds forspecies higher up the food chain – for example whiting, mullet, bream and stingrays.The feeding patterns of some of these species were also studied, and the short-termeffects of these patterns on sediment invertebrates were measured. It was evident thatpredatory fish targeted specific tidal flats, with short-term effects on the abundanceand numbers of species, particularly small bivalves (Clements 2005). This researchprovides insights into the structure of this dynamic habitat, as well is role as nurseriesand feeding grounds.Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 17

3. Ecologically sustainable use3.1 Solitary Islands Marine Park3.1.1 Assessment of marine park zoningTwo main monitoring programs have been conducted in Solitary Islands Marine Park toassess management and zones: a reef fish monitoring program and a mudcrabmonitoring program.Reef fish monitoring program: influence of sanctuary zones on selected reef fishabundanceUVC monitoring surveys of sanctuary zones were conducted from 2002 to 2007, andagain in 2009. Various fish species and assemblages were used as indicators. Annualmonitoring surveys (2002–2009) were also conducted using BRUV. The first baselineor benchmark surveys were carried out June to July 2002, immediately before thecurrent zoning plan commenced.Sixteen sites were surveyed annually using UVC methods in about 10 to 14 m waterdepth. Half of the sites were in sanctuary zones. The influence of the size of thesanctuary zone was also examined, with four sites in small sanctuary zonesestablished in 1992 and four in large sanctuary zones established in 2002. The samesites were resurveyed in winter each year. Six 25-m transects were randomly placedand surveyed at each site by the same diver.In addition, BRUV was used to monitor fishes each year, with nine 30-minute baitedvideo drops in four locations (Malcolm et al 2007). Two of the locations were insanctuary zones. The video stations were set at least 200 m apart, about 20 m deep,on similar habitat of rock reef with coral, near the reef-sand interface. Standard pilchardbaits attracted fish to a viewing area being videoed horizontally for 30 minutes. Relativecounts (maximum number of individuals of a species in the field of view at any timeduring the 30 minute set) were used to compare data sets (Cappo et al 2003). Thesurvey included fishes attracted to the bait, fishes passing through, residents in theimmediate vicinity, and fishes attracted to the activity.These data are part of a long-term monitoring program and have not beencomprehensively analysed or reported, although preliminary analyses indicate thelarger sanctuary zones have shown an increase in abundance relative to non sanctuaryzones for most of the monitored taxa. Reef fish require time to respond to changes inmanagement, studies elsewhere indicate more than 15 years are needed (Russ andAlcala 2004; McClanahan and Graham, 2005). Further UVC sampling is proposed for2011 (nine years after the initial surveys).Mudcrab demographics and monitoringTo assess the effectiveness of the zoning plan in estuaries for protecting mudcrabs,zones that were fished, and subsequently became ‘no-take’, were surveyed eachmonth from December 1998 (Wooli) and July 2000 (Sandon and Corindi) until August2003 (Butcher 2004). The sampling program coincided with changes to the SolitaryIslands Marine Park zoning scheme in August 2002, unchanged since 1991. Thisenabled collection of pre- and post-zoning data and the assessment of mudcrabpopulation responses to reopened areas (Wooli and Corindi) or subsequently closed tocrabbing (Sandon) (Butcher et al 2003, Butcher 2004).Mudcrabs are trapped by recreational and commercial fishers; they can be sampledand successfully released unharmed using the same methods. They also have a18 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

elatively short lifecycle (three to four years), providing a quick response to protection.Methods of tagging were also assessed. Anchor t-tags inserted into the posteriormargin of the crab did not hinder movement or become detached during moulting.These tags were effective for long-term studies on movement patterns, and were usedthroughout the study. Crab behaviour around traps was assessed in special tanksusing video.The sampling program provided evidence that no-take zones were protectingmudcrabs, there were greater numbers of crabs of all sizes. Higher proportions ofmales were captured in the sanctuary zone sites, possibly due to:males being in higher abundance where traps were deployed, andfemales being more dispersed due to downstream travel as part of spawningbehaviour, andvideo analysis revealed that male crabs were initially dominant around baitedtraps and entered first However, all crabs of each gender soon entered, and didnot leave the trap.Sanctuary zone crabs spilt to adjacent fished areas. The extent of spill-over dependedto some degree on flooding, when low salinity pushed crabs downstream and outsideof sanctuary zones. However, between floods, crabs were primarily caught on theborder of sanctuary zones where recreational fishing pressure was the greatest.Abundances of legal-sized crabs declined within two months of opening areas thatwere previously closed to fishing in the Wooli and Corindi estuaries. Reopening of sitesalso distributed fishing away from the sanctuary zone borders, enabling crabs to movefurther into the fished area. Results suggested that closures are an immediate andeffective management tool for the recovery of overfished mudcrab stocks. At theprotected site, crab numbers and average size increased within months of closing, andthere was no change in the number of crabs caught each month in the area whererecreational trapping resumed.Telemetry studies in the Corindi River showed that the average daily distance moved,and the average distance moved from the release point, was greater in deep channelsthan in shallow Zostera-dominated channels. Therefore, there is a greater probability ofspill-over if sanctuary zones are located where deep channels form the border betweenfished and no-take areas. There is also a greater chance that shallow areas couldbecome locally depleted, being slower to recover after exploitation.The longer-term monitoring program continues from the studies that began in 1998(Butcher et al 2003, Butcher 2004) outlined above. A significant component of theearlier study assessed the influence of sanctuary zones implemented in 2002. Themain objectives of the monitoring program are to:monitor and compare mudcrab densities in zones ‘open’ and ‘closed’ tocrabbing, before and after zoning changes in 2002assess the influence of marine park zones by comparing the length, width andgender ratio of mudcrabs within and between different zonesmonitor the density and relative abundance of mudcrab populations in areasopen to fishing in the Solitary Islands Marine Park, as a locally importantfisheries resource.The three largest barrier estuaries have been monitored: the Wooli Wooli River sinceDecember 1998 and the Sandon and Corindi Rivers since 1999–2000. Each estuaryhas been sampled twice per year (April, December) for three nights. Three traps areSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 19

sampled at three sites in each zone (sanctuary zone, habitat protection zone) in eachestuary per night. An additional three sites in the Wooli Wooli River are sampled in thesouthern fork, which changed from sanctuary zone (no crabbing) to habitat protectionzone (crabbing permitted) in 2002, following a decade of protection under the previouszoning scheme.Sampling provides a good estimate of the density of mudcrabs at each site, ascaptured crabs are temporarily marked to identify them if they are re-caught on thesubsequent two nights. December gives pre-holiday (lower fishing pressure) data,while April is a major recruitment period when small crabs enter the fishery. April dataalso can indicate change in populations after the Christmas (higher fishing pressure)period. Standardised commercial crab traps are used with similar bait (fresh, wholedead fish).Balanced sampling by estuary was not possible as there were no areas in either theCorindi or Wooli Wooli rivers where rezoning in 2002 permitted crab trapping where itwas previously prohibited. Because of this, estuaries are analysed independently.This rezoning brought an increase in protection in the Sandon River throughestablishment of sanctuary zone where a commercial crabber had previously beenpermitted. This resulted in an increase in mudcrabs (measured by catch per unit effort -CPUE) in the sanctuary zone. The ‘refuge zone’ in the Corindi River prior to 2002 wasnot legally crabbed, but was able to be crabbed once it became a habitat protectionzone. As a result, there was a decrease in zoning protection in this river from August2002. So far, a decrease in overall CPUE has been demonstrated in the arm of theriver now open to crabbing, with an increase where it had remained closed and is nowa sanctuary zone. There has also been a decrease in protection in the Wooli WooliRiver, with a decrease in CPUE in a former sanctuary zone.Mudcrab surveys were also conducted in four intermittently closed and open lakes andlagoons (ICOLLS) in the marine park (Hearnes Lake, Woolgoolga Lake, ArrawarraCreek, Station Creek). Before 2002, crabbing was permitted in all four ICOLLS,although it was restricted to dillies in Arrawarra Creek due to an Industry andInvestment NSW trapping closure. After August 2002, most of Station Creek, exceptthe bottom section, became a sanctuary zone. Surveys indicated a strong decline inmudcrabs in Station Creek following announcement of the new zoning scheme in May2002, demonstrating that crabbing increased before the sanctuary zone wasimplemented.3.1.2 Fishing and collectingRecreational fishing club competitionsRecreational fishery data can provide information about trends in fish species throughcatch and effort data, providing it is collected consistently and any biases in datacollection do not change through time. Fishing competition data in the marine parkhave been collected by many recreational anglers, and although data are highlyvariable in consistency, and competition methods and rules have changed, these datacan still be informative.Recreational fishing competition data have been collected in the marine park since1993, with the data set last analysed and reported in 1997 (Henry et al 1997). Asubsequent study focused on 1999–2003 and provided comparisons with the 1997report (Malcolm et al 2005). During 1999–2003, 13 recreational fishing clubs heldpermitted fishing competitions in the marine park. This included 10 of the 16 clubs thatheld competitions there between 1993 and 1997. Each club, as a condition of their20 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

competition permit, had to submit data on the species caught, the number and weightof individuals, the grid location where fish were caught, and additional anecdotalinformation. The data were separated into line and spearfishing, with Coffs HarbourBlue Water Free Divers being the only club legally undertaking spearfishingcompetitions. These data were analysed separately in the report of the 1999–2003study due to the different methods of capture, but were not separated in the 1997report.The annual harvest values (number and weight of fish taken) and harvest rates(number and weight per angler day) were analysed over the five-year period. Overallharvest values and rates remained similar from 2000 to 2003, but this was notconsistent among species. Harvest values were lowest in 1999 while harvest rateswere markedly higher in subsequent years.The grid locations in the marine park where the most fish were harvested wereidentified and compared between the two fishing methods. Spearfishing competitorswere concentrated in different areas of the marine park.More than 100 species of fish were recorded by line anglers, with snapper, venustuskfish, trevally, flathead and teraglin being the most abundant. More than 50 specieswere taken by spearfishing, with kingfish, fusilier, trevally, black-spot goatfish andmulloway being the most prominent. Overall more than 108 species were captured byangling and spearfishing methods combined. This compares with more than 77 speciesrecorded in 1993–1997. The actual number of species captured may be slightlyinaccurate due to inconsistent naming, and potential misidentification.A comparison of harvest values and harvest rates for the periods 1993–1996 and1999–2003 indicated that the number of anglers, competitions, angler days, and theresultant harvest values were higher from 1993–1996, but that overall catch-rates werehigher during 1999–2003.A national assessment of recreational fishing was conducted in 2000–2001 (Henry andLyle 2003). This included sampling conducted in the vicinity of the marine park, butanalysis was at a broader statewide scale. An evaluation of recreational fishing in NSWwas also reported as part of this national survey (NSW DPI 2002).3.1.3 Population biology and assessmentSpecies in the marine park can be rare, protected or threatened. Other species, suchas the giant cuttlefish, have iconic value. Wildlife research in this marine park rangesfrom incidental sightings and observational studies, through to specific genetic studiesand sophisticated telemetry studies. These studies contribute to information andknowledge about these species inside and outside the marine park. A summary offindings from recent studies is provided below.Black cod (Epinephelus daemelii)Black cod have been monitored in the marine park through the MPA’s reef fish program(Malcolm unpubl. data). Similar numbers were recorded annually at 16 sites from2002–2007, although these numbers were generally low (three, one, five, five, one andfour, respectively). Similar totals were also recorded at 18 sites surveyed annually,during 2003–2005 (four, 10 and 10, respectively) using a 30-minute timed countmethod. Although numbers are low and not conclusive, these results suggest black codare at least being maintained at these sites.A black cod study funded by the Northern Rivers Catchment Management Authority(NRCMA) recently (autumn 2010) surveyed 20 sites between Tweed Heads and SouthWest Rocks where the cod are known to occur. Relative abundance was sampledSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 21

using 45-minute timed counts on SCUBA. Accurate length of each fish was measuredusing stereo video photogrammetry. Within the marine park, the offshore islands andPimpernel Rock were hot spots for abundance.Giant cuttlefish (Sepia apama)A genetic study on the giant cuttlefish, including specimens captured by commercialfishers in the marine park, indicated there are two genetically divergent sub-populations(Kassalm 2003). The population in southern Australia, which includes the largestbreeding site (Whyalla), is genetically distinct from the east coast, although notcompletely reproductively isolated.Mating of Sepia apama has been recorded in the marine park, and diver observationssuggest there are increased numbers of large individuals around South Solitary Islandduring autumn in association with breeding (T Mair pers com). The marine park maytherefore have some importance as a breeding site for the east coast population,although this has not been tested.Grey nurse shark (Charcharius taurus)The grey nurse shark is a listed threatened and protected species on the east coast ofAustralia, and knowledge about populations and movement can inform managementdecisions. Grey nurse shark observations have been conducted by various individualsand organisations throughout NSW, including in the marine park as part of a statewideassessment of the relative abundance of this species among sites and seasons (Otwayet al 2003). These surveys also included observations of ID-tagged individuals toenable population estimates to be calculated (Otway and Burke 2004).Since 2002, as part of a broader statewide project into their movement patterns, someof the main grey nurse shark sites in the marine park have been monitored usinglistening stations (logging hydrophone receivers) that record signals from sharkstagged with acoustic transmitters. Monitoring was initially conducted in the marine parkby CSIRO, the MPA, and the Department of Environment, Heritage, Water and the Arts(Commonwealth) at three sites. In 2006, the NSW Department of Primary Industriesexpanded the program, with logistical support provided by the MPA. There arecurrently nine listening stations in the marine park. The CSIRO passive acousticmonitoring data showed movement from southern NSW to southern Qld, whichsupports the hypothesis of a northward movement in autumn and winter and asouthward in spring and summer (Bruce et al 2005). On average, tagged sharks spent10% of a 12-month period at the monitored sites. The maximum time an individualshark spent at any one of the monitored sites was 20%. There was some evidence thatmales were more transient at these sites In general, the pattern of at all monitored sitesshowed an increase in detections during the day (although there was individualvariation), suggesting the sharks are more active at night.The active acoustic tracking data also showed that sharks tended to be more active atnight; there were excursions of up to 1200 m away from the aggregation sites mostly atnight; and that sharks swam further off the bottom during their excursions away fromthe aggregation sites, again, mostly at night (Bruce et al 2005).White sharks (Charcharias carcharodon)Incidental records and sightings of white sharks, especially from spearfishers anddivers, indicate that white sharks regularly visit the marine park. The last confirmeddetection, tagged with a satellite tag from Corner Inlet, Vic, was near North SolitaryIsland, indicating individual sharks can travel large distances and some may use thismarine park sporadically (Bruce et al 2006).22 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Sea turtlesSea turtles include vulnerable and endangered species, knowledge of their occurrenceand use of the marine park can improve management. Three types of sea turtle areregularly recorded in the marine park, including the green turtle (Chelonia midas),loggerhead turtle (Carretta carretta) and hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate). Theleatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) has also been occasionally sighted (Speirs2002, De Luca 2006).Green turtles are the most commonly observed, with most being young turtles. Most ofthe hawksbill turtles observed were also juveniles, although some large adults havealso been recorded. At some locations, adult resident loggerheads are regularlysighted by divers.A range of impacts including floating syndrome and suspected coccidiosis, emaciation,propeller strike, line entanglement, and unknown causes, have resulted in strandings.At Julian Rocks, in the Cape Byron Marine Park further north, about 13% of turtlesobserved had been affected by propeller cuts or line entanglement, or disease. Thereis minor nesting by green turtles and loggerheads in or near the marine park.Life history evolution in the ophiuroid family: OphioomidaeA project on larval evolution in ophiocomids, a brittle star family, comparesreproduction and development of species along the coast of Australia from the GBR toSydney (M Bryne pers. comm.). Work on Ophiocoma endeani has focused on theinvestment the female puts into her eggs (maternal provisioning).The study of maternal provisioning in brittle stars with contrasting modes ofdevelopment (feeding versus non-feeding larvae) included two Ophiocoma species, thetropical O. dentata and the temperate O. endeani. Species of the genus Ophiocomahave planktotrophic (feeding) development with the only exception being O. endeani.Thus far, O. endeani is the only Ophiocoma species with a large egg, indicatingdevelopment through a short-lived non-feeding (lecithotrophic) larva.A preliminary reproductive study of O. endeani assessed its spawning period. For thisstudy, up to 10 specimens were collected from Mullaway Headland and Sandy Beachat Coffs Harbour approximately every three months. Histology of O. endeani gonadsindicated that they were mature between February and April. Mature specimens weresubsequently collected for spawning trials in March and April 2004 and 2005 todetermine egg nutrient composition and to confirm the specie’s development type.The eggs are buoyant, which would assist in larval dispersal, with development timeestimated to be less than two weeks. O. endeani is an endemic species with a smallrange, and its short planktonic larval duration may contribute to its restricteddistribution. Larval development in O. endeani remains to be described. These studieswill contribute to the understanding of the evolution and speciation of these ophiuroidsin eastern Australia.Host anemone reproduction and abundanceHost anemones were previously identified as a special part of the benthic community inthis marine park, due to the density of their aggregations, especially at North SolitaryIsland (Richardson 1996). Knowledge of their reproduction contributes tounderstanding their persistence in the marine park by examining whether they are aself-sustaining population or require propagation from upstream. Recent studies haveexamined the sexual reproductive biology of Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractiscrispa populations on the subtropical rocky reefs around North Solitary Island (Scott2007, Scott and Harrison 2005, 2007a, b, 2008, 2009).Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 23

Gametogenetic samples showed that E. quadricolor had separate sexes. Males had asingle annual cycle of spermary development and spawning, whereas females showedasynchronous development of oocytes. Oogenesis and spermatogenesis conformedto the general pattern found in anthozoans. The timing of spawning periods forE. quadricolor corresponds well with spawnings observed in outdoor flow-throughseawater tanks. Tank-based observations showed that E. quadricolor and H. crispabroadcast spawn their gametes for external fertilisation and development. Spawning ofmale and female anemones is predominately synchronous and restricted to a fewnights each year between summer and autumn. Males generally begin to releasegametes before females, suggesting that sperm or associated product causes thefemales to spawn.Newly spawned E. quadricolor and H. crispa eggs contain abundant zooxanthellae,indicating vertical transmission of symbionts. Embryogenesis leads to the developmentof free-swimming larvae approximately 14 hours after spawning for E. quadricolor and22 hours after spawning for H. crispa. Larvae displayed searching behaviour beforeattaching themselves to the substratum, suggesting microhabitat selection. Settlementonto biologically conditioned terracotta tiles was recorded four days after spawning forH. crispa and five days after spawning for E. quadricolor .The average time ofsettlement was 10 days after spawning, with 33 4% and 50 3% of the original H. crispaand E. quadricolor larvae being found on the tiles, respectively.Densities of host anemones and anemone fishes recorded at North Solitary Island in1994 and 1995 (Richardson 1996) provide a benchmark for ongoing comparisons. Thesites were surveyed again in 2008, using slightly different methods considered moresuitable for ongoing future monitoring. Densities of E. quadricolor and the anemonefishAmphiprion akyndynos had increased markedly overall and in particular at some sites.Density of H. crispa remained low and the subtropical anemone fish A. latezonatus haddecreased at some sites. There appeared to be an increase in the tropical vagrantA. melanopus although numbers were still low (Scott et al. in review).Coral reproductionThe population dynamics and genetic connectivity of five coral species in the EasternAustralian subtropics and on the GBR are being investigated. Coral fragments havebeen sampled from four locations outside the GBR – Flinders Reef (off Moreton Bay),the Solitary Islands, Middleton and Elizabeth reefs, and Lord Howe Island. In July andAugust 2006, 352 small coral fragments were collected from North Solitary, North WestSolitary, and South West Solitary islands, from two species Acropora solitaryensis andPocillopora damicornis. The information that will result includes:the level of asexual reproduction in each population (i.e. clones)the genetic diversity in each populationthe level of differentiation between populations in the Solitary Island MarinePark, and between this marine park and other sampled reefsthe level of gene flow (migration) between reefs.This information can be used to indicate vulnerability to threats such as bleaching anddisease, and to infer how rapidly recolonisation could occur if the local population weredecimated.Spawning patterns of scleractinian corals in this marine park indicated gametes werereleased annually from December to April, although spawning periods were staggeredamong species and colonies within some species (Wilson 1998). Massive coral speciesspawned from eight to 12 nights after a full moon whereas there was no obvious lunar24 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

periodicity for acroporid corals. This asynchronous pattern contrasts strongly with thehighly synchronous mass spawning on the GBR in October to December each year.The delay in timing coincides with a delayed rise in sea temperature in this marine park(Wilson and Harrison 2003).3.2 Jervis Bay Marine Park3.2.1 Assessment of marine park zoningTwo main monitoring programs to assess the effectiveness of marine park zoning havebeen conducted: a reef fish program and an intertidal program.Effectiveness of temperate Australian marine protected areas for biodiversityconservation of shallow rocky reefsSince 2003, surveys of the biological community of subtidal rocky reefs have beenconducted yearly in the marine park as part of a broader study into the effectiveness ofmarine protected areas in Australian temperate waters. The study uses the samemethodology applied in other southern states of Australia to assess fish size, diversityand abundance, as well as macroinvertebrate and algal abundance. Baseline surveyswere also conducted in 1996, 2000 and 2001 prior to the zoning plan in October 2002and five annual surveys have been completed since then. Sites were selected tosample a representative range of reefs within sanctuary zones (14 sites) and areas stillopen to fishing (13 sites) within the marine park (Barrett et al 2006).Comparison of the data from sanctuary zones and areas open to fishing indicates thatthere have been several ecological changes in the diversity and abundance of fish,invertebrates and algae since the zoning. The red morwong Cheilodactylus fuscusincreased in abundance and size within sanctuary zones compared with sites open tofishing. Yellow-fin bream Acanthopagrus australis and snapper Pagrus auratus showedsimilar patterns, however, these were not statistically significant possibly due to thehigh level of spatial and temporal variation in these species (Barrett et al 2006).The abundance of invertebrates, algae, and most fish species was relatively stableover the study period. This indicates that the marine park appears to be conserving thebiological diversity of these organisms – one of the main objectives of the Marine ParksAct 1997. There were, however, several invertebrate species that declined inside andoutside of the sanctuary zones such as the gastropods Turbo torquatus and Astraliumtentoriiformis, and the large solitary ascidian Herdmania grandis. This decline isnoteworthy as it suggests that the species is not being maintained in the marine park.Reference locations outside the marine park would need to be sampled over time toindicate if this decline is occurring on a larger scale or if it is be due to ecologicalchanges – cascading effects such as increased predation of invertebrates – within themarine park.This assessment of the ecological changes in shallow rocky reef communities in themarine park is at an early stage. Some ecological changes have already beendocumented, however others may take much longer to occur. Studies elsewhereindicate more than 15 years are needed for recovery in many reef fish species (Russand Alcala 2004, McClanahan and Graham 2005). This research project will continue,to assess the long-term changes that the marine park and its management zones mayhave on these communities.Assessment of sanctuary zone influences on an estuarine tidal flatSampling of an estuarine tidal flat in the year before, and during the two years followingits protection as a sanctuary zone, demonstrated that there was a shift in theSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 25

macrofaunal assemblage (Winberg 2008). This was mostly due to an increase in arange of small, less mobile, filter feeding species such as the juvenile venus shell(Bivalvia; Eumarcia fumigata) (Figure 4). This mollusc increased nearly six-fold acrossthe protected tidal flat In contrast, there was a reduction in some of the more mobile,predatory and scavenging species that might have benefited from regular sedimentdisturbance from bait-pumping.In addition to biological effects, there were changes to the sediment characteristics inthe sanctuary zone. These results add to the growing evidence of effects on fauna inmarine protected areas that are not the targeted species of human activity but that aresecondarily affected by the activity. Such changes affect whole ecosystems;consequences are largely unknown but will challenge future research in marine parks.The implications are small on a local scale, but highly important regionally andnationally.In applying this research, an experimental design and statistical analysis was used todetect complex and subtle changes. The analysis was used to compare tidal flats in themarine park with those outside, and to enhance methods of analysing environmentalimpacts in marine parks.(a)(b)Figure 4. (a) Invertebrate assemblages of up to 80 species in Currambene Creek (C) inJervis Bay underwent a change following the introduction of a sanctuary zone in 2002The assemblage change was not reflected in reference tidal flats (N and S) and included(b) an increase in species such as the juvenile bivalve Eumarcia fumigata26 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

3.2.2 Population biology and assessmentMonitoring the dolphin populationBottlenose dolphins are icons of Jervis Bay Marine Park. They are a top predator in thelocal ecosystem and are important for public appreciation and the local economy. Twotourism operators in Jervis Bay offer dolphin watching. As it is important that effects ofhuman activity on the dolphin population are managed appropriately, dolphins in JervisBay have been monitored using two techniques. The first technique uses randomtransects from a boat (Lemon et al 2002), the second uses observations by acommercial dolphin operator (Bilgmann and Lynch 2007).There is a population of about 80 permanent and transient bottlenose dolphins in JervisBay, sighted all year round and mostly found in shallow habitats around the edge of thebay in waters less than 15 m deep. They are associated with seagrass and rocky reefhabitats mostly in the northern half of the bay. Calves are, in particular, often sightedover seagrass meadows such as between Callala Point and Honeymoon Bay. Theentrance to Currambene Creek is also important, with dolphins feeding on the outgoingtide.Data from the commercial operator showed no overall differences in dolphin sightingrates between seasons or years (1998–2007). This may indicate that the dolphinpopulation is steady. Between days or weeks, however, dolphin sightings fluctuatedgreatly. Several factors could account for these changes, and also for dolphins notbeing seen during certain periods. These can be divided into social, environmental andanthropogenic factors. Bottlenose dolphins are highly social animals and socialactivities may encourage them to enter or leave the bay. However, no obviousrelationships between the mating season and sighting rates in Jervis Bay wereobserved during the surveys. Environmental factors that may affect sightings includethe weather and variation in the abundance of prey.Monitoring the Steamers Head seal colonyUntil recently, the fur seal colony at Steamers Head in Jervis Bay Marine Park was thenorthernmost large haul-out site in Australia, with more than 50 seals hauled-out attimes. Seasonal trends in haul-out numbers, environmental effects and disturbances tothe colony have all been investigated, and long term monitoring has been undertakensince 1999 in a collaborative effort between Jervis Bay Marine Park and BoodereeNational Park.The haul-out site is used by Australian and New Zealand fur seals, with Australian furseals most abundant (see Burleigh 1999, Burleigh et al in press a,b). Both species’adult males, sub-adults and juveniles use the haul-out site, with sub-adult seals themost numerous age group. The seasonal pattern of site occupation suggests a nonbreedingsite. Numbers increase from occasional individuals in May, peak inSeptember and decline in October, though daily numbers vary considerably (NSWMPA unpubl. data).In 1999, two large declines coincided with a landslide at the site and navalbombardment of the Beecroft Weapons Range. No diurnal or tidal effects on behaviourwere observed, though more Australian fur seals were absent in strong winds andwarm air temperatures. At the site, which is sheltered, shaded, steep and has asoutherly aspect, environmental effects have different influences on the fur sealscompared with their behaviour at more exposed sites throughout southern Australia.Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 27

In 2006–07, another haul-out site was established in the marine park at Crocodile Headon the Beecroft Peninsula. Since 2002, the Australian Defence Force has closedaccess to it for management of the Beecroft Weapons Range.Demersal sharks in Jervis BayResearch has been undertaken on the taxonomy, distribution, movement habits,reproduction, diets and growth of wobbegong sharks in NSW (Huveneers 2007),including research in Jervis Bay. This has recognised three species: the spottedwobbegong Orectolobus maculates, the ornate wobbegong O. ornatus, and therecently described O. halei (Huveneers 2007). O. halei has only been recorded north ofSydney but the two other species occur in Jervis Bay.Wobbegongs seem be more abundant in northern NSW but Jervis Bay is in the top fiveof 12 sites surveyed in NSW. The proportion of spotted wobbegongs is unusually largecompared with other regions of NSW. Adult wobbegongs are primarily reef sharksassociated with a small home range. Juvenile wobbegongs were largely absent fromreefs and may live in different habitats. Adult wobbegongs had a high proportion of fish(including other species of sharks) and cephalopods in their diet, and as such areimportant top predators in the reef ecosystem of Jervis Bay.Port Jackson sharks Heterodontus portjacksoni also exhibit strong site fidelity, butcongregate at home reefs to breed between June and November (Powter 2006). DentRock, near the Orion Beach habitat protection zone in Vincentia, is one of the homereefs.It is anticipated that juvenile Port Jackson sharks live and feed in other Jervis Bayhabitats. At later stages, different age groups of the sharks co-exist and don’t competefor food as they target different foods (Powter and Gladstone 2007). In this way, thesharks play an ecological role as secondary consumers of smaller, benthicinvertebrates in their early life, adopting a new ecological role as tertiary predator ofpelagic and demersal species later in life. Understanding the habitat preferences,ecological roles and food resources for Port Jackson sharks in Jervis Bay providesinformation that can be used to improve conservation of this iconic NSW species.Small pelagic fish distribution, abundance and habitatsPelagic fish are generally thought to benefit less from marine protected areas than siteor habitat-associated species, as they are highly migratory or have large home rangeswell beyond the usual scale of marine protected areas. However, fishing for pelagic fishis often highly concentrated at particular sites on the coast, suggesting that pelagic fishhabitat in coastal regions may be predictable, and that pelagic stocks may benefit frommarine protected areas at some of these sites. Sustainable management of coastalstocks of small pelagic fish requires data on their distribution, abundance and habitatassociations.A mid-water BRUV technique was developed to study pelagic fish without harm(Heagney et al 2007a, b). By combining video data with oceanographic measurementsand chemistry work on the ear bones (otoliths) of fish, it was possible to determine thedistribution, abundance and habitat associations of two small pelagic fish in the marinepark: the yellowtail scad and the slimy mackerel. While both types of fish are found inthe surface layer, the scads and mackerels were separated primarily by the waterdepth, with scads more common and abundant at shallow sites around 10 m deep andmackerel favouring deeper sites, around 21 m. The occurrence of both species differedat relatively small scales and both were associated with cooler waters with high salinityand low dissolved oxygen, all of which are characteristic of cold water upwellings atJervis Bay.28 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Otolith microchemistry analysis of the yellowtail scad showed evidence for twoseparate populations in the marine park: a slow-growing population resident in theinner region of the marine park over the two-year sample period, and a faster growingpopulation in the outer bay. It was concluded that the coastal distribution of yellowtailscad and slimy mackerel is highly structured at small scales, and that these smallpelagic fish selected coastal habitats with specific site and oceanographic conditions.The results suggest that traditional views on movements of some pelagic fish may beincorrect. Location of sanctuary zones should also be considered in light of somepelagic fish being located very close to shore, but with a switch of species as the waterdepth increases offshore.The white-bellied sea eagles of Jervis BayWhite-bellied sea eagles are spectacular residents of the Jervis Bay Marine Park, yetuntil recently little has been known about their natural habits. Like other top-orderpredators, these sea eagles are useful indicators of the health of the environment,being sensitive to impacts on marine resources and disturbance on land. Boat-basedsurveys determined that abundance of sea eagles in Jervis Bay is seasonal, withnumbers of adult and non-adult birds peaking in autumn (Spencer and Lynch 2005). Itis at this time that juvenile birds become independent of their parents and adultterritorial display becomes more important. During April, the territorial resident adultbirds are joined by immature birds aged between two and three years, arriving fromoutside the bay often in rowdy bands of up to eight birds. Some years there was aninflux of adult birds, possibly due to drought along inland waterways.In Jervis Bay, the birds probably learn courtship skills and hunting from establishedpairs. Most sea eagles, and non-adults in particular, avoided the more developed partsof the foreshore. Even adult birds near suburban areas avoided housing, preferringsmall patches of forest between suburbs. Perhaps surprisingly, the Beecroft WeaponsRange may provide an ideal site for white-bellied sea eagles.Boat-based surveys are an excellent way to determine where and when the sea eaglesused Jervis Bay, with April being the best time to detect changes in the population.The exact locations of nests were collected with a global positioning system. Nestfunction was very stable with most previously identified still in use. Soon aftercompletion of the surveys, bushfires swept through the areas that contained most ofthe nests. Interestingly, a re-survey showed that none of the nests, which arecomposed of dry sticks, were burnt by the fires.Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 29

4. Specific impacts4.1 Solitary Islands Marine Park4.1.1 Development and infrastructureDredge-spoilIn 2004 the entrance to the inner harbour at Coffs Harbour was dredged to maintain asafe and usable port facility. Around 23,000 square metres of sediment was removedand deposited in shallow water off Park Beach north, with monitoring of the impact onbiological communities at the receiving site consistent with a previous study in 1999(Smith and Rule 2001). Sampling was taken twice before operations and three timesafter its completion (Smith and Rowland 2004).No impact on receiving communities was detected, consistent with earlier assessmentsof dredge spoil (Smith and Rule 2001). Community structure was highly variable at allsites over time and marine communities at Park Beach appeared to be driven more byregional processes than by localised effects of dredge-spoil dumping.Despite depth of overburden deposited during the works being twice that known tosmother infauna (fauna living in the sediment) in other studies, no such effects weredetected. It is likely this was due to a number of factors. Firstly, sediment wasdeposited in stages and evenly over the receiving site, allowing organisms to migratethrough successive, shallow layers. Secondly, the high level of wave action in theregion, which is likely to re-suspend sediment constantly, would not only be expectedto redistribute sediment rapidly, but also to restrict the shallow soft-sedimentcommunity to taxa strongly adapted to a dynamic sedimentary habitat. Thirdly,sediment characteristics of the dredge-spoil were similar to those at the receiving site;the spoil contained no detectable traces of contaminants. Thus, deposition of spoil wasunlikely to markedly change the habitat at Park Beach.This study supports previous work which suggests that the current strategy of dredgespoildeposition in the Coffs Harbour area is both suitable and environmentallysustainable for marine biodiversity.Land-use changeImpacts associated with agricultural, industrial and urban development, together withthe coastal concentration of population have led to significant changes to manyestuarine habitats. A study was undertaken to determine if human activities haddetectable impacts on four estuaries in the Coffs Harbour area, including Coffs Creekand Moonee Creek in the Solitary Islands Marine Park (Sawtell 2002). This study alsoprovided benchmark data on benthic communities, estuarine vegetation communitiesand human settlement patterns in and around these particular estuaries.The catchment for each estuary was examined and the uses and activities in andbetween each catchment were compared and contrasted. Changes in vegetation, inparticular saltmarsh, mangrove, seagrass and sedge/heathland communities wereexamined between 1954 and 1994. The same methods assessed changes in humansettlement patterns during that period.Trends indicated a direct correlation between an increase in human settlement and aloss of seagrass, saltmarsh and sedge/coastal heath in these estuaries, and a directrelationship with an increase in mangroves in all creeks. Analyses of macrobenthicdata indicated differences in community structure within and between creeks, with ahigh degree of spatial and temporal variation during the course of the study.30 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Assessing potential impacts associated with increasing coastal urbanisationIn northern NSW, coastal populations are forecast to increase dramatically over thenext 25 years. However, management of the effects of development on marinecommunities is hampered by lack of data on the composition and likely impacts on keyhabitats. Consequently, a protocol has been developed to assess the biodiversity of,and current human impacts on, nearshore reefs – habitats that will be readily affectedby coastal development (Smith et al 2008). To assess this protocol, four reefs nearpopulation centres were surveyed – including near Coffs Harbour and in the marinepark – examining fish, mollusc and sessile benthic communities and debris loads. Asuite of methods provided as wide an assessment of reef condition as practicable.Thus, transect surveys of fish and molluscs, and video transects of benthic communitystructure were combined with assessments of debris load and surveys of coral healthand condition (e.g. bleaching and disease).The reefs’ community structures were highly variable over all spatial scales, indicatingthat reefs should not be considered to have the same composition when planningdecisions are made. While debris loads were relatively low on most reefs surveyed,those with highest conservation value also had the highest debris loads. This suggestspotential conflict between human use and long-term sustainability of reef communities(Smith et al 2008).Impacts of vehiclesThe impact of four-wheel drive vehicles on the meiofaunal community of sandybeaches was examined (Bell 2005). The experiment incorporated a Beyond BACI(Before/After, Control/Impact) design with replicated control and impact treatments(low, medium and high). Each impact treatment corresponded to a specific number ofvehicles passing per day; 10, 20 and 40, respectively. Impact treatments occurred eachday for a week, with samples collected directly before and after impact in alltreatments. A detectable effect was only apparent for copepods; however, effects onother species may be masked by the high level of natural spatial and temporalvariation.There is evidence that vehicle access to saltmarsh areas at Saltwater Creek, ArrawarraCreek and Moonee Creek has caused extensive damage to plant cover and plantcommunities, and changed drainage patterns (Bateman 2003). Damage to a saltmarsharea at Saltwater Creek showed almost no recovery after two years of vehicleexclusion.4.1.2 PollutionPotential for a biomarker to indicate pollutionPollutants in estuarine benthic environments can cause negative effects. Biomarkerscan be used to measure how an organism responds to such stressors. A study byGoulden (2007) tested two main questions:whether reduced total haemocyte counts (THCs) and elevated haemolymphicbacteria can be used as biomarkers of stress in estuarine ghost shrimps(Trypaea australiensis)whether the shrimps show such stress responses in polluted systems and couldbe used to monitor ecosystem health (Goulden 2007).Shrimps were sampled from an estuary in good condition, with much of the catchmentin a national park or state forest (Wooli Wooli River), and from a more polluted estuaryin an urbanised and agricultural catchment (Coffs Creek). Laboratory exposure of aSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 31

sample population from each estuary to a mixture of extreme stressors resulted insignificant depressions in THCs and proliferation of haemolymphic bacteria. However,haematological states did not differ between wild populations sampled from thedifferent locations.As haemolymphic communities in indigenous and stressed states differed, such adistinction could provide a biomarker for stress in T. australiensis. However, theapplicability for pollution monitoring, using T. australiensis as a model organism, isconstrained by enormous variation between individuals in haematological responses,as well as the fact that no clear stress response had been detected in shrimp from themore polluted environment.4.1.3 Pests and diseaseCoral disease and competitionA disease, recently termed ‘subtropical white syndrome’ (Dalton et al 2007),distinguished by progressive loss of necrotic tissue exposing the coral skeleton, wasdetected during a coral tagging study by the Solitary Island Underwater ResearchGroup (SURG) and the MPA that commenced in 2000 (Edgar et al 2003). At least 18%of tagged colonies were affected by this spreading disease with complete mortality in10% of tagged colonies within two years. This disease caused extensive mortality intabulate Acropora and Turbinaria species at some marine park locations. These coralspecies dominate many areas in the marine park and are important components ofcoral communities, as they provide habitat, food and refuge for many otherinvertebrates and tropical, subtropical and temperate fish. A subsequent study foundthat this disease affected six coral species from five genera (Dalton and Smith 2006).There was no difference in disease prevalence between 2002 and 2003 but fewerspecies were affected in 2003, suggesting that continual exposure may see loss ofdominant coral species (Dalton 2003). This ecologically significant disease couldseriously alter coral-dominated communities in the region.The ecology and the pathology of the disease were examined on island reefs. Resultsshowed it was affecting coral populations throughout the marine park (Dalton 2010).Seasonal patterns were recorded on all sites investigated during 2004–2006, withprevalence significantly higher during the summer than the winter. Rate-of-spread oftissue loss in affected colonies followed similar patterns.Studies on Turbinaria mesenterina showed that subtropical white syndrome is aninfectious disease transmitted by direct contact, but not via water (Dalton et al 2007).As antibiotics inhibit progression of lesions, it is likely that a bacterial pathogen (orpathogens) is responsible. A likely vector is a coralivorous nudibranch (Phistella sp.)which feed on diseased coral tissue. A nudibranch that had fed on healthy coralfragments was removed from the coral and within two days progressive tissue loss wasobserved adjacent to the feeding scars. These fragments were subsequently placedonto other healthy fragments and tissue sloughing was noted in the touching coralswithin five days, suggesting it is contagious (Dalton and Godwin 2006). Bacteria closelyrelated to the known pathogens Vibrio harveyi and Roseovarius crassostreae werefound with the lesions and could be agents of the disease. The pathogens also showedincreased growth rates at higher temperatures, similar to pathogens from otherreported coral diseases and in agreement with the higher disease prevalence found inthe summer of 2003.Other potential coral-habitat modifying influences included corallimorph colonies thatwere outcompeting hard corals, resulting in a reduction in habitat complexity andavailability. Corallimorph dynamics are currently being monitored. A survey conducted32 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

y the MPA on reefs throughout the marine park only found corallimorphs on reefsattached to islands.There is also evidence of interactions between corals and aggregations of a tubebuildingpolychaete worm Chaetopterus longipes in the marine park (Smith 2002).Initial studies indicated that branching colonies were most often affected by wormaggregations and a manipulative transplant experiment was conducted to determinethe effect of interactions on growth rate and survival of Pocillopora damicornis,Acropora solitaryensis and A. valida, the three most common branching corals at thestudy site. The results indicate that tube worms may be an important source ofmortality for corals in the marine park. As recent anecdotal evidence suggests thatChaetopterus aggregations are increasing at some sites, larger scale monitoring ofinteractions and outcomes is recommended to determine the threat to marginal coralcommunities.Although there is considerable potential for impacts, overall coral cover has beenmaintained between 2002 and 2006 at monitored sites. Surveys were conducted at 16mid-shelf sites in the marine park using six 25 m video belt transects per site in 2002,2004 and 2006.Marine pestsA risk assessment of introduced marine pests from the Camden Haven River to TweedHeads was carried out for the Northern Rivers Catchment Management Authority(Catterall et al 2007). This examined the likelihood of invasion by pest species in themarine park, to assist with management of pests.Marine pest species considered to have the highest potential for invasion, in order ofimportance, were the Asian green mussel Perna viridis, broccoli weed Codium fragilessp. tomentosoides, black-striped mussel Mytilopsis sallei, aquarium Caulerpa Caulerpataxifolia, giant fanworm Sabella spallanzanii, Asian mussel Musculista senhousia,Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas and European shore crab Carcinus maenas.4.2 Jervis Bay Marine Park4.2.1 Development and infrastructureMonitoring of mangrove and saltmarsh in Jervis Bay Marine ParkCurrambene, Callala and Moona Moona creeks on the eastern shore of Jervis Bayhave been subject to impacts including grazing, catchment modification for housing,and dredging. A range of studies has been conducted to determine the effects of theseimpacts (Saintilan and Williams 1999, Saintilan and Wilton 2001, Rogers and Saintilan2006, Rogers et al 2006), addressing three main areas:studies of the changing distribution of mangrove and saltmarsh in Jervis Baycreeks, over the last 50 years and over thousands of years in the case ofCurrambene Creek, using the palaeo-stratigraphy of mangrove and saltmarshstudies of the surface elevation and contemporary sedimentation trends inCurrambene Creek (and Cararma Inlet) using surface elevation tables andfeldspar marker horizonsmonitoring of the condition of saltmarsh in Moona Moona Creek compared withother creeks in Jervis Bay, using fixed vegetation plots.Mangroves and saltmarshes are found in all four main creeks of Jervis Bay:Currambene Creek, Moona Moona Creek, Callala Creek, and Cararma Inlet – which isSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 33

one of the most diverse and pristine saltmarsh environments in NSW. The inlet is fedby marine waters circulating in a clockwise direction around Jervis Bay, which meansCarama Inlet has a high level of exchange of marine water with the bay proper. Thereare also no significant freshwater flows or developments in the small catchment. Thesaltmarsh plain is wide, and contains extensive stands of the endangered speciesWilsonia backhouseii, and the northernmost stand of the saltmarsh shrub Sclerostegiaspp.The distribution of mangrove and saltmarsh were mapped once every 10 years inCurrambene Creek and Cararma Inlet, with most change detected in CurrambeneCreek (Rogers et al 2006). Mangroves had encroached on the saltmarsh by up to 700m. Mangrove encroachment of saltmarsh was also evident in the pristine CararmaInlet. These movements of saltmarsh and mangroves have occurred over the shortterm and oppose the longer-term trend of the palaeo-stratigraphy record – one ofsaltmarsh replacing mangroves over the past few thousand years.A novel technique developed by the US Geological Survey, the Surface ElevationTable (SET), was also used to study the mangroves and saltmarsh. The SET is asunken pole filled with concrete used as a stable benchmark to accurately measurechanges in the surface elevation of wetlands with surveying equipment. This is a goodindication of wetland’s response to sea-level change. The sites which exhibit thegreatest change in mangrove and saltmarsh were those with the highest rates ofrelative sea level rise, and upper-level marsh subsidence. The Jervis Bay SETs, ofwhich there are 15, were included in the analysis of 90 SETs in south-eastern Australia(Saintilan unpubl. data).The plans for a major residential development in the catchment of Moona Moona Creekprompted a monitoring program which saw 12 vegetation plots installed in the MoonaMoona Creek estuarine wetlands. These are monitored in tandem with the 15 plots oneach SET platform (nine in Currambene Creek and six in Cararma Inlet). Four predevelopmentsurveys were completed, and more recently a post-development survey.No major impacts have yet been detected.Impacts of moorings on seagrass (Posidonia australis)Boat mooring and anchoring both impact on Posidonia australis seagrass meadows insome parts of Jervis Bay. A time series of aerial photographs from two study sites,Callala Bay and Bindijine Beach, and a control site in Hare Bay were used to trackseagrass cover between 1972 and 2001.Aerial photographs were compared with ground truthing via transects to detectchanges in seagrass cover (Crawford 2003). At Callala Bay, the seagrass meadowappeared to be getting smaller, with a 66% reduction in area between 1972 and 2001,with most of the decline occurring since 1993. At Bindijine Beach the area of seagrassfluctuated between years, and in Hare Bay no change was found.Underwater visual monitoring methods were compared with assessment using aerialphotographs. SCUBA or snorkel appeared to be most effective when either a greatnumber of large holes (e.g. at Callala Bay) or no holes were in the meadow (e.g. at theHare Bay site) (Menke 2004). This method also gave more information on the healthand species identification of the seagrass meadow that could not be obtained from thestudy of aerial photographs. However, sparse distributions of seagrass and individualseagrass species could be assessed using ground surveys. The aerial photographymethod appeared to be more effective in assessing the whole meadow, particularlywhere small holes were present, such as at the Bindijine Beach site.34 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Since the completion of this monitoring program, the MPA has installed seagrassfriendlypublic moorings at Bindijine Beach and has introduced a policy of onlyconstructing seagrass-friendly moorings at the Callala Bay anchorage and othersensitive sites throughout the marine park.Acoustic behaviour and the effects of boat noise on bottlenose dolphinsPowerboats are a major source of disturbance to coastal cetaceans, althoughinteractions between powerboats and dolphins are not well understood. The surfacebehaviour and acoustic response of travelling dolphins to a powerboat were assessedbetween November 2001 and November 2003 in Jervis Bay (Lemon 2006). Dolphinbehaviour was monitored continuously from a research boat before, during and after apowerboat approached. Between these approaches, control observations were madeof the dolphins. They altered their surface behaviour as the powerboat approached andalso changed direction of travel. These changes were when the powerboat was morethan 100 m from the dolphins. There were no changes in dolphin whistle rates or theduration of echolocation click bouts when dolphins were approached by the powerboat.This was understandable, however, as travelling dolphins in Jervis Bay generally donot produce many vocalisations. These findings suggest that powerboats affect thesurface behaviour and direction of travel of bottlenose dolphins in Jervis Bay, but thatthis impact is not reflected in their acoustic behaviour.4.2.2 Pests and diseaseImpacts of invasive marine alga Caulerpa taxifoliaData on the effects of the invasive marine alga Caulerpa taxifolia on sedimentsubstrate structure are limited, particularly for invaded locations in temperate Australia.This is of particular concern for Jervis Bay, which although surrounded by C. taxiflorainfestations, is unaffected. Four NSW waterways were examined to:quantify the impacts of this alga on the sediment grain size and the distributionsof different grain sizesdetermine the average sediment grain sizes the alga inhabits identify the optimum sediment grain size for the alga to establish (Peart 2005).It appears that C. taxifolia can cause a reduction in average sediment grain size and anincrease in the proportion of silt in the sediment. C. taxifolia inhabits a wide variety ofsediments, ranging from silt to medium-grain sand. Of this range, it is most successfulin sediments ranging from 140 to above 280 microns. This indicates the species cansurvive in a variety of conditions and can also substantially alter the sediment substratestructure over large areas of seabed. The effects of such changes on organisms areunknown, although potentially very significant.The MPA, in collaboration with the Shoalhaven City Council and the Southern RiversCatchment Management Authority, identified a range of soft sediment habitat locationsthat might be suitable for invasion of C. taxifolia. These were in Jervis Bay and inestuaries of the marine park, as well as adjacent waterways. New areas of C. taxifoliawere found in estuaries adjacent to the marine park, but no sightings were recorded inthe marine park. To help maintain this infestation-free status, an introduced marinepest strategy is being developed.Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 35

5. Indigenous and non-Indigenous culture andheritage5.1 Solitary Islands Marine ParkArrawarra Indigenous harvestingThe Garby Elders group of the Gumbaynggirr Nation are coastal Aboriginal people witha strong cultural tradition of harvesting marine and estuarine molluscs. In 1991,Arrawarra Headland, an important harvesting site in the past became a sanctuary zonein the Solitary Islands Marine Park and harvesting ceased. By working closely with theMPA, the Garby Elders and Yarrawarra Aboriginal Corporation negotiated thereintroduction of traditional harvesting in April 2006, with activities guided by aconservation plan. As part of this, harvesting is monitored in a collaborative programinvolving managers, biologists and traditional users (Cowan et al 2006).The primary steps involved in this program are to:identify the main resources to be harvesteddetermine the most appropriate methods to quantify harvesting impact on keytarget speciesprovide traditional users with training in scientific monitoring methodscollaboratively collect long-term data on the effects of harvesting on targetpopulations collate information on traditional harvesting practices for educational purposes.Historical records from a nearby midden and field excursions with Garby Elders andtheir representatives identify two species of turbinid mollusc (known as gugumbal),Turbo militaris Reeve1848 and Turbo torquatus Gmelin 1791, as the primary targets forharvesting. Research has focused on these two species (Smith 2006, Smith et al2006b).Pilot studies were conducted through October and November 2005 with two fullsurveys in March and April 2006, once the preliminary data had been fully evaluated.With only two sets of data collected, very little can be inferred other than thatpopulation size appears quite variable at some sites even over the short time betweenthe two sample periods (six weeks). This was especially the case at ArrawarraHeadland where population densities of Turbo imperialis in April were much higherthan in March. At Arrawarra Headland, densities changed from about eight to 20 per 4square metres. Higher densities were recorded at Mulloway Headland. Sizedistributions in March showed considerable variability across sites. Although individualsfrom all sites were similar, there were some differences in the size–distribution curves.Thus, relative to the other sites, the curve for individuals from Flat Top Point is skewedleft suggesting a predominance of smaller animals. In contrast, the curve for DiggersCamp is skewed right indicating a higher proportion of large individuals. Data fromArrawarra and Mullaway Headlands are similar (Smith 2006).36 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

6. Socio-economic influencesUnderstanding socioeconomic aspects of marine parks is essential for planning,management, research and review. It has direct application to allocate resources,interpret research data, education and communication programs, and for complianceassessment. An assessment by the MPA of information such as patterns of human useand activity, demographics, attitudes and perceptions, and economic benefits andimpacts is in progress. Research into socioeconomic influences and patterns of humanuse and activity in Jervis Bay Marine Park has already been described in relatedreports published on the MPA website (www.mpa.nsw.gov.au), several have beendiscussed in the Jervis Bay Marine Park Zoning Review Report.6.1 Solitary Islands Marine ParkVisitor monitoring surveys: demographics, distributions, attitudes, perceptions and useof the marine parkA visitor survey program was initiated in 2002 to better understand marine park useand visitor satisfaction. The survey aimed to identify visitor demographics, activitiesundertaken, locations visited, the importance of experiences and advisory material,and general visitor satisfaction (Ryan 2005). This was enhanced by a study on humanperceptions and demographics in the northern end of the marine park in 2003 (Taylor2003).Data were collected using several techniques: face to face interviews, survey formsdirectly to visitors to be completed later, and forms in popular tourist locations. Thesurveys were conducted in December and January 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006.Survey teams targeted popular areas including Sandon Village, Minnie Water, DiggersCamp, Wooli, Red Rock, Arrawarra, Mullaway, Woolgoolga, Emerald Beach, Moonee,Sapphire and Coffs Harbour.Results indicate that visitors, including locals that live by the marine park, are primarilyaged between 25 and 55, and 80% come from NSW (just under half live within twohours’ drive of the marine park). Three-quarters of those over two hours’ drive usecommercial accommodation, primarily caravan parks and holiday homes and units. Themost popular activity is the beach, in particular at Woolgoolga, Wooli, Minnie Water andMoonee. Swimming and surfing account for about 70% of physical activities. About10% of respondents mentioned fishing. Of these, estuarine fishing was most popular(40%), followed by beach fishing (25%).Marine park advisory material (signs, recreational user guide, brochures, boundarymarkers etc) was consistently rated ‘useful’ (about five on a scale of seven), as was theimportance of these products. Seeing marine life proved to be ‘very important’ withrespondents averaging six out of seven. Catching a fish was generally rated four out ofseven. The overall satisfaction of visitors to the marine park was betweenapproximately 5.3 and 6.5 out of seven.Other visitor feedback that will assist with future management of the marine parkincluded comments on the most common sources of satisfaction: relaxing environment,beaches, the natural beauty, lack of crowds, clean water, surf, good weather,swimming, good for children, fishing and observing marine life. Many suggestionsregarded provision of additional facilities and information, as well as suggestions toeither increase or decrease access to some areas.A specific study focused on the northern end of the marine park and included wintersurveys (Taylor 2003). Most people using the northern end in summer were not localsSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 37

and were holidaying in family groups. Between April and September, most respondentswere locals. Similar activities were enjoyed throughout the year; however, the intensityand concentration of those activities varied between summer and winter, with the mostfrequent being swimming, walking, fishing and surfing. The study showed most peoplewere satisfied with the zoning plan introduced in August 2002, and that most value themarine environment, although some did not believe the zoning scheme would benefit it.Human activity and useHuman activity and use have been spatially assessed using a combination of surveysand information sources. These include general observations recorded during boatpatrols, a targeted aerial survey over the extent of the marine park, a targetedobservation survey of estuary use, a survey of human activity on rock shores (Sibley2002), a study of boating (Lloyd 2003), and an analysis of information provided bycommercial operators on SCUBA diving, fishing charter boat activities and whalewatchingin the marine park, conducted by the MPA.A stratified sampling design in 2006 examined spatial patterns of activity and use insummer school holidays, the summer school term and winter, and on weekdays andweekends, in four barrier estuaries in the marine park (Sandon River, Wooli WooliRiver, Corindi River and Moonee Creek). Four areas were sampled in each estuary onweek days and on weekends in each season. Each survey took an average threehours, crossing the survey area by boat. A substantial proportion of each estuary wassurveyed, standardised on each. These data have been analysed using GIS, includinghot spot analysis. Patterns in Moonee Creek (e.g. Figure 5) from 24 surveys in totalindicate most use is passive, not associated with boats, near the mouth of the estuaryand near key access points. There were similar low levels of boat-based passive useand boat-based fishing. Fishing was more evenly spread throughout the whole creek,whereas passive use was concentrated towards the mouth of the creek, and was muchhigher during the school holidays and weekends.Human activity on the rocky shores was examined at a number of headlands usingthree survey methods: aerial; rapid assessment and intensive face-to-face interviewsampling (Sibley 2002). Aerial surveys covered the length of the marine park, rapidsurveys were conducted at Bare Bluff, Arrawarra Headland and Mullaway Headland;and intensive one hour surveys on Flat Top Point, Woolgoolga Headland, One TreePoint and Wilsons Point. Differences in use between weekend and weekday andschool holiday and non-holiday periods were compared in winter and summer samplingperiods during 2001–02.Results suggest human activity was highest in summer, with the greatest activityobserved at Woolgoolga Headland. Diversity of activity was also high at Woolgoolgawith nine activities recorded. There was a strong drop in activity levels and diversity inwinter, with the highest level and diversity still found at Woolgoolga Headland. Mappingindicated that activity is frequently limited to short distances from key access points, aswith the estuary survey described above. Analysis of the effects of holidays, term-time,week days and weekends on activity levels revealed that there was no significantdifference between week days and weekends during school holidays and terms,although there was much more activity during holidays.Information on boating in the marine park has been generated from observationsduring boat patrols, targeted aerial patrols, interviews and from commercial operatordata. The 22 aerial patrols provided a snapshot of human activity over the entiremarine park, divided by season and by whether activities took part on week days orweekends. The aerial patrols also assess illegal activity and undertake complianceaction.38 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Figure 5. Hot spot analysis of overall patterns of human activity in Moonee Creek from24 surveys in 2006, showing the highest level of use near the Moonee Creek Reservetowards the mouth of the creekFishing is the main activity offshore and is spread throughout the marine park. There isextensive fishing at the northern end associated with large areas of reef extending fromSandon Shoals to North Solitary Island. Many boats are small runabouts; Minnie WaterLagoon and Wooli Wooli River are key entry points.The boat and aerial patrol data are being spatially analysed using GIS, and it isintended to report the findings in a summary of human use and activity. These datawere also previously analysed as part of a study with boat-ramp interviews at thesouthern end of the marine park (Lloyd 2003). The 130 interviews revealed that mostboats were privately owned, had two or three people on board, and were local. Boattrips originating from Coffs Harbour mostly accessed the southern section of the marinepark and waters to the south; those originating at Arrawarra generally accessed thecentral part including North West Solitary Island and North Solitary Island. Commercialdiving charters focused on the islands. Charter fishing was more widespread anddepended on point of access, while whale watching was concentrated at the southernend of the marine park and further south.Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 39

Humpback whale watching tourismA survey of the recreational experience of whale watchers was conducted on boardboats operating out of Coffs Harbour. Surveys of tourists and interviews of operatorsexamined customer satisfaction. The two main themes were how important control ofpotential impacts of whale watching was, and to determine sustainable practices thattourism operators can implement to improve customer satisfaction (Roe 2005). Almost90% of tourists were aware of regulations to control boats near whales to minimiseimpacts and 86% placed a high importance on this. Tourists placed higher importanceon there being no disturbance to whales than on having a close-up encounter.6.2 Jervis Bay Marine ParkA range of the research projects mentioned in this document relate to thesocioeconomics of the region, including SCUBA diver and recreational fishing studies.Community and local business collaborations with marine park staff have provided dataand reports on sustainable activities. For example, dolphin sighting data can assessthe sustainability of the current levels of activities in the marine park. Specific humanuse and social issues have been addressed in the following projects.Recreational SCUBA divingJervis Bay Marine Park was declared in 1998. During the preparation of the draftzoning plan in 2000, societal data was collected on two conflicting park activities –recreational SCUBA diving and recreational fishing. Diving is primarily a summeractivity and nearly 80% of the average 10,000 dives per year are around the headlandsof the bay. Shore-based game fishing is also concentrated on the northern headland.However, when the exact locations of divers and anglers were determined, zoning wasdeveloped to give each group of users their own space, with only a small overlap(Lynch et al 2004).A baseline study conducted 11 years previously was also used to gain a limitedperspective on change in diving activities. It indicated dive numbers had remainedsimilar, while the number of dive charter trips had declined, suggesting larger groupsizes.A snapshot of total recreational effortA total of 33 recreational activities have been identified inside and around the JervisBay Marine Park (Northwood 2004), including swimming, rock exploring, fishing, seakayaking, picnicking, kite flying, surfing and yoga. Passive recreation such as walkingand enjoying the coastline (swimming and sitting) are the most popular, followed byboat and shore based fishing.Data for 2001 to 2006 showed the biggest increase was in sea-kayaking, although thisfluctuated widely between years, similar to activities such as SCUBA diving. Otheractivities, such as jet skiing, have shown a decreasing trend. The variability and trendsin usage patterns may be attributed to seasonal and annual weather patterns, marinepark zoning and services offered by local business operators.Stakeholder perceptions of small operator implementation of sustainability principles onthe NSW South CoastA range of small businesses operate in and adjacent to the marine park. One studyundertaken along the NSW south coast looked at ways in which tourists perceivedecologically sustainable development, such as marine parks, in the context of themarine tourism industry. Activities included fishing, SCUBA diving and marine mammalobservation (Northwood 2004).40 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

This study found that marine tourism was key attraction from a tourism marketingperspective and was part of a larger suite of activities that brought tourists to the area.Diversity was the key to tourism marketing in the region. One desirable feature is thesmall scale of business operators, appealing to tourists as a more ‘local experience’. Ofnote was that 80% of respondents in Jervis Bay felt that the small business operatorscontributed to cohesion in the surrounding community, although this was lower than forMerimbula (87%).Local operators are central to an environmentally sustainable tourism industry, asmany of these operators value sustainability as a business objective. This is consistentwith the report findings that tourists in Jervis Bay were more appreciative ofecologically sustainable activities. Despite this, it was found that there was greatvariability in the value placed on ecological sustainability.Although the above summaries are not exhaustive, and there are still other externalstudies under way in these marine parks, providing an indication of the direction andtype of research conducted from 2002 to 2007, since the last overviews of the MPA(NSW MPA 2000, Zann 2000, NSW MPA 2001).Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 41

7. Appendices7.1 Solitary Islands Marine Park7.1.1 Completed (or ongoing monitoring) research projects conducted orsupported by the MPAProjects conducted by the MPA, or with financial or in-kind support from the MPA, inthe Solitary Islands Marine Park 2002–2009Mapping of seabed habitats in SIMP – NSW DECCW (P Davies, A Jordan, T Ingleton,T Pritchard)Spatial patterns of reef fish assemblages – NSW Marine Parks Authority (H Malcolm)Sea temperature monitoring – NSW Marine Parks Authority (H Malcolm)Reef fish monitoring program – Influence of sanctuary zones on selected reef fishabundance - NSW Marine Parks Authority (H Malcolm)Fine-scale correlation between substrata and swath acoustic images and influence ofreef – University of Sydney (V Ku Hons study)Surrogates for biodiversity assessment – National Marine Science Centre (Assoc ProfS Smith, H Rose, M Rule, L Hughes) and NSW Marine Parks AuthorityMudcrab demographics – University of New England/National Marine Science Centre(P Butcher PhD study)Host-anemone reproduction – Southern Cross University/National Marine ScienceCentre (A Scott PhD study)Beach meiofauna variability – University of New England/ National Marine ScienceCentre (T Bell MSc study )Coral bleaching, disease, and competition – University of New England/NationalMarine Science Centre (S Dalton Hons & PhD studies)Mudcrab monitoring program: Influence of sanctuary zones on mudcrab Catch Per UnitEffort – consultancy for NSW Marine Parks Authority (Dr P Butcher)Monitoring condition of nearshore reefs - National Marine Science Centre (Assoc ProfS Smith)Recreational Fishing Club Competition data – NSW Marine Parks Authority (HMalcolm, P Butcher, L Irving)Black cod assessment – NSW Department of Primary Industries, NSW MPAMovements of grey nurse shark – CSIRO (B Bruce), NSW Department of PrimaryIndustries (Dr N Otway, Dr M Ellis) and the NSW MPASea-turtles - Southern Cross University (M Spears Hons study, K De Luca IntegratedProject)Four-wheel drive damage to saltmarsh – Southern Cross University (D Bateman,Integrated Project)Arrawarra Fish-trap and Indigenous harvesting – Yarrawarra Aboriginal Corporation,University of New England/ National Marine Science Centre (Assoc Prof S Smith,National Marine Science Centre) and NSW MPA (N Johnstone)42 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Visitor monitoring survey – NSW MPA & Southern Cross University (Prof C Ryan, LTaylor Hons study)Human activity and use – NSW MPA, Southern Cross University (T Lloyd Hons study;Southern Cross University – P Sibley Integrated Project)Business Survey – NSW MPA (consultancy by Prof C Ryan)7.1.2 Completed external research projects relevant to the SolitaryIslands Marine ParkProjects conducted within the Solitary Islands Marine Park funded solely from externalsources 2002–2009.Estuarine macrophyte mapping (part of State-wide Comprehensive CoastalAssessment – NSW Department of Primary Industries (G West and R Williams)Mapping of specific mangroves and assemblages (R Taffs)Benthic habitat comparisons – Australian Maritime College (B Fitzpatrick Hons study)Solitary Islands Marine Reserve Baseline survey of the benthic environment,description of fish habitat relationships, and assessment of the mooring code ofconduct on Pimpernel – The Ecology Lab and Land and Marine Pty LtdMollusc biodiversity patterns – University of New England/National Marine ScienceCentre (Assoc Prof S Smith, H Rose Hons study, M Harrison PhD study); SouthernCross University (D Birkbeck, Integrated Project)Flow disturbance to the EAC around North Solitary Island and influence on larval fishes– University of NSW (A Fowler)Amphipods – University of New England/ National Marine Science Centre (L HughesPhD study)Echinoderms – Sydney University (Prof M Byrnes), University of New England/National Marine Science Centre (S Posthuma-Grbic Hons study)Estuarine macrofauna – University of New England/National Marine Science Centre (BHastie PhD study)Coral bleaching, disease, and competition – University of New England, SolitaryIslands Underwater Research Group and NSW Marine Parks Authority (S Godwin PhDstudy); (T Harris Hons study; Assoc Prof S Smith)Invertebrate settlement patterns – University of New England/ National Marine ScienceCentre (M Rule PhD study)Oyster catcher ecology and threats – University of New England/National MarineScience Centre (A Harrison PhD study)Influence of aspect on reef fish – University of New England/National Marine ScienceCentre (M Harrison Hons study)Reef fish recruitment dynamics and over-winter survival – University of TechnologySydney (Assoc Prof D Booth, Dr W Figueira)Coral genetic diversity, connectivity and spawning – (Dr K Miller and Prof D Ayre;A Noreen, Prof P Harrison and Dr M van Oppen; Dr J Wilson and Prof P Harrison)National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing Survey (Dr G Henry, Dr J Lyle)Commercial Fishery evaluations – NSW Department of Primary IndustriesSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 43

Giant cuttlefish genetic diversity (K Kassalm Hons study)Dredge-spoil - University of New England/National Marine Science Centre (Assoc ProfS Smith and Dr M Rule)Land-use changes – University of New England (S Sawtell MSc study)Risk assessment of introduced marine pests (Prof C Catterall, R Scott, Dr D Bucher)Potential for a biomarker to indicate pollution (Dr L Pereg-Gerk, E Goulden Hons study)Whale watching – recreational experiences – University of Western Sydney (D Roe,undergraduate study)7.2 Jervis Bay Marine Park7.2.1 Completed research projects conducted or supported by the MarineParks AuthorityProjects conducted by the Marine Parks Authority, or with financial or in-kind supportfrom the Authority, in Jervis Bay Marine Park 2002–2009.Mapping of seabed habitats in JBMP – NSW DECC (P Davies, A Jordan, T Ingleton, TPritchard)Reef habitats and assemblages – University of Tasmania (Dr N Barrett and Assoc ProfG Edgar) and NSW Marine Parks AuthorityIntermediate and deep reef fish assemblages – University of Wollongong (J WraithMasters study, NSW MPA)Fauna of estuarine tidal flats – University of Wollongong, NSW MPA (P Winberg PhDstudy); James Cook University (F Clements)Tidal rocky shores – University of Wollongong (R L Wosinski) and NSW MPA)Reef fish monitoring program – Influence of sanctuary zones on selected reef fishabundance – University of Tasmania (Dr N Barrett and Assoc Prof G Edgar) and NSWMPABeyond BACI assessment of estuarine tidal flat sanctuary zoning – University ofWollongong (Dr P Winberg) and NSW MPA)Recreational fishing monitoring project – University of Wollongong (S J Caruana) andNSW MPA)Monitoring the dolphin population – Macquarie University (Dr M Lemon), DefenceScience and Technology Organisation (K Bilgmann), Dolphin Watch and NSW MPAMonitoring the Steamers Head seal colony – NSW MPA (Dr T Lynch) and BoodereeNational ParkSmall pelagic fish distribution, abundance and habitats – University of New SouthWales (E Heagney)The white-bellied sea eagles of Jervis Bay – NSW MPA (Dr T Lynch)Recreational SCUBA diving – NSW MPA (Dr T Lynch)Acoustic effects of boat noise on bottlenose dolphins – Defence Science andTechnology Organisation and Macquarie University (Dr M Lemon) and NSW MPAImpacts of moorings on the seagrass, Posidonia australis – University of Wollongong(D Crawford, P Menke) and NSW MPA44 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Marine pests – University of Wollongong (J Peart), Shoalhaven City Council and NSWMPARecreational fishing Impacts – University of Tasmania (I Osterloh) and NSW MPAA snapshot of total recreational effort – Southern Cross University (T Northwood) andNSW MPA7.2.2 Completed external research projects relevant to Jervis Bay MarineParkProjects conducted within the Solitary Islands Marine Park funded solely fromexternal sources 2002–2009.Aquatic macrophyte mapping – NSW DPI – part of statewide Comprehensive CoastalAssessment (G West and R Williams)Reef invertebrate diversity – University of Wollongong (Assoc Prof A Davis)Benthic habitat comparisons – Australian Maritime College (B Fitzpatrick Hons study)Wobbegong shark populations – Macquarie University (Dr C Huveneers)Port Jackson shark populations – University of Newcastle (Dr D Powter)Monitoring of mangrove and saltmarsh in Jervis Bay Marine Park – Australian CatholicUniversity and NSW DECC (Dr K Rogers, Dr N Saintilan)Stakeholder perceptions of small operator implementation of sustainability principles onthe NSW south coast – University of Sydney (S Schweinsberg)Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 45

8. References and relevant literatureAllee RJ, Dethier M, Brown D, Deegan L, Ford RG, Hourigan TF, Maragos J, SchochC, Sealey K, Twilley R, Weinstein MP and Yoklavich M (2000) Marine and estuarineecosystem and habitat classification NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-F/SPO-43,July 2000ANZECC TFMPA (1998) Strategic plan of action for establishing the nationalrepresentative system of marine protected areas. Environment Australia, CanberraBarrett N, Edgar G, Polacheck A, Lynch T, Clements F (2006) Ecosystem monitoring ofsubtidal reefs in the Jervis Bay Marine Park 1996–2005 Tasmania Aquaculture andFisheries Institute, University of Tasmania Report for the Jervis Bay Marine Park,NSW MPABateman D (2003) Assessment of 4WD damage to saltmarsh communities in theSolitary Islands Marine Park, NSW, Australia. Integrated Project, Southern CrossUniversityBax NJ and Williams A (2001) Seabed habitat on the south-eastern Australiancontinental shelf: context, vulnerability and monitoring, Marine and FreshwaterResearch 52:491–512Beaman RJ, Daniell JJ, Harris PT (2005) Geology-benthos relationships on atemperate rocky bank, eastern Bass Strait, Australia Marine and Freshwater Research56:943–958Bell TA (2005) The impact of four-wheel drive vehicles on, and the natural variation of,sandy beach meiofauna MSc Thesis, University of New EnglandBellwood DR, Wainwright PC (2002) ‘The history and biogeography of fishes on coralreefs’ In Sale PF (ed); Coral reef fishes: dynamics and diversity in a complexecosystem, Academic Press, pp.5–32Birkbeck D (2002) Effects of zoning on the mollusc assemblages within the SolitaryIslands Marine Park, Integrated Project, Southern Cross UniversityBilgmann K, Lynch TP (2007) Time series (1998–2007) sighting rates for bottlenosedolphins (Tursiops aduncus) by a commercial dolphin watch operator in Jervis Bay,Report to the NSW MPA, 26 ppBooth DJ, Figueira WF, Gregson MA, Brown L, Beretta G (2007) Occurrence of tropicalfishes in temperate southeastern Australia: Role of the East Australian Current,Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 72:102–114Breen DA, Avery RP, Otway NM (2004) Broadscale biodiversity assessment of theManning Shelf marine bioregion Final report to NSW MPA and Australian GovernmentDepartment of Environment and Heritage, 137 ppBreen DA, Avery RP, Otway NM (2005) Broadscale biodiversity assessment of theBatemans Shelf and Twofold Shelf marine bioregions, Final report to NSW MPA andAustralian Government Department of Environment and Heritage, 150 ppBrown CJ, Cooper KM, Meadows WJ, Limpenny DS, Rees HL (2002) Small-scalemapping of sea-bed assemblages in the eastern English Channel using sidescan sonarand remote sampling techniques, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 54:263–278Bruce BD, Stevens JD, Bradford RW (2005) Designing protected areas for grey nursesharks off eastern Australia, Final report to Australian Government Department of theEnvironment and Heritage, CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Hobart46 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

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Gladstone W (2007) Requirements for marine protected areas to conserve thebiodiversity of rocky reef fishes, Aquatic Conservation: Marine and FreshwaterEcosystems 17:71–87Godwin S (2008) The pathology and bacterial ecology of Subtropical White Syndrome:A disease of scleractinian corals in subtropical Eastern Australia, PhD thesis,University of New EnglandGoulden E (2007) Haematological responses as biomarkers of stress in the estuarineghost shrimp (Trypaea australiensis), Unpubl Hons thesis, University of New EnglandGreene HG, Yoklavich MM, Starr RM, O'Connell VM, Wakefield WW, Sullivan DE,McRea JE, Cailliet GM (1999) A classification scheme for deep seafloor habitats,Oceanologica Acta 22:663–678Harman N, Harvey E, Kendrick GA (2003) Differences in fish assemblages fromdifferent reef habitats at Hamelin Bay, south-western Australia, Marine and FreshwaterResearch 50:299–306Harriott VJ, Smith SDA, Harrison PL (1994) Patterns of coral community structure ofsubtropical reefs in the Solitary Islands Marine Reserve, eastern Australia, MarineEcology Progress Series 109:67–76Harriott VJ, Smith SDA (2002) Coral population dynamics in a subtropical coralcommunity, Solitary Islands Marine Park, Australia 9 th International Coral ReefSymposium, Bali, pp.573–580Harrison, A (2009) Ecology and impact of threatening processes on two shorebirds(pied and sooty oyster catcher) in northern NSW: implications for management PhDthesis, University of New EnglandHarrison M (2003) Interactions between Wave Exposure and Habitat Complexity inDetermining Patterns of Subtidal Community Structure Hons thesis, University of NewEnglandHarrison M, Smith SDA, Simpson RD (2006) Subtidal rocky-reef molluscsassemblages: patterns along a cross-shelf gradient in the Solitary Islands Marine Park,mid-north coast, NSW Molluscs 2006, triennial meeting of the Malacological Society ofAustralasiaHastie BF (2006) Spatial and temporal variation of benthic macrofaunal communities inthe intermittently closed estuaries of the Solitary Islands Marine Park, Australia PhDthesis, University of New EnglandHastie BF, Smith, SDA (2006) Benthic macrofaunal communities in intermittentestuaries during a drought: Comparisons with permanently open estuaries, Journal ofExperimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 330:356–367Heagney E, Lynch TP, Babcock R, Suthers I (2007a) Pelagic fish assemblagesassessed using mid-water baited video: standardising fish counts using bait plumesize, Marine Ecology Progress Series 350:255–266Heagney EC, Lynch TP, Suthers IM, Babcock RC (2007b) Pelagic Fish in CoastalMarine Protected Areas International Marine Protected Areas Congress, IMPAC1Henry GW, Mathews J, Kelly E (1997) Recreational fishing competition survey ofSolitary Islands Marine Park Report to the National Fishcare ProgramHenry GW Lyle JM (2003) The National Recreational and Indigenous Fishing SurveyNSW Fisheries Final Report Series, No 48Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 49

Hughes LE (2007) Biodiversity of amphipods in the Solitary Islands PhD thesis,University of New EnglandHughes L, Smith SDA (2004) If you build, it they will come A sampling package for therapid assessment of amphipod biodiversity Australian Marine Sciences AssociationAnnual Conference, Hobart, JulyHughes LE, Lowry JK (2006) New species of Amphipoda (Crustacea: Pericarida) fromthe Solitary Islands, NSW, Australia Zootaxa, 1222:1–52Huveneers, C (2007) The ecology and biology of wobbegong sharks (genusOrectolobus) in relation to the commercial fishery in NSW, Australia PhD thesis,Graduate School of the Environment, Macquarie UniversityKassalm KS, Donnellan SC, Fowler AJ, Hall KC, Adams M, Shaw PW (2003) Molecularand morphological analyses of the cuttlefish Sepia apama indicate a complexpopulation structure, Marine Biology 143:947–962Kostylev VE, Todd BJ, Fader GBJ, Courtney RC, Cameron GDM, Pickrill RA (2001)Benthic habitat mapping on the Scotian Shelf based on multibeam bathymetry, surficialgeology and sea floor photographs, Marine Ecology Progress Series 219:121–137Ku V (2007) Sediments around rocky reefs: Solitary Islands, Australia Unpubl. Honsthesis, University of SydneyLeathwick JR, Elith J, Francis MP, Hastie T, Taylor P (2006) Variation in demersal fishspecies richness in the oceans surrounding New Zealand: an analysis using boostedregression trees, Marine Ecology Progress Series 321:267–281Lemon M, Spencer JA, Lynch TP (2002) Distribution of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiopsaduncus) in Jervis Bay, NSW Marine Mammal Research Group Macquarie University,20 ppLemon M, Lynch TP, Harcourt RG, Cato DH (2005) Response of travelling inshorebottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) to experimental approaches by a powerboat inJervis Bay, New South Wales, Australia, Biological Conservation 127:363–372Lemon M (2006) The acoustics and impacts of anthropogenic noise on populations ofthe inshore bottlenose dolphin bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in South EastAustralia PhD thesis, Macquarie UniversityLemon M, Cato D, Lynch T, Harcourt R (2007) Short-term behavioural response ofbottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) to recreational powerboats, BioacousticsLiggins GW, Scandol JP, Montgomery S, Craig J, Macbeth W (2002) An assessment ofthe NSW eastern rock lobster resource for 2002–2003 NSW Fisheries ResourceAssessment Series NSW Department of Primary Industries, CronullaLiggins GW, Scandol JP, Montgomery S, Craig J, Macbeth W (2003) An assessment ofthe NSW eastern rock lobster resource for 2003–2004 NSW Fisheries ResourceAssessment Series, NSW Department of Primary Industries, CronullaLiggins GW (2004) An assessment of the NSW eastern rock lobster resource for 2002–2003 NSW Fisheries Resource Assessment Series NSW Department of PrimaryIndustries, CronullaLloyd T (2003) Boating activity in the Solitary Islands Marine Park; spatial and temporalpatterns and implications for management, Unpubl Hons thesis, Southern CrossUniversity50 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Lynch TP (2006), Incorporation of recreational fishing effort into design of marineprotected areas, Conservation Biology 20:1466–1476Lynch TP (2007) The difference between spatial and temporal variation in recreationalfisheries for MPA planning: a response to Steffe, Conservation BiologyLynch TP, Melling L, Hamilton R, Macready, Wilkinson E, Feary S (2004) Conflict andimpacts of divers and anglers in a Marine Park, Environmental Management 33:196–211Lynch TP, Spencer JA, Burleigh A, Lemon M (2006) The response of seals, dolphinsand sea eagles to human disturbance at the Jervis Bay Marine Park Proceedings of theRoyal Zoological Society of NSWMacready AM (2000) Assessment of recreational fishing in Jervis Bay Marine Park andcomparison of angler effort and success over an eleven year period Hons thesis,University of WollongongMalcolm HA (2007) Expansion of a sea temperature Monitoring Program in theNRCMA Area In: Sustainable Marine Resource Management Project, Part A:Research, Mapping, Assessment and Planning Report to the Northern RiversCatchment Management Authority National Marine Science Centre, Coffs HarbourMalcolm HA (submitted) Spatial and temporal patterns of reef fish assemblages in theSolitary Islands Marine Park and their utility for protected area management PhDthesis, University of New EnglandMalcolm H, Kennelly SJ, Sterling L (2005a) Three years after rezoning a marine park:some benefits of sanctuary zones on a subtropical reef ecosystem 1 st InternationalMarine Protected Areas Congress, Geelong, October 2005 pp.392–393Malcolm HA, Butcher PA, Irving L (2005b) Recreational fishing competition survey ofthe Solitary Islands Marine Park Unpubl report to NSW MPAMalcolm HA, Smith SDA (2006) Optimal selection of surrogates for describing reef-fishassemblages in a subtropical marine park 2006 Annual Conference of the AustralianSociety for Fish Biology, HobartMalcolm HA, Gladstone W, Lindfield S, Wraith J, Lynch TP (2007) Spatial and temporalvariation in reef fish assemblages of marine parks in New South Wales, Australia –baited video observations, Marine Ecology Progress Series 350:277–290Malcolm HA, Smith SDA, Jordan A (2010) Using patterns of reef fish assemblages torefine a Habitat Classification System for marine parks in NSW, Australia, AquaticConservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 20: 83–92Malcolm HA, Jordan A, Smith SDA (in press) Biogeographical and cross-shelf patternsof reef fish assemblages in a transition zone, Marine BiodiversityMalcolm HA, Smith SDA (in press) Objective selection of surrogate families to describereef fish assemblages in a subtropical marine park, Biodiversity and ConservationMalcolm HA, Davies P, Jordan A, Smith SDA (in review-a) Variation in sea temperatureand the East Australian Current in the Solitary Islands region between 2001 to 2008Deep Sea Research II EAC Special IssueMalcolm HA, Jordan A, Smith SDA (in review-b) Testing a depth-based HabitatClassification System against the pattern of reef fish assemblages (15–75 m) in asubtropical marine park, Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater EcosystemsSolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 51

Mau RT (1997) A preliminary survey of continental shelf habitats of the Solitary IslandsMarine Park, New South Wales, Unpubl Hons thesis Southern Cross University,118 ppMau R, Byrnes T, Wilson J, Zann L (1998) The distribution of selected continental shelfhabitats in the Solitary Islands Marine Park A report prepared for the New South WalesMarine Parks Authority School of Resource Sciences and Management, SouthernCross UniversityMcClanahan TR, Graham, NAJ (2005) Recovery trajectories of coral ref fishassemblages within Kenyan Marine Protected Areas Marine Ecology Progress Series292:241–248Meekan MG, Choat JH (1997) Latitudinal variation in abundance of herbivorous fishes:a comparison of temperate and tropical reefs Marine Biology 128:373–383Melling L, Hamilton R (1999) Recreational SCUBA Diving Effort and Distribution inJervis Bay Marine Park 3 rd year report University of Western SydneyMenke P (2004) Monitoring changes in seagrass meadows of Jervis Bay Marine ParkHons thesis, University of WollongongMillar AJ (1990) Marine red algae of the Coffs Harbour region Australian SystematicBotany 3:293–593Millar AJ (1998) Marine algae of the northern section of the Solitary Islands MarinePark Report to the NSW Marine Parks Authority Royal Botanic Gardens, SydneyMiller KJ, Ayre DJ (2004) The role of sexual and asexual reproduction in structuringhigh latitude populations of the coral Pocillopora damicornis, Heredity, 92 pp.557–568NSW MPA (2000) Issues and Options Paper, Solitary Islands Marine ParkNSW MPA (2001) Background Resource Document, Solitary Islands Marine ParkNSW MPA (2004) Strategic framework for the evaluation and monitoring of marineparks in NSWNSW MPA (2008a) Natural Values of the Solitary Islands Marine Park Department ofEnvironment and Climate ChangeNSW MPA (2008b) Natural Values of the Jervis Bay Marine Park Department ofEnvironment and Climate ChangeNSW DPI (2002) Environmental Impact Statement on the Ocean Hauling Fishery NSWDepartment of Primary Industries, Agriculture and Fisheries Division, CronullaNSW DPI (2004a) Environmental Impact Statement for the Lobster Fishery NSWDepartment of Primary Industries, Agriculture and Fisheries Division, CronullaNSW DPI (2004b) Environmental Impact Statement for the Ocean Trawl Fishery NSWDepartment of Primary Industries, Agriculture and Fisheries Division, CronullaNSW DPI (2006) Environmental Impact Statement for the Ocean Trap and Line FisheryNSW Department of Primary Industries, Agriculture and Fisheries Division, CronullaOsterloh I, Ley J, Lynch TP (2003) A comparison of fish diversity, based on catches byboat based recreational fishers within Jervis Bay Marine Park with data collected 12years prior Australian Maritime College, 53 ppOsterloh I, Winberg P, Lynch TP (2007) Recreational and competition spearfishing atthe Jervis Bay Marine Park A report to NSW MPA, 23 pp52 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Otway NM, Burke AL, Morrison NS, Parker PC (2003) Monitoring and identification ofNSW critical habitat sites for conservation of Grey Nurse Sharks NSW Fisheries FinalReport Series, No 47, NSW Fisheries, 62 ppOtway NM, Burke AL (2004) Mark-recapture population estimate and movements ofGrey Nurse Shark NSW Fisheries Final Report Series No 63 NSW Fisheries, 53 ppPeart J (2005) Sedimentation and the Invasive Algae Caulerpa taxifolia, Hons thesis,University of WollongongPost AL, Wassenburg T, Passlow V (2006) Physical surrogates for macrofaunaldistributions and abundance in a tropical gulf, Marine and Freshwater Research 57:469–483Powter, DM (2006) Conservation biology of the Port Jackson shark, Heterodontusportusjacksoni, in New South Wales, PhD thesis, University of NewcastlePowter DM, Gladstone W (2007) The influence of sex and maturity on the diet of thePort Jackson shark, Heterodontus portusjacksoni Australian Society for Fish Biology(ASFB) 2007 Conference and Workshop, CanberraRichardson D (1996) Factors influencing the ecology of anemonefishes(Pomacentridae: Amphiprion) and giant anemones (Actinaria) within sub-tropicaleastern Australian waters, PhD thesis, Southern Cross UniversityRoe D (2005) Investigating the recreational experience of whale watchers: a tool forbest management practices in whale watching at the Solitary Islands Marine ParkUnpubl undergraduate report, University of Western SydneyRoff JC, Taylor ME (2000) National frameworks for marine conservation – ahierarchical geophysical approach, Aquatic Conservation Marine and FreshwaterEcosystems 10:209–223Roff JC, Taylor ME, Laughren J (2003) Geophysical approaches to the classification,delineation and monitoring of marine habitats and their communities, AquaticConservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13:77–90Rogers K, Saintilan N (2006) Relationships between groundwater and surfaceelevation in SE Australian wetlands, Journal of Coastal ResearchRogers K, Saintilan N, Wilton K (2006) Vegetation change and surface elevationdynamics of the estuarine wetlands of southeast Australia, Estuarine Coastal and ShelfScience 66:559–569Rule MJ (2004) Spatial and temporal variation in the recruitment of marine invertebrateassemblages to artificial substrata, PhD thesis, University of New EnglandRule MJ, Smith SDA (2005) Spatial variation in the recruitment of benthic assemblagesto artificial substrata, Marine Ecology Progress Series, 290:67–78Rule MJ, Jordan A, McIlgorm A (2007) The marine environment of northern New SouthWales: A review of current knowledge and existing datasets Report to the NorthernRivers Catchment Management Authority National Marine Science Centre, CoffsHarbourRule MJ, Smith SDA (2007a) Depth-associated patterns in the development of benthicassemblages on artificial substrata deployed on shallow, subtropical reefs, Journal ofExperimental Marine Biology and Ecology 345:38–51Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 53

Rule MJ, Smith SDA (2007b) A long-term monitoring programme for the marinecommunities of northern New South Wales: A standard protocol for data collection onnearshore reefs Report to the Northern Rivers Catchment Management AuthorityRuss GR, Alcala AC (2004) Marine reserves: long term protection is required for fullrecovery of predatory fish populations, Oecologia 138:622–627Ryan C (2005) Visitors to Solitary Island Marine Park: their behaviours, attitudes andperceptions An analysis of surveys: 2002 to 2005 Unpubl report to the NSW MPARyan C (2006) The impact of revised zoning and management of the Solitary IslandsMarine Park on local businesses, Unpubl. report to the NSW MPARyan C (2007) Visitors to Solitary Islands Marine Park: their behaviours, attitudes, andperceptions An analysis of surveys: 2002 to 2007, Report to the NSW MPASaintilan N, Williams R (1999) Mangrove transgression into saltmarsh environments inNew South Wales, Australia, Global Ecology and Biogeography 8:117–124Saintilan N, Wilton K (2001) Changes in the distribution of mangroves and saltmarshesin Jervis Bay, Australia Wetland Ecology and Management 9:409–420Sawtell S (2002) An analysis of ecological change in relation to human settlementpatterns and activities in estuaries in the Coffs Harbour Region MSc thesis, Universityof New EnglandScandol J, Rowling K, Graham, K Eds (2008) Status of Fisheries Resources in NSW2006/07 NSW Department of Primary Industries, Cronulla, 334 ppScott A (2007) Sexual reproductive biology of the host sea anemones Entacmaeaquadricolor and Heteractis crispa in the Solitary Islands Marine Park, Australia PhDthesis, Southern Cross University, 185 ppScott A, Harrison PL (2005) Synchronous spawning of host sea anemones Coral Reefs24(2):208Scott A, Harrison PL (2007a) Broadcast spawning of two species of sea anemone thathost anemonefish, Entacmea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa InvertebrateReproduction and Development 50:163–171Scott A, Harrison PL (2007b) Embryonic and larval development of the host seaanemones Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa Biological Bulletin213:110–121Scott A, Harrison PL (2008) Larval settlement and juvenile development of seaanemones that provide habitat for anemone fish, Marine BiologyScott A, Harrison PL (2009) Gametogenic and reproductive cycles of the sea anemoneEntacmaea quadricolor, Marine BiologyScott A, Malcolm HA, Damiano C, Richardson DL (in review) Spatial and temporalpatterns in host sea anemone and anemone fish abundance at North Solitary Island,Australia, Marine and Freshwater ResearchShears NT, Babcock RC (2002) Marine researves demonstrate top-down control ofcommunity structure on temperate reefs, Oecologia 132:131–142Shima JS (2001) Recruitment of a coral ref fish: roles of settlement, habitat, and postsettlementlosses, Ecology 82:2190–2199Sibley P (2002) Spatial and temporal variation of human activity on rocky shores withinthe Solitary Islands Marine Park Integrated Project, Southern Cross University54 Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009

Smart E (2000) An investigation into factors influencing molluscan species richness onthe South Coast of New South Wales Hons thesis, University of WollongongSmith SDA (2001) Tridacna maxima (Röding, 1798) in the Solitary Islands Marine Park,mid-north coast New South Wales Australasian Shell News 112:5Smith SDA (2002) Interactions between corals and Chaetopterus tube worms in theSolitary Islands Marine Park, mid-north coast, NSW Australian Coral Reef Society 79 thAnnual Conference, North Stradbroke IslandSmith SDA (2003) Mitra edentula Swainson, 1823 from the Solitary Islands, mid-northcoast, New South Wales Australasian, Shell News 117:6Smith SDA (2004) Molluscan death assemblages on rocky shores: are theyrepresentative of the regional fauna? World Congress of Malacology, PerthSmith SDA (2005) Rapid assessment of invertebrate biodiversity on rocky shores:where there’s a whelk there’s a way, Biodiversity and Conservation 14:3565–3576Smith SDA (2006) Monitoring the reintroduction of traditional harvesting at ArrawarraHeadland: summary of pilot investigations Report to the Northern Rivers CatchmentManagement Authority National Marine Science Centre, Coffs HarbourSmith SDA (2008) Interpreting molluscan death assemblages on rocky shores: Arethey representative of the regional fauna?, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology andEcology 366:151–159Smith SDA (2009) A state-wide assessment of marine, intertidal, molluscan deathassemblagesfor NSW, National Marine Science Centre Report to the NSWDepartment of Environment and Climate ChangeSmith SDA (in review) Growth and population dynamics of the giant clam Tridacnamaxima at its southern limit of distribution in coastal, eastern AustraliaSmith SDA, Simpson RD (1991) Nearshore corals of the Coffs Harbour region, midnorth coast, New South Wales Wetlands (Australia) 11:1–9Smith SDA, Edgar RJ (1999) Description and comparison of benthic communitystructure within the Solitary Islands Marine Park, Unpubl. report Solitary IslandsUnderwater Research GroupSmith SDA, Rowland, JM (1999) Soft-sediment fauna of the Solitary Islands MarinePark: preliminary results, University of New EnglandSmith SDA, Rule MJ (2001) The effects of dredge-spoil dumping on a shallow watersoft-sediment community in the Solitary Islands Marine Park, NSW, Australia MarinePollution Bulletin 42:1040–1048Smith SDA, Rule MJ (2002) Artificial substrata in a shallow sublittoral habitat: do theyadequately represent natural habitats or the local species pool? Journal ofExperimental Marine Biology and Ecology 277:25–41Smith SDA, Rowland J (2004) The effects of dredge-spoil dumping on a shallow watersoft-sediment community at Coffs Harbour, NSW Report to the NSW Department ofLandsSmith SDA, Harrison M (2006) Spatial variation in the structure of molluscassemblages on shallow, nearshore reefs in subtropical eastern Australia Molluscs2006, Triennial meeting of the Malacological Society of Australasia, WollongongSmith SDA, Malcolm H, Rule, MJ, Dalton SJ, Harrison M (2006a) Rapid BiodiversityAssessment of Inshore Reefs, In: Sustainable Marine Resource Management Project,Solitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 55

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Wilkes K (2009) Boulder assemblages on the NSW north coast, Australia:sedimentology, age and origin, Unpubl. Hons thesis, University of New EnglandWilliams A, Bax NJ (2001) Delineating fish-habitat associations for spatially basedmanagement: an example from the south-eastern Australian continental shelf, Marineand Freshwater Research 52:513–536Williams RJ et al (1993) Jervis Bay marine ecology study Project 9: commercial andrecreational fishing and diving in Jervis Bay, NSW Fisheries Fisheries ResearchInstitute, CronullaWilson JR (1998) Reproduction and larval ecology of broadcast spawning corals at theSolitary Islands, eastern Australia, PhD thesis, Southern Cross UniversityWilson JR, Harrison PL (2003) Spawning patterns of scleractinian corals at the SolitaryIslands – a high latitude coral community in eastern Australia, Marine Ecology ProgressSeries 260:115–123Winberg PC, Lynch TP, Murray A, Davis AR, Jones AR (2007a) The importance ofspatial scale for the conservation of tidal flat macrobenthos: An example from NewSouth Wales, Australia Biological Conservation 134:310–320Winberg PC, Murray A, Davis AR, Lynch TP, Jones AR (2007b) AchievingRepresentation in Coastal Marine Protected Areas: The Importance of Spatial Scaleand Ecological Heterogeneity in Tidal Flat Assemblages International Marine ProtectedAreas Congress, IMPAC1Winberg PC (2008) Confronting challenges of tidal flat conservation: human impactsand scales of heterogeneity in a Marine Protected Area in southern NSW, Australia,PhD thesis, Institute for Conservation Biology, University of WollongongWinberg PC, Lynch TP (2007) The importance of spatial scale for the conservation oftidal flat macrobenthos: An example from New South Wales, Australia, BiologicalConservation 134:310–320Wosinski RL (2002) Applications for community based research in the rocky shoreenvironment BSc Hons thesis, Faculty of Science, University of WollongongWraith J (2007) Assessing Fish Assemblages on Reefs in a temperate Marine ParkUsing Baited Remote Underwater Video MSc thesis, Institute for Conservation Biology,University of WollongongZacharias MA, Howes DE, Harper JR, Wainwright P (1998) The British Columbiamarine ecosystem classification: rationale, development, and verification, CoastalManagement 26:105–124Zann LP (2000a) The eastern Australian Region; a dynamic tropical/temperate biotone,Marine Pollution Bulletin 41:188–203Zann LP (2000b) State of the Environment of the Solitary Islands Marine Park, Reportto Environment Australia Southern Cross UniversitySolitary Island and Jervis Bay Marine Parks Research Projects Summaries 2002–2009 57

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