Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and Challenges

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesTanzanian government have called for a suspension onnew biofuel development until appropriate policies,regulatory frameworks and laws are in place to guidethe process (Sosovele 2008; Mwamila et al., 2009;Sosovele, 2010).Based on the literature, observations and lessons learntfrom current biofuel investment pathway in Tanzania itseems the end use purpose of the Tanzanian biofuelindustry is to initially use most fuel and/or raw materialsfor export to rich countries and later when the localmarket has developed, direct some energy to the localmarket that will be given priority. That scenario will notonly aggravate the existing energy consumptionimbalance between rich and poor but will alsocontradict Tanzania’s national energy policy, whichstrives to ensure sustainable energy supply, security,reliability and environment protection. In reference tothe prevailing policy issues surrounding the new biofuelsector in Tanzania the following observations/concernsshould be considered in revised/improved biofuelguidelines prior to drafting Tanzanian biofuel policy(Table 1). It is evident from the preceding biofuel policyissues and in the literature reviewed that if the biofuelconcerns and challenges are not addressedresponsibly and sensibly at the national policy level,biofuel development may not result in the anticipatedbiofuels benefits to Tanzania and the majority of itslocal communities. It is also important to note that, withcurrent technologies biofuels can only, at best,substitute a small amount of the global fossil fuelneeds. There is simply not enough land to producesufficient biofuel for world liquid biofuel needs.Therefore, proper consideration and assessment of thepotential negative effects of the biofuel industry isrequired, to ensure benefits outweigh any ecological,economic and/or social costs. Therefore strategic lifecycle assessment (LCA) for production of liquid biofuelscould be one way to enable better-informed decisionmakingand implementation of biofuels in Tanzania.The LCA studies will result in data on the energybalance, the greenhouse gas balance and the land useimpact (soil, water, vegetation structure andbiodiversity) of the liquid biofuel system.Production and status of biofuel feedstockBiofuel development is sought through available andpotential avenues, and agriculture becomes the mostpractical system of production. This is because biofuelhave already been identified from crops, which somewill have to satisfy both food and energy needs(Dellomonaco et al., 2010). It is well established thatbiofuel production cost is currently higher than that ofthe fossil fuels; the critical factor being the rawmaterial/feedstock cost which represents the largestcost of production in all current biofuels productionsystems (Peskett et al., 2007). According toSchmidhuber (2007), in large ethanol production plants,feedstock costs can account for about 70-80 percent oftotal costs. On the other hand, the major economicfactor to consider for input costs of biodiesel productionis the feedstock, which is about 75-80% of the totaloperating cost. Other important costs are labor,methanol and catalyst, which must be added to thefeedstock (Haas et al., 2006). Nevertheless, thecontinuous efforts to increase in the raw material yieldsas well as the advances in production technologies willmake this cost relationship more favorable for biofuelsin future. In Tanzania, at present, oil palm and Jatrophacurcas Linnaeus are the main energy crops anticipatedfor biodiesel production. Sugarcane is widely cultivatedin Tanzania to produce sugar, and many proposalshave been developed to diversify and expand the useof sugarcane for bioethanol production. Additionallythere is the potential to produce bioethanol fromsorghum (white and sweet sorghum) and biodiesel fromcrops such as sunflower, neem, Moringa oleifera,Pongamia pinata, Croton megalocarpus and castorbean (Table 2). There are some proposals to usecassava for bioethanol, coconut and even avocado forbiodiesel, but no biofuel projects using these crops arecurrently operational in Tanzania.Table 1: Tanzanian national biofuel policy issues of concern.Sn Issues Explanationsi. Policy definition of Defined in the policy document, to refer to all solid, liquid and/or gaseous fuel produced frombiofuelsbiomass resources (waste from agricultural or forest and planted biomass) that can be blendedwith or replace diesel, petrol or other fossil fuels for transportation, stationery, portable and otherapplications.Include straight vegetable oil (pure plant oil), biodiesel, bioethanol and other biofuels like biogas,bio-hydrogen, bio-methanol, biosynthetic, etc.2681

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesii. Blending Targets Be calculated in relation to land requirement and variation on productivity potential.Aim at mainstreaming biofuels in the energy vision of Tanzania.Set a target of achieving certain percentage of blending in conventional fuels with biodiesel orbioethanol, at a specified time frame.iii.Land use policy andmarginal landThe policy should consider and recognize the existence and right of commons by avoidingdangerous assumptions about the extent of “marginal” lands and how they are to be defined.Scientific studies should be carried out to determine who lives on these “marginal” lands and toestablish the actual marginal lands available.Land that is “marginal” to one person may be a vital resource to another in deed it has been usedsustainably by commons.iv. Biofuels feedstocks State in the policy that biofuels should be based on non-food feedstock raised on land that is notsuitable for agriculture and indigenous species of trees bearing non-edible oilseeds will beexploited.Tanzania is a net importer of edible vegetable oil and has under-supply of sugar. Therefore thebiofuel policy document should not permit utilization of edible vegetable oil (such as palm oil) andsugar cane juice for biodiesel and bioethanol production, respectively.State in the policy that molasses by-product of the sugar industry should be major source ofbioethanol production instead of sugar cane juice.v. Policy framework Should incorporate the views of all stakeholders taking into account government, private andacademia dialogueShould indicate clearly sector linkages to be put in place by policy makers and the government.Should be driven by local or community energy needs, rather than foreign driven or externalenergy needs.Should avoid the top down approach, which, understate social acceptability of the new biofuelventure/project.Should have a pro-poor impact which indicate poverty reduction strategies featuring prominentlyin documentvi. Biodiversity Every effort should be made to ensure biodiversity conservation.Clearing of large areas of natural forests habitat to give way to biofuels mono crops farmingshould be avoided.Genetically modified plants (GMP) for biofuels production should be scrutinized carefully if there isa need to grow them otherwise should not be allowed due to the fact the effect environment andhuman health is still unknownvii.Marketing linkages andpurchase priceviii. Financial incentivesthat encourage biofueldevelopmentix. Research anddevelopment (R&D) onbiofuelsThe oil marketing companies (OMC) should be entrusted with the responsibility of storage,distribution and marketing of biofuels.Biofuel indicative purchase price (BIPP) for procuring biodiesel and bioethanol should be fixed.The entire biofuel value chain should be considered as a primary sector activity that is eligible forpriority lending by all financial institutions/banks.Policy should encourage the sale of biofuel in indigenous markets and prohibit exports. Toencourage investments in biofuel sector.Policy should also favour discounted excise and custom duties on plant and machinery for theproduction of biodiesel/bioethanol and for engines running on biofuels.The policy should support continuous research, development and demonstration on all aspects ofbiofuel production, from feedstock production to end-use applications.R&D to generate advanced and cost-effective bioconversion technologies is vital step in largescalepromotion of biofuels technologies in any country in the world.Regulatory authority, which can be responsible for coordinating biofuels research anddevelopment, should be established.Biofuel demonstration projects should be entitled to grants, subsidies and fiscal incentives andshould be encouraged through public private partnership (PPP).The total potential for bioenergy production in Tanzaniadepends on the potential for crop production in thecountry. Tanzania has about 94.5 million total hectaresof land, of which only about 10 million hectares arecurrently cultivated. With a total arable land area ofapproximately 44 million hectares, according to someestimates, the area of land suitable for the cultivation ofenergy crops production in Tanzania is estimated at2682

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengessomewhere between 30 million ha (Sulle and Nelson,2009a). However, recently, Haugen (2010) reviewedbiofuel potential in Tanzania and FAO’s estimates ofavailable land and revealed that the biofuel policiesmust be based on cautious assessments of how muchland that is actually available .Furthermore, Haugen(2010) found that the FAO’s estimates figures are thehigher side and as such it is not appropriate to applythem as a basis for planning agricultural expansion inTanzania and in order to avoid direct conflicts with abroad range of human rights and environmentalobligations due to production of biofuels. Neverthelessa range of factors indicates that biofuel development inTanzania is technically feasible. The favorable factorsinclude; high and growing energy needs presence ofarable land near coast for easy exportation and highrainfall in coastal regions. To date, approximately fourmillion hectares have been requested from thegovernment for biofuels investment. Much less land,about 641,179 ha in total, have already been allocatedfor biofuel investments. Even less land 100,000 ha intotal, has been fully secured by biofuel investorsfollowing the procedures for land acquisition.Table 2: Biofuels crops and their proposed locations in TanzaniaBiofuel crop Location Purpose/initiativeJatrophaKisarawe/Coast region, Bagamoyo/Coast region, Rufiji/Coastregion, Chalinze/Coast region, Kilwa/Lindi region,Dodoma,Mwanza,Shinyanga and Tabora regions, Mpanda/Kataviregion, Mbalali/Mbeya region, Kilimanjaro and Dar es Salaamregions, Manyara region, Handeni and Pangani/Tangaregion, Arusha region. Singida region, Morogoro region,Njombe region, Usangu/Mbeya, Lindi regionJatropha oil and biodiesel production,seeds and Jatropha oil for export,production of Jatropha seeds for localmarket.Palm oilKigoma region, Bagamoyo, Kisarawe and Rufiji in Coast Crude palm oil and Biodieselregion, Mvomero/Morogoro regionproduction, biodiesel for power use.Sugar cane Rufiji, Bagamoyo/Coast region Bioethanol for exportSorghum (white and Bagamoyo/Coast region, Handeni/Tanga region,Bioethanol for exportsweet sorghum)CrotonmegalocarpusBiharamulo/Kagera regionProduction of nuts for Croton oil andbiodiesel mainly for local marketSunflower Dodoma region, Chalinze/Coast region, Shinyanga region, Export of sunflower crude oil, biodieselproductionPongamia piñata Bagamoyo/Coast region Biodiesel productionNeem Bagamoyo/Coast region Biodiesel productionMoringa oleifera Bagamoyo/Coast region Biodiesel productionCastor Planning phase and location not yet allocated Castor oil and biodiesel productionSources: (GTZ, 2005;Kamanga, 2008; Messemaker, 2008; Oxfam International, 2008; Songela and Maclean, 2008;Sulle & Nelson, 2009a; Sulle, 2009b; WWF-Tanzania, 2009)Oilseed bush Jatropha curcas Linnaeus is one of thecrops often cited as ideal for growing onmarginal/waste/barren land in Tanzania and elsewherein the world by foreign and local investors. Variousstudies has shown that the non-edible drought resistantcrop has considerable potential and value for smallscaleproduction in its natural environment and can begrown on degraded lands and improve the quality ofsuch lands by storing moisture and stabilizing soil(Dufey, 2006;UN-Energy, 2007; Dellomonaco et al.,2010). Nevertheless, claims of low nutrientrequirement, low water use, low labor inputs, thenonexistence of competition with food production,tolerance to pests and diseases in combination withhigh yield should be taken with precautions since theclaims are entirely not true (Drynet Position Paper onBiofuel, 2008). There is still lack of scientific evidenceto support claims related to Jatropha high oil yieldproduction particularly at large scale in marginal lands.There is also still a scarcity of research about theinfluence of various cultivation-related factors and theirinteractions and influence on seed yield. Furthermoreinformation on cultivation, establishment, managementand productivity of Jatropha under various climaticconditions is lacking in peer-reviewed literature(Parawira, 2010). The positive claims on J. curcas are2683

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesnumerous, but only a few of them can be scientificallyverified and sustained. According to Foidl et al. (1996)the predictions of productivity seem to ignore theresults of plantations from the 1990s, most of which areabandoned now for reasons of lower productivity and orhigher labor costs than expected. Genetic andenvironmental factors have effect on oil yield productionfactors. J. curcas is still a wild species and geneticidentification of provenances and testing them indifferent locations and conditions is yet to be done.There is also still a shortage of research about theinfluence of various cultivation-related factors and theirinteractions and influence on seed yield (Parawira,2010). Therefore it is important to distinguish betweenreality, promise and dangerous extrapolation about J.curcas as a biofuel crop whether on small-scale orlarge-scale plantation. Table 3 summarizes some of theclaims about J.curcas as an energy crop compared toresearch findings and field experiences.In Tanzania it has been reported recently that there isnot enough knowledge on inputs, outputs andmanagement of the Jatropha plant (Messemaker,2008). Experiences demonstrate that there are lowyields and oil content beside high costs of Jatrophacultivation. To maximize return on the land one needsto use fertilizer, irrigation and fungicide. In dry areasthis will require large-scale mechanized irrigation(Messemaker, 2008). Furthermore in Tanzaniacommercial production of Jatropha on marginal land isnot suitable, as it needs 500-6000 mm/year and fertileland such as on coastal areas, low land hinterlands andwestern high lands close to Lake Tanganyika (MAFSC,2006). Therefore the dry land in centre of Tanzaniacannot be recommended for Jatropha commercialproduction without irrigation (MAFSC, 2006). Upon thatrealization many agrofuel investors are choosing todevelop their Jatropha plantations on well-watered,fertile lands, and not “marginal” lands (Sulle & Nelson,2009a; Table 2). However, additional high-yieldinggenotypes of Jatropha should be selected for Tanzaniafor stable and economic biodiesel production. There isneed for proper policies and mechanisms to regulatethe sector to ensure that biofuels feedstock such asJatropha are not given too much priority at the expenseof other important values for nature, environment andsociety (Parawira, 2010). Of particular concern is thecompetition for land, water and the displacement ofland for the cultivation of food and other crops(Openshaw, 2000).Cooking oil wastes from restaurants and householdscan be used as alternatives in production of high qualitybiodiesel (Nakpong & Wootthikanokkhan, 2009). Theprice of waste cooking oil is 2.5-3.5 times cheaper thanvirgin vegetable oils, thus can significantly reduce thetotal production cost of biodiesel. Biodiesel obtainedfrom waste cooking vegetable oils has been considereda promising option. Waste cooking oil is available atrelatively cheap prices for biodiesel production incomparison with fresh vegetable oil costs (Demirbas,2009). Furthermore, lipid (fat) production from algaeholds much promise for the biodiesel industry since itmakes up to 50 percent oil by weight and double theirnumbers in a single day. Microalgae are microscopicaquatic plants that carry out the same process andmechanism of photosynthesis as higher plants but donot require fresh water or arable land used forcultivation of food crops (Weber, 2009). Agriculture andforest residues provide a large potential as alternativefeedstock, especially if the second-generation biofueltechnology is applied to expand on the potential forestresidues. Assuming that 4 tons of waste can produce 1ton of ethanol, this may have better sustainability interms of contribution to green house gases emissionreduction and food security (Li & Chan-Halbrendt,2009).2684

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesTable 3: Jatropha curcas Linnaeus biofuel/energy cropClaims Research findings Referencesand experienceWasteland/marginal -Literature claims Achten et al., 2007;biofuel crop 1000g/plant.2008; Orange, 2009-Experience shows200g/plant.Remarks-Seeds and oil yields are much higher in conditionswhere the plant has adequate access to soil nutrientsand water than hostile conditions (Parawira, 2010).-In Tanzania Jatropha plantation are beingestablished/targeted coastal zone, forested, fertile, wellwateredlands (Martin et al., 2009).LowrequirementwaterTolerance to pestsand diseasesLow labor intensityinputs-Without irrigation 1.2-2.77 tons per ha.-With irrigation 5.25-12.5 tons per ha.-Jatropha plant is notfree from pests anddiseases.-Jatropha requireshigh labor intensityHaslow -Yields increasefertilizer/nutrient significantly withrequirement increased soil fertilityHas high yield -Jatropha crop,predicted yields rangefrom 0.6-15 tons seedper hectare per year.Rajagopal, 2007;Orange, 2009;Kheira & Atta, 2009Messemaker, 2008;Christian Aid, 2009Hakikazi Catalyst,2008; Parawira2010Orange, 2009;Weber, 2009Openshaw, 2000;Kumar & Sharma,2008; HakikaziCatalyst, 2008;Parawira, 2010.-Optimal oil production from Jatropha requires significantannual rainfall of up to 1000-1500 mm/hectare (GaiaFoundation et al., 2008).-Seed yields are sensitive to soil fertility and moistureavailability (Parawira, 2010).-Tolerance of J. curcas to pests and diseases on fewdispersed trees might not apply in general to trees inplantations (Parawira, 2010).-Pesticides and fungicides are applied for growth andsurvival of Jatropha in plantations (Messemaker, 2008).- Jatropha oil production is labor intensive because laboris required to prepare the land, set-up nurseries, plant,irrigate, fertilize, prune, harvest and process the seedsready for the market (Parawira, 2010).-Growing the plant with fertilizer produce as much as 4kg per plant (Orange, 2009).- Projections of seed yield and oil yield on plantations inmany literatures lack a sound scientific basis with widevariations and do not give description of conditions underwhich data were collected (Lapola et al., 2009;Parawira,2010).- Failure to reach satisfying yields is the main problemsencountered during Jatropha curcas cultivation (Foidl etal., 1996).- Poor yield being caused mainly by air cross-pollinationwhich creates hybrids of different Jatropha varieties thatdo not possess the agricultural characteristics ofJatropha curcas (Kumar &Sharma, 2008)Biofuels production models.Biofuel crops production, as with any form ofagriculture, can be carried out under a range ofdifferent production arrangements often referred to asproduction models. In Tanzania several combinationsof business models exist, ranging from models that limitthe production of biofuels to smaller holder farmers ingroups to that which relies on the out growers/contractfarming and models that involves company ownedfarms/plantations/estates. Recently Sulle & Nelson(2009a) reported that biofuel companies using outgrower and other contracted smallholder arrangementshave little direct negative impacts on land access andrepresent the most positive model for local livelihoodsand the environment. However, while out growersystems are currently considered more inherently‘sustainable’ from a social and environmentalperspective, it is important to consider hidden costs ofindependent production, including food security impactsof agricultural land and labor foregone from foodproduction, water depletion, soil nutrient depletion,erosion and downstream impacts at the watershedlevel, as well as the risks of invasive species andpotential risks from genetically modified organisms(RSB-GUI, 2009). As with large-scale biofuels, theexperience is relatively very recent in Tanzania,particularly Jatropha biofuel crop. Land allocation for2685

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesproduction of Jatropha in Tanzania is 80% private, 56%plantation and 22% mixed (GEXSI, 2008). It is thespread of these large-scale operations, which is drivingmany of the social and environmental concerns aboutbiofuel production in Africa (Scott, 2009) and inTanzania at present (Sulle & Nelson, 2009a).Plantation agriculture is often based on monoculture ofa single variety or cultivar, which increases risks ofpests and disease impacts, necessitating intensivemanagement with tillage, fertilizers, pesticides,herbicides and other chemical inputs (RSB-GUI, 2009).Details of classification criteria for development ofbiofuels in Tanzania, features of productionmodel/drawbacks and reasons for production modelhave been reported elsewhere (Messemaker, 2008;Martin et al., 2009; Sulle & Nelson, 2009a). Table 4summarizes production models, productionarrangement, status and challenges of existing,prospective and emerging biofuel crops productionarrangement in Tanzania.Players and institutions involved in biofuels inTanzania: The motivations for governments toaggressively pursue biofuel development are complexand multidimensional since it entails exploitation of fourprincipal resources namely; land, forests, waterresources and labour (Kamanga, 2008). To ensure thesustainability of biofuels enterprise and those fourstrategic important resources, different countries of theworld are developing their national strategies on biofueldevelopment to include environmental and socialcriteria/aspects, which are intricately interrelated.Biofuels can be regarded as integral part of emergingbio-economy with great development expected tocome especially for those countries like Tanzania withagriculture as the main activity. Production of liquidbiofuels; bioethanol and biodiesel in Tanzania is newand still in its infancy stage. Nevertheless, the biofuelindustry has attracted a wide range of investors.Besides a handful of local firms, foreign firms fromEurope, USA, Japan and the Far East dominate thebiofuel development initiative and investment(s) mainlyoften with the intention to export. This is oftenimplicated mainly to the fact that Tanzania as adeveloping country lacks the necessary technology forthe production of biofuels and capital investment. Tothat effect the country currently encourages foreigninvestment in biofuels and the likelihood of foreigninvestors dominating the industry is a clear reality. Theforeign biofuel industry dominance and impact inTanzania should not be underestimated but be taken aspolicy pointer since their dominance in local economiesmay also limit opportunities to negotiate equitableinclusion. The roles of different actors/players inTanzania are summarized in Table 5.2686

Anthony M. Mshandete. J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesTable 4: Existing and emerging biofuel crops production arrangement in TanzaniaProduction models Production arrangement Status ChallengesThe Plantation (Estate) Plantations by individual,cooperative or CorporateThe Out grower(Contract Farming)Small-scale/smallholders/village-levelbiofuel production bycontract or independentfarmer-Currently virtually no and/or little by way ofanalyzed, empirical evidence to substantiatethe perceived potential-Many of these are in their initial stages andare run by foreign investors, primarilyEuropean.-Out grower schemes and sustainablefarming are becoming drivers for business.-Not producing biofuels commercially and are only in their infancy.-Lack of structured biofuel policy means no documentation of incentivesand tax. Thus making biofuels investment risks very high.-Legislative gaps, and compensation limited to loss of improvements likecrops and trees (thus excluding loss of land) all undermine the position oflocal people.-Lack of transparency, checks and balances in contract negotiations dealsthat do not maximize the public interest.-Not enough knowledge on inputs-outputs and management of someenergy plants.-Small scale development in biofuels exists on a limited basisThe Hybrid Production Mixed plantation withintegration of out growerschemes/small-scalefarmers.-Smallholder producers may control supply.Medium- scale Batch and collection -The most prevalent form of biofuelinitiatives.-Established biofuel feedstock market, withdevelopment and growth prospects.-Actors do not produce liquid biofuel (e.g. inthe form of biodiesel) but use (straightvegetable oil) for transportation.-Smallholders difficult to safeguard labor, wage and rights.-Market instability e.g. the instability of the seed market.-Potential of plantation employees being replaced by mechanizedproduction.-Smallholder may collude to increase prices or disrupt supply.-Unreliability of feed stock production and low oil contentSources: (Messemaker, 2008 ; Mitchell, 2008 ;Songela & Maclean, 2008 ;Martin et al., 2009 ;WWF-Tanzania, 2009 ;RSB-GUI, 2009 ;Sulle & Nelson,2009a ;Sulle, 2009b).2687

Anthony M. Mshandete. J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesTable 5: Players, institutions involved in liquid biofuels in Tanzania and their roles.Sn Players/actors, institutions Roles1 Government of Tanzania both centraland Local, including at Village level)and its Agencies;-The role of government for the energy sector is to facilitate development, provide incentives for private investment initiatives andpromote effective regulations, monitoring and coordination of the sector.-Ministry of Energy and Minerals supervises the implementation of the energy policy, which is the main guidance for changesbacked by legislation and regulations.- Tanzania Investment Centre (TIC) maintains a database and suitable growing areas and offers a one stop shop to facilitate landacquisition, permitting and registration. TIC has developed a land bank of over 2.5 million ha, with several land plots for potentialinvestment opportunities all over Tanzania.- The office of the Commissioner of Lands, the principal statutes regarding land, that is, the Land Act and the Village Lands Act,1999.- Local government, Village Councils and Village Assemblies have been pivotal for accessing village land for biofuel developmentby investors via lease and are being centre stage of the ongoing expansion of the biofuel industry.- National Biofuel Task Force (NBTF) is working on policies, strategies and regulations to streamline the development of biofuelsand to formulate and propose an enabling environment to facilitate the development of biofuels in Tanzania.-The Tanzania Petroleum Development Corporation (TPDC) is a national oil company responsible for exploration, promotion anddevelopment of oil and gas resources in the country. However does not control prices, and the market of petroleum products andbiofuels as potential substitute for petroleum products are not mentioned in its establishment.- Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority (EWURA) its role is to regulate the energy and water sector in Tanzaniaincluding the technical aspects of downstream petroleum business. EWURA will also be responsible for the regulation andmonitoring of a future biofuels sector with additional powers to deal with licensing of biofuels- National Environmental Management Council (NEMC) is a government agency entrusted with the role of enforcing, reviewingand monitoring environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies. These studies include agricultural projects necessitatingresettlement of communities; transportation of petroleum products; and the development of large-scale renewable sources energy.-Tanzania Bureau of Standard (TBS) responsible for international standards, technical specifications and codes of practice inorder to upgrade supply chain infrastructure, quality of petroleum products and services provided. In regard to biofuels PetroleumSupply Act require EWURA to consult with the TBS.2 Investors (existing, prospective; localand foreign)3. The diplomatic community (Belgium,Brazil, Canada, Japan, Germany,India, Malaysia, Switzerland, UK,-Different local and foreign are at various stages of developing and promoting the production of biofuels.- The preferred model of production is either plantation or smallholder/out grower) and/or both depending on particular investor(s).- Companies contract-farming or agreements with farmers whereby seeds and other agriculture inputs are provided by those whocan then purchase the crops produced by the farmers.- Many companies are already planning and implementing supply chain innovations that include local people. But they focusprimarily on the inclusion of small-scale farmers and pay much less attention to enterprises in the downstream supply chain.-More than eight multinational biofuel companies are reportedly finalizing colonial style agreements with villages to acquirethousands of hectares of land to cultivate biofuel crop.- Tanzania is not producing biofuels for export yet but biofuel industry is dominated by foreign based biofuel business companies-Development partners/ bilateral and multilateral donor organization-Government of Netherlands, SIDA and NORAD of Sweden and Norway, respectively have been supporting the NBTF in terms offinancing the biofuel development guidelines, supporting project-monitoring unit as well as for hiring biofuels experts to support the2688

Anthony M. Mshandete. J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesUSA) international developmentagencies (CIDA, DfID, EU, GTZ,JICA, ILO, SIDA, UNDP, UNEP,USAID) and International FinancialInstitutions (AfDB), IMF, World Bank)4. Tanzania Association of Oil MarketingCompanies (TAOMC). TAOMCmembers include BP,Shell, Gapoil,Gapco, Caltex Oil, Oryx, KobilPetroleum, Total, Engen Petroleum,OilCom andNatoil.Tanzania government and facilitating NBTF meetings.-Germany via GTZ has commissioned the first ever comprehensive study on the prospects of liquid biofuels for the transportsector and potential and implications for sustainable agriculture and energy in the 21st Century-FAO leading international cooperation developing a BioEnergy Food Security analytical framework which is set up in one countryin each region in the world interested in producing biofuels. Tanzania country specific data is being developed by the FAO, whichwill result in a country specific scenario that will determine input to the analytical framework.-DfID, World Bank and USAID provide technical and financial assistance to develop the productivity and capacity of out growersand communities in palm oil and Jatropha growing areas-BEST (Business Environment Strengthening in Tanzania) under the BEST cluster competitiveness project donor finance capacitydevelopment (such as training, yield improvement and market research etc) of out growers in key growth sector-Millennium Challenge Corporation and other donors fund to offset infrastructure development costs associated with newproduction facilities (road linkages and irrigation etc)-There are more than 70 oil marketing and trading companies in Tanzania responsible for the distribution of petroleum productthroughout Tanzania, these companies set-up create partnership with private individuals to operate petrol retail stations.- Could produce or use biofuels-Since biofuels are likely to be an enduring aspect of the oil industry development oil companies will be responsible for biofuelsdistribution and marketing in Tanzania.-Some oil companies such as BP are planning to be in engaged in biofuel production but waiting for biofuel policy to come out.5. Research and academic institutionsboth private and public6 Civil society organisations (local andinternational) and the media-Conventional role of teaching, research, consultancy and outreach activities, they could prove critical in several ways.-Some are engaged in conducting Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), while others have been involved in conductingquantification for compensation of the villagers whose land has been dispossessed.-Training manpower in the disciplines of chemical processing, and energy engineering, besides providing consultancy services tostakeholders and thus positioned to influence public opinion and policy.- Expected to conduct applied research, process development and provide expert professional services to biofuel industry,government and other organizations-Research on biodiesel production from vegetable oil- Engine tests on pure biodiesel and biodiesel/diesel blends-Private research institutions carry out research related on biofuels such value chain and value chain analysis, biofuel value chainmapping etcNGOs such as KAKUTE (Kampuni ya Kusambaza Tekinolojia), TaTEDO (Tanzania Traditional Energy Development andEnvironmental Organization), Faida Mali Market Link, Haki Ardhi, Jatropha Products Tanzania Ltd, LHRC (Legal and HumanRights Centre), LEAT (Lawyers Environmental Action Team) and the most prominent forum for the media is the organisation‘Journalists for the Environment’ (JET).- Supply, construction, and maintain bioenergy facilities- Innovation in bio-energy technologies and energy.-Creation of public awareness on biofuels issues and related issues-Promotion of biofuels-Commissioning biofuels desk researchSources: (GTZ, 2005;Keamey, 2006; Kamanga, 2008; Messemaker, 2008; Sulle & Nelson, 2009a)2689

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesImpact of biofuels on food securityThe competition between food and energy crops hasbecome an international debate. Prices increases forsome biofuel crops that are also staple foods placefood security at risk by raising prices and increasingrather than decreasing poverty. This is likely to happenif it is more profitable to sell food crops to biofuelsproducers (WWF-Tanzania, 2009). The assessment ofimpacts of food security from biofuel developments isnormally based on basic production models namely;plantation/estate, out grower and hybrid. Whereas outgrower models are seen as more supportive of foodsecurity, despite substitution of land and labor toproduction exported from the micro-level system,integration of cash and food crops provides benefit ofintensification and diversification of cultivation, reducingrisks from pests and diseases to which mono-croppedsystems are more susceptible. Reduced risk may meanthat the farmer could potentially make more cash, thusimproving her/his risk to food security (RSB-GUI, 2009).Food security is improved when the main food crop andcropland are not diverted to biofuel production, as is thecase with bioethanol or biodiesel. The food andlivelihood security of farmers displaced by biofuelplantations will be affected, while those encouraged togrow feedstock on their own land instead of food crops,may be at greater risk of food insecurity (Scott, 2009).The potential impact of biofuel production on the priceof food crops, in Tanzania and around the world, hasbeen raised as a major issue of concern on the part ofcivil society organizations, government policy-makers,foreign donors, local communities, and in some casesthe investors themselves (Sulle & Nelson, 2009a).Cultivation of energy plants, which goes hand-in-handwith forced resettlement, have recently been reportedthat could most likely affect food prices in Tanzania andcompound even more the country's dependency onfood imports (Kamanga, 2008). Also, at household levelin Tanzania it had been reported that there is evidencethat food prices in local markets are beginning toincrease because of the industrial biofuel companies intheir locality (Action Aid, 2010). Beside the empiricalevidence from a number of sub-Saharan countriesincluding Tanzania show that the majority of farmers orrural households are not net food sellers but are netbuyers of food and consequently they are the mostvulnerable to rises in food prices (Action Aid, 2010).Increasing pressures on investors to scout for cultivableland had inflamed the food versus biofuel debate andspurred major controversies over the large-scale biofuelplantations in relation to food security in Tanzania.Therefore, the danger that Tanzania might soon beoverrun by such biofuel crops investments is threat toits already precarious food security situation (Redfern,2008). Scientific evidence is steadily moving againstindustrial biofuels (first generation biofuels) and the linkbetween biofuels and food insecurity is strong. There isa connection between the two, particularly from awomen’s rights perspective, and the extent to which theright to food is being undermined by industrial biofuels(Action Aid, 2010). In fact in developing countries, ruralwomen produce 60-80% of the food. For example inSub-Saharan Africa countries such as Tanzania womenproduce about 80% of household food (UN MillenniumProject, 2005). In regard to water supply and quality ithas been reported that many feedstock – includingsugar, palm oil and maize–are highly water intensive,meaning that their expansion is likely to make waterless readily available for household use, threatening thehealth status and food security status of affectedindividuals (FAO, 2008a). Fear of food shortages andmounting pressure from environmentalists, farmers,NGO’s have prompted the Tanzanian government tosuspend the allocation of arable land, processing anynew applications for biofuel projects and eviction offarmers over biofuel projects, pending ratification of alaw and establishment of a regulatory mechanism togovern the sector and monitor the biofuel industry.It should however be acknowledged strongly thatresearch suggest that the relationship between biofueland food is very complicated (Kaye-Blake, 2010). Table6 summarizes the relation ship between biofuel andfood in Tanzanian context and elsewhere applicable.Table 6: Complexity of the relationship between biofuel and foodIssueExplanationPopulationGrowing population and improved diets are placing ever-greater demands on land for food production.So that competition and conflict with biofuel production using current methods will ever increase thedemand for food where in a world about one billion people are already hungry/underfed (FAO, 2008a).What does it mean for a future with even less biofuel and more people?KnowledgeWith more knowledge, better management and increased capital, the same, finite amount of land canproduce more food and fuel. The greater production does not require more land and does not2690

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesDistributionPovertyEnvironmentalimpactProductionInvestmentnecessarily require more of other resources. Greater efficiency does allow someone to have more.However, finite amount of political considerations and institutional structures and should therefore beevaluated.Food shortages and price fluctuations are not necessary a result of biofuel crop cultivation butdistribution. Production of more food will not solve the distribution problem. The problem is how foodand productive resources are distributed. Distribution problems are often the result of poorinfrastructures, storage and political problems, such as civil war (Jenkins & Scanlan, 2001)The problem of poverty is in the form of access to food and the capacity to produce food and not directlyrelated to biofuel production. Peasant agriculture does not generate sufficient returns for farmers andcannot invest in improvements in human, physical, financial and social capital that could allow them toproduce more. Farmers are trapped in their poorly productive systems and are unable to invest in watersupplies, farm improvements and new technologies. The results of rural poverty need sound institutionaland infrastructure arrangement, policy decisions interventions (World Bank, 2007).Environmental impact from bringing more land under cultivation. In order to meet both the demand forfood and an increased demand for biofuel, more land may be brought under cultivation. More agriculturebut lower greenhouse gas emissions certainly deserve some consideration (International EnergyAgency (IEA), 2004). Biofuel may reduce carbon emissions, for example, but what are the impacts onwater quality or biodiversity?Production, however, is a combination of land, water, various sources of energy, plant cultivars, knowledgeand physical capital. Food security problems are not production problems, so focusing on howmuch food or biofuel is produced does not solve the problems. It is impossible to determine how muchfood and biofuel they might end up being produced. But If biofuels production if managed properly willhave a positive effect on the rural economy and food security, by enabling more people to havesufficient income to be food secure planned (Scott, 2009; Christian Aid, 2009; Action Aid, 2010).Biofuel has the potential to resolve the problem by providing a new use for commodities. Food couldbecome more expensive but possibly only marginally. However, farmers could increase incomes, theycould invest in improvements to their education, health, technology and land.Impact of biofuels on employment opportunities:The arguments put forward in support of investment inbiofuel production include the contribution it will maketo rural economic growth, employment and incomesand poverty reduction (Raswant et al., 2008). Becausebiofuel production is labor intensive, there could besignificant employment creation thus can alsocontribute to alleviating poverty. There is remarkablylittle information available on actual incomes andemployment in biofuels production, perhaps because itis relatively new and as yet limited in scale (Scott,2009). Although jobs may be created and expandingplantations other jobs may be displaced if the land usedfor plantation was previously farmed. Net jobs gain maybe minimal or possibly more jobs may be lost thancreated (Christian Aid, 2009). Additionally, new createdjobs are often of much poor quality in terms of wagesand conditions (Christian Aid, 2009). The nature andsignificance of the impacts of the introduction ofbiofuels production upon women and men will dependon the technology and specific context as well as localsettings (Scott, 2009).The labor situation for men and women in biofuelindustry in Tanzania is more of the same nature as thatacross the globe and the concerns are analogous to theconcerns in the rest of the world. Making the agriculturesector which, employ 80% of the population inTanzania attractive in terms of employment prospectsis one the objective of the Tanzanian EmploymentPolicy of 1997. Therefore, among reasons supportingthe production and use of biofuels in Tanzania includespromotion of the development of new agriculturalmarkets and income generation in rural area (Jenssen,2006). Based on one job per hectare (De Keiser &Hongo, 2005), the earmarked 700,000 ha of land forliquid biofuel in Tanzania, can be equivalent to 700,000direct jobs and another equivalent number of jobs canbe created indirectly. This can be achieved throughadditional capital inflows, create demand for goods andservices that provide employment, reduce rural-urbanmigration, and create linkages and multipliers.Nevertheless, “the growing global demand for liquidbiofuels, combined with the high land requirement thatcharacterizes the production of such fuels, in Tanzaniamight put pressure on the so-called “marginal” lands,providing an incentive to convert part of these lands,which may be perceived as less important and of less‘use’, to biofuels production.” Typically owned and/or2691

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesfarmed by women, these marginal lands provide criticalsubsistence functions for the rural poor. It have beenrecently reported by Rossi & Lambrou (2008) ongender and equity issues in liquid biofuels that theconversion of marginal lands to plantations for biofuelsproduction “might cause the partial or totaldisplacement of women’s agricultural activities towardsincreasingly marginal lands,” with a negative impact onthe employment and income earning/generation. This islikely to happen due to the fact that the presentemployment status of women in Tanzania is deplorableand the gender bias is a prevalent and significantproblem, with women working twice or triple work daysin the fields than men (Migiro, 2004). On the otherhand if women get employment in biofuel plantations,experiences elsewhere revealed that women tend to bedisadvantaged compared to men, concerningemployment conditions, and there is evidence thatwomen receive less training and instruction than men(AWID, 2008; Rossi & Lambrou, 2008). A recent reportnoted an example from Malaysia where womenrepresent about half the plantation workforce and arepredominantly employed as sprayers of chemicalpesticides and herbicides. Without proper training andsafety equipment, this can result in “seriousimplications for the long-term health of these womenworkers” (AWID, 2008; Rossi & Lambrou, 2008).Additionally, it is also well documented that large-scalemono crop plantations require mostly seasonalworkforce with working conditions mostly deplorable,labor rights non-existent and low payment (ChristianAid, 2009). Already there are concerns of low dailywages payment in Jatropha plantation scheme havebeen reported in Tanzania (Redfern, 2008).Nevertheless, research in Tanzania suggest thatJatropha plantation could provide significant source ofemployment (5 employments per 1ha of Jatropha)since mechanized harvesting of fruits is inefficientbecause fruit do not ripen at the same time and hencehave to picked individually (HakiKazi Catalyst, 2008).On the other hand pilot and experimental projects,mainly by NGOs such as KAKUTE, TaTEDO andcompanies such as Diligent found in Tanzania showspotential to increase access to energy access for thepoor, and even provide sources of income/employmentfor rural households, especially women. For marginalwomen farmers in Tanzania such income/employmentopportunities may still be perceived as relativelyattractive. However, in Tanzania biofuel developmentpolicies should also be consistent with (and, possibly,contribute to) the promotion of gender equality and theempowerment of women. In this regard measuresshould be taken to ensure that women and femaleheadedhouseholds have the same opportunity as menand male-headed households to engage in and benefitfrom the sustainable production of liquid biofuels. Thisis important in light of the increasing feminization of theagricultural workforce and the growing number ofhouseholds headed by females (42% of the total inSouthern Africa), particularly in the poorer and morefood insecure countries of the world (Deutsch et al.,2001) often due to male out-migration or loss of malelabor force due to HIV/AIDS (FAO, 2004). Thereforeensuring women have increased access to and controlover land and other productive assets would improvewomen’s welfare and they’re bargaining power withinthe household and would also improve increaseagricultural productivity.Power and politics on biofuels: Biofuel politicsrelates to the scenario of who has the power to makedecisions on issues pertaining to biofueldevelopment/industry. The politics of biofuels are morecomplicated than superficially seen. The stimulation ofbiofuel production/industry by governments of the worldis purely a political decision of bureaucrats andpoliticians. The political decisions, influence biofuelindustry development in several ways such as in termsof subsidies on the growth of biofuel crops, productionprocesses and the prices at the pump as well as interms of regulatory frameworks/guidelines/policies.Elimination governments could impose barriers successand other necessary interventions in favor of theindustry such as tax incentives.Biofuels production in itself is not bad, it is the way it iscurrently being done that can be so problematic and/orraise concerns by stakeholders. In Tanzania already,over 40 companies/projects have biofuel projects atdifferent parts of the country predominantly along thecoast mainly with Jatropha, sugarcane, sweet sorghumand palm oil as energy crops. Despite this number ofbiofuel investors/projects/initiatives Tanzania’s biofueldevelopment particularly liquid biofuels (ethanol andbiodiesel) are new and is still at infancy as well as notfully understood. There have been evidences of currentbiofuels production displacing local small farmerscreating social-economic issues in Tanzania (Sulle,2009b). It is however also evident that in Tanzaniabiofuel production for local energy consumption isundermined by the obvious intent of multinationalsinternational investors to target foreign markets. Also,there are no plans and/or scant plans to invest in2692

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesinfrastructure in Tanzania to process biofuels for localuse.In controversial new sectors such as biofuels, thepotentially social and environmental consequences areexpected to be so remarkable that many groups andindividuals from all walks of life are exercised by recentbiofuel developments and intend to engage in thebiofuel debate about where the biofuel sector should go(Caniëls & Romijn, 2009). In Tanzania so far politicians,decision makers, bureaucrats, media (local andinternational), public, civil societies and NGOs aredivided with respect to the current biofueldevelopment/investment by both local and multinationalcompanies. Nevertheless, some members ofparliament, civil societies and activists have alreadywarned against the invasion of arable land bymultinationals seeking to cultivate biofuels whosepriority market is not Tanzania but for export to richeconomies of the West. The concerns had an impact tothe extent that the current state President has recentlyordered all regional authorities to halt current and futurebiofuel projects and acquisition of land from villagersuntil clear biofuel policy is established. On anotherdevelopment linking policy with practice, fieldexperiences and input from different organizations isvital at this early stage of biofuel development in theTanzania. To that effect the NBTF is apparently willingto adapt policy provisions to input generated throughlocal experiences and recommendations fromnumerous workshops, consultations, and stakeholders(such as WWF-Tanzania, Hakiardhi and other NGO’s)discussions and perspectives (Sulle & Nelson,2009a,b). Understandably biofuel investment inTanzania is being encouraged as it has a potential toaid rural development, local livelihood, improve energysecurity and reduce oil imports. However, the waybiofuel investments are being carried out needs to beeffectively coordinated for biofuel industry to benefit abroad section of the society and keep social andenvironment impacts of biofuel investments to aminimum. Therefore the biofuel policy needs to addressthe sustainability concerns about biofuel industry suchas biodiversity, ecological, economic, cultural andenvironmental issues. Highlights of the contributions ofpower and politics on biofuels in Tanzania aresummarized below.• The power imbalances that come into playaround land issues that poor people’s rights areintrinsically under threat by increased demand for landfor biofuels crops.• The biofuels regulations, which could enablepreparation of clear policy on biofuel investments to pindown investors once they have done something againstthe interests of the country so far, are yet to beapproved by the cabinet in Tanzania. Thus, if the rightbiofuels policies were in place, there would be no needto displace farmers.• Investors in Tanzania have been able toreceive necessary investment, land and environmentalapprovals to start biofuel crops plantations even withoutconcrete biofuel policy in Tanzania.• Through linking policy and developmentTanzanian government and foreign donors haveidentified biofuel as priority growth sector and areprepared to provide extensive support at highest levelsto accelerate biofuel investment.• Local government, village councils and villageassemblies (along with the some respective membersof parliament) have been instrumental in facilitation ofinvestors are accessing village lands for biofueldevelopment and have been on a centre stage of theongoing expansion of the biofuel industry in Tanzania.• Tanzanian petroleum supply bill amendment ison the way to allow for the blending of fossil fuels withbiofuels.• The Tanzanian government have initiatives tobe implemented soon which include “agro-ecologicalzoning” to determine specific areas for different uses,including biofuels investments.Sustainability of biofuels: There is a hypothesis thatbiofuels can be produced in a “sustainable” manner ifpolicy makers would choose to do so (Haugen, 2010).The biggest challenge to biofuels sustainability isensuring that high-value land is preserved eitherbecause it stores large amounts of carbon (as doesforest land) or because it is well suited for human foodproduction (Bramble, 2009). In general worldwide typeof feedstock, biodiversity, ecological, economic, culturaland environmental issues are some of the key issuesthat are examined to determine the sustainability ofbiofuels investment. It is well established thatintroducing large-scale agricultural production of anykind can threaten forests and biodiversity, carbonstocks, land and water resources (UNESCO, SCOPE &UNEP, 2009). These impacts have all been identifiedwith biofuel production, whether on wetlands, semi-aridlands or farms land. There are massive impacts onhabitats and biodiversity. Some biofuels crops such assugar cane, soy and palm oil are either directly grown2693

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesin tropical forest areas and other high biodiversityhotspots, or are displacing other activities such ascattle ranching into these areas (Action Aid, 2010).In Tanzania impact on forests and biodiversity forbiofuel crop production is one of a major concern asbiofuel plantations are set up in Tanzania. This ismanifested by clearing of large areas of natural forestshabitats such as miombo woodlands and coastalforests to give way to biofuels crop farming (WWF-Tanzania, 2009). As new crops are introduced andused as feedstocks the effects of these on native faunaand flora is uncertain, some may turn to be aggressiveinvasive species that may affect neighboring land(Caniëls & Romijn, 2009; Sulle, 2009b,WWF-Tanzania,2009). The prospect of industrial, mono crop agriculturenowadays also raises the prospect of geneticallymodified (GM) crops. Introduction of GM crops is yetanother risk in Tanzania and elsewhere. GM crops arebeing developed to increase energy crops yield to meetbiofuel demand and reduce the need for pesticides.This may result to cross-pollination with wild relativesand thereby affecting biodiversity (Envirocare, 2007).Globally agriculture accounts for 70% of water use and90% of use in developing countries such Tanzania.Water is a scarce resource in many parts of Tanzania.In a study of three Sub-Saharan African countries,Rosen & Vincent (1999) found that women spend, onaverage, more time than men on water provision: 700hours a year in Ghana, 500 hours/year in Tanzania and200 hours/year in Zambia; women also tend to collecthigher volumes of water compared to men. Water usedfor biofuels could limit the amount of water available fordomestic uses and for other land uses such as foodcrops and deplete the local water table. There is alsorisk of large-scale irrigation to cause salinisalation. Thisis likely to occur in irrigated areas, which have lowrainfall as well as in coastal areas due to reduced watertable (WWF-Tanzania, 2009). Many biofuels projects inTanzania are planned for both dry and coastal areas(Kamanga, 2008; Sulle & Nelson, 2009a). It therefore,likely that salinisalation could have a large potentialeffect to the water supply and fertility.The processing of biofuels can also consumesubstantial quantities of water, thus the ability toprovide more for biofuel crop production andprocessing of biofuels requires careful analysis at localand regional scales. Due to the current status of biofuelproduction in Tanzania, discharge of effluent fromprocessing biofuels is of low priority than the otherissues linked to biofuels in Tanzania. However,regulation and control of effluents to mitigate negativeenvironmental impacts should be taken (WWF-Tanzania, 2009). Indirect land use change occurs whenone form of land use is displaced to another area andfor a viable biofuels industry, the land must also becapable of supporting sufficiently high crop yields forproduction to be economic (UNESCO, SCOPE &UNEP, 2009). In Tanzania some of the currentproposed biofuel production plantations pose a largethreat to biodiversity as they plan to employ large workforce, which will need houses to be built after clearingnatural habitats. A casual laborer will have an impacton surrounding areas and forest reserve as they couldbe involved in logging, charcoal production etc whenemployment in plantations is not available (WWF-Tanzania, 2009). Pleas have been made at theinternational level that rules governing the internationalliquid biofuels market should be agreed on andadopted, and the social and environmentalsustainability of biofuels production should be ensured.Establishing one or more of the following could do this:codes of conduct, voluntary schemes, certification,bilateral agreements and multilateral frameworks (UN,2007). A number of national and international initiativesaimed at ensuring the sustainability of biofuelsproduction and processing are already underway, suchas the International Bioenergy Platform (IBEP) and theGlobal Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP), both housedwithin FAO, and the Roundtable on sustainable biofuels(GBEP, 2007).Research and development on biofuels: There isemerging global opportunity for producers of biofuels.Tanzania can benefit if it chooses to engage in thisopportunity aligning industry sustainability anddevelopment goals via research and development(R&D). R&D on biofuels to generate advanced andcost-effective bioconversion technologies is the firststep in large-scale promotion of biofuels technologies inany country in the world. More research and investmentis required to develop the potential of small-scalebiofuel production aimed at meeting the energy needsof people living in Tanzania. Traditionally, both publicand private universities should conduct basic andapplied research, process development, providesexpert professional services to industry, governmentand other organizations.With regard to biofuels there has been scientificresearch going in Tanzania. Biogas a gaseous biofuelproduced by anaerobic digestion of almost all organicmatter (with no competition for land, food, water etc). Itis a promising, affordable, decentralized renewable2694

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesenergy of today and the future in Tanzania. In Tanzaniathe biogas research and development has been goingon for the past twenty years and centered mainly atCollege of Natural and Applied Sciences (CoNAS) atthe University of Dar es Salaam in collaboration withcounterparts in foreign Universities (Mshandete andParawira, 2009). On the other hand, research anddevelopment on bioethanol and biodiesel have beeninitiated but is still at an infancy stage. Research onbioethanol production from sisal bole waste, sawdustwaste, bamboo juice, coffee wastes, sugarcanefeedstocks using indigenous microorganisms isolatehave been carried and others are at preliminary stageparticularly at CoNAS and at College of Engineeringand Technology (CoET) University of Dar es Salaam.Recently natural occurring osmotolerant fermentativeSaccharomyces yeasts suitable for industrial very highgravity fermentation application have been isolatedfrom traditional brews and wines in Tanzania (Sumari etal., 2010). With regard to biodiesels there have beenresearch and development on biodiesel production fromvegetable oil, pure biodiesel and blended biodieselengine testing. Further research on the use ofindigenous crops, including non-food crops, agriculturalwaste and forest residues is proposed in the context ofbiofuel production as well as research into increasingthe land efficiency. To that effect research on vegetableoil for biofuels other than Jatropha curcas potential foroil bearing have been initiated at CoET. Nuts andseeds of Aleurites moluccana, Croton megalocarpus,Jatropha curcas, Moringa oleifera and Pachira glabrawere collected from the wild and their potential forvegetable oil production assessed in terms of seed/nutacreage yield, seed/nut oil content, harvestingrequirement, and upstream processing beforevegetable oil recovery. All five varieties were found tocontain acceptable oil content and yield. But C.megalocarpus was ranked as the plant with the highestvegetable oil followed by M. oleifera and J. curcas, A.moluccana, and P. glabra (Kibazohi & Sangwan, 2011).On the other hand there have been several researcheson liquid biofuels done in Tanzania by postgraduatesforeign students supported by countries like Germany,the Netherlands and UK. Furthermore, there has beenreports and research commissioned by local andinternational NGOs, civil societies, CBOs, developmentpartners, organizations such as GTZ, WWF-Tanzania,Christian Aid, Land Rights Research and ResourcesInstitute (LARRRI) and Joint Oxfam Livelihood Initiativefor Tanzania (JOLIT), Envirocare, independentinternational research organization, The InternationalInstitute for Environment and Development, TheTanzania Natural Resource Forum, Diligent EnergyServices and Ameco Environment Services and MatchMaker Associates Ltd. Kilimanjaro BioFuelsCorporation (KBC) is a private establishment toresearch and develop the opportunity to promote BioJet Fuel from J.curcas as a sustainable resource. KBCwas established with J.curcas as the first feedstockopportunity to be investigated fully as the future of BioJet Fuel, it also considered in terms of algae. Both thesoda lakes Magadi and Natron in Tanzania areconsidered to have excellent potential as areas with thedesirable characteristics required in promotion ofcommercial algae cultivation.However, R&D of the energy sector inclusive biofuels ischaracterized by a lack of institutional co-ordinationwith respect to various on-going research activities. Tofacilitate the development of the sector in Tanzania,there is need to establish a regulatory authority, whichcan be solely responsible for coordinating biofuelsresearch and development activities. There should beinvestment in R&D appropriate to localconditions/settings, and to maximize opportunities forpoor people; for example in appropriate oilseedproduction, small-scale processing, and in biofuelstechnologies able to increase access to clean energy inremote areas. The research institutions should putemphasis also on R&D work for the entire biofuelsvalue chain via integrating research themes across thevalue chain: environmental and economic sustainability,fuel standards and conformity assessment issues, lifecycle assessment, greenhouse gas balances, barriersto deployment, etc. Demonstration projects could beentitled to grants, subsidies and fiscal incentives andcould be encouraged through public private partnership(PPP). Furthermore, research initiative could involvethe identification and substantiation of the potentialgender differentiated, socio-economic risks andopportunities of liquid biofuels production at both theintra-household level (i.e. on both men and women)and the inter-household level (i.e. on male- and femaleheadedhouseholds). Another interesting researchinitiative can be geared towards second-generationliquid biofuels. It is important to investigate and takeinto account the potential gender differentiated risksand opportunities associated with these newtechnologies. Land grabbing phenomena due to biofuelinvestment and use of indigenous crops including nonfoodcrops for biofuel production are yet other researchthemes.Biofuels value chain: The value chain describes the2695

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesfull range of activities, which are required to bring aproduct or service from conception, through thedifferent phases of production, delivery to finalconsumers, and final disposal after use (Kaplinsky &Morris, 2001). Detailed features of biofuel value chainactivities have been reported recently by Kondili &Kaldellis (2007). However, in summary the biofuelsvalue chain includes a number of activities mainly,biomass production, biomass processing andbioproduct trading/marketing. Within a developmentperspective, the value chain framework can be used toanalyze value chains and identify constraints andopportunities for development (Messemeker, 2008).In Tanzania some biofuel development initiatives bylocal and multinational investors are taking place atdifferent stages. In Tanzania’s context, a transitiontowards biofuels based energy regime is still in a veryearly phase and that its future is still unclear. It alsofollows that with regard to biofuel value chain, littleresearch that have been done to date and literatureavailable reveals that limited local researchinfrastructure is one of the barrier in biofuels industrydevelopment. Also biofuel value chain mapping havebeen identified as one of the challenges in biofuel valuechain. There is no commercial biofuel production inTanzania. Currently several stakeholders are involvedin biofuel development in the field of straight jatropha oilproduction. Therefore, most of biofuel value chaininformation or studies available for Tanzania are onJatropha biofuel crop and products. A study onprospects for Jatropha biofuels in Tanzania withemphasis on analysis of strategic niche managementby Eijck & Romjin (2008) showed that Tanzania’sexisting energy regime and agricultural regime remainprominent barriers. However, mapping of Jatrophabiofuel value chain by Eijck & Romjin (2008) revealedthat Jatropha production value chain production involvegrowing the plant and harvesting the seeds, processingand usage stage where the oil and seed cake areconsumed or further processed to generate finalproducts. On the other hand a study on assessment ofthe Jatropha value chain and its potential for pro-poorbiofuel development in Northern Tanzania pro-poorbiofuel by Messemaker, (2008) concluded that there islittle knowledge on important issues such as productioncosts and feasibility compared to other crops. Ingeneral, Jatropha requires common inputs such asnutrients, water and farm management, therebycompeting with food and other crops. Hence, it is notthe promising biofuel crop it is said to be. Under certainconditions, the Jatropha value chain could contribute topro-poor biofuel development in Northern Tanzania. Butfor now it is still in an incipient stage. With regard tovalue chain governance, the study showed that somestakeholders have taken steps towards acquiringgovernance in the chain, but in practice have littlepower over other actors yet. The Jatropha business inTanzania is yet to be linked with global value chain. Afeasibility study on local biofuel production to be linkedto the energy production for use in telecommunicationapplication in South Eastern of Tanzania wasconducted by Diligent energy Services and AmecoEnvironment Services of the Netherlands in 2006. Thestudy identified functions related to biofuel production inTanzania such as consumption (usage) of either ofSVO and biodiesel as fuel that are suitable for using inthe diesel generators for the mobile phone antennas.The study also identified marketing functioning as partof the chain. Another study carried out by MMA (2007)on Jatropha subsector emphasized on Jatropha soapvalue chain analysis. The stakeholders in Jatrophabased biofuel up to oil production include producers,collectors, collection centers, agents and transporters.The chain extends to distribution, medical stores andsupermarket in Jatropha soap production chain. Thereis still lot of production drive and there isunderstandably tension between market developmentand production base development at this stage of valuechain. Governance in a soap value chain exhibits thedegree of organization and interactions in a valuechain. Value chain is still developing hence there is littlegovernance exhibited by actors/outside agents in thischain (MMA, 2007).From the preceding few studies on biofuel value chain itcan be inferred that biofuel value chain analysis inTanzania relates especially to the production,marketing, distribution and support of biofuel basedcrops. Biofuel development and production could be aviable business proposition for biofuel growers inTanzania due to the fact the demand for biofuel ispresumably very large although much of it is still latent.It can be preliminary concluded that that there are stillmany obstacles in Tanzania's prevailing energy regimeto the biofuel transition. The development of biofuels isstill in an early phase hence more data and know howneed to be gathered on Tanzania's biofuels potential,implications and challenges on biofuel value chain andhow to respond and mitigate/and adapt to thosechallenges.2696

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesLand tenure issues: Land tenure involves securingaccess to land and management of land resources. Itinvolves who can hold and use the land and itsresources at specified duration and conditions (Lal,2006). Land is a finite valuable commodity which firstgeneration biofuels investors are keen to exploit togrow energy crops. Worldwide the current increasinglybiofuels demand for transportation is likely to present asignificant pressure on land resource use across theglobe. Nonetheless access to land is one of thefundamental preconditions to fight against rural hungerand poverty. The rapid growth in demand for biofuelshas lead to expansion of biofuel production, which islikely to lead to greater competition for access to land(FAO, 2008b).In Tanzania even though the aggregate picture of landdevoted to biofuel is uncertain, for those living inlocations affected by individual biofuel projects thereare real concerns about their impact on those whodepend on the land acquired for their livelihoods (Sulle& Nelson, 2009b; Sulle, 2009b). Women compared tomen own very little land. Instead, women often usecommunal land to grow crops, collect nuts, grazeanimals or collect firewood. But this very same land isbeing targeted for biofuel investment (Action Aid, 2010).The prevailing land acquisition for biofuels by foreigninvestors particularly in Africa partly is promoted bypolicy and legislative reforms aimed to attract investorsto Africa and foreign Governments mainly Europe andUSA promoting acquisition of farmland in foreigncountries for biofuel production and/or biofuelfeedstock’s to meet their biofuel blending mandatetargets stipulated in their respective biofuel policies(Oxfam International, 2008; Christian Aid, 2009; Actionaid, 2010). The ongoing fast-evolving biofuelinvestment in developing countries definitely createsopportunities, challenges as well as risks (OxfamInternational, 2008). Large-scale land acquisitions canresult in local people losing access to the resources onwhich they depend for their food security andlivelihoods (Lal, 2006). Local residents may be directlydispossessed of the land they live on, often their longstandingheritage (Cotula et al., 2008; 2009). The futureland requirements for biofuel production are uncertain,what is certain is the acquisition of land in Africancountries for agricultural production, for both food andbiofuel crops (Scott, 2009). Unfortunately, one of theside effects of biofuel targets in which companies orrich and powerful investors rush to buy up new land,potentially displacing vulnerable communities whoserights to the land are poorly protected (Christian Aid,2009). On the other hand, increase in pressure onaccess to land in developing countries and the sheerspeed of biofuel expansion may generate newpressures on land tenure arrangements, leading toalienation (IUCN, 2007). There is considerable fear thatthe poor may either lease, sell or be forced to relocateas the rush to meet increasing demand for land forbiofuel crops production (Raswant et al., 2008). One ofkey reasons for Africa’s attractiveness to outsideinvestor is due to the perception that there are vastareas of unused or underutilized land, which can bereadily given over to grow biofuel feedstock’s (Cotula etal., 2008; 2009). Also Africa is said to have most of theunderutilized fertile land in the world (Henrique, 2008)as well as land values being very, very inexpensive inAfrica (Jung-a et al., 2008).In Tanzania land ownership remains restrictive; underthe Land Act of 1999, all land in Tanzania belongs tothe state. However, non-citizen investors may occupyland for investment purposes through a governmentgrantedright of occupancy, through derivative rights, orthrough sub-leases through a granted right ofoccupancy. Rights of occupancy and derivative rightsmay be granted for periods up to 99 years and arerenewable (TIC, 2008,). Furthermore, in Tanzania,investors can lease and use ‘general land’. Details ofthe procedures of how land can be transferred from‘village’ to ‘general’ with the permission of the localcommunity has been reported recently by Sulle(2009b). Although, land acquisition in Tanzania isdifficult and time consuming, many Tanzanian citizens,local and international NGOs oppose land acquisitionby foreign investors. This opposition is mainly based onnegative experiences in the past with different cropsand resources. There is considerable public fear thatthe same will happen when large patches of land will beexploited for biofuels by foreign investors (Caniëls &Romijn, 2009).Tanzania is one of the African countries that haveattracted many initiatives in the line of biofuel businessand the total potential for bioenergy productiondepends on the potential for crop production in thecountry. Bioenergy development is a land intensiveactivity and total requests of land in Tanzania are farmore than has been actually allocated. Over 4 millionhectares of land have been requested for biofuelinvestments, in particular for Jatropha, sugar cane andoil palm. But only 100,000 ha have been granted formalrights of occupancy (Sulle & Nelson, 2009b). Therefore,most of the impacts on local land tenure from biofuels2697

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesdevelopment are still to come as further deals arenegotiated and finalized (Kamanga, 2008; Sulle &Nelson, 2009b). In Africa, concern has been expressedabout the way the new biofuel investments may resultin the loss of rights over land on the part of localcommunities (Scott, 2009). With interest in allocatingland for biofuel expansion the security of land tenureand access or use rights on the part of local residentcommunities across rural could be compromised(Kamanga, 2008; Sulle & Nelson, 2009b). Table 7summarizes concerns and impacts of biofuelsinvestments on land tenure in Tanzania.Although at any rate as far as investment on land isconcerned, foreign investors are required to have ashare with Tanzanians. However, the amount of shareTanzanians have been given is very, very small, forexample, in the case of Sun Biofuel Plc's it is only 1%for two Tanzanians. On the other hand, the currentState President has on several occasion directlyexhorted villagers to identify village lands to be put touse by investors in mutually beneficial arrangements.Table 7: Some concerns and impacts of biofuels investments on land tenure issues in Tanzania.Sn Concerns Impact Referencesi Alienation anddisplacement.ii Conflicts arising fromland alienation anddisplacementiiiivInadequatecompensationacquired land.ofLocal interest and rightsinadequatelysafeguardedv Shuttered livelihoodresulting from landalienation anddisplacement• Land grabbing and the resultant displacement of villagecommunities is one of the biggest and real threats of bioenergy.• Forcing local communities out of their territories could plunge thefarming communities into economic and cultural exploitation, asthey will be laborers in biofuel plantations.• Alienation of local communities on their rights over customarylands. In Tanzania land act provides for the conversion ofcustomary tenure to leasehold for under 99-year leases.• Is causing tensions as investors’ and requirements come intoconflict with those of communities.• Lack of transparency in the way the investment is taking placeparticularly regarding the allocation of land is leading to conflict.• Insufficient proper consultation and poor understanding oftraditional land authority on biofuel investment proposed on landis likely to compound even more in future the conflicts betweenbiofuel commercial producers and local community.• Local people incur substantial opportunity costs in granting largeareas of land to investors, which are not being factored intoexisting assessments of land values.• Payment of compensation limited to loss of crops and treesexcluding loss of land itself undermine the position and welfare oflocal people.• Rights to use land for grazing, firewood collection, or wild fruitgathering stipulated in traditional land tenure systems is shutteredas the result of biofuel investment on the land.• Common lands are officially unrecognized and therefore ineligiblefor compensation by biofuel investors thus compromising localinterests and rights.• Loss of local villagers forest-based economic activities, includingcommercial charcoal production and harvesting forest products.• Loss of US $35-50 generally unaccounted-for per capita income,which have been estimated by World Bank from informal and nonindustrialuses of forests in Tanzania.• Loss of forests which, provide 75% of all building materials, 95%of household energy supplies and 100% of traditional medicines.• The community loss of land without receiving compensation,Lal, 2006; Envirocare,2007; Kamanga, 2008;Sulle & Nelson, 2009b ;Sulle, 2009b.ABN, 2007; Kamanga,2008;Oxfam International,2008;Sulle 2009a, b.ABN, 2007; Action Aid,2010; Cotula et al., 2009;Knaup, 2008; Rughani,2009; Sulle & Nelson,2009a; Sulle 2009a, bAction Aid, 2010;Scott,2009;Sulle & Nelson,2009a;Sulle2009a,b.Kamanga, 2008;WorldBank, 2007; Sulle &Nelson, 2009b; Sulle 2009a, b.2698

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengescontrary to the Village Land Act as well as the community’slivelihood interests.• Exclusion of any value attached to land itself, which do not appearto take any account of the opportunity costs villages face indiverting Miombo woodlands used for their economic activities forbiofuel plantations.Sources: Oxfam International, 2008; UNESCO, SCOPE & UNEP, 2009;Action Aid, 2010.Biofuels climate impact: The demand for biofuels isexpected to continue to grow in the medium term, as isthe production. A significant and increasing share ofthis type of fuel is being provided by tropical andsubtropical developing countries and emergingeconomies, which have a comparative advantage in theproduction of biofuels feedstock such as sugarcane andpalm oil (Jank et al., 2007). Thus policies supportingbiofuel production and use have been establishedthroughout the world at different levels (WorldwatchInstitute, 2007). From an environmental perspective,the promotion of biofuels aims at reducing globalgreenhouse gas emissions (GHG) to limit climatechange due to their anticipated lower carbon contentcompared to fossil fuels (Oxfam International, 2008).Plants grown to produce biofuels absorb as muchcarbon dioxide during photosynthesis as biofuelsrelease during combustion. On the contrary the GHGmitigation potential of certain biofuel productiontechnologies and systems has been challenged inseveral recent studies (e.g. Crutzen et al., 2007,2008;Fargione et al., 2008). In this regard, the primaryquestion has been how much GHG is emitted duringthe whole biofuel production chain, taking intoconsideration the emissions from cultivation, (use andvolume of agrochemicals and farm machinery, etc.)extraction, transport, processing (type of energyrequired, energy efficiency), distribution andcombustion. Some prominent features of biofuelsclimate impacts are summarized below:• Direct land use change: Conversion of land togrow biofuel crops is an important cause ofGHGs. The release of GHG from soils andvegetation almost systematically exceedsreduction of GHG emission that could resultfrom the use of biofuels for some decades.• Diversion of land: Diverting land previouslyused for food crops production to biofuelproduction often has a displacement effectand farmer clear other lands (forests orgrassland) to maintain food production. Thenew land use may have a GHG emissionimpact, which can be quite large making theoverall biofuel production system net releasersof GHG.• Application of nitrogen fertilizers and cropburning: Releases of nitrous oxide (N 2O), oftenincrease with enhanced use of nitrogenfertilizer and crop burning, both of which arecommon in biofuel production. N 2O is 300times more powerful as a GHG compared tocarbon dioxide released through thedecomposition of nitrogen-based fertilizers.Poor management of nitrous oxide emissionscan reduce or even eliminate the greenhousegas benefits of a biofuel operation.• Air pollution: Pollution from the burning ofsugar cane before manual harvest contributessmoke, fine particles, and nitrogen gases tothe atmosphere, causing acid rain and avariety of human health impacts. Ethanol andbiodiesel can reduce the emissions of somepollutants from vehicle exhaust (e.g. fineparticles and carbon monoxide), but tend toincrease other pollutant emissions such asnitrogen gases.• Emission from organic wastes: GHGemissions such as of methane and carbondioxide from biological decomposing organicwastes and from nutrient polluted wastewaterresulted during the production of biofuels.• Lost opportunity for carbon savings: If thelands have the potential to revert to forests,conversion to biofuels represents a lostopportunity for carbon storage. Theenvironmental and• social consequences of inputs required tomake degraded and marginal lands productivemust also be considered.• Utilization of organic wastes for biofuelproduction: Using wastes and agricultural andforest residues for biofuels is also likely toproduce GHG benefits. In general, biofuels2699

Anthony M. Mshandete.J. Appl. Biosci. 2011. Biofuels in Tanzania: Status, Opportunities and challengesCONCLUSIONSThis is a first ever-comprehensive review, whichcategorized issues and provided the status of eachissues pertaining to biofuels in Tanzania. The reviewalso highlighted the gaps and proposed strategies ofaddressing the gaps related to opportunities/prospects,challenges/risks/constrains of the relatively newbiofuels sector. In this review it was revealed thatTanzania has great potential for biofuel production dueto the availability of land resource, high yield biofuelfeedstock’s, water resources, relative conduciveclimatic conditions and cheap labor force. It was alsolearnt that Tanzania could benefit if it chooses toengage in this biofuels opportunity by aligning industrysustainability and development goals. However, there isneither biofuel policy nor strategies to regulate biofuelindustry although there some guidelines developed byNBTF. Even without the biofuel policy howeverinvestments have been going on. Multinationalcompanies/investors have started large-scaleproduction of biofuels mainly for export. At the momentbiofuel production and processing in Tanzania is at itsACKNOWLEDGEMENTSI would like to express my gratitude to the RegionalAgriculture and Environment Initiatives Network(RAEIN-Africa) for providing guidelines to carry out thiscomprehensive desk study on status of biofuels inTanzania. I also sincerely acknowledge RAEIN-Africafor financial support to attend and present the findingsof this study on the conference on “Mitigation andmade from organic waste are environmentallymore benign than biofuels from energy crops.Using biomass primarily for material purposesreusing and recycling it, and then recoveringits energy content can gain multiple dividends.In Tanzania the current move towards biofuelproduction is necessitated by a number of factors,which are analogous to the concerns such as impact onclimate echoed in the rest of the world. With regard toJatropha, one recent study on land clearing andgreenhouse gas emissions from Jatropha biofuels onAfrican miombo woodland in Tanzania concluded thatthe carbon condition of soils appears to be moresignificant for the emissions balance than biomass andthat whether net emissions reductions are achieveddepends on the level of degradation of the ecosystemand alternative land uses (Romijn, 2009). Although ithas been generally concluded recently by Action Aid(2010) that the industrial biofuels are the least costeffectiveway of saving GHG emissions and theirsuitability in the fight against climate change isuncertain. However, using best agriculturalmanagement practices could reduce many of thenegative biofuels impacts on climate, although choiceof feedstocks and systems, and the overall demandremain critical. In addition, other environmentalparameters such as negative impacts on naturalresources must also be taken into consideration.Analytical tools such as life cycle analysis (LCA) canhelp identify the best environmental alternatives;however, social parameters have to be innovativelyintegrated in LCA. There is simply not enough land toproduce sufficient biofuel for global liquid fuel needs.Finally, it should be noted that investment in biofuels isa relatively expensive way to reduce global greenhousegas emissions. Other measures of exploiting otherrenewable energy sources may be more cost-effectiveinnovations.infant stage and there are no commercial production ofbiofuels (ethanol and biodiesel). There is only smallscale production of straight vegetable oil (SVO) from oilseeds, e.g. Jatropha, oil palm, etc do exist which ispromoted by local private companies and NGOs. Thebiofuels industry has potential for diversification ofincome particularly for rural poor small-scale farmersbut the challenge is how to integrate them in the biofuelvalue chain and how will be the distribution of returnsamong economic agents involved in the industry. Atleast with the prevailing biofuel investment pattern inTanzania, biofuels are likely to have negative impact onfood security, biodiversity, and land issues if there is nowell thought policies put in place to regulate theindustry. Biofuel policy will be most successful only ifintegrated in comprehensive plans for climate,biodiversity, food and energy security. Therefore,proper consideration and management of the potentialnegative effects of the biofuel industry is required, toensure benefits out weigh any ecological, economicand/or social costs.Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change andInnovation Systems in Southern Africa” Held atBirchwood Hotel, Johannesburg, South Africa 23-25,March 2010. A fund to publish this paper provided byDirectorate of Research at University of Dar es Salaamis highly appreciated.2700

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