A review of research on outdoor learning - Field Studies Council

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substantial additional gains between the end <strong>of</strong> the programand follow-up assessments (Effect Size = 0.17). (p. 43)In other words, ‘it seems that adventure programshave a major impact on the lives <strong>of</strong> participants, andthis impact is lasting’ (p. 70).A few years before this, Cason and Gillis (1994)reported similar findings. Through meta-analysis <strong>of</strong>43 studies <strong>of</strong> adolescent adventure programmes, theyfound an average effect size <strong>of</strong> 0.31 (or a 12.2 per centimprovement in the rate <strong>of</strong> learning for the averageadolescent).Taken together, these two studies provide strongsupport for the beneficial impact <strong>of</strong> outdooradventure education programmes on young people.This is a point reinforced by others writing in the area:The consistency <strong>of</strong> these meta-analytic results strengthensthe conclusion that, on average, outdoor educationprograms have a positive impact on the self-perceptions <strong>of</strong>participants. (Neill and Richards, 1998, p. 2)In both cases, though, these studies also raisequestions about the impacts <strong>of</strong> different kinds <strong>of</strong>programmes on different kinds <strong>of</strong> outcome measures.To look into this variability, it is necessary to considerimpacts in the different realms <strong>of</strong> the cognitive, theaffective, the social and the physical.5.2 Cognitive impactsImpacts on young people’s knowledge, understandingand cognitive skills is arguably the least stronglyevidencedaspect <strong>of</strong> outdoor adventure education. Inmany cases, this simply reflects that fact that ‘[most]adventure programs [do not] have specific aims withrespect to academic goals’ (Hattie et al., 1997, p. 68). A<strong>review</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>research</strong> on young <strong>of</strong>fenders’ outdooradventure programmes, for example, reports fewstudies that have focused on, or found positiveevidence <strong>of</strong>, cognitive impacts (Reddrop, 1997, pp. 10-13). In the school context, a recent OFSTED survey <strong>of</strong>outdoor adventure education in English primary,secondary and special schools found that ‘structuredassessment and recording <strong>of</strong> outdoor andadventurous activities work, and its impact on pupils… was rarely found in any type <strong>of</strong> school’ (Clay, 1999,p. 85).However, where outdoor adventure programmes dohave aims relating to specific academic skills, it isreported that ‘the effects on academic performance aremost impressive’ (Hattie et al., 1997, p. 68). A similarpoint is made in relation to more general academicskills such as problem-solving, whereby ‘it can beclaimed that adventure programs enhance generalproblem-solving competencies’ (ibid., p. 68).A recent example <strong>of</strong> a study focused on academicoutcomes is Fox and Avramadis’ (2003) evaluation <strong>of</strong>an outdoor education programme for 13–15 year oldstudents with emotional and behavioural difficulties(EBD) in south-west England. Based on systematicparticipant observation and in-depth interviews withstudents and instructors during two seven-weekcourses (involving one afternoon <strong>of</strong> outdoor activitiesper week), the <strong>research</strong>ers tracked participants’ (n=14)academic achievement in terms <strong>of</strong> ‘participation in thetask and achievement <strong>of</strong> learning objectives’ (ibid., p.273). The findings indicated ‘considerable variation inthe degree <strong>of</strong> academic success’, but the <strong>research</strong>ers’conclude that while the findings are not clear-cut,‘important academic gains were noted for at least one<strong>of</strong> the participating groups (whilst theunderperformance <strong>of</strong> the other could be attributed topoor attendance)’ (p. 280). This conclusion needs to beseen in the light <strong>of</strong> certain limitations <strong>of</strong> this studyacknowledged by the authors, most notably the sizeand specificity <strong>of</strong> the sample (11 boys from oneindependent residential special school who expressedan interest in outdoor education).Another area <strong>of</strong> cognition that has been explored bysome studies is the impact <strong>of</strong> outdoor adventureeducation on young people’s environmentalknowledge and understanding. In contrast to the<strong>research</strong> on fieldwork in Chapter 4, the evidence <strong>of</strong> apositive link between outdoor adventure activitiesand environmental understanding is not strong.Hattie et al. (1997), for example, find limited evidencerelating to environmental awareness and, where it ismeasured, ‘the effect sizes are very low’ (p. 76).26 >>> A <strong>review</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>research</strong> on outdoor learning
Keighley (1997) reported a similar finding ‘there wasa limited amount <strong>of</strong> literature or documentedevidence to illustrate the influences <strong>of</strong> outdoor studiesupon the development <strong>of</strong> environmental awareness’(p. 29). Furthermore, as discussed in the next section(Section 5.3), there are several authors who challengethe notion that nature experience ‘automaticallycontributes to environmental awareness, commitmentand action’ (Russell, 1999, p. 124). [original emphasis]5.3 Affective impactsThere is considerable evidence to suggest that outdooradventure programmes can impact positively onyoung people’s attitudes, beliefs and self-perceptions.With respect to self-perceptions, Reddrop (1997)reports several evaluations <strong>of</strong> programmes withyoung <strong>of</strong>fenders that have recorded positive impactsin terms <strong>of</strong> participants’ self-esteem, self-concept andlocus <strong>of</strong> control (see pp. 10-11). Similarly, Hattie et al.(1997) note that ‘the greatest effects <strong>of</strong> the adventureprograms in the self-concept domain were forindependence, confidence, self-efficacy, and selfunderstanding,and these were further enhancedduring follow-up periods’ (p. 67). They also foundthat, relative to other outcomes, the effect size for selfconceptwas particularly high at the follow-up stage,as compared with immediately after a programme.Drawing on a range <strong>of</strong> previous studies, Hattie et al.(1997) put forward several explanations for theseeffects. For example:• outdoor programmes provide young people withan opportunity to act successfully in a variety <strong>of</strong>challenging situations which thereby increases theirself-confidence and self-efficacy• the challenging and unpredictable nature <strong>of</strong>wilderness environments require participants tomodify their own behaviour, thus enhancing theirself-control and independence.Four UK studies present evidence that supports sucharguments. The recent evaluation <strong>of</strong> the governmentfunded‘Pilot Summer Activities Programme for 16Year Olds’ noted a number <strong>of</strong> benefits stemming fromthe summer pilot projects, many <strong>of</strong> which involvedoutdoor adventure-type activities for an average <strong>of</strong>five days (Thom, 2002; see also Brown andHumberstone, 2003). The aims <strong>of</strong> the programmewere: to encourage young people who are undecidedabout their future at 16+ years to re-engage withfurther education and training; to increase confidenceand self-esteem, team working, leadership and lifeskills. The evaluation was based on a questionnairesurvey <strong>of</strong> participants before (n=6,547) and after(n=2,998) the programme, and follow-up telephoneinterviews with a sample <strong>of</strong> participants (n=300) andparents/guardians (n=298) some three to four monthsafter the programme. Based on analysis <strong>of</strong> thebefore/after differences for the 1,103 young peoplewho completed both the pre - and post-programmesurvey, it was found that:participants recorded significant improvements in selfesteem,leadership skills and confidence [and] the key driver<strong>of</strong> this was where young people had undertaken anexpedition as part <strong>of</strong> their residential experience. (Thom,2002, pp. 45, 51)Furthermore, the follow-up interviews withparticipants and parents/guardians, ‘confirmed thatthese effects appeared to last beyond the immediateend <strong>of</strong> the programme’ (ibid., p. iv).Another relevant UK study is the 1999 OFSTEDsurvey <strong>of</strong> outdoor and adventurous activities (OAA)in 33 schools in England (Clay, 1999). This reportedthat ‘pupils’ attainment in OAA was good; theydemonstrated decision-making, problem-solving andinterpersonal skills in a range <strong>of</strong> activities and inresponse to different types <strong>of</strong> challenge’ (ibid., p. 84).Furthermore, with respect to students with emotionaland behavioural difficulties, it was noted that:OAA provided many opportunities for them to build theirconfidence, skills and abilities in both cooperative andcompetitive situations. (ibid., pp. 84–5).Similarly, two small-scale UK studies suggest selfesteembenefits stemming from the Duke <strong>of</strong>Edinburgh’s Award Scheme expedition (Gibbs andBunyan, 1997) and a 31-day residential course foryoung <strong>of</strong>fenders (McRoberts, 1994). The first <strong>of</strong> theseThe impact <strong>of</strong> outdoor adventure activities
Page 1: March 2004Mark Rickinson, Justin Di
Page 4 and 5: AcknowledgementsThe researc
Page 7 and 8: Executive summaryIntroductionThere
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Page 11 and 12: 1. IntroductionThis chapter explain
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Page 65 and 66: ReferencesADVENTURE ACTIVITIES LICE
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Page 69 and 70: NEILL, J.T. and RICHARDS, G.E. (199
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