Ksharim - Makom Israel

Roots in the Text, Roots in the Soil:The Land and the Book in Education for Jewish IdentityIntensive Teachers’ Seminar: Pittsburgh – Karmiel/MisgavIntroduction: the context:In the traditional Jewish community, long before there was a Zionist movement or astate of Israel, the “connection to Israel” was built in to everyday life. The entirecalendar of holidays, the words of the daily prayers, the everyday detail of the storiesof the Bible and the laws of the Mishnah – all were permeated with Israel: itslandscape, its climate, its agriculture, its geography. Even if a Jew lived in Australia,where Pesach comes in the fall, Pesach was for him/her a spring festival – for when wecelebrate Pesach we experience vicariously the spring of Eretz Yisrael. Connectednessto Israel, in the traditional community, is simply an organic part of Jewish identity.That certainly helps to explain why Zionism became such a powerful movement:Zionism integrated this organic identity connection to Israel with messianic longing,modern nationalism, and secular humanism. Zionism offered us the opportunity tomake our vicarious experience of Israel actual; to live out the messianic hope in realtime and real space.This success of Zionism has led to the crisis of Israel education. Now that Israel is amodern state, now that we have “returned to history” with all the unpleasantness anddifficult dilemmas that that entails – and now that in our modernization we have lostmuch of the substrate of tradition in which our Israel connection was rooted – we areleft trying to create a new connection to Israel, based on the assumption of the Zionistrevolution: that Judaism is a nationality, not a religion. And so, we seek ways to makethe modern state of Israel meaningful to our students. We try making it a topic insocial studies, in history, in current events; we teach modern Israeli songs, weep for thesuffering and death of Israelis in battle, in terror attacks, even in outer space. But infact, most of our students and their families are not Zionists in any classical sense.They are American Jews affiliated with Jewish religious institutions. Israel is for them asymbol, an instrument, a geopolitical reality that often makes them uncomfortable.Most of us are operating in a religious educational context, in supplementary schoolsoperated by synagogues, in day schools affiliated with religious movements. Much ofour work revolves around a religious definition of Jewish identity. We talk aboutpeoplehood, but we teach Bible and prayer and holidays. The problem is that in thedilution of the traditional community, our teaching focuses mainly on just maintainingsome minimum level of commitment to practice – and competence; on the way to thispoint, we have lost the consciousness of all of our religious observance being on somelevel a form of connection to Israel. There is Jewish text and Jewish observance – andthen, on the television, there is Israel.3 Ksharim

do those things, but they are not even close to sufficient, and indeed, are secondary tothe kind of preparation implied in the preceding paragraph: we need to provide forthem the opportunity to experience our texts in the context of their rootedness in theland – and to experience the land as reflected in and explained by our texts. Our goalis not just teachers who possess lots of knowledge about Israel, or even who modelsolidarity with Israel; our goal is teachers for whom Israel is a seamless part of theirown Jewish identity, informing every aspect of their Jewishness and flowing naturallyin everything they do as Jews and teach as Jewish teachers.Parker Palmer has written:If students and subjects accounted for all the complexities of teaching, ourstandard ways of coping would do: keep up with our fields as best we can, andlearn enough techniques to stay ahead of the student psyche. But there is anotherreason for these complexities: we teach who we are.Teaching, like any truly human activity, emerges from one's inwardness, for betteror worse. As I teach, I project the condition of my soul onto my students, mysubject, and our way of being together. The entanglements I experience in theclassroom are often no more or less than the convolutions of my inner life. Viewedfrom this angle, teaching holds a mirror to the soul. If I am willing to look in thatmirror, and not run from what I see, I have a chance to gain self-knowledge - andknowing myself is as crucial to good teaching as knowing my students and mysubject.In fact, knowing my students and my subject depends heavily on self-knowledge.When I do not know myself, I cannot know who my students are. I will see themthrough a glass darkly, in the shadows of my unexamined life - and when I cannotsee them clearly I cannot teach them well. When I do not know myself, I cannotknow my subject - not at the deepest levels of embodied, personal meaning. I willknow it only abstractly, from a distance, a congeries of concepts as far removedfrom the world as I am from personal truth.So what we need to do is help teachers articulate their own relationship to Israel, toclarify its place in their Jewish identities, to bring out in the open the dilemmas withwhich they struggle (or which they suppress) with regard to Israel.5 Ksharim

General description:To accomplish the above, the course includes: Exposure to and serious deliberation about different approaches to the significanceof Israel, definitions of the Jewish people, etc. Study of the meanings of Israel according to the texts expressing the Jewishexperience, throughout Jewish history Acquisition of solid factual knowledge about the land and the state: history,geography, sociology, etc. Study of the pedagogical implications of different approaches to the meaning ofIsrael, in the context of the various Jewish studies disciplines Study and experience of relevant pedagogical methodologies First-hand experience of study in Israel Experience of serious educational conversation with Israeli educatorsBasically, we are establishing a “college level” course in Israel education – not just aworkshop on “how to teach Israel in your classroom.” This implies the followingrequirements: intellectually serious practically relevant for teaching stimulates grappling with issues of personal and professional identity integrates Israel with various Judaica disciplines fosters development of personal and professional ties among participantsCourse description and mechanics: The course will be taught in approximately 60 weekly two-hour lessons over twoyears, in addition to various special seminars and a study tour to Israel. The structure of the course is basically historical-chronological, with the first yeardevoted to the biblical and rabbinic periods, and the second year mostly to themodern period. The flow of units of study will be as follows:1. historical/geographical introduction2. exile and Israel in the patriarchal narratives3. the Land in biblical law: ownership, stewardship, covenant4. conquest, sovereignty, historical geography from Joshua to Shivat Zion5. Jerusalem and the Temple: priests, kings, prophets6. the Tannaim and their understanding of the meaning of Israel7. Israel in the liturgy and the calendar8. Israel and Babylonia in the Talmud9. the rise of the Diaspora10. Zionism and anti-Zionism11. 20 th century history12. Israel in 20 th century Jewish thought6 Ksharim

The first third of the course deals with the biblical period, based on the assumptionthat the Bible represents the primary historical, religious, and textual anchor of ourconnection to Israel, and is an area of instruction that is important to theparticipants. Each lesson should include (more or less) the following elements:1. Group study and discussion of primary text2. Background information, provided orally and through references to reading3. Personal processing: how do I as a Jew and as a teacher relate to the issuesand dilemmas in the material?4. Questions of practice: how might this material be relevant to the classroom?5. Resources for further study, and for materials for use in teaching In addition, it is important that each lesson or at least each unit provideopportunities for making the three-way connection among:Classical text/historical experienceModern Diaspora Jewish life Modern Israeli culture Standard format for lesson plans:1. Skeletal outline: heading and main subtopics2. General description3. Goals4. Suggested outline, with pedagogical suggestions, texts for group study5. (Alternative suggestions)6. Materials for use in class7. Readings and further resources7 Ksharim

L e s s o n 1:The Meaning of Israel1. Outlinea. What is Israel engagement and why is it an issue?b. What are some possible meanings of Israel for us and our students?c. Overview of the course and its goals2. IntroductionIn the traditional Jewish community, long before there was a Zionist movement ora state of Israel, the “connection to Israel” was built in to everyday life. The entirecalendar of holidays, the words of the daily prayers, the everyday detail of thestories of the Bible and the laws of the Mishnah – all were permeated with Israel:its landscape, its climate, its agriculture, its geography.The success of Zionism has led to the crisis of Israel education. Now that Israel is amodern state, now that we have “returned to history” with all the unpleasantnessand difficult dilemmas that that entails – and now that in our modernization wehave lost much of the substrate of tradition in which our Israel connection wasrooted – we are left trying to create a new connection to Israel, based on theassumption of the Zionist revolution: that Judaism is a nationality, not a religion.The difficulty that the modern or post-modern North American Jew has in defininghis/her Jewish identity (religious? ethnic? national? universalistic?) creates aparallel difficulty in defining his/her relationship to Israel – and this in turn leaveseducators without clearly defined goals and outcomes. This whole course isdesigned to help teachers grapple with this situation and formulate their ownresponses. This first lesson is meant to articulate the problem, and start thedeliberation process that will, hopefully, run throughout the course.3. Lesson goalsa. Awareness of the problem of “Israel engagement”b. Beginning the process of self-examination regarding our relationship toIsraelc. Awareness of the outlook and goals of the course8 Ksharim

1. Is it the land that is special, or the state?2. What happens to our connection to the land if we rejectthe belief in God? In the historicity of the Bible?3. Is our relationship to Israel any different from, say, aHungarian’s relationship to the land of Hungary?4. Is our relationship conditional or unconditional? Can weimagine a situation in which we would not feel attached tothe state?iii.And in Source 6, a few texts relating to the meaning oflandscape in general: does land have inherent values, or do weproject values onto the landscape?c. Awareness of the outlook and goals of the coursei. So, what is the connection between our own personal take onthe meaning of Israel and how and what we teach our students?See this author’s view, in Source 4 below. Do we all agree?ii. Suggestion: as a kick-off for this course, and the first iteration ofa discussion to which we should probably return now and then,have participants prioritize ideal outcomes of their ownteaching of Israel to the classes they really teach, and comparenotes. Do we agree on our goals? Do the other stakeholders(kids, parents, community) agree with us?iii. This course is built of three roughly equally parts:1. Israel in the Bible - on the assumption that the mainJewish text we all teach, in some form or other, is theBible. The setting for most of the Bible is Israel, it can beseen as a user’s manual for the land, and one of itsdominant themes is the movement of the Jewish peopleinto and out of the land.2. Israel in the rabbinic tradition – on the assumption thatanother pillar of our curriculum comprises the calendarand the mitzvot – both areas in which Israel is a centralmotif.3. Zionism and the rise of the Jewish state, and variousaspects and issues in the modern state.iv.See the master list of suggested lessons for a 60-session course,in Source 5.10 Ksharim

Sources1. From an Interview with Shaul Kelner, published by NACIE, 2004Shaul Kelner is a Senior Research Associate at the Cohen Center for Modern JewishStudies at Brandeis University. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the City University ofNew York.a. What in your opinion is the ideological context for the crisis of the "IsraelExperience" (youth and student educational short and long term programs toIsrael)? What are the implications of this new reality for Israel-Diasporarelations?Sadly, the behavior of the youth and their parents is rational, given the context.Unlike previous wars, where the homefront and the front line were clearlydistinguished, in this one the front line is in the centers of civilian life that touristswould normally frequent.As I see it, the basic ideological context is a Diaspora amcha and leadership thathas replaced an ethnic allegiance to mythic Israel with a personalized, religioncenteredJudaism in which Israel is largely irrelevant.There has been an ideological shift in the purpose of Israel Experience Programssince the short term programs were first established 50 years ago. Originally,these programs were targeted only to the elite of Diaspora Jewish youthmovements, and their purpose was more explicitly Zionist rather than Judaic. Inmany cases, the trips were hachsharah tools to prepare the kids for ailyah andkibbutz life.Over the years, the programs have moved away from this shlilat hagolahorientation to see themselves as a means of preserving Jewish life in the Diaspora.Reconceived as Jewish education and identity-building programs, Israel became ameans to an end rather than the end in itself. This allowed for a huge expansion ofthe programs to appeal to a mass market. But it also set the stage for what we areseeing now.Outside of Modern Orthodoxy, American Jewish leadership, while firmly pro-Israel,is largely non-Zionist. This trend is on the rise. The more dynamic elements of theJewish community here are framing Jewishness in religious terms, not ethnic ones.For example, Tu B'shvat, once the quintessential Zionist holiday celebrated withthe blue JNF pushke , is now increasingly celebrated with neo-Hasidicenvironmentalist seders. American Jewish cultural leaders are focused on adaptingJewish religion to make it meaningful in the American context. In a society thathas made religion a thoroughly personal aftair, making Judaism meaningful andrelevant is the sine qua non of Jewish existence, and hence the major AmericanJewish project of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. My sense is that a good11 Ksharim

portion of American Jewish leadership would say, "If Israel contributes to this,great. If not, so be it, we'll find other ways." But if Israel is on the leaders' radarscreen at all, it is because of what Israel can do for American Jewry, rather thanwhat American Jews can do for Israelb. What are the ramifications in the North American Jewish community of the factthat young people are being deprived of a direct encounter with Israel?This will perpetuate the trend I described above. The drift from Israel is not justamong the amcha ,but among the American Jewish leadership as well. This is notfor lack of exposure. In fact, the university programs and seminaries that haveallowed a good portion of American Jewish leaders to spend significant time inIsrael may have been a double-edged sword. Much of Israel's importance toAmerican Jews in the past rested on its mythic proportions. The intimateknowledge many of our leaders have gained by living in Israel (but on largelyDiaspora Jewish programs and Diaspora communities) may have demystifiedIsrael. This makes it easier for American Jewish leaders to claim that their ways ofbeing Jewish are just as good if not better than Israeli ways.The short-term programs do a much better job than the long-term ones ofconveying the mythic Israel, which is a crucial basis of American Jewish solidaritywith Israel. Don't denigrate the importance of myth. It serves a valuable purpose.2. Crisis and EngagementFor American Jews, current crisis is test of their connection to IsraelBy Steven Windmueller OP-ED on Jewish Telegraphic Agency website, July 19,2006LOS ANGELES, July 18 (JTA) — Israel’s military operations in Lebanon mayrepresent a greater test of American Jewry’s resolve and engagement with theJewish state than of Israel’s military capacity. For more than two decades,observers of the Jewish scene have commented on the decline of American Jewishsupport for Israel. Studies in part confirm this shift away from the specialattachment and commitment American Jews once felt for Israel’s cause. The 1982Peace for Galilee Campaign waged in Lebanon, the first Palestinian intifada thatbegan in 1987 and subsequent events over the past 20 years were seen as dividingAmerican Jews and undermining their support for the Jewish state.Some in the ranks of Jewish leadership countered this notion, arguing thatengagement with Israel represented a cyclical phenomenon and that ourcommunal apparatus would ratchet up its advocacy and fund-raisinginfrastructures whenever there was a pressing need for American Jewishparticipation. Others suggested that due to controversial Israeli policy decisions inthe human-rights sphere and concerning territorial concessions, support for theJewish state had evaporated in many liberal circles. More directly, many Jewsdispirited by Israeli actions had stepped away, while younger Jews seemeduninterested and uneducated in the realities of Middle Eastern politics, specificallythe dramatic and complex story of Israel’s creation.12 Ksharim

Correspondingly, much of the debate over Jewish identity has centered on themeasure of support that Israel enjoys today among American Jews. An AmericanJewish Committee study released in April 2006 included a number of interestingobservations. One of the most interesting was the across-the-board, high level ofresonance of the Holocaust in shaping Jewish identification. For most AmericanJews born before 1965, the major Jewish shaping experiences were the Holocaustand the birth of the State of Israel. Many scholars have argued that the impact ofthese events should decrease with time, yet there appears to be a divergentresponse: The Holocaust continues to be profoundly important to a broadspectrum of young Jews, while Israel appears much less important in positivelyaffecting Jewish identity.In no small measure, birthright israel was designed and introduced as acountermeasure to these identity trends. Similarly, a broad array of Israel advocacyprograms on college campuses have appeared, driven by the concern to engageyounger Jews in promoting the case for Israel.If Jewish connections to Israel had weakened over time, that most likely would bereflected in general American public opinion. On the contrary, however, recentpolls show that, by a four-to-one ratio, Israel is seen both as a special friend to theUnited States and as representing anti-terrorism policies that align with America’sinterests. Similarly, as one peruses the letters-to-the-editor pages of U.S.newspapers, it’s hard not to be struck by the voices of American Jews anguishingover Israel’s right to defend itself or calling on the U.S. government to pressureIsrael to make concessions as a way to leverage peace at this moment.Many younger American Jews face an absence of information and rootednessregarding Israel and its story. In part, this disconnect is tied to the politics ofdisregard that seemed to define American Jewish institutional disengagementfrom Israel during the first intifada and beyond. Many in the community seemed toremove themselves from conscious involvement with Israel. The price of thispolitical and cultural disconnect is a generation of younger Jews less equipped toreflect on the dimensions of Israel’s historic struggle for normalcy or on itsgeopolitical environment. This may be the single greatest tragedy of AmericanJewish indifference.As media reports and Web postings about Israeli military operations grab ourattention, one of the primary questions we may need to ask is, where willAmerican Jews be in this latest challenge facing Israel? Will we witness somethinglike the period after the 1967 Six-Day War, a renaissance of Jewish commitment?Or far more troubling, will there be silence during these critical hours and days, anabsence of American Jewish voices in offering statements of support or engagingin solidarity events? Steven Windmueller is dean of Hebrew Union College’s LosAngeles campus.3. Texts for opening discussion on meaning of Israel13 Ksharim

a. Israel is a holy land, God’s property lent to usLeviticus 25:14-15, 23You shall count off seven weeks of years – seven times seven years – so that theperiod of seven weeks of years gives you a total of forty-nine years. Then you shallsound the horn loud; in the seventh month, on the tenth day of the month – theDay of Atonement – you shall have the horn sounded throughout your land andyou shall hallow the fiftieth year. You shall proclaim release throughout the landfor all its inhabitants. It shall be a jubilee for you: each of you shall return to hisholding and each of you shall return to his family. That fiftieth year shall be ajubilee for you: you shall not sow, neither shall you reap the after growth orharvest the untrimmed vines, for it is a jubilee. It shall be holy to you: you may eatonly the growth direct from the field. In this year of jubilee, each of you shallreturn to his holding. When you sell property to your neighbor, or buy any fromyour neighbor, you shall not wrong one another. In buying from your neighbor,you shall deduct only for the number of years since the jubilee; and in selling toyou, he shall charge you only for the remaining crop years...But the land must not be sold beyond reclaim, for the land is Mine; you are butstrangers resident with Me.b. The physical land has deep spiritual significance – our tie to it is mysticalRabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Eretz YisraelEretz Yisrael is not something apart from the soul of the Jewish people; it is nomere national possession, serving as a means of unifying our people andbuttressing its material, or even its spiritual survival. Eretz Yisrael is part of the veryessence of our nationhood; it is bound organically to its very life and inner being.Human reason, even at its most sublime, cannot begin to understand the uniqueholiness of Eretz Yisrael; it cannot stir the depths of love for the land that aredormant within our people. What Eretz Yisrael means to the Jew can be felt onlythrough the Spirit of the Lord which is in our people as a whole, through thespiritual cast of the Jewish soul, which radiates its characteristic influence to everyhealthy emotion. This higher light shines forth to the degree that the spirit ofdivine holiness fills the hearts of the saints and scholars of Israel with heavenly lifeand bliss....The hope for the return to the Holy Land is the continuing source of thedistinctive nature of Judaism. The hope for the Redemption is the force thatsustains Judaism in the Diaspora; the Judaism of Eretz Yisrael is the veryRedemption.c. We wish to be organically rooted in the nature of our homeland – and thus to beregenerated14 Ksharim

A. D. Gordon, “Our Tasks Ahead”It is life we want, no more and no less than that, our own life feeding on our ownvital sources, in the fields and under the skies of our Homeland, a life based on ourown physical and mental labors; we want vital energy and spiritual richness fromthis living source. We come to our Homeland in order to be planted in our naturalsoil from which we have been uprooted, to strike our roots deep into its life-givingsubstances, and to stretch out our branches in the sustaining and creating air andsunlight of the Homeland. Other peoples can manage to live in any fashion, in thehomelands from which they have never been uprooted, but we must first learn toknow the soil and ready it for our transplantation. We must study the climate inwhich we are to grow and produce. We, who have been torn away from nature,who have lost the savor of natural living – if we desire life, we must establish a newrelationship with nature; we must open a new account with it.d. Our culture is rooted in the land, our historical roots are thereZalman Shazar, Morning StarsSuddenly Rachel climbed up and stretched out on the trunk of a carob up on thetop of a hill. From there, golden in the sunlight her white dress glistening, sheraised her voice high in song toward us, the group down in the wadi. We heardevery note as if she were nearby, and we heard not only her voice but a powerfulecho responding: the whole landscape sang in ancient Sephardi Hebrew, whichseemed to have been preserved here in its purity. It was as if our far-off ancestors,shepherds and maidens of Israel, who went out into these mountains on some dayof joy or mourning, had hidden those beautifully authentic, precisely articulatedHebrew sounds in the crevices of the rocks to be preserved there till the day ofdeliverance came. And the day was now beginning to come. Rachel called fromthe summit and the sounds came flying to her out of their stony hiding places,pure as on the day they were concealed, joyful as in the childhood of our people.e. Is the land inherently holy, or is its holiness our perception/ascription/creation?Rabbi Nachman of BratslavRabbi Nachman related that when he was in the land of Israel, the importantpeople there, who had come from these countries to make their homes in the landof Israel, as is widely known – these people told him that before they came theycould not imagine that the land of Israel is of this world; they had felt that the landof Israel was an entirely different world, as would befit its great holiness asdescribed in the sacred texts and in conformity to the degree of sanctity ascribedto it in our holy Torah… but when they got there, they saw that the land of Israelreally is of this world, for it is just like any other country, and its soil looks just likethat of our own countries… For there is no visible difference between the land ofIsrael and any other land, though this is not to say that it is the same as any other,and even so the land of Israel is very, very holy, and happy is he who is able totread even four cubits upon its soil… and the land of Israel is truly different andutterly distinct from every other land in every respect… Yet, even so, in thematerial sense the eye of man can distinguish no difference between the land ofIsrael and any other land; only he who has achieved faith in its holiness can discerna slight difference…15 Ksharim

4. Preparation for Teaching Israel – Marc Rosenstein for NACIEThe first thing we need to do is help our teachers feel empowered to teach Israelthroughout the curriculum. We need teachers who are comfortable in theirknowledge of Israel ancient and modern, who know the map, know the seasons,know the language, know the landscape. We need teachers who can see in theirmind’s eye Saul and Jonathan on the Gilboa, Elijah on the Carmel, Rabbi JudahHanasi in Zippori, the Ramban in Acco, the settlers at Kinneret, the soldiers at theWestern Wall. We need teachers with mastery of the texts that link us to the land,from the wanderings of the patriarchs to the laws of the sabbatical year to thewarnings – and promises – of the prophets; from the agricultural technicalities ofthe Mishnah to the agricultural images of Rachel’s poetry. We need teachers whohave struggled themselves with the religious and ideological issues of themeaning of the land and state of Israel for the individual Jew and for the Jewishpeople. We need teachers who have experienced both the land and the state “upclose and personal.”The preparation of teachers to engage in “Israel education” is not a simple processof pumping up their knowledge of the history of the modern state and of theArab-Israel conflict, nor is it just to equip them with videos, games, and textbookson life in Israel today, on heroes of the state, on Israel’s successes in high tech, etc.Maybe we need to do those things, but they are not even close to sufficient, and Ibelieve that they are secondary to the kind of preparation implied in thepreceding paragraph: we need to provide for them the opportunity to experienceour texts in the context of their rootedness in the land – and to experience theland as reflected in and explained by our texts. Our goal is not just teachers whopossess lots of knowledge about Israel, or even who model solidarity with Israel;our goal is teachers for whom Israel is a seamless part of their own Jewish identity,informing every aspect of their Jewishness and flowing naturally in everythingthey do as Jews and teach as Jewish teachers.Parker Palmer:If students and subjects accounted for all the complexities of teaching, ourstandard ways of coping would do: keep up with our fields as best we can, andlearn enough techniques to stay ahead of the student psyche. But there is anotherreason for these complexities: we teach who we are.Teaching, like any truly human activity, emerges from one's inwardness, for betteror worse. As I teach, I project the condition of my soul onto my students, mysubject, and our way of being together. The entanglements I experience in theclassroom are often no more or less than the convolutions of my inner life. Viewedfrom this angle, teaching holds a mirror to the soul. If I am willing to look in thatmirror, and not run from what I see, I have a chance to gain self-knowledge - andknowing myself is as crucial to good teaching as knowing my students and mysubject.16 Ksharim

In fact, knowing my students and my subject depends heavily on self-knowledge.When I do not know myself, I cannot know who my students are. I will see themthrough a glass darkly, in the shadows of my unexamined life - and when I cannotsee them clearly I cannot teach them well. When I do not know myself, I cannotknow my subject - not at the deepest levels of embodied, personal meaning. I willknow it only abstractly, from a distance, a congeries of concepts as far removedfrom the world as I am from personal truth.So what we need to do is help teachers articulate their own relationship to Israel,to clarify its place in their Jewish identities, to bring out in the open the dilemmaswith which they struggle (or which they suppress) with regard to Israel.5. Master SyllabusLessonTopic1 Meaning of Israel, courseoverview2 Geography of Israel intro.3 Historical introduction4 Early ties I: Abraham in andout of the land5 Early ties II: Isaac and Jacobin and out of the land6 Joseph – archetype of theexile experience7 Exodus and Sinai –formative events outsideIsrael8 The spies, the desertwandering9 Torah as user’s manual forthe land10 Covenant, Torah law andmodern Israel11 Man and landscape inEretz Yisrael12 Joshua and Judges:conquest or coexistence13 Creating a kingdom – Sauland David14 The monarchy: heyday,division, and decline15 The destruction (and theprophets’ warnings)16 The messiah – propheticvisions of redemption –and later interpretations17 Shivat tziyon17 Ksharim

18 Review and reflection:teaching Bible and Israel19 Hellenistic period andChanukah20 Roman period21 Great Revolt22 Mishnah and tannaim23 Israel and Babylonia24 The calendar25 The High Holy Days26 Sukkot27 Tu beshvat28 Purim29 Pesach30 Yom Hashoah31 Yom Ha’atzma’ut32 Omer and Shavuot33 Shabbat34 Daily liturgy35 Birth, bar mitzvah36 Coming of age in Israel37 Marriage38 Women in Israel39 Death and mourning40 Life in Israel in middle ages41 Crisis of modernity; birth ofZionism42 Development of Zionismand streams within it43 Jews in Eretz Yisrael beforeWWI44 Mandate period45 Partition, independence46 Ingathering of the exiles:immigration47 The vision of socialistZionism; the kibbutz48 1967 and the aftermath49 From Camp David to 9/1150 Understanding thepresent: current issues anddirections (geopolitical)51 The New Jew – educationand identity in Israel52 Archaeology and civilreligion53 Religion and state:“perpetual dilemma”54 Religion, spirit, and18 Ksharim

politics: since the Rabinassassination55 Israeli politics and how itworks (if it does)56 The Arab citizens of Israel57 Environmental issues58 Israel-Diaspora relations:case studies59 Review and reflection: themeaning of Israel revisited60 Planning a trip to Israel: apedagogical exercise6. The Meaning of Landscapea. Yi-Fu Tuan, TopophiliaThe small farmer or peasant’s attachment to land is deep. Nature is known throughthe need to gain a living... For the laboring farmer, “nature has entered” - andbeauty insofar as the substance and processes of nature can be said to embody it.The entry of nature is no mere metaphor. Muscles and scars bear witness to thephysical intimacy of the contact. The farmer’s topophilia is compounded of thisphysical intimacy, of material dependence and the fact that the land is a repositoryof memory and sustains hope. Aesthetic appreciation is present but seldomarticulated.b. Chief Seattle [Washington Territory, 1877]Every part of this country is sacred to my people. Every hillside, every valley, everyplain and grove has been hallowed by some fond memory or some sad experienceof my tribe. Even the rocks, which seem to lie dumb as they swelter in the sunalong the silent seashore in solemn grandeur, thrill with memories of past eventsconnected with the lives of my people. The very dust under your feet respondsmore lovingly to our footsteps than to yours, because it is the ashes of ourancestors, and our bare feet are conscious of the sympathetic touch, for the soil isrich with the life of our kindred.c. Jacob Klatzkin, TehumimIn longing for our land we do not desire to create there a base for the spiritualvalues of Judaism. To regain our land is for us an end in itself - the attaining of afree national life. The content of our life will be national when its forms becomenational. Indeed, let it not be said that the land is a precondition for a national life;living on the land is ipso facto the national life.d. Yossi Gamzu, “The Western Wall”...There are people with hearts of stone;There are stones with human hearts.19 Ksharim

e. Niels Bohr to Werner Heisenberg, Kronberg Castle, Denmark:Isn’t it strange how this castle changes as soon as one imagines that Hamlet livedhere? As scientists we believe that a castle consists only of stones, and admire theway the architect put them together. The stones, the green roof with its patina,the wood carvings in the church, constitute the whole castle. None of theseshould be changed by the fact that Hamlet lived here, and yet it is changedcompletely. Suddenly the walls and the ramparts speak quite a differentlanguage. The courtyard becomes an entire world, a dark corner reminds us of thedarkness in the human soul, we hear Hamlet’s “To be or not to be…” Yet all wereally know about Hamlet is that his name appears in a 13 th century chronicle. Noone can prove that he really lived, let alone that he lived here. But everyoneknows the questions Shakespeare had him ask, the human depth he was made toreveal, and so he, too, had to be found a place on earth, here in Kronberg. Andonce we know that, Kronberg becomes quite a different castle for us.[Bohr and Heisenberg were two of the leading physicists of the first half of the 20 thcentury]20 Ksharim

L e s s o n 2:Geography – getting to know the land1. Outlinea. Getting to know the land: the physical and human geography of Israelb. Images of Israel and the reality behind themc. The Bible as guidebook: to what extent does the text reflect the land?2. IntroductionIsrael is of course a lot of different things – a state, a vision, a symbol, thescenery of history – but most basically, it is a geographical entity, a place,with distinct characteristics of topography, climate, flora and fauna, andnatural resources. Obviously, traveling in Israel (or living there) isnecessary for one to get a “feel” for the place, to “know” it. On the otherhand, sometimes even traveling or living in a place runs into the problemof not being able to see the forest for the trees. Through satellite andaerial photos, of course maps, and written descriptions, we can get a senseof the big picture, of the lay of the land. This lesson will present someactivities and resources to help accomplish this; however, we hope it willbe just the initial experience of an ongoing practice of turning to the mapto locate and imagine every historical event and personality connectedwith Israel.3. Lesson goalsa. Basic mastery of the map of Israelb. Attachment to / affection for the mapc. Consciousness of its significance in Jewish history4. Expanded outlinea. Getting to know the landi. “Card game:” pooling knowledge to creating the map from scratch,comparing to the real map1. Participants, working in teams or pairs, are dealt a hand of 5 cardscontaining names of places in Israel. Remaining cards are piled toone side. (The three charts of place names appended to this lessonmay be cut up for this purpose). Teams sit around a large blankspace (table or floor). Teams in turn place a card in what they thinkis its proper location on the space. If they don’t know the location ofany of their cards, they may place one under the deck and draw anew one. If they can’t place it, then they pass. The first team to haveplaced all its cards wins. Correctness of placement is judged by thefacilitator – or by a judge or team of judges from the group.ii. Filling in this outline map with geographical features: rocks or papercups for mountains, rope or yarn or paper strips for shorelines,boundaries, valleysiii. Checking results against professional maps, aerial photos21 Ksharim

http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/israel.gif - reliefmaphttp://www.jafi.org.il/geo/map3.htm - general maphttp://goasia.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lib.utexas.edu%2Fmaps%2Fatlas_middle_east%2Fisrael_pop.jpg – population density maphttp://geography.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.m%2Dw.com/cgi%2Dbin/nytmaps.pl%3Fisrael – general maphttp://geography.about.com/library/blank/blxisrael.htm - blank outlinemaphttp://www.mapot.com/ - Hebrew site, links to many map siteshttp://users.erols.com/mwhite28/maplinks.htm - links to many map sitesNote: an excellent on-line biblical atlas may be found athttp://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/iv. Lecture/discussion on key features of landscape: watershed, faultline, coasts, desert, water sources. The classic source in English onthe physical geography of Israel is Geography of Israel by EphraimOrni. A very concentrated but complete summary of informationabout geography and climate can be found on the Library ofCongress Country Studies site:http://countrystudies.us/israel/34.htmv. Personal connections to the map: participants identify sites they feela connection to – from personal experience, family/friends, historyvi. Teams are assigned to plan a Jewish educational day-trip for agroup, based in Haifa, Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, or Beersheba; account forgoal and content, timing, potential problems.b. Image and realityReading Mark Twain: In 1867 Mark Twain joined an expedition throughEurope, the Middle East, and North Africa (see map:http://etext.virginia.edu/railton/innocent/webmap.htm ) and sent backtravel dispatches that were later published in a very popular book, TheInnocents Abroad. His descriptions of Palestine are fascinating, as is hisawareness of the tension between our mythical view of Israel based on ourreligious traditions and texts, and the reality on the ground. For example,in Chapter 48 (http://etext.virginia.edu/railton/innocent/text/chap48.htm )he makes fun of the contrast between the ugliness of the Kinneret as heexperiences it and the high-flown descriptions of previous pilgrims – andyet, at the end of the chapter, he too, after all his cynicism, manages to findspiritual significance and even beauty in the place.This text can serve as a trigger for a discussion of our own mythical viewsof Israel, and of how we navigate between myth and reality.22 Ksharim

5. Thoughts on practical applications in the classroom, materialsIt’s interesting to think about the ideology behind maps – for example theAustralians’ – or New Yorkers’ – map of the world; the concept of Jerusalem ascenter of the world…The Israel section of the Country Studies website of the Library of Congress is awealth of highly concentrated factual information about Israel, including notonly geography, but economics, demography, history, etc.:http://countrystudies.us/israel/Satellite images of Israel and the area:http://www.intute.ac.uk/sciences/worldguide/html/919_satellite.html6. Connections to previous and future lessonsThis lesson is intended to set a pattern for all future study in the course and seta tone which we hope will become part of the teaching style of the teachers: tokeep the map of Israel in constant view, and always to seek to groundlearnings – in any discipline – in the ground: always to be conscious of the maplocations of events and personalities23 Ksharim

KATZRIN BEERSHEBA JERUSALEM TEL AVIV BET SHEANHAIFA ASHDOD ASHKELON ACCO NAHARIAROSH HANIKRA KIRIAT SHEMONA MITZPEH RAMON KIRIAT ARBA KIRIAT MALACHILAKE KINNERET NAZERETH HEBRON JERICHO KARMIELAFULA BET SHEMESH TIBERIAS SAFED GAMLAMETULA MT. HERMON ROSH PINA HULA VALLEY DEGANIAKINNERET JENIN BINYAMINA ZICHRONHADERAYAAKOVNETANYA ARIEL RAANANA MODIIN RAMALLAHMEVASERET ZION MAALEH ADUMIM BETHLEHEM BETAR ILLIT EFRATDEAD SEA ARAD MASADA GAZA RAHATOFAKIM SDEROT SODOM KEREM SHALOM EILATYOTVATA YAHEL KETURA SDE BOKER PARANNITZANA KADESH BARNEA EIN GEDI HAMAT GADER EIN GEVMAALOT SHELOMI TEFEN SACHNIN DIMONAYERUHAM TIVON RISHON LETZION REHOVOT YAVNEHLOD RAMLE KIRIAT BIALIK GIVATAYIM HOLONJEZREEL LOHAMEI HAGETAOT YAD MORDECAI HERZLIYA YOKNEAMKORAZIM NAHALAL ATLIT SHFARAM BET SHEARIMGIVAT BRENNER REVIVIM TUL KAREM SHECHEM RAFIAHTABA TZEMACH ZIPPORI AVDAT MEIRONAMIRIM KIRIAT GAT DAN MEHOLA GINNOSARPORIYAH MT. TABOR BNAI BRAK KFAR HASIDIM LAVISHAAR HAAMAKIM BET ALFA HATZERIM SDOT YAM EIN HODKOCHAV YAIR MIGDAL HAEMEK TEL HAI MAMSHIT CAESARIA24 Ksharim

L e s s o n 3:Locating ourselves on the map of history1. Outlinea. Getting acquainted with the timelineb. Looking for structures and meanings in historyc. On leaving and returning to history: the significance of Israel2. IntroductionJust as this course assumes that a fully realized Jewish identity should include feeling athome in the geography of Israel even if one has never set foot there, so too, we feel it isimportant to be oriented in the “map” of Jewish history: to have a sense of the flow ofJewish chronology in the context of world history, to be aware of major turning points andpersonalities. Moreover, we believe it is important for a teacher to be involved in theconversation about the historical significance of Israel: did the Jews “leave history” whenthey lost their national independence? Did we “return to history” in 1948? Are we living inmessianic times? How we relate to Israel and how we teach Israel are inseparable fromthese philosophical questions.3. Lesson goalsa. Basic familiarity with the time line of Jewish historyb. Basic knowledge of the world historical context of Jewish historyc. Awareness of different approaches to the structure and meaning of Jewish historyd. Reflection on the historical significance of Israel4. Expanded outlinea. Getting acquainted with the timelinei. Chronology game: in teams, participants attempt to place in chronological order adeck of cards of famous personalities, Jewish and non-Jewish (See Source 1below). Group then compares results and a master time line is constructed on theboardii. Filling in any major missing events, periods, persons, and agreement on majorperiods and turning points of Jewish history. Note: it would be good if this time line,like a map of Israel, were always present in the classroom for reference.iii. Highlighting the presence or absence of/from Israel in the different periods andevents.iv. References to extra readingsb. Looking for structures and meanings in history: Does our history have a structure, ashape? Etc.i. Discussion of text excerpts (Source 2) on the meaning of Jewish history (a couplecan be chosen, or chevrutot can be assigned to present different passages, or ageneral discussion can be held on “why teach history” with reference to selectedpassages).25 Ksharim

1. a: Deuteronomy – history is national reward and punishment – keep thecommandments or perish from the land2. c: II Samuel – David’s dynasty will rule forever3. e: Daniel – there is a divine schedule, a master plan4. f: Haggadah – memory is us; we all live out our people’s historyvicariously(?)5. g: Kaufman – God is revealed in history6. k: Krochmal – nations have life cycles like people – except for Israelii. For more, see: Michael Meyer, Ideas of Jewish History, New York 1974c. On leaving and returning to history: the significance of Israel; Our intention here is tostimulate thinking on the significance of Israel in Jewish history, and to open up differentquestions – e.g., Was/is our connection to the land conditioned on our behavior? Whatdoes it mean to talk about “history” when you are landless and powerless? What is themeaning of the present moment – Is the state of Israel a fulfillment of prophecy?i. Discussion of texts as above1. b: Yom Kippur Musaf – God exiled us for our sins2. d: Jeremiah – God will bring us back3. h: Dinur – a. is there history without land?d. Israel was always alive in our consciousness – and not just as memory4. i: Prayer for the state – do we live in messianic times? – and see Source3, after the Gaza disengagement5. j: Eisenstadt – did we “leave history?”5. Thoughts on practical applications in the classroom, materialsThe issue that will come up in the classroom is the relationship between the real, modern stateof Israel and the messianic dynamics of Jewish history: were the victories of 1948 and 1967miracles? Is Israel the fulfillment of biblical prophecies? Is it subject to the prophets’ threats?How do we present Israel to our students? It is important for teachers to be aware of theimplications of different positions, and to have discussed and reflected upon the place Israel intheir own understanding of Jewish history.6. Connections to previous and future lessonsWe hope that this lesson will serve as a foundation and initiation of two ongoing processes:a. always putting events and persons in historical context as we move through differentperiods and issues in examining the role of Israel; andb. continuing the discussion and reflection on the place of Israel in Jewish history26 Ksharim

Sources1. Suggested names for chronology game, with dates (generally dates of deathfor individuals):27 Ksharim

2. Some ideas about Jewish historya. Deuteronomy 30:15-18See, I set before you this day life and prosperity, death and adversity. For I command you thisday to love the Lord your God, to walk in His ways, and to keep His commandments, His laws,and His rules, that you may thrive and increase, and that the Lord your God may bless you inthe land that you are about to enter and possess. But if your heart turns away and you give noheed, and are lured into the worship and service of other gods, I declare to you this day thatyou shall certainly perish; you shall not long endure on the soil that you are crossing theJordan to enter and possess.b. Yom Kippur Musaf ServiceBecause of our sins were we exiled from our land, far from our soil. May it be Your will, Lordour God and God of our fathers who restores His children to their land, to have compassion forus and for Your sanctuary; enhance its glory. Our Father, our King, manifest the glory of Yoursovereignty, reveal to all mankind that You are our King. Unite our scattered people, gatherour dispersed from the ends of the earth.c. II Samuel 7:11-16The Lord declares to you that He, the Lord, will establish a house for you. When your days aredone and you lie with your fathers, I will raise up your offspring after you, one of your ownissue, and I will establish his kingship. He shall build a house for My name, and I will establishhis royal throne forever. I will be a father to him, and he shall be a son to Me. When he doeswrong, I will chastise him with the rod of men and the affliction of mortals; but I will neverwithdraw My favor from him as I withdrew it from Saul, whom I removed to make room foryou. Your house and your kingship shall ever be secure before you; your throne shall beestablished forever.d. Jeremiah 31:10-12Hear the word of the Lord, O nations, and tell it in the isles afar.Say: He who scattered Israel will gather them, and will guard them as a shepherd his flock.For the Lord will ransom Jacob, redeem him from one too strong for him.They shall come and shout on the heights of Zion, radiant over the bounty of the Lord -Over new grain and wine and oil, and over sheep and cattle.They shall fare like a watered garden; they shall never languish again.e. Daniel 9:24Seventy weeks have been decreed for your people and your holy city until the measure oftransgression is filled and that of sin complete, until iniquity is expiated, and eternalrighteousness ushered in; and prophetic vision ratified, and the holy of Holies anointed.12:7 Then I heard the man dressed in linen, who was above the water of the river, swear bythe Ever-Living One as he lifted his right hand and his left hand to heaven: “For a time, times,and half a time; and when the breaking of the power of the holy people comes to an end, thenshall all these things be fulfilled.”28 Ksharim

f. Passover HaggadahIn every generation, every person should see himself as if he had been personally redeemedfrom Egypt, as it is said: “You shall tell your children on that day, saying, ‘It is because of whatthe Lord did for me when I went free out of Egypt.’” For the Holy One redeemed not only ourancestors; He redeemed us with them.g. Yehezkel Kaufman, The Religion of IsraelThe religion of the Bible is not set forth philosophically. It is urged on Israel on the basis ofhistory; the basic attributes of Israel’s God are historical. The first of the Ten Commandmentsgrounds YHWH’s claim to be recognized as sole God on the fact that he brought Israel out ofthe land of Egypt. Israel believed in YHWH and Moses after the miracle of the Red Sea (Ex.14:31). Israel will have lasting faith in YHWH and Moses because of the Sinaitic theophany(19:9). “Knowledge of God” derives from historical experience…h. Ben Zion Dinur, Israel in the DiasporaIs it at all possible to regard Jewish history in the Diaspora as the history of a nation? Is it notrather the record of the vicissitudes of separate Jewish communities living in differenthistorical frameworks? Have we any right to speak of the history of the nation in exile when itwas, in fact, deprived of all “power of independent political action?” Should we not, therefore,consider it perfectly natural that the nation’s power of independent action in exile was limitedto the spiritual spheres of religious thought and practice, the only spheres of life in which thepersecuted and homeless Jews were still their own masters?i. Prayer for the State of IsraelOur Father in heaven, Rock and Redeemer of Israel, bless the state of Israel, the first floweringof our redemption…j. S. N. Eisenstadt, Zionism and the Return to History, Jerusalem 1999According to the accepted definition or conception, as expressed by Gershom Scholem, thereis no doubt that Zionism, and especially the establishment of the State of Israel, returned theJewish collective to history. In public – especially but not only Zionist – discourse, theaccepted assumption has dominated, that since the Second Temple period the Jews, as acollective, have been politically passive. They existed, they fought for their existence and fortheir collective religious-cultural identity – but politically they were passive. Only with the riseof Zionism and especially the establishment of the State did the Jews begin – for the first timesince the Second Temple (except perhaps for the Khazar kingdom) – to act in world history asa collective with independent political power, like other collectives in the historical arena andespecially like other national states.29 Ksharim

k. Nachman Krochmal, Guide for the Perplexed of the Time, 1851 [from M. Meyer, Ideasof Jewish History]According to the workings of the natural order there are three periods through whicheach primordial nation passes from the time it comes into being until it passes fromthe scene and perishes:1. The period of first growth, during which the spirit is born… This spirittransforms the material parts of the nation into organic units, integratedthrough all manner of ordered relationships, and it holds them together as asingle entity, ready to receive every excellence and perfection. This period iscalled: the stage of the nation's germination and growth.2. Thereafter, the spirit becomes fully actualized, all those beneficial institutionsand spiritual attributes to which we have alluded reach their apogee, and after alonger or shorter lapse of time, the nation moves forward in all of them, gainingfame and glory. This period will be called: the stage of power and achievement.3. However, in the case of every living thing, the cause of its withering and death isalready contained within it. Thus, even during the course of the second stage,the seeds of corruption and degeneration begin to appear in the nation.Thereafter, they sprout, proliferate, and grow, dissolving all bonds andcorrupting every beneficial usage, until gradually the nation's glory dwindlesaway, the nation declines and diminishes to the point of nonexistence. We shallcall this period: the stage of decomposition and extinction.This is the pattern for all the nations which possess a limited manifestation ofspirit, one which is therefore finite and destined for extinction. But in the case ofour nation, although we too have succumbed to the above-mentioned naturalcourse of events with regard to material and tangible externals, the fact is, in thewords of the Rabbis: “They were exiled to Babylon, exiled to Elam, and the DivinePresence was with them.” That is to say, the universal spirit which is within usprotects us and excludes us from the judgment that falls upon all mortals.3. On the meaning of the modern stateFrom Ha’aretz English Edition, May 1, 2006For religious Zionists, the first Independence Day after disengagement poses anideological dilemmaBy Nadav ShragaiThis coming Independence Day at the Beit Midrash (House of Study) of Rabbi Shear-Yashuv Cohen, the traditional prayer for the state's wellbeing will be recited a littledifferently.They will not say "Bless the State of Israel, the beginning of the flowering of ourredemption." Instead the public gathered with Shear-Yashuv, the chief rabbi of Haifaand a veteran member of the Chief Rabbinic Council, will say: "Bless the State of Israel,so it will be the beginning of the flowering of our redemption."30 Ksharim

Behind this seemingly minor semantic change resides a major issue. For the first timethere is doubt within mainstream religious Zionism concerning what has practicallybeen axiomatic since the state's foundation: The presumption that the State of Israel isthe first stage in the process of redemption.Shear-Yashuv is no radical. He did not take part in the clashes at Amona, nor did heendorse calls for soldiers to refuse orders during the evacuation. And these are not theresidents of Yitzhar, many of whom equate the current regime with the BritishMandate, or the Torat Hahayim yeshiva of Rabbi Shmuel Tal, who instructed his pupilsnot to celebrate Independence Day.Shear-Yashuv, son of the renowned Rabbi David Cohen, served in the Israel DefenseForces and was taken prisoner by the Jordanians in 1948 with the fighters of theJewish Quarter. He fought alongside Ariel Sharon, and before the evacuation of GushKatif he sent Sharon a harsh letter to which he received no reply.But on the eve of Israel's 58th Independence Day, Shear-Yashuv says things aredifferent now: "When the government of Israel raises a hand to uproot Jewishcommunities from Eretz Israel, then reality changes," he says. "The state is aninstrument for holiness, it is not in itself holy." Being in thrall to the state "is paganworship," he adds. "When the state behaves like a state of all its residents and not likethe state of the Jews, my attitude toward it changes. I respect it as any other regime,but perhaps it is no longer 'the beginning of the flowering of our redemption.'"Shear-Yashuv won't wave a black flag on Independence Day, as radical ultra-Orthodoxhave done for years and small groups of settlers tend to do now. But this year he'llrecite the Hallel with a blessing "only for the miracles that have already taken place,and not so much for the present."On the first Independence Day after the pullout from the Gaza Strip and northern WestBank, the religious-Zionist public is facing a big dilemma. It's more than an argumentover the various versions of the prayer for the state's wellbeing, but also about thevery question of whether to celebrate Independence Day. This question derives froman even more fundamental one: Which loyalty prevails - loyalty to the state, or loyaltyto the land? Which takes precedence - the state or the land? Which is the medium andwhich the essence? And where do you locate the balance between the two?The signs of unease are evident: in synagogues, in religious-Zionist communities, inmotivation to serve in the IDF. It's happening mainly within Judea and Samaria, butalso in many educational facilities within the Green Line. They were further amplifiedafter the clashes at Amona and many religious Zionists - even those consideredmoderate - felt, in the words of Rabbi Benny Lau, that "the state plunged a knife intothe heart of the national religious public."31 Ksharim

A Peace Now survey of residents of 120 settlements following the disengagementfound that 40 percent of settlers, religious and secular, felt "less Israeli" and 42 percentfelt "the same." Among religious settlers, 52 percent felt less Israeli, compared to 23percent of secular settlers.Tidhar Hirschfeld is a resident of the Adei Ad outpost and a member of the HalevHayehudi organization, which urged soldiers to defy disengagement orders. He said inthe latest issue of the settler periodical Nekuda that "the break between the state andnational-religious youth is no longer a matter for discussion, because it is alreadyhistory."But Rabbi Shlomo Aviner of Beit-El refuses to give up. He addressed these teenagers ina brief article entitled: "I say a prayer for the state's wellbeing." Aviner wrote thatdespite the state's desecration of the Sabbath and the sanctity of the land, he wouldnever stop praying for its wellbeing, "because this is my state. I have no other, and Ilove it the way it is." And though the government causes him great distress, it is hisgovernment and he will "continue to pray for it with all my heart," and take pride inthe fact that the Jewish people governs itself and is no longer subject to others.The vast majority of religious Zionists are still of Aviner's mind. Even the Yesha rabbis'committee has called for celebrating Independence Day, adding that the state's veryexistence is a central pillar in the redemption process. But for many the celebrationswill not be wholehearted.32 Ksharim

L e s s o n 4:Early Ties I: Abraham in and out of the Land1. Outlinea. The promisesb. Walking aboutc. Conditionalityd. Exilee. Purchase2. IntroductionWe all know, of course, that “it all started with Abraham,” the first oleh chadash (newimmigrant). But what exactly started with him? A number of the episodes inAbraham’s life give insight and raise questions regarding the later relationship of thepeople Israel to the Land of Israel. This lesson reviews these episodes as the basic textsdefining recurrent themes in the history of that relationship. The focus of the lesson ison the peshat, the simple meaning of the biblical text, taken at face value, withoutattempting to apply the tools of either documentary analysis or rabbinic exegesis.3. Lesson goalsa. Familiarity with the Abraham narrative as it relates to the landb. Understanding of the concept of the conditionality of the promise of the landc. Awareness of various claims of the people to the land, arising from Abraham’sexperiences4. Expanded outlinea. The promisesi. The very beginning, of course is in Gen 12, with the sudden commandmentfor Abraham to leave his native land and his father’s house and to forth “tothe land that I will show you.” If he does so, God promises to make him “agreat nation” and a blessing.1. From the text (vs. 6) it seems that Abraham moved in among theCanaanites.2. One well-known rabbinical tradition tries to create a back story forAbraham’s rejecting his family and homeland and making aliyah tostart a new faith and a new nation: his disillusionment with the culturaland spiritual environment, a realization that it is empty andhypocritical (the midrash on Abraham and his father’s idol workshop).3. Interesting to note that Terah’s family had already begun themigration to Canaan without a command (why?) – but got stuck inHaran (11:31) (why?).4. Abraham’s migration route:http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/020.htm5. New land, new people, new religion – an important threefoldconnection that will stay with us as an ideal if not as a reality.33 Ksharim

ii.iii.Additional reinforcements of the promise of the land:1. 13:14-162. 15:7-20 – perhaps the most dramatic and explicit promise3. 17:1-8What do we make of these promises today? Do we indeed believe that ourclaim to the land is based upon them? Can we rely on them in convincingother nations of the rightness of our claim?b. Walking abouti. Another claim that can be made (and this is not unique to our case) forrights to the land is knowledge, familiarity with it: “Up, walk about the land,through its length and its breadth, for I give it to you.” (13:17). The conceptis that we gain possession by means of intimacy, by becoming familiar withthe details of the nature and the geography of the place. See, for example,Source 1 below (some of these are reproduced from lesson 1).ii. Abraham’s movements in the land, as recorded in the Bible:http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/021.htmiii. Note that according to tradition, while Abraham’s main territory was theJudean desert and the Negev (he seems to have spent most of his timebetween Hebron and Beersheba), he visited Jerusalem twice:1. In 14:18 he has an encounter with Melchizedek, king of Salem, as hepasses by his city; traditionally, Salem is identified with Jeru-Salem.2. And of course, the binding of Isaac takes place on Mt. Moriah,traditionally identified with the Temple Mount.iv.Suggestion: make sure participants are clear (to the extent it is possible)about the modern places located on the traditional sites of Abraham’sactivity in the land; it seems like it is likely to be useful for them as teachersto help their students see how modern Israel overlays the ancient map, howcurrent tourist sites are identified with biblical events (even if,archeologically, we have no solid evidence that Abraham even existed…)c. Conditionalityi. Almost from the beginning, there is an implication that the claim to theland was not simple and unconditional, but was based on some kind ofquid pro quo. A first hint of this can be seen in 15:16, where God indicatesthat we will need to wait in Egypt until the “iniquity of the Amorites…iscomplete.” In other words, we cannot take over the land until the previousowners’ claim is completely undone – apparently by misbehavior. Doesthat imply that our claim is also dependent on our behavior?ii.iii.In 17 there is mention of a specific obligation on Abraham and hisdescendants – their side of the covenant – Brit Milah (circumcision).However, it is not obvious from the text that the obligations aresymmetrical: if we as a group don’t keep our side of the covenant, will Godrenounce his side?Further evidence that the claim to the land is based on moral behavior bythe claimant is seen in the story of Sodom and Gemorrah (Chap. 19) – cities34 Ksharim

iv.that are destroyed because of their inhabitants’ immorality. Peoples live ontheir land on condition that they continue to deserve it. And if not, not.With respect to our relationship to land, the subplot of Lot’s wife here isinteresting: as the family is fleeing, they are ordered not to look back; butshe cannot resist, and is punished by being petrified on the spot, lookingback forever (19:17, 19:26). Questions to consider:1. Why didn’t Lot and family leave sooner, given the moral status of theneighborhood?2. Why did they resist even when destruction was imminent?3. Why were they commanded not to look back?4. Why was it the wife/mother who looked back?5. What can we learn here about emigration, about “reading thehandwriting on the wall,” about attachment to place at all costs, aboutroots, about home, about homeland, about our inclination to view ourattachment to place as unconditional and absolute – despite theevidence to the contrary?d. Exilei. Just nine verses after Abraham is ordered to immigrate to Canaan, he leavesfor Egypt due to famine (12:10).ii. Later, in the covenant of the pieces (15:13) God reveals to Abraham that hisdescendants will be enslaved, “strangers in a strange land,” for fourhundred years.iii. Interesting to consider: the land is holy, it is promised – but it does notseem to be the sine qua non of our existence – as we spend a good deal ofthe Bible coming and going (not to mention the post-biblical period…). Weare immigrants from the beginning, and exiles along the way; compare toSource 2 below. What is the point? Perhaps to reinforce conditionality, andGod’s role (or the Torah’s role) as a third party in the relationship betweenus and our land.e. Purchasei. In Chapter 23 Abraham purchases a burial cave for Sarah and the wholefamily. Here we have another basic claim on the land: we bought it, cash onthe barrelhead – and we bought it for a cemetery, which implies forever.ii. Continuing the motif from 12:6 – and 14:13 and 20:15 – here too we findAbraham’s clan living in the land together with various otherpeoples/tribes, in some kind of modus vivendi.iii.Note two additional claims on the land that are ascribed to Abraham andhis activities:1. 21:22-32: Abraham enters into a treaty, a legal contract, with alocal chieftain2. 21:33: Abraham plants a tree35 Ksharim

5. It is interesting to think about the fact that Abraham comes to the land not as a conquerorbut as an immigrant, and must struggle to make a living, to stay in the land, to get alongwith the natives, to stick to his own values while finding his place in a new land… but inthe end, he does make a home for himself and his family there, and by various means putsdown long-term roots and creates a three-way bond among land, people, and faith. Towhat extent can his experiences serve as archetypes and models for future adventures ofthe Jewish people? To what extent can these texts serve as our “deed” to the land today?Sources1. On owning the land by knowing ita. Saul Tschernichovsky, “A Man is Nothing but…”A man is nothing but a small plot of land,A man is nothing but the image of the landscape of his birthplace,Only what his ear recorded when it was still fresh,Only what his eye took in before it had seen too much,Whatever was encountered on the dew-covered pathBy the child who tripped over every bump and clod of earth…b. Yi-Fu Tuan, TopophiliaThe small farmer or peasant’s attachment to land is deep. Nature is known through the needto gain a living... For the laboring farmer, “nature has entered” - and beauty insofar as thesubstance and processes of nature can be said to embody it. The entry of nature is no meremetaphor. Muscles and scars bear witness to the physical intimacy of the contact. The farmer’stopophilia is compounded of this physical intimacy, of material dependence and the fact thatthe land is a repository of memory and sustains hope. Aesthetic appreciation is present butseldom articulated.c. Chief Seattle [Washington Territory, 1877]Every part of this country is sacred to my people. Every hillside, every valley, every plain andgrove has been hallowed by some fond memory or some sad experience of my tribe. Even therocks, which seem to lie dumb as they swelter in the sun along the silent seashore in solemngrandeur, thrill with memories of past events connected with the lives of my people. The verydust under your feet responds more lovingly to our footsteps than to yours, because it is theashes of our ancestors, and our bare feet are conscious of the sympathetic touch, for the soil isrich with the life of our kindred.2. On rootednessFrom Panegyricus, by Isocrates of AthensWe did not become dwellers in this land by driving others out of it, nor by finding ituninhabited, nor by coming together here a motley horde composed of many races; but weare of a lineage so noble and so pure that throughout our history we have continued inpossession of the very land which gave us birth, since we are sprung from its very soil and areable to address our city by the very names which we apply to our nearest kin; for we alone ofall the Hellenes have the right to call our city at once nurse and fatherland and mother.36 Ksharim

L e s s o n 5:Early Ties II: Isaac and Jacob in and out of the Land1. Outline:a. Isaac and the land of Israelb. Jacob and the land of Israelc. Conclusions: what insights can we gain into our relationship to the land from theexperiences of Isaac and Jacob?2. Introduction:Clearly, the roots of our connection to Eretz Yisrael are perceived by the tradition to lie in theexperiences of the patriarchs. Abraham’s experience was unique, as the first generation – thefounder, the immigrant, the progenitor. The next two generations were already “natives” andprovide for us a different kind of model, with some different motifs and issues. This lesson willexamine the texts describing Isaac’s and Jacob’s links to the land. As with the precedinglesson, the focus here is on peshat, the plain meaning of the text.3. Lesson Goals:a. Familiarity with the Isaac and Jacob narratives as they relate to the landb. Awareness of similarities and differences between the experiences of the natives andthose of the founding fatherc. Awareness of various claims of the people to the land, arising from Isaac’s and Jacob’sexperiences4. Expanded Outlinea. Isaac and the land of Israeli. 24:3-9: Sending Eliezer to find a wife for Isaac in the “father’s house” thatAbraham had been commanded to leave; apparently the relationship is morecomplicated than we thought, and there are ties to the old clan and its culturethat transcend the ties to the new land. On the other hand, Abraham does notsend Isaac himself – but rather a servant; perhaps he fears Isaac would not returnfrom the old country?ii. 25:7-11: Isaac buries Abraham in what is now clearly a family burial plot, andinherits him; throughout, Isaac lives the life of a stable, settled native, not arestless pioneer like his father.iii. 26: Again there is a famine, but Isaac is specifically ordered to stay in the land,which he does. And in that context relives several of his father’s experiences: thewife-sister episode, the treaty with the Philistines, the digging of wells, thebuilding of an altar.iv. 26:12: A new motif, suited to the settled native: Isaac sows and reaps the bountyof the land… Another claim: he who works the land, owns it (homesteading?)v. 27ff: Isaac, the settled farmer, son of the wandering iconoclast, fathers two sonswhose conflict assumes epic proportions; in the end, both left the land, Esau to a37 Ksharim

permanent abode in Seir – Jacob to what was intended to be a temporarysojourn but lasted for the rest of his life.vi. Note that Isaac is buried in the family plot (35:27-29).vii. Map: http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/021a.htmb. Jacob and the land of Israeli. 27: Interesting that the blessings of Jacob and Esau do not make specificreference to the land, but only to its bounty.ii. 28: Isaac sends Jacob back to the Old Country to seek a wife; not a servant thistime, but Jacob himself – and indeed, he got bogged down there for twentyyears (31:38); maybe Abraham was wise to send a servant…iii. 28:10: Jacob gets the promise of the landiv. 29-30: Jacob begets a whole clan – outside of Eretz Yisrael; only when he is doneis he commanded, in 31:3, to return to the land of his birth – bringing a wholecaravan of new immigrants with him…v. 31-33: The trip is dangerous and difficult; he must confront his father-in-law whodoesn’t want him to go; his estranged brother; and a mysterious, apparentlyangelic, adversary.vi. 33:18-20: Jacob purchases land – this time for living on, not for burial – and setsup an altar, thus reenacting two of his grandfather’s acts of taking possession.vii. 34: The episode of Dina and the massacre of Shechem. Is Jacob’s insecurity andsensitivity to public opinion (34:30) a result of his seeing himself as animmigrant?viii. 35:1-15: Jacob seeks to restore the unity his grandfather had tried to establish:land, people, faith.ix. 37:1: Jacob is settled in the land.x. 45:25-46:7: Once again famine leads to exile, though this time there is the addedmotivation of being reunited with the long-lost Joseph.xi. 50:1-14: Jacob’s final return to the land is for burial; interestingly, the whole clan,including Joseph, participate in the funeral – not a trivial journey - and return toEgypt.xii. Map: http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/022.htmc. Conclusions: what insights can we gain into our relationship to the land from theexperiences of Isaac and Jacob?There is a school of thought among the commentators that explain the detailing of the Biblicalstories by the rule “Ma’aseh avot siman lebanim: ” The actions of the Fathers are signposts forthe sons.” This rule is understood in various ways. Some see the stories of the fathers asprophetic prototypes foreshadowing the ensuing history of their descendents. Others see theinstructional value in the fathers’ actions as models or precedents for the future generations.The common idea is the importance of understanding and studying the detailed stories of thePatriarchs as narratives that can shed light or set examples for later events in Jewish historyincluding the present time. What can we learn from the experiences of the patriarchsregarding:38 Ksharim

i. Claims on the land:1. God’s covenant dependent or not on Israel’sactions (Brit, Sacrifices, Justice, tithes, sin ofthe Amorites expelling them)2. God’s promise/decision to give this people thisland3. Buying the land4. Traversing and living in the land5. Political treaties6. Working the land; planting7. Building a shrine: sanctifying the land8. Burialii. What are we saying about our relationship to the land when we bury our dead there.What about “living in the land” (there is a folk song “To Die in Jerusalem” whichends “ how good it will be to live in Jerusalem” as opposed as dying there for lyrics‏(למות בירושלים see www.shiron.net : titleiii. Working the land as a means of reclaiming it (Isaac) – the early Zionist ideology: thephilosophy of A.D. Gordon who wrote and practiced the “religion of labor,” aconcept that conceived the bonding of people and land through working the soil.www.jafi.org.il/education/100/concepts/hit2.htmliv. The need for just and moral behavior as a right to the land. Abraham praying forSodom vs. the “Sin of the Amorites” vs. the criticism of Israeli society today: Is ourclaim to the land based on our righteous or moral actions? If we act immorally do welose our right to the land? If other people claiming rights act immorally do they losetheir rights? Who decides what are “moral” actions?v. If living in the land gives one a right to it, does leaving the land cause one to loseone's right? If winning land in war gives one a right to hold it, does losing a war takeaway that right?vi. Is the individual's ownership of a plot of land (say throughpurchase) the same as the "ownership" of a whole geographical area by a politicalentity (a city, a state, an empire)? the way in which your acre in Pennsylvania"belongs" to you is not the same as the way it "belongs" to the Commonwealth ofPennsylvania or the United States... ???39 Ksharim

These are only suggestions; there are many possibilities for such a discussionA final point of interest is that fact that the Patriarchs themselves were newcomers to the land.Exile was a significant part of their lives.Some points for thought:Exile or rootlessness as a Divine punishment is a recurring theme of Genesis evenbefore Abraham. Adam and Eve are banished from the garden of Eden for eating fromthe tree of knowledge, Cain is condemned to be a wanderer for killing Abel, thebuilders of the tower of Babel are dispersed for building the tower. And thenAbraham is told of his children’s future exile. Is that too a punishment? How is thatpossible? In what way can exile be an educational punishment?The Patriarchs themselves are strangers in a promised land – they lead a tenuousexistence to keep themselves a distinct minority among the “natives”.They themselves leave the land and attain material success out of the landThe attainment of the land is only after a lengthy exile and eventual return (Covenantof the Pieces)Exile and the land as primary forces in the forging of the nationFor further discussion of similar themes see lessons one and two of The Jewish Agency’scurriculum entitled “The People and the Land” by David Harbater.40 Ksharim

L e s s o n 6:Egypt – Prototype of Jewish Diaspora1. Outline:a. The story of Joseph and Israel’s move to and enslavement in Egypt.b. A study of several sources on different aspects or incidents characteristic of theJewish experience in the Diaspora.c. An attempt to match the historical events with details in Joseph story.d. Discussion – Is galut good? The purposes/benefits of exile vs. its price.2. Introduction:Up until now the biblical story has been centered in or at least focused on the land ofIsrael. The land has been the pivot of the Patriarchal narrative. Divine promises of itsinheritance combined with the forefathers’ attempts to realize and pass on that visionhave fueled the story even when the action was taking place somewhere else. The storyof Joseph is a turning point; it literally moves the characters out of the land of Israel andcenters on the unfolding story in Egypt. From the time Jacob joins Joseph until the endof the Pentateuch the land of Israel no longer serves as the stage on which events unfoldor the focus of the narrative. The questions we will discuss over the next three lessonsare: Why? What does this shift in emphasis tell us about the role of the land in ournational consciousness? What is the significance of the exile, enslavement and exodus –then and now?This lesson will discuss the story of Joseph as a prototype of different Diasporaexperiences throughout the ages.3. Lesson Goals:a. To familiarize the class with the details of the story of Josephb. To enable them to see the story not only as an account of a family drama (whichit is) but as a prototype of the situations and dilemmas typical to Jews in Galut.c. To familiarize the class with different Diaspora experiences throughout history -Babylonia, Spain, Europe and America and study the similarities and differencesbetween them.d. To raise the questions of the possible advantages of Galut as well as its demandsand dangers for the Jewish nation and individual.4. Expanded Outline:a. The story of Joseph is quite long, taking up almost all of the last 17 chapters ofGenesis. Therefore it would be quite difficult to read all the text in class. It maybe helpful, if possible, to have the participants review the text at home beforethe class and familiarize themselves with it.b. The class can start with a short synopsis of the Joseph story if necessary. A pagewith relevant textual passages and commentaries is included in this outline. Itcan be handed out to the class to be used as a reference for the ensuingdiscussion.41 Ksharim

c. The page of “Galut” sources can be distributed to the class to aid and stimulatethe discussion. A participant is asked to read one aloud. The class is then askedto think about what, if any, part of the Joseph story the historical account bringsto mind. How is the account similar to or different from the biblical story? Doesthe historical or biblical account remind them of any personal experiences orstories of their families? The discussion can be spurred on or continued bycontinuing down the page until several or all the accounts have been read.d. The class is asked to think of any other historical events reminiscent of theJoseph story or parts of it; e.g., the story of Purim contains many parallels. Bothare about foreign Jews who end up in positions of power, closely associatedwith the rulers. In both stories this proximity to power is ultimately used to helpthe Jewish nation. Both Joseph and Esther have moments where they can denytheir attachment to the Jews and maintain their secure personal position oracknowledge their roots and endanger their status. Even certain details arereminiscent, as seen in source 1.e. Different commentaries to the story included in the reference page are studiedas part of the discussion. It is important to pay attention to the identity of thecommentator and his place and time in history and his personal circumstances.How do these influence his interpretation of the text?f. To conclude the class, study the passages dealing with Jacob’s hesitance andfears on his way to Egypt and G-d’s promise that “there I will make you great.”How does exile “make us great?” When do we exhibit “greatness” in Egypt?Classroom Suggestions:1. An interesting class study either at Purim time or when studying Joseph can beto tie the two stories together and have the class compare and contrast them.How would Joseph have acted if he had been Esther and vice versa?2. The story of Joseph can be used to introduce the idea of repetition/patterns inJewish history. Two sets of cards can be made. One with events or descriptionsof conditions from different eras of Jewish history similar to the ones on thesource page. (one event per card). The other set can contain sets of verses orretold details from the Joseph story and the class can be asked to match the two42 Ksharim

SourcesI. Accounts of the Diaspora1. And Haman. took the clothes and the horse and he dressed Mordechai and puthim on the horse and led him mounted through the streets of the city calling“Such is done to one who the king wishes to honor!” (Megilat Esther 4/11) ….ForMordechai the Jew was second to the king Achasverosh, great among the Jewsaccepted by the majority of his brothers, seeking the good of his people andspeaking peace to all his descendents (Megilat Esther 10 /3)2. “In Baghdad there are 40,000 Jews and they dwell in security and prosperity andhonor under the great Caliph and amongst them are great sages, the heads ofthe Academies engaged in the study of the Law…..And at the head of them all isDaniel the son of Hisdai who is styled “Our Lord Head of the Exile and theMohammedans call him ‘Saidna ben Daoud” (noble descendent of David) and hehas been invested with authority over all the congregations of Israel at thehands of the emir al Muminin (the caliph of Baghdad). And he granted him a sealof office over all the congregations and ordered everyone, Mohammedan or Jewor belonging to any other nation in his dominion should rise up before theexilarch and salute him…And every Thursday when he goes to pay a visit to thegreat Caliph, horsemen, non-Jews as well as Jews, escort him and heraldsproclaim in advance “Make way before our Lord the son of David”. He ismounted on a horse and is attired in robes of silk and embroidery with a largeturban on his head, and from the turban is suspended a long white clothadorned with a chain upon which the seal of Mohammed is engraved.”(Benjamin of Tudela, approx. 1168)3. Go out and look in Lithuania and Russia…Jews in the tax offices, Jews rentingvillages, cities, states and even entire duchies. Jews collecting the taxes for waysand mines….It is a great insult to the Name of the Savior… Jews holding suchdeeds lord it over Christians and the pious are forced to bow before those whodesecrate the Lord’s name. (Mitchinsky, The Glory of the Polish Monarchy, Krakow1618)4. Court Jews during the middle Ageshttp://www.jewishgates.com/file.asp?File_ID=53http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Modern/EarlyModern/CourtJews.htm5. Don Isaac Abarbanel:http://www.jewishgates.com/file.asp?File_ID=204http://www.authorama.com/chapters-on-jewish-literature-22.htmlhttp://www.sephardiccouncil.org/sages/harav-don.html43 Ksharim

6. Galveston Movement:http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/GG/umg1.html7. The reaction of German Jews to the “Ostyuden”http://www.porges.net/JewsInVienna/3ParliamentaryEasternWeste.html8. “Great is the exile. It is third after the revelation at Sinai and settling in the land ofIsrael and all three are equal to each other and one cannot exist without the other.Without them the essence of Israel would be the same as that of other nations. confinedto the four cubits of the present and material needs, and bad culture...” (Haim Hazaz, TheDark House)II. Verses and CommentariesNote: the comments in blue are meant as teaching guides and not to be included inpage handed out to students.1. Now Joseph had been taken down to Egypt. Potiphar, an Egyptian who was oneof Pharaoh's officials, the captain of the guard, bought him from the Ishmaeliteswho had taken him there.2The L-RD was with Joseph and he prospered, and he lived in the house of hisEgyptian master. 3 When his master saw that the L-RD was with him and that theL-RD gave him success in everything he did, 4 Joseph found favor in his eyes andbecame his attendant. Potiphar put him in charge of his household, and heentrusted to his care everything he owned. 5 From the time he put him in chargeof his household and of all that he owned, the L-RD blessed the household of theEgyptian because of Joseph. The blessing of the L-RD was on everythingPotiphar had, both in the house and in the field. 6 So he left in Joseph's careeverything he had; with Joseph in charge, he did not concern himself withanything except the food he ate. (Gen 39: 1-6)2. And he put him in charge: of his treasuresOf all that was in house: the possessions he had at the time and all that cameinto his possession he gave over to Joseph’s charge and some say these were hishidden treasures. (Midrash Sechel tov (Buber) Gen 39:4)3. Once Joseph saw himself settled he began to eat and drink, to curl his hair and say“blessed is G-D who has made me forget my father’s house” (Midrash Tanchuma,Vayeshev Sec. 8)Joseph is brought to Egypt forcibly and is destitute but once there prospers and rises toprominence. He is appointed as an administrator in charge of affairs and thereby becomesresented, similar to the Polish Jews who collected taxes etc (source 1 in Historical notes).According to the Midrash he becomes used to the good life and begins to indulge, assimilateand forget his past)44 Ksharim

4.11One day he went into the house to attend to his duties, and none of thehousehold servants was inside. 12 She caught him by his cloak and said, "Cometo bed with me!" But he left his cloak in her hand and ran out of the house.13When she saw that he had left his cloak in her hand and had run out of thehouse, 14 she called her household servants. "Look," she said to them, "thisHebrew has been brought to us to make sport of us! (Gen 39:11-14)5. “brought to us a Hebrew”- the Hebrews were hated by the Egyptians; theywouldn’t eat with them or buy from them or enter their homes. So she said hehas done us an injustice to bring a Hebrew into our house and make him lordover us. (Nachmanides Gen: 39,14)Potiphar’s wife, one of the upper class, aligns herself with the servants and slaves -“us” - andsets them against Joseph, the outsider, to protect herself. The history of anti-Semitism is rifewith examples of leaders taken advantage of class differences to encourage hatred of theJew and deflect it from themselves. e.g. Chmelniski massacres which started as a revolt of theCossacks against the Poles. The Nazis, Arab regimes today.6.39Then Pharaoh said to Joseph, "Since God has made all this known to you,there is no one so discerning and wise as you. 40 You shall be in charge of mypalace, and all my people are to submit to your orders. Only with respect tothe throne will I be greater than you." 41 So Pharaoh said to Joseph, "I herebyput you in charge of the whole land of Egypt." 42 Then Pharaoh took his signetring from his finger and put it on Joseph's finger. He dressed him in robes offine linen and put a gold chain around his neck. 43 He had him ride in a chariotas his second-in-command, and men shouted before him, "Make way” Thus heput him in charge of the whole land of Egypt.44 Then Pharaoh said to Joseph, "I am Pharaoh, but without your word no onewill lift hand or foot in all Egypt." 45 Pharaoh gave Joseph the name Zaphenath-Paneah and gave him Asenath daughter of Potiphera, priest of On, ] to be hiswife. And Joseph went throughout the land of Egypt.(Gen 41: 39-45)Joseph is framed and jailed and once again manages to rise from desperate circumstancesand this time even higher – second to the king. He is given emblems of office; clothes, asignet, chariots, a wife and a new name. (sources 2-5)7. As soon as Joseph saw his brothers, he recognized them, but he pretended tobe a stranger and spoke harshly to them. "Where do you come from?" heasked. (Gen 42:7)At this moment Joseph is faced with a dilemma. There is a temptation to deny his heritageand let himself be thought of as one of the natives; or should he identify with his brothers.Source 6 &7, the protagonist in Philip Roth’s short story “Eli the Fanatic” also comes to mind.8. So Israel set out with all that was his, and when he reached Beersheba, heoffered sacrifices to the God of his father Isaac.45 Ksharim

2And God spoke to Israel in a vision at night and said, "Jacob! Jacob!""Here I am," he replied.3"I am God, the God of your father," he said. "Do not be afraid to go down toEgypt, for I will make you into a great nation there. 4 I will go down to Egyptwith you, and I will surely bring you back again. And Joseph's own hand willclose your eyes." (Gen 46:1-3)Jacob goes down willingly but with some doubts. G-d promises that the end result will begood. That his descendents will emerge a great nation? What “good” does the exile serve?How does it serve our “growth?” Is exile still good for us today?What kind of greatness waits in Egypt? How does exile and enslavement make us great?(sources 8-9). Possible answers: by helping us define ourselves as different, by refining ourcompassion and morality, by making us tough and able to survive, by enabling us toconcentrate on our spiritual development9.31Then Joseph said to his brothers and to his father's household, "I will go upand speak to Pharaoh and will say to him, 'My brothers and my father'shousehold, who were living in the land of Canaan, have come to me.’”Joseph is cautious, afraid of double alliance, dual loyalty – the dilemma of American Jewryregarding the Pollard affair.10. 33 When Pharaoh calls you in and asks, 'What is your occupation?' 34 you shouldanswer, 'Your servants have tended livestock from our boyhood on, just as ourfathers did.' Then you will be allowed to settle in the region of Goshen, for allshepherds are detestable to the Egyptians.”Joseph went and told Pharaoh, "My father and brothers, with their flocks andherds and everything they own have come from the land of Canaan and arenow in Goshen." 2 He chose five of his brothers and presented them beforePharaoh.3 Pharaoh asked the brothers, "What is your occupation?""Your servants are shepherds," they replied to Pharaoh, "just as our fatherswere." 4 They also said to him, "We have come to live here awhile, becausethe famine is severe in Canaan and your servants' flocks have no pasture. Sonow, please let your servants settle in Goshen." (Gen 46:31- 47:4)11. Why did Joseph the righteous take these five of his brothers to Pharaoh?He knew his brothers were men of valor and wisdom and he reasoned if I bringthe best among them to Pharaoh he will conscript them into his army thereforehe took five brothers who were not strong men. (Breishit Rabba Parsha 65)12. Rabbi Isaac Padua – The author of the commentary “Akeidat Yizchak” was oneof the exiles from Spain and saw of paramount importance the distancing ofJews from the courts and company of the rulers as an end in itself. It is wellknown that the Spanish Jews, who witnessed the splendor of the Spanishcourts and could foresee their bitter end, who saw first hand the corruption oftheir brothers who had risen to prominence, interpreted the Mishna “hate the46 Ksharim

leadership” and therefore interpreted the distancing of the brothers fromPharaoh as an end in of itself. (Nechama Leibowit z Studies in the Book ofGenesis)Joseph tries to hide his brothers’ talents in order to save them from service to Pharaoh. Polishand Russian Jews often injured their sons to escape forced conscription.13. 27 Now the Israelites settled in Egypt in the region of Goshen. They acquiredproperty there and were fruitful and increased greatly in number. (Gen 47:27)Why stay in Goshen? to keep them separate and safe from assimilation, or to protect themfrom anti-Semitism? Compare to ghettos, Pale of Settlement, shtetls, “Jewish”neighborhoods in the States?47 Ksharim

L e s s o n 7:Egypt, Exodus & Sinai: Building blocks of a Nation1. Outline:a. Identifying the enslavement, exodus and Sinai as formative events in JewishHistory–“the birth of the Jewish nation.”b. A comparison of the biblical description of events with other sources in anattempt to try to categorize and isolate the defining aspects of the events. Isthis a typical pattern of national development?c. What does the choice of enslavement, Exodus and Sinai as formative eventstell us about the type of nation formed. Why did the Bible and/or ourcollective memory choose these as the seminal events of Jewish nationhood?How did they shape us? What sort of nation are we supposed to be?d. What is the significance of the fact that the birth of “Am Yisrael” happened in aforeign/hostile country? Why was the Torah given on Sinai and not MtMoriah? The implications of definitive moments occurring unconnected to ahomeland.e. Tracing the exodus on the map2. Introduction:The beginning of Jewish peoplehood occurred in Egypt. This is striking in the firstverses of Exodus where the text lists the sons of Jacob who came to Egypt asindividual families and then just a few verses later Pharaoh designates them – for thefirst time ever- as the nation of Israel. The birthing process of our people includedenslavement, redemption and revelation, all which occurred disconnected from anational homeland. This lesson will explore the historical, philosophical, social,theological and moral significance of that process. Through discussion andcomparative sources we will attempt to understand the implications of thoseparticular beginnings: how they imprinted the nation of Israel, their consequences, theeffects they had on our character, self image and destiny.3. Lesson Goals:a. To study and define the different stages of Israel’s national development as relatedin the book of Exodus.b. To explore the significance of each stage and its components on the nature of ournationhood and identity by comparing the biblical account to a different versionrecounting the events of the exodus.c. To question the implications inherent in the fact that the seminal moments in ournational development happen in Egypt, a foreign country (possibly the antithesisof the ideal society according to Judaism) and in the desert (a barren no man’sland) instead of in the land of Israel.d. To understand the different facets of Jewish identity as a distinct people withboth ethnic and religious aspects connected to but not dependent on anational homeland and question how these pieces fit together - if at all.48 Ksharim

4. Expanded Outlinea. Identifying Definitive EventsNote: In this subsection it is my intention to argue that the enslavement, the exodus, and Sinai werethree definitive events in Jewish history and that each contributed a different aspect to ourdevelopment as a nation. One method for conveying this can be a series of discussions aroundspecific questions about each experience. Included in the following summary are the sources andsuggested questions and conclusions.Another method can be the creative Midrash as explained at the end in the subsection onMethodology. This way each class member will have to decide and express the significance of oneof these three events as seen through the eyes a specific participant. It is by comparing anddiscussing these views that we can understand the significance of the three aforementioned events.With this method subtopics 1-3 are covered simultaneously.To initiate the discussion, ask the class what in their opinion are the most definitivemoments in Jewish history? Why? Based on an examination of the liturgy and the calendar,likely candidates include the exodus, the revelation at Sinai, and the destruction of theTemple; looking at the prophets, we find a repeated emphasis, too, on the experience ofslavery. For this discussion, we are interested in the three events that are closely associatedwith each other and that occurred before we had a land.The enslavement, exodus, and covenant at Sinai, as described in the Bible, were milestones inthe development of the Jews as a distinct people. Each defined a specific aspect of ournationhood. Following is a short explanation of how.Egyptian enslavement forms the Jews as a separate ethnic group:Egypt is referred to in the Bible and the prophets as the “smelting oven” that formed thepeople:Deuteronomy 4:20, Kings I 8:51, Jeremiah 11:4Question for discussion: Match the metaphor with its meaning - What were the Hebrews beforethe process. What did they become after the process? How did the process change them?The book of Genesis recounts the travels and travails of Abraham and his descendents. Whilethese stories tell of founders of our people, they are about individuals who eventually form acoherent family group. They are not the story of a nation. Only after Jacob’s family membersarrive in Egypt and propagate themselves at a remarkable rate is that family transformed intoa distinct people different from the Egyptians among whom they live. The first time they areidentified as a nation is by Pharaoh who perceives this new nation living among his people,identifies it as a threat and seeks to destroy it. (Unlike Hitler, Phara oh is more interested indestroying the group as a group than the separate individuals; hence the decree against onlythe boy babies. Hebrews can survive as individuals, as long as they cease to exist as a distinctpeople.)49 Ksharim

Israel grew to form a multitude of people. These people were then distinguished as a separateethnic group, the main point of distinction being that they weren’t Egyptians.Questions for discussion: Why not? Was it our choice to separate and differentiate ourselves?Did we try to fit in but the host nation refused to accept us?The Midrash brings both possibilities. On one hand we maintained a separate identity:Midrash Mechilta Bo Chapter 5: Bar Kapparah said: Owing to four factors were the peopleof Israel redeemed from the land of Egypt: they did not alter their names; they did notchange their language; they did not spread malicious gossip; they were free of sexuallicense (some add: and they did not change their distinctive form of clothing).What do these four things represent? Do we preserve them today in America? In Israel?0n the other hand the Midrash says that Pharaoh first paid attention to the inherent threat ofthe Israelites when he saw them all over Egypt instead of isolated in Goshen.Yalkut Shimoni Shemot /aleph /sec.162: “and the land was filled with them” (Exodus 1:7):The theaters and the circuses were filled with them.OrThe Netziv: Haaemek Dvar on same verse: All the land was filled with them not just Goshenbut all of Egypt. In every available place that Israel could buy and live - there they settled.For it is said in the plague of first born that G-d passed over the dwellings of Israel,therefore there must have been many Israelite homes interspersed with Egyptian houses...In Shemot Rabba it says “they said that we may be like Egypt for once they lived amongthem it was desirable to them to be like Egypt so that they wouldn’t be recognizable asJews…”Once the Israelites are enslaved they are identified as a slave nation, distinct, it seems, fromboth the Egyptians and other captives or slaves, a people apart, designated to be slaves ofPharaoh.Exodus gives the Israelites a united national identity:Deuteronomy 16:3Mishna Brachot Ch. 1 Mishna 5: The exodus from Egypt is to be mentioned [in the Shema]at night-time. Said R. Elazar ben Azariah: Behold, I am about seventy years old and I havenever been worthy to [find a reason] why the exodus from Egypt should be mentioned atnight-time, until Ben Zoma expounded it: for it says “that you may remember the daywhen you came forth out of the land of Egypt all the days of your life.” [Had the text said]“the days of your life,” it would have meant [only] the days; but “all the days of your life”includes the nights as well. The sages, however, say: “the days of your life” refers to thisworld; “all the days of your life” comes to add the days of the Messiah.”50 Ksharim

Questions for Discussion: Annually we retell and re-enact it so that it will be imprinted on eachsucceeding generation. Why?Possible Answers: To prove G-d’s control over the natural world and human history? To instill inour national psyche that we are a people worthy of redemption, “born to be free”? To remindus of our obligation to G-d? To sensitize us to the value of freedom and the evil of slavery?Our forefathers were not content to remain as Egyptian slaves. They rejected both slavery andEgyptian society. They didn’t revolt and take over Egypt and all its riches. They left Egypt; afree people moving toward their own destiny and place. (In subsection four we will addressthe questions; where were they going? Was the accent on leaving Egypt or going back to theirancestral land?)Who left Egypt?It is important to note that not only ethnic Israelites (members of the clan – Jacob’sdescendants) left Egypt but also the “erev rav,” a “mixed multitude” of others who cast theirdestiny with the people of Israel. (Whether they were an asset or a liability can be debated.Interesting questions can be asked about their role and their legacy in the ensuing wanderingsbut it is a fact that eventually they were absorbed into the nation of Israel).Exodus 12:38Rashi on Exodus 32:7 Your people have become corrupt.It is not said: "the people have become corrupt," but, rather: "your people"--- the riffraffwhom you accepted, on your own accord, and you accepted as proselytes withoutconsulting Me, and you thought it good that proselytes be joined to the Shechinah--- theyhave become corrupt and have corrupted othersQuestions For discussion: How would you characterize the group that left Egypt/ How are theydifferent from the original Hebrews that arrived in Egypt with Joseph? Is it just a quantitativedifference or is there an essential difference?Possible conclusion: The Exodus defines the people of Israel as a distinct nation with it owndestiny, separate from our host nation. Also: G-d’s redeeming them creates a covenantalrelationship: they are in debt to Him, or at least so He keeps telling them.Sinai gives the nation of Israel a religious identity/purpose/constitution:Exodus 19:6Deuteronomy 4:34Questions for discussion: Does Sinai transform the nation? Is the “standing at Sinai” a necessarypart of our national development? How does it change us?Possible Answers: At Sinai the nascent nation forms a covenant with G-d. They are given theLaw – a distinct way of life (Can we call it a culture?) They are designated a “holy nation,” “a51 Ksharim

kingdom of priests.” They are charged with their purpose and mission among the nations.Their new-found freedom now has direction and meaning. Sinai defines the Jewish people asa distinct religious group with a new and revolutionary system of beliefs and law.b. What is the significance of those specific definitive events?Or: Would we be the same people if the story were different?Many historians associate the Hyksos invasion, rule and defeat in Egypt with the story of theIsraelite enslavement and exodus.The Hyksos were a Semitic, tribal nomadic people who invaded and conquered Egypt Theyruled Egypt for approximately 150 years until they were expelled by the native Egyptians. Thesimilarities to the exodus story have led different historians to connect the two.We may not be qualified to judge this historical debate, but it is interesting to play with theideas. Let’s suppose the “Hyksos theory” is correct, and that is the official story of our people.How does that change our self perception? What if we were not enslaved in Egypt but rathersuffered as a result of being the remnants of a foreign conqueror? Instead of Divinedeliverance and miracles saving us we have expulsion of a foreign people? Would our peoplehave developed the same if this were “our version”? What values or legacies would we bemissing what would be in their place?Another interesting comparison for discussion:Compare and contrast our national epic to the formation of the USA.The settlers of the United States were abused and exploited by the British crown. Theydecided to rebel and win their freedom as a distinct people. One can argue that there arecertain parallels to the Israelites seeking freedom from Egyptian bondage and asserting theiridentity as a distinct people. What are the differences? What defined the Americans as a singlenation – the land they shared? The ideals of freedom, democracy, equality? Can the bill ofrights and constitution be parallels of Sinai?Points to consider: the uniqueness of the traditional version in which a nation is born with no homeland - andits birth is not connected with settlement or conquest. the contrast of a people defining themselves as the descendents of slaves as opposed toheroes or warriors the fact that both the American founders and the nation of Israel see themselves as bearersof a universal message.Note: The purpose of either discussion is to try to understand how our story defines our selfperception. How the account we choose to remember and pass on to future generations containsnot only the story of our roots but also the key to who we are and what we want to be.52 Ksharim

c. Concrete examples of how the enslavement, exodus and Sinai have affectedand molded the character of the Jewish Nation.Question for discussion: How has each of following events marked Jewish consciousness orritual or history? Enslavement? Exodus? Covenant at Sinai?Some examples: We are instructed to have compassion especially for strangers and slavesbecause we too were strangers and slaves.Exodus 22:20 (don’t abuse the strangers), Lev .19:34 ( equal rights for the strangers),Deuteronomy: 5:15 ( Shabbat- let your servants rest) 10:19, (l ove the stranger) 15:15(compassionate treatment of a Hebrew slave), 23:8 ( Good treatment of Egyptians -Egypt hostedyou), 24:18 ( equal justice for the stranger orphan and widow, the disenfranchised) 24:22(agricultural charity)National humility is inborn when your roots are slaves whose freedom was won not by theirown physical strength or force but because G-d “fought” for them and redeemed them. Doesthat encourage us to be anti-violent - or to “prove” ourselves?Our relationship with G-d: If we were redeemed then that redemption must be earned andpaid for. If for our very existence we owe a debt to G-d, does that obligate us to act in a waythat merits redemption or make us resentful? Does the fact that G-d redeemed us mean wehave a unique relationship with Him?Exodus13:5-15 (Pesach and Tefillin), Exodus 15:2-3 (the Song of the Sea)Tanchuma Parshat Truma Section 4 “Speak to”And the Holy One Blessed Be He says:…I redeemed you from Egypt and you don’t want to setaside a gift offering for me. That is why It is written “they have taken a gift offering to me”…The possibility of redemption: If G-d redeemed us in Egypt, then redemption is possible and arealistic goal. Is this the seed of the messianic ideal?Rashi on Isaiah 48/15:I redeemed you from Egypt and I will redeem all of Israel from the final exile from the fourcorners of the Earth.Yalkut Shimoni Isaiah Remez/ 499And He says to them: My children, do not fear all that I have done; for your sake I have done it.Why are you afraid? Fear not; it is the time of your redemption. And the final redemption willnot be like the first redemption. The first redemption you still suffered the yoke of the nationson you after it but in the final redemption there will be no more pain or the enslavement byother nations anymore.53 Ksharim

The purpose of our freedom and national existence as espoused on Sinai was not to buildempires but to exemplify moral monotheism for all the nations. Would we rather be like all theother nations?Could it be because we were formed as a nation of ideas and ideals before we were rooted in ahomeland that we have been able to survive (and develop in) exile for most of our history?d. Where does the land of Israel fit in?Scholars list three things that are necessary for the formation of any nation that is to call itselfa nation.A People: For a nation to exist there must be citizens who will make up that nation.A Constitution: Just a group of people is not enough to make a nation. They must have sometype of structure, or system of law, to bind them together, or else they are just a lawless mobwithout purpose or unity.A Land: Those people must have a certain geographical area which they inhabit and whichlimits the boundaries of their domain.The enslavement and the exodus provided the first prerequisite. Receiving the Torah at Sinaiprovided the second; the question is: without the third – were we not yet a nation?Possible questions: Why didn’t the nation of Israel develop in the homeland like other nations?Why wasn’t the Torah given in Jerusalem? Or put another way how did these irregularities inour development leave their mark on us?Possible Conclusions: The enslavement and exodus have served Jews throughout the ages inthe most desperate of circumstances as inspiration for survival. E.g. illustrations in differentPassover Haggadot depicting the slavery in images of times and places other than ancientEgypt; the parallel we draw between Egypt and the holocaust. (see source 11).When the Jews left Egypt where were they going? To Israel? To Sinai? Both destinations arementioned various times in the Bible.Exodus 6:6-8 (at the burning bush G-d states “I will bring them to the land” but later (Exodus7:16) He tells Moses to inform Pharaoh to send the people so “they may serve Me in thewilderness.” In Exodus 8:21-25 Moses and Pharaoh haggle over who and where in the desertthey are going. In Exodus 12:31, when Pharaoh releases them he sends them to the desert toworship. In Exodus 13:5, upon leaving G-d instructs them about celebrating Pesach in theland I will take you to. Exodus 19:4 at Sinai: “I have carried you on the wings of eagles andbrought you to Me.” For their part the people are ready to go back to Egypt at any sign oftrouble (the sea, Marah) but then in the song of the sea they sing about being “planted” in theland (Exodus 15:13,16-17).Perhaps they were running blindly and didn’t know where they were headed or why?(Jeremiah sees this as praiseworthy behavior sees Jeremiah 2:1-2 :)54 Ksharim

When life is good among the nations is it the heritage of Sinai that holds us together as adistinct people? Why not assimilate?If I don’t live in Israel and have no patriotic tie to it then am I part of the Jewish nation or justthe Jewish faith? If I am not religious and have no faith can I still be a Jew? Is being an Israelienough?What about the many Russian non- Jewish immigrants/citizens in Israel today? (erev rav?) Arethey a type of Jew?All these question are possible because significant parts of our development happenedunconnected to the land. This is not to say the land doesn’t have a central role in our historyand belief system (as seen later lessons on the nature of our connection to the land, themitzvot of the land as well as the promises of the land to the patriarchs and the newly formednation itself)(For an example of a similar discussion see source 14)Jews have all three things a nation needs but each of them developed distinctly from theothers and therefore is not dependent on them.We could have been enslaved and freed without Sinai or vice versa the revelation at Sinaicould have occurred without our being slaves first in Egypt. Neither happened in the land ofIsrael. The tie to the land was developed separately both before we were enslaved in Egypt(the Patriarchs lived there and G-d promised that this land was intended for their children),and after the Exodus (Joshua’s conquest).As a people we are continually debating which elements of our national identity are essentialsince de facto we have managed to survive without different aspects at different times.Which aspects of our national identity define us today? In America/ In Israel? For the Jewishpeople as a whole? For the individual participant?e. Tracing the exodus on the mapi. Following the biblical route of the Exodus on the map1. Ex. 15:22, 15:27, 16:1, 17:1, 17:8, 18:1-5, 19:1-2, Num. 10:11-12, 11:35,12:16, 13:1, 17-25, 14:39-45, 20:1, 22-25, 21:1-4, 10-17, 21-35, 22:1, 25:1,16,2. Compare to Num. 33:1-50http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/029.htm3. Questions for discussion:a. What does the mapping add to the study of the text? E.g.,possible explanations for the route: water, Philistines…b. What problems arise in trying to trace the text on the map?What inconsistencies? E.g., Midian – Moabc. What might explain the circuitous route?55 Ksharim

5. Possible Methodology:a. The above questions can be raised and discussed with the class as laid outwith reference to the source sheet and Bible.b. Alternatively, different groups can study the different events ofi. Enslavementii. Exodusiii. SinaiEach group can form conclusions about the role of that specific event in developing andbuilding the character of the Jewish people and then present and discuss their separateconclusions and the questions they raise as a group.c. Creative Midrash: The class can be divided into pairs or small groups, eachgiven a specific role and asked to write an account of the enslavement, exodusand Sinai from their assigned point of view. The different accounts can then beused a starting point for the ensuing discussion on the meaning andimplications of these events in our national development.Suggested Characters: An Egyptian advisor discussing the “Israelite” problem A Jewish child describing life in Egypt and the same child recollecting lifein Egypt as an old man in the desert A Jewish woman describing the enslavement. A taskmaster planning the days work A member of the “erev rav” deciding to join the Exodus Moses and Aaron pondering what he is supposed to do with the peopleonce Pharaoh lets them go. An Egyptian historian recording the exodus of the Hebrews for the royalrecords. A teenager standing at Sinai. A Canaanite hearing about the Exodus A “Bedouin” bystander describing Israel receiving the ten commandmentsand his comments on them.(The creative midrash is a good example of a pedagogical tool for the classroom for the groupto discuss/plan even if it is not done “live”)Sources1. Midrash Mechilta Bo Chapter 5: Bar Kapparah said: Owing to four factors were the peopleof Israel redeemed from the land of Egypt: they did not alter their names; they did notchange their language; they did not spread malicious gossip; they were free of sexuallicense (some add: and they did not change their distinctive form of clothing).2. Yalkut Shimoni Shemot /aleph /sec.162: “and the land was filled with them” (Shemot 1/7):The theaters and the circuses were filled with them.Or56 Ksharim

The Netziv: Haaemek Dvar on same verse: All the land was filled with them not just Goshenbut all of Egypt. In every available place that Israel could buy and live - there they settled.For it is said in the plague of first born that G-d passed over the dwellings of Israel,therefore there must have been many Israelite homes interspersed with Egyptian houses...In Shemot Rabba it says “they said we that may be like Egypt for once they lived amongthem it was desirable to them to be like Egypt so that they wouldn’t be recognizable asJews…”3. Deuteronomy 4/20, Kings 1 8/51, Jer.11/44. Deuteronomy 16/3Mishna Brachot Ch. 1 Mishna 5:MISHNAH. THE EXODUS FROM EGYPT IS TO BE MENTIONED [IN THE SHEMA'] AT NIGHT-TIME.SAID R. ELEAZAR B. AZARIAH: BEHOLD I AM ABOUT 33 SEVENTY YEARS OLD, 33 AND I HAVENEVER BEEN WORTHY TO [FIND A REASON] WHY THE EXODUS FROM EGYPT SHOULD BEMENTIONED AT NIGHTTIME UNTIL BEN ZOMA EXPOUNDED IT: FOR IT SAYS: THAT THOUMAYEST REMEMBER THE DAY WHEN THOU CAMEST FORTH OUT OF THE LAND OF EGYPT ALLTHE DAYS OF THY LIFE. 34 [HAD THE TEXT SAID,] 'THE DAYS OF THY LIFE' IT WOULD HAVEMEANT [ONLY] THE DAYS; BUT 'ALL THE DAYS OF THY LIFE' INCLUDES THE NIGHTS AS WELL.THE SAGES, HOWEVER, SAY: 'THE DAYS OF THY LIFE REFERS TO THIS WORLD; ALL THE DAYS OFTHY LIFE' IS TO ADD THE DAYS OF THE MESSIAH.5. Exodus 12:38Rashi Exodus 32:7 Your people have become corrupt.It is not said: "the people have become corrupt," but, rather: "your people"--- the riffraff whomyou accepted, on your own accord, and you accepted as proselytes without consulting Me,and you thought it good that proselytes be joined to the Shechinah--- they have becomecorrupt and have corrupted others6. Deuteronomy 4:347. Exodus 1:/68. www.mystae.com/restricted/streams/thera/hapiru.htmlThe Hebrew ConnectionKnight and Lomas ( The Hiram Key) suggest that Abraham, the Hebrew patriarch, may havebeen a Hyksos, a 'desert prince' who entered Egypt around 1780, B.C.E. This date can becalculated by backtracking from the estimated date of his great grandson Joseph's investitureas vizier in 1570. By both the conventional chronology and new chronology of David Rohl,however, Abraham would have lived centuries before the Hyksos invasion."The mix of people who did enter Egypt as early as the eighteenth century under the steadilyincreasing pressures originating from the Indo-European (Hittite and Mitanni) expansions andthe more organized invasions of the seventeenth century (with the two-wheeled chariotborrowed from the Indo-Europeans) probably did include groups which were ancestral to theIsraelites, and refugees from the expulsion of the Hyksos a century later also probably57 Ksharim

included such groups, but these were movements in and out of a melting pot of peoples inthe area. At best, a small portion of the 'Israelites' could legitimately claim such Hyksosancestry."- John Celenza (jpc12243@aol.com)"The Hyksos and the Hebrews were racially akin. Some of the Hyksos rulers had Semitic names:one, for example, was called Jacob-el (Ya' qub-'al), 'May El give protection', and another, Jacobbaal,'May Baal protect'. Most scholars now agree that there is some connection between theHyksos rule of Egypt and the settling of the Hebrews there. It seems reasonable to assume thatthe Hyksos, who themselves had traveled the caravan routes to Egypt for centuries beforethey finally took power there, favored other 'Apiru groups and encouraged them to settle.When the Pharaoh Amosis (c. 1552-1527) captured Avaris and expelled the Hyksos from Egypt,pursuing them to Palestine and opening the way to Asia and so the great age of the Egyptianempire in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties (the New Kingdom), the Hebrews in Egyptwere left without protectors. Contemporary documents show that the Hyksos who escapedslaughter were enslaved. It is reasonable to suppose that the Hebrews, now unprotected bythe Establishment, were also enslaved at this time."- David Daiches, Moses - Man in the Wilderness"As he [Manetho] says, 'kept possession of Egypt five hundred and eleven years.' After these,he says, 'That the kings of Thebais and the other parts of Egypt made an insurrection againstthe shepherds, and that there a terrible and long war was made between them.' He saysfurther, 'That under a king, whose name was Alisphragmuthosis, the shepherds were subduedby him, and were indeed driven out of other parts of Egypt, but were shut up in a place thatcontained ten thousand acres; this place was named Avaris.' Manetho says, 'That theshepherds built a wall round all this place, which was a large and a strong wall, and this inorder to keep all their possessions and their prey within a place of strength, but thatThummosis the son of Alisphragmuthosis made an attempt to take them by force and bysiege, with four hundred and eighty thousand men to lie rotund about them, but that, uponhis despair of taking the place by that siege, they came to a composition with them, that theyshould leave Egypt, and go, without any harm to be done to them, whithersoever they would;and that, after this composition was made, they went away with their whole families andeffects, not fewer in number than two hundred and forty thousand, and took their journeyfrom Egypt, through the wilderness, for Syria; but that as they were in fear of the Assyrians,who had then the dominion over Asia, they built a city in that country which is now calledJudea, and that large enough to contain this great number of men, and called it Jerusalem."- Josephus Flavius, Against Apion, Book 1:14The son of Sequenere Tao II, "King Kamose, eventually inflicted crushing reverses on the'wretched Asiatic' and the Hyksos were soon routed out of Memphis. The women of the lastHyksos king, Apophis's successor Apepi II, had the terrifying experience of watching theTheban fleet, led by a general by the name of Aahmas, sail up the Pat'etku Canal to the verywalls of the Hyksos capital Avaris. The Hyksos were finally driven completely out of Egypt byKamose's younger brother and successor, Ahmose, who chased them back to Jerusalem.Unable to escape by sea, no less than two hundred and forty thousand households are said tohave made their way across the Sinai and Negev deserts. Strangely the route they took wasknown as 'Wat Hor' - the Way of Horus.""After the expulsion of the Hyksos, Semites of all kinds, including the Habiru, must have been58 Ksharim

more than a little unpopular and it would explain why the otherwise friendly Egyptianssuddenly enslaved many or even all of those who remained in the country during the decade1560 to 1550 BC. Inscriptions from the sixteenth and fifteenth centuries BC have been foundgiving details of these Habiru slaves and their forced labor. One tells of how large numbers ofthese people were forced to work in turquoise mines, which must have been extremelydangerous and unpleasant without ventilation and with naked flames burning up theoxygen...These mines were just a short distance from the mountain of Yahweh, Mount Sinai inthe southern mountains of the Sinai Peninsula."- Christopher Knight & Robert Lomas, The Hiram Key: Pharaohs, Freemasons and the Discoveryof the Secret Scrolls of JesusFor different historical explanations of the exodus seehttp://www.sfts.edu/rcoote/lecture13.htm (this is a Christian site The San Francisco TheologicalSeminary ( SFTS) a seminary of the Presbyterian Church (USA),and a founding member of the Graduate Theological Union. The above page summarizesthree historical schools of thought from the 19 th -20 th century about the origin of Israel andcomments on them.)9. Exodus 22:20 (don’t abuse the strangers), Lev .1 9:34 (equal rights for the strangers),Deuteronomy: 5:15 (Shabbat- let your servants rest) 10:19, (love the stranger) 15:15 (treatmentof a Hebrew slave), 23:8 (Good treatment of Egyptians -Egypt hosted you), 24:18 (equal justicefor the stranger orphan and widow) 24:22 (agricultural charity)10. Exodus13:5-15 (Pesach and Tefillin), see the Shira Exodus 15:2-311. On a lighter note there is a popular Israel song which is entitled “We survived Pharaoh”The chorus is: “We survived Pharaoh we will survive this too.” To see the lyrics go to:www.shiron.net Title "עברנו את פרעה"‏ מאת:‏ מאיר אריאל12. Exodus 6:6-8 (at the burning bush G -d states “I will bring them to the land” but later(Exodus 7:16) He tells Moses inform Pharaoh to send the people so “they may serve Me in thewilderness.” Exodus 8:21-25 Moses and Pharaoh haggle over who and where in the desert theyare going. Exodus 12:31 When Pharaoh sends them he sends them to the Desert to worship.Exodus 13:5 upon leaving G-d instructs them about celebrating Pesach in the land I will takeyou to. Exodus 19:4 at Sinai “I have carried you on the wings of Eagles and brought you toMe.” For their part the people are ready to go back to Egypt at any sign of trouble (the sea,Marah) but then in the shira they sing about being “planted” in the land (Exodus 15:13,16-17)13. Jeremiah 2:1-2:14. http://www.kmwebsite.com/gura012601.html (Kehillat Ma'arav (The WestsideCongregation) is affiliated with the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. KehillatMa'arav (KM) is The Westside Congregation, an egalitarian, active, friendly Conservativesynagogue in Santa Monica, California.15. Opening sentence of the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, May 14,194859 Ksharim

Eretz Israel was the birthplace of the Jewish People. Here their spiritual, religious, and politicalidentity was shaped. Here they first attained statehood, created cultural values of national anduniversal significance and gave to the world the eternal book of books.16. Israeli “folk” song from the Sinai campaign of 1956, by Yehiel Mohar and Moshe Wilenski,“At Mt. Sinai.” For Hebrew text see www.shiron.net, Mul Har SinaiIt is not an agadah, my friends, it is not an agadah my friends!And not a passing dreamHere at Mt. Sinai, here at Mt. SinaiThe bush, the bush is burningAnd it flames with songIn the mouths of the regiments of our sonsAnd the gates of the city in the hands of the SamsonsOh, the flame of God – the eyes of the youthOh, the flame of God – in the roar of the enginesThis day will yet be recalled, my brothers,When the people returned to the experience of SinaiMy friends, it is not a dream; my friends it is not a dream,And not the vision of a seer;From then until today, from then until today,The bush is burning, burning.It flames in a powerful songIn the heartsOf the youth of ZionAnd the chariots of IsraelNote the remarkable intertwining of images of tanks crossing the Sinai desert, with imagesfrom the Bible: the burning bush, the revelation at Sinai, Samson carrying off the gates of thecity of Gaza (Judges 16:1-3), and Elijah (who spent time in Sinai) riding up to heaven in achariot of fire(II Kings 2:11-12).60 Ksharim

L e s s o n 8:The Desert Experience1. Outline:a. An overview of the events that took place in the desert in chronological order,including time line. What type of experience was it for the people? What does theDesert signify or symbolize.b. The story of the spiesc. The story of the two and half tribesd. Conclusions. Possibilities of significance or symbolism of the desert. How did thedesert experience affect the people and what were its ramifications on theirrelationship to the land of Israel.2. Introduction:The saga of the 40 years of wandering in the desert takes up the better part of two books inthe Pentateuch – the Book of Numbers (called Bamidbar – ‘In the Desert’- in Hebrew), andDeuteronomy describe the experiences of the people of Israel in the desert. In this lesson wewill try to examine the different ways the desert experience affected and influenced thepeople and its relationship to the land of Israel. We will do so by closely studying two specificepisodes – the story of the spies and that of the two and a half tribes that requested the landoutside the promised borders. These stories form “bookends” to the 40 years of wandering inthe desert. The sin of the spies resulted in the decree that the nation would not enter the landuntil all the present generation had died and is therefore the beginning of the extendeddesert stay. The story of the two and a half tribes takes place at the end of the forty years asthe new generation prepares to enter the land of Israel. As such they provide an interestingcontrast to each other and cast light on the entire period.3. Lesson Goalsa. To give the group a clear picture of the forty years spent in the desert. Whathappened when, cause and effect throughout the unfolding events.b. To study in detail the story of the spies. What was their sin? Why were all thepeople of that generation forbidden to enter the land? How do our ownperspectives on Israel compare with that of the spies?c. To study the story of the two and half tribes – Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh –and their request and negotiations for claiming the land on the eastern bank ofthe Jordan. Why was Moses so vehemently against the idea at first? What doestheir request say about their relationship to the promised land, the rest of thenation and the conditions necessary for establishing borders.d. To explore different ways the desert experience affected the development of thenation of Israel and its relationship to the Land of Israel. What purpose did thisperiod serve? How can we relate to it today?61 Ksharim

4. Expanded Outline:a. Introduction and time line of the Desert ExperienceThe desert experience is retold twice in the Pentateuch – once as it happens and for a secondtime when Moses recounts the story. Both times it is told as a series of sporadic highlights: themanna, the spies, Korach, the fiery snakes, Balaam’s curses. The Bible doesn’t dwell on the dayto day living or the flow of events and it is sometimes difficult to see how it all fits togetherinto one coherent story.Desert Time LineYear OneYear TwoYear 3-39YearForty Exodus Establishing the well in Marah Manna Receiving the Torah at Sinai Sin of the golden calf Receiving the second set of tablets Dedicating the Tabernacle Passover in the desert Kivrot Hatavah – Quail Sin of the spies Korach Sojourn in the desert minimal traveling gradual dying out of first generation Death of Miriam Mei Meriva- hitting the rock Death of Aaron Balaam’s “curses” Sin at Baal Peor with the Midianite women War with Midian Negotiations and war with Sichon and Og Granting the conquered land to the tribes ofReuben, Gad and half of Manasseh Moses addresses the nation Death of MosesEx. 5-15Ex. 15:22-25Ex. 16Ex. 19-20 (and 21-31?)Ex. 32-33Ex. 34Ex. 35-40, Num. 7Num. 9Num. 11Num. 13-14Num. 16-17Num. 20:1Num. 20:2-13Num. 20:22-29Num. 22-24Num. 25Num. 31Num. 21:21-22:1Num. 33Deuteronomy62 Ksharim

The desert experience can be divided into four parts each with its own characteristics. (seeSource 1)1. The first year – This period is characterized by the people’s adaptation to life in thedesert - meeting physical needs of water and food, as well as spiritual ones – giving of theTorah and the building of the Tabernacle (Mishkan). This stage can be seen as aconclusion of the Exodus. The main drama occurring in this period is the giving of theTorah, the sin of the golden calf and G-D’s ultimate forgiveness in the form of resting hispresence in the Tabernacle. It is important to note that at this point in the narrative thepeople intend to enter the land immediately upon arriving there, sometime at thebeginning of their second year in the desert. The Torah and Mishkan can be viewed aspreparations for establishing self rule in the land – the establishment of a legal systemand a centralized system of worship as a basis for independent society.2. The second year- This is a year of crisis after crisis. It starts on the high point ofdedicating the Tabernacle but things go down hill from there. Kivrot Hatavah – the needfor meat and the sending of the quails (Numbers 11), Miriam slandering Moses (Numbers12) The story of the spies (Numbers 13), G-D’s decree that all those who left Egypt will notenter the land and that the people are to spend 40 years waiting in the desert before theyenter the land, followed by a crisis in leadership in the rebellion of Korach (Numbers16).3. The next 39 years - At the start of Chapter 20 in Numbers it is written:“And the children of Israel, even the whole congregation came into the wilderness of Zinin the first month: and the people abided in Kadesh and Miriam died there.” Thishappened in the fortieth year (see Numbers 32: Aaron’s death occurred at the next stop,in the fifth month of the fortieth year, and Source 1). Somewhere 39 years passedunaccounted for. Where did they go? (see Source 2) What was the people’s life like? Whatdid they do? Some sources portray this time as idyllic, with all the people’s physical needsbeing cared for byG-D, allowing them to dedicate themselves to the study of the Torah. (source 3)Others portray it as an endurance test of their loyalty of G-D or to make themappreciate the land when thy finally inherit it (source 3). Some see this as a time ofcloseness between G-d and His people (source 4) and others as atime of estrangement (source 5). It is important to note the passage of time and thechange in the generation that occur in this period. The people who witnessedthe exodus and revelation as adults are dying out and being replaced by a secondgeneration who were never enslaved. The people we are told about in the secondhalf of Numbers are not the same ones that appeared as the people in the first half.4. The fortieth year: This is a year of transition and preparation. The second generationapproaches the land. There is a shift in leadership at Mei Meriva – the hitting of the rockresults in G-D decreeing that Moses and Aaron will not lead the people into the land. Thechange in leadership begins with the death of Miriam and then Aaron. The fledglingnation is forced into various interactions with the neighboring nations includingnegotiations and war. Instructions on how to divide up the land and arrangements for itsinheritance are made. Finally in the last month Moses delivers his epic address to thepeople, which comprises most of the book of Deuteronomy, alternately reminding themof their past, renewing the covenant and warning them of the dangers inherent in63 Ksharim

entering and settling the land. The Pentateuch ends with Moses’ death in the desert,which is the final note of the desert experience.Note: Two interesting ways to study this period:1. A comparison between Moses’ account in Deuteronomy with the original account inExodus or Numbers, trying to explain the reasons or causes for the discrepancies (Thistechnique of telling the same story from a different viewpoint is often used in literaturee.g. The Alexandrian Quartet by L. Durell)2. Looking at the chain of events and trying to understand the psychological, political, oreducational connection between them. (e.g. Why does the story of Korach follow theepisode of the spies – perhaps after being sentenced to die in the desert the people havedoubts about Moses’ leadership and are ripe for an attempted coup? Why did Moses hitthe rock in the fortieth year? Could his leadership be unsuited for the new generation andsituation?).b. The Story of the Spies1.The story of the spies is a pivotal episode in the desert experience. Instead of justpassing through the desert on their way to the land of Israel the people wereforced to wander and live in the desert for forty years as a result of the spy fiasco.This delay ensured that those who entered the land were not those who left Egypt.The question is, Why? Is the delay a punishment or does it serve other purposes?What “slander’ is there in the spies report? Is the sin of the spies and the people abetrayal of the land or of G-d ? Are the people simply scared or are they unwillingto enter the land, and if so why?2.Before we read the text itself ask the participants who have visited Israel to write ashort paragraph describing their last visit and their impression of Israel. Read someof the reports aloud to the class noting the main points of each one (e.g. physicalbeauty, security situation, people they met etc). Then read the biblical account ofthe spies report together. (Numbers 13:1 -2, 15-33 and/or Deuteronomy 1:20-28)Are there similarities between the aspects of the land noted in the participants’reports and those mentioned by the spies? What was so bad about what the spiessaid? Is it so different from our own perceptions of Israel today? Did the spies lie?Did they answer all of Moses’ questions? Did they report the facts or addcommentary? What, if anything, is so wrong in their report? Compare their reportto that of Caleb and Joshua. (Numbers14:6 -10) (see source 6 for differentcommentators’ comments on these questions)3.The people’s reaction: Read Numbers 14:1-5, Deuteronomy 1:26-33. Can we relateto their reaction? Isn’t it a natural reaction to flee in the face of danger? To want toprotect our children? Are the people rejecting the land or unwilling to pay theprice of conquering it? How does their reaction reflect on their faith? (source 7)Compare participants’ reactions to the newest intifada in Israel with that of thepeople in the Bible –are there similarities? (source 8)4.G-D’s decree: Read Numbers 14:11-39, Deuteronomy 1:34-40) Does the decreeserve only as a punishment? Is there an educational value to the punishment? Is itto make them long for the land – Is that the purpose of Galut? Is it possible thatthe first generation were unsuited or unable to conquer the land , as ex-slavesperhaps they were too dependent on G-D’s overt interference and couldn’tunderstand how to take responsibility for their own fate and future. Maybe they64 Ksharim

preferred a “spiritual” national experience to the nitty gritty of conquering andruling a real country. Do Jews today prefer an idealized perception of Israel to thepolitical and social reality? Is Diaspora Judaism more spiritual than Israeli Judaism?5.The attempt to conquer the land after all. Read Numbers 14:40-45, Deuteronomy1:41-46. Why the change of heart - didn’t they get what they wanted; no war, noland, a continued miraculous existence? Why doesn’t G-D accept their change ofheart?c. The Two and Half Tribes1. After the war with Sichon and Og on the east side of the Jordan, a large area ofprime grassland and meadow falls into Israel’s hands. These lands are not partof the official promised land and therefore are not intended to be divided upamong the tribes. The tribes of Reuben and Gad, who have many flocks andtherefore need good grazing pastures, ask for the land. At first Moses isoutraged and reprimands them forcefully, comparing their request to the sinof the spies. The two tribes answer Moses’ accusations with a revised request.After some dialogue between the sides a compromise is reached whereby thetwo tribes together with half the tribe of Manasseh are allowed to settle theland but must volunteer to lead the charge in the conquest of the land west ofthe Jordan and stay there until all the rest of the tribes are settled in theirrespective portions. (Numbers 32:1-33). The story is recounted a second timein Deuteronomy concisely without any hint of criticism. (Deutronomy3:12-20).The book of Joshua tells how the agreement was fulfilled and the two and halftribes did indeed lead the charge (Joshua 4 :12-3). At the end of Joshua theBible tells us of a misunderstanding between these tribes and rest of Israel andits resolution (Joshua 22:1-34). Finally in Chronicles we learn of the conquest ofthe area by Assyria and the exile of the two and a half tribes before theeventual exile of the remaining ten tribes of Israel. (Chronicles1: 5:18-26).2. The questions: Why does Moses react so negatively to the initial request? Whydoes he change his mind? What is it about the commitment and oath of thetwo tribes that changes his mind? Different commentators have reached verydifferent answers to this question. Following are four different approachesfound in the commentators.a. The problem was that the rest of Israel would think that thei. two tribes were settling the area to avoid going to war, afraid andii. lacking in faith in the ability of the people and/or G-d to conquer theiii. land. This in turn would affect the rest of the nation and they wouldiv. have a repeat of the sin of the spies.b. They didn’t want to enter the holy land. They wanted no part of theinherent uniqueness and holiness of the land.c. They were willing to separate themselves from the rest of the nation.d. Material possessions were their main concern.3. Split the group into four. Each group is given a set of sources that representsone of the above approaches (they are told only that each set of sourcesrepresents a different approach but not what it is. Sources are listed in abovecategories in source 9). They are asked to answer the above questionsaccording to the sources. They can also look for verses or nuances in the text65 Ksharim

that support the explanation put forth by those sources. Each group presentsits finding to the class.4. During the discussion different ideas and issues that come up in the story canbe pursued. E.g. What effect does the decision of one part of the nation haveon the rest? Moses was afraid that the two tribes’ decision not to settle theland would be misinterpreted by the rest of the nation; do we have to takeother Jews’ perceptions into considerations before we take a stand on Israel orother Jewish national issues? What is the meaning of a holy land? Is itbeneficial or dangerous to live with “G-D’s eyes upon you”? What does itdemand from its inhabitants? The importance of unity - How do we remainone people even if we live geographically apart? Does my choice to liveoutside the land mean I want no part of the people of Israel? Or of the faith ofIsrael? Order of priorities – what price are we willing to pay materially to live inthe land?Conclusion:The desert experience can be seen in two almost paradoxical ways. It can be perceived as atime of incubation and preparation for the ultimate conquest and settlement of the land. Atime where the people acquired and learned the laws and national characteristics needed forsuch an endeavor. The generation found unsuitable for such an existence was forced to die offbefore the nation could proceed. In this analysis the desert experience is a means toward thefinal end of settling the land.On the other hand, the desert experience can also be seen as a prototype or even defense ofnational existence outside of the homeland. All the formative moments of our national historyoccur in the desert and not in the land of Israel. The nation value their existence freed as itwere from “earthly’ responsibilities of conquering and ruling a state. Israel reaches its zenithnot as a political entity but in a purely spiritual state. This debate continues in Jewishconsciousness until today.66 Ksharim

Sources1. Abarbanel Introduction to the book of Numbers:“This book (Numbers) has 10 Sedarim (Parshas)… these ten Sedarim are divided up intotwo halves. The first half is comprised of the first five sedarim and tells of their travails inthe desert. These are the sections of Bamidbar, Nasso, Bahalotcha, Shlach and Korach. Thesecond half is comprised of the last five sections and tells what happens to them in theirwars as they approached the Promised Land and they include Hukat, Balak, Pinchas,Matot and Masai2. Rashi on Numbers 33:1 “These are the journeys”Why were these journeys recorded? To make the Omnipresent's benevolence known. For,although He decreed to move them about and cause them to wander in the wilderness,do not say that they wandered and were moved about from journey to journey all fortyyears, and had no rest--- for there are only forty two journeys here. Subtract fourteen, all ofwhich took place during the first year, before the decree, from their journey from Ra'mesesuntil they reached Rismah, from where the spies were dispatched, as it is said, "after, thepeople journeyed from Chatzeros, etc. Send, for yourself, men, etc.," and here it says, "theyjourneyed from Chatzeros and camped at Rismah," you learn that it was in the desert ofParan. Exclude, further, from there, eight journeys which took place after Aaron’s death,from Mount Hor to the plains of Moav, during the fortieth year, it is found that, throughoutthe thirty eight years, they took only twenty journeys. This is from R' Moshe [Hadarshan]'scommentary. R' Tanchuma expounds the matter differently: This is compared to a kingwhose son was ill, and he brought him to a distant place for treatment. When theyreturned, the father began enumerating all the journeys. He said to him, "Here, we slept,here we were chilled; here, your head ached, etc.'3. Rashbam Leviticus 23:43 “ In order that”You shall celebrate Sukkot at the time you harvest your grain and wine and your housesare filled with plenty; wine and oil and grain in order that you will remember that in thedesert I settled the children of Israel in booths (sukkot) with no land and no society andthereby you will give thanks to the One who gave you a land and houses filled withplenty..”4. Deuteronomy 8:2-5, Nehemiah 9:1567 Ksharim

5. Rashi Leviticus 1:1: “Saying”.Go and tell them sobering words: It is for your sake that He speaks to me, for we find that allthirty-eight years that Israel was in the desert, as people who are excommunicated, from [thetime] of the spies onward, the prophetic Word had not come to Moshe, as is stated: "When allthe men of war ceased to die, G-d spoke to me, saying." --- "To me" was the speaking. Anotherinterpretation: "Go and tell them My words and answer Me [as to] whether they will acceptthem, as is stated, "Moshe reported the words of the people."Or both simultaneously; Radak on Hosea 9:11 “ Grapes”Like a man who finds grapes in the b desert which is a barren place where no fruit grows, hewould be very happy with them or like a man who finds the first fig on his tree that is how Ifound Israel in the desert and I provided for them and fed them and they lacked for nothing asif they were in a settled land and they didn’t appreciate My goodness.6. Rabbi Isaac Aramah (author of the commentary “Akeidat Yitzchak”) Sec. 77 Theystopped acting as spies and turned into advisors and that is the reason they sinned*….and itwasn’t just out of fear that they reported thus but because they were scorned it as it says inchapter14:31` “your children….will know the land that you have scorned” or as it says inPsalms “They scorned a desired land” and scorning the land is what has served to destroy usthroughout out generations. Due to that sin we were exiled and removed from our land andwe have become a disgrace and shame in the eyes of the nations and there is no way to returnto our wholeness except the return of the land to us”*Nechama Leibowitz explains that they made it seem as if they were reporting objectivefacts but in reality they were offering their own opinion by saying “yes it is a rich andbeautiful land but that doesn’t matter because invincible people live there. ( Studiesof Numbers Parshat Shlach – The Sin of the Spies)(The Ramban brings a similar idea; both see the purpose of the spies in terms of militarytactics, and the spies exceeded their authority by offering a policy opinion instead of justfollowing orders and reporting the facts. Rabbi Elchanan Sammet in his book “Studies in theweekly Parsha” (available in Hebrew only), argues that Moses’ purpose in sending the spieswas to emphasize the goodness of the land but they looked at the land not as enchantedtourists but as military strategists and thereby betrayed the purpose for which they were sent)7. Rashi: Numbers 14:31 “They are more powerful than we.”“As if it were possible, they said this about the One above”8. Following are two very different attempts to compare the sin of the spies to issues facingJews and Israel today.“Facing the generation that was to enter the Land, the generation which had not beeninvolved in the sin of the spies, and addressing it as if it were the guilty generation, Mosesmeans to issue a warning not to repeat the sin of the previous generation. In essence,Moses is saying: if your generation fails to appreciate the Land of Israel and the unique68 Ksharim

divine providence the Land enjoys, then you indeed will be as guilty as your fathers'generation.” http://www.israelnn.com/article.php3?id=3956 (this is a site sponsored byArutz Sheva – a right wing nationalist religious station)http://www.ujc.org/content_display.html?ArticleID=73100 the article is a good example ofcomparing the sin of the spies to American Jewish reactions to Israeli conversion policy.9.A.Rashi: Numbers 32:7: “Why do you dishearten.”Turn aside and restrain their hearts from crossing, for they will think that you are afraid to crossbecause of the war, and the strength of the cities and the people.Rashi Numbers 32:17: “Before Bnei Yisroel.”At the head of the armies, since they were great warriors, as it is said concerning Gad, "he shalltear arms, skulls as well." Moshe, too, reiterated specifically to them, in "These are the words": "Icommanded you at that time, etc., go forth armed before your brothers, Bnei Yisroel, all [you]great warriors." And at Yericho it is written, "the armed force went before them"--- they were[the sons of] Reuben and Gad, who fulfilled their condition.Ramban Numbers 32:1And the sons of Gad and Reuben came to Moses – the text mentions Reuben first into the firstverse “ Much flocks had the sons of Reuben” because he was the first born and son of the firstwife but in this verse Gad is mentioned first because they were the ones who had the idea andthey were the ones who spoke first to Moses about settling this land and they were strongerthan the sons of Reuben and therefore they did not fear to live alone in this area. Mosessuspected that they feared the inhabitants of Canaan and recalled what the spies had said:“we cannot go forth for they are stronger than us” (Numbers 13:31) and therefore told themthat they lack faith in G-D as did their fathers. Therefore they answered him Heaven forbid thatwe fear them we shall go forth at the head of the charge to the war and we shall be swift andfirst before all the people to fight the enemies of G-D .”B.Midrash Hagadol (as appears in the Torah Shleimah by Rabbi Menachem Kasher Numbers32:12)He said to them: What caused your fathers to be destroyed? The fact that bur a few enteredand the rest stayed behind. When the few returned and told the others about what they hadnot seen themselves, they believed them and they are became rebellious and were and werecondemned to death… Also you now do not want to enter the land with your brothers. They69 Ksharim

will say “If the land was truly choice and desirable they too would want to settle in it” and onceagain they will go against G-D’s will and you will have caused them again to desert G-D and bedestroyed.Eitz Yosef on Bamidbar Rabba Numbers 32:9Moses wrote that the land of Israel is “a land that G-D seeks after always” therefore theychose the land on the other side of the Jordan that was blessed as is the land of Israel.R’ Naftali Berliner (Netziv of Volozin) in his commentary Emek Davar Numbers 32:7The sanctity of the land of Israel is dependent on its division and each tribe settling his portion,as we see from the laws of Yovel that are only applicable when Israel is dwelling in their landand then it (the sanctity) can spread beyond the borders to the other side of the Jordan. Mosesdidn’t want to settle the other side of the Jordan until the land itself was sanctified firstbecause that is G-D’s will that the land be settled in its holiness before him and then hisprovidence will extend over it and thereby you (the two and a half tribes) will have done yourduty to G-D and to the rest Israel. As a result the land you desire will also become sanctified“before G-D” and receive His providence like the land itself.Or Chaim Numbers 7:32The prince of Gad was named Elyasaf because he took extra gifts from G-D and through him G-d added to the land.See also Deuteronomy 33:20-21 Moses blessing to Gad is said to refer to Gad enlarging theland Of Israel and settling the area where Moses himself is too be buried.C.Torah Shleima Bamidbar 32:9:“Rabbi Yehuda said: Divisions in Israel are harmful even when they are done for the sake of aMitzva. We have seen that the children of Gad and Reuben asked Moses for this land - Why?Because they had many flocks and desired to distance themselves from the possibility of theft( it is difficult to prevent flocks grazing in land that are not theirs) but because the separatedthemselves from Israel first they were sentenced to exile first…If that is the fate of thoseseparated themselves to prevent theft how much more so those who separate from hate orcompetition.”Rabbi Samson Rafael Hirsch Bamidbar 3:/1The text describes their courage and it is only because of their courage that they did think itwas possible to live apart in the other side of the Jordan. If not for that trait they would neverhave dared live in a special portion outside the borders of the entire nation…. If not for thatthey would have been more careful and would not have risked unraveling the spiritual bondthey shared with the rest of Israel and the Temple.”70 Ksharim

Emek Dvar Numbers 32:18“So that the rest of the tribes will not say why we merit settling the land before them sinceduring the conquest and division of the land they can not work or build their portion, we willnot return to our land after the conquest but will remain with them until the division of theland is completed.”(Shows a commitment/ responsibility to the rest of the nation beyond what they owe them. Rethe fears of spiritual estrangement see the Joshua 22 when the remaining tribes have similarsuspicions)D.Bamidbar Rabba Sec 22It is written “ a wise heart on his right” this refers to Moses and “a foolish heart on his left” thisrefers to the children of Reuben and Gad that made the most important thing secondary inimportance and gave priority to what was less important. They loved their money more thanpeople for they said to Moses “We will build fences for our sheep and cities for our children.”Moses didn’t say anything to them but he switched the order and gave priority to what wasmost important. He said first “ build cities for your children” and afterwards “fences for yoursheep.”… The holy One Blessed be He said to them: you loved your flocks more than people Iswear there will be no blessing in your portion as it says “ An estate may be gotten hastily atthe beginning; but at the end it shall not be blessed” (Proverbs 20:21)Rabbi Shimshon Rafael Hirsch (Numbers 32:16)The sages have taught in Bamidbar Rabba that the order in which the two tribes spoke showsthat they valued their money more than anything else and the pursuit of riches was at thebase of their request. They paid more attention to their flocks than to their children for first thementioned “fences for our sheep” and only afterwards “cities for our children”…In his answerMoses precedes the care of the children and they understood the hint. In verse 26 they toomention their children and wives before their flocks. Our sages also said that their inordinatelove of wealth and possessions did not bring them any blessing. Just as they were first toacquire possessions so they were first to loose them and their homeland since they wereexiled before the rest of the ten tribes.”71 Ksharim

10. There are a number of modern Israel songs that speak romantically of the beauty of thedesert and connect it with the struggle of the modern conquest of the land. For example,“Lamidbar” by Haim Hefer and Sasha Argov (www.shiron.net)Go, go to the desert,The roads will lead you.Night has not yet fallen,Go my brother to the desert.Again, again we shall returnThe cliffs call outA great sun of lightWill yet rise upon usTo the desert,A land without water,Oh, you, my landWe have returned to youA salty landOf wind [spirit] and rage,The warriors have returnedOh, like a storm.To the desertA land without waterOh, you, my landWe have returned to youTraditionally, language of “return” refers to Eretz Yisrael, which stands in contrast to theunsettled, temporary life of the desert; yet here, we are “returning” to the desert… Is thisdesert Eretz Yisrael?72 Ksharim

Lesson 9:“…for the land is Mine” – laws governing the use of the land1. Outline:a. A short survey of the agricultural mitzvotb. The sabbatical year (shmita) as a case study: study of the biblical sources and laterinterpretationsc. Modern dilemmas and applications of shmita including a study of modern textsdealing with shmita by Rabbi A.Y. Kook and Rabbi David Golinkind. The relevance of shmita today – a discussion of the agricultural, social, and moralrelevance of shmita in modern society.e. A discussion of the different categories of laws given in the Torah for applicationupon arrival in Eretz Yisrael.2. Introduction:The Torah – given in the desert – contains a number of laws that restricted our freedom toexploit the land upon our entry into it. These include limits on when we may work the land,what we may sow and how we may harvest – and also taxation on the produce. Since thesecommandments are only binding on Jews living on their land in Eretz Yisrael, the traditiondeveloped a special attachment to them – as long as we are living in exile, we are denied theopportunity to fulfill these mitzvot, so our religious life is incomplete. These laws thereforecame to symbolize the specialness of the land, our connection to it, and our longing for itwhen we are in exile. Of the various land-based laws, the sabbatical year (shmita) is probablythe best known example, and one whose restoration has generated interesting debates overthe past century and a half, so we will examine it as a case study in this unit. This explorationwill touch on questions about the nature of land ownership, about mechanisms of socialjustice, and about the relevance of biblical precepts in the post-biblical era.3. Lesson Goals:a. To examine the question of who really “owns” the land, and the commitment ofthe people to the instructions they received for living in the land.b. To become acquainted with the different categories of “land-based” laws of theTorah and their conceptual basisc. To become familiar with the outline of sabbatical year observance and some of theunderstandings and dilemmas associated with it.d. To understand the significance and repercussions of the texts for society boththen and now4. Expanded Outline:a. The agricultural lawsThe Torah envisions Israel as a farming society living off the land and many of its laws relate toagriculture. The first order of the Mishnah, “Zra’im (Plantings)” is dedicated to these laws.Although there are some exceptions, (where specific laws were extended by the rabbis tothose dwelling outside of the land) these agricultural laws are for the most part tied to theland and obligate only those living within the biblical borders. It is interesting to examine thebiblical commandments and try to envision: how they were applied, if they were73 Ksharim

what must have been the major obstacles to their enforcement what is their rational, social basis, if they have one how they could be applied in a post-biblical, post-agricultural society what they tell us about the land and our relationship to it why they would be applicable only within the borders of the Eretz YisraelSowing: Leviticus 19:19 Kilayim - the prohibition of planting or grafting two different types of cropplants together.Harvesting: Leviticus 19:9-10 Leket - leaving produce that has fallen during harvest in the fields for thepoor Deuteronomy 24:19 Shichecha - leaving the leftovers that were forgotten in the harvest forthe poor Leviticus 19:9 Pe’ah - not reaping the edges or corners of the field so as to leave them for thepoorTaxes/gifts: Numbers 15:17-21 Terumah - gifts to the Cohanim amounting to 1/60 of the produce grown Leviticus 27:30-32, Deuteronomy 14:22-26- tithes to the Levites Leviticus 19:23-25 Orlah and Netah Revei - the prohibition of eating the fruit of a tree duringits first three years of growth – and the commandment to eat the fruits of the fourth year inJerusalem Deuteronomy 26:1-22 Bikkurim – bringing the first fruits of the harvest to Jerusalem Numbers 15:17-21 Challah – setting aside a portion of bread as it is baked, as a gift to Godb. The Sabbatical yearThe Sabbatical and Jubilee years: Exodus 23:10-11 Leviticus 25:1-23 Deuteronomy 15:1-3Discussion Questions: Why seven years? Does it make sense? How is the Sabbatical similar to – and different from – Shabbat? What seems to be the economic and social purpose of the commandment according to thebiblical text? In what ways are these goals to be accomplished? Are these goals relevant for modern society? In Israel? In the United States? Was the land given to the people of Israel with a set of binding instructions? Is shmita oneof them? How can a farmer who is economically dependent on his crops comply with thecommandment of the sabbatical year?74 Ksharim

The Torah promises us “Follow my decrees and be careful to obey my laws, and you will livesecurely in the land. Then the land will yield its fruit, and you will eat your fill and livethere securely” (Lev 25:18-19) What is the meaning of “live there securely” Materially?Militarily? Forever? What is the connection between observing the commandments ofshmita and yovel (jubilee year – the 50 th year - after 7 sabbatical cycles) and livingsecurely in the land? What is the importance – and what are the difficulties - involved in returning the land to itsoriginal owners in the jubilee year (yovel)? “And when your brother shall become destitute with you:” what can we learn from this sectionabout society’s relationship to the “poor and downtrodden”? Even if the possible economical and/or agricultural rationales for the sabbatical and jubileelaws are not convincing, or have become obsolete, can we find a more abstract,“theological” basis for these laws? Could they be telling us something aboutownership? About the sanctity of the land? About limitations of our sovereignty?About obligations that transcend economic benefit?c. Modern Applications of ShmitaWith the coming of Zionism Jewish farmers returned to the Land of Israel to cultivate the landfor the first time in hundreds of years. Some of the chalutzim and new agriculturalcommunities were religious. With the coming of the sabbatical year these religiouscommunities were faced with a difficult dilemma. Their religious beliefs obligated them toobserve the shmita and forbade them to work their fledgling orchards and newly cultivatedfields, but such observance would mean not only financial ruin but undo all the efforts of thepast years spent in cultivating the land. With the approach of their first shmita the group ofpioneers in Petach Tikvah sent a letter with the question to a known halachic authority inEurope, but as the months went by and Rosh Hashana approached they received no answer.Many despaired, and unwilling to see the ruin of all their efforts left the Moshava.The difficulty, if not impossibility, of observing shmita in modern Israel and the catastrophicrepercussions of such observance on the national economy (Israel is self- sufficient in produceand its agricultural exports are an important source of income and foreign currency) have leddifferent rabbis to offer various halachic solutions. The official position of the chief rabbinateis to accept the “heter mechirah,” by means of which all agricultural land in Israel is “sold” to anon-Jew for the year; since the land is not owned by Jews, they are free to work it and benefitfrom it as they would in any other year. On the other hand, there are rabbis – andcommunities – who reject this legal fiction, and indeed refuse to eat any produce raised byJews in Israel during the sabbatical year. And a third position argues that the law is simply notapplicable in current historical circumstances.The first chief rabbi of Israel, Rav Kook, defended the heter mechirah.translation of excerpts of his responsum:Here is a loose75 Ksharim

Letter 287:“My beloved and honored brothers: I feel a need to write to you regarding theobservance of the approaching shmita. There is no need to tell you of the tremendouseffort made by the learned rabbis to find a loophole to allow the survival of the Yishuv[the pre-state Jewish community in Israel] in accordance with the laws of the Torah by, intimes of great need, allowing the “selling’ the lands to non-Jews for the duration of shmita.There have been many G-d-fearing and learned scholars who have taken exception withthis ruling; but like those who prohibit it, also those who allow it are acting for the sake ofHeaven and the good of the land and the people…The learned rabbis who decided thus (to allow the selling of the land) were determinedand careful to avoid any infraction of Torah prohibitions. The permission (to sell the land)allows for a circumvention of all the issues which seem to be based only on rabbinic (asopposed to biblical) prohibitions - and because of the great need of the hour we areannulling them through this permissive ruling.By acting in this way, which is needed for survival by most of the Yishuv, we aremaintaining the form of the Torah commandment so that the mitzvah will not beforgotten by coming generations. And as the Yishuv in Israel develops and strengthensthen the holiness of the seventh year will also be restored and allow peace and rest for theland and our people to nourish their souls and their dignity until the final redemptionshines on Zion.We urge people to abide by the details of the permission and act as instructed so that theywill not violate the prohibitions of the Torah that are not included in the permission, andfor which the sale does not apply - and thereby bring ruin to the land. Such irresponsiblebehavior will cause the rabbis to reject the permission and not endorse it at all, for theywill not be able to bear that the permission that they allowed with care and trepidation isbeing used to …trample the Torah’s commandments. We, who appreciate how criticalthe survival of the Yishuv is, must ensure that the permission be respected fastidiously andbe enacted by notable G-d-fearing scholars.….. Therefore, any actions that can be put off until after shmita without causing greatdamage, such as new plantings or grafting, should be delayed (even though technicallythe “heter mechirah” allows them). Also, people must refrain from all work in those areaswhere the land was not leased from the government, which includes all cities andsettlements which are not agriculturally based ( e.g. private gardens). [Most agriculturalland in Israel is leased from the government in 49 year leases – and thus is owned by thegovernment, not the farmers – and thus the government can “sell” the land for the year]And here are excerpts of the responsum of Rabbi David Golinkin, approved by the lawcommittee of the Masorti (Conservative) Movement in Israel for Kibbutz Hannaton:76 Ksharim

Question:How are we, a recently established kibbutz, to observe the shmita year? Being a youngagricultural community, we must now already plan next year's crops. We are also in theprocess of developing our public gardens, lawns and flowerbeds; this is not merely for ourpleasure, but also in order to strengthen the ground, thus preventing erosion during therainy season, which could damage our houses' sidewalks. Is it permissible to plant gardensand to build an irrigation system during the shmita year? To what extent may one waterthe ground during a shmita year? What is the argument in favor of observing the shmitayear in our time, and is the fact that our kibbutz was established a mere two years ago ofany relevance?Responsum:…Since the vast majority of Israeli society today lives in urban centers and far fromagricultural areas, and since agricultural products are grown mainly for export, the shmitarestrictions of ancient times which reflect a simple, small-scale agricultural society, cannotserve us appropriately in our time. Moreover, both methods used in Israel today owe theirsuccess to the vast, secular majority of Israeli farmers, who serve as a “shabbess goy” for thereligious public. This is an unacceptable situation, especially for the Religious Zionist andMasorti populations.An investigation of the Rishonim (Medieval rabbis) reveals that a large group of Rishonim -those of Provence - ruled that shmita in our day is neither biblical nor rabbinic but a midathassidut, an act of piety. Therefore, we rule that the shmita year be observed as a midathassidut, as follows:1. Sowing the winter crop before Rosh Hashanah;2. Sowing grass and trees for gardens before Rosh Hashanah;3. Whenever possible, avoid Biblically forbidden work, such as sowing, pruning, harvestingand ploughing. However, if one must carry out any of these tasks, one should try to dothem with a shinui, i.e by a different method than otherwise used;4. Avoiding the planting or tending of gardens which are not otherwise required forpreventing erosion during the rainy season.It is also advisable to perform various symbolic and educational acts to enhance theawareness of the year being a shmita year, such as:- Planning the agricultural cycle to fit the six years between two shmita years.- Leave one field as a "shmita corner" where all the laws of shmita will be observed.- Hold public study sessions of the laws of shmita in the Mishnah, Maimonides and othersources.- One of the ultimate goals of the shmita year is "that the poor of thy people may eat"(Exodus 23:11). It would be most appropriate for the Kibbutz to donate a part of the shmitayear's profits to indigent people.Note: while there is extensive debate among the rabbis as to how to set the date of thesabbatical year in our times, a consensus has been reached. 5761 was a sabbatical year (2000-2001); the next will be 5768 (2007-8).77 Ksharim

Discussion Questions: What do we do with the awkward symbolism (from a Zionist point of view) of sellingthe land to a non-Jew in order to “fulfill” Jewish law in the Jewish state? Is it advisable to declare shmita “a measure of piety” instead of a commandment –converting it into an option, not a law? Is it right to “give in” and retract a commandment because its observance is “toodifficult”? Is shmita relevant or possible today? Could we invent other mitzvot that would fulfillits purposes but be more appropriate in a modern state?d. Examining the religious, social, moral and agricultural meanings of shmita1. In Leviticus 25:23 the Torah says: But the land must not be sold beyondreclaim, for the land is Mine; you are but strangers resident with Me.This suggests that the sabbatical year comes to teach us a lesson on our relationship to theland: i.e., we don’t own it, and we can’t do with it whatever we want. We are here not by rightbut by God’s favor, and we need a constant reminder of just who it belongs to, let we becomearrogant and/or stingy. It might be interesting to discuss the concept of private ownership,public domain, commons, and other concepts relating to distribution of land – and of coursethe contrast between Gen. 1:28 and 2:15.Note: under the Ottomans, 95% of the land area of Palestine was government owned land.During the Mandate period the areas claimed as privately owned increased significantly, butafter 1948, the government of Israel took over all land that had been state land up to then(about 70%), lands purchased by the Jewish National Fund (about 10%), plus all private landabandoned by Arabs who left the country (about 10%). Today, the Israel Lands Authorityowns 93% of the land in the country. It is forbidden by law to sell it; it may only be leased (thestandard lease is 49 years).2. Why are the land-based laws in fact restricted to Eretz Yisrael? If they areexpressions of universal values, tools to create social justice, then whynot observe them everywhere? What is it about Eretz Yisrael – and ourrelationship to it – that causes this whole category of laws to exist? Arethey about social justice – and if so, then why aren’t they state basedinstead of land-based? Or are they about recognizing our conditionalstatus in the land – we are not the owners, we do not have completefreedom to exploit the land as we wish?3. There are many who argue that the reason for the commandment ofshmita was to allow the land to rest. It is agriculturally beneficial for fieldsto be allowed to lie fallow occasionally so as to renew themselves.Continous planting and cultivating leads to a depletion of the mineralsand fertility of the field; therefore the Bible ensured sustainedproduction by demanding the land remain fallow for one year out ofseven. As such they see the commandment of shmita as irrelevant todaywhen the fertility of the fields can be maintained by crop rotation andfertilizers.78 Ksharim

However if we see the mitzvah as carrying a social or theological rational as discussed above,then the question becomes: is the vision of social justice intended by shmita relevant ordesirable in today’s society?Discussion:There are two ways a society can decrease the gap between the have and the have-nots.Society can legislate and obligate its members to participate in social or charitable causes. Themitzvot of shmita can be viewed as such an attempt. The people of Israel were commandedand obligated to observe shmita and turn their fields and produce into public domain so thatthe lines between the classes became blurred, at least for the duration, and all could partake ofwhat was available. Not only were the poor able to take what they needed but the richexperienced what it was like not to have an insured income. Is such an experiment in socialjustice possible today? Even if not, can a society “force” charity and social justice (n.b., our useof the word “tzedaka” – “justice” – as the equivalent of “charity”)? How? Taxation?Government-sponsored social services? What are the advantages and disadvantages of such asystem?Another approach is to leave charity and social justice to those who volunteer to do it. Onlypeople who are themselves inclined and convinced of the importance of social justice andhelping the weaker members of society can really help and fill real needs. Only grass rootsmovements are genuine and effective. A society can educate to social justice and encourage itbut it cannot impose it. Is that true? What are the advantages and disadvantages of such asystem? Which system is more likely to create a fairer or more egalitarian society?Should the biblical heritage of the Jewish people play a role in setting social policy in themodern state of Israel?e. Land-dependent laws and state-dependent lawsThe above laws are generally referred to as “hamitzvot hatluyot ba’aretz” - laws dependent onthe land; for the most part they relate specifically to the land, i.e., the soil itself.As source #5 indicates, the rabbis saw living in Israel as a mitzvah opportunity – since onlythere could we fulfill all the mitzvoth – and thus, they saw traveling abroad as a denial of theseopportunities and hence a kind of spiritual impoverishment. In later rabbinic discussions therewere those who took the position that we are commanded to immigrate to Israel so that wewill be able to fulfill all these mitzvoth – while others said that without sovereignty and thepractical ability to fulfill all these mitzvoth, immigration to Israel was actually increasing our sinquotient, because as long as we lived abroad we were not obligated by these mitzvoth andhence were not sinning by ignoring them; but in Israel, we were obligated, and hence if wewere unable to fulfill them, we were sinning.In any case, there are many other laws in the Torah that are given in preparation forsovereignty in the land, for observance once we get there, that are not agriculturally based,but seem to define a set of social norms. For example: Exodus 23:32-33 – take over the land and make no alliances with the Canaanites Leviticus 19:33-34 – treatment of the stranger79 Ksharim

Deuteronomy 21 – the law of the red heiferBut beyond these specific examples, in general, we can see the Torah as not only a “user’smanual” for the land, but also as a blueprint for the state we are to establish once we getthere: a religious establishment, a system of justice, family law, land ownership, economicrelations, etc. While many of these are relevant no matter where we live, at the time they weregiven we were on our way to Israel, where we expected to set up a sovereign state – withoutany consideration being given that a time might come when we would live elsewhere, underothers’ sovereignty. In large part, therefore, we can see them not as “land-dependent,” but as“state-dependent.” Thus, it is of interest to discuss what kind of society is delineated by theselaws, and to think about the relevance of this ideal to the modern state of Israel. Here aresome passages that can serve as the basis for such a discussion: Exodus 21-23 Leviticus 19-20Are there consistent values to be found behind these laws, or are they arbitrarycommandments? Can we accept them? Are they obsolete? How could they be applied in amodern context? Should they inform the state of Israel today, or must they remain theprovince of individuals and/or voluntary communities?Methodological musings:The above is too much for one lesson; here are some suggested cuts through the material:a. An overview of agricultural laws, reviewing the various agricultural laws and trying tounderstand how they might have been observed and what are the values underlyingthem (subtopic 1)b. Focusing on shmita and its meanings (subtopics 2, 4)c. Focusing on shmita, and the debate over if and how to apply it in the present as a casestudy in modern Israel's ambivalent relationship to its biblical roots (subtopic 2-3)d. Imagining the ideal state depicted in the Torah, and considering its relevance to themodern state (subtopic 5)Sources: Articles and sites dealing with shmita observance today:1. http://chareidi.shemayisrael.com/TRMashmitta1.htmhttp://chareidi.shemayisrael.com/TLDarain.htmhttp://chareidi.shemayisrael.com/archives5759/shoftim/aorlo.htmThese are articles from a charedi (ultra-orthodox) site.2. For a different outlook to possible reconciliation of halacha and modern Israeli economics andagriculture see Machon HaTorah Veha-aretz http://www.toraland.org.il/web/index.asp?f=1unfortunately the site is only available in Hebrew. It is affiliated with the religious Zionistestablishment. The center itself was located in Kush Katif (in Gaza) and specializes in researchingthe land-based mitzvot as applicable today.3. On possible non-Jewish parallels: http://www.jhom.com/index.htm4. Update from the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations (“OU” - the main kashrut supervisionagency in the US)80 Ksharim

The "OU" does not rely on the standard heter mechirah, whereby the Israeli government sellsthe entire country to non-Jews in order to remove the restrictions of shmita.This year, the "OU" is certifying some parsley, coriander, cilantro, dill and paprika that weregrown during shmita on the basis of a different method of sale. Each owner of the parcels ofland on which the parsley was grown executed a personal sale to a non-Jew. A sum of moneywas paid for each property. The Israeli government, which controls all land transactions, issuedlegally-binding authorization for these specific sales. The sale was performed without amiddleman, which obviates the concern of shaliach lidvar aveirah.The Tzitz Eliezer (6:32) allows this method of sale, in counterdistinction to the general sale ofthe entire country. (See also Chazon Ish 10:6.) In addition, all melachos diorayso (laborsforbidden by the Torah on shmita) were performed by non-Jews and the majority of theparsley was planted before the onset of the shmita year.5. Midrash Sifrei Devarim 80Once Rabbi Judah ben Baterah and Rabbi Matya ben Charash and Rabbi Chananiah thebrother of Rabbi Joshua, and Rabbi Jonathan were traveling abroad, and arrived at Paltum,and remembered Eretz Yisrael – and their eyes filled and their tears flowed and they tore theirclothes and read this passage [Deuteronomy 11:31-2] “When you have occupied [the land]and are settled in it, take care to observe all the laws and rules that I have set before you thisday.” They said: [this is proof that] dwelling in Eretz Yisrael is as important as all the mitzvothin the Torah altogether.6. On the historical and economic context of Shemittah:http://www.jhom.com/topics/seven/shmita.html81 Ksharim

L e s s o n 10:The Covenant, the Land, the Hand of God in History1. Outline:Covenant: conditional nature of our relationship to the landa. the initial formulation of the covenantal view in Deuteronomyb. expressions of the covenantal view in Jewish historyc. how do we relate to this after the Holocaust?d. implications for the modern state of Israel2. Introduction:We will discuss the covenantal view of history and its implications for our reading of thebiblical historical narrative and rabbinic texts; does God determine history as a response toour merits/sins? Does this imply we should undertake a passive role when nationaldisasters occur, since they are simply the hand of God dealing out our due punishment? Isthere a rational way to interpret the same concept of historical consequences for ouractions? How do we relate to and teach this concept after the Holocaust? What does thismean for the modern State of Israel – do we have an unconditional right to the Land, or isit dependent upon our actions?3. Lesson Goalsa. knowledge of biblical foundations of covenant world viewb. knowledge of expressions of the covenantal world view through Jewish historyc. critical understanding of the Deuteronomic perspectived. awareness of different views in modern Israeli society of the implications of thecovenantal world view on "our right to the land"4. Expanded Outlinea. Read Deuteronomy 11:13-22 which states the basic idea. Do we believe this on a personallevel (i.e., that God rewards us for fulfilling commandments and punishes us for not)? On anational level (i.e., can history be understood in terms of God’s rewarding and punishingus for our collective behavior)? How does Abraham’s bargaining with God over Sodomand Gomorrah (Gen. 18) relate to this? Can we interpret this idea in a rational way (i.e., aretheir behaviors – “sins” – that can cause a group to suffer, lose their land, etc.)?There are many expressions of the covenantal world view in Jewish texts throughout theages. Try and think of some well-known examples (below are a couple):- "But because of our sins we have been exiled from our land and sent far from our soil."From the siddur - Musaf of the Holidays –ומפני חטאינו גלינו מארצנו ונתרחקנו מעל אדמתנו- "Why was the First Temple destroyed? Because of three evils in it: idolatry, immoralityand bloodshed. But why was the Second Temple destroyed, seeing that during the time itstood people occupied themselves with Torah, with observance of precepts, and with thepractice of charity? Because during the time it stood, hatred without rightful cause82 Ksharim

prevailed. This is to teach you that hatred without rightful cause is deemed as grave as allthe three sins of idolatry, immorality and bloodshed." Bab. Talmud Yoma 9b-The story of Kamtza and Bar Kamtza (appended to this unit) – raises interesting questionsabout the responsibility of individuals – and bystanders – and leaders – for the destructionof Jerusalem. Was the destruction a punishment for imperfect behavior, or the result ofsuch behavior?For these examples and others that were mentioned, can we also think of rationalexplanations?If the impending destruction (of the First Temple) is God's punishment for our sins –should we fight it? The attitude of Jeremiah towards the siege of the Babylonians was thatsince the imminent fall of Jerusalem was the penalty for Israel's continuous failings, thepeople should not fight it. Better go quietly to exile, repent and wait for things to getbetter (see Jeremiah 27 and 38). What do we think of this?b. What do we think of the covenantal world view after the Holocaust? Read the opinions oftwo Haredi rabbis who attribute the Holocaust to opposing sins of the Jewish people.- Rabbi Joel Moshe Teitelbaum, the Satmerer Rebbe (leader of the Hassidic group the mostviolently opposes Zionism) blames the Zionists for the killing of 6 million Jews (seehttp://www.jewsagainstzionism.com/quotes/vayoelmoshe1.htm). Does he explain this bymystical or rational arguments?- Rabbi Yisakhar Shlomo Teichtal, a Haredi Hungarian Rabbi who was initially vehementlyopposed to Zionism, underwent a change of heart during the Holocaust. During 1943, hewrote a book (Em Habanim Semecha) which argues for Zionism, and attributes the trials ofthe Jewish people to the anti-Zionism of the majority of the Torah world. The author diedin a cattle car transporting the remnants of Auschwitz ahead of the Russian armies. In hisbook, he accuses:"Now who is actually responsible for this innocent blood which has been spilled in ourtime, due to our many iniquities? It seems to me that these very leaders who preventedJews from joining and participating with the builders cannot atone (for their wrongs) byexclaiming: Our hands did not shed blood….[The Jewish leaders] should have beeninvolved in this matter, teaching Jews to return to the Holy Land in the spirit of the Torah.Where might we have been today had all the tzadikim and haredim in former generationsgiven their support. Many thousands of Jewish souls would have been saved!"In addition to this rationalistic view, he also sees the hand of God:"This may have been the sense of the interpretation of the Midrash of the Song of Songsverse "Draw me unto you, we will run after you…" (Song 1:4) "Because you have incitedmy evil neighbors against me." That is to say, for some time now we have lived with ourgentile neighbors on good and amicable terms. Suddenly, they have been transformedinto enemies and evil neighbors who hound us. But this is only because they have beenincited against us by a particular Source. This impulse emanates from the profoundpurpose of God, in order that "we will run", to ascend to Eretz Yisrael…"83 Ksharim

c.Does the modern state fit the biblical equation? Was it given to us by God – and if so, isthe gift conditional on our behavior? This raises several interesting questions:-Is the modern state of Israel the fulfillment of biblical promises, or is it just a secularhistorical phenomenon governed by the normal processes of history?-Was the victory of 1948 a miracle? What about 1967? Does God act in history?-Does the fact of Israel’s creation and continued existence give evidence of God’s favorupon us?-Having “served our time” for ancient sins, are we now being given another chance?-And if so, upon what are we being judged this time? Torah law? Halacha? Westernliberal values? Who has the authority to tell us what God requires of us in order to avoidanother round of expulsion?In modern Israel today, Yeshayahu Leibowitz was the most vocal proponent of the viewthat the Jews do not have a God-given right to the Land of Israel, but that our possessionof the land depends on our deeds."Sinners may exist anywhere in the world, as the Lord's ways are not like ours, and hetolerates the wicked, but Nahmanides stresses in his words (in his commentary to Vayikra18:25) that 'the Land will not suffer sinners, idolaters and the licentious'. That is, the actualphysical relationship between the Jews and the Land of Israel, is no guarantee of thefulfillment of the Mitzvot. Our habitation of the Land of Israel, which is held up by many asa central tenet of faith, both theoretically and practically, becomes a matter that can beinterpreted favorably but also unfavorably; and indeed in the spirit of these words ofNahmanides, particularly because this land is the Estate of the Lord, it will not toleratesinners and will vomit them from its midst.We must remember the words of the prophet that state categorically that merely settlingthe land and conquering it, are no guarantee that this is the fulfillment of acommandment and becoming close to God; there may even be a situation of '…you cameand defiled my land and made my inheritance detestable' (Jeremiah 2:7) - this was saidabout the conquest of the Land and its settlement; and there is also the situation of 'Whobuild up Zion with bloodshed and Jerusalem with iniquity' (Micah 3:10), and the resultwhich this prophet prophesies is immediately explained: 'Therefore because of you Zionshall be plowed like a field, Jerusalem shall become heaps of ruins, and the mountain ofthe temple like the bare hills of the forest.' (Micah 3:12)" Yeshayahu Leibowitz, Talks aboutthe Weekly Parsha (in Hebrew), Parshat Kedoshim.Leibowitz was objecting to the opinion of Gush Emunim leadership, who saw thepossession of the Land as an inevitable process, directed by the hand of God:"From the point of view of mankind's humanistic morality we were in the wrong in (takingthe land) from the Canaanites. There is only one catch. The command of God ordered us tobe the people of the Land of Israel." - Shlomo Aviner, "The Moral Problem of Possessingthe Land," Artzi vol.2 (1982) p. 11For a detailed analysis of Gush Emunim ideology seehttp://www.sas.upenn.edu/penncip/lustick/index.htmlIf we subscribe to Leibowitz's point of view, what are the most important issues thatmodern Israel needs to address to make sure it is not "vomited by the Land"?84 Ksharim

d. Since the beginnings of Zionism, the debate has raged – both between Orthodox andsecular Jews and within the Orthodox world – as to whether the modern state of Israelshould be ruled by the Torah; in other words, is this the fulfillment of the biblical promise,the actualization of the messianic hope, and hence the restoration of the utopia we livedin before the destruction of the Temple? Or is this simply a modern state, created andruled by human beings, awaiting the final redemption – in which case it would beinappropriate to try to rule it by Torah law. In the paper, “Is a Halachic State Possible?”Prof. Aviezer Ravitzky, head of the department of Jewish Thought at the HebrewUniversity, and a popular and highly respected modern Orthodox teacher and leader,analyzes in depth the case for and against modern Israel being a “halachic state.” This isbeing sent as a separate file; it is not light reading. We have excerpted a short selection,relating to some key arguments, that might make a more manageable assignment andbase for discussion. It appears in the appendix below, with a few discussion points.e. Appendix - textsOn Account of Kamtza and Bar Kamtza Jerusalem Was Destroyed...A certain man had a friend Kamtza and an enemy Bar Kamtza. . He once threw a party and saidto his servant, "Go and bring Kamtza.” The servant went and brought Bar Kamtza. When thehost found him there he said... "What are you doing here? Get out." Said Bar Kamtza, "Since Iam here, let me stay and I will pay you for whatever I eat and drink." He said. "I won't." "Thenlet me give you half the cost of the party." "No," said the host. "Then let me pay for the wholeparty." He still said "No" and took him by the hand and put him out.Said Bar Kamtza, "Since the Rabbis were sitting there and did not stop him, this shows thatthey agreed with him. I will go and inform against them to the government." He went andsaid to the emperor, "The Jews are rebelling against you." "How can I tell?”" Send them anoffering and see whether they will offer it [on the altar]." So he sent with him a fine calf. Whileon the way, Bar Kamtza made a blemish on its upper lip (some sav on the white of its eye), aplace where the Jews count it a blemish and the Romans do not. The Rabbis wanted to offer itin order not to offend the government, but R. Zechariah ben Abkulas said: "[No], people willthink that blemished animals may be offered on the altar." They then proposed to kill BarKamtza so that he could not inform against them, but R. Zechariah said, "[No, people will thinkthat] one who makes a blemish on a consecrated animal is put to death".R. Johanan commented: "Through the scrupulousness of R. Zechariah ben Abkulas our Househas been destroyed, our Temple burnt, and we ourselves exiled from our land."-Babylonian Talmud, Gittin 56a-b85 Ksharim

Excerpt from paper by Aviezer Ravitzky, “Is a Halachic State Possible?”(See discussion questions at end…)But beyond all this waits a further question: What is the nature of the “halakhic state”under consideration? Is it to be conducted exclusively in accordance with halakhic rulings?Let’s assume that the populace freely chooses to conduct its life in accordance with the laws ofthe Torah, and that it even grants the Torah sages the power to enforce compliance with theirwill and their rulings. In such circumstances, would they themselves want to bring all legalsystems under their control? Would they demand that all society’s arrangements beconducted consistent with religious law? Some, to be sure, would respond positively to suchquestions (even if only rhetorically); as Rabbi A. Y. Waldenberg, former presiding judge of therabbinic court in Jerusalem, wrote in his day:This divine government, termed “theocracy”, will not beequalled by any democratic government, even the most nearlyperfect. Moreover, any democracy that is not interwoven withtheocracy—in other words, “with the Torah’s absolute ruleover the state’s political life”—will sooner or later culminate inthe breaking of all bounds of holiness. 1But other contemporary sages have taken a decidedly different view of these matters. 2In fact, it is classical halakhic literature itself that tells us that the ideal hand of Torah alone fallsshort of being able to maintain the real world, and that it needs the engagement of a humanleadership that can rule, adjudicate, and impose sanctions outside the bounds of halakhahand sometimes even contrary to it. Or, in a paradoxical formulation, “theocracy” itselfproclaims that it is not self-sufficient; that it depends substantially on the existence of asecular, human and political realm; and that it has no independent existence confined withinthe proverbial “four cubits of halakhah”.Elsewhere, I have dealt extensively with this subject 3 ; more recently, MenachemLorberbaum devoted a comprehensive study to it. 4 Let me therefore limit myself here to a1 . (Rabbi) A. J. Waldenberg, Halakhot of the State (Jerusalem: Mosad ha-Rav Kook, 1952), Vol. 3, p.37 (Hebrew). But cf. ibid., Vol. 1, p. 17.2 . For a review of the rabbinic debate on the subject at the time the State of Israel was founded,see Asher Cohen, The Tallit and the Flag: Religious Zionism and the Concept of a Torah State, 1947-1953 (Jerusalem: Yad Yizhaq Ben Zvi, 1998), pp. 73-78 (Hebrew).3 . See note 4, supra.4 . Menachem Lorberbaum, Politics and the Limits of Law (Palo Alto: Stanford Univ. Press, 2001). Seealso the comments of (Rabbi) H. O. Gorodzhinsky, head of the Council of Torah Sages in Europe,as cited by (Rabbi) Y. A. ha-Levi Herzog, Legislating for Israel in Accordance With the Torah, Vol. 2(1989), p. 75 (Hebrew). Compare the comments of Zionist Rabbis: M. Z. Neriah, “The Laws of theKingdom”, Ha-Zofeh (5 March 1948), p. 6 (Hebrew); idem, “What Is Legislation in AccordanceWith the Torah?”, ibid (27 February 1948), p. 4 (Hebrew); Shlomo Gurontschik (Gor en), “What IsLegislation in Accordance With the Torah?”, ibid., (13 February 1948), p. 4 (Hebrew); Shim`onFederbush, The Law of Government in Israel, supra note 22, pp. 48-53 (Hebrew). For a differentunderstanding of Ran’s comments, see Eliav Shochetman, “Recognition of Halakhah in the Lawsof the State of Israel”, Shenaton ha-Mishpat ha-Ivri, Vols. 16-17 (1990-1991), pp. 417-500 (Hebrew);(Rabbi) Yo’el Bin-Nun, “Democratic Rule in Accordance with the Torah—Desirable Governmentand Its Limits”, in Derekh Erez: Religion and State (supra note 17), pp. 298, 309-311 (Hebrew); Aaron86 Ksharim

ief illustration of the difficulty. According to the law of the Torah, a thief who is caught isfined and required to pay back twice the value of what he stole, and one who openly robs andis caught must only return the stolen property. Halakhic thought sees this as an expression ofabsolute justice, flowing from a heavenly source. But can a properly functioning society bemaintained, and can ownership and property rights be protected, by means of such mildpenalties? Similarly, according to Torah law, a person who deliberately commits battery onanother, blinding him or knocking out his tooth, is required only to provide monetarycompensation to the victim. “And so, will a person to whom money is no object, or a personso poor as to be judgment-proof, be free to do as he wishes, striking his enemy’s eye or toothwithout impediment?” 5 Moreover, as Torah sages pointed out as early as the Middle Ages, thepre-conditions to convicting offenders under Torah law (proof, warnings, and so forth) are soextreme and so rigorous as to completely neutralise punishment’s deterrent effect 6 :For if you base everything on the laws determined in the Torah, imposing punishment forbattery and so forth only in the manner the Torah does, the world would be destroyed, for wewould need witnesses and warnings. As our rabbis of blessing memory said, “Jerusalem wasdestroyed only because they based their rulings [exclusively] on the law of the Torah…as aresult of which the reckless would breach the barriers of proper conduct and the worldbecame desolate”. 7Accordingly, medieval Jewish communities were often required to enact ad hoclegislation providing for effective penal sanctions, thereby ensuring public order andprotecting private property. Their sages thus legitimated juridical activity adapted to society’sreal needs and to circumstances of time and place and did not take account solely of theTorah’s ideal laws or view matters sub specie æternitas. The process reached its pinnacleduring the fourteenth century, with the formulation of a halakhic theory that applied this lineof reasoning to the law of the future Jewish kingdom as well. The theory held that theanticipated Jewish polity in the Land of Israel would be required to maintain two parallelsystems. One would be obliged to rule in accordance with Torah law, upholding it withoutqualification or reservation, while the second would be permitted to veer off from it and showa degree of practical flexibility. Only in that way, through the combined operation of the twosystems, could Israel reap the benefits of the two worlds. On the one hand, given desirablesocietal conditions and within the bounds of the possible, they could base their lives on “truejustice, righteous per se”. On the other hand, in difficult societal circumstances and outsideKirschenbaum, “The Role of Punishment in Jewish Criminal Law: A Chapter in RabbinicPenological Thought”, Jewish Law Annual, Vol. 9 (1991), pp. 123-143.5 . Quoted from the book of an unnamed halakhist in an article by (Rabbi) Y. A. ha-Levi Herzog,“Toward a Jewish State”, in Yehudah Shaviv (ed.), At the Crossroads of Torah and State (AlonShevut: Zomet Institute, 1991), Vol. 1, p. 8 (Hebrew). Rabbi Herzog rejected the suggestion, justas he had rejected Rabbi H. O. Gorodzhinsky’s suggestion to draw a line between the law of thestate and the law of the Torah. Cf. Herzog, Legislating for Israel, supra note 43, Vol. 2, p. 75;Ravitzky, Religion and State in Jewish Philosophy, supra note 4, pp. 11-12.6 . (Rabbi) Naftali Rotenberg, “A Kingdom of Priests and a Holy Nation”, Or ha-Mizrah, Vol. 41,No. 2 (1993), pp. 104-109 (Hebrew).7 . Rashba, Responsa (Benei -Beraq, 1958), Part 3, Sec. 393. The talmudic quotation is from Bavli,Bava Mezi`a 30b. Rashba was discussing the Jewish autonomy in the Diaspora.87 Ksharim

those bounds, they could work to “repair the political order in accordance with the needs ofthe hour”. 8On this understanding, which exercised considerable influence on political andhalakhic thought over the ages, the first system (the religious) should not invade the domainof the second (the political) or seek to impose on it the stringency and purity to which it aloneis subject. 9 To that limited extent, the Torah must withdraw and restrict its own applicabilityfor the sake of the communal good; it must be satisfied with its inner perfection and confineitself to its own domain. In a broader or higher sense, however, it is the Torah itself thatprovided for these two systems, the realistic as well as the idealistic, and it is the Torah itselfthat authorised the community and the state to depart from the normative law for the sake ofpragmatic improvement. And so, in the final analysis, even when the political authoritydeparts from the law of the Torah (in the narrow sense), it is empowered to do so by theauthority of the Torah (in the broad sense) and the Torah’s Giver. In the words of RabbiShlomo Goren, former Chief Rabbi of Israel:For human society, including the nation of Israel, has a needfor political governance that stands for and applies relativejustice, that is, time-bound political justice, and, by its force,imposes order and security among people. The penal laws ofthe Torah, which stand for absolute justice unaffected by theneeds of the time, place, or level of human society, areinsufficient. 10Need we state the potential implications of this halakhic point of view for a real Jewishstate that is run under a parliamentary-democratic system of governance and that judges itscitizenry pursuant to an extra-halakhic system of laws? They suggest that all legislation by theKnesset (as long as it does not compel anyone to transgress ritual commandments) canimmediately gain the status of “Torah” in the broader sense, the originator of the two parallelsystems. To state it differently: any legislation enacted in a Jewish state, and any legal rulingissued there, whatever its source, can become in a formal sense an organic component of“Jewish law” in its comprehensive sense. In fact, during the early days of the State of Israel,prominent halakhists suggested as much. 11 “We have thus reached a fundamental8 . Derashot ha-Ran, pp. 189-194. Ran was speaking of the anticipated Jewish kingdom.9 . “When there will be a Sanhedrin and king in Israel, the Sanhedrin will judge the people solelyin accordance with the law of righteousness, making no effort to better their lot in other ways,unless the king delegates some of his power to them…For that is the difference between judgeand king, for the judge is more subservient than the king to the laws of the Torah”, ibid. CompareRabbi Isaiah Horowitz (Shelah), Shenei Luhot ha-Berit (Amsterdam, 1648), Part 2, p. 84b.10 . (Rabbi) Shlomo Goren, The Torah Law of the State, supra note 22, p. 439 (Hebrew).11 . (Rabbi) M. Z. Neriah, “The Laws of the Kingdom”, Ha-Zofeh (5 March 1948), p. 6 (Hebrew);idem, “What Is Legislation in Accordance With the Torah?”, ibid (27 February 1948), p. 4(Hebrew); (Rabbi) Shlomo Gurontschik (Goren), “What Is Legislation in Accordance With theTorah?”, ibid., (13 February 1948), p. 4 (Hebrew); Federbush, The Law of Government in Israel, op.cit., pp. 48-49 (Hebrew). See Cohen, The Tallit and the Flag, op. cit. note 41, pp. 36-37 (Hebrew). Cf.Y. Ahituv, On The Limits of Change (Jerusalem: Ministry of Culture and Education, 1995), 284-285(Hebrew); Eliav Shochetman, “Recognition of Halakhah in the Laws of the State of Israel”, supranote 43; Itamar Wahrhaftig, “The Laws of the Knesset and the Torah State”, supra note 20, pp.88 Ksharim

phenomenon is the history of Jewish law”, wrote Rabbi Shim`on Federbush in hisprogrammatic Hebrew book, The Law of Government in Israel:Duality in adjudication and even in legislation has enduredthroughout Jewish history in various forms, that is to say,legislation and adjudication in accordance with religion andthe Torah side by side with legislation and adjudication thatdid not depend on the law of the Torah. During the time ofIsrael’s monarchy, the non-religious law was called the law ofthe king, and after the destruction [of the Temple], courts ofthat sort were established with the consent of the Torah sages,as lay courts, arbitration tribunals, or the like…There likewiseexisted continual legislation, in the form of communal rulesand regulations…Every law of a contemporary governmentalinstitution has the same force and effect as the law of the kingin his time. That means that in a State of Israel with a nationalgovernment, the authority to legislate and adjudicate islodged in the governmental legislative and adjudicatorybodies of the State of Israel.On this reasoning, when a judge in an Israeli court decides a case contrary to religiouslaw but does so for the sake of the general good, is he thereby straying from the Torah or is itprecisely the Torah that endows him with his authority to do so? 12 As noted, questions of thissort could have been posed as well with respect to the societal and juridical institutions ofDiaspora Jewish communities, but they arise all the more forcefully in connection with ahalakhic theory that extends the analysis to an independent Jewish government and grantsthat government powerful legal authority that goes even beyond the law of the Torah.A few points for discussion: The first view, Rabbi Waldenberg’s, implies that in the tension between democracy and halacha,democracy should be subsidiary – it daren’t overrule the Torah Ravitsky’s alternative: that ever since the Bible, there has been a distinction between Torah andstate. Even the kings of Israel made decisions based on practical consideration, not everydecision in every sphere of life was governed by Torah – so the “halachic state” to which we wishto return is actually a myth or a misunderstanding. Thus, just as the king did not apply or enforce the halacha in every aspect of his government, so amodern democracy should not be expected to do so either. This is not a conflict, but rather ahealthy, normal state of affairs. Which leaves us with the possibility that within the Jewish state – a democracy – there might bedifferent religious communities coexisting, with different views of halacha; as a citizen of thestate one is obligated to obey the laws of the state – but as a member of a community, one is free192-193; (Rabbi) Yehudah Zolden, “The Laws of the State and the Law of the Torah”, in AmihaiBerholtz (ed.), Derekh Erez: Religion and State (note 17, supra), pp. 358-363 (Hebrew).12 . (Rabbi) Yehudah Segal, “On Secular Law in the Land [of Israel]”, Ha-Torah ve-ha-Medinah, Vols.7-8 (1955-1957), pp. 74-95 (Hebrew); (Rabbi) Ya`akov Ariel, “The Law in the State of Israel and theProhibition of [non-halakhic or gentile] Tribunals”, Tehumin, Vol. 1 (1980), pp. 319-328 (Hebrew);Ya`akov Bazaq, “The Israeli Courts—Are They Indeed ‘Gentile Courts?’”, Tehumin, Vol. 2 (1981),pp. 523-527 (Hebrew).89 Ksharim

to live according to the norms of the community, or, if the community will not tolerateviolation of its norms, switch communities. And if our modern democracy is the successor to the biblical kings, then its rule does not conflictwith the Torah, but is rather the fulfillment of the Torah’s need for a “secular” authority to providepractical rule in those areas not governed by halacha.90 Ksharim

L e s s o n 11:adam v’adama: The relationship between people andland1. Outlinea. Stewardship vs. ownership in Genesisb. Physical attributes of the Land of Israelc. Caring for the Land of Israeld. Conflicting values: settlement, development, preservation2. IntroductionThis lesson looks at our relationship to the land through an ecological lens. What can welearn from the Bible regarding the general obligation of humans to care for the earth vs.their right to exploit it for their benefit? And what obligations, if any, do we have as Jewsto care for the natural resources and landscape of the Land of Israel? Today it is commonin the west to speak of our species’ obligation to use the land without abusing it, to seeour benefiting from the land as conditional upon our respecting it. We tend to associatethese ideas of integration of human activity into the cycles of nature as vaguely pagan inorigin or in spirit. The question is: in an ecological perspective, what kind of relationship tothe land do we find in Jewish sources? How does the modern enterprise of reclaiming andsettling the Land of Israel relate to Jewish ecological concepts?3. Lesson goalsa. Familiarity with key texts and dilemmas regarding man’s relationship to nature andthe natural landscape in generalb. Familiarity with Biblical and rabbinic images of the natural environment of the Land ofIsraelc. Awareness of traditional concepts relating to our responsibility toward the Land ofIsraeld. Understanding of value conflicts (actual and potential) involved in the modern Zionistenterprise of reclaiming and settling the Land of Israel4. Expanded outlinea. Our relationship to the earth; does this general moral question have specific relevanceto the land of Israel, or is it universal?i. Two creation accounts: comparison and discussion of Gen. 1:26-28 and Gen.2:15: is there a conflict between “to rule” and “to tend?” Looking at somecommentaries – Saadya Gaon; Rambam, Guide 3:13; Ramban.ii. Gen. 2:7 and Gen. Rabba 17: Adam and Adama: the primeval connectionbetween man and earth. Is this a universalistic myth, or are we grounded inspecific earth?iii. Gen. 19:23-26: Lot’s wife: why is it forbidden to look back? Why does she doso anyway? Why a woman? What is the significance of the punishment?91 Ksharim

iv. The concept of bal tashchit: Deut. 20:19-20; commentaries – Sifrei Devarim203. Does this apply only to the conquest of Israel, or any war anywhere(but then, why would we be besieging anyplace other than Israel??)v. References to extra readings1. www.coejl.org: texts, activities, references relating to Israel andecology and to Judaism and ecologyb. The Land of Israel as described in the texti. How does the Bible picture Israel: Deut. 8:7-9; messianic vision: Joel 2:21-26,Amos 9:13-15. Interesting that there are many references in passing tospecific places (e.g., Gen. 35:16 -20; Judges 16:1-3; I Sam. 24:1-4; I Kings18:40-46; Song of Songs 4:1), and to the natural grandeur of God’s world(the sea, the mountains), but very little direct description of the land and itsnatural features.ii. But, note Psalm 29 – generally interpreted as description of movement of athunderstorm across the Israel; see for example Anchor Psalmscommentary.iii. Rabbinic descriptions of the Land of Israel: is this the real land, or is itmythical? Here too, most descriptions refer to the fruitfulness of the land,not its beauty or physical features.1. Ta’anit 10a about priority of Eretz Yisrael in creation etc.2. Tanhuma Kedoshim 10: Israel as navel of the world, center ofthe world3. Avot deRabbi Natan A 28: the wisdom of Israel, the beauty ofJerusalem4. Kiddushin 49b: 9 measures of wisdom – Eretz Yisrael; 9measures of beauty - Jerusalemiv. References to extra readings1. www.n-k.org.il: site of Neot Kedumim biblical botanicalgarden, with materials on connections between the naturalenvironment of Israel and the Jewish holidays.c. Caring for the Land of Israeli. In Exodus 23:29, in the description of the future conquest of Canaan, Godsays, “I will not drive them out before you in a single year, lest the landbecome desolate and the wild beasts multiply to your hurt. I will drivethem out before you little by little, until you have increased and possess theland.” Is there an interplay here of ecological and political concerns?ii. When the Bible refers to God’s threat that the land will “vomit us out” (e.g.,Lev. 18:24-30), the cause is “defiling” the land – not through pollution orother abuse, but through idolatry and/or injustice. We are responsible forthe spiritual climate; is there any understanding of a responsibility for theland itself, physically? Are we trying to read our modern sensibilities backonto the biblical text? Some possibilities:1. agricultural laws, especially sabbatical (next lesson)2. bal tashchit – but does this refer specifically to the Land ofIsrael?3. Deut. 23:13-15 – sanitation – but does this refer specifically tothe Land of Israel?92 Ksharim

iii.The rabbis were somewhat more concerned about the treatment of theland itself; for example1. Baba Kama 80a – on raising goats2. Hezekiah’s stopping up the springs: II Chron. 32:1-5, 32:30;some rabbis, at least, disapproved – Pesachim 56ad. Conflicting values todayi. Zionist ideal of rootedness in the soil; A.D. Gordon, Rachelii. Zionist ideal of conquering the land; e.g., draining the Hula;1. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&_Culture/geo/Hula.htmliii. Mythical vs. real picture of Israel: Mark Twain, Rabbi Nachmaniv. References to extra readings1. The Jewish National Fund publishes materials on landreclamation, ecology, etc., but their website is verydisappointing.2. See www.coejl.org – section on Israel5. Thoughts on practical applications in the classroom, materialsa. The story of Lot’s wife would make a nice opener for an exercise and discussion of pupils’relationship to their home landscapes and other landscapes, and an exploration ofpeople’s attachment to places (comparison to Native Americans, to modernPittsburghers, etc.). What do “home” and “homeland” mean to us? Are we rootedanywhere? Is it good to be rooted?b. In the light of Whole Earth (and globalization) concerns, is it meaningful to be concernedabout local ecology, about taking care of a particular piece of land?6. Connections to previous and future lessonsa. In the preceding lessons on the partriarchs’ wanderings and the desert experience, theland was promised, occasionally lived in, and served as a goal. With the approach of thenew nation to the land itself, many questions arise as to just what our relationship will beto this real estate we are about to take over. This lesson (and preceding two) examinevarious aspects of our vision of what life will be like in the new land – what kind of societywill we build? How will we treat the land? What will be unique about our lives in thisparticular place?7. Suggestions for facilitatora. Two sessions:i. Universal issues: man and land, man from the earth, general ecologicalmessages in Jewish textsii. How does this affect our relationship to the land of Israel? Is it special?Does it require special treatment?93 Ksharim

. Or…c. Or…i. What’s so special about the land of Israel? What is our connection to it?ii. Value conflicts – between universal values of “tending” and Zionist valuesof “ruling.”i. Universal issues – and texts on the specialness of Israelii. Development of a concept of “ecological covenant” – if we mess up theland, it will throw us out…Sourcesספרי דברים פיסקא רגלא תשחית את עצה לנדוח עליו גרזן,‏ אין לי אלא גרזן מנין אף למשוך הימנה אמת המים תלמוד לומר לא תשחית אתעצה בכל דבר.‏Sifrei Devarim 203“When in your war against a city you have to besiege it a long time in order to capture it, youmust not destroy its trees, wielding the ax against them…”(Deut. 20:19). The text onlymentions an ax; how do I know that I may not even divert an irrigation channel [to kill thetree]? Because the text says “you must not destroy its trees.”- שימשלורמב"ן בראשית פרק אוטעם וירדו - שימשלו בחזקה בדגים ובעוף ובבהמה ובכל הרמש.‏ ‏"והבהמה"‏ תכלול החיה.‏ ואמר ובכל הארץבארץ עצמה לעקור ולנתוץ ולחפור ולחצוב נחשת וברזל.‏ ולשון ‏"רדייה"‏ ממשלת האדון בעבדו:‏וכבשוה נתן להם כח וממשלה בארץ לעשות כרצונם בבהמות ובשרצים וכל זוחלי עפר,‏ ולבנות,‏ ולעקור נטוע,‏ומהרריה לחצוב נחשת,‏ וכיוצא בזה.‏Ramban on Gen. 1:26-28“…They shall rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, the cattle, the whole earth, and allthe creeping things that creep on earth… and God said to them… ‘Fill the earth and masterit; and rule the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, and all the living things that creep onearth.’” (Gen. 1:26, 28) “Rule” means that they will govern by force all the creatures… “Thewhole earth” means that they shall rule the land itself, to uproot and to break and to dig andto mine copper and iron. “Rule” refers to the relationship between master and slave…“Master it” means that he gave them strength and dominion over the land to do their will tothe cattle and creeping things, to build, to uproot, to plant, and to mine copper from themountains, etc.קהלת רבה ‏(וילנא)‏ פרשה זבשעה שברא הקב"ה את אדם הראשון נטלו והחזירו על כל אילני גן עדן ואמר לו ראה מעשי כמה נאים ומשובחין הןוכל מה שבראתי בשבילך בראתי,‏ תן דעתך שלא תקלקל ותחריב את עולמי,‏ שאם קלקלת אין מי שיתקן אחריך,‏Ecclesiastes Rabba 7:13When the Holy One created the first man He took him and showed him every tree in theGarden of Eden and said to him: “See my works, how beautiful and perfect they are? All that I-94 Ksharim

created I created for you. Take care not to spoil and to destroy my world, because if you dothere is no one to set it right after you.תלמוד בבלי מסכת תענית דף י עמוד אתנו רבנן:‏ ארץ ישראל נבראת תחילה וכל העולם כולו נברא לבסוף,‏ שנאמר ‏[משלי ח']‏ עד לא עשה ארץ וחוצות.‏Talmud Ta’anit 10aThe Rabbis taught: the land of Israel was created first, and only later the rest of the world, as itis written [Proverbs 8:26] “He had not yet made earth and fields…”מדרש תנחומא ‏(ורשא)‏ פרשת קדושים סימן יכשם שהטבור הזה נתון באמצע האיש כך א"י נתונה באמצע העולם שנאמר ‏(יחזקאל לח)‏ יושבי על טבור הארץ ארץישראל יושבת באמצעיתו של עולם וירושלים באמצעיתה של א"י ובית המקדש באמצע ירושלים וההיכל באמצע ביתהמקדש והארון באמצע ההיכל ואבן שתיה לפני הארון שממנה נשתת העולם...‏...Midrash Tanhuma, Kedoshim 10Just as the navel is in the center of a person, so the land of Israeli is in the middle of the world,as it is written [Ezekiel 38:12] “…living at the center of the earth.” …The land of Israel sits inthe middle of the world, and Jerusalem in the middle of the land of Israel, and the Temple inthe middle of Jerusalem and the Sanctuary in the middle of the Temple and the Ark in themiddle of the Sanctuary, and the foundation stone in front the Ark, and upon it stands theworld…אבות דרבי נתן נוסחא א פרק כחרבי נתן אומר אין לך אהבה כאהבה של תורה.‏ ואין לך חכמה כחכמה של ארץ ישראל.‏ ואין לך יופי כיופיה שלירושלים.‏Avot d’Rabbi Natan A 28Rabbi Natan says: there is no love like the love of Torah, and there is no wiscom like thewisdom of the land of Israel, and there is no beauty like the beauty of Jerusalem.תלמוד בבלי מסכת קידושין דף מט עמוד בעשרה קבים חכמה ירדו לעולם,‏ תשעה נטלה ארץ ישראל,‏ ואחד כל העולם כולו.‏ עשרה קבים יופי ירדו לעולם,‏ תשעהנטלה ירושלים,‏ ואחד כל העולם כולו.‏Talmud Kiddushin 49bTen measures of wisdom came into the world; nine were taken by the land of Israel, one by therest of the world. Ten measures of beauty came into the world; nine were taken by Jerusalem,one by the rest of the world.תלמוד בבלי מסכת בבא קמא דף פ עמוד את"ר:‏ מעשה בחסיד אחד שהיה גונח מלבו,‏ ושאלו לרופאים,‏ ואמרו:‏ אין לו תקנה עד שינק חלב רותח משחרית לשחרית;‏והביאו לו עז וקשרו לו בכרעי המטה,‏ והיה יונק ממנה משחרית לשחרית.‏ לימים נכנסו חביריו לבקרו,‏ כיון שראו אותההעז קשורה בכרעי המטה חזרו לאחוריהם,‏ ואמרו:‏ לסטים מזויין בביתו של זה,‏ ואנו נכנסין אצלו!‏ ישבו ובדקו ולא מצאובו אלא אותו עון של אותה העז.‏ ואף הוא בשעת מיתתו אמר:‏ יודע אני שאין בי עון אלא עון אותה העז,‏ שעברתי עלדברי חברי.‏95 Ksharim

Talmud Baba Kama 80a[Referring to Mishnah Baba Kama 7:7, which forbids the raising of goats in Israel] The Rabbistaught: It happened that a pious man had a heart ailment. He consulted the physicians andthey told him there was only one remedy, namely to take fresh milk every morning. Thedoctors brought him a goat, tied her to the posts of his bed, and he drank the milk everymorning. Several days later his colleagues came to visit him. When they saw the goat tied tothe posts of the bed they turned back saying: “There is an armed bandit in this person’s house– how can we visit here?” Upon further investigation they found that there was no blameattached to the man except for the transgression of the goat. On his death-bed he confessed:“I know that I have committed no crime except for the matter of that goat, in which Itransgressed the regulations of my colleagues.”תלמוד בבלי מסכת פסחים דף נו עמוד אתנו רבנן:‏ ששה דברים עשה חזקיה המלך,‏ על שלשה הודו לו ועל שלשה לא הודו לו.‏ גירר עצמות אביו על מטה שלחבלים והודו לו,‏ כיתת נחש הנחשת והודו לו,‏ גנז ספר רפואות והודו לו.‏ ועל שלשה לא הודו לו:‏ קיצץ דלתות שלהיכל ושיגרן למלך אשור ולא הודו לו,‏ סתם מי גיחון העליון ולא הודו לו,‏ עיבר ניסן בניסן ולא הודו לו.‏---Talmud, Pesachim 56a[Referring to Chronicles II 32:2-4 and 32:30 on Hezekiah’s stopping up of the springs outsideJerusalem, when besieged by the Assyrians] The Rabbis taught: Hezekiah did six things asking; the Rabbis approved of three, and disapproved of three. He dragged his father’s boneson a bed of ropes… smashed the bronze serpent… put away the “Book of Cures” – and theyapproved… He cut off the doors of the sanctuary and sent them to he King of Assyria…stopped up the upper Gihon spring… and declared a leap year in Nissan – and theydisapproved.בראשית רבה ‏(וילנא)‏ פרשה יז ד"ה ד ויצר ה'‏א"ר אחא בשעה שבא הקב"ה לבראת את האדם,‏ נמלך במלאכי השרת,‏ אמר להן נעשה אדם,‏ אמרו לו אדם זה מה טיבו,‏אמר להן חכמתו מרובה משלכם,‏ הביא לפניהם את הבהמה,‏ ואת החיה,‏ ואת העוף,‏ אמר להם זה מה שמו ולא היו יודעין,‏העבירן לפני אדם,‏ אמר לו זה מה שמו,‏ אמר זה שור,‏ זה חמור,‏ זה סוס,‏ וזה גמל,‏ ואתה מה שמך אמר לו אני נאהלהקרא אדם שנבראתי מן האדמה...‏Genesis Rabba 17Rabbi Aha said: When the Holy One came to create man, he consulted with the angels. Hesaid, “Let us make man.” They said “What will be the nature of man?” He said, “His wisdom willbe greater than yours.” He brought before them cattle and other animals and birds and asked[the angels], “what are their names?” And they didn’t know. He brought the animals beforeman, and asked him “What are their names?” And he said, “This is an ox, this is a donkey, this isa horse, this is a camel…” “And what is your name?” He said to Him, “It is fitting to call meAdam, because I was created from the earth [adama]…Saadia Gaon, Book of Doctrines and Beliefs, Chap. 4: 1…We found that the earth occupied the center of the universe, entirely surrounded by thecelestial spheres. This made it clear to us that the earth was the most essential part in thecreated universe. Then we examined everything which the earth contains, and observed thatearth and water are both inanimate things; the beast we found to be lacking in Reason; thereremained nothing superior but Man. This makes it certain for us that he is undoubtedly theultimate object of Creation…. Moreover, the opening chapter of the Torah first goes throughall categories of creatures and at the end of them says, “Let us make man” (Gen. 1:26), just like---96 Ksharim

an architect who builds a palace, furnishes it, puts everything in order, and then invites theowner to occupy it.Maimonides, Guide of the Perplexed, III:13It should not be believed that all the beings exist for the sake of the existence ofman. On thecontrary, all the other beings too have been intended for their own sakes and not for the sakeof something else. Thus even according to our view that the world has been produced intime, the quest for the final end of all the species of beings collapses. For we sat that in virtueof His will He has brought into existence all the parts of the world, some of which have beenintended for their own sakes, whereas others have been intended or the sake of some otherthing that is intended for its own sake. Just as He has willed that the human species shouldcome to exist, He also has willed that the spheres and their stars should come to exist…Shaul Tschernichovsky, “A Man Is Nothing But”A man is nothing but a small plot of land,A man is nothing but the image of the landscape of his birthplace,Only what his ear recorded when it was still fresh,Only what his eye took in before it had seen too much,Whatever was encountered on the dew-covered pathBy the child who tripped over every bump and clod of earth…Rachel [Bluwstein], “To My Land”I have not sung to you, my landAnd I have not glorified your nameIn deeds of heroism,And in the spoil of battles;My hands have only planted a treeOn the quiet banks of the Jordan,My feed have only conquered a pathAcross the fields.And so, very poor indeed –I know this, Mother –And so, very poor indeedIs the gift brought by your daughter;Only a voice raised in joyOn a day of shining light,Only secret weepingFor your misery.לא שרתי לך ארצילא שרתי לך ארצי,‏ולא פארתי שמךבעלילות גבורהבשלל קרבות.‏רק עץ ידי נטעוחופי ירדן שוקטים,‏רק שביל כבשו רגליעל פני שדות.‏אכן דלה מאוד,‏ידעתי זאת,‏ האם,‏אכן דלה מאודמנחת ביתךרק קול תרועת הגילביום יגה האור,‏רק בכי במסתריםעלי עניך.‏97 Ksharim

Zalman Shazar, Morning StarsSuddenly Rachel climbed up and stretched out on the trunk of a carob up on the top of a hill.From there, golden in the sunlight her white dress glistening, she raised her voice high in songtoward us, the group down in the wadi. We heard every note as if she were nearby, and weheard not only her voice but a powerful echo responding: the whole landscape sang inancient Sephardi Hebrew, which seemed to have been preserved here in its purity. It was as ifour far-off ancestors, shepherds and maidens of Israel, who went out into these mountains onsome day of joy or mourning, had hidden those beautifully authentic, precisely articulatedHebrew sounds in the crevices of the rocks to be preserved there till the day of deliverancecame. And the day was now beginning to come. Rachel called from the summit and thesounds came flying to her out of their stony hiding places, pure as on the day they wereconcealed, joyful as in the childhood of our people.A. D. Gordon, “Our Tasks Ahead”It is life we want, no more and no less than that, our own life feeding on our own vital sources,in the fields and under the skies of our Homeland, a life based on our own physical and mentallabors; we want vital energy and spiritual richness from this living source. We come to ourHomeland in order to be planted in our natural soil from which we have been uprooted, tostrike our roots deep into its life-giving substances, and to stretch out our branches in thesustaining and creating air and sunlight of the Homeland. Other peoples can manage to livein any fashion, in the homelands from which they have never been uprooted, but we must firstlearn to know the soil and ready it for our transplantation. We must study the climate in whichwe are to grow and produce. We, who have been torn away from nature, who have lost thesavor of natural living – if we desire life, we must establish a new relationship with nature; wemust open a new account with it.Isocrates of Athens, PanegyricusWe did not become dwellers I this land by driving others out of it, nor by finding ituninhabited, nor by coming together here a motley horde composed of many races; but weare of a lineage so noble and so pure that throughout our history we have continued inpossession of the very land which gave us birth, since we are sprung from its very soil and areable to address our city by the very names which we apply to our nearest kin; for we alone ofall the Hellenes have the right to call our city at once nurse and fatherland and mother.Yossi Gamzu, “The Western Wall”...There are people with hearts of stone;There are stones with human hearts.Rabbi Nachman of BratslavRav Nachman related that when he was in the land of Israel, the important people… who hadcome… to make their homes [there]… told him that before they came they could notimagine that the land of Israel is of this world; they had felt that the land of Israel was anentirely different world, as would befit its great holiness as described in the sacred texts and in… our holy Torah… but when they got there, they saw that the land of Israel really is of thisworld, for it is just like anyother country, and its soil looks just like that of our own countries… [yet] the land of Israel istruly different and utterly distinct from every other land in every respect… Yet even so, in thematerial sense the eye of man can distinguish no difference between the land of Israel and anyother land; only he who has achieved faith in its holiness can discern a slight difference…98 Ksharim

Mark Twain, Innocents AbroadWhen I was a boy I somehow got the impression that the Jordan was four thousand miles longand thirty-five miles wide. It is only ninety miles long, and… not any wider than Broadway inNew York. There is the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea – neither of them twenty miles long orthirteen wide. And yet when I was in Sunday 93 school I thought they were sixty thousand milesin diameter. Travel and experience mar the grandest pictures and rob us of the mostcherished traditions of our boyhood. Well, let them go. I have already seen the empire of KingSolomon diminish to the size of the state of Pennsylvania; I suppose I can bear the reduction ofthe seas and the river.99 Ksharim

L e s s o n 12:Conquest and Coexistence1. Outline:Conquest vs. coexistence – the internal evidence, and archaeologya. Joshua’s conquestb. The picture according to Judgesc. the uses of archaeologyd. moral dilemmas, pedagogical implications and issues2. IntroductionThe period from the conquest of the land under Joshua to the crowning of Saul as kingraises a number of interesting questions with modern relevance. Regarding theconquest itself, there are questions on two levels: a) did it really happen as describedin the book of Joshua? Internal biblical evidence – and, possibly, archaeology – castdoubt on the account of the Israelites’ rapid and total conquest of Canaan; if so, whatdo we do with the contradiction and how do we teach it? b) how do we respond toour own and our students’ moral concerns about the bloody account of the conquest?And of course, the question of the morality of conquest hovers over the discussion ofthe modern state of Israel too.Another issue is that of Israelite identity. The Book of Judges seems to depict a landinhabited by a number of disparate and sometimes even warring tribes, eachabsorbed in its own local conflicts with neighboring non-Israelite tribes; only in theface of a powerful common enemy does any kind of political union form – and onlytemporarily. Different theories have been proposed regarding the formation of theIsraelite nation during this period; how might these affect our understanding of Jewishidentity past and present?3) Lesson goalsa) knowledge of the account of the conquest in Joshuab) awareness of the conflict between the account in Joshua and the realitydepicted in Judgesc) awareness of different models for the nature of Israelite identity during theperiod of the Judgesd) facility in discussion of value issues raised by these narrativese) familiarity with images of Joshua and the Judges in modern Israeli culture, andtheir implications4) Suggested outlinea) The conquest according to the Book of Joshua100 Ksharim

eading the text; following the conquest on the map; trying to reconcile thetext with the archaeology(1) texts from Joshua:(a) Jericho: 6:20-21; Ai 8:26-28;(a) The deal with the Gibeonites 9(b) The march of conquest 10:28-43, 11 – esp. 11:23(c) Tracing the battles on the maphttp://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/033.htm 95and see also, in the samesource, maps 33a, 34, 35, 35a, 36, 37, 38, 38a(2) Note that the Bible only describes a few battles, in the area aroundJericho, and in the upper Galilee, and then gives a general summary oftotal conquest (10:40-43). It is not clear if the description of the rest ofthe conquest got omitted – or if it never happened. The continuedexistence of Canaanites among the Israelites (see Judges) suggests thatthe model of Jericho was not reproduced throughout the land. Notealso that even in the text of Joshua, this was not an unqualified success:e.g., the initial defeat at Ai (chapter 7) and the deal with the Gibeonites(chapter 9) who are allowed to continue to live among the Israelites.b) Life in the Land of Israel under the judgesreading the text; comparing with Joshua; what are the messages of these twonarratives for later generations? How do we deal as teachers with thecontradiction? Relations with our pagan neighbors – war vs. syncretism(1) The unconquered: Judges 1:16-36, 2:1-5, 20-23; 3:1-11; 4:1-3; 6:1-10Note the explanation – God left these Canaanite tribes in place to testus – and each time they get the upper hand it is as His tool ofpunishment for our failing the test (see 2:6 -20). What otherexplanations are possible?(2) Tracing the tribes, enemies, and battles of the Judges on the maphttp://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/041.htm and maps 42-47c) So, what really happened? Can science help?(1) Adam Zertal, “Shechem and Mt. Ebal in the Bible: is this indeed Joshua’saltar?” http://ebal.haifa.ac.il/ebal06.html(2) Daniel Gavron inhttp://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/davidjer.html(3) See the attached section from Malamat’s chapter in the Ben Sassonhistory, synthesizing various theories and trying to reconcile them withthe biblical text.d) Pedagogical issues and modern relevancei) So, what really happened? Suggestion: read the Malamat chapter closely,checking out all the biblical references and following the discussion closelyon a map, to try to get a picture of what how the conquest might reallyhave happened (this would fill most of a lesson).101 Ksharim

(a) Discuss: how do we present the Bible to our students – whathappens when it seems to conflict with other sources of knowledge?If we argue that the Bible teaches values and ideas, not historicalfacts, then what are the values and ideas we learn from Joshua andJudges? And if the Bible does not come to teach historical facts,then what do we do with the fact that so much of it seems to dealwith what it presents as – well – historical facts?This is a significant issue in Israeli education: if our educationalsystem is “secular,” not based on a belief in God or on any particulardenomination of Judaism, 96 then what do we do with the Bible?National epic? History book? Great [poetic, fictional] literature?Deed to the land? Collection of lessons in morality?See, for example: David Hazony, “Memory in Ruins,” Azure 16:www.azure.org.il/16-editors.htmAnd see the summary of the paper by Lea Mazor, below in Sources.(b) How do we teach the conquest? How do we justify it? What echoesdo we hear of this dilemma in our teaching of modern Israel?(i) That’s life in the real world – name a country that isn’t guilty(remember “manifest destiny?”)(ii) God divided up the world when He created it, and this is the partHe gave us (see Rashi’s statement, in Sources below)(iii) The right to the land is conditional, and the Canaanites forfeitedtheir right to by because of their immoral behavior;see: Genesis 9:18-27 Genesis 19:4-9 Leviticus 18:24-30 Deuteronomy 18:9-14(iv) What else?SourcesA History of the Jewish People, Edited by H.H. Ben-SassonHarvard University Press 1976A. Malamat – Origins and Formative Period, pp. 55--60The Conquest ReconstructedAnalysis of the variegated sources relating to the Conquest shows it to have been acomplex process consisting of various phases, both in Trans-Jordan and in western102 Ksharim

Palestine. Nor does the archaeological evidence indicate a single campaign ofconquest. Admittedly, a good many Canaanite cities were destroyed during the latterhalf of the thirteenth century, but it would be an oversimplification to infer that allthese sites were reduced to ruins at one and the same time. Jericho, as has alreadybeen indicated, had been destroyed several decades earlier. Thus some scholars haveargued that there were several waves of Israelite penetration; their views differ,however, on the number of such invasions, on their exact chronology, on the specificinvasion routes and on the identity of the tribes participating in each wave. Anextremely important adjunct to the last of these questions lies in the twelve-tribedivision of the Israelites, based on maternal genealogy - that is, on the basis ofwhether a given tribe stemmed from Rachel or from Leah (or from thei r respectivehandmaids, Bilhah and Zilpah). Since this alignment makes no sense in the light of thelater tribal allotments, or in any other historical framework, it probably reflects asituation prevailing just prior to the final entrenchment of the Israelite tribes.Such a premise presupposes at least two principal stages of Israelite penetration,probably separated by a short period: one accomplished by the socalled 'Leah' tribes,with Judah at their head; the other by the 'Rachel' tribes, under the leadership of the'house of Joseph'. The tribes assigned to the handmaids - Gad and Asher to the oneand Dan and Naphtali to the other - have been considered tribal appendages,possessing an inferior status in the Israelite confederacy and sometimes regarded ashaving made their way separately into CanaanThe opinion prevailing today, as in previous generations, contends that the 'Leah'tribes preceded the 'Rachel' group in entering Palestine. Among the recent exponentsof this school is De Vaux, as is Yeivin, who postulates three successive waves ofconquest: Asher and Naphtali forcing their way into Galilee towards the end of thefourteenth century; the 'Leah' tribes arriving about 1300; and the 'Rachel' groupentering approximately one generation thereafter. More recently, however, anopposite view has gained ground, propagated mainly by Albright and later by Mazar,according to which the 'Rachel' tribes anticipated the other groups. Incidentally,rabbinical sources contain a similar allusion asserting a premature Ephraimite exodusfrom Egypt thirty years prior to the remainder of the tribes (see Mechilta of RabbiIshmael, Beshalah I; the Talmudic and mediaeval Jewish commentaries on Exodus13:17 and I Chronicles 7:22; and cf the Aramaic Targum on the latter verse and onPsalms 78:9). We shall present here, in broad outline, a reconstruction of the Conquestcycle based on Mazar, as it utilizes considerable source material without recourse to anexcessively complicated hypothesis.According to this approach, the desert oasis of Kadesh-barnea served as the base forboth waves of penetration into Canaan, that of the 'Rachel' and of the 'Leah' tribes. Thefirst wave, led by Joshua, an Ephraimite, made its incursion about 1300 BCE throughEdom and Moab (cf the itinerary given in Numbers 33) - as these nations had not yetconsolidated into kingdoms. Reaching as far as Abel-shittim in the Plains of Moab, the103 Ksharim

invaders forded the Jordan and, after capturing Jericho, ascended into the centralmountain region. Near Gibeon they successfully engaged an Amorite confederacy andthus acquired the lands adjoining the town to the west and to the north. Thence the'Rachel' tribes fanned out across all of Mount Ephraim, several contingents eveninfiltrating northwards into Galilee and, still later, as far as northern Gilead and theBashan in Trans-Jordan.The second wave, consisting of the 'Leah' tribes, was already compelled to circumventthe kingdom ofs of Edom and Moab, encountering en route the Amorite kingdom ofSihon, with its capital at Heshbon. This buffer state between Moab and Ammon hadcome into being only a short time before the Israelite invasion, for its founding,according to this theory, was linked to the aftermath of the battle of Kadesh, betweenRameses ii and the Hittites (see page 23). The Hittites, presumably together with theirAmorite allies, had at the time penetrated 98 into the Damascus region, while theAmorites themselves apparently continued to press farther southwards. After inflictinga defeat upon Sihon at Jahaz, the Israelites advanced steadily northwards into Amoriteterritory - the land of Jaazer and the domains of Og, the king of Bashan (Numbers 21:21ff.)- the tribes of Reuben and Gad taking possession of southern and central Trans-Jordan from the Arnon to the Jabbok rivers.The resumption of this campaign of conquest into the western confines of Palestine bythe second wave possibly underlies the tradition transmitted in the first chapter of theBook of Judges, whereby the Israelites, led by Judah, crossed the Jordan apparently farnorth of Jericho. First encountering Bezek in the hills of Manasseh ,they movedsouthwards towards the Judean hills and the Shephelah, conquering Jerusalem ontheir way. At approximately the same time, in the late thirteenth century, the towns ofthe southern Judean hills and the northern Negev - Hebron, Debir and Hormah - wereoverrun by clans kindred to Judah, namely, the Calebites, Kenizzites and Kenites,which had infiltrated from the south. This account of the seizure of the southern partof the country is complemented by Joshua l0:28-39, which relates the capture of thewestern hill towns and those in the Shephelah -Makkedah, Libnah, Lachish and Eglon.According to this view, the war against the Canaanites in the north (Joshua 11:1 - 15)was initiated jointly by the ‘Leah' tribes Issachar and Zebulun, which succeeded inexpanding northwards from the central hill region, and the ‘Rachel' tribes, which in theinterim had grown in numbers and in strength.The above hypothesis, like other reconstructions of the process of Conquest andSettlement, understandably enough remains conjectural. Thus the deliberations andconclusions hinge largely upon the degree of credence and weight placed upon theparticular biblical and extra-biblical data. It would seem preferable, therefore, to treatthe Conquest from a typological point of view - to consider the general phenomena,as we did in connexion with the Exodus and to determine the prevalent, underlyingcircumstances, thus avoiding a hair-splitting reconstruction of the actual course ofevents. In the following section we shall treat the Conquest from a military standpoint,104 Ksharim

ut first some of the basic underlying facets of the Conquest episode will beexamined.The Israelites, upon leaving Egypt, were clearly incapable of forcing an entry intoCanaan directly from the south because of Egyptian control of the Via Mans (see page22) and the strong defences along the country's southern approaches. Any attemptfrom this direction was bound to end in failure, as the incident at Hormah wouldindicate (Numbers 14:40if.). Hence they were compelled to make a broad flankingmovement by way of Trans-Jordan and to invade Canaan across the Jordan fords. Ofgreat chronological significance, besides its politico-military importance, is the biblicalpassage relating the Israelite encounter with Sihon, the king of the Amorites, ‘who hadfought against the first king of Moab and taken all his land out of his hand even untoArnon' (Numbers 21:26 ). The advent of the Israelites, or rather a portion of them, isplaced not long after the founding of the kingdom of Moab, which, as stated, is to hedated to the first half of the thirteenth century. If we accept the view that Sihon's ownkingdom arose in the wake of the battle 99ofKadesh, that is, shortly after 1285 BCE, aneven finer degree of accuracy is possible in dating the foregoing events. In any case,the fertile region between the Arnon and the Jabbok rivers changed hands severaltimes during the first half of the thirteenth century. At first the Moabites gainedcontrol of the southern portion of the area, with the north apparently occupied by theAmmonites. Soon thereafter the entire area fell under Sihon's dominion, only to passeventually into Israelite hands. The Egyptian factor should now be added to theregional power struggle during this period, as is evidenced by Rameses II’s expeditionto Moab, in which he managed to capture towns even to the north of the Arnon.Two decisive military confrontations with the Canaanites stand out in the conquest ofwestern Palestine - one in the south, at Giheon, and the other in Upper Galilee -uponthe outcome of which hung the fate of Israelite settlement in the country. The treatythat the Giheonites (who , with the towns of Chephirah, Beeroth and Kirjathjearim,formed the Hivite confederacy) concluded with the invading Israelites exposed thenorth-western flank of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and endangered the entire militarydisposition of the Canaanite cities to the west of the hill country. This situation evokeda sharp reaction from Adoni-zedek, the king of Jerusalem, who headed an alliance offour Canaanite city-states - Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish and Eglon - and attacked therenegade Gibeon, whom the Israelites now hastened to defend. The Israelites' victorypaved the way for their hegemony over the western slopes (Joshua 10). In the othersuccessful enco~nter, the Israelites decisively routed a northern coalition of fourCanaanite city-states under the leadership of Jabin, the king of Hazor, at the battle oftheWaters of Merom in north-eastern Galilee (the town of Merom itself may have lainin ruins since its sacking by Rameses II). The next step was the destruction of Hazoritself, the focus of Canaanite power in the north (Joshua 11:1-15).105 Ksharim

Military Aspects of the ConquestEven after accepting the central assertion of the biblical tradition, namely, the forcibleseizure of Canaan by the Israelites (which is supported by the archaeologicalevidence), we must still determine the basis for Israel's military success. How couldsemi-nomadic Israelite tribesmen, lacking in military lore and only meagrely equipped,prevail over a much superior Canaanite foe, long versed in the ways of warfare andpossessing a highly developed technology? How could they succeed against powerfulCanaanite fortress towns, which they saw as 'great and walled up to heaven'(Deuteronomy 1:28)? Queries of this sort had already been voiced by the ancients.Thus the third-century Jewish-Hellenistic author Demetrius inquired, as did Josephus(Antiquities II, 16.6), as to the source of the arms in Israelite possession when theyentered the country. Both these authors replied naively that the military equipmenthad been taken from the Egyptians drowned in the Red Sea.The Israelites' success in the face of Canaanite military superiority becomesunderstandable when we consider certain factors that facilitated a relatively rapidoccupation of the country, at least in 100 the mountain areas. Among these were theimpoverishment of Canaan as a result of Egyptian exploitation, the unstable securitysituation (clearly reflected in the El~Amarna tablets and in Papyrus Anastasi I) and,above all, the incessant internal strife among the Canaanite city-states. Thesebickerings had been intensified by the Egyptian policy of 'divide and rule', which, priorto the advent of the Israelites, had left the country politically fragmented, with itstowns divided. The Israelites, kindled by religious and national zeal, confronted aCanaanite population devoid of any over-all national consciousness, a land unable topresent a unified front against an invader. The two Canaanite coalitions mentionedpreviously (see above) were, after all, of limited size; the southern one, moreover, hadinitially aligned itself against only the Gibeonites. No one had rushed to the defence ofJericho or Ai in their hour peril. Even the help proffered to the beleaguered Lachish bythe king of Gezer) Joshua 10:33) seems to have been motivated by Egyptian policy,which made mutual defence between the cities in question mandatory. Both wereimportant administrative centres under Egyptian rule in the final third of thethirteenth century, as may be gathered from Egyptian documents.An additional factor expediting the Israelite seizure of control was the ethnicheterogeneity of Canaan, well reflected in the biblical sources (see page 9). TheIsraelites skillfully exploited the animosities existing among the various ethnic andnational groupings in Canaan, as is illustrated by the separate peace concluded withthe Gibeonites, who were of Hivite stock (Joshua 9:7). We may recall in this connexionthat the inhabitants of Shechem, or rather a portion of them, also traced their origin tothe Hivites (Genesis 34:2); their leadership at the time of the Israelite settlement was inthe hands of the collective 'lords of Shechem', similar to the existence at Gibeon of theleadership of elders rather than of a single king. Shechem, too, passed peacefully intoIsraelite control (see page 53). We also know of the existence of Israelite elements inJerusalem existing side by side with the Jebusites (Joshua 15:63 and Judges 1:21),106 Ksharim

which would testify to peaceful relations between these two groups. It now appearsthat the Jebusites traced their ancestry to northern (Anatolian?) ethnic elementssimilar to the Hivites and may have infiltrated into Jerusalem at about the time of theIsraelite conquest or slightly earlier.Canaanite resistance was overcome to no small extent by the specific methods ofwarfare employed by the Israelites and clearly implied in the biblical account.Evidently they possessed a highly developed intelligence service as may be inferredfrom the detailed instructions given by Moses to the twelve spies sent to reconnoitreCanaan; here one may detect the gathering not only of strictly military data but also ofeconomic and demographic information (Numbers 13:19 -20). We are informed thatJaazer and Bethel were reconnoitred (Numbers 21:32; and Judges 1:23) and that, priorto assaults, spies were dispatched to Jericho and Ai to collect information on enemydisposition. The initial Israelite defeat at Ai is undoubtedly the result of a faultyappraisal of the city's defending forces ('Let not all the people go up, but let about twoor three thousand men go up and smite Ai, and make not all the people to labourthither, for they are but a few' [Joshua 7:3]).Attention was paid also to matters of a logistic 101 nature, such as food and general supplyrequirements, as can be discerned from Joshua's preparing supplies for the entirepeople prior to the fording of the Jordan (Joshua 1:10 -ll), as well as from the verytiming of the invasion for the spring (on the tenth of Nisan [Joshua 4:19]), when thegrain had already ripened on the Jericho Plain, so as to provide them with 'the fruit ofCanaan that year' (Joshua 5:10-12 ). Like other invaders (e.g., the Midianite raids inthe days of Gideon), the Israelites followed the policy of plundering cattle andproduce, which simultaneously deprived the enemy of food and provisioned theirown troops (Joshua 8:27 and 11:14). Another strategic and logistic element may bediscerned in the 'official' version of the Conquest, wherein Gilgal occupied a primeposition as the base camp after the Jordan crossing, the site to which the Israelitesrepaired after each further phase of their southern campaign (Joshua 9:6 and 10:6-9,15, 43). This astonishing fact has led many scholars to assume here a late Benjaminitetradition of a local and liturgical nature, woven about the allegedly cultic site at Gilgal.From a military standpoint, however, this was a vital bridge-head for any penetrationinto western Palestine from the Plains of Moab. The task-forces may have retired tothis base, upon completion of long-range incursions, in order to safeguard their linkwith the Israelite rear across the river in Trans-Jordan.The military problem facing the Israelites was twofold. First, there were the strongCanaanite fortress cities, formidable barriers even for the mighty Egyptian warmachine. In addition, the Canaanites could place in the field a professional, welltrainedarmy, with a body of overawing chariotry, as opposed to the Israelites' infantry.A close analysis of the battle accounts of the Conquest, and, in fact, of the period up tothe beginning of the monarchy, reveals that this imbalance was surmounted by theso-called indirect military approach. In other words, the Israelites strove to avoid107 Ksharim

frontal assaults upon Canaanite fortifications and, wherever possible, relied ondeception, military cunning and diversionary manoeuvres rather than openconfrontation…The Rise and Fall of the Book of Joshua in the Mamlakhti School System in View ofIdeological Shifts in Israeli SocietyBy Lea Mazor(Summary of a Hebrew paper appearing in: M. Frankel and H. Deitcher, eds., Studies inJewish Education IX: Understanding the Bible in Our Times: Implications for Education,Jerusalem, Magnes Press, 2003)Drastic changes took place in regard to the status of the Book of Joshua in theMamlakhti (public, non-religious) School System in the first fifty years of the State ofIsrael. From a meaningful and appreciated Book it became problematic anddisreputable. These changes in attitude towards the Book of Joshua resulted from theongoing dialogue in Israeli society with its history, cultural heritage, and the need tore-define its Jewish identity.Secular Zionism viewed the Bible as a means for promoting the national ideology. TheBible, including the Book of Joshua, served102to justify the claim to the Land of Israel. Inthe50 s, the notion prevailed that the biblical Book recounting the conquest of theland by Joshua constituted a reliable historical account. David Ben-Gurion, then PrimeMinister and Minister of Defense, often quoted the Book of Joshua, and from hisbehavior and comments it seems that he saw himself as a second Joshua Ben-Nun.Teachers in Israel felt obliged to strengthen the ties to the land among their pupils andto instill them with the sense that there was an historical analogy between the days ofJoshua and contemporary events. Any reservations towards the strict ban (herem)against the indigenous Canaanite peoples had no significant place in pedagogicaldiscourse since any direct questioning of the Book of Joshua would have been takenas casting aspersions on the Bible or as weakening the moral justification of theconquest of the land.The establishment of the State and its institutions eased national and Zionist tensions,and in the 60s, after two wars, the myth of Joshua began to be a liability. For many itno longer symbolized the heroism and success of the conquest but nationalism,militarism, and insensitivity to the needs of the individual. Thinkers and educatorsspoke out against the use of the Bible as a means for patriotic education and the statusof the Book of Joshua in the curriculum of the school system diminished.The great watershed came about after the Six-Day War and events in its wake. Thepublic realized that the foundation of a national homeland for the Jewish people wastaking a heavy human and moral toll. In the public debate, the Book of Joshua beganto be seen from the perspective of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, with the latter beingidentified as the Canaanites. And the moment the Book of Joshua found itself part ofthe political arena of actuality, dissenting views began to divide Israeli society in108 Ksharim

egard to the interpretation of the Book of Joshua and its role in education. A furtherdeterioration in its status took place in the curriculum and, in fact, its study all butdisappeared from Bible classes in most secondary schools.Rashi on Genesis 1:1 “In the beginning.”R. Yitzchok said: The Torah should have begun with [the verse] "This month shall be[your first month]," it being the first precept that the Israelites were commanded. Thenwhy does it [the Torah] begin with "In the beginning"? This is because [of the conceptcontained in the verse,] "He declared the power of His works to His people in order togive to them the inheritance of nations” (Ps. 111:6). Thus, should the nations of theworld say to Israel, "You are robbers, for you have taken by force the lands of the SevenNations," they [Israel] will say to them: "All the earth belongs to G-d. He created it andgave it to whomever He saw fit. It was His will to give it to them and it was His will totake it from them and give it to us.109 Ksharim

L e s s o n 13:The Creation of the Monarchy1. Outlinea. Samuel – first steps in unificationb. The Philistine threat, the anointing of Saulc. Instability, revoltd. The consolidation of the Davidic dynastye. This period as reflected in modern Israeli culture2. IntroductionThe Exodus from Egypt and the forty years of wandering are traditionally seen as theformative period in the building of the Israelite nation — the transition from “family”history to “national” history. However, the biblical text makes it clear that many yearspassed after the entry into Palestine before the Israelite people were anything like aunited nation. In terms of the creation of a national entity and a national identity, amajor turning point came with the establishment of the monarchy; a furtherconsolidation occurred with the enthronement of the Davidic dynasty. This lesson willinvestigate the transition from tribal confederation to established dynastic monarchy.In looking at different biblical depictions of our connections to Israel, we find thepromises and sojourns of the Patriarchs, the promises and instructions in the desert,the conquest and struggles of Joshua and Judges – and now, the creation of a properkingdom of the Jews in their land, with a capital and a central government and all itsinstitutions – including a centralized religious cult. It is the collective memory of thisperiod of glory that has informed our messianic vision ever since it ended.3. Lesson goalsa. Understanding of the geopolitical reality in Israel during the period from theJudges to Davidb. Reading the biblical narrative for its insights into political realitiesc. Familiarity with the geographic setting of the biblical narratived. Awareness of the significance of the Davidic monarchy in later Jewishconsciousness4. Expanded outlineMethodological note: The approach adopted here takes the events in the textmore or less at face value, without resorting to text criticism or midrashicexplanations. Without getting bogged down into a debate on the historical“truth” of every detail, it is possible to see this account as a realistic description of achain of events which either happened or could well have happened. Thepersonalities, the behaviors, the setting, all ring true and do not contradict what110 Ksharim

we do know about the history of the region and the period. Therefore we suggestthat the focus be reading (and enjoying) the biblical narrative itself.The narrative is so alive that it is hard to decide what to skip, given the short timewe have. If at all possible, participants should be asked to read major textselections before the class – perhaps with some of the study questions givenbelow – so that class time can be devoted to discussing political and psychologicalinterpretations, and/or mapping the geography of the narrative.The online biblical atlas, http://www.biblecentre.net/reference/bibat/, is awonderful collection of detailed, colorful, clear maps organized according to thechronology of the Bible, and contains a number of maps detailing the activities ofthe Judges, the movements of Saul and Samuel, the rise of David’s kingdom, etc.We recommend reading the Bible with the map in view. Map numbers below referto this atlas.a. Samuel – first steps in unificationNote: maps 41-47 cover the period of the JudgesSamuel, his image and his role: the first four chapters of I Samuel might beassigned as independent reading, followed by a discussion:What factors seem to be at the root of Samuel’s prophecy and his success in beingaccepted as an authority by all of the tribes?•Special birth/childhood; official position as priest; direct revelation; life-longdedication; charismatic personality; political savvy...b. The Philistine threat, the anointing of Saul (maps 48-49a)What is lacking in Samuel’s rule?•Chapter four shows that Samuel’s “reign” was not characterized by militarysuccess. It seems that the frustration with the inability to stand up to thePhilistines may have been a major factor in the push for a monarchy.I Samuel 8Why do the people request a king?•There seems to be dissatisfaction with the rule of Samuel’s sons; but thereason they give has to to with wanting to be “like all the nations” and wantinga military leader (8:20).Why does Samuel object?•Perhaps he sees it as a rejection of his own authority; perhaps he sincerelybelieves that the simple tribal confederation is better than “big government;”there are elements here which seem similar to arguments heard in theformative years of the United States.111 Ksharim

•Note the fulfillment of Samuel’s warning about a king, in David’sactivities with respect to wives and buildings...II Samuel 7:1-17Why is David rebuffed when he seeks to build the Temple?•It is interesting that David seems disturbed that he lives in a palacewhile God “lives” in a tent; after all, the tent was built according toGod’s instructions. He seems to feel that a proper kingdom needs asuitably impressive temple and cult. God’s response is, on the onehand, “what’s wrong with a tent?” 106 but at the same time He seemsperfectly content to let the next generation build the Temple.Perhaps this passage was a response to contemporary criticismlevelled at David for building a palace but not a temple.And how is he compensated?•He is promised an eternal dynasty. The belief in the immutability ofthis promise became one of the bases of Jewish belief. Whensovereignty was lost (see next lesson), the belief that it would beregained was based on this promise: God will restore the rule of theDavidic dynasty. Thus, this promise is one of the roots of theconcept of the messiah; originally, “messiah” (mashiach), whichmeans “anointed one”, simply referred to the anointed king, of theDavidic family, who was expected to be restored to his promisedplace.•Note: the progression from the initial popular request for a king tothe establishment of a divinely ordained dynasty, with all theaccoutrements of a “normal” middle eastern monarchy — in onegeneration.e. This period as reflected in modern Israeli cultureThe motif of Saul as a kind of tragic hero appears in a number of modernHebrew works, including poems by Tschernichovsky and a novel by Shamir.Many songs relate to David, whose image in the tradition, despite the bloodyreality of his life, was that of a “singer of sweet songs,” author of the book ofPsalms – he is depicted as beautiful and noble, a perfect king (see, for example,Michelangelo’s interpretation…). And of course, his rule is the homepage forall our messianic quests. See references to songs below.113 Ksharim

Sources1. A general background essay (originally written by MJR for the Florence MeltonAdult Minischool)The situation of the people of Israel during the two centuries (appr oximately) aftertheir arrival in Canaan is depicted in the book of Judges. Despite the experience of theliberation, the desert, and the revelation, the people entering Canaan seem not tohave been either united politically or deeply committed to a common religious faith.During this “tribal” period there was constant tension between individual tribes orgroups of tribes and neighboring Canaanite peoples. Occasionally, under this externalpressure, charismatic military leaders would arise, who succeeded in temporarilyforming alliances of tribes and leading them against their oppressors. The book ofJudges describes twelve such episodes, some of them in great detail, some in brief,sketchy outline. The “judges” themselves are a heterogeneous group, ranging fromheros like Deborah and Gideon to questionable characters like Samson and Jephthah.The dominant ideology of the book of Judges is that of the book of Deuteronomy: the107political fortunes of Israel are a direct consequence of their degree of loyalty to God.When the people go astray after pagan gods, then they are punished by oppression bytheir neighbors; leaders who are successful in fighting these enemies must first unitethe people in cleansing their lives of pagan religious practices and values — only thenwill God save them through the military success of the leader. The judges are thus notpurely military leaders: they are representatives of God sent to bring the people intocompliance with His law; their role as military saviors is conditional on their success inthe religious realm.In the book of Samuel I, we read of the rise to prominence of a new type of leader,Samuel, whose power is not in the military, but the spiritual/ political realm. Hisreputation as a prophet, a spokesman for the will of God, was known throughout all ofthe tribes — his authority seems to have been more widely accepted than that of anyof the judges who preceded him. At the same time, the conflicts with the various localCanaanite city states fade from the stage, giving way to an ongoing struggle againstone powerful enemy, the Philistines, who dominate the entire land from their base ofpower along the coastal plain. Both books of Samuel deal almost exclusively with theconstant enmity between Israel and the Philistines.It is in the context of this new type of political situation that the leaders of the tribesapproach Samuel with the request to organize Israel along new lines: they demand amonarchy. A strong, united enemy requires a strong, united internal structure, onewhich can be provided neither by temporary coalitions under local or regional heros,nor by a prophet like Samuel whose authority does not extend to such spheres asdefense, administration, taxation, etc. God (through Samuel) chooses Saul, a youngman of impressive physical appearance, from the smallest tribe, Benjamin, and Samuel114 Ksharim

anoints him king. Although there is some opposition, Saul succeeds in building atleast the rudiments of a proper kingdom, and in leading his army to victory againstenemies on all sides — though not, in the long run, against the Philistines.In time, however, Saul’s position weakens: he is unable to win a decisive victory overthe Philistines (ultimately he dies in battle against them); tensions develop over hisfailure to be completely obedient to Samuel; the centrifugal forces of tribalindependence reemerge; and a young leader emerges with a base of support in amore powerful tribe as well as definite political gifts. The biblical narrative describingthe rivalry between Saul and David and the transfer of the kingship from Saul to Davidis powerful as dramatic literature and convincing as a human document.With David’s anointment, the Israelite monarchy enters a new phase, and for about 80years (40 years of David’s reign and 40 years of rule by his son Solomon) takes on thecharacter of an empire, with a strong central organization, a powerful army, and thesymbols and trappings of a proper middle eastern monarchy. During this period, thereligion of Israel becomes similarly centralized and institutionalized; David’s capital,Jerusalem, and the Temple, envisioned by David and built by Solomon, become thecenter of the national and religious universe 108 and the symbol of the inseparability ofpolitical and religious authority.It is this ideology of the Temple in Jerusalem as the center of the world and of theDavidic dynasty as eternal that creates, if only for a brief period, a strong, unitedkingdom out of the tribes — and that shapes Jewish national consciousness down tothe present.2. Annotated summary of biblical narrative:I Samuel 8: Samuel responds to the demand for a king.At first, the people state that the reason for demanding a king is the lack of suitableleadership to succeed Samuel; later (v. 20) they indicate that they want the king inorder to lead them in battle, and so that they will be “like all the nations.” We are nottold why Samuel resists at first — perhaps he is not happy about the rejection of hissons’ leadership. In any case, God orders Samuel to do the peoples’ bidding, eventhough He sees the demand for a king as a rejection of His authority, as a kind ofnational assimilation. It is interesting that Samuel’s warning to the people about therealities of monarchy is a pretty accurate description of David’s and Solomon’s rule.I Samuel 10:17-26: Saul is anointed and the constitution set.Chapter 9 and 10:1-16 tell the story of God’s steering Saul toward anointment as king,without giving us any background on what might make him a suitable candidate,except that he was very tall and attractive and his father was some kind of leaderwithin the tribe. He is anointed privately. Then, in 10:17ff, a different version of thestory appears, in which Saul is chosen by lot at a public assembly. Note that afterbeing anointed, he goes home: there is no apparatus of central government, no115 Ksharim

capital, etc. In chapter 11, when the Ammonites threaten Jabesh Gilead, Saul comes infrom the fields and sends a strong message to the tribes: come to the aid of JabeshGilead or face consequences.I Samuel 10:27 and 11:11-14: opposition to Saul.In 10:26-27 we learn of a division between those who went with Saul (“whose heartsGod had touched”) and those who despised him; it is not clear if we have here pro-Saul and anti-Saul forces or pro-monarchy and anti-monarchy factions. This mayforeshadow the rebellion of David’s forces. The division is alluded to again in 11:12,when in the joy of victory, the people suggest punishing those who opposed Saul’sanointment. He, perhaps in an attempt to win them over, refuses the request, andinstead organizes a positive response, a public reaffirmation of his rule.I Samuel 13: 5-14 and 15:1-35: conflict between Samuel and Saul.In the first passage, Saul usurps Samuel’s priestly role and offers sacrifices when hebecomes impatient waiting for Samuel. Was this a deliberate usurpation? an innocentmisjudgment? a deliberate set-up by Samuel? Likewise, in the second passage, thesame questions can be asked. It is interesting to note that the tradition takes a swipeat Saul in the story of the book of Esther: Haman is a descendant of Agag andMordecai is a Benjamite. Had Saul done what he was told, his descendants would nothave had to deal with the Amalekite threat 109 600 years later!I Samuel 16 and 17:1-18:5: enter David.In chapters 16-17 we find, as we did with Saul, several different versions of the story ofthe new king’s selection. In 16:1-13, Samuel anoints David privately; David is not tall,but he is attractive (although God tells Samuel that appearance is irrelevant). In thesecond half of the chapter, David is invited to join the royal court as a personal aide toSaul, based on his ability to soothe Saul’s “evil spirit” by playing the harp. From this welearn that the text does not assume that Saul’s rages were directly related to hisjealousy of David (see next section); he suffered from them before meeting David.Then in 17, a different selection process occurs: the duel with Goliath, in which Davidproves his prowess on the battlefield and is invited to join the royal court. Thus, weare informed of all of David’s qualities by these two chapters: his courage, his beauty,his musical skill, his wisdom (16:18), his youth, his being last-born in his family. And welearn of his fast friendship with Saul’s son Jonathan. This detail adds a level ofcomplexity (and therefore perhaps realism) to the story: there is going to be a tragicconflict here if David seeks to succeed Saul, thus usurping his best friend’s throne.I Samuel 18:6-30 and 19:8-18: the rivalry of David and SaulSaul’s jealousy of and rivalry with David first find expression just after the episode ofGoliath (I Samuel 18:8-9). This feeling builds in intensity and in violence all the wayuntil Saul’s death at the end of the book. Already in 18:10-12 we find Saul’s “evil spirit”connected with his feelings toward David; and in 18:17, Saul begins a series ofattempts to eliminate David without a public break with him — indeed, he continues116 Ksharim

to elevate David publicly while privately seeking to destroy him. Note that identicalepisodes occur in 18:10-11 and 19:9-10. David continues to be portrayed as aninnocent victim of Saul’s jealousy until the end of chapter 21.I Samuel 21:11-22:8: open rebellion.Here we find David spending some time under the protection of the Philistines, andthen fleeing into the desert and gathering about him an army of malcontents. At thispoint, the situation begins to take on the color of a civil war. The first actual violenceoccurs in the last half of chapter 22, when Saul orders the execution of the priests whoassisted David. In chapter 23, David adds to his political base by driving away thePhilistines who had been raiding the people of Keilah; in chapter 24, and in a similarepisode (or a different version of the same episode) in chapter 26, he demonstrates hislack of ill-will toward Saul (reverence — or cleverness?). David continues to build hisbase, operating on both sides of the Philistine lines. In chapter 30, he defeats theAmalekites and sends the spoil to all of his friends and supporters.I Samuel 31 and II Samuel 1: Saul’s death and David’s response.Saul’s death became a classic text for considering the Jewish response to suicide; itwas seen as an example of suicide “under duress,” not done deliberately. Once again,David’s response in killing the Amalekite who claimed to have assisted Saul in hissuicide, and in his bitter mourning for Saul, may be seen as honest human responsesor as smart politics (or as both). 110II Samuel 2:1-17, 3:1, 3: 6-39, 4:5-12, 5:1-5: David consolidates his rule.In these passages we find David ruling as king of Judah from Hebron for over sevenyears, while maneuvering to eliminate or neutralize rival claims for the rule of thenorthern tribes (“Israel”). Note that at first (2:8-10), a son of Saul reigns in Saul’s steadover the northern tribes. In the meantime, there is also violent rivalry and jockeyingfor position between “strongmen” in the two camps, especially Abner, Saul’s general,and Joab, David’s general; note David’s brilliant response to Joab’s welcome murder ofAbner (3:27-39). Still another example of elimination of a potential rival to the throneis found in chapter 4. Finally, at the beginning of chapter 5, David’s rule expands toinclude the northern tribes as well, and he is anointed king of the united kingdom.II Samuel 5:6-25: David acquires a capital and a palace, and defeats the Philistines.David conquers a city-state which had been a Canaanite enclave right on the borderbetween Judah and Israel. This newly conquered city, Jerusalem, becomes his capital— neutral territory with no tribal loyalty. He begins to accumulate the symbols ofmonarchy: a palace, concubines, a capital city. And then, finally, he breaks the powerof the Philistines and attains a period of peace and unthreatened sovereignty.II Samuel 7:1-17: the plan to build the Temple; the promise of eternal rule.David, having established a strong central government, a strong army, and thesymbols of kingship, seeks to bring the Israelite religion into line with this new culture:117 Ksharim

he suggests building a royal temple. It is interesting that God protests, and deniesDavid the satisfaction — but does not reject the idea completely. He promises thatDavid’s son will be given the honor of building the Temple. And then, in 7:16, Godexplicitly promises to David that his throne “shall be established forever.”In the subsequent chapters, David continues to enlarge and strengthen his kingdom, aprocess that his son Solomon continues after him. Indeed, as will be seen in the nextlesson, it may be that Solomon overextended himself and overtaxed his power base inorder to support his royal lifestyle and his conquests — thus leading to thereemergence of centrifugal forces as dominant at the end of his reign.111118 Ksharim

3. Some modern songs about David:מים לדוד המלךמילים ולחן:‏ עקיבא נוףהשלישי ללא כל אומר את מחנה פלישתיםשיסעאת הבאר על כל מימיה על גבו נשאאז דוד מזמור השמיע לשלושת הגיבוריםלתנ"ך פסוק הוסיפו ומאז שריםמים לדוד המלך...‏ודוד חשק במים מן הבאר שביד פלישתיםלמלא את רצונו יצאו שלושה גבריםמיהרו הם אל בית לחם מי הבאר להעלותזה לזה סיפרו בדרך מעשי גבורותמים לדוד המלךמים,‏ מים לדודמים לדוד המלךמים לדודשח אחד מהם שמעו נא על דרכי ניצב לו הראת כפי עליו הנחתי התמוטט ההרהשני אמר הקשיבו את דרכי חסם נהרבקולי עליו רעמתי הנהר עצרכינור דודמילים:‏ אביהו מדינהלחן:‏ אביהו מדינה ויהודה בדיחיחלפו שנים רבות מתהילת התהיליםעוד מיתרי כינור דוד נוגניםאומרים,‏ ישנו מקום ובו הצדיקיםעם ערב את כינור דוד שומעיםזה כינור דוד...‏מים לדוד המלך...‏לפני שנים רבות שמעו בארץ ישראלקולות ניגון שירה ומזמוריםבצליל כה מיוחד ובנעימה טובהכשיר ציפור זמיר בין העליםזה כינור דוד ביד דוד המלךהפורט על מיתריוכטוב ליבו ביין לעת ערבמלווה הוא את שיריולפני שנים רבות בשערי ירושליםניצבה נפעמת בחלון מיכלהביטה במשעול ובעיניה אוררוקד דוד ובידו כינורזה כינור דוד...‏וחרב אין ביד דודמילים ‏:עממילחן:‏ דרורה חבקין119 Ksharim

112אתה בא אלי בחרב ובחניתואני בא בשם אלוהים חייםאתה בא אלי בחרב ובחניתואני בשם אלוהים חיים.‏ויחזק דוד מן הפלישתים...‏וישלח דוד את ידו אל הכליויקח משם אבן עין קלעויך את הפלישתי אל מצחווחרב אין ביד דוד.‏הנה תמו יום קרב וערבומילים:‏ נתן אלתרמןלחן:‏ מרדכי זעיראובדברה אליו:‏ קומה,‏ בני-‏מיני דמע חשכו עיניו.‏ויספר לה יום קרב וערבו-‏ ,איך המלך נפל על חרבו.‏אז אמרה לו לנער:‏ דםאת רגלי אימהות יכס,‏אבל שבע יקום העם,‏אם עלי אדמתו יובס.‏את המלך פקד הדין.‏אך יורש לו יקום עד עת,‏כי עלי אדמתו השעיןאת חרבו שעליה מת.‏כה דיברה וקולה הרעיד.‏ויהי כן.‏ וישמע דוד.‏ויחזק דוד מן הפלישתיםבקלע ובאבןוחרב אין ביד דודודוד הולך ושבלרעות את צאן אביוגם את הארי ואת הדב היכה דוד.‏וגלית גובהו שש אמות וזרתודוד נער אדמוני נעים יפה מראה.‏ויחזק דוד מן הפלישתים...‏ויקלל הפלישתי את דוד באלוהיונחושת על ראשו,‏ ונחושת על רגליוודוד עם מקל וקלעו בידואבנים מהנחל לקח בידו.‏ויחזק דוד מן הפלישתים...‏הנה תמו יום קרב וערבוהמלא זעקת מנוסה,‏עת המלך נפל על חרבווגילבוע לבש תבוסה.‏ובארץ,‏ עד שחר קם,‏לא נדמו פרסות הרץ,‏ונחירי רמכו בדםומבשרים כי הקרב נחרץ.‏הנה תמו יום קרב וערבו,‏והמלך נפל על חרבו.‏בהבריק על הרים אור יוםבא הרץ אל מיפתן אימוובנפלו לרגליה דוםאת רגליה כיסה דמו.‏את רגליה כיסה שניויהיה העפר שדה קרב.‏דוד מלך ישראלמילים:‏ עממילחן ‏:מרדכי זעירא120 Ksharim

דוד דוד מלךדוד דוד מלךדוד מלך ישראל חי וקייםחי,‏ חי וקייםדוד מלך ישראלחי,‏ חי וקיים - מלך ישראלדוד ושאולמילים ולחן ‏:אהוד בנאישעת לילה מאוחרתכולם מזמן הלכו לישוןרק שאול ער,‏ קודרמרים לדוד טלפוןאולי תקפוץ אלי,‏ יא דודנפשי אגם שחורתביא איתך את הגיטרהכי באצבעותיך אורדוד בא מיד רגוע,‏מתיישב ומכווןאת המלאכה היטב יודעעוצם עיניים,‏ מנגןעשר אצבעות לדודקצה כל אצבע קרן אורכשהוא פורט על המיתרהזמן זורם לו לאחור-דבר מה אפל נופלהשד חוזר להשתוללסכין נזרקת באווירפתאום יש בין השנים קירדוד מתחמק משאולאבל שאול לא מוותרדוד שוכח וסולחכששאול מתקשרבוא שוב לנגן לי דודקח אותי לכוכביםבוא שוב לנגן הלילהשיר געגועיםבוא שוב לנגן הלילה...‏בוא שוב לנגן הלילהשיר געגועיםשאול מבפנים קרועקרבות בתוך בטנואוהב-שונא,‏ ומקנאמכור לחברו113...114121 Ksharim

בלדה למלךמילים:‏ בצלאל אלונילחן:‏ ברוך עינבבאגדות אי-שם בהריםישב דוד ורעה עדריםבלי שרים,‏ בלי מלוכהרק שיר קטן לילדה בוכהועוד שיר קטן ותפילה לאלשישמור על כל עם ישראל.‏בנווה דשאים אי-שם בהריםמלך דוד וכבר בא בימיםנותר בודד בלי עיר,‏ בלי משפחהרק מלך סב וילדה בוכהועוד שיר קטן ותפילה לאלשיסלח לכל עם ישראל.‏באין מלכים,‏ באין אגדהתוגת השיר היא האהבהמה נותר למשוררשיר קטן אם לא יותרועוד שיר קטן ותפילה לאלשישמור על כל עם ישראל.122 Ksharim115

אני עולה לירושליםמילים:‏ אפרים רחמןלחן:‏ יוסף הדראני עולה לירושלים,‏ אולי בנו את המקדשאני נושא על הכתפיים,‏ כדי זבדה חלב ודבשאני עולה לעיר הקודש,‏ לגעת בכסא שלמהאני פשוט רוצה לדעת,‏ אם חי מלכי ומה שלומו.‏אני עולה עיר אבותי,‏ רק היא תעיר תאוותיאני עולה עיר אבותי,‏ רק היא תעיר תאוותי.‏אני עולה לירושלים ‏,ומרחוק קול עוגביםאני נושא על הכתפיים,‏ אשכול מתוק של ענביםאני עולה לעיר אלוה,‏ אני שומע שיר חדשאולי חזרו כבר הלויים,‏ ומנגנים שם במקדש.‏אני עולה להר מוריה,‏ ובשופר אני מריעאני עולה להר מוריה,‏ ובשופר אני מריע.‏אני עולה לירושלים,‏ זנחתי עדר וחלילאני נושא על הכתפיים,‏ טלה וגדי מהגלילאני עולה לעיר הנצח,‏ הולך לי בעקבות האורלשמוע אם דוד המלך,‏ עוד מנגן על הכינור.‏אני עולה לעיר הנצח,‏ מלאך נושק לי על המצחאני עולה לעיר הנצח,‏ מלאך נושק לי על המצח.‏123 Ksharim

L e s s o n 14:The Empire and its decline1. Outlinea. Solomon – the heyday of the empireb. The Templec. Division of the kingdomd. The exile of the Ten Tribes2. IntroductionDavid (with help from the Philistine enemy) succeeded in creating a united kingdomof all the tribes, and withstanding a number of challenges to his sovereignty. Hissuccessor Solomon continued the work of consolidation and institutionalization, thecrown of this effort being of course the Temple. Clearly, Solomon’s Temple continuesto serve as a crucial symbol in Jewish consciousness and belief, and a key factor in thetraditional connection to Eretz Yisrael.The glory was short-lived: already with Solomon’s death centrifugal forces dominated,and the kingdom was re-divided with the ten northern tribes splitting off from Judahand Simeon. 200 years later, the northern kingdom was conquered by the Assyrians,who apparently adopted a policy of destroying the national identities of subjectpeoples by forced migrations – and thus the ten tribes disappeared from history andmoved into legend. Our sovereignty over the land was restricted to the area of Judah– until it too was lost just over a century later. (see next lesson)The question that is relevant for us to consider as we examine these events is: what isthe ideal relationship among Jewish religion, a Jewish state, and the land of Israel?How do we feel about “the good old days” of Solomon? How do we respond to thetraditional idealization of that period?3. Lesson goalsa. Understanding of the geopolitical reality in Israel during the period from Davidto the end of the northern kingdomb. Familiarity with the geographic setting of the biblical narrativec. Familiarity with the Temple – its construction, its description, its significanced. Awareness of the dilemma of the idealization of the period of the unitedmonarchy as a past utopia whose restoration we awaite. Awareness of the echoes of these events in modern Israeli culture4. Expanded outline(Map references are to http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/; see complete list inattached “sources”)124 Ksharim

a. The empire at its peak: As a follow-up to the study of David’s consolidation ofpower and unification of the kingdom under a national identity, it is of interest toexamine the biblical picture of life in the kingdom at its high point. Note that atthe beginning of Solomon’s reign the centralization process is not yet complete (IKings 3:2-3), and the centralization of the cult becomes Solomon’s major project(though note also that building the royal palace took twice as long as building theTemple (I Kings 7:1) – and in II Samuel 7:1-7, we learn that there must have beenthose who liked the image of a modest god who lives in a portable tent, and whowere leery of kings with an “edifice complex”.Excerpts from I Kings 4-5 and 9-11 can be used to give a sense of the glory — andthe potential problems (syncretism [=political alliances], “big government”) — ofthe kingdom. See maps 53-55ab. The Temple: (see map 55a) The first time the children of Israel are commanded toconstruct a sanctuary for G-d is in the desert after the revelation at Sinai. This isthe Tabernacle (mishkan) made of tapestries and poles allowing it to be portableso as to accompany the Jews in the desert (Exodus 25 ff.). The passages referredto in “a” above indicate a possible tension between those who must have said,“now that we’re a ‘real’ state we need a proper state cult with a capital and aTemple,” and those who said, “since when does our invisible God need a fancyhouse?”There are two schools of thought relating to the meaning of the commandmentto build the mishkan, directly related to the question of timing. Thecommentators are divided as to the sequence of events. Rashi (based on themidrash in source 4) is of the opinion that this commandment was given after thesin of the golden calf and therefore interprets it as a result of the sin (even thoughthe sin itself is not related until later in the narrative). According to othercommentators, including Nachmanides and the Zohar, the instructions for themishkan were given to Moses immediately after the revelation at Sinai. Thedifference of opinion is not only technical but alludes to the question of whetherthe idea of building a sanctuary is an ideal action in its own right or a compromiseto accommodate human weakness.In the first reading, G-d commands the people of Israel to build a sanctuary so asto compensate for their difficulty in worshipping an unseen G-d. He provides anoutlet for their need for physical structures and forms to worship. It is a remedyfor the sin of the golden calf (in a way, a replacement for the calf) and humanweakness that caused it. Other commentators (see source 5) say that thecommandment had no connection to the sin of the golden calf but was essentialin and of itself. The mishkan was meant to be a continuing testimony of G-d’s125 Ksharim

presence among Israel, an ongoing and miraculous continuation of the revelationat Sinai.Do these two view s necessarily contradict each other? Which is more meaningfulto us? What are the implications and results of each opinion? E.g.: ReformJudaism has adopted the first view, basing itself also on the Rambam’sexplanation of sacrifices in the Guide to the Perplexed, seeing the evolution ofJudaism in its growing beyond the need for a Temple. Thus Reform removed allreferences to its renewal and rebuilding from the traditional prayer book. On theother end of the spectrum there are groups today that see the reinstatement ofthe Temple as the ultimate goal of the state of Israel and the solution to many ofthe problems challenging the state today.Two websites maintained by organizations that seek the speed the rebuilding ofthe Temple contain various interesting details about the Temple, its structure,history, utensils, etc. Beware their enthusiasm, and be careful to distinguishbetween references to the Solomon’s Temple, and the Second Temple, which wasbuild by Herod almost 600 years later.www.templeinstitute.org/www.templemountfaithful.org/We will be exploring in much greater depth the actual observances carried out inthe Temple in later lessons, when we study the place of Eretz Yisrael in theholidays and the liturgy.c. Division of the kingdom (see maps 57, 57a-b):I Kings 11-12 describe the division of the country, and provide material fordiscussion of a number of interesting issues:Why is the kingdom divided?•There are a number of possibilities: because of Solomon’s introduction of foreignculture and beliefs, because of the oppressive taxation required to support theglory of the empire, because Rehoboam is politically incompetent, becauseJeroboam is a clever schemer, or because the northern tribes had been waiting allalong to reassert their independence from David’s rule.What does the text reveal about the loyalty of the northern tribes to thereligion practiced in the Temple?•The substitute cult set up by Jeroboam in I Kings 12:25-33 seems to have littletrouble winning wide acceptance. Interesting what he chooses as his symbols.How is civil war averted (I Kings 12:21-24)?•Because God doesn’t want it? because Rehoboam has no chance of winning?Anyway, ultimately, civil war seems not to have been averted: see I Kings 15.•Glancing at just about any point in the narrative between I Kings 15 and II Kings15 reveals a situation, in both kingdoms, that is far from the glory of David and126 Ksharim

Solomon. Syncretism, corruption, palace intrigue, and power struggles seem tocharacterize the period between the separation and destruction of the kingdoms.d. The fall of the kingdom of IsraelWhat becomes of the northern kingdom?•II Kings 16-17 describes the fall of the northern kingdom.What new factor enters into the history of the region here?•The clash of great empires; here, Assyria appears on the stage.What dilemma does this new order pose for Israel?•Is it possible to remain loyal to God and his law without open rebellion againstAssyria/Egypt/Babylonia/Persia/Greece/Rome, the powers who dominate our landand bring with them a greater or lesser degree of religious our at least culturalinfluence if not compulsion?The search for the ten lost tribes has occupied adventurers and researchers andtheologians and writers of fiction – and the popular imagination – since theydisappeared. They have been associated with everyone from the Japanese to theIndians of South America. Perhaps the latest attempt to find them was that ofmodern Israeli writer Hillel Halkin, in Across the Sabbath River, Houghton Mifflin2002 (see description in source 6 below).Sources1. A time line, to keep things in perspective:1300 BCEExodus ca. 12501200 JoshuaJudges1100Saul 1020-10001000 David 1000-960Solomon 960-920; Division 920900800700Assyrians destroy Israel 722600 Babylonians destroy Judah 586Persians conquer Babylonia 538500 Some exiles return from Babylonia127 Ksharim

400300Hellenistic conquest 330200 Hasmonean revolt 165100 Roman conquest 630100 CE Roman destruction of Temple 702. Maps in the online biblical atlas, http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/,Chapter 8 The Kingdom of David and Solomon #David's Rise to Power 051David in Conquest of Canaan051aDavid's Wars of Conquest 052Kingdom of David and Solomon 053The United Monarchy under Solomon (1)053aThe United Monarchy under Solomon (2)053bSolomon's Economic Enterprises 054Solomon's Building Activities 055Solomon's Temple055aJerusalem in the Time of David and Solomon 056Chapter 9The Kingdoms of Israel and JudahThe Kingdoms of Israel and Judah (1) 057The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah (2)057aThe Kingdoms of Israel and Judah (3)The Campaign of Shishak 058Conflicts between Israel and Aram-Damascus 059The Omride Dynasty 060The Golden Ages of the 9th & 8th centuries BCE60a057bPhoenician Trade and Civilization 061Trade Routes throughout the Middle East061aTravel Routes throughout Palestine061bElijah and Elisha 062The Revolt of Jehu 063The Rise of Assyria 064Israel & Judah in the days of Jeroboam II and Uzziah 065The Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-Pileser III 066The Syro-Ephraimite War 067128 Ksharim

Tiglath-Pileser III's Campaigns 068Fall of Samaria and Deportation of Israelites 069The Fall of the Kingdom of Israel069aAssyrian Districts after the Fall of Samaria 070Prophets of the 8th Century BCE 0713. A general background essay (originally written by MJR for the Florence MeltonAdult Minischool)The book of I Kings (ch apters 4:7-11:8) describes at length the power and glory ofSolomon’s empire. It is interesting to note how much of Samuel’s warning about thenature of a monarchy is fulfilled here. However, it somehow doesn’t surprise us, fromour modern perspective, that such an impressive central government might be seenas merely an unwanted burden by those sectors of the population who were not fullycommitted to the dynasty in the first place. And in fact, chapters 11 and 12 presenttwo explanations for the breakdown of the central authority: in chapter 11, we learnthat God is displeased with Solomon’s extensive alliances with various kingdoms inthe area, leading to religious/cultural compromises with paganism; and in chapter 12,we find evidence that the burden of taxation required to support the government is acause of resentment and rebellion. And so, the kingdom splits along the same faultlines observed in its earliest period: the ten northern tribes become a separatekingdom, Israel, and David’s tribe of Judah remains loyal to his dynasty and thuscontinues to exist as a kingdom ruled by the Davidic line.The history of the northern kingdom, throughout most of the 200 years of itsexistence, seems from the biblical description to have been no purer of cultural andreligious compromise with paganism than was Solomon’s reign. Each ruler is more“evil in the sight of the Lord” than the last, and their sins are not only in the area ofsyncretism, but also in the realm of basic morality (e.g., I Kings 21). And the incidenceof revolution and even civil war attests to the weakness and instability of thegovernment. It is against this background that the colorful prophets Elijah and Elishaare sent to try to set the kingdom on the right path. In them we find a morecharismatic and anti-establishment image of the prophet than we found in Samuel. Inany case, their message is not heeded, and the kingdom is destroyed by the Assyrians;it is the exile of the northern kingdom which is the origin of the concept of the “tenlost tribes.”The account of the end of the kingdom of Israel, in II Kings 16-17, places in clear reliefthe central dilemma of this lesson: what is the correct way to deal with the power ofpagan empires? It seems that king Ahaz of Judah chooses a policy of extremeaccommodationism (16: 10 -18), trying to remake the royal cult in the image ofAssyrian religion; the Bible does not approve (16:2-4). And yet, the way of rebellion isobviously not a solution, as king Hoshea and the northern kingdom learn the hard way129 Ksharim

(17:3-6). King Hezekiah, the next ruler of Judah, also adopts a policy of rebellion,apparently relying on Egyptian support. The result is almost disastrous: the kingdomis saved from total destruction only by a last-minute miracle (19:35--36). The questionthat arises is: is there a middle path? In the context of the period, is there the option ofavoiding widespread syncretism while at the same time refraining from open politicalrebellion?The answer of prophets like Isaiah seems to be “yes.” Indeed, the same ideologyencountered in the period of the Judges continues to be adumbrated by the prophetsin the new world order of great empires: the nations — even great powers like Assyriaand Babylonia — are merely tools, used by God to chastise His beloved people Israel.Therefore, the only appropriate response is passivity in the political sphere and arenewed commitment to the Torah in the internal life of the kingdom. If God is theultimate power in history, and if He chooses to punish Israel, then seeking to avert thepunishment by entering into alliances is not only pointless, but blasphemous.4. Tanchuma Truma 8:Moses ascended the mountain on the 6 th of Sivan and spent 40 days and nights there.And then another forty days and another 40 days – altogether 120 days. So you findthe atonement was achieved on Yom Kippur. And on that very day G-d told him “Letthem make me a sanctuary” – so that all the nations may know that the Golden Calfhas been atoned…said G-d let the gold of the Mishkan come and atone for the gold ofthe Golden Calf…..”5. Nachmanides Exodus 35:1 and 25:1: After the grand revelation at Sinai where theIsraelites had their most direct encounter with God, the Holy One commanded thebuilding of the mishkan to provide a focus for the people in which God’s glory (kavod)would dwell.6. Hillel Halkin, Across the Sabbath River, Amazon product description:The fate of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel has fascinated Jews and Christians throughoutthe ages. Hillel Halkin, a distinguished writer and translator, has long been intriguedby the old legend that the tribes still exist in distant corners of the earth -- a legendthat, like nearly all contemporary investigators of the subject, he considered to lack allfactual basis. In 1998, he accompanied a Jerusalem rabbi and dedicated Lost Tribeshunter to China, Thailand, and northeast India in search of traces of the biblicalIsraelites who disappeared in the eighth century B.C.E. The journey ended among alittle-known ethnic group living along the India-Burma border who had themselvesbeen swept in recent years by Lost Tribe fever. Halkin returned twice more to theIndian states of Mizoram and Manipur for a deeper look. Gradually, despite his initialskepticism, he became convinced that this remote group is -- incredible as it mayseem -- historically linked to the ancient biblical tribe of Manasseh.130 Ksharim

Across the Sabbath River is the compulsively readable account of Halkin's experiencesin arriving at this conviction. A superb writer, he effortlessly interweaves the biblicaland historical backgrounds of this centuries-old quest with a captivating account,both funny and poignant, of his own adventures. In vivid, engaging portraits, heintroduces us to a wide and memorable range of characters at once alien and familiar,while transporting us to an exotic society obsessed with the enigma of its ownidentity. Piece by piece, as in a tantalizing detective story, he amasses the evidencethat finally persuades him, and will persuade many of his readers, that, for the firsttime in history, a living remnant of a lost biblical tribe has been found.131 Ksharim

L e s s o n 15:Destruction of the First Temple1. Outlinea. Historical events - decline of the kingdom of Judah, destruction of the templeand exileb. Jeremiah's prophecyc. Commemoration of destructiond. Meaning of fast days today2. IntroductionAfter the forced exile of the 10 tribes from the kingdom of Israel, Judah carries onalone. It continues to be buffeted by the clashes between the great powers on itsborders, and its kings must choose their alliances wisely. The kings of Judah are notalways successful in this, and Judah is swept by a series of invasions which ultimatelyend in the exile of the top echelons of society, the destruction of the temple, and thetermination of Jewish sovereignty in Eretz Yisrael.This process is accompanied by the prophecies of Jeremiah. Jeremiah finds himself inthe uncomfortable position of being forced into prophesying doom to the people ofJerusalem and the king. These prophecies are not well-received, and Jeremiah bringsupon himself threats, curses, beatings and imprisonment. Yet he still continues toexhort the people to mend their ways, and recommends that they bow to theinevitable and give themselves up to the Babylonians.We commemorate the destruction of the temple to this day, fasting on four days in theyear to remember specific events in the process. Yet 2500 years after the events, withJerusalem no longer desolate, and a Jewish state in the land of Israel, what do theymean for us?The Bible contains extensive narratives of this period, both from a strictly historicalpoint of view (in II Kings chapter 18-end, II Chronicles chapter 29-end), and throughthe eyes of Jeremiah, the important prophet of the destruction. The devastation felt bythe survivors is movingly described in the book of Lamentations, and the bitterness ofexile in Psalm 137 ("By the rivers of Babylon…").3. Lesson goalsa. Understanding of the geopolitical reality in Israel during the period from theend of the northern kingdom to the destruction of the first temple and the murderof Gedaliahb. Familiarity with the figure of Jeremiah as a model of a biblical prophetc. Familiarity with the ways in which the destruction is commemorated132 Ksharim

d. Awareness of the possible meanings of our mourning of the destruction in thisday and age4. Expanded outlinea. The fall of the kingdom of JudahAssign background reading of II Kings chapters 21-25, then go through the historymentioning the following events:II Kings 21: reign of Manasseh and Amon, characterized by widespreadsyncretismHow is it possible to categorize the kings so simply as good or evil in the eyesof the Lord – were there no complicated characters?Perhaps being a king drives you to excess – either good or bad. Perhaps thestory was written many centuries later, so all but the most salient features havefaded. Note that the version of Manasseh's reign told in II Chronicles 33includes a period of repentance and good deeds, which is omitted in the storyhere.II Kings 22-23: Josiah's reform, Pharaoh appoints JehoiakimWhat book was found in the Temple, and how is it that its contents so surprisethe finders?Modern scholars debate over the identity of the book (see e.g.http://www.bible.org/page.asp?page_id=980), with most theorizing that it wassome form of the book of Deuteronomy. The fact that its discovery caused suchsurprise and consternation brings into question our conception of Judaism as areligion of the Book from time immemorial. Apparently, before Josiah's time,people passed traditions along orally, and the reading and studying of theTorah was by no means a common occurrence.Josiah was killed in battle with Pharaoh: is this an inevitable conclusion to hisstruggle against syncretism? Is it possible to retain "pure' religious practiceswhile bowing down to political subjugation (or making alliances with foreignpowers)? When the prophets rail against our assimilating pagan practices, arethey speaking purely from a religious point of view, or taking a positionregarding foreign policy?"Neither before nor after Josiah was there a king like him who turned to theLord as he did – with all his heart and with all his soul and with all his strength"(II Kings 23:25) – and yet he is killed in battle with the Egyptians, because (saysthe text) God was still angry at his grandfather Manasseh's misdeeds. Feebleexcuse? A case of "The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teethare set on edge"?133 Ksharim

II Kings 24: Nebuchadnezzar's campaigns against Judah (see map 78)How does Babylonian subjugation of Judah proceed?•The power of Egypt wanes over Judah, which comes under the sphere ofBabylonian influence. Nebuchadnezzar mounts 3 campaigns against Judah.- In the first (II Kings 24:1-7, II Chronicles 36:4-8, Daniel 1:1-7) Judah is forced topay tribute, some of the temple vessels are carried off, and a cadre of capableyoung men (including the boy who was to become the prophet Daniel) aretaken to Babylonia.- In the second (II Kings 24:8-16, II Chronicles 36:9-10, Ezekiel 1:1-3) , KingJehoiachin is taken prisoner, along with his family, his court, the upper crust ofsociety and the artisans (who are capable of making weapons). Among theexiled is Ezekiel, who will prophecy in Babylonia.- In the third and final campaign (II Kings 24:17-25:26, II Chronicles 36:17-21,Jeremiah 39-44, Lamentations) the walls of Jerusalem are breached, the templeis destroyed, the king is captured after an escape attempt, his sons killed andhis eyes put out. Gedaliah is appointed governor, but is assassinated by amember of the royal family. A massacre ensues, many survivors flee to Egypttaking Jeremiah along, and the last remnant of the kingdom of Judah fadesaway.Contrary to the opinion of some Jewish philosophers, prophecy is not limitedto Eretz Yisrael, and some of our most prolific prophets (Ezekiel, Daniel) wereactive in Babylon. What does this say about the centrality of the Land?•Judah Halevi (The Kuzari 2, 12-14), who states that prophecy can be achievedonly in the Land of Israel, solves the problem of Ezekiel and Daniel by pointingout that they prophesied "for the sake of the land". Similarly, he includes MountSinai in the Land in order to explain the impressive case of mass prophecy thatoccurred there, in the desert. Perhaps we can afford to acknowledge thatprophecy, along with other significant phenomena, may occur outside theLand.The text stresses that the first to be exiled were the elite, and during the returnthey tended to stay in exile, while the returnees were mostly from the lowerorders. Why is this the case?•Perhaps the upper classes have more of an interest in rebellion, as for them itmeans the difference between independence and vassaldom; for the lowerclasses, it doesn't matter anyway who rules. When exiled, maybe the upperclasses soon found their way into the corridors of power in Babylon, so had nointerest in giving up their comfortable lives in exile. Or perhaps the lowerclasses were more mindful of Jeremiah's counsels, and bowed their headsobediently to the foreign powers.134 Ksharim

Why do the kings of Judah repeatedly rebel, given the overwhelming power ofBabylonia?•Perhaps they believe that their God, being stronger than that of theBabylonians, will win for them. Perhaps they believe that an alliance with acompeting empire (Egypt) will save them.b. Jeremiah as a model of a biblical prophet; the conflict as reflected in his writingand his life. Suggestion: Divide class into smaller groups, give each group one ofthe following texts with questions, allow groups 15 minutes to read and discuss,then groups take turns presenting in sequence.Jeremiah 1:1-10: introducing Jeremiah.What is the understanding of prophecy presented here?•Jeremiah receives a “call,” a revelation commanding him to speak God’s word;like Moses, he would prefer not to be so burdened, but God won’t take no foran answer. There are a number of passages dealing with Jeremiah’sambivalence, his feeling that he would rather not be a prophet of reproof butcannot stop himself.Jeremiah 20:1-22:5What is Jeremiah’s political position?•Jeremiah is imprisoned for his “defeatist” prophecy, accused of treason. Hegives expression to his frustration at having to play this role; but he does notrelent. He states clearly that the impending defeat is a result of immorality andfaithlessness, and that the military power of Judah’s army — like his own words— can have no impact on the outcome of the war.What is the basis for Jeremiah’s position? Where does he get his certaintyregarding the military situation?•Perhaps God is somehow “forcing” him (automatic speech??); or could it bethat his anguish at seeing the people moving toward their own destruction,blind to their ability to prevent it, simply won’t let him alone?•The theme of Jeremiah’s feeling of helplessness finds expression frequently inthe book. He is driven to say things that he knows will cause him to be reviledand even physically harmed — yet he cannot stop.The internal conflict over how to respond to Babylonia.Jeremiah 20-21 or 37-38What is the ideology behind the establishment position?135 Ksharim

•History is what we see: armies and their gods clash, and the strongest wins;God promised David an eternal dynasty; He is the strongest god; therefore, weshould not hesitate to take on the Babylonians, for victory is assured.What is the ideology behind Jeremiah’s position?•There is more to history than meets the eye: all of history is an educationaldevice, operated by God in order to teach Israel to establish and maintain a justsociety; God is using the Babylonian army as his tool to chastise us; the onlyway to prevent disaster is to reform our behavior.•The establishment position is eternally tempting (why?); Jeremiah’s position,which we always resist, is the classic Jewish interpretation of the meaning ofexile and persecution.Jeremiah 30How can we believe in a God who allows our destruction? How can we not losehope?•Chastisement is not revenge; the parent will punish out of love, but will notdestroy the child. So the exile will end, and the promise of an eternal dynastywill be fulfilled.Jeremiah 32:36-44How does Jeremiah’s message change after the destruction?•It is of interest to discuss the dual role of the prophet: to reprove and tothreaten — and to comfort and to support. Both are consistent with theprophet’s understanding of the working of history: both require faith in a Godwho is the God of history. And just as before the destruction the people’slimited view of the scope of God’s power led them to seek a military solution toa moral/spiritual problem, so after the destruction this same small-mindedview was likely to lead to despair. Hence the prophet of doom now becomes aprophet of hope, operating on the assumption that God meant what He saidwhen He promised an eternal dynasty, so that punishment followed byrepentance will lead to redemption.c. To this day, the destruction of the temple is commemorated. Four fast days areset in the calendar: 10 Tevet, in which the siege began 17 Tammuz, in which the walls of Jerusalem were breached 9 Av, in which the temple was destroyed 3 Tishrei, in which Gedaliah was murderedOver the generations, these fasts have accumulated additional meaning. 9 Av isalso considered to be the date of the destruction of the Second Temple, thefirst Crusade, the expulsion from Spain and the beginning of the deportations136 Ksharim

from the Warsaw ghetto, among other calamities. In the State of Israel, Kaddish(the Jewish prayer for the deceased) is recited on 10 Tevet for people whosedate or place of death is unknown. Consequently, many rabbis havedesignated it as a day of remembrance for the Holocaust. Some choose tocommemorate the political murder of Yitzhak Rabin by fasting on 3 Tishrei.The destruction is remembered in other ways: In Jewish weddings thebridegroom traditionally breaks a glass and recites a remembrance ofJerusalem; some leave a section of a wall in their house unpainted in memoryof the temple; some rend their clothing when they see the remains of thetemple in Jerusalem.Do these observances still have meaning for us today, when Jerusalem isrebuilt, and once again there is a sovereign Jewish state in Israel? A similarquestion was already asked early on: the prophet Zechariah, who prophesiedduring the return of the exiles from Babylonia, 70 years after the destruction,reports the people asked: "Should I mourn and fast in the fifth month, as I havedone for so many years?" (Zechariah 7:3 – the fifth month here refers to Av).Should we:Celebrate Tisha Be'av and the destruction of the temple (see descriptionof historical responses of the Reform movement)Stop (or reduce) fasting, now that sovereignty is restored (see majorityopinion in the responsum of the Halakhah committee of theConservative movement in Israel)Continue fasting since all is not yet well in the Jewish world (seeminority opinion)Continue fasting to remind ourselves of the cause of the destruction(see article by Rabbi Leibtag)Continue fasting to remember catastrophes pastAnd to finish on a hopeful note, here's what Zechariah prophecies for thefuture: "This is what the LORD Almighty says: "The fasts of the fourth, fifth,seventh and tenth months will become joyful and glad occasions and happyfestivals for Judah" (Zechariah 8:19).137 Ksharim

Sources1. A time line, to keep things in perspective (see timeline for lesson 14)2. Maps in the online biblical atlas, http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/,Chapter 10Judah Alone amid International PowersThe Rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire 076The Reign of Josiah 077The Districts of Judah under King Josiah077aThe Golden Age of King JosiahNebuchadnezzar's Campaigns against Judah 078077bChapter 11The Babylonian ExileJudah during the Exile 079The Kingdom of Judah3. Article about historical responses of the Reform movement to Tisha Be'av:http://www.jewishmediaresources.com/article/145/4. Summary of responsa on fasting on Tisha Be'av by the Halakhah committee of theConservative movement in Israel:http://www.responsafortoday.com/eng_index.html5. An article by Rabbi Menachem Leibtag about the meaning of the fasts today:http://www.lind.org.il/features/4fasts.htm138 Ksharim

L e s s o n 16:The Messiah[See methodological suggestions at end of lesson plan…]1. Outlinea. Prophetic originsb. Apocalyptic literaturec. Early messianic movementsd. Rabbinic viewse. As a factor in history2. IntroductionAfter all the promises and all the tests, and the centralization of our connection toGod in the Temple, the destruction of the Temple and of our sovereigntyconstituted a major spiritual crisis. It seems likely that many people saw thisdisaster as evidence that God was a failure, or non-existent. The prophets’challenge was now not just to get the people to obey the laws, but to get them notto give up on the whole project. At first, the assumption was that this disaster wasindeed a punishment, but that it would pass: we had paid the price of our sins, sonow God could forgive us and get over His anger, and restore an anointed king ofDavid’s line (anointed one = mashiach = messiah), and the Temple service. As timewent on, however, this neat picture never materialized, and we had to find a wayto cope with painfully and indefinitely postponed redemption. And so, as themessiah receded into the future, he loomed larger and larger in terms of hisexpected role in the world. At the same time, we learned to live (mostly) with a“permanent” tension between present reality and our imagined utopianrestoration to the good old days (that were not as good as we imagined them).This lesson traces the development of the messianic concept, and looks ahead atits impact on later Jewish history. Our relationship to the land of Israel – and thestate of Israel – is intimately tied up with this powerful and interesting concept.3. Lesson goalsa. Awareness of the historical development of the concept of messiahb. Awareness of the connection between the messiah and our relation to EretzYisraelc. Understanding of the centrality of the messianic idea in Jewish lifed. Awareness of the impact of the messianic idea in Jewish history139 Ksharim

4. Expanded outlinea. Prophetic originsi. Anointing as the method of sanctifying a king: I Samuel 10:1. Theword mashiach, messiah, simply refers to one who has beenanointed; and in the context of biblical history, therefore, it refers tothe kingii. In II Samuel 7:11-16, God promises David that his selection as king isguaranteed for all time; the dynasty is eternal. Even though there willbe vicissitudes, sin and punishment, the Davidic dynasty will never bedisplaced as Saul’s was. Thus, from now on, the mashiach, theanointed king, will always be a descendant of David. The problembecame, how to reconcile that promise with the events in the lastchapter of II Kings, when King Jehoiachin is exiled to Babylonia in 597BCE, and lives out his days there as a prisoner, and 586 his successor,his uncle Zedekiah, is blinded and carried to Babylonia in chains.iii. The response of the prophets was to reaffirm the promise: theyinsisted that this eclipse would pass, and that the dynasty – and oursovereignty – and our special relation to God – would be restored; wemust not lose faith. See: Jeremiah 23:1-8, also Jeremiah 32-33; andEzekiel 37. Note that along with the restoration of David’s dynasty,the scattered people will be gathered and restored to their land –where they will, of course, keep the mitzvot (e.g., Ezekiel 37:23).b. Apocalyptic literaturei. Even after the defeat of Babylonia by the Persians in 537 BCE and ourencounter with a regime that did not prevent our reestablishing ourcult and some degree autonomy, the hoped-for restoration did notoccur. Simply repenting and waiting for redemption was getting tobe a frustrating and apparently long-term exercise. Perhapsinfluenced by pagan concepts of history as cyclical, a new“explanation” of our situation began to appear, in works ofapocalyptic literature. The only example in the bible is the Book ofDaniel.ii. The writers of apocalyptic literature believed that they could see theflow of history “from outside,” so that they could discern the overallstructure — and they believed that history indeed has a structure,with a beginning, a middle, and an end. In Daniel 9:20-27, Danielmeets the angel Gabriel, who reveals to him the chronology of theperiod from the beginning of the restoration of the Temple until thefinal redemption.If history has an end, and is not just an infinite series of events, thenevery passing day brings us that much closer to that end. And if weexperience the present as a time of suffering, and envision the end asa time of redemption, then we certainly would like to know how140 Ksharim

much longer before the end. If it is near at hand, there is reason tohope, and we should prepare for it. Daniel 11 presents a detailedaccount of future history, leading up to a description of the end ofdays in chapter 12.Daniel 12 gives another cryptic accounting of the period of timeremaining until the redemption. A common element of apocalypticliterature is the emphasis on secrecy, and the unclear nature of thevarious predictions and calculations. In this chapter, for example,while Daniel’s visions yield very specific numbers of days, we are leftnot knowing just what the significance of those numbers is. Thepossibilities for interpretation are endless. Moreover, God tells Danielthat the information he has received is secret, and that it is “shut upand sealed until the time of the end.”The difference between Daniel’s prophecy and Jeremiah’s is that inJeremiah, history is conditional: as a nation, we will be punished orrewarded according to our adherence to God’s commandments. InDaniel, history is unconditional: there is a fixed structure, a set timeuntil the end of the exile; we are moving inexorably toward thatmoment of redemption, and the challenge is not so much to makeourselves worthy, as to figure out when to expect the end to come.There is a tension between these two conceptions, the prophetic andthe apocalyptic. Elements of both entered into our ongoing dreamsand discussions of the messiah and restoration.c. Early messianic movementsi. Christianity:It seems that in the Roman period, apocalyptic thinking waswidespread, and many Jews had a strong feeling that the end ofhistory was imminent. This sense of expectation and excitement wasan indispensable factor in the development of the movement basedon the identification of a real person, Jesus of Nazareth, with the longawaitedmessiah. (See Mark 13) Evidence of the messianic fervor ofthe time may be found in the doctrines and behaviors of the groupknown (from Josephus’ description, Wars 2:8) as the Essenes, asceticswho formed monastic communities to purify themselves and awaitthe redemption. There are various theories about the specificrelationships between Josephus’ Essenes, the inhabitants of theQumran community near the Dead Sea (who wrote the Dead SeaScrolls), and the earliest groups of Christians. Whether or not thereare direct connections among these, it seems clear that they representmanifestations of similar spiritual situations.141 Ksharim

Jesus became a popular preacher in the first quarter of the firstcentury C.E.; a movement grew up based on his identification as themessiah. Since, for obvious reasons, the Romans were not interestedin encouraging Jewish claims of national sovereignty, they executedJesus. Among his followers the belief spread that he was resurrectedand taken up to heaven three days after his death, there to wait untilmankind was ready for full redemption. This revised form of messianicbelief, which saw the messiah as not merely a king of flesh and blood,but as a manifestation of God, became the doctrine of a sect withinJudaism. As the leaders of this sect (primarily Paul of Tarsus) directedtheir message increasingly toward the non-Jews around them — andencountered receptivity — the link to mainstream Judaism grewweaker and the centrifugal forces grew stronger, until there was acomplete break.ii.Bar Kochba:It seems that the expectation of messianic deliverance from thepower of Rome was so strong that the failure of the first revolt onlyintensified it. Within a few decades, normal Jewish life had beenrestored in most of the towns and villages, and the autonomouscommunal leadership based in Yavneh had been established. But thehumiliation of Roman taxation still rankled — and despite thedevelopment of alternative institutions, life without the Temple waslife in a continuous religious crisis.Neither the growth of Christianity nor the crushing blow of thedestruction of the Temple defused the pressure of the apocalypticexpectations that were widespread among the people. Manycontinued to wait impatiently for the moment of the end.Apparently, the emperor Hadrian ordered the rebuilding ofJerusalem as a pagan city, containing a pagan Temple. Such an actcan be seen as the “last straw” — or as support for thoseapocalypticists who argued that redemption wouldn’t come until theworld was wholly given over to evil.In any case, fighting broke out and was suppressed with greatbloodshed, and physical and economic devastation that surpassedthe result of the first revolt.d. Rabbinic viewsi. The rabbis faced a dilemma: the belief in the messiah and therestoration was central to Judaism; to debunk or discourage it wouldbe to go against the clear message of the prophets. On the otherhand, seeing the messiah in every populist preacher or adventurerhad been disastrous; how could one know when it was the real thing?142 Ksharim

ii.iii.How could we keep the expectation alive yet somehow consistentlyput off its fulfillment? The faith is clear in the liturgy (see blessings14 and 15 in the Shemonah Esreh). The ambivalence shows up indiscussions of messianic times in the Talmud (Sanhedrin 97-98)This tension did not go away. One of the most famous responses to itwas that of the Rambam, in the 12 th century, who earned greatunpopularity by insisting that the messianic hope refers only to therestoration of sovereignty and the Temple – not to apocalypticvisions of the re-creation of the world, the perfection of nature, etc.(see Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Melachim 11-12).Gershom Scholem, “The Messianic Idea in Judaism,” in the collectionof essays of the same name, Schocken, 1971.e. As a factor in historyi. After Jesus and Bar Kochba, the attempts to calculate the time of theredemption – or to force it – continued in every century and in everycorner of the Jewish world. Some of these were small scale localaffairs; some became mass movements. So far, apparently, none gotit right… Perhaps the most famous was Sabbetai Zevi, in the late 17 thcentury; a hint of its impact can be seen in the excerpt of the accountby Rycault; a more complete account can be found, for example inMarcus’ very useful anthology of short medieval texts The Jew in theMedieval World, Atheneum 1973. Abba Hillel Silver’s PhD thesis is anamazing little book cataloging messianic calculations and pretendersthrough the ages: A History of Messianic Speculation in Israel, PeterSmith 1978.ii. Even with the secularization of the modern period, the messianicspark in Judaism was not extinguished, and its light can be seen inthe rhetoric of modern movements for man-made redemption inwhich Jews played a major role. For example: enlightenment andsocialism, both of which can be seen as messianic movements, basedon a vision of redemption of the world (not just of the Jews): see textsfrom Geiger and the Arbeiter Freund.iii. Where does all this lead? Well, take the messianic belief in restorationof our glorious past national/religious existence, combine it withmodern humanism, and add turn-of-the century romanticnationalism, and what to you get? Zionism.5. Methodological suggestions:The lesson can be built quite simply around the chronological sequence of shorttexts that trace the development of the messianic idea: II Samuel 7:11-16 – the promise Jeremiah 23:1-8, Jeremiah 32 – hope out of the ashes143 Ksharim

Daniel 12 – apocalyptic vision Mark 13 – Christian apocalyptic vision Eicha Rabbati 2:5 – Bar Kochba Shemonah Esreh – messianic hope in mainstream religious practice Talmud Sanhedrin 97-98 - ambivalence Rambam – don’t get carried away! Later examples – e.g., Sabbateanism, enlightenment, socialismAs an introduction, participants might be asked to diagram their idea of the “flow”of Jewish history: is it an infinite straight line? A curve? A slope? Is there an end?Are there peaks?And/or: Do you believe in a messiah/messianic time/perfection/end/restoration?How do you understand the concept as expressed in the liturgy? In sayings like“Next year in Jerusalem” at Pesach?Note: messianism is a big and interesting topic, and we have only one lesson.Therefore, we have pretty much ignored the whole issue of antinomianism: thebelief that when the messiah comes, Jewish law will become obsolete. Thisbecame a major doctrine of Christianity, was present in Sabbateanism, and couldbe seen to be present in Zionism. Bringing texts and discussing this would take ustoo far afield from our central themes…SourcesPalestinian Talmud, Ta’anit 68dRabbi Shimon bar Yochai taught: My teacher Akiba used to expound the verse “a starrises from Jacob...[Numbers 24:17]” to say “Bar Kochba rises from Jacob.” When RabbiAkiba saw Bar Kochba he would say, “Behold, the king, the messiah!” Rabbi Yochananben Torta said to him, “Akiba, grass will grow from your cheekbones before the son ofDavid will come!”Eicha Rabbati 2:5R. Yochanan said: Rabbi [Judah Hanasi] used to teach: with respect to the passage “astar will come forth out of Jacob” (Numbers 24:17), read it not as “a star, but as “adeceiver.”When R. Akiba saw bar Kosiba, he said: behold, king messiah!R. Yochanan ben Torata said to him: Akiba, grass will grow out of your cheekbonesbefore the messiah comes!R. Yochanan said: “The voice is the voice of Jacob” (Genesis 27:22) — the voice ofJacob crying out because of what the hands of Esau did to him at Beitar. Hadrian killed80 thousand myriads of men at Beitar.144 Ksharim

There were 80,000 trumpeters besieging Beitar, and bar Kosiba was there with 200,000who had bitten off their fingers (as a test of their courage). The sages asked him: forhow long will you continue to mutilate the people?He answered: Then how shall I test them?They said to him: Whoever cannot uproot a cedar of Lebanon should not be in yourarmy. And he took 200,000 from each test.And when they went forth to war, they used to say: Don’t help us and don’t hinder us,as it is written: “Have you not rejected us, O God? You do not go forth, O God, with ourarmies” (Psalm 60:10).And what did bar Kosiba do? He would catch catapult stones with his knee and throwthem back, killing a number of the enemy. That is why R. Akiba spoke of him as he did.Hadrian besieged Beitar for three and a half years... He killed so many that a horse wasup to its nostrils in blood; and the current of blood was strong enough to carry a stoneweighing 50 selas, and to flow four miles out into the sea.(COMMENTThe most interesting implication is that Rabbi Akiba believed that Bar Kochba was themessiah; we also find in this passage evidence of the bloody resolution of the revolt.Note that a generation after the revolt, the greatest leader of the period, Rabbi JudahHanasi, who was on very close terms with Roman leaders, had nothing positive to sayabout Bar Kochba.)Daily Shmonah Esreh prayer14. Return in mercy unto they city Jerusalem and dwell in it as You have promised;rebuild it soon, in our days, as an everlasting structure, and speedily establish in it thethrone of David. Blessed are You, O Lord, builder of Jerusalem.15. Speedily cause the offspring of Your servant David to flourish, and let his glory beexalted by Your help, for we hope for Your deliverance all day. Blessed are You, OLord, who causes salvation to flourish.Talmud, Sanhedrin 97-98 (excerpts)It has been taught; R. Nehemiah said: In the generation of the Messiah’s coming... thekingdom will be converted to heresy with none to rebuke them. This supports R. Isaac,who said: The son of David will not come until the whole world is converted to thebelief of the heretics.R. Zera, whenever he chanced upon scholars calculating the time of the Messiah’scoming, would say to them: I beg of you, do not postpone [his coming], for it has beentaught: Three come unawares — messiah, a found article, and a scorpion.R. Samuel ben Nachmani aid in the name of R. Jonathan: Blasted be the bones of thosewho calculate the end; for they would say, since the predetermined time has arrivedand yet he has not come, he will never come.145 Ksharim

R. Kattina said: Six thousand years shall the world exist, and one thousand shall it bedesolate...Elijah said to R. Judah: The world shall exist not less than eighty five jubilees,and in the last jubilee the son of David will come...R. Joshua ben Levi met Elijah... and asked him: When will the messiah come? Hereplied: Go and ask him.Where is he sitting?At the gate of the city.How will I recognize him?He sits with the poor lepers. They all unbind and rebandage all their wounds at once;he unties and rebandages his one by one, so that he won’t be delayed when he iscalled.R. Joshua found him and greeted him: When will you come?Today.R. Joshua returned to Elijah and said: He spoke falsely to me, stating that he wouldcome today, but he has not.Elijah answered him: This is what he said to you: “Today, if you will hear Hisvoice.”[Psalms 95:7](COMMENTCompare the first paragraph with Mark 13!R. Joshua ben Levi’s encounter with the messiah: this story seeks to defuse apocalypticexpectations, emphasizing the prophetic concept of the conditionality of theredemption — the messiah will only come when our behavior merits it — yetsomehow the implication seems to be that we are never ready... )Moses Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Melachim 11-12The Messiah will arise and restore the kingdom of David to its former might. He willrebuild the sanctuary and gather the dispersed of Israel. All the laws will bereinstituted in his days as of old. Sacrifices will be offered and the sabbatical andjubilee years will be observed exactly in accordance with the commandments of theTorah. But whoever does not believe in him or does not await his coming denies notonly the rest of the prophets, but also the Torah and our teacher Moses... Let no onethink that in the days of the Messiah anything of the natural course of the world willcease or that any innovation will be introduced into creation. Rather, the world willcontinue in its accustomed course. The words of Isaiah: “The wolf shall dwell with thelamb and the panther shall lie down with the kid” [Isa. 11:6] are a parable and anallegory which must be understood to mean that Israel will dwell securely evenamong the wicked of the heathen nations...146 Ksharim

Sir Paul Rycaut, 1666And now all the cities of Turkey, where the Jews inhabited, were full of the expectationof the Messiah; no trade or course of gain was followed. Every one imagined that dailyprovisions, riches, honors, and government were to descend upon him by someunknown and miraculous manner. An example of which is most observable in theJews at Thessalonica, who now full of assurance that the restoration of their kingdomand the accomplishment of the times for the coming of the Messiah was at hand...applied themselves immediately to fastings... All business was laid aside; none workedor opened shop, unless to clear his warehouse of merchandise at any price. Whoeverhad superfluity in household stuff sold it for what he could...(excerpt of a full account of Sabbetai Zevi’s story, found in J. R. Marcus, The Jew in theMedieval World)Abraham Geiger, 1863Hear this today, O my people, and do not be faint-hearted, even though all yourwishes have still not been fulfilled, though strife still prevails today and your just hopesstill meet with opposition... When another fifty years hence, another generation isassembled here, may they mark this day as a celebration of brotherly conciliation, thebrotherhood of all peoples, a celebration under this banner: One God, accepted andhumbly worshipped by all; one human race, united in love; one great and mightyGerman Fatherland!(Geiger was a leader of the early Reform movement in Germany)Arbeiter Freind #1, 1885...in short, we want a fundamental change in the present condition of tyranny andinjustice, in which one is a millionaire, while others are penniless, in which thecapitalists and other robbers don’t lift a finger and live in luxury, while the workerslabor day and night, losing health and often life, ultimately dying of hunger. Thisterrible condition cannot and must not continue; it must be changed and eliminatedin order to clear a way for a new and just society which socialism holds up before usand teaches about. We are convinced that only socialism can lead us to freedom, onlyit puts into our hands good and proper means for the redemption of the workers andof the whole people.(A Jewish socialist newsletter in Lithuania)147 Ksharim

L e s s o n 17:Shivat Tziyon1. Outlinea. A historical overviewb. Challenges faced by the returneesc. The status of the exilic community2. IntroductionThe destruction of the First Temple and the exile of the elites to Babylonia wereof course a huge shock to our system, theologically, socially, and politically. Itseems that the people’s expectation, encouraged by the prophets, was thatthis punishment would be a harsh but passing blow – that in the near futureGod would relent and accept our repentance and restore our sovereignty andour connection to Him through the Temple ritual (see, for example, Jeremiah29). And indeed, so it happened – with the Persian conquest of Babylonia, anew policy was instituted, and the emperor Cyrus allowed the restoration ofautonomy in Judah and the rebuilding of the Temple (but not, significantly, therestoration of the monarchy!) just 50 years after the destruction. Therefore it isremarkable that the response was not a mass return, but rather a trickle, withmany of the exiles choosing to stay in their new home. And thus was createdthe model of Diaspora Jewish life coexisting with a Jewish state. Moreover, theprocess of rebuilding and reorganizing the community in Israel was difficultand frustrating, and didn’t look much like the promised redemption. Theperiod of Shivat Tziyon therefore offers suggestive parallels to our own modernsituation of Israel-Diaspora coexistence. This unit explores the somewhatsketchy historical knowledge we have of the period, focusing on the apparentdilemmas raised by the exiles’ ambivalent response to the possibility ofrestoration.3. Lesson goalsa. Knowledge of basic history of the periodb. Basic acquaintance with main biblical texts covering this periodc. Familiarity with key issues and dilemmas related to this period and theirrelevance, if any, to our own experience4. Expanded outlinea. A historical overviewi. It is important to mention that this period is kind of a “dark ages” inJewish history, as we lack information. Our main sources are theBiblical books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah, Haggai, andDeutero-Isaiah (the second part of the book of Isaiah, generally148 Ksharim

ii.assumed to have been written after 586 BCE; chapters 40-66). Andthere is debate among scholars as to the timing of and relationshipamong these texts. We will present here the simplest, “mainstream”approach.Time line:Year BCEEvent597 First wave of exiles, aristocrats, arrives in Babylonia586 Destruction and exile. Settlements of Jews establishedalong the Chebar River (see Ezekiel 1:1).538 Cyrus, king of Persia, conquers the weakenedBabylonian empire, proclaims himself king ofBabylonia, adopts a policy of religious decentralizationand “pluralism.” Issues edict allowing – and evenfinancing – a restoration of the Temple in Jerusalem(see Ezra 1:2-3 and 6:3-5). However, it seems that therebuilding gets off to a very slow start522 Cyrus’ son Cambyses dies; disorder breaks out and lastsuntil Darius consolidates his rule in 519; the rebuildingof the Temple begins to progress slowly.515 The rebuilt Temple is dedicated.483-465 Reign of Xerxes, generally identified as Ahasuerus458 Ezra arrives in Judah from Babylonia, with a royalcommission to reconstitute an orderly Jewish autonomy;fails to overcome local opposition to rebuilding the citywall.445 Nehemiah arrives from Babylonia, also with a royalcommission, and succeeds in rebuilding the city walland instituting social reforms.Until 330Not much is known about the remainder of thisperiod…330 Alexander the Great, of Macedonia, conquers this partof the world, continues a policy of pluralism, but withinthe orbit of the powerful influence of Hellenisticculture.iii.iv.Some histories refer to a conflict between Zerubbabel, a governor ofJudah of royal descent, and a high priest named Joshua. However,there is really no firm textual basis for this. They seem to functionharmoniously together in Ezra 3, for example.In this context it is important to remember that Cyrus did not givepermission to re-establish sovereignty, with a Davidic king, but ratheronly to re-establish the cult center, the Temple and priesthood. Thus,149 Ksharim

what we have here is a separation of the national element of Jewishautonomy – and identity – from the religious, a separation that wasnot part of our world-view before the exile. Interesting to discuss interms of our modern concepts of separation of religion and state andour debate over what should be Jewish about the Jewish state.v. See the maps in http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/079.htm andnumbers 079a, 079b, 080, 083, 084, 085, 086, 086avi. See Chapter 11 in H. Tadmor’s section in H. H. Ben Sasson’s A Historyof the Jewish People, Cambridge, 1976, for a clear, conservativeaccount of what is known about this period.b. Challenges faced by the returneesi. Most people don’t return1. Note in Ezra 1:4, Cyrus’ proclamation suggests that somewill go back, and some will stay behind and finance theproject!2. In Jeremiah 29, the prophet tells the people to settle in inBabylonia, pending God’s forgiving them and returningthem from exile. On the one hand, this justifiesunpacking, settling in in exile; on the other hand, itimplies a complete return and an end to exile in just 70years. Yet, even after such a short time, the realitydescribed in Ezra – that most of the people decline theoffer to return – seems to be taken for granted.3. Note that the Book of Esther describes life in acommunity in exile, apparently occurring after Cyrus’decree, suffering from what we might call “classical anti-Semitism” - in which the option of aliyah is notmentioned. Exile seems to be the only relevant reality.4. The prophet Haggai’s main concern is with the flaggingof the returnees’ commitment to rebuilding the Temple;he rebukes them for being more interested in their owncomfort than with the communal/national/cosmicobligation of rebuilding the Temple and re-establishingworship in it.ii.Resistance to the restoration by locals1. Ezra 4-6 describes the conflict between the returnees andlocal populations, especially the group later known as theSamaritans – apparently descendants of the exiles fromthe east settled by the Assyrians in Samaria in place of theexiled ten tribes (see Ezra 4:9ff) – who were, it seems at150 Ksharim

odds with the descendants of Judah from this time oninto the Roman period. The matter is finally settled withDarius finds in the archives the original decree by Cyrus,and honors it.2. When Nehemiah arrives from Babylonia, he is struck bythe sad state of the city and its defenses, and decides totake action; again, the local Gentiles see this asusurpation of sovereignty – a national, not just a religiousact, and object (Nehemiah 2:19-20, 3:33ff). The workmust be done with the hammer in one hand and thesword in the other (Nehemiah 4:9-17).3. And it turns out that this was not just Jews againstGentiles, as it appears that there must have been partieswithin the Jews who sided with the Gentile leaders andopposed the work of reconstruction – for reasons ofreligion? Economic interests? Political interests? SeeNehemiah 6:15-19.iii.iv.Assimilation in Judah1. One of the main concerns of Ezra and Nehemiah, asleaders of the restored community in Israel, wasassimilation: intermarriage, and a general abandonmentor ignorance of Jewish law, posed a threat, in their eyes,to the future of the whole enterprise. It is interesting thatthe problem of assimilation arises in the land of Israel – inthe restored community – which is just, based on ourconceptions of aliyah, where you would expect it not tobe a problem. Does this tell us something about theJewish knowledge of the Babylonians? Or somethingabout understandings of Jewish identity at that time?2. In any case, see Ezra 9, and 10, which describes aremarkable mass repentance and divorce of foreignwives. And Nehemiah struggled on several fronts torestore obedience of Torah law: in 8 he describes a publicTorah reading that has tremendous emotional impact; 9-10 describe a public rededication and pledge ofallegiance; 12 describes the rededication festivities of thecity wall; 13 describes expulsion of Ammonites andMoabites (1-3),; attacking corruption in the Temple (4-9),enforcement of the tithes (10-13), enforcing the Shabbat(15-22), removal of foreign wives (23-28).Social inequality151 Ksharim

1. Nehemiah 5 presents a very interesting episode that alsomay connect with our modern discussions of what shouldbe the social structure and economic regime in a Jewishstate. Nehemiah listens to the complaints of the poorJews against their rich brothers, and seems to organize arather threatening mass rally at which the wealthy Jewsare forced to forgive the debts owed to them.2. And in the second half of the chapter, Nehemiahemphasizes that during his twelve years a governor, eventhough he was an appointee of the Persian king, herefused to take a government salary, and lived at his ownexpense. Another foreshadowing of modern discussionsregarding government support of religion vs.independence and autonomy…c. The community in exilei. The biblical sources give us very little information about the lives ofthe exiles in Babylonia. Esther seems to be a realistic depiction of lifein a middle eastern monarchy – with court intrigue and powerstruggles, with the precariousness of the Jews, as strangers without apower base. Nehemiah (chapter 1) describes his own situation as acourt official who seems not to have been involved in Jewish affairsuntil a meeting with some visiting returnees of Judah jolt hisconsciousness and he experiences some kind of awakening (shadesof Joseph, and Esther) – and then uses his high office to get royalsponsorship for his mission to revitalize the settlement in Judah.ii. A recurrent theme among the exilic prophets, Deutero-Isaiah andEzekiel, is the tendency of the people to despair, to assume that theirrejection by God is permanent. The theological danger here, ofcourse is that if there is no hope of forgiveness and restoration, thenwhy observe the law and why not turn to other religions? Therefore,the message of redemption, and of the necessity of earning it, isstrongly emphasized: for example, Isaiah 44; Ezekiel 37…iii. But on the early life of the Babylonian community, which laterbecame the center of Jewish life and culture for centuries, we havealmost no sources. There were other exilic communities as well atthis time, which left some documentary evidence: especially inElephantine in southern Egypt.See, for example,http://www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/Shokel/990330_BackToEgypt.htmlAnd this history of the Ethiopian Jewish community, whoseconnection to early exilic communities is a fascinating question:http://www.nacoej.org/history.htm152 Ksharim

For a good, concise summary of this historical period – and the Hellenistic period aswell – look here: http://www.biu.ac.il/JS/rennert/history_4.html153 Ksharim

L e s s o n 18:Teaching the Bible, Teaching Israel – a Pause forReflection1. Outlinea. Sacred spaceb. Pre-Zionismc. What is the Bible?d. Where is home?2. IntroductionAs mentioned in Lesson 1, this course is based on the assumption that in liberalJewish education, the three primary texts are the Bible, the Siddur, and thecalendar; thus about two thirds of the course meetings focus on study of thesesources, with the last third devoted to modern history and current issues. Theemphasis in the first third, the Bible section, has been on helping participantsmaintain their alertness to the opportunities for teaching Israel in just aboutany Bible lesson. After all, the Bible is a book about God, the Jewish people,and the Land of Israel. However, in recent generations, the land has lost someof its centrality, at least in liberal Jewish classrooms in North America. So, firstof all, this course seeks to refocus the teaching of Bible, to keep Israel alwayswithin the field of vision; the Bible must be understood and taught as not onlythe biography of God, nor only the history of the Jewish people, but as thestory of the three-way relationship of God, people, and land.This lesson seeks to present an opportunity to step back and reflect on some ofthe underlying questions that must be addressed in our teaching of thisrelationship.3. Lesson goalsa. Awareness of different conceptions of the role of Israel in Jewish identityb. Awareness of different views on the nature of the Bible and the goals ofstudying itc. Formulation of a personal philosophy regarding the significance of the Bible indefining our relationship to Israel154 Ksharim

4. Expanded outlinea. Sacred spacei. It is interesting to consider the whole topic of the sanctity - and thesanctification – of place in the Bible, as a basis for discussing justwhat is the nature of the Land of Israel – what is the meaning of theterm “Holy Land.” Here are some suggested texts for discussion:1. Genesis 28:10-19: Jacob has a dream, and realizes that“God is in this place…” What does that mean? Are thereplaces on earth that are gateways to heaven?2. Exodus 3:1-6: Moses and the bush: “… the place on whichyou stand is holy ground.” So – is there holy land in thedesert of Midian too?3. Exodus 19: The revelation at Sinai: why there and notsomewhere else? Was it holy ground? Is it still? Why isthere danger attached to sacred space?4. Leviticus 25:23-24: The Jubilee year: “But the land mustnot be sold beyond reclaim, for the land is Mine…” Whatdoes that mean? Does it refer only to the Land of Israel?5. Some mostly post-biblical traditions regarding theTemple Mount:a. That it is Mt. Moriah where Abraham went tosacrifice Isaac. See Genesis 22, especially verse 14.b. That it is the center, or foundation stone, of theworld.c. II Samuel 24: That it was purchased by David as aplace of worship where God would answer hisprayer.d. That it was sanctified by the acts of kindness oftwo brothers; see Source 1.e. Solomon suggests that prayers offered “toward”the Temple will be heard with favor by God – isthis indeed a gateway to heaven? I Kings 8:27-30f. What about the placing of prayer-notes betweenthe stones of the Western Wall?ii. See Mircea Eliade, Source 2, on the general concept of the Center ofthe World.iii. See Abraham Joshua Heschel on sanctification of time vs. place inJudaism; see Source 3.iv. What about cemeteries in the Diaspora? Synagogues? Are they“hallowed ground?” What does that mean? Can they bedecommissioned?155 Ksharim

. Pre-zionismi. Before the end of the 19 th century, our relationship to Israel was notcomplicated by issues of real life politics, economics, etc. We weredeeply connected with a mythical Israel that was the scenery of mostof the Bible, the location of the Torah state described in the Torah,the utopia to which we constantly prayed to return. The depth of thismythical and somehow tragic connection is nicely depicted inAgnon’s famous “Fable of the Goat,” Source 4.ii. While it is often said that Zionism has been an integral part ofJudaism since the exile began, that implies that the word Zionism hasa meaning different from its common usage as the politicalmovement that began in the late 19 th century, with the aim ofcreating a modern Jewish nation state in Palestine. Compare, forexample, Herzl (Source 5) with Abraham (Genesis 12:1-5), or withJudah Halevi (Source 6)iii. See Steve Israel’s essay:http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Eye+on+Israel/Israeli+Culture/The+Land.htmc. What is the Bible?i. The significance of the Bible’s treatment of our relationship to theland depends greatly on what our basic assumptions are regardingthe nature of the Bible and it authority. Before we teach the Bible’streatment of the land, we should articulate our assumptions andbeliefs and analyze them. For example, is the Bible…1. the word of God, literally2. a human document written under divine inspiration3. a human document reflecting the ideologicalassumptions of its authors4. the written compilation of a variety of oral traditions5. a history of the world6. a history of the Jewish people7. a work of literature whose aim is to teach eternal values8. a national epic9. an anthology of various documents with variouspurposes and origins10. open to interpretation based on its historical context11. subject to the authoritative interpretation of the Oral Lawii. These questions of course relate to discussions that often come up inclassrooms: was Abraham a historical figure? Did God literallypromise Israel to the Jewish people? etc. Obviously this is a largeand deep topic, beyond the scope of this lesson. Our point is that it isuseful for teachers to spend time and energy clarifying their views on156 Ksharim

these questions, to try to clear up inconsistencies in their ownthought and to be prepared for difficult questions from students.iii. See Steve Israel’s essay on the Bible in Israeli culturehttp://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Eye+on+Israel/Israeli+Culture/The+Bible.htmiv. A dense scholarly article on the history of Jewish interpretations ofthe Bible up to but not including modern Israeli educationhttp://web.archive.org/web/20030225053058/http://www.otstudies.com/Documents/signer.htmv. A review and excerpt on the historical-critical approach:http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5174963vi.d. What is home?i. In examining the Bible’s view of the sanctity of land, and our ownview of the sanctity of the Bible, it is interesting also to consider ourown spiritual – or visceral – connections to landscape, and the placeof land in our identity.ii. See Source 7 for an activity to help participants think about this, insmall groups. Follow up questions for the whole group:1. what is home?2. what is a homeland?3. texts for consideration: Source 8How much of our attachment to place is based onpersonal memory? How much on collective memory,learned through traditions, through literature? What isthe difference between our attachment to our presenthomes and that to Israel? To the country from which ourfamilies emigrated? What part does Israel play in ouridentities?157 Ksharim

Sources1. Louis Ginzburg, Legends of the Jews IV p. 154[Ginzburg suggests that this medieval folk tale may be based on a midrash on Psalm133][Solomon] was long in doubt as to where he was to build [the Temple]. A heavenlyvoice directed him to go to Mount Zion at night, to a field owned by two brothersjointly. One of the brothers was a bachelor and poor, the other was blessed both withwealth and a large family of children. It was harvesting time. Under cover of night, thepoor brother kept adding to the other’s heap of grain, for, although he was poor, hethought his brother needed more on account of his large family. The rich brother, inthe same clandestine way, added to the poor brother’s store, thinking that though hehad a family to support, the other was without means. This field, Solomon concluded,which had called forth so remarkable a manifestation of brotherly love, was the bestsite for the Temple…2. Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, New York 1959, pp.42-43…It follows that the true world is always in the middle, at the Center, for it is here thatthere is a break in plane and hence communication among the three cosmic zones.Whatever the extent of the territory involved, the cosmos that it represents is alwaysperfect. An entire country (e.g., Palestine), a city (Jerusalem), a sanctuary (the Templein Jerusalem), all equally well present an imago mundi [picture of the world]…Palestine, Jerusalem, and the Temple severally and concurrently represent the imageof the universe and the Center of the World. This multiplicity of centers and thisreiteration of the image of the world on smaller and smaller scales constitute one ofthe specific characteristics of traditional societies.To us, it seems an inescapable conclusion that the religious man sought to live as near aspossible to the Center of the World…3. Abraham Joshua Heschel, The Sabbath see:http://www.myjewishlearning.com/daily_life/Shabbat/Shabbat_Themes_and_Theology/Shabbat_Sanctuary_in_Time.htmIt is, indeed, a unique occasion at which the distinguished word kadosh is used for thefirst time: in the Book of Genesis at the end of the story of creation. How extremelysignificant is the fact that it is applied to time: "And God blessed the seventh day andmade it holy." There is no reference in the record of creation to any object in spacethat would be endowed with the quality of holiness.158 Ksharim

This is a radical departure from accustomed religious thinking. The mythical mindwould expect that, after heaven and earth have been established, God would create aholy place--a holy mountain or a holy spring--whereupon a sanctuary is to beestablished. Yet it seems as if to the Bible it is holiness in time, the Sabbath, whichcomes first.When history began, there was only one holiness in the world, holiness in time. Whenat Sinai the word of God was about to be voiced, a call for holiness in man wasproclaimed: "Thou shalt be unto me a holy people." It was only after the people hadsuccumbed to the temptation of worshipping a thing, a golden calf, that the erectionof a Tabernacle, of holiness in space, was commanded. The sanctity of time came first,the sanctity of man came second, and the sanctity of space last. Time was hallowed byGod; space, the Tabernacle, was consecrated by Moses.4. The Fable of the Goat; adapted from S.Y. Agnon(http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Jewish+Time/Festivals+and+Memorial+Days/Ninth+of+Av/The+eternal+connection )There was a widespread legend that an underground tunnel - through which it waspossible to pass in a very short time - connected the Diaspora to the land of Israel.According to the legend, there was no doubt of the tunnel's existence; its entrance,however, was all but impossible to find. It is told of different scholars, including RabbiShalom Shabbazi of Yemen and Rabbi Yosef Chaim of Baghdad, that they woulddisappear from their homes on Friday and spend the Sabbath in Jerusalem, returninghome only on Saturday night.“A particular old man was sick, and his doctors said that he must drink goat's milk. Theman purchased a goat, but one day, without warning, she disappeared. A few dayslater she returned, her udders filled with milk that had the flavor of paradise. The goatwould repeat this strange behavior from time to time until the old man said to his son,‘I want to know where the goat is disappearing.’“The son tied a rope to the goat's tail, and when she began to wander, he held on tothe rope and followed. They entered a cave, and after a long time, they emerged in afertile country flowing with milk and honey. When the son asked people where hewas, they told him, ‘You are in the land of Israel.’“The son penned a note telling his father what had happened. He wrote that his fathershould join him in the land of Israel by following the goat through the cave as he had.The son fastened the note to the goat's ear, and she returned home by herself. Whenthe old man saw the goat returning without his son, he was certain that his son hadbeen killed. Realizing that the sight of the goat would always bring him painfulmemories of his dead son, the man slaughtered her. Only afterward did he discover159 Ksharim

the note attached to the goat's ear. But what was done, was done. The goat was dead,and the underground route to the Holy Land would remain forever secret.”.From Theodore Herzl, The Jewish Statehttp://www.geocities.com/Vienna/6640/zion/judenstchpt2.htmlShould the Powers declare themselves willing to admit our sovereignty over a neutralpiece of land, then the Society will enter into negotiations for the possession of thisland. Here two territories come under consideration, Palestine and Argentine. In bothcountries important experiments in colonization have been made, though on themistaken principle of a gradual infiltration of Jews. An infiltration is bound to endbadly. It continues till the inevitable moment when the native population feels itselfthreatened, and forces the Government to stop a further influx of Jews. Immigration isconsequently futile unless we have the sovereign right to continue such immigration.The Society of Jews will treat with the present masters of the land, putting itself underthe protectorate of the European Powers, if they prove friendly to the plan. We couldoffer the present possessors of the land enormous advantages, assume part of thepublic debt, build new roads for traffic, which our presence in the country wouldrender necessary, and do many other things. The creation of our State would bebeneficial to adjacent countries, because the cultivation of a strip of land increases thevalue of its surrounding districts in innumerable ways.Shall we choose Palestine or Argentine? We shall take what is given us, and what isselected by Jewish public opinion. The Society will determine both these points.Argentine is one of the most fertile countries in the world, extends over a vast area,has a sparse population and a mild climate. The Argentine Republic would deriveconsiderable profit from the cession of a portion of its territory to us. The presentinfiltration of Jews has certainly produced some discontent, and it would be necessaryto enlighten the Republic on the intrinsic difference of our new movement.Palestine is our ever-memorable historic home. The very name of Palestine wouldattract our people with a force of marvelous potency. If His Majesty the Sultan were togive us Palestine, we could in return undertake to regulate the whole finances ofTurkey. We should there form a portion of a rampart of Europe against Asia, anoutpost of civilization as opposed to barbarism. We should as a neutral State remain incontact with all Europe, which would have to guarantee our existence. The sanctuariesof Christendom would be safeguarded by assigning to them an extra-territorial statussuch as is well-known to the law of nations. We should form a guard of honor aboutthese sanctuaries, answering for the fulfillment of this duty with our existence. Thisguard of honor would be the great symbol of the solution of the Jewish question aftereighteen centuries of Jewish suffering.160 Ksharim

6. Yehuda Halevi, “Ode to Zion”http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/mhl/index.htmOh! who will give me wingsThat I may fly away,And there, at rest from all my wanderings,The ruins of my heart among thy ruins lay?I'll bend my face unto thy soil, and holdThy stones as precious gold.And when in Hebron I have stood besideMy fathers' tombs, then will I pass in turnThy plains and forest wide,Until I stand on Gilead and discernMount Hor and Mount Abarim, 'neath whose crestThy luminaries twain, thy guides and beacons rest.Thy air is life unto my soul, thy grainsOf dust are myrrh, thy streams with honey flow;Naked and barefoot, to thy ruined fanesHow gladly would I go;To where the ark was treasured, and in dimRecesses dwelt the holy cherubim.…The Lord desires thee for his dwelling-placeEternally; and blestIs he whom God has chosen for the graceWithin thy courts to rest.Happy is he that watches, drawing near,Until he sees thy glorious lights arise,And over whom thy dawn breaks full and clearSet in the Orient skies.But happiest he, who, with exultant eyes,The bliss of thy redeemed ones shall behold,And see thy youth renewed as in the days of old.161 Ksharim

7. Land and Identity – an activity for starting discussion Have participants work in groups of 3 or so; have them discuss these topics in order: Where do you live? Describe your home and its surroundings. Does your family own its home? How long have you lived there? Describe previous homes. How many times have you moved in your life? Is there a former home of which you have special memories? Describe the terrain of the land around your home? What is your favorite season or weather condition in your neighborhood? Why? What degree of emotional attachment do you feel toward your home? Why? Is there a place to which you feel a stronger attachment?8. Texts on home and homeland, land and identitya. Sir Walter Scott: From "The Lay of the 14th Minstrel," CANTO VI.Breathes there the man with soul so deadWho never to himself hath said,This is my own, my native land!Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned,As home his footsteps he hath turnedFrom wandering on a foreign strand?If such there breathe, go, mark him well;For him no minstrel raptures swell;High though his titles, proud his name,Boundless his wealth as wish can claim,Despite those titles, power, and pelf,The wretch, concentred all in self,Living, shall forfeit fair renown,And, doubly dying, shall go downTo the vile dust from whence he sprung,Unwept, unhonored, and unsung.b. Saul Tschernichovsky, “A Man is Nothing but…”A man is nothing but a small plot of land,A man is nothing but the image of the landscape of his birthplace,Only what his ear recorded when it was still fresh,Only what his eye took in before it had seen too much,Whatever was encountered on the dew-covered pathBy the child who tripped over every bump and clod of earth…162 Ksharim

c. Yi-Fu Tuan, TopophiliaThe small farmer or peasant’s attachment to land is deep. Nature is known through theneed to gain a living... For the laboring farmer, “nature has entered” - and beautyinsofar as the substance and processes of nature can be said to embody it. The entryof nature is no mere metaphor. Muscles and scars bear witness to the physicalintimacy of the contact. The farmer’s topophilia is compounded of this physicalintimacy, of material dependence and the fact that the land is a repository of memoryand sustains hope. Aesthetic appreciation is present but seldom articulated.d. Chief Seattle [Washington Territory, 1877]Every part of this country is sacred to my people. Every hillside, every valley, everyplain and grove has been hallowed by some fond memory or some sad experience ofmy tribe. Even the rocks, which seem to lie dumb as they swelter in the sun along thesilent seashore in solemn grandeur, thrill with memories of past events connectedwith the lives of my people. The very dust under your feet responds more lovingly toour footsteps than to yours, because it is the ashes of our ancestors, and our bare feetare conscious of the sympathetic touch, for the soil is rich with the life of our kindred.e. Robert Frost, from “The Death of the Hired Man”'Home is the place where, when you have to go there,They have to take you in.''I should have called itSomething you somehow haven't to deserve.'163 Ksharim

Lesson 19:The Hellenistic period and the Hasmoneans1. Outlinea. Hellenism and its impact on Jewish culture and thoughtb. The Hasmonean revoltc. The Hasmonean dynasty until the Roman conquestd. Historical development of interpretation of the events of the revolt2. IntroductionWith the conquest of the Middle East by Alexander the Great (331 BCE), Judahconfronted a new cultural context, different in important ways from the cultures ofMesopotamia that had dominated the region for almost 500 years. The dilemma ofhow to draw the line between faithfulness to the Torah and acceptance of values andbehaviors from the dominant culture became more complicated during the Hellenisticperiod than in the days of the First Temple. The same problem of the connectionbetween political and cultural independence continued to exist, but was made moredifficult by certain emphases of Hellenistic culture: on individualism, oncosmopolitanism, and on rationalism. These qualities made it possible for theindividual Jew to define an integrated identity, incorporating elements of both Jewishand Hellenistic cultures. Thus, the meeting with Hellenism confronted Judaism withnew challenges.We don’t know too much about how Judaism dealt with Hellenism during the firstcentury or so after Alexander’s conquest. However, with the Hasmonean revolt — andestablishment of the Hasmonean dynasty — the struggle to define the relationshipbetween the two cultures moves to center stage, and dominates Jewish history andthought for about 300 years.In the past century, the Hasmonean revolt has taken on different interpretations:a. the classical rabbinic understanding of God’s miraculous interventionb. the enlightenment/emancipation view that this was a struggle for religiousfreedomc. the Zionist view that it was a war for national independence.Thus, how we teach the Chanukah story says as much about our own Jewish identityand belief as it does about the historical events themselves. It also provides aninteresting historical context for discussing the nature of a “Jewish state.”164 Ksharim

3. Lesson goalsa. Basic understanding of the significance of the confrontation with Hellenismb. Acquaintance with the historical sources describing the Hasmonean revolt, andthe relevant geographyc. Awareness of the issues raised by the subsequent history of the Hasmoneandynastyd. Awareness of significance of various interpretations of the events of theHasmonean period4. Expanded outlinea. Hellenism and its impact on Jewish culture and thoughti. This is a huge topic, on which there is a great deal of literature. Onthe one hand, we have a traditional self-image, fostered by ourmemories of the Chanukah story, of conflict between Judaism andHellenism, and of our total rejection of pagan philosophy andworship. On the other hand, the evidence is pretty overwhelmingthat Hellenism had strong impact on the development of Judaism,and that we absorbed all sorts of concepts, practices, language, andbeliefs from our intimate contact with Hellenistic civilization from 331BCE on through the Roman period. We can not do this discussionjustice in one lesson; but here are a few brief resources that might behelpful background reading:1. A concise summary of the philosophical differencesbetween Judaism and Hellenism:http://www.njop.org/html/Chanvs.html2. A short paper exploring both the cultural conflict and thehistorical events of the Hasmonean period:http://members.tripod.com/~Kekrops/Hellenistic_Files/Judaism.html3. A brief summary and comment on the book by Prof. LeeLevine, Judaism and Hellenism in Antiquity, Conflict orConfluence. Lee Levine, of the Hebrew University, is aConservative rabbi and noted scholar of the Hellenisticperiod and its archaeologyhttp://www.theopavlidis.com/Isaiah_Ad_Ed/Levine_discussion.htm4. A lecture by a noted modern Israeli Orthodox scholar andleader, Rabbi Aharon Lichtenstein, on the basic conflictbetween Hellenism and Judaism: http://www.vbmtorah.org/chanuka/a-chan1.htm5. A short overview of the encounter between Jewish andHellenistic cultures,http://www.wsu.edu:8000/~dee/HEBREWS/YAVAN.HTM165 Ksharim

ii.Perhaps the most important point, from the perspective of thiscourse and its purposes, is that just as in the biblical period, living inEretz Yisrael was no guarantee of the purity of our belief or of ourinsulation from pagan influences, so too during the Hellenisticperiod, a far-reaching cultural and religious “conversation” took placewithin the Jewish community of Eretz Yisrael – between the Jewishtradition (as it was at that point in time) and the powerful culture ofHellenism.An interesting question to consider: are we better “protected” in thisconversation when we are sitting in our own land than when we areguests of our Diaspora hosts? An extreme answer might be thatanything we say or think or do when living as a Jewish political entityin Eretz Yisrael is ipso facto Jewish; hence, we can be open to thecultures of the world, since our identity is defined by our geographyand our roots in it… In the Diaspora, on the other hand, we mustconstantly struggle to define ourselves as different from thosearound us, otherwise we will disappear.iii.See maps 87-90 inhttp://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/index.htmlb. The Hasmonean revolti. The wars of the Hasmoneans need to be understood on two levels –as an internal struggle between different parties within the Jewishcommunity regarding the relation to Hellenistic culture, and as a warbetween a Jewish army and the army of the Seleucid dynasty thatruled Eretz Yisrael in the second century BCE.ii. A good text for focusing the problem of the internal struggle is IMaccabees 2, especially 2:24, where it turns out that the first casualtyof the war is a Jew, killed by another Jew. The rest of the chapterbrings another interesting angle, describing a group of Jews whorefuse to fight on Shabbat and are therefore killed; the Hasmoneansconclude from this that we need to fight on Shabbat to preserveourselves – in other words, they take religious law (halacha) into theirown hands for military/political/national necessity. While theirdecision is common sense, it is not obvious, and clearly shows us thatthere was some kind of internal struggle over what it is OK to sacrificefor what. II Maccabees 6 and 7 contain the stories of Eleazar, and of awoman and her seven sons, who choose death over compromise oreven apparent compromise.iii. Beyond all the internal conflict and our dilemmas about what price topay for resisting religious coercion, the Hasmoneans did indeed lead166 Ksharim

iv.the Jews of Eretz Yisrael in an armed conflict against the Seleucidrulers. Basically our only source for the history of this war is the Booksof Maccabees, found in Greek in the Apocrypha, assumed to be basedon Hebrew originals that have been lost. In other words, these bookswere not in the Jewish library for the past 2000 years or so; all weknew were general descriptions from various midrashic and liturgicalsources. To follow the course of the war, more or less, read IMaccabees; here is a map:http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/092.htm, and below is anannotated summary of sections of I Maccabees.For some brief and interesting background articles on this period,including a summary of events of the war, and links to the Englishtext of Maccabees I and II, look here:http://www.hum.huji.ac.il/dinur/Internetresources/historyresources/second_temple_and_talmudic_era.htm#Hasmoneansc. The Hasmonean dynasty until the Roman conquesti. While the Hasmoneans were heroic and important leaders whosucceeded, for a while, in winning a degree of autonomy for the Jewsof Eretz Yisrael, many people saw their rise to power – and theirexercise of power – as not so positive, for two reasons:1. They were priests, of Aharon’s descendants, not David’s.Therefore, their appointing themselves as kings was ausurpation of power. It has been argued that the Haftarablessing refers to them (see text and commentary below).2. They themselves were apparently not such purists interms of avoiding Hellenistic customs and concludedalliances with pagan powers – like Rome; and madedecisions that were not theirs to make; see, for examplethe account of the first Chanukah – an unauthorizedimitation of the biblical holiday of Sukkot and Solomon’sdedication of the Temple, proclaimed by them as aholiday in the manner of a Greek victory celebration. SeeI Maccabees, chapter 4. For an article on theHasmoneans’ relationship to pagan images, see:http://ancient-coins.com/articles/hasmonean/ii.Our knowledge of the Hasmonean dynasty down to the Romanperiod comes mainly from Josephus, which can be read online athttp://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/index.htm#aoj. Inparticular, Books 13 and 14 of the Antiquities trace the variousinternecine struggles among the Hasmoneans, that in the end led tothe Roman conquest.167 Ksharim

iii.…Which brings us back to the question: is any government by Jewsin Eretz Yisrael a Jewish state? Can nationality be separated fromreligion? From geography? Can Jewishness be separated fromvalues?d. Historical development of interpretation of the eventsi. The first Chanukah seems to have been a re-enactment of Sukkot andof Solomon’s dedication of the Temple (see II Chronicles 29:16-17), asseen in I Maccabees 4. That explains the eight days.ii. However, apparently because of later discomfort with theglorification of the Hasmoneans, and with giving them the authorityto establish a holiday, the Rabbis of the Talmud don’t mention theHasmonean celebration at all, and offer several other possiblereasons for the festival’s lasting eight days. See texts 1, 2, and 4below. Note that #4 suggests the interesting possibility theChanukah’s origin is not the Hasmonean victory festival at all, but aJudaization of a pagan observance of the winter solstice!iii. Thus, the rabbis move the center of the holiday from theHasmoneans to God (it celebrates a miracle). Then, along come thesecular Zionists and take it back, adopting Chanukah as a symbol ofthe struggle for national liberation. See texts 5 and 6; note that thefirst line of “Who can retell” is a takeoff on Psalm 106:2, substitutingIsrael for God.iv. In America, on the other hand, where we Jews are more interested inreligious freedom in a pluralistic society than in glorifying ourstruggle for national independence, the Zionist Hebrew songmellowed in translation, diminishing the place of heroism andrestoring the sages.v. For two essays on the development of the meanings of Chanukah,see:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=3576&pge_prg_id=15531&pge_id=1698 andhttp://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=5581&pge_prg_id=22106&pge_id=1697And then there is the impact of Christmas in the American context…So, what is Chanukah for us and our students? Is an American Jewishholiday of religious freedom, or a celebration of a bloody revolt of asmall nation against a foreign conqueror, or the outward explosion ofinternal tensions with the Jewish people over the acceptable degreeof compromise with foreign culture and religion, or remembrance of amiracle, the manifestation of God’s power in history?168 Ksharim

vi.Here is the place to mention the two different versions of the Sevivonor Dreidel: based on a German gambling game, the original letterswere N (nothing), G (all), H (half), and Sh (put in), which were made inthe Hebrew acronym, Nes Gadol Haya Sham (a great miraclehappened there). But “there” is Eretz Yisrael, so now that we havecome back, the last word in that sentence become Po (here),beginning with P, not Sh. So now any connection to the Germanoriginal is lost, and no one can see the logic of the connection of theletters to the actions of the game…SourcesI Maccabees1:1-10: a quick review of history from Alexander the Great to Antiochus Epiphanes.1:11-15: a description of the practices of the Hellenizers, and a statement (v. 11) oftheir rationale — these changes are necessary to improve our relationships with thesurrounding peoples.1:20-28: Antiochus desecrates and plunders the Temple, massacring and humiliatingthe people.1:29-40: Antiochus attacks Jerusalem and stations a permanent, fortified garrisonadjacent to the Temple.1:41-64: Antiochus forbids the practice of Judaism, and decrees that his entirekingdom must uniformly worship the Greek gods (see II Maccabees 4-5). In vss. 43 and52-53, we learn of many Jews who accepted this decree; in 62-64 we read of manywho were prepared to die rather than to submit.2:1-28: Mattathias “fires the first shot” in the revolt, publicly defying the king’s decreeto offer a pagan sacrifice. Note, in vss. 16 and 18, further evidence that many Jews areacquiescing in the new order. Mattathias kills both a Jew who submits and the king’srepresentative as well, utters his famous war cry (vs. 27), and flees with his sons to themountains.2:29-41: a camp of rebels is attacked in the wilderness, on the sabbath. They interpretself-defense as a violation of sabbath prohibitions, and are therefore all killed. In vss.39-41 Mattathias and his followers respond to this event by agreeing that survivalrequires a modification of the interpretation of the sabbath laws.2:42-48: Mattathias’ forces begin a campaign of killing collaborators, destroying paganaltars, forcibly circumcising children; Hellenizing Jews who wish to escape such attacksare forced to flee to pagan communities.3:1-9: After Mattathias’ death, his son Judah takes over military leadership, andcontinues the campaign of “destroying the ungodly.”3:10-26: The conflict assumes the proportions of a war, in which the local pagans seekto put a stop to Judah’s raids. From vs. 15, it seems that Hellenizing Jews were part of169 Ksharim

this pagan counterattack. In any case, these verses describe the first of many victoriesby the Maccabees’ forces over various local and imported pagan armies.3:10-36: Antiochus escalates the conflict.4:1-35: Judah’s forces vanquish increasingly large armies sent by Antiochus.4:36-61: While Antiochus’ forces under Lysias are licking their wounds and gettingorganized for another attack (4:35), Judah’s army liberates the Temple and purifies it.Then, on the exact third anniversary of the desecration of the Temple, they hold aneight-day rededication ceremony. This rededication is apparently based on Solomon’soriginal dedication of the first Temple (see I Kings 8), an eight-day festival coincidingwith Sukkot. In vs. 59, we find Judah and his brothers decreeing that this rededicationfestival should be an annual festival. Note that there is no mention of the miracle ofthe oil here; rather, the eight-day duration seems to be taken for granted asappropriate for a dedication festival.5:1-17: The local populations turn on the Jews throughout the land. The Maccabeesorganize their forces to stand against these attacks; in the subsequent verses we learnof their success.6:42-47: The famous account of Elazar’s heroic death, which occurs as he singlehandedlyattacks and kills a battle elephant of the enemy.9:1-10: In desperate straits, Judah’s men try to persuade him to back off from battle,but he indicates that honor is a higher value than life.10:1-50: Demetrius and Alexander are struggling for the Seleucid throne. Each wantsthe support of Jonathan (the current leader of Judah, and they try to outbid eachother. In the course of the bidding (vss. 20-21), Jonathan is appointed high priest —and accepts the appointment.From the Haftara blessings:Gladden us, Lord our God, with the appearance of Your servant Elijah the prophet, andwith the rule of the house of David Your anointed. May he come soon and bring joy toour heart. Let a stranger no longer occupy David’s throne; let others no longer usurphis glory, for You promised him, by Your holy name, that his light would never go out.Blessed are You, O Lord, shield of David.(Commentary)This blessing, which looks forward to the messianic redemption, indicates that astranger is occupying David’s throne. The Davidic dynasty ruled from David until thedestruction of the first Temple. The throne remained unoccupied thereafter, until theHasmonean John Hyrcanus assumed the title of king. The Maccabees’ descendantsheld this title until Herod was named king by the Romans; since his death the thronehas remained empty. Thus, it seems likely that this passage refers to the Hasmoneanperiod, implying criticism of the Hasmonean rulers for taking into their own handsmatters that were God’s business. The Hasmoneans were clearly less than fully faithfulto the established traditional understanding of the promise to David.170 Ksharim

Why Chanukah?1. Talmud, Shabbat 21bThe rabbis taught: on the 25th of Kislev we observe Hanukkah, and are forbidden tomourn or fast; for when the Greeks entered the Temple they desecrated all the oil inthe Temple, and when the Hamoneans reconquered the Temple, they looked andfound only one jar of oil which was sealed with the seal of the high priest. And therewas only enough oil to burn for one day, but a miracle occurred and it continued toburn for eight days. For future years they set these days as holidays for giving praiseand thanks.2. Pesikta Rabbati 2Why do we light candles on Hanukkah? Because when the Hasmoneans werevictorious against the Greek rulers, they entered the Temple and found there eightiron spears, and they stood them up and lit candles in them.3. Addition to daily prayer during Hannukah...You in great mercy, stood by Your people in time of trouble. You defended them,vindicated them, and avenged their wrongs. You delivered the strong into the handsof the pure in heart, the guilty into the hands of the innocent. You delivered thearrogant into the hands of those who were faithful to Your Torah. You have wroughtgreat victories and miraculous deliverance for Your people Israel to this day...4. Talmud, Avodah Zarah 8aMishnah: These are the festivities of the idolaters: Kalenda, Saturnalia, Kratesis...Gemarah: Said R. Hanan b. Raba: Kalenda is kept on the eight days following the[winter] solstice, Saturnalia on the eight days preceding the solstice... Our rabbistaught: When Adam saw the day getting gradually shorter, he said, “Woe is me,perhaps because I have sinned, the world around me is being darkened and returningto its state of chaos and confusion; this then is the kind of death to which I have beensentenced from heaven!” So he began keeping an eight day fast. But as he observedthe winter solstice and noted the day getting increasingly longer, he said, “This is theworld’s course,” and he set forth to keep an eight day festival. In the following year heappointed both as festivals.5. Yaakov HerzogHanukkah comprehends Judaism to mean Jewish independence - in the physical andpolitical sense - in that small land on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean where thethreefold bond of land, people, and faith was forged for all time.6. Who can retell? Menashe RavinaWho can retell the heroic deeds of Israel?Who can recount them?In every generation a hero arisesTo redeem the people.171 Ksharim

In those days, in this seasonThe Maccabees redeemed us,And in our day the whole people of IsraelWill unite, arise, and be redeemed7. Ben Edidin translationWho can retell the things that befell us?Who can count them?In every age a hero or sageCame to our aid.At this time of year in days of yoreMaccabee the Temple did restoreAnd today our people, as we dreamedWill arise, unite and be redeemed.172 Ksharim

L e s s o n 20:Palestine under Roman Rule1. Outlinea. History of the periodb. Jewish autonomy in Eretz Yisrael under the Romansc. Living in two cultures; sites and sources2. IntroductionThe period of Roman rule of Eretz Yisrael is important in our consideration of“teaching Israel” for several reasons: Continuing the conversation that began with Shivat Tziyon, about thesignificance of land, autonomy, sovereignty, and exile: if we are living in ourland but do not have sovereignty, are we in a kind of exile? Or does exile onlyrefer to physical separation from the land? How important, in ourrelationship to the land, is political independence? Another conversation that continues and blossoms during this period isabout Judaism’s relationship to foreign cultures. The Jewish-pagan polaritythat is so evident in the Bible becomes much more complex and nuancedduring the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This brings us to down to themodern discussion of “what is Jewish culture?” and “What is Israeli culture?”Is any culture that is rooted in Israel ipso facto Israeli? Jewish? It is during this period that the basic documents of the Oral Law are codified;thus, the “Jewish Tradition” as we know it, both Halachah and Aggadah, isfounded upon the records of the discussions of the rabbis of Eretz Yisraelunder the Romans – and this includes, of course, the place of the land itself inthat tradition (see lesson 22, The Mishnah). The archaeological record of the Roman period is very rich, and is ubiquitousin Israel today. One cannot travel anywhere in the country withoutencountering it. Christians’ connection to Israel, and their images of it, are centered in culture,events, and remains of this period. The Great Revolt (66 -73 CE) and the Bar Kochba revolt (132 -135) are verymuch alive as symbols forming part of modern Israeli identity (see lesson 21).3. Lesson goalsa. Basic knowledge of historical events in Eretz Yisrael, 63 BCE – 66 CE.b. Knowledge of the mechanisms of Jewish autonomy in Eretz Yisrael under theRomansc. Knowledge of key aspects of the cultural encounter between Jewish andHellenistic-Roman culture173 Ksharim

4. Expanded outlinea. History of the periodi. For general background on Roman rule in Palestine, see:http://www.usd.edu/erp/index.html and http://www.livius.org/jajn/jewish_wars/jwar01.htmandhttp://www.jafi.org.il/education/timeline/menu1.htmii. Here is a brief timeline: 63 B.C.E. Pompey marches into Jerusalem, installs Hyrcanus as ruler.iii.iv. 57 Aristobulus’ son Alexander attempts to take control; coup is quashed;Palestine is divided into five separate administrative districts. 49 Julius Caesar takes control of Rome from Pompey, setting off 20 years ofcivil war in Rome. 47 Caesar grants the Jews various measures of autonomy, names Antipaterimperial representative in Palestine; he in turn appoints his son Herodgovernor of the Galilee. 44 Caesar is assassinated; period of chaos begins in Palestine. 37 Herod, with Roman assistance, conquers the country. 20 Herod begins rebuilding the Temple. 4 C.E. Herod dies; rebellion breaks out, is suppressed by the Romans. 6 Beginning of rule by procurators, governors with military, judicial, andeconomic authority. 26-36 Pontius Pilate serves as procurator 40 Emperor Caligula orders his statue to be set up in Temple, then relents. 41-43 Appointed king by Emperor Claudius, Herod’s grandson Agripparules; a relatively peaceful period. 44 Fadus, first of a series of increasingly corrupt and cruel procurators,takes office. Revolutionary activities and repression escalate... 66 Procurator Florus takes money from the Temple treasury, triggeringdemonstrations that are met with a violent response, leading to openwarfare.The main source for much of what we know about Roman rule inEretz Yisrael is, of course Josephus. His entire works are available inEnglish on-line for easy browsing athttp://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/josephus.html;It is interesting to note that there was a Jewish diaspora in Rome wellbefore the Roman conquest of Eretz Yisrael; it seems that their livesthere, and their status, were not directly related to or stronglyinfluenced by events in Eretz Yisrael, by the conflicts there betweenRoman rule and Jewish autonomy/independence. The standarddescription of Jewish life in Rome remains the book by Leon Roth,174 Ksharim

The Jews of Ancient Rome, JPS 1960 – especially chapter 1; for brieferand more accessible descriptions, see, for example:http://www.livius.org/di-dn/diaspora/rome.html andhttp://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/life/life5b.htmlb. Jewish autonomy in Eretz Yisrael under the Romansi. From sometime in the Hasmonean period, the high priest (or king)ruled in consultation (and sometimes in conflict) with a council ofelders that was typical in Hellenistic cities, called a gerousia; this wasthe precursor of the Sanhedrin, a body of community leaders withlegislative and judicial powers. These powers expanded andcontracted, depending on the degree of autonomy allowed byoutside rulers (Seleucids and later Rome). The Sanhedrin originallymet in the Temple complex; after the destruction it became aPharisaic institution (see below) and moved to Yavneh, and latermoved around the Galilee, ending up in the third century in Tiberiaswhere it stayed until it was disbanded in the early fifth century. Seehttp://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sanhedrin.htmland the opening passages of Mishnah Sanhedrin - http://www.comeand-hear.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_2.html#chapter_i;for a modernliberal commentary on this text seehttp://www.bmv.org.il/html/sanhedrin.aspFor discussion: it has been suggested that with the return to the land,and to sovereignty, the Sanhedrin should be re-established; indeed,what is the point of having a sovereign center in Israel if it does notrestore unified authority for the whole Jewish world? A renewedSanhedrin could update Jewish law, and actually legislate instead ofjust continuing to interpret the texts that were frozen centuries ago.Then, we could truly enter the post-denominational age…http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/shoftim/hey.html (a scholarlyanalysis of the question and its history)http://www.israelnationalnews.com/news.php3?id=75313 (anaccount of a recent attempt to reestablish the Sanhedrin)ii.The two leadership factions known as the Pharisees and Sadduceesapparently formed during the Hasmonean period, before the Romanconquest. With the destruction of the Temple, the Sadducees –being a faction based on the priests and their authority - essentiallybecame irrelevant, and the Pharisees came to create Judaism as weknow it (i.e., the Oral Law). Note, of course, that the Hasmonean rulerswere priests – thus, the Pharisees were an anti-establishment force.Josephus describes the two factions in the following passages:175 Ksharim

1.Antiquities of the Jews, 13.5.9: here Josephusdistinguishes among the three “sects” according totheir views on determinism and free will:a. The Sadducees believe that there is noprovidence, and that whatever befalls us is adirect result of our actions;b. The Pharisees believe that while we have freewill, providence still has some effect, and sowe cannot necessarily conclude that everyoutcome is a result only of our own behavior;c. The Essenes believe that all is determined byGod’s will.2.Antiquities of the Jews, 13.10.6: This passageemphasizes the key difference between thePharisees and Sadducees: their attitude toward theinterpretation of the law. The Sadducees believethat the Written Law is all there is; the Phariseesderive many additional laws from their oraltradition.In addition, Josephus indicates here that there is asocio-economic distinction between the twofactions, the Sadducees being primarily aristocrats,the Pharisees the party of the masses.3. Wars of the Jews, 2.8.14: Here Josephus adds thematter of immortality, reward and punishment: thePharisees believe in the immortality of the soul andin the concept of reward or punishment after death.The Sadducees reject these beliefs.Another social characteristic: the Pharisees seem tobe more interested in public harmony, while theSadducees tend to be harsh and extreme in theirviews and in their way of presenting them.iii.It seems that during the Hellenistic and Roman periods in EretzYisrael we developed the model of limited autonomy that we thentook with us to the various diasporas; i.e., an outside power claimsauthority over certain aspects of our lives (e.g., foreign policy,criminal law…), leaving us to rule our own community in limitedareas (e.g., personal status, ritual, civil law inside the community).This leaves us with an interesting question: what is more central:176 Ksharim

living in the God-given land, or living according to the God-givenlaw?c. Living in two culturesi. The dilemma of where to draw the line as to what aspects of foreignculture to accept, and what to reject, is a constant theme in Jewishhistory. The rabbinic literature is full of incidents and discussionsrelating to this issue. Here are a few examples:1.Talmud, Shabbat 33b: Once R. Yehuda and R. Yose and R.Shimon [bar Yochai] were sitting with Yehuda theConvert. R. Yehuda said: How wonderful are the worksof this people [the Romans]! They have establishedmarkets, they have built bridges, they have built baths.R. Yose was silent. R. Shimon bar Yochai answered:They established markets — for prostitutes to workthere; they built bridges — in order to collect tolls; theybuilt baths — to pamper themselves. Yehuda theConvert went and told their words to the authorities,who said: Yehuda who exalted — will be exalted; Yosewho was silent — will be exiled to Zippori; Shimon whocondemned — will be killed.This passage deals with the period just after the BarKochba revolt. These three rabbis were all ordained atgreat risk by Rabbi Judah Ben Baba during the Bar Kochbarevolt; and they were all among the leading circle ofscholars who re-established the Sanhedrin in the Galileeafter this revolt. R. Yehuda bar Ilai was known for hisconciliatory position vis a vis the Romans; R. Shimon barYochai was a radical. And R. Yosi’s exile to Zippori wasfitting, as Zippori was known as a center of JewishHellenism; in the great revolt, it had refused to fight theRomans, and built fortifications to protect itself fromattack by the rebels. It is interesting to note that the threepositions might be strategies, not beliefs: maybe all threebelieve in the evil of Roman civilization, but each has adifferent strategy for dealing with this belief. But ofcourse, one does not have freedom of strategy if one’sbeliefs totally rule out particular compromises, even ifmade temporarily and insincerely.2.Talmud, Sotah 49b: Our Rabbis taught, “When the kingsof the Hasmonean house fought one another, Hyrcanuswas outside and Aristobulus within. Each day theyused to let down denarii in a basket, and haul up for177 Ksharim

them animals for the continual offerings. An old manthere, who was learned in Greek wisdom, spoke withthem in Greek, saying, ‘As long as they carry on theTemple service, they will never surrender to you.’ Thenext day they let down denarii in a basket, and hauledup a pig. When it reached half way up the wall, it stuckits claws [into the wall] and the land of Israel wasshaken over a distance of four hundred parasangs. Atthat time they declared, ‘Cursed by the man who rearspigs, and cursed be the man who teaches his son Greekwisdom.’”The story relates to the struggle for succession betweenthe sons of Salome Alexander, at the beginning of Romanrule. Hyrcanus handed the city to Pompey; Aristobulus’followers held out in the Temple compound. Since bothsides were committed to the sanctity of the Temple andthe importance of sacrifices, the besiegers sold animals tothe besieged for the daily sacrifice. It was a Jew who hadstudied Greek knowledge who could suggest that thisarrangement be broken off — for he saw the sacrifices asa practical political (or perhaps psychological) matter,and not as a high religious value.3.Talmud, Sotah 49b: ...Behold R. Judah declared thatSamuel said in the name of R. Simeon ben Gamaliel,“...There were a thousand pupils in my father’s house;500 studied Torah and 500 studied Greek wisdom, andof these [latter] there remained only I here and mycousin in [the town of ] Assia.” It was different with thehousehold of R. Gamaliel because they had closeassociations with the government; for it has beentaught, “To trim the hair in front is of the ways of theAmorites;” but they permitted Abtilus ben Reuben totrim his hair in front because he had close associationswith the government. Similarly, they permitted thehousehold of R. Gamaliel to study Greek wisdombecause they had close associations with thegovernment.R. Simeon ben Gamaliel’s family were the Nesi’im, orheads of the community, once autonomy was reorganizedafter the Bar Kochba revolt. They were wealthy andpowerful, and were respected by both the Jews and by theRoman nobility. This passage suggests that while it mightbe that ordinary people should not study Greek culture178 Ksharim

ecause it is liable to cause them to fall away from theirJewish commitment, leaders like the family of R. Gamalielhave to study foreign language and culture in order to beable to fulfill their responsibilities. They must be at homein the cultural environment of the ruling power, so thatthey can negotiate and lobby on behalf of the Jews. Notethat wearing the hair in the Roman hair style was viewedas a form of pagan religious practice (“the ways of theAmorites”) and forbidden — except to those whofrequented the corridors of the ruling power.4.Mishnah Avodah Zarah 3:4: Proclos ben Philosophus puta question to R. Gamaliel when the latter was bathingin the bath of Aphrodite. He said to him, “It is written inyour Torah, ‘...let nothing that has been condemnedstick to your hand...’ (Deuteronomy 13:18); why are youbathing in the bath of Aphrodite?” He replied to him,“We may not answer [Torah] questions in a bath.”When he came out, he said to him, “I did not come intoher domain, she has come into mine. Nobody says thatthe bath was made as an adornment for Aphrodite, butrather, that Aphrodite was made as an adornment forthe bath... [Moreover], this [statue of Aphrodite] standsby a sewer and all people urinate before it. [In theTorah] it is only stated ‘...you shall not worship theirgods...’ (Deuteronomy 7:16); i.e., what is treated as adeity is prohibited; what is not treated as a deity ispermitted.”The same R. Gamaliel, who had a special dispensation tostudy Greek language and culture because of his need tofunction in Greek society, states here a very modernsoundingclaim regarding his bathing in the bath ofAphrodite: the idol has lost its religious significance for thepagans — they relate to it as a purely secular decorationand show no worship or even minimal respect for it — sowe are free to regard it the same way. It is interesting thateven a non-Jew is surprised by Rabban Gamaliel’sbehavior.Note that the mainstream traditional Jewish view ofstatues, throughout the ages, did not make thisdistinction, and saw statues — especially of figures fromother religions — as idolatrous and forbidden. It seemsthat there were elements in the pharisaic leadership that179 Ksharim

sought to harmonize between the reality of theirsocial/cultural life and their interpretation of the law; butthose who were not as close to Hellenistic culture as R.Gamaliel, did not see it as so harmless.5.Talmud, Avodah Zarah 50b: The palace of King Yannaiwas destroyed. Idolators came and set up a statue ofMercury there. Later, other idolators came, who did notworship Mercury, and removed the stones, using themto pave roads... Some rabbis abstained [from walkingon them] while others did not. R. Jochanan exclaimed,“The holy one walks on them, so shall we abstain?”Who was “the holy one?” R. Menachem ben Simai. Andwhy did they call him “the holy one?” Because hewould not even look at the image on a zuz.The two perspectives are highlighted in this passage: tomake the case extreme, we have idolators who explicitlydesecrate a shrine, using the stones for profane and lowlypurposes. Yet even so, there were some Jews who refusedeven to walk on the street made of these stones — arather extreme rejection of even the remotest contact withany aspect of Hellenistic religion. And to tell us howextreme it is, R. Jochanan reports that even a knownextremist, R. Menachem, does not observe this prohibition.R. Menachem’s extremism finds expression in refusing tolook at the pagan image on a common coin; theimplication being that “normal” people have no problemwith either of these activities.6.Jerusalem Talmud, Ta’anit 1, 64b: R. Abbahu saw in adream that if Pentakakka were to pray for rain, the rainwould fall. And so it happened. R. Abbahu sent forPentakakka and asked him: What is your work? Heanswered: I commit five sins daily – I hire outprostitutes, I decorate the theater, I bring theprostitutes’ clothing to the bath house, I dance beforethem and I drum for them. The Rabbi asked him: Andhave you done some good deed? He answered: Oncewhen I was decorating the theater, a woman came andstood behind a pillar, weeping. I asked her what waswrong, and she said that her husband was imprisonedand she had come to earn money to ransom him. I soldmy bed and linens and gave her the money, saying: Go,ransom your husband and do not sin. Rabbi Abbahu180 Ksharim

said: Indeed, you were worthy to have your prayeranswered.Talmud, Shabbat 150a: R. Elazar said: We can distributetzedaka to the poor on Shabbat… R. Samuel barNahmani, in the name of R. Yohanan, said: We can to gotheaters and circuses and basilicas to deal with publicwelfare on Shabbat.These two passages together give an interesting picture:on the one hand, the theater is seen as a place ofprostitution. On the other hand, that seems to be wherethe people are to be found – even on Shabbat!ii.iii.Roman culture is like a steamroller – even without violent conquest, itseems to have been seen like globalization today: OK, we are happyto accept the American concept of being nice, and waiting in line, butdo we have to buy the whole package, including the consumerismand the materialism too? Can we select the elements of the outsideculture we’ll accept? Or if we open the window a crack will we beblown away? It turns out that this dilemma is not only a fact of theDiaspora, but is and always was an issue in Eretz Yisrael. Indeed, inIsrael there’s the seductive argument that as long as we are on ourown soil, then whatever culture grows here organically, is ours. Sowe don’t have to worry about the influx of “foreign” culturalelements, for as they land here and take root, they become ours; e.g.,New Year’s eve parties; rock music; English slang…Sites that reflect the meeting of the cultures: Zippori, Bet She’arim,Caesarea, synagogues with zodiac floors (Zippori, Tiberias, Bet Alfa).Perhaps the richest site showing the interconnected life of Jews andGentiles in Roman Palestine is Zippori. Here are a few links to sitesdealing with the archaeology of the site:http://www.centuryone.org/sepphoris.htmlhttp://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Early%20History%20-%20Archaeology/Archaeological%20Sites%20in%20Israel%20-%20Zipporihttp://archaeology.huji.ac.il/Zippori/index.htm181 Ksharim

5. Thoughts on teaching this lessonWe chafed at the Roman bit, suffered a great deal under their rule, and ultimatelyfought and lost two bloody rebellions. And yet, this was a time of culturalflowering; it was under the Romans that the Mishnah was redacted (in Zippori).There is evidence of Jewish sharing of Roman culture and values, of making dowith limited autonomy in our land that was no longer ours to control. We foughtto the death – but we also compromised. Perhaps the emphasis in studying thisperiod through a teacher’s eyes should be to think about questions of identity –could it be that during this period Jewish identity became more portable, morespiritual, less national, less political? Is our definition of ourselves different nowfrom what it was then? Is it different now from what it was before 1897? 1948?6. See maps in http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/index.html: 99, 100, 101, 102,102a, 114, 115182 Ksharim

Lesson 21:The Great Revolt1. Outlinea. Historical eventsb. Internal conflictc. Aftermath: Yavneh and Bar Kochbad. The revolts in modern Israeli consciousness2. IntroductionThe Great Revolt and the destruction of the Temple represent, of course, a majorturning point in Jewish history from every perspective. The pattern of life in exile hadbeen established previously, with the creation of the Babylonian community; however,the diaspora as we know it is really only known to us from 70 CE onward. A few keypoints regarding this period that are of interest for our teaching of Israel: The escape to Yavneh: trading the struggle for political sovereignty for acceptanceof limited religious/communal autonomy The Bar Kochba revolt and the historical power of messianism The historical memory and observance of the destruction in the Jewish tradition (thiswas dealt with in lesson 15, on the destruction of the first Temple) The two revolts as symbols in modern Israeli culture3. Lesson goalsa. Knowledge of key historical developmentsb. Awareness of the internal divisions in the Jewish people at the timec. Awareness of the impact of the revolt and the destruction on the development ofJewish religion and cultured. Awareness of the impact of the revolt and the destruction on the culture of modernIsrael4. Expanded outlinea. Historical eventsi. From the beginning of their rule of Palestine, the Romans found the Jewsuniquely rebellious, and found themselves constantly “putting out fires.”While there were certainly significant elements in the people who werewilling to live under Roman domination with some degree of autonomy,the anti-compromise faction never relented, and succeeded in setting thetone for the entire nation. At the same time, the Roman administrationbecame increasingly corrupt and cruel, and relations between Jews and thelocal gentiles deteriorated. This situation in itself would have beensufficient to explain the outbreak of rebellion; however, superimposed on itwas a widespread messianic expectation that gave reinforcement to thosewith revolutionary inclinations. On the other hand, it is important to notethat the Jews were never united in their support for the revolt, andexpended a good deal of energy — and blood — in fighting amongthemselves. The Jews’ stubborn and courageous stand against obviouslyoverwhelming odds during the Great Revolt impressed even the Romans.183 Ksharim

ii.iii.iv.Nevertheless, its net result was the destruction of the Temple and theimpoverishment of the land.Time line•64 C.E. Gessius Florus becomes procurator of Judah.•66 Florus appropriates money from the Temple treasury, leading todemonstrations, riots, and “declaration” of revolt (refusal to offersacrifices on behalf of emperor).•67 Yodfat — and the rest of the Galilee — is subdued by the Romans.•70 Siege of Jerusalem, destruction of the Temple.•73 Last holdout of the rebels, Masada, falls.•115-117 Large scale revolts of Jews in Diaspora communities (Egypt,Cyrene, Cyprus), suppressed.•130 Emperor Hadrian begins reconstruction of Jerusalem as pagan citywith temple of Jupiter.•132 Outbreak of Bar Kochba revolt.•135 Fall of Beitar, last stronghold of revolt.See maps athttp://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/index.html, maps 125, 126.The vicious cycle of rebellion and repression that began with Herod wasonly rarely broken during the period between his death and the outbreak ofthe Great Revolt. The first two decades were the longest such quiet period.Then, in 26, Pontius Pilate was appointed (procurator) governor of Judah.For ten years he ruled with such ruthlessness and deliberate flaunting ofJewish religious sensitivities that he was ultimately ordered back to Rome.A few years later, the emperor Caligula, angered by an outbreak of violencebetween Jews and gentiles in Yavneh, ordered his statue to be set up in theTemple. Only intensive lobbying (and finally, Caligula’s murder) preventedwhat might have been the cause of extensive violence.From the mid-40s until 66, Palestine was ruled by a series of ineffectivegovernors, all of whose attempts to suppress the escalating resistance ofthe extremist groups proved counterproductive, driving more and morepeople into the extremist camp. The result was a situation of near anarchy,and the apparent vindication of those who argued that violent resistanceto Rome could indeed be effective.The revolt broke out when the gentile inhabitants of Caesaria turned onthe Jews; this in turn provoked riots by the Jews in Jerusalem. Theprocurator Florus responded with violence, and the situation quicklydegenerated to open warfare. Roman reinforcements sent from Syria wereunable to take Jerusalem, and turned back. This strengthened the hand ofthe extremist leaders, and a unified military command was set up. Massivereinforcements were brought in by Rome, led by Vespasian. This armymarched across the Galilee, conquering one by one the fortified holdoutsof the rebels. There ensued a lull, while Vespasian was called home to be184 Ksharim

crowned emperor. When Vespasian’s son Titus came to lay siege to thecity in the spring of 70, the resistance was weakened and disorganized.The city fell in the summer, and Titus took pains to have the Temple totallydestroyed to put an end to any hope of resistance. Nevertheless,resistance continued, at Masada and Machaerus (on the east shore of theDead Sea), for about three more years.Despite economic recovery and Roman respect for Jewish autonomy, theburden of taxation, the humiliation of subjugation, and continuedmessianic expectations led to another rebellion in 115-117, and then,when the emperor Hadrian sought to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city, afull scale revolt erupted in 132. The leader, Simon bar Kosiba or barKochba, seems to have united the resistance under his command; manyapparently saw in him the messiah. In any case, the Romans brought inreinforcements, and in the course of three years, beat down the rebels; thewar ended with the fall of the fortress of Beitar (just southwest ofJerusalem). Rabbi Akiba and a number of other establishment leaderssupported the revolt; many were killed. The death and devastationresulting from this war were enormous; there was no rapid recoverycomparable to that after the Great Revolt.Because of the devastation of the center and south of the country, thereconstituted autonomous authority was based in the Galilee. TheSanhedrin moved about over the next century, at first operating in small,out-of-the-way towns, and only after 200 moving to Zippori and finally tothe regional capital, Tiberias. This same period saw improvement inrelations with Rome; by the end of the second century, the Nasi, or head ofthe Jewish community, ruled in splendor and was on close terms withRoman nobility, if not with the emperor himself. It was at this time that theNasi, R. Judah, took the step of summarizing and editing the Oral Law,producing the Mishnah. This act can be seen as a turning point: a firstassertion of the authority of the rabbinic leadership to set the oralinterpretation down as written law. The Mishnah in turn became the basisof further oral development of Jewish law in the generations thatfollowed.v. Our main source, of course, for the Great Revolt is Josephus, who startedout as the commander of the Jewish forces in Galilee, but in the first majorbattle, the siege of Yodfat, he surrendered to Vespasian’s army and survivedthe war as a sort of white collar prisoner of Rome. The account of hisargument with his colleagues over mass suicide is quite interesting: seeWars of the Jews Book III chaps. 7-8; http://www.sacredtexts.com/jud/josephus/war-3.htm.Josephus is of course the only sourcefor the similar story of mass suicide at Masada (http://www.sacredtexts.com/jud/josephus/war-7.htm,chapters 8-9)vi.Perhaps the best known symbol of the destruction of the Temple and theRoman suppression of the revolt is the Arch of Titus in Rome, a triumphal185 Ksharim

arch showing the Romans carrying away the sacred objects of the Temple.(http://www.abu.nb.ca/courses/NTIntro/images/ArchofTitus.htm) It isinteresting to consider how these images played in the Jewishconsciousness throughout the ages; many Jews have the custom ofrefusing to walk under the arch.vii.Customs relating to the destruction of the Temple do not make adistinction between the first and second Temples: we are in mourningbecause we do not have our promised sovereign existence, under David,worshipping in the Temple with the mediation of the priests. Besides thefasts mentioned in lesson 15, there are various other customs – e.g.,mourning practices at weddings, leaving a portion of every houseunpainted, and not eating roasted meat at the Passover seder (which wouldbe too much like the sacrifice, which is impossible without the Temple). It isinteresting to consider these customs as one way of keeping a kind ofconnection to Israel constantly in our consciousness. Seehttp://www.jewishmag.com/57mag/mourning/mourning.htm; andhttp://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/9194/edition_id/175/format/html/displaystory.htmlDoes/should this have a place in our post-1948 practice? Or should ourconnection be expressed in a different idiom?b. Internal conflicti. The Zealots, as Josephus called the radical revolutionaries, were in fact not aunited movement, but a collection of local groups, who seem to have firstappeared on the scene shortly after Herod’s death. Some were familygroups; some followed leaders who had messianic pretensions; somecombined their commitment to driving out the Romans with a socialphilosophy aimed at eliminating oligarchical rule within the Jewishcommunity. A number of the Zealot leaders had their roots — and theirfollowings — in the Galilee, while others were based in Jerusalem. Somegroups, called Sicarii (dagger -men), were known for their use ofassassination against their Jewish opponents. Despite all of thesedifferences, the one underlying ideological tenet of the various Zealotgroups was the belief that acceptance of Roman rule was tantamount toidolatry, and therefore no means was unjustified and no sacrifice too greatin the struggle to remove Roman domination so that the Jews could beruled by the only true King, God.ii.See Josephus’ (http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/index.htm#woj)account of the internal violence:1. Antiquities 18:1:6 and 20:8:52. Wars 4:3:2, 5:1:4, 5:6:1Infighting between competing factions of Zealots in Jerusalem, from thebeginning of the siege, led to significant bloodshed as well as to thedestruction of stores of food. Josephus suggests that this civil strife madea significant contribution to the Roman victory. The rabbis likewise decry186 Ksharim

the internecine strife within the besieged city as a cause of our defeat; seebelow. It is not clear that the factions led by Simon bar Giora, Eleazar benSimon, and John of Giscala were driven by conflicting ideologies orstrategies of revolt; it seems more likely that the fighting among them wasmerely a struggle for power.iii.We are fond of saying that we owe our survival to our external enemies, aswe tend to unify in the face of a threat. However, it is interesting to notethat time after time, it seems that we lost sovereignty in our land by turningagainst ourselves just when we faced such an external threat; note theviolent divisions… During the struggle against Babylonia (see Jeremiah) During the Hasmonean revolt In the civil war among Hasmonean factions that led to the Romanconquest During the Roman siege of Jerusalem, as above.Could it be that when we feel too secure in our possession of the land, welose sight of the conditionality of that possession; we assume that nothingcan dislodge us, so we allow ourselves to fall apart…??c. Aftermath: Yavneh and Bar Kochbai. The abovementioned factional strife in Jerusalem comes to a head with thedecision of Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai to flee the siege and seek acompromise with Rome. The Talmudic account is fascinating for its insightsinto the internal life of the community:Babylonian Talmud, Gitin 56a-bThe biryonim (rebels) were then in the city. The rabbis said to them: Let usgo out and make peace with them [the Romans]. They would not let them,but on the contrary, said: Let us go out and fight them. The rabbis said:you will not succeed. They [the biryonim] then rose up and burned thestores of wheat and barley so that a famine ensued...Abba Sikra, the head of the biryonim in Jerusalem, was the son of the sisterof Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai, who sent to him saying: Come to visit meprivately. When he came he said to him: How long are you going to carryon in this way and kill all the people by starvation? He replied: What can Ido? If I say a word to them, they will kill me. [Yochanan ben Zakkai] said:Devise some plan for me to escape. Perhaps I shall be able to save a little.[Abba Sikra] said to him: Pretend to be ill, and let everyone come to inquireabout you. Bring something foul-smelling and put it by you so that theywill say you are dead. Then let your disciples carry your bed, but no oneelse, so that they will not notice that you are still light, since they knowthat a living being is lighter than a corpse. He did so, and Rabbi Eliezerwent under the bier on one side and Rabbi Joshua on the other. Whenthey reached the gate, some men wanted to put a lance through the bier.He said to them: Shall [the Romans] say, “They have stabbed their master?”187 Ksharim

They wanted to give it a push. He said to them: Shall they say, “Theypushed their master?” They opened the city gate for him and he escaped.When Yochanan ben Zakkai reached the Romans he said: Peace to you Oking, peace to you, O king! [Vespasian] said: Your life is forfeit on twocounts: one because I am not a king and you call me king; and again, if Iam king, why did you not come to me before now? He replied: As for yoursaying that you are not a king, in truth you are a king, since if you were nota king, Jerusalem would not be delivered into your hand… As for yourquestion, “ Why if you are a king did I not come to you until now?”theanswer is that thebiryonim among us did not let me... At this point amessenger came... from Rome saying: Up! For the emperor is dead, and thenotables of Rome have decided to make you head [of state]...[Vespasian] said: I am now going, and will send someone to take my place.You can, however, make a request of me and I will grant it. [RabbiYochanan] said to him: Give me Yavneh and its sages and the dynasty ofRabban Gamaliel...Here the Talmudic account confirms Josephus’ description of the state of civilwar in effect within the walls of besieged Jerusalem. But the main interest inthis passage is the famous story of Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai’s escape fromthe city, in order to take action for Jewish continuity. The text has RabbiYochanan related to one of the Zealot leaders; thus privy to “insideinformation” about the dynamics of the civil war, he becomes convinced thatthe city is doomed, and uses this connection to organize his escape fromJerusalem (the Zealots prevented anyone from leaving the city to cross to theRoman side; only to bury a corpse was it permissible to go outside the citywalls).Once outside, he ingratiates himself with the Roman authorities, and uses thisconnection to obtain permission to set up a new academy at Yavneh.Whether or not all the details of this story are historical facts, it seemsreasonable to conclude from it that there was a faction of leadership thatsought to de-escalate the conflict and thus avoid total defeat and destruction;failing to gain control of the city, these rabbis created institutions that couldcarry on Jewish autonomy after the inevitable defeat, within the context ofRoman domination.ii.R. Yochanan ben Zakkai’s response to the struggle against Rome can beseen as the antithesis of that represented by Masada. It was based on theassumption that it was possible to maintain Jewish communal autonomy— and full Jewish spiritual life — while living under Roman denomination.Yavneh represents neither suicide nor total surrender, but the creation of anew kind of relationship, in which authority is shared, divided into twodifferent domains. Later, due to the upheaval of the Bar Kochba revolt, theYavneh center wandered across the Galilee for a few hundred years. Thisexperience established and institutionalized a system of law, belief and188 Ksharim

governance that was stable in the absence of sovereignty and ultimatelycame to characterize Jewish life in the Diaspora.iii.iv.Today, Yavneh is the name of a religious kibbutz (seehttp://www.kibbutzprogramcenter.org/Kibbutz_Profiles/kibbutz_yavneh.htm ) and of a development town nearby, populated largely by Moroccanimmigrants of the 50s. In addition, not surprisingly, in North America it isthe name of many Orthodox day schools and camps and of a nationalorganization of Orthodox college students.Fifty years after the establishment of the Yavneh center, messianicexpectations seem once again to have become acute, leading to anotherattempt at armed revolt against the power of Rome. For a full collection oftexts with commentary on the Bar Kochba revolt of 132-135, see:http://www.livius.org/ja-jn/jewish_wars/jwar07.htmld. The revolts in modern Israeli consciousnessi. The discussion of the significance of Masada as a symbol in modern Israelhas been intense for decades. See, for example,http://www.jafi.org.il/education/juice/history1/week2.html andhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/portrait/masada.html.ii.iii.Like Masada, there is controversy over the significance of the Bar Kochbarevolt as a symbol in modern Israeli culture. See, for example,http://www.hagshama.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=84 andhttp://www.jewishmag.com/79mag/domnitch/domnitch.htm.These discussions have obvious modern implications, raising severalquestions that are relevant to our understanding and teaching of Israel:1. Can we ever know where we are in the plan of history – whenwe are living in messianic times? Is Israel, as the liturgy oforthodox Zionism states “the first flowering of ourredemption?” Or is it just another chapter in our ongoinghistory, another Jewish community? If Rabbi Akiba got itwrong, how can we know we are right?2. When, if ever, are compromise and submission a better way toJewish survival and strength than proud heroism and violentresistence? And vice versa...3. Were those who committed suicide at Yodfat and Masadaheroes or fools? What about the followers of Bar Kochba? Andwere those who compromised at Yavneh and Zippori traitorsor heroes?189 Ksharim

Lesson 22:The MishnahNote: this lesson depends on photocopied materials not available on-line1. Outlinea. Bialik's "Halachah and Aggadah"b. Study of portions from the Mishnah that offer glimpses into life in the Land.c. Reflection on feasibility, methodology of teaching Tannaitic texts in the classroom.2. IntroductionMost of the Tannaitic literature belongs to the halachic genre, and is made up of laws, asopposed to the aggadic genre, which is made up of stories, legends, sayings and ideas. Inmany educational settings in the Jewish world today, which are not committed to a halachicway of life, this literature is therefore neglected, with biblical texts largely preferred, as well assome aggadic stories gleaned from the literature of the sages.In his classic essay "Halachah and Aggadah", Hayim Nahman Bialik (considered Israel's nationalpoet, though he died before the foundation of the state) decries the focus of his generation onAggadah, and the neglect of Halachah. He advocates a renewal of the study of Halachah, bothas a literary genre, and as a way of life – not necessarily the traditional Halachah of theShulchan Aruch, but the concept of commitment to a way of life.We will read an excerpt of Bialik's essay both to see how deeply grounded some modern-dayfigures in the Israeli literary world are in the world of the ancient texts, and to understandBialik's claim that Halachah and Halachic literature should not be abandoned as irrelevant inthis day of Aggadah. Then we will study some of the texts from the Mishnah to which Bialikrefers, and end by discussing whether these texts can be used in our classrooms.3. Lesson goalsa. Mini-experience of Mishnah study focusing on texts that offer glimpses of life in ancientEretz Yisrael.b. Developing an awareness of the Mishnah as a window on to real life at a time when we werestrongly and formatively rooted in Eretz Yisrael.c. Reflection on the relevance of Tannaitic and Talmudic texts to current educational settings.d. Exposure to one of Bialik's important essays.4. Expanded outlineA century or two after the destruction of the Second Temple, the rabbis of Eretz Yisrael(collectively called the Tannaim) began the process of the collection and codification of thetexts of the Oral Law, which had been accumulating for centuries beforehand. The mostimportant of the resulting texts is the Mishnah, codified by Rabbi Judah the Prince, but severalother collections have survived (Note: more information on Tannaitic literature can be foundat http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/03-Torah-Halacha/preamble.html). The resultingtexts can be roughly divided into halachic (pertaining to laws) and aggadic (stories, legends,sayings and ideas) texts. In most non-orthodox Jewish schools, focus is on the latter. In thislesson, we will try to see if some attention should also be given to halachic texts, especially inthe context of Israel education.190 Ksharim

Read the excerpt from Bialik's essay (see page 22 -23). Bialik was an iluy (a genius of Torahscholarship) in the great yeshiva of Volozhin, and therefore could pull the list of references tothe Mishnah effortlessly from his sleeve. Although he later became secularized, the knowledgehe had gathered in his youth remained at his disposal. This is a characteristic of many of thefounding fathers of Israel, both secular and immensely knowledgeable in Jewish texts andtradition. Later generations remained secular, but no longer had the texts at their fingertipssince they had never been exposed to them. Our challenge is to see whether we can somehowsupply this background for our students, for whom halachah is no longer relevant.After reading the excerpt, divide the teachers into groups, and supply each group with a fewtexts from the Mishnah referred to in the excerpt – see attached sources. The first source in thelist is quite a lengthy description of the oblation of the first fruits, while the rest are shorter,and refer to the agricultural laws (you might want to hand out a vocabulary list of this topicfrom last year's lesson #9 - see the appendix below). Each group should: Understand the sources, using the provided translation and commentary, stressing thepictures they provide from agricultural life, and glossing over the legal details, whichare not our focus in this lesson. Try to envision the scenes described, flesh them out with additional details. Discuss whether and how they would bring this kind of material into the classroom:text study, reenactments, demonstrations?Bring the groups together and tell them about the following interesting archaeologicaldiscovery: The mosaic decorating the ancient synagogue floor in the old city of Sepphoris(Zippori) in the Galilee poignantly demonstrates how well-known these texts were to Jews inancient times. The mosaic, dated by archaeologists to the early 5 th century CE, shows scenesfrom the Temple in Jerusalem. In the attached picture which shows a detail from the mosaic,you can see a basket containing the first fruits brought to the temple in Jerusalem (including adiscernible bunch of grapes and a pomegranate), with two pigeons hanging off the sides. Thetemple had been destroyed hundreds of years before the mosaic was created, and theceremony of the oblation of the first fruits along with it, but the picture of the pigeonshanging from the baskets was frozen in the words of the Jerusalem Talmud, and picked up bythe artist:They would not put the young pigeons on the baskets of the first fruits so that they would notdirty them; instead they hung them from the sides of the baskets. (Jerusalem Talmud Bikkurim65d)This lesson should end with a discussion of the challenges and benefits of teaching excerptsfrom the literature of the sages in Jewish schools. Jews in former generations, well-versed inthe Mishnah and other halachic texts, carried detailed images of life in Eretz Yisrael in theirheads, nourished entirely by the biblical and post-biblical texts they had studied. What wouldit take for our students to do that, or is it hopeless because we have become so distant fromhalacha? And if indeed halacha is not relevant at all, is there any way to study the Mishnahmeaningfully? And if the answer is No, then we must ask: is there any text that speaks to ourstudents, that could serve to smuggle images of Israel into their brains?191 Ksharim

SourcesAttached are photocopies of: Hayim Nahman Bialik, “Halachah and Aggadah” (translated by Sir Leon Simon),Education Department of the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland, 1944. Excerpts from Mishnayot (translated by Philip Blackman), Judaica Press 1977. Pictures of the mosaic floor in the ancient synagogue of Zippori, from Weiss, Ze'ev andNetzer, Ehud. Promise and Redemption – The Synagogue Floor Mosaic of Sepphoris (inHebrew). Israel Museum Press, Jerusalem 1966.(Or see http://www.mehalev.org.il/zipori/knst/syngg.files/frame.htmNote that the heading superimposed on the picture is incorrect, referring to anadjacent part of the mosaic.)References from the essay to the Mishnah:1. The oblation of the first fruits – Bikkurim 3, 1 – 5 (pp. 477-479).2. The poor falling on the stray ears or spreading a cloak to stake a claim– Peah 4,3 (pp. 99-100).3. The poor fighting over the booty with their sickles – Peah 4, 4(p. 100).4. Ant-hill in the standing corn – Peah 4, 11 (p. 104).5. Wind stirring the vines – Kilayim 7, 7 (p. 220)6. Gatherer of wet leaves and collector of dry twigs – Sheviith 9, 6 (p. 281).7. Grape gatherer snipping off a cluster – Peah 7, 3 (p. 120).8. Stag bought with tithe-money – Maaser-Sheni 3, 11 (p. 395).9. Tree that grows in one field and spreads over another – Baba Bathra 2, 14 (p.178).Appendix: Agricultural lawsSowing: Leviticus 19/19 Kilayim - the prohibition of planting or grafting two different types of cropplants together.Harvesting: Leviticus 19/9-10 Leket - leaving produce that has fallen during harvest in the fields for thepoor Deutronomy 24/19 Shichecha - leaving the leftovers that were forgotten in the harvest forthe poor Leviticus 19/9 Pe’ah - not reaping the edges or corners of the field so as to leave them for thepoorTaxes/gifts: Numbers 15/17-21 Terumah - gifts to the Cohanim amounting to 1/60 of the produce grown Leviticus 27/ 30-32, Deutronomy 14/22-26- tithes to the Levites Leviticus 19/23-25 Orlah and Netah Revei - the prohibition of eating the fruit of a tree duringits first three years of growth – and the commandment to eat the fruits of the fourth year inJerusalem Deuteronomy 26/1-22 Bikkurim – bringing the first fruits of the harvest to Jerusalem Numbers 15/17-21 Challah – setting aside a portion of bread as it is baked, as a gift to God192 Ksharim

L e s s o n 23:Israel and Babylonia1. Outlinea. Israel-diaspora relations in ancient timesb. Babylonian diaspora as a case studyc. Babylonian vs. Jerusalem Talmud2. IntroductionA Jewish diaspora has existed since the times of the First Temple. The balance of powerbetween Eretz Yisrael and the diaspora was in a constant flux, depending on the sizes ofthe communities, their economic and political wellbeing, and the existence of a templewhich served as the religious center for the Jewish world. In this unit we'll look at EretzYisrael-diaspora relations in the time of the second Temple and after its destruction, alwayskeeping in mind the (somewhat striking) parallels with phenomena we observe today. Asan example of a large and powerful community (somewhat like the North-AmericanJewish community today?) we will examine in more detail the Babylonian community.We'll look at the two Talmuds, one from Babylonia and the other from Eretz Yisrael, to seethe differences and why they emerged, and examine one particular story which appears inboth Talmuds, with subtle but telling differences.3. Lesson goalsa. Understanding of the characteristics of Eretz Yisrael -diaspora relations in ancient timesb. Knowledge of the structure of the Babylonian communityc. Reflection on the parallels and differences in Eretz Yisrael -diaspora relations then andnow4. Expanded outlinea. Eretz Yisrael -diaspora relations in ancient times"Now these Jews are already gotten into all cities; and it is hard to find a place in the habitableearth that hath not admitted this tribe of men, and is not possessed by them" (Strabo ofCappadocia, Greek historian and geographer of the 1 st century BC, quoted in Flavius Josephus,Antiquities of the Jews, 7).The existence of a sizeable Jewish diaspora was brought on by a number of factors: forcedexpulsions by ruling powers, political and religious pressures in Judea, economicopportunities abroad and a trend of conversion to Judaism. All these resulted in the Jewsbeing spread all over the known world, mostly under the rule of the Hellenistic-Romanempires, with the important exception of the Babylonian community. Diaspora Jews followeda variety of occupations, and were usually well-treated in their lands, with their religiousfreedoms respected and a degree of autonomy within the community.The relationship between Eretz Yisrael and the diaspora manifested itself in several ways, andcontributions went in both directions.From diaspora to Eretz Yisrael: While the Temple stood, Jews from the diaspora brought sacrifices and other gifts, andcontributed half-shekels to the upkeep of the Temple. These funds were not only used193 Ksharim

for the temple worship itself, and the supplementary services it provided (courts,library, etc.) but to the upkeep of the city of Jerusalem in general – roads, watersystems and other infrastructural projects. Jerusalem and the Temple were consideredassets of the entire Jewish people. After the destruction, rabbis from Eretz Yisrael weresent on missions to the diaspora communities, to collect funds for the upkeep of thepresidency, courts and yeshivas.While the Temple stood, Jews from the diaspora came on pilgrimages to Jerusalem.Pilgrims often stayed for longer periods, taking the opportunity to study with the localrabbis, so that when they returned to their home countries they still regarded therabbis of Jerusalem as spiritual authorities. Pilgrimages where also an opportunity tomeet Jews from all over the world, thereby strengthening national unity.Several Jews who originated from the diaspora came to positions of power in theleadership of the institutions of Judea, both in the Sanhedrin and in the Temple.Jews in the diaspora used their influence to affect decisions by Roman rulers whichpertained to Judea.From Eretz Yisrael to the diaspora, contributions included: Setting the calendar (see also lesson 24 for more details): The decision on thedeclaration of a new month was made in Jerusalem, and then conveyed to thediaspora by means of a system of beacons (see source #1) and later emissaries.Decisions on leap years were transmitted to the diaspora by letter (see an example insource #2). The Sanhedrin in Jerusalem was considered the higher court by Jewish courts all overthe world, who sent it their questions. Important rabbis went on long journeys, visiting communities across the world. Thesemissions were primarily for the purpose of fund-raising, but the rabbis also taught andlectured during their visits. Rabbis could only receive ordination in Eretz Yisrael, so scholars from the diaspora hadto travel there for their accomplishments to be formally recognized. Kings of Judea used their influence to lobby for the rights of Jewish minorities in citiesof the Roman Empire. The central archive of the Jewish world was kept in Jerusalem, where family records ofthe Kohanim were kept. The rabbis in Jerusalem translated the Torah into Greek (in what was to be known asthe Septuagint) for the benefit of Jews in the diaspora whose first language was Greek. A central library was maintained in Jerusalem, where scrolls were collected, collated,amended, copied and sent out to the Jewish world. During the 3 rd century CE, it became customary for Jews to ship their bodies for burialin Eretz Yisrael. This resulted in additional travel to Eretz Yisrael of families bringingtheir loved ones to burial, or returning to visit their graves (see an interesting parallelin Meir Shalev's novel "The Blue Mountain", whose main character is a morticianmaking a fortune burying former Second-Aliyah pioneers who went abroad and wishto be buried in Israel).How does this picture compare to today?194 Ksharim

Can we think of modern-day parallels to the items on the lists above? What are thedifferences/similarities? Was the diaspora- Eretz Yisrael connection stronger or weaker than it isnowadays? If we had an equivalent to the Temple, how would it affect our relation to Israel?Do our modern-day experiences raise questions about the past (e.g. did the leaders of Judeathink about the effect of their decisions on the Jews of the diaspora; did the leaders of Judeaactively enlist the Jewish diaspora in lobbying for their causes; did the Jews in the diaspora tryand affect how the money they contributed was being used in Judea; did the Jews considerspending some of the money on strengthening the communities in the diaspora?).b. Babylonian diaspora as a case studyWhile the stormy and colorful events of the Hasmonean and Roman periods had beenunfolding in Jerusalem, the national center of Jewish life, a large population of Jews wasquietly living a few hundred miles to the east, in the Persian empire. While they were inconstant contact with the center in Judea, the Jews of Babylonia lived their own lives anddeveloped their own institutions, in a cultural milieu very different from that in the Hellenisticworld to the west. By the time the Mishnah was compiled and transmitted to Babylonia, thecommunity numbered in the millions, and completely dominated cities and whole regions ofthe kingdom. In their number and in their economic power, they were by far the mostsignificant of the Diaspora communities.Within a few centuries of the completion of the Mishnah, the glorious leadership of PalestinianJewry had declined, as had the demographic, economic, and intellectual significance of thecommunity in general. Palestine was eclipsed by Babylonia. The Babylonian community wasthe dominant center of Jewish life for over 700 years, until it, too, went into decline, and thecenter moved westward, to the rising communities of Europe and North Africa.Because of this chronology of the development of cultural centers, the Babylonian centerserved as the conduit for the transmission of the cultural heritage of Palestine to Europe. Assuch, it made its own unique contribution to Jewish law and thought. In Babylonia, we findthe development of the leadership structure that became standard in Diaspora communities:the Exilarch, or “lay” leader, whose authority was based on his wealth and/or his relationshipwith the government, in tandem with the Gaonim, or heads of the academies, whose authoritywas based on knowledge of Torah. In theory, there was a division of powers; in reality,tensions between the two authorities were not infrequent. The parallel in North Americandiaspora life is the relationship between lay and professional leaders in general, and inparticular, that between the synagogue president and the rabbi.Read excerpts from Benjamin of Tudela's account of his visit to Baghdad (available on line athttp://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/MedievalCultureTO/Baghdad.htm - note that this description dates many centuries after the period which we have recentlybeen discussing). Benjamin made a number of expeditions from his home in Tudela, throughoutsouthern Europe and the Middle East, all the way to India, in the 1160s and 1170s. Heresearched Jewish life in each place he visited, and left a detailed account of his findings. Hevisited Baghdad in 1168. In general, his descriptions seem to be realistic and accurate, althoughhis population estimates are often problematic. Benjamin’s straightforward account of his visitto Baghdad is rich in details that reveal the dynamic of the leadership structure of thecommunity.195 Ksharim

Note that there is a hierarchical system, with the chief rabbi, or Gaon, reputed to be adescendant of Moses. The community supports a full-time judiciary and administrativebureaucracy.Also, note that the Gaon, as well as the rabbis and religious functionaries of outlyingcommunities, are appointed by the Exilarch.What is the nature of the “lay” leadership?There are two bases of the Exilarch’s authority: he is a descendant of David, and his family wasgranted authority by Mohammed. The descriptions of the Exilarch’s garb, relations with theCaliph, and installation make it clear that the key to his power is his relationship with theMoslem ruler.Note also the emphasis on the Exilarch’s wealth, and the fact that “at his installation, [he] givesmuch money to the Calif.” Apparently wealth was another of the bases of his power.And what is the nature of the relationship between the two leaders?Benjamin doesn’t give us much information on this, except to indicate that the Exilarchappoints the Gaon and other rabbinical leadership. However, it is of interest to discuss variousquestions about their relationship and to connect them with modern parallels: based on thetext, which seems more prestigious, more authoritative? In a conflict, who would win? Whydoes the community need both? What distinctive roles are played by each? Could one personcombine both sets of requirements and thus fulfill both roles?c. Babylonian vs. Jerusalem TalmudWith the redaction of the Mishnah, the process of development of the Oral Law did not stop.The scholars whose teachings are included in the Mishnah are called Tannaim. All of theTannaim lived in Eretz Yisrael. Their successors, who continued the process, were theAmoraim; there were Amoraim in both Babylonia and Eretz Yisrael, with a good deal of trafficback and forth as scholars from Babylonia went to study in the academies in Eretz Yisrael.Ultimately, two collections of the teachings of the Amoraim were assembled: the Palestinian(or Jerusalem) Talmud (about 400 C.E.) and the Babylonian Talmud (about 500).Both Talmuds are organized according to the order of the Mishnah; generally the text ispublished in alternating blocks: a passage of Mishnah followed by the text of the Talmudicdiscussion based on that passage (Note: you may want to bring a Talmud to the classroom toshow the structure of a page – see also an online illustration athttp://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudPage.html; an online English translation of (mostof) the Babylonian Talmud is available at http://www.come-and-hear.com/tcontents.html).There is a great deal of overlap between the two collections, as similar traditions on manytopics were current in both communities. The texts are still very different: In the Babylonian Talmud, the parts which are not in Hebrew are written in EasternAramaic (spoken in Babylonia), with a smattering of Persian words. In the JerusalemTalmud the non-Hebrew parts are in Western Aramaic (spoken in Syria and EretzYisrael), with a large number of Greek words (spoken all over the Roman empire. The Jerusalem Talmud is much shorter than the Babylonian, and does not contain asmuch of the legal back-and-forth that the latter does. This is usually attributed to thehardships endured by the Jewish community in Eretz Yisrael at the time of the Talmud'sredaction.196 Ksharim

Many issues are decided differently in the two texts, due to differences in customs orcircumstances between the two communities.The Jerusalem Talmud covers the whole order of Zeraim (Seeds), which is concernedwith agricultural laws, while the Babylonian covers only one book of the order –Berakhot (blessings).There is also a difference in the fates the two texts met. The Babylonian Talmudbecame the constitutive text of Jewish law, and is the most studied text in yeshivas.The Jerusalem Talmud's influence hardly spread beyond the borders of Eretz Yisrael,and as the importance of the community in Eretz Yisrael declined, the text wasneglected and barely survived.Why the differences? What does the language of the Talmuds tell us about the influence of external cultureon Jewish texts? Was it limited to the language? What did the difference in languagebetween the two main communities – Eretz Yisrael and Babylonia – mean for therelationship between them? Do we see a similar effect today?Apparently the influence of the language of the surrounding culture was so strongthat it even penetrated texts that were considered (to some extent) holy. It's hard tobelieve that concepts, ideas, and norms did not. And the differences in language andculture probably meant that some level of misunderstanding existed between thecommunities. Why doesn't the Babylonian Talmud cover the agricultural laws (it does, for example,cover the order Kodashim – Holy Things - which described the worship in the Temple)?One might say that the Babylonian Talmud does not cover the agricultural lawsbecause they pertain mostly to agriculture in Eretz Yisrael, and therefore are irrelevantto the community of Babylonia. But then so are the laws of the Temple worship, whichare covered! The usual explanation is that study of the laws of the Temple worship wasconsidered equivalent to performing them. But then why does this not apply to theagricultural laws as well? Why did the Babylonian Talmud so surpass the Jerusalem Talmud in importance andinfluence in the Jewish world?Several explanations have been offered: the Babylonian Talmud was redacted laterthan the Jerusalem Talmud, so supercedes it; the Babylonian Talmud is more extensiveand easier to read; the influence of the Babylonian yeshivas extended to Europe andNorth Africa long after the community in Eretz Yisrael had declined and lost itsdominance.It is interesting to examine in detail one case of a story that is told in both Talmuds. Thisparticular story was chosen as it describes a power struggle between the Rabbis of Eretz Yisraeland Babylonia, in the context of the setting of the calendar (see sources 3 and 4). The storyhappened after the Bar Kochba revolt (132 -134 CE), when the Rabbis of Eretz Yisrael werepersecuted and killed by the Romans.What are the emissaries hinting at when they tell Hananiah "Don't cite R. Akiba, wholeft not his equal in the Land of Israel"? How does Hananiah respond? And to whatsituation in Israel are they alluding to in their goat metaphor?Perhaps they're telling him not to compare himself to the great R. Akiba. To his claimthat the rabbis of Eretz Yisrael are too weak to serve as the center for purposes of the197 Ksharim

setting of the calendar, they respond that a new generation has arisen. How is "thecenter" of the Jewish world" decided upon? Is it always Jerusalem? Or should it shift tothe strongest community? And if so, how should this be decided, and by whom? Whatare the criteria – wealth, observance, learnedness, political power…? How does thisplay out today?What do they mean when they say: "…let them go up to the mountain, let Ahia buildan altar and let Hananiah play the harp, and let them all become renegades and saythat they have no portion in the God of Israel"?The setting of the calendar is considered so fundamental, that founding an alternativecenter for this purpose is considered equivalent to building an alternative Temple!Compare this idea to Heschel's thesis that Judaism consecrates time, not space.Notwithstanding the similarities between the two stories, the differences are telling.To mention a few:1. The Babylonian version is longer and more detailed, as is usually the case.2. In the Babylonian version, it is the two scholars who challenge Hananiah'sauthority, whereas in the Jerusalem version it is the Nasi (president) of theSanhedrin himself, in a letter.3. In the Babylonian version, the emergence of great rabbis in Eretz Yisrael is stressedmuch more than in the Jerusalem version (perhaps to hint that when this situationchanges, the setting of the calendar may well shift to Babylon after all?).4. On the other hand, the Jerusalem version stresses "For out of Zion shall go forththe law" more than the Babylonian (perhaps to claim that this is a ruleindependent of the state of Torah learning in Eretz Yisrael, and holds at all times).5. In the Babylonian version, the decision to follow the Eretz Yisrael rabbis is made bythe people, in a dramatic and emotional scene (and we are not told what theleaders think of this procedure, and whether they go along with it); the Jerusalemversion has the decision made by Rabbi Yehuda ben Betera, a great Babylonianrabbi – as formal and high up as it gets, and this is followed by a scene in whichHananiah abjectly rides from town to town to admit his error. One can almost seethe Eretz Yisrael rabbis who wrote this story enjoying the Babylonian upstart'sdiscomfort…More background on the Babylonian community and its relationship to Eretz Yisrael:http://www.jewishgates.com/file.asp?File_ID=40198 Ksharim

Sources1. Mishnah Rosh Hashanah 2, 3-4In what manner did they kindle the beacons? They used to bring long poles of cedar woodand rushes and pine wood and tow flax, and a man tied these together with twine. He wentup to the top of the hill and set them on fire and waved them to and fro and moved them upand down until he saw his fellow doing likewise on the top of the next hill; and also similarlyon the top of the third hill.And from where did they kindle the beacons? From the Mount of Olives to Sartaba, and fromSartaba to Agrippina, and from Agrippina to Hauran, and from Hauran to Beth Baltin; and fromBeth Baltin they did not go, but waved to and fro and moved up an down until he could seethe whole of the diaspora before him like a mass of fire.2. Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin, 11bIt once happened that Rabban Gamaliel was sitting on a step on the Temple-hill and the wellknown Scribe Johanan was standing before him. …[Rabban Gamliel said:] write to ourbrethren the Exiles in Babylon and to those in Media, and to all the other exiled [sons] of Israel,saying: "May your peace be great for ever! We beg to inform you that the doves are still tenderand the lambs still too young and that the crops are not yet ripe. It seems advisable to me andto my colleagues to add thirty days to this year".3. Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Berakoth, 63 a-b.R. Safra said: R. Abbahu used to relate that when Hananiah the son of R. Joshua's brother wentdown to the Diaspora, he began to intercalate the years and fix new moons outside Palestine.So they [the Beth Din] sent after him two scholars, R. Jose b. Kippar and the grandson of R.Zechariah b. Kebutal. When he saw them, he said to them: Why have you come? – Theyreplied: We have come to learn Torah [from you]. He thereupon proclaimed: These men areamong the most eminent of the generation. They and their ancestors have ministered in theSanctuary (as we have learnt: Zechariah b. Kebutal said: Several times I read to him out of thebook of Daniel). Soon they began to declare clean what he declared unclean and to permitwhat he forbade. Thereupon he proclaimed: These men are worthless, they are good fornothing. They said to him: You have already built and you cannot overthrow, you have made afence and you cannot break it down. He said to them: Why do you declare clean when Ideclare unclean, why do you permit when I forbid? – They replied: Because you intercalateyears and fix new moons outside of Palestine. He said to them: Did not Akiba son of Josephintercalate years and fix new moons outside of Palestine? – They replied: Don't cite R. Akiba,who left not his equal in the Land of Israel. He said to them: I also left not my equal in the Landof Israel. They said to him: The kids which you left have become goats with horns, and theyhave sent us to you, bidding us, 'Go and tell him in our name. If he listens, well and good; ifnot, he will be excommunicated. Tell also our brothers in the Diaspora [not to listen to him]. Ifthey listen to you, well and good; if not, let them go up to the mountain, let Ahia build an altarand let Hananiah play the harp, and let them all become renegades and say that they have noportion in the God of Israel. Straightway all the people broke out into weeping and cried,Heaven forbid, we have a portion in the God of Israel. Why all this to-do? – Because it says "Forout of Zion shall go forth the law, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem".4. Jerusalem Talmud, Sanhedrin 19a.199 Ksharim

Hananiah, Rabbi Yehoshua's nephew, set leap years outside the Land. Rabbi [Shimon benGamaliel – president of the Sanhedrin] sent him 3 letters by the hands of Rabbi Yitzhak andRabbi Natan. In one he wrote: To His Holiness Hananiah; in one he wrote: Lambs you left havebecome rams; in one he wrote: If you do not accept, go to the wilderness of the brambles, youwill slaughter and Nehunin will sprinkle [the blood]. He read the first and honored them, readthe second and honored them, read the third and wished to chasten them. They told him: Youcannot, as you have already honored us. Rabbi Yitzhak rose and read in the Torah: 'These areHananiah, Rabbi Yehoshua's nephew's appointed feasts". They said: "These are the LORD'sappointed feasts" (Leviticus 23, 3)! He said: "With us!" Rabbi Natan rose and read the Haftorah:"The law will go out from Babylon, the word of the Lord from the Pakod river". They said: "Thelaw will go out from Zion, the word of the Lord from Jerusalem" (Isaiah 2, 3)! He said: "With us!"Hananiah went and complained of them to Rabbi Yehuda ben Betera in Nezivin, who said tohim: Follow them, follow them… So Hananiah rose and rode his horse, set right those placeshe reached, while the others continued in error.200 Ksharim

L e s s o n 24:The Jewish Calendar1. Outline:a. Biblical sources/mention of calendar. The implications and explanations given tothe fact that the calendar is influenced by both the lunar and solar cycles: thecalendar as bound to the agricultural cycle of Eretz Yisrael.b. The “proclaiming of the moon” during the Second Temple and after itsdestruction: the centrality of Israel as the authority for administering the calendar.c. Establishing the 19 year cycle and how it works (or not).d. The Hebrew calendar today in Israel – dilemmas.2. Introduction:How we measure time reflects how we see the world and our place it. Each individualhas markers in time that are important to him – birthdays, anniversaries, yahrzeits, etc.So too different nations and cultures mark time uniquely. Their respective systemsreflect their perception of time and space. The Christians count from the death ofChrist, the Moslems from the flight of Mohammed. The Gregorian calendar follows thesolar year. The Islamic calendar follows the lunar year. In this lesson we will study howJews mark time and try to understand the significance and results of the system, andits role in linking the land and people of Israel. It turns out that in addition tosanctifying time, the Jewish calendar is deeply connected to the sanctification ofplace: in living according to it, Jews all over the world affirm, consciously or not, theirrootedness in the landscape of Eretz Yisrael.3. Goals:e. To familiarize the students with the sources and development of the Jewishcalendarf. To understand the connection between the marking of time and the land of Israelg. To study dilemmas and problems involved in constructing the calendar.h. To discuss the place of the Jewish calendar in Zionist thought and the state ofIsrael today through specific events in Israeli life e.g. Rabin Memorial day.4. Expanded Outline:i. The Biblical Sources1. The first “commandment”given to the fledgling nation of Israel on theeve of the Exodus is to mark the month of their deliverance as the first ofmonths. The Rabbis elaborate that at this time G-D showed Moses thenew moon and instructed him to use the lunar cycle as a basis formeasuring time (see source Questions for discussion: Why would theestablishing of a calendar be the one of the first commandments givento the nation of Israel? Why while they are still in Egypt?2. It seems that the Torah is commanding us to establish a calendar basedon the lunar cycle. One complete cycle (crescent - full - crescent)corresponds to a month. The lunar cycle is 29.5 days. This method of201 Ksharim

marking time has no relation to the tropical or solar calendar. Twelvelunar months form a year = 254.5 days. Since the solar cycle is 365 daysthe months slip 11 days every year. The Islamic calendar is based onlunar months. Ramadan, the holy month, “moves” through the seasons,sometimes coming out in the winter and other times coming out in thesummer. It takes it about 33 years to move around the whole cycle (e.g.,Ramadan began on Rosh Hashana in 1974 – and will do so again in 2006;it always, of course, begins on a rosh chodesh).3. The Torah later commands us that the holiday of Passover must becelebrated in the “spring month” (see source 2).These two sourcesseem contradictory. According to the first commandment we are tomark the months by the moon. Yet according to the second, Passovermust be celebrated in the spring month. Abiding by bothcommandments necessitated a system that allows for adjusting theseason-less lunar months with the seasonal solar calendar to assure thatPassover was always celebrated in the spring. This synchronization wasaccomplished by periodically adding a 13 th month – if it appeared thatPassover was going to occur too early in the year (before the springequinox - March 21 st today). This was called “impregnating the year” or inmodern terms, a leap year. (see source 3)Questions for discussion: If Pesach must be in the spring -how do we define spring?4. Spring in the southern hemisphere is autumn in the northernhemisphere and vice versa? Does spring mean spring in the land ofIsrael? If so what does that signify? What are the repercussions?Many of the Biblical commandmentsfor celebrating the holidays reflect agricultural phenomena e.g. theoffering of the Omer (offering the first barley) and the offering of the twoloaves on Shavuot, the offering of the first fruits beginning on Shavuot.This ties Jewish ritual and holidays to the agricultural reality of a specificland. Is this unique in comparison to other religions?In early Biblical times,the months had no names, only numbers. The month of Passover, whichcelebrates the exodus - the birth of the Jewish nation is the first month.This means that the Jewish new year – “Rosh Hashanah” is actually in theseventh month. (In the Bible the holiday is only referred to as a “day ofblowing” on the first day of the seventh month). There are discussionsand debates in the Talmud about exactly when the world was created,be it Tishrei or Nissan, and the significance of each date (see source 4). Inthe time of Ezra after the Jews had been exiled to Babylon they began touse the Babylonian names of the months, and these names remain inuse until today. (see source 5)202 Ksharim

Questions for discussion: Do the two different types “new years”reflect the nature of different beginnings? What examples can we thinkof in our lives? The Mishna discussed 4 new years each relevant for thebeginning of different cycles (Mishna Rosh Hashana Chapter 1 Mishna 1)How is the first of Nissan unique? Why?5. Today the Hebrew year is 5766. According to traditional sources this isthe count from the time of creation or more specifically from thecreation of man – when counting time became relevant. It is interestingto note though that throughout the Bible and Prophets years arecounted not from creation but from major events. Like the exodus, oraccording the reign of the certain kings or even cataclysmic events e.g.Amos 1:1.According to Jewish tradition time is defined andconsecrated by man, or more specifically the nation of Israel. It is theywho proclaim the months and regulate the calendar deciding when theholidays will occur. This theme is evident in the different format ofblessing on Shabbat and the Holidays. While on Shabbat in Kiddush andprayers we bless G-D who “consecrates the seventh day and Shabbat,”on the holidays we bless G-D who “consecrates Israel and the specialdays.” G-d consecrated Israel and empowered them to consecrate thespecial days. ( For some discussions of the sanctification of time byhuman calendrical institutions see source 6)j. Proclaiming the New Month1. During the time of the Second Temple the new month was proclaimedby the Beit Din after the crescent moon was sighted and reported by tworeliable witnesses. The rabbis were sufficiently knowledgeable aboutastronomy; for example, their calculation of an average lunation as 29days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 1/3 seconds is very close to moderncomputations. Still, Jewish law required that the rabbis not rely on theirknowledge alone, but rather base their proclamation of the new monthon an actual sighting of the new moon. If the testimony was given and,upon cross-examination, accepted on the 30 th day then the Beit Dinwould announce that the new month was "sanctified," meaning that themonth just ended was 29 days and the new month would begin. If thetestimony was not processed on that day - or even if the witnesses cametoo late, or were disqualified on a technicality (such as lacking credibilitydue to their being unrepentant criminals) - then the new month wouldbegin the next day.2. Once the sages accepted the testimony of the witnesses they notified allthe people of Israel - even those living in the Diaspora - by a series ofbonfires on strategic mountain tops (think of the scene in Lord of theRings - The Return of the King). and messengers. This meant that thepeople received notification only after the fact. They knew when thenew month was proclaimed retroactively. The further away you lived thelonger it took for the news to travel. This is the reason that holidays werecelebrated for two days in the Diaspora while Israel they were only203 Ksharim

celebrated for one. Passover and Sukkot are mid-month and Shavuot isthe 6 th day. There was a good chance that the news of the proclamationwould not arrive in time in the outlying communities. So they had tocount from the previous announcement, but that left room for a one dayerror since the lunar month is 29 and a half days and the new monthmight have been proclaimed on the 29 th day after the previous month oron the 30th. To compensate for this uncertainty they celebrated bothdays. Inside the land of Israel the news traveled faster so by the time theholiday arrived, everyone knew when the month had been proclaimedand they celebrated accordingly. The exception was Rosh Hashanahwhich occurs on the first of the month. In such a case the witnessescould give testimony only after the holiday was over. Therefore two dayswere celebrated even inside the land of Israel. Yom Kippur was setafterwards counting ten days from the actual testimony. This systemgave great power to the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem which had soleauthority for proclaiming the month. The system also left room forpossible conflict between the sages themselves since the rules foraccepting or rejecting testimony were complex.Theabove description of the process of setting the new month is based onthe Mishnah, Tractate Rosh Hashana, chapters 1 and 2. (see source 7)3. The story of Rabbi Joshua and Rabban Gamaliel. (see source 8) This storyillustrates the importance the Rabbis attributed to their authority toproclaim or “sanctify” the month. Why was it so critical that theirdecision be universally accepted?Even after the destruction of theTemple the Sanhedrin in Yavne declared itself the sole authority toproclaim the new month still rested only with them. This continued foras long as the Sanhedrin was active, until the fourth century, eventhought the majority of Jews and the important Jewish centers wereoutside the country.Questions fordiscussion: Why do you think the Sanhedrin relied on actual sightingsand not mathematical calculations? Why was it so important for thedecision to be made in the land of Israel and not by any majorcommunity? The Reform movement cancelled the second daycelebrated in the Diaspora since today we follow a set calendar. Whatarguments can you think of for or against this decision? Could there be aconnection between this ruling and the Reform tendency, in the earlyyears of the movement, to de-emphasize the connection to Israel as ahomeland?4. Today Moslems still rely on the sighting of the new moon to declaretheir month. This announcement is especially important at the onset ofRamadan. The exact date is not known until the actual proclamation andif you ask Moslems when Ramadan starts they will tell you day “x” or thenext day. There are two councils that proclaim the month, one in Mecca204 Ksharim

k. The Set Calendarand one in Cairo and they do not always agree or coordinate theirproclamations so it is possible for different Moslems to celebrateholidays on different days.1. The Sanhedrin stopped being active in the early part of the 4 th Century CE,when religious persecution forced it to disband. The rules for the presentJewish calendar system are believed to have been published by thepatriarch Hillel II in the year 358, the Jewish year 4118. Hillel II establisheda fixed calendar based on mathematical and astronomical calculations.This calendar, still in use, standardized the length of months and theaddition of 7 months over the course of a 19 year cycle, so that the lunarcalendar realigns with the solar years. Here’s the math: 19 lunar years areabout 210 days less than 19 solar years, so during that cycle it is necessaryto add seven 30-day Adar II’s to make it even. The leap years are the 3 rd , 6 th ,8 th , 11 th , 14 th , 17 th , and 19 th . The current cycle began in Jewish year 5758(the year that began October 2, 1997).2. Why a 19 year cycle? In 432 BC the Athenian astronomer Meton reformedthe Athenian calendar based on an approximate relationship between thesolar and lunar cycles. He had observed that every nineteen years theoccurrences of the new and full moons returned to the same time withrespect to the solar cycle. This pattern is known as the Metonic cycle.Actually, in nineteen years the annual difference (10 days, 21 hours and 6seconds) accumulates to 206 days, 15 hours, 1 minute and 54 seconds. Thisaccumulation is equal (within two hours) to seven lunar months (whichcome to 206 days, 17 hours, 8 minutes and 23 1/3 seconds). So if sevenlunar months were added over a nineteen year period the lunar and solarcycles could be more or less maintained in synchronization.3. However there is still a 7 hour discrepancy which over the last 1700 yearshas added up. In 2005 the Jewish calendar was off – a thirteenth monthwas added according to the 19 year schedule even though the Passoverwould have occurred after the spring equinox without adding an extramonth. As a result Passover was very “late” this year, as are all the otherholidays in relation to the general calendar; indeed, Easter came out atPurim time. (For more on this problem see source 9)4. Another consideration taken into account when determining the calendarwas ensuring that Yom Kippur would not occur on a Friday or Sunday asthis would interfere with the fast. The rabbis also wanted to avoidHoshanah Rabba (the seventh day of Sukkot) from occurring on Shabbat.This is accomplished by adjusting Rosh Hashnnah so that it never occurson a Sunday Wednesday or Friday. This is turn is done by varying thelengths of the preceding Heshvan or Kislev so that sometimes they are a“complete” month (30 days ) and others they are “incomplete” (29 days).The length of Cheshvan and Kislev are determined by complex205 Ksharim

calculations involving the time of day of the full moon of the followingyear's Tishri and the day of the week that Rosh Hodesh Tishri would occurin the following year. The length of Adar also varies for this reason. In leapyears Adar has 30 days. In non-leap years, Adar has 29 days.All said the Jewish calendar today looks like this:English Length Gregorian PeriodNissan 30 days March-AprilIyar 29 days April-MaySivan 30 days May-JuneTammuz 29 days June-JulyAv 30 days July-AugustElul 29 days August-SeptemberTishri 30 days September-OctoberCheshvan 29 or 30 days October-NovemberKislev 30 or 29 days November-DecemberTevet 29 days December-JanuaryShevat 30 days January-FebruaryAdar 29 or 30 days February-MarchAdar II29 daysFor more sites on the Hebrew calendars see source 105. An interesting episode occurred in the tenth century when a famousdispute arose between a Rabbi Ben Meir who lived in Israel and the chiefrabbi, or Gaon of the Babylonian community, Saadia ben Yosef. Ben Meir,relying on the traditional ruling that the sages of Israel had authority to setthe calendar, proposed certain adjustments to the calendar. Saadia Gaonopposed the changes and argued that the established calendar had theauthority of Mosaic Law and could no longer be changed. It is interestingto note the power struggles that formed the background to thisdisagreement. And that the Diaspora leader, in the end, won. See source11d. The Jewish calendar in Israel today1. When it comes to defining time Israel is slightly schizophrenic. As a modernWestern country dealing with the rest of the world it runs mainly on the Gregorianor civil calendar. However since Jewish holidays are official holidays, the Hebrewdates are also relevant. The Orthodox and especially the “ultra-Orthodox, or206 Ksharim

SourcesHaredim operate almost solely on the Jewish Calendar while secular Jews aremostly oblivious to it. The question of dates becomes especially charged andpoignant when dealing with commemorating modern events in the State.2. Early Zionists saw re-instating the Jewish Calendar as an expression of JewishNational identity unconnected to religious observance. Officially that sentimentexists until today. Yom Haatzmaut – the day of independence was established as anational holiday on the 5th of Iyar and not May 14 th . All pieces of Israeli legislaturecarry the Hebrew year as well as the civil one. In the early 1990’s there was adirective given that all documents from government or municipal offices mustcarry the Hebrew date. Daily papers carry both dates. For some inexplicablereason the cut off date for the school year is a Hebrew date – the 30 th of Kisleveven though the school year runs on the civil calendar (Sept 1 –June 30) Howeveron a personal level it is mostly the Orthodox that truly “live” Hebrew calendar. (Apersonal story [T.S.]: Growing up in Toronto as an Orthodox Jew I was mainlyaware of the civil dates. Even our day school used them primarily. My children,who have been raised in Israel in an Orthodox community and educational systemare almost ignorant of the civil calendar. They don’t even know their Gregoriandates of birth or the names of the months.)3. This duality or indecision is painfully illustrated in the annual debate on when tocommemorate Rabin’s assassination. In the years immediately after his death therewere two separate commemorations - one on the civil date and another on theHebrew date. Until today the press tends to run its memorials on the civil dateeven though a law has been passed designating the Hebrew date as the officialmemorial day. (See sources in source 13 for examples and discussion)4. The Hebrew calendar and its associations with the seasons is of course a mainstayof Israeli elementary education and culture. See for example Naomi Shemer’ssong of the calendar...1. Exodus 12:2: “This month shall be unto you the beginning of months; it shall be the firstmonth of the year to you.”Rashi (based on the Midrash in the Mechilta):He (G-d) showed him the moon at its renewal and said to him, "When the moon renews itself,let that be for you the beginning of a new month." However, Scripture does not depart fromits plain meaning: He (G-d) was telling him about the month of Nissan; [viz.] this (Nissan) shallbe the start of the order of the counting of the months, so that Iyar will be called the second[month] and Sivan, the third.2. Exodus 13:3-63. Babylonian Talmud tractate Sanhedrin 11bOur rabbis taught: A year may be intercalated on three grounds: on account of the prematurestate of the grain crop, or that of the fruit trees, or on account of the lateness of the207 Ksharim

equinox. Any two of these reasons can justify intercalation but not one alone. [but, onceRabban Gamaliel the Nasi wrote to the Diaspora communities:] We beg to inform you that thedoves are still tender and the lambs still young, and the grain has not yet ripened. I haveconsidered the matter and thought it advisable to add thirty days to the year.4. Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Rosh Hashanah 10b-11a:Eliezer says: "In Tishrei the world was created" ... Rabbi Joshua says:"In Nissan the world was created."Tosfot Rosh Hashana 27a: "These and these are the words of the living God,and one may say that the thought to create was formed in Tishrei, while theactual creation did not take place until Nissan."5. On the historical development of the calendarhttp://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Sjewcale.htm6. On the sanctification of time by fixing the calendar:Rabbi Daniel Goldfarb: http://www.limmud.org/tasteoflimmud/BoRabbi Michael Rosenzweig: www.torahweb.org/torah/2004/parsha/rros_bo.htmlFrom Heschel’s book on the Shabbat:http://www.myjewishlearning.com/daily_life/Shabbat/Shabbat_Themes_and_Theology/Shabbat_Sanctuary_in_Time.htmPsalm 81:4-5Blow the horn on the new moon, on the full moon for our feast day.For it is a law for Israel, a ruling of the God of Jacob.Midrash Tehilim on the above:This verse says that God’s ruling is dependent on Israel’s law, as R. Hoshaya taught, once theearthly court set the date of Rosh Hashana, and God said to the angels, “Set up the courtroom,bring in the defenders, etc., as the earthly court has decreed that it is Rosh Hashana.” But thenthe witnesses were delayed, or the court changed its mind and delayed Rosh Hashana by aday; God said to the angels, “Wait, change everything to tomorrow, as the earthly court hasdelayed Rosh Hashana…” R. Pinhas and R. Hilkiya in the name of R. Simon taught: all theangels assemble and ask, “Master of the universe, when is Rosh Hashana?” And He answersthem: “You’re asking Me? Together, we must ask the earthly court, as it is written: For it is a lawfor Israel, a ruling of the God of Jacob.”7. Mishna Rosh Hashanah Chapter 1 Mishna 3 -Ch 2 Mishna 71:3 On six months the messengers go forth: on Nisan, because of Passover; on Av, because ofthe fast; on Elul, because of the New Year; on Tishri, because of the determination of the HolyDays; on Kislev, because of Chanuka; on Adar, because of Purim. And while the Temple stillexisted, they went forth also on Iyar, because of Pesach Katan.1:4 Because of two months could they profane the Sabbath: because of Nisan and Tishri, foron them messengers went forth to Syria and by them the Holydays were determined. And208 Ksharim

when the Temple still stood, they could profane it indeed for all of the [months] for the correctregulation of the offering.1:5 Whether the crescent were clearly visible or whether it were not manifestly visible, theymay profane the Sabbath because of it. R. Yose says, If the crescent were undoubtedly seenthey must not profane the Sabbath because of it.1:8 These are they who are ineligible [to bear witness to sighting the new moon]: a diceplayer, a userer, those who fly pigeons, dealers in the produce of a Sabbatical Year, and slaves.This is the general principle: all evidence that a woman is not eligible to give, these also arenot eligible to bring.1:9 If one see the new moon and is not able to walk, they bring him on an ass or even on alitter; and if any lie in wait for them, they may take sticks in their hands. If the journey be along one, they may carry food in their hands, because for a journey lasting a night and a daythey may profane the Sabbath and go forth to give evidence about the new moon…2:2 Beforetime they used to light beacons, but after the Samaritans caused great harm, theyenacted that messengers should go forth.2:3 In what manner did they kindle the beacons? They used to bring long poles of cedarwood and rushes and pine wood and tow flax, and a man tied these together with twine. Hewent up to the top of the hill and set them on fire and waved them to and fro and movedthem up and down until he saw his fell doing likewise on the top of the next hilss; and alsosimilarly on the top of the third hill.2:4 And from where did they kindle the beacons? From the Mount of Olives to Sartaba, andfrom Sartaba to Agrippina, and from Agrippina to Hauran, and from Hauran to Beth Baltin; andfrom Beth Baltin they did not go, but waved to and fro and moved up an down until he couldsee the whole of the diaspora before him like a mass of fire.2:5 There was a large courtyard in Jerusalem called Beth Yaazek, and there all the witnessesused to assemble, and there the court examined them. And they prepared big meals for them,so that they should acquire the habit of coming…2:6 How did they examine the witnesses? The pair that arrived first they examined first. Andthey brought in the elder of the two and said to him: Relate how you saw the moon: in front ofthe sun or behind the sun? To the north of it or to the south of it? How high was it? And howwide was it? If he said, In front of the sun, his statement was worth naught. And then theybrought in the second one and examined him. If their statements were found to agree, theirevidence stood…2:7 The head of the court said, It is sanctified! And all the people answered after him, It issanctified. Whether it was seen at its proper time, or whether it was not observed at its duetime, they proclaimed it sanctified. R. Eliezer ben R. Zadok says, If it be not seen at itsappointed time, they do not acclaim it as sanctified, since heaven has already sanctified it.209 Ksharim

8. Mishna Rosh Hashanah Chapter 2 Mishna 8-9:…Two other witnesses came and said: We saw the moon on its proper day, but could notsee it on the next evening of the intercalary day. R. Gamaliel accepted their testimony, butR. Dosa b. Hyrcanus said: They are false witnesses; for how can they testify of a womanbeing delivered (on a certain day) when on the next day she appears to be pregnant? ThenR. Joshua said unto him: I approve your opinion. Upon this R. Gamaliel sent him (R. Joshua)word, saying: "I order thee to appear before me on the Day of Atonement, according toyour computation, with your staff and with money." R. Akiba went to him (R. Joshua) andfound him grieving. He then said to him: I can prove that all which R. Gamaliel has done isproper, for it is said: "These are the feasts of the Lord, holy convocations which ye shallproclaim," either at their proper time, or not at their proper time, only their convocationsare to be considered as holy festivals. When he (R. Joshua) came to R. Dosa b. Hyrcanus,the latter told him: "If we are to reinvestigate the decisions of the Beth Din of R. Gamaliel,we must also reinvestigate the decisions of all the tribunals of justice which have existedfrom the time of Moses till the present day; for it is said [Ex. xxiv. 9] Moses, Aaron, Nadab,Abihu, and seventy elders went up (to the Mount)." Why were not the names of the eldersalso specified? To teach us that every three men in Israel that form a Beth Din are to berespected in an equal degree with the Beth Din of Moses. Then did R. Joshua take his staffand money in his hand, and went to Yavneh, to R. Gamaliel, on the very day on which theDay of Atonement would have been according to his computation, when R. Gamaliel aroseand kissed him on the forehead, saying: "Enter in peace, my master and disciple! Mymaster--in knowledge; my disciple--since thou didst obey my injunction."9. A deeper look at the astronomy behind the calendar:http://individual.utoronto.ca/kalendis/hebrew.htm…and at the accumulating discrepancies between the lunar and solar calendarshttp://avoiceinthewilderness.org/saccal/passlate.html10. For converting dates between the calendars (which can be a fun activity):www.aish.com/literacy/reference/AishLuach_(Luach_means_-Calendar-_in_Hebrew).asphttp://www.hebcal.comhttp://www.hebrewcalendar.netVarious interesting facts and background on the calendar and on each monthhttp://members.ngfp.org/QNA/Calendar11. www.abcog.org/saadia.htmThis episode can help explain the difficulty facing Jewish leadership today when faced withthe problems of timing that have arisen in the set calendar210 Ksharim

חוק יום הזכרון ליצחק רבין תשנ"ז -1997יום הזיכרון ליצחק רביןהביטחון ושר הממשלה ראש של הירצחו יום ‏,בחשון ב"‏ ייום זיכרון ממלכתי יום זה יצוין יצחק רבין,‏ יהיה‏.הספר במוסדות המדינה,‏ במחנות צה"ל ובבתיחל י"ב בחשון ביום שישי או בשבת,‏ יקוים יום הזיכרוןביום חמישי שלפניו.‏;(Memorial day for Yitzchak Rabin Law – 5757-1997The twelfth day of Cheshvan, the day the prime minister and minister of Defense YitzchakRabin, was murdered, shall be a national memorial day; this day will be commemorated innational institutions, army bases, and schools. If the twelfth day of Cheshvan falls on a Fridayor Saturday it shall be observed on the previous Thursday.)Official Knesset WebsiteOn November 4th, 1965, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was murdered. In this website,The Knesset commemorates Rabin. The site has a wealth of information on Rabin, reviewinghis life with images, as well as listing relevant laws and speeches in his memory.An Online article from San Francisco communityThe sixth yahrzeit of Israel's late prime minister formally fell on Oct. 28, which correspondedwith Heshvan 11, the Hebrew date of the assassination. The San Francisco memorial wasם הזיכרון date. organized to coincide with the mass demonstration held in Israel on the secularליצחק רבין,4 Uri Avnery on the 4.11.95: The Real RabinYitzhak Rabin was assassinated on Saturday night, the 4th of November. The changing of thisdate with some day of the month of Heshvan, according to the "Jewish" calendar, is afalsification.Rabin was an atheist. He had nothing to do with the religious calendar. Not to mention thefact that the "Jewish" calendar is really a Babylonian one and that its months carry the namesof Babylonian gods. Why is the name of a Babylonian god like Tammuz more admissible thanthe name of a Roman colleague of his, Mars?211 Ksharim

This is not an apropos remark. The transfer of the tragic date to the religious calendar is a partof the process that led Ehud Barak and the whole crowd of dignitaries at the graveside to put aKippah on their heads. Why? Ben Gurion refused to use a Kippah even at funerals, and thatseemed quite natural at the time. I categorically refuse to wear a Kippah at a state ceremony inmemory of an atheist Prime Minister who was murdered by a Kippah-wearing fanatic after along campaign of sedition by a Kippah-wearing gang of rabbis. Most of the leaders of theKippah-wearing public did not participate in the day of mourning and rejected it outright.Why, then, did the Rabin family agree to this, if indeed it did agree?Additional sources...Three entries from Marc Rosenstein’s “Galilee Diary” reflecting on the calendar and itsplace in Israeli culture:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4632&pge_prg_id=19465&pge_id=1697http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4989&pge_prg_id=19465&pge_id=1697http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4991&pge_prg_id=19465&pge_id=1697212 Ksharim

L e s s o n 25:High Holidays1. Outlinea. Israel as a meeting place of different Jewish traditions (edot) - the various symbolicfoods of Rosh Hashanahb. The Yom Kippur warc. Secular Israelis' connection to Jewish tradition2. Introductiona. Note: This lesson is divided into two unrelated sections, one quite light-hearted andthe other very somber – it's up to the facilitator to decide on the order of the sections.b. Editor’s note: For the opening retreat of the Pittsburgh teachers’ course in September2004, texts were prepared for a brief sample lesson on the connection between the HighHoly Days and Israel. This ended up being very brief, with the focus being the seder avoda(High Priest’s service on Yom Kippur)as a demonstration of the link between what we thinkof as a universalistic, “theological” holiday and a very specific reference to the map of Israel– the route of the scapegoat from the Temple to the desert. These materials are appendedherewith, in case they might be useful: a midrash on the high priest’s entrance to the Holyof Holies on Yom Kippur; the seder avoda; links to sites showing squills ( chatzavim), theflower associated with the turning of the seasons in Israel, and two songs about RoshHashanah making reference to them.Symbolic foods: One of the striking things about Israel is the fact that although a majorityof the citizens share their Jewish nationality, religion, ethnicity, culture and customs, theirtraditions are surprisingly different due to their diverse lands of origin. While in the initialyears of the state, the declared goal was a melting pot in which all people would assimilateinto one big Jewish-Israeli collective, in recent years the rich variation and diversebackgrounds have come to be appreciated, and efforts are made to celebrate andpreserve the different ethnic cultures (or "edot", as they are called in Hebrew). In this lessonwe will examine this issue by looking at the various symbolic foods eaten by the people ofdifferent edot on Rosh Hashanah.The Yom Kippur war: For Israelis, Yom Kippur, in addition to being the Day of Atonement,has taken on a new and somber meaning since the 1973 Yom Kippur war. The war was oneof the bloodiest Israel has known, and for some it brought the euphoria and messianicfervor which emerged after the 1967 Six Day war to an abrupt halt. For a few days, Israelisfelt unsure of their survival, personally and as a state; 3000 soldiers were killed – about 0.1percent of the population; the government considered using Israel's atomic weapons toavert the catastrophe; the last-minute aerial shipment of arms and ammunition from theUS helped Israel stem the tide. In the lesson we will watch and discuss a (30 min.) videoabout kibbutz Beit Hashita, which lost 11 of its members during the war. The kibbutzcommissioned composer Yair Rosenblum to compose a new melody for the U'NetanehTokef prayer of Yom Kippur to commemorate the fallen soldiers. This melody is sung bychazzanim (cantors) in many Israeli synagogues today during Rosh Hashanah and YomKippur.213 Ksharim

3. Lesson goalsa. "Taste" the complex web of ethnic traditions formed by the various edot in Israel.b. Experience the immense weight of meaning of the Yom Kippur war in Israel.c. Gain some understanding of the complex attitudes of secular Israelis towards Jewishtradition.4. Expanded outlineSymbolic foodsTake a look at the statistics describing the distribution of countries of origin of Jewish Israelis,supplied in the appendix below. A cursory glance will show that they're a very mixed bunch.This can be experienced in many occasions – we will show it by looking at the symbolic foodseaten by the different edot on the evening of Rosh Hashanah. Most people know the customof eating apples dipped in honey as a sign for a good year, but there many other traditions,and some people have a whole "seder" with different foods, each eaten after saying its ownblessing.The custom of eating symbolic foods on Rosh Hashanah is mentioned in the Talmud:"Since there is truth in signs, one should eat on Rosh Hashanah squash, green beans, leeks,beets and dates" (Babylonian Talmud, Kritut, 6a). Here are some explanations: A type of squash called "Kera," is phonetically related to the Hebrew word for "read" or"tear." We recite one or both of the following: "May You tear up our negativejudgement," or "May You read our good merits before You." A type of green beans is called "Rubiyah," from the Hebrew word "to increase." Werecite, "May our merits increase." Leeks, called "Karti" in Aramaic, is related to the Hebrew word "to cut." We recite, "Mayour misdeeds, our spiritual enemies, be cut down." Beets are called "Salka" in Aramaic, and in Hebrew, that word is related to removal. Werecite, "May our enemies be removed." Dates are called "Tamri" in Aramaic which is related to the Hebrew word for consume.We ask here that those who want to destroy us be consumed.Today, in Israel, these vegetables are eaten on Rosh Hashanah by Sephardic Jews. Additionalcustoms: Ashkenazi Jews eat carrots because of their Yiddish name "meren", which also meansto increase. Carrots symbolize our hope that we increase our good deeds in thecoming year. Sephardim prepare a challah shaped like a ladder - symbolizing our prayers for thenew year going “up” directly to God, while Ashkenazim bake a round challah tosymbolize the cycle of the year. Apples in honey are actually an Ashkenazi custom, while Yemenites eat pomegranateand wish that their good deeds in the coming year will be as numerous as the seeds ofthe pomegranate. In a similar vein, Iranian Jews eat a rice dish. Libyan Jews eat seven different fruits and vegetables and seven varieties of jam as asymbol of hope for abundance in the coming year Jews of Eastern European descent eat dishes with carrots, apples, raisins and honey.214 Ksharim

A cute activity you can try if you have time is to bring a few fruits and vegetables to theclassroom and have the class try and invent New-Year-appropriate meanings for them, usingwordplays, looking at their shape, color, etc. Here are a few examples from Noam Zion's RoshHashanah seder http://www.jafi.org.il/education/downloads/Rosh_HaShanah_seder.pdf Dates - May it be God’s will that all my single friends have many dates this year. Tomatoes or Hot Peppers - May it be God’s will that this be a red-hot New Year. Celery - Let’s pray that our employers will raise our salary.Rabbi Yitz Greenberg suggested: Peaches – May we have a “peachy” year! Brussels Sprouts– May our good fortune “sprout”!(Irving Greenberg, High Holiday Guide [Clal,1977]).An interesting footnote: eating symbolic foods on the new year is not unique to Jews; see, forexample,http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/news_and_events/events_chinesenewyear.shtmlhttp://allrecipes.com/advice/coll/all/articles/205P1.asphttp://www.asiafood.org/persiancooking/newyear.cfmYom Kippur war Read the words of the U'Netaneh Tokef prayer (seehttp://www.ou.org/chagim/roshhashannah/unetanehtext.htm for an Englishtranslation) Describe the prayer's background (seehttp://www.ou.org/chagim/roshhashannah/unetaneh.html) Briefly discuss the associations to judgment, martyrdom and death raised by theprayer and the legend. Supply the following background before showing the movie: Kibbutz Beit Hashita wasfounded in the Jezre'el valley in 1928, and now has about 1300 residents. In the YomKippur war 11 members of the kibbutz were killed in the fighting. The fallen soldierswere buried in temporary graveyards close to the battlegrounds until the war wasover, then brought to their final graves in Beit Hashita at one mass funeral a fewmonths after the war – scenes from this funeral are shown in the film.Beit Hashita is a typical kibbutz in that its founders were young, secular Jews, whosevered themselves from Jewish religious tradition and replaced it with the Zionist,nationalist ethos. The kibbutzniks tried to infuse the ancient Jewish symbols with newmeanings, connected to the land and the people. The Yom Kippur ceremony at thekibbutz before the war consisted of modern readings and music, and the onlyconcession to tradition was the Memorial for the Souls (Azkarat neshamot, Yizkor). Watch the video.215 Ksharim

After the movie: The movie shows the process the kibbutz has gone through after thewar, a process whose meaning is unclear to the kibbutz members themselves. Doesthe inclusion of the U'Netaneh Tokef prayer in the kibbutz Yom Kippur ceremonysignify a return to Jewish tradition? A search for the missing "areas of sanctity" inpeople's lives? Harmless nostalgia? An interpretation of the soldiers' sacrifice asanother link in the chain of Kiddush Hashem (martyrdom), joining Rabbi Amnon ofMainz by sacrificing their lives for some higher ideal? Israeli society in general is goingthrough a similar process, so the facilitator should bring examples from Israeli societyin general during the discussion of the story of the kibbutz.For a collection of articles exploring the impact of the Yom Kippur War on Israeliculture and consciousness, see:http://info.jpost.com/C003/Supplements/30YK/new.01.htmlThe key concept in this process seems to be the conversion of Yom Kippur from apersonal, theological/psychological day, when the individual stands before God insearch of personal atonement, to a national day of soul searching, when the entirenation is bound together by the historical trauma of the Yom Kippur war. Thus, a daywhich had lost much of its meaning for secular Israelis (creating a dissonance betweenthe cultural norm that this is the holiest of days and the reality that the day hadbecome empty of content) took on new content and became emotionally powerful.216 Ksharim

Appendix – Jewish Israelis by country of origin 13Source: Israeli Bureau of Statistics, data from the 1995 census.Country ofOriginTotalIsraelAsiaAfricaEurope-AmericasTotalIsraelPlace of birthAbroad IsraelAbsolute numbers1,764,908 2,770,421Total- 1,155,014Total253,935 467,029Turkey34,685 50,861Iraq84,025 170,531Yemen41,453 111,306Iran53,644 76,734Other Asia40,128 57,597Total324,835 499,500Morrocco177,070 314,718Algier andTunis44,549 77,831Libya21,629 51,111Egypt23,953 37,059Ethiopia46,134 13,087Other Africa11,500 5,694Total1,186,138 648,878Poland106,286 153,618Rumania143,217 117,839Bulgaria andGreece26,349 32,524Germany andAustria36,007 49,647Former USSR667,456 139,146Other Europe100,563 94,370North Americaand Oceania58,906 33,528Latin America47,354 28,206Percent100.0 100.0- 41.7Total4,535,3291,155,014720,96485,546254,556152,759130,37897,725824,335491,788122,38072,74061,01259,22117,1941,835,016259,904261,05658,87385,654806,602194,93392,43475,560100.025.513 Country of origin: country of birth, or (if born in Israel) country of parents' birth.217 Ksharim

AsiaAfricaEurope-Americas14.418.467.216.918.023.415.918.240.5Appendix: texts on Israel and the High Holy DaysKesharimOpening RetreatThe Land of Israel and the High Holy Days – a few connections1. The center of the world:[Adapted from various midrashim by S. Anski, The Dybbuk, and then further adapted by TheJewish Catalogue]God’s world is great and holy. Among the holy lands is the world is the Holy Land of Israel. Inthe land of Israel the holiest city is Jerusalem. In Jerusalem the holiest place was the Temple,and in the Temple the holiest spot was the holy of holies.There are seventy peoples in the world. Among these holy peoples is the people of Israel. Theholiest of the people of Israel is the tribe of Levi. In the tribe of Levi the holiest are the priests.Among the priests, the holiest was the high priest.There are 354 days in the year. Among these the holidays are holy. Higher than these is theholiness of the Sabbath. Among Sabbaths the holiest is the Day of Atonement, the Sabbath ofSabbaths.There are seventy languages in the world. Among the holy languages is the holy language ofHebrew. Holier than all else in this language is the holy Torah, and in the Torah the holiestpart is the Ten Commandments. In the Ten Commandments the holiest of all words is thename of God.And once during the year, at a certain hour, these four supreme sanctities of the world werejoined with one another. That was on the Day of Atonement, when the high priest wouldenter the holy of holies and there utter the Name of God…Every spot where a man raises his eyes to heaven is a holy of holies. Every man, having beencreated by God in His own image and likeness, is a high priest. Every day of a man’s life is aDay of Atonement, and every word that a man speaks with sincerity is the Name of the Lord.2. The scapegoat: Yom Kippur and the geography of JerusalemCarrying the sins of the people from the city into the desertLeviticus 16, and…Mishnah, Yoma, chapter 6218 Ksharim

He then came to the scapegoat and laid his two hands upon it and he made confession, andthus would he say: I beseech Thee O Lord, Thy people the house of Israel have failed,committed iniquity and transgressed before Thee. I beseech thee O Lord, atone the failures,the iniquities and the transgressions which Thy people, the house of Israel have failed,committed and transgressed before Thee, as it is written in the Torah of Moses, Thy servant, tosay: “for on this day shall atonement be made for you, to cleanse you; from all your sins shall yebe clean before the Lord.” (Lev. 16:30)And when the priests and the people standing in the temple court heard the fully-pronouncedname come forth from the mouth of the high priest, they bent their knees, bowed down, fellon their faces, and called out: Blessed be the name of His glorious kingdom for ever and ever.They handed it over to him who was to lead it away. All were permitted to lead it away, butthe priests made it a definite rule not to permit an Israelite to lead it away. R. Jose said: it oncehappened that Arsela of Sepphoris led it away, although he was an Israelite.And they made a causeway for him because of the Babylonians who would pull its hair,shouting to it, “Take and go forth, take and go forth!”Some of the nobility of Jerusalem used to go with him up to the first booth. There were tenbooths from Jerusalem to the peak, a distance of ninety ris, seven and a half of which make amil. At every booth they would say to him: here is food and here is water. They went with himfrom booth to booth, except the last one, for he would not go with him up to the peak, butstand from afar, and behold what he was doing.What did he do? He divided the thread of crimson wool, and tied one half to the rock, theother half between its horns, and pushed it from behind, and it went rolling down and beforeit had reached half its way down hill it was dashed to pieces. He came back and sat downunder the last booth until it grew dark.3. The link between nature in Israel and the religious calendarThe chatzav – symbol of fall and the high holy day season:Pictures of chatzavim:http://www.botanic.co.il/a/picshowh.asp?qcatnr=URGMAR&qseqnr=URGMAR1http://www.botanic.co.il/hebrew/research/chazav_files/chazav.jpgwww.whitesquill.com/squillflowersinfield.jpghttp://www.israelimages.com/files/15789.htmA Song for TishreiDatya Ben DorBetween summer and fall –The month of TishreiWith everything we loveIn the month of Tishrei.שיר לחודש תשרידתיה בן דורבין הקיץ לסתיו-‏חודש תשריעם כל שנאהבבחודש תשרי.‏219 Ksharim

Apple and honeyAnd apple on a flagAnd new clothes for the holidays.For we all knowThat the month of TishreiIs a very festive month.Between summer and fall –The month of TishreiWith everything we loveIn the month of Tishrei.The chatzav of Tishrei,The sharav of TishreiThe first rain the dampens the schach.For we all knowThat the month of TishreiIs a very changeable month.Between summer and fall –The month of TishreiWith everything we loveIn the month of Tishrei.Brachot of TishreiSlichot of TishreiAnd a silent prayer going upFor we all knowThat in the month of TishreiA new year begins for me.תפוח בדבשותפוח על דגלובגד חדש לחגים.‏כי ידוע הרישחודש תשריזהו חודש מאד חגיגי.‏בין הקיץ לסתיו-‏חודש תשריעם כל שנאהבבחודש תשרי.‏חצב של תשרי,‏שרב של תשריויורה שמרטיב את הסכך.‏כי ידוע הרישחודש תשריזהו חודש מאד הפכפך.‏בין הקיץ לסתיו-‏חודש תשריעם כל שנאהבבחודש תשרי.‏ברכות של תשרי,‏סליחות של תשריובלחש עולה בקשה.‏כי ידוע הרישבחודש תשרימתחילה לי שנה חדשה.‏On Rosh HashanahNaomi ShemerOn Rosh Hashanah, on Rosh HashanahA lily bloomed in my gardenOn Rosh Hashanah a white boatAnchored suddenly along the shore.On Rosh Hashanah, on Rosh HashanahOur heart answered with an ancient prayerThat the year that begins today220 Ksharim

Will be different and beautiful.On Rosh Hashanah, on Rosh HashanahA cloudlet bloomed in the autumn skyOn Rosh Hashanah, like a memorial candle,A chatzav came up in the field.On Rosh Hashanah, on Rosh HashanahOur heart answered with an ancient prayerThat the year that begins nowWill be different and beautiful.On Rosh Hashanah, on Rosh HashanahA melody bloomed that no one knewAnd within a day that song echoedFrom all the windows of the city.On Rosh Hashanah, on Rosh HashanahOur heart answered with an ancient prayerThat the year that begins with a songWill be different and beautiful.221 Ksharim

Lesson 26:Sukkot1. Outlinea. Boothsb. Four speciesc. Ingatheringd. Pilgrimagee. Dedicationf. Simchat Torah2. IntroductionSukkot is a much loved and much studied festival that comes to round up the fallholiday season. It “works” as a harvest festival in Europe and North America, and isassociated with messages of eco-harmony and colorful customs. And it ends withSimchat Torah, certainly a non-Israel-based celebration (and likely a Diasporainnovation). Thus, one can happily observe Sukkot without noticing any connectionto Israel. And yet, there are a number of aspects of this festival that definitely expressour connection to the land of Israel. This unit seeks to highlight these, withoutnecessarily reviewing the whole range of religious meanings, values, and observancesconnected with the holiday.3. Lesson goalsa. Seeing Sukkot as a window on the nature, climate, and agriculture of Israelb. Seeing Sukkot as a memorial of the Temple and the pilgrimages – and hence as amajor vehicle for maintaining a link to Eretz Yisrael and Jerusalem – in memory and inhopec. Seeing Simchat Torah as a window on the development of the Israel-Diasporarelationship4. Expanded outlinea. Why sukkot?The first mention of the term in the Bible occurs in Genesis 33:17; when Jacoband Esau part after their reunion, Jacob journeys to a place called Sukkot –which, we are told, got its name from the sukkot he built there. The location iseast of the Jordan:http://www.anova.org/sev/atlas/htm/022.htmLater, the first mention of the festival occurs in Exodus 34:22, but there it issimply referred to as the feast of ingathering. The name Sukkot occurs inLeviticus 23:33-36 and 23:39-43. Here we are told to live in sukkot for the week,because God “made the Israelite people live in sukkot when [He] brought themout of the land of Egypt.” This always provides some difficulty in explanation asit is hard to imagine that we actually lived in sukkot in the desert. On the otherhand, Beduins in Sinai do build structures out of palm fronds from oases there,which may reflect the origin on this verse.http://www.leidenuniv.nl/fsw/band/Sinai/Culture/NabqBedouinHuts/nabqbedouinhuts.html222 Ksharim

Meanwhile, if you drive around the Galilee today you will see shacks in theArabs’ fields, made of remnants of sheet metal and other building materials, forworkers to rest and eat during a long workday far from home:http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Middle_East/Israel/photo162570.htmIt seems that this practice of building field huts, especially during the harvestseason when the work is intense, may be the origin of Sukkot – and that thepassage in Leviticus is attaching a historical origin onto a well-establishedcustom. If so, then the sukkah is simply a feature of the landscape of EretzYisrael that we raised to a sacred symbol.Interesting: one original meaning of the sukkah is tied to the agriculture insettled Israel; the other, historical meaning, overlaid by the verse in Exodus,refers to the experience in the desert, outside of Israel. Which meaning speaksto us today?b. Lulav and Etrog (the four species)For a clear, brief, and useful discussion of the connection of the four species tothe arrival and settlement of the Children of Israel in Eretz Yisrael, see:http://www.jafi.org.il/education/festivls/tish/29.htmlThe instructions in Leviticus, besides the commandment to dwell in Sukkot(and it is of interest to consider here the difference in climate between Israel,where this is usually possible in September-October, and Europe/NorthAmerica, where it often is not possible), include “taking the fruit of hadar trees,branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook” andrejoicing with them.i. The etrog: apparently the first of the citrus family to be known in Israel,having come from India/China via Persia. See, for example:http://www.innvista.com/health/foods/fruits/citron.htm orhttp://33.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CI/CITRON.htmThe first chief rabbi of Palestine, Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, saw the etroggrown in Israel as an important symbol of our reconnection to the land:http://www.geocities.com/m_yericho/ravkook/SUKKOT65.htmOn the other hand, it has often happened that etrogim from the Diaspora haveprovided serious competition – e.g.,http://www.haaretz.co.il/hasen/pages/ShArtAcademyEn.jhtml?itemNo=341418&contrassID=9&subContrassID=1&sbSubContrassID=0Does it matter? Should we be sure to obtain etrogim only from Israel? And ifso, is this out of a desire to support the Israeli economy, or to strengthen ourspiritual connection to Israel, by giving a definite Israel “spin” to a key symbol ofSukkot.ii. Hadas (myrtle)A common shrub around the Mediterranean and in warm climates around theworld, apparently was a symbol of cultivation – or beauty (Isaiah 41:19, 55:13).See, for example,http://bible-history.com/isbe/M/MYRTLE/ andhttp://www.tradewindsfruit.com/myrtle.htm or223 Ksharim

http://www.plantoftheweek.org/week125.shtmliii. Lulav (palm)One of the most distinctive features of the lowland parts of the Israelilandscape (especially the Jordan valley from the Kinneret to the Dead Sea), thedate palm is a biblical symbol of beauty and strength (Psalm 92:13). See:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4054&pge_prg_id=17073&pge_id=1698And see the picture of the famous carved date palm in the Capernaum (KfarNahum) ancient synagogue in this site about the seven species and the fourspecies:http://www.tau.ac.il/lifesci/botany/judaism.htmiv. WillowsThe text specifies “willows of the brook,” and indeed, it turns out that that is theonly place that willows can grow in Israel – near a stream, as they cannotsurvive the dry season without a source of water.http://web.odu.edu/webroot/instr/sci/plant.nsf/pages/willowThis interpretation places the four species in four different climatic regions ofIsrael – so the Lulav/Etrog “covers” the whole country:http://www.chagim.org.il/information1.htmlWhether we buy this or not, it is clear that the four species represent trees thatwere important parts of the landscape of Eretz Yisrael – they were not chosenonly for the various midrashic interpretations we tend to give them; e.g., aboutdifferent types of Jews all bound together, etc.c. Hag He’asif (Feast of Ingathering)In Deuteronomy 16:13 we read that we are to hold the Feast of Sukkot “afterthe ingathering from your threshing floor and your vat.” The grain harvest,whose stages were celebrated at Pesach and Shavuot, is now over for the year.The grape harvest has ended. Not mentioned here, the markets are full ofpomegranates and dates, and the olive harvest takes place just at Sukkot. Inother words, several important agricultural staples of the land are harvestedjust at this season.Today, the olive harvest is still a very distinctive feature of the culture of Judea,Samaria and the Galilee, main olive growing regions. See, for example:http://www.gemsinisrael.com/e_article000008711.htmAnd – some Galilee Diary entries on the seven species:Barley:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4053&pge_prg_id=15515&pge_id=1698Wheat:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4007&pge_prg_id=15515&pge_id=1698Grapes:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4008&pge_prg_id=15515&pge_id=1698Fig:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4009&pge_prg_id=17073&pge_id=1698224 Ksharim

Pomegranate:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4010&pge_prg_id=17073&pge_id=1698Olive:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4011&pge_prg_id=17073&pge_id=1698Dates:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4054&pge_prg_id=17073&pge_id=1698d. Pilgrimagei. Aside from the commanded practices of dwelling in sukkot and rejoicingwith the four species, the Torah specifies that sacrifices are to be offered aspart of the festival, and that each male is to come in person to bring his gift:Leviticus 23:36 and Deuteronomy 16:16. Sukkot, like Pesach and Shavuot, isthus designated one of the regalim, or pilgrimages, when the people cameto bring their sacrifices and celebrate together in Jerusalem. What was theexperience like? The Mishnah gives a sense of the Sukkot experience at theSecond Temple. (see passages appended at end of unit) – quite a wild sceneof fire, music, dancing, juggling, etc.Important for us here is to note that Sukkot in Jerusalem was unlike Sukkotany place else: you had to be there. The pilgrimage festivals – and especiallySukkot, perceived as The festival - made a very strong statement: “kids –don’t try this at home.” There is a “center of the world;” there is only oneplace where sacrifices may be offered. There is only one place where youcan experience rejoicing unlike any other – and that place is Jerusalem, a realplace in the real geographical world. Thus, since the destruction and theexile, Sukkot, for all its color, is but a pale reflection of the Real Thing.And so for us, Sukkot offers the opportunity to consider this world-view, andto discuss the extent to which we accept a place-centered conception ofJudaism; perhaps the destruction and exile had a positive aspect, liberatingJudaism from this place-dependency. Or is it the attachment to the memoryof - and hope for return to - this place that kept Judaism alive?ii.iii.It seems that the celebration of the Water-drawing may be related to theplacement of Sukkot at the beginning of the rainy season – and ourdependency on the rain for a good harvest. Hence, the traditional liturgyfor Shemini Atzeret includes a special prayer for rain, recited only this onceall year. The fact that it was recited by Jews in every corner of the Diasporademonstrates how the calendar created a sort of virtual connectionbetween Jews who had never seen Eretz Yisrael and the seasons and theagriculture of the land....which brings us to consider the nature of the climate in Israel, and the factthat the whole agricultural regime of the country depends on the amountof rain that falls in the rainy season and is stored either by man (in cisternsand reservoirs) or by nature (in lakes and subterranean aquifers) for useduring the dry season. This is quite different from what we are used to inthe temperate climates where most of us live, and gives rise to a much225 Ksharim

stronger sense of dependence whatever on force (God – or the gods)causes the rain to fall. See, for example:Deuteronomy 11:10-17http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=3575&pge_prg_id=15517&pge_id=1698 on rain-dependence and the liturgyhttp://israelstorms.netfirms.com/ on rainy weather in Israelhttp://www.lookstein.org/lessonplans/sukkot.pdf a sample lesson planemphasizing the difference between Eretz Yisrael, where we are dependenton rain, and other lands – like Egypt, where there are permanent watersources.e. DedicationThat Sukkot had greater significance than just one of the three pilgrimages canbe seen from the instruction in Deuteronomy 31:10-13, that on Sukkot of everysabbatical year, the people are to be assembled at the place of God’s choosingfor a public proclamation of and rededication to the Torah. Thus Sukkot seemsto have had a special role in linking land, Torah, and people.Furthermore: the various passages from the Torah were instructions forobservance of Sukkot, given in the desert, for application once we had arrivedin Eretz Yisrael. It took a couple of centuries for us to get organized to build theTemple. Solomon chose Sukkot as the time to hold a dedication feast of theTemple when he completed building it: see I Kings 8; (note in vss 65 -66, itseems he added an additional week to the festivities).And later, the account of the first Chanukah (rededication of the Temple) in theSecond Book of Maccabees brings out the significance of Sukkot as a feast ofdedication:II Maccabees 10:5ffAnd it came about that on the very same day on which the sanctuary had beenprofaned by aliens, the purification of the sanctuary took place, that is on thetwenty-fifth day of the same month, which was Kislev. And they celebrated itfor eight days with gladness, like Sukkot, and recalled how a little while before,during the Sukkot festival they had been wandering in the mountains andcaverns like wild animals. So carrying wands wreathed with leaves andbeautiful branches and palm leaves too they offered hymns of praise to HimWho had brought to pass the purifying of His own place.So it seems that Sukkot, more than the other festivals, was tied up withaffirming the sanctity of the Temple, and re-affirming our connection to it.Interesting that a festival that celebrates portability, temporariness, thevulnerability of the structures we build, is the same festival that affirms thecentrality in our spiritual life of a particular place and a particular building.f. Simchat Torah226 Ksharim

There is evidence that in Mishnaic times in Eretz Yisrael, the Torah was dividedinto approximately 154 sections, so that it took three years to complete thecycle of weekly readings.See: http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=327&letter=TThe custom of reading the whole Torah in a year seems to have originated inBabylonia. Sometime in the middle ages, the custom developed of celebratingthe annual renewal of the reading on the second day of Shemini Atzeret (in theDiaspora, of course). Thus, our Simchat Torah holiday is Diaspora based in twoways: it was based on a Babylonian Torah reading cycle, and it was observed ona day that in Eretz Yisrael was not a holiday. Today, in Israel, Simchat Torah isobserved on the day of Shemini Atzeret itself, although in many communities asecond, public celebration is held on the following evening (the same eveningas Simchat Torah in the Diaspora; since it is no longer yom tov, people maydrive, using instruments and amplification, etc., thus encouraging he secularpopulation to participate.This is an interesting example of the power of the Diaspora communities todetermine practice even in Israel.Meanwhile, in recent years, many Conservative congregations have adopted amodified version of the ancient triennial Torah reading cycle, as a way ofshortening the weekly reading (presumably to make it easier to prepare and sitthrough). See http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/diduknow/responsa/trichart.shtmlWith the reestablishment of the state of Israel, perhaps a return to the ancienttriennial system makes sense?5. Thoughts on practical applications in the classroom, materialsOur purpose is to help the teachers become “naturals” at including the Israel dimensionof Sukkot whenever they teach about it. Thus, it would seem that a solid familiarity withthe basic texts – Torah and Mishnah – defining the holiday as celebrated in Israel shouldbe the “bottom line” of this unit, along with discussion of their own feelings regardingthe various themes and ideas linking Sukkot to Israel.227 Ksharim

Sources:Mishnah Sukkot4:1 The lulav and the willow branch – sometimes six and sometimes seven days; the Hallel andthe rejoicing – eight days; the Sukkah and the water libation – seven days; and the fluteplaying– sometimes five and sometimes six days.4:9 The water libation: How so? A golden flagon holding three log (a log is about 1.5 pints)was filled from the pool of Shiloah. When they arrived at the Water Gate they sounded aprolonged blast. [The priest] went up the ramp and turned to his left, where there were twosilver bowls. R. Judah says, They were of plaster, but their surfaces were blackened because ofthe wine. And they each had a hole like a narrow spout, one wide and the other narrow, sothat both were emptied out together, the one to the west was for water and that to the eastfor wine. If one emptied out that for water into the one for wine or that for wine into the onefor water, it was valid. R. Judah says, With one log they could carry out the libations all theeight days. To him who performed the libation they used to say, Raise thy hand! - for on oneoccasion he poured it over his feet and all the people pelted him with their etrogim.5:1 The flute-playing – sometimes five days and sometimes six days. This was the fluteplaying at the Water-drawing celebration which overrode neither a Sabbath nor a Holiday.They said that anyone who had not witnessed the rejoicing at the Water-drawing celebrationhad never seen rejoicing in his life.5:2 At the close of the first Holy day of the festival of Sukkot they went down to the Court ofthe Women where they had made an important re-arrangement. And golden candlestickswere there with four golden bowls at their tops and four ladders to each one, and four youthsfrom the young priests with pitchers of oil, holding 120 logs, in their hands, which they used topour into every bowl.5:3 From the worn-out trousers and girdles of the priests they made wicks and with them setalight; and there was not courtyard in Jerusalem that was not lit up with the light of the Waterdrawingcelebration.5:4Pious men and men of good deeds used to dance before them with burning torches in theirhands and sang before them songs and praises. And the Levites on harps, and on lyres, andon cymbals, and with trumpets and with other instruments of music without number uponthe fifteen steps leading down from the court of the Israelites to the Women’s court,corresponding to the fifteen songs of ascent in the Psalms (Ps. 120 -134); upon them theLevites used to stand with musical instruments and sing hymns. And two priests stood at theUpper Gate which led down from the Israelites’ court to the court of the Women with twotrumpets in their hands. At cockcrow they sounded a prolonged blast, a quavering note, and aprolonged blast…228 Ksharim

L e s s o n 27:Tu Beshvat1. Outline:a. A summary of the halachic roots and implications of Tu Beshvat.b. The development of the mystic celebration of the day in 16 th centurySafed.c. Exploring the Zionist adaptation and interpretation of the day.d. The evolving meaning of Tu Beshvat in Israel today.2. Introduction:Tu Beshvat is mentioned in the Mishna not as a holiday but as the cut off datein determining tithes and orlah. (See lesson 9 on the mitzvot of the land ofIsrael). Despite these humble beginnings the day has evolved into a holidaycommemorating our connection to the land of Israel and its natural bounty. Inthis class we will trace the evolution of the day and the different meanings ithas acquired throughout the ages. We will try to understand the reasonsbehind the significance each age chose to emphasize and how the differentinterpretations reflect a changing connection to the land of Israel.3. Goals:a. To familiarize the students with the halachic relevance and recall theconnection between the land of Israel and the people of Israel signifiedby the agricultural mitzvot.b. To compare different interpretations and meanings given to Tu Beshvatby different Jewish communities throughout Jewish history.c. To explore the possible underlying influences and circumstances thatled to the development of new traditions on Tu Beshvat.d. To understand how Tu Beshvat reflects changing attitudes toward theland of Israele. To study how Tu Beshvat is celebrated today in the state of Israel andthe Diaspora and the implications of such celebrations regarding ourconnection to the land of Israel.4. Expanded Outline:a. The Halachic Sourcesi. On its most basic level Tu Beshvat simply means the 15 th day ofthe month of Shvat. "Tu" is formed from the letters tet and vavwhich are equivalent to 15. This date is not mentioned in the229 Ksharim

Bible as a holiday and first appears in Tannaitic sources where itssignificance is only as the cut off date in determining to whichyear the fruit belongs. The Bible sets out a 7 year cycle in whichthere are different tithes owed each of the first six years and theseventh is shmitah. Since there are different recipients for thevarious tithes (the Levite received every year but on the first,third, fifth and sixth years there was a tithe given to the pooralso, and on the second and fourth years this second tithe wasdesignated for the owner’s personal use in Jerusalem), it isnecessary to know to which year each fruit belongs. The rabbisestablished the 15 th day of the Hebrew month Shvat (halfwaybetween Sukkot and Passover) as the relevant date. All fruit thatblossomed before this date belongs to the previous year. All fruitthat blossomed after it, to the next. There are sources that use TuBeshvat to determine which fruits are designated as produce ofthe shmitah year and which grew after. The 15 th of Shvat alsodetermines the age of a new tree in regards to the mitzvah oforlah. Any tree planted before the 15 th of Av enters its secondyear the following Tu Beshvat. As such Tu Beshvat originally wassignificant only as a technical date in determining the halachicstatus of fruit grown in the land of Israel. (see source 1-3).ii.iii.iv.The sages in the Talmud and the Midrash offer differentagricultural explanations of why this specific date was chosen.They are connected with the annual rainfall in Israel. (see sources4-5). It is interesting to note that the Zodiac sign for Shvat isAquarius – the water carrier - or in Jewish tradition D’li - a bucketof water. The sages saw this as a reflection of the fact that Shvatis the height of the rainy season in Israel.It is likely that the term “Rosh Hashanah” allowed for an analogybetween the trees’ new year and that of people and gave rise tothe legend that on Tu Beshvat a heavenly court judges the treesand pronounces sentence, much the same as it does in regard tohumans on Rosh Hashanah [the first of Tishrei], when man's fateis believed to be decided.Although Tu Beshvat is primarily a technical date, the day isessentially connected with the land of Israel, its climate andagriculture. It is this connection, between the mitzvot and theagricultural reality of the land, symbolized by the 15 th of Shvat,that gave rise to the significance of Tu Beshvat in Jewishconsciousness.230 Ksharim

v. Suggestions for classroom activities and discussion: Studying the Mishna and suggesting other possible new years. A live reenactment of tithing a basket of fruit using either studentsor dolls to represent the recipients. As an elementary school student in Toronto I was taught that eventhough Tu Beshvat came out in the dead of winter when the onlything growing on the trees was icicles, in Israel it was the beginningof spring and everything was blooming. Living in Israel over the lasttwenty years I have found this to be less than accurate. Tu Beshvat isstill in the dead of winter. It is cold and rainy. However in Israelwinter is the one season when everything is green. It is true that afew trees have started budding, the most famous one being thealmond tree which has become a holiday icon. An interestingdiscussion can focus on different perceptions of winter and spring indifferent places in the world and how Jews connected to theseasons of Israel no matter where they were in the world (e.g. theprayer for rain on Shemini Atzeret).b. The Mystical Development of Tu Beshvati. Paradoxically it was in the exile, after the date had lost all itspractical relevance, that Tu Beshvat developed into a special daydedicated to the fruits of Israel and came to symbolize thenation’s longing for the land. After the people was exiled fromthe Land of Israel, the physical connection between man, treesand the earth turned into one of consciousness. Hymns werewritten in honor of the holiday and various traditions andcustoms were set including eating fruits of the land. In theEuropean Diaspora dried fruit - the only fruits that are availablewhen the holiday occurs, at the end the European winter, weresymbolically eaten on the day. Nuts where also eaten, almondsin particular. Being, traditionally, the tree to herald the spring,the almond is the symbol of rebirth and purity. A modernexample of equating eating the fruits of Israel with longing forthe land can be found in Naomi Shemer’s song “The Fruits ofthe15 th of Shvat” (See source 6)ii.It was predominantly the kabbalists in 16 th centaury Safed, RabbiIsaac Luria and his disciples, who emphasized the custom ofeating fruit on the 15th of Shvat, as a symbol of man'sparticipation in the joy of the trees. The Kabbalists added to theeating of fruit the notion of a Seder for the Fifteenth of Shvat,celebrating the rebirth of trees. Their Seder, designed as aparallel to the Passover Seder, was built around fruits and nutsand cups of wine of different colors, which became for themedible symbols of the mystical Four Worlds as well as invocations231 Ksharim

iii.of God's Holy shefa, all of life's abundance. Sections frommystical sources about nature and the land were studied (Themost popular being from Chemdat Hayamim; later the sectioncontaining the “tikkun” for Tu Beshvat was published separatelyas Pri Eitz Hadar. See source 7 for a small extract). Variations ofthis custom spread to different communities throughout theJewish world. (See source 8 for links to “Seders” based onmystical texts). Today the custom of having Tu Beshvat Sedershas resurfaced in Israel and the Diaspora. Different communitiesand schools put together booklets of sources of their choiceadding songs, poems, rabbinic texts, dances and customs theyfind meaningful and relevant.The mystical sources compiled for Tu Beshvat deal primarily withKabbalistic representations of the world, the inherent holiness ofthe land of Israel, the seven species.c. The Zionists and Tu Beshvati. When the Zionist pioneers started to settle in the land of Israel atthe end of the 19th century, Tu Beshvat took on a new and vitalsignificance. No longer a symbol of passive longing for the land,the Zionists identified the date with the active redeeming,replanting and cultivating the land that reflected their ownhopes and efforts. Amid afforestation activities Tu Beshvatbecame a day of tree planting. The first to identify Tu Beshvatwith tree planting was the educator Ze`ev Ya'avets. In 1892 hetook his pupils to plant trees in Zichron Ya'acov.ii.In 1908 the Jewish National Fund and Jewish education systemadopted the custom of school children and their teachers goingout to the fields and mountains to plant saplings. The planting oftrees was turned into a symbol of the participation of theindividual in the national project of redemption and rebuilding.Biblical and Talmudic texts emphasizing the importance of treeplanting were quoted as the Zionists sought to connect theirnew custom of tree planting with the tradition of celebrating TuBeshvat. For example, the Knesset website, when describing thepioneers’ tradition of tree planting, explains that it was a symbolof national redemption “as in the olden days when RabbiYohanan Ben Zakai said: "If you have a sapling in your hand and aretold that the Messiah has arrived - plant the sapling and then go togreet him." (Avoth DeRabbi Nathan' b' ch.31). (see source 9)232 Ksharim

iii.iv.By 1913, the tradition was so well established that the IsraelTeacher's Association, along with 1500 Jewish students, traveledto the Jewish colony of Motza, three miles west of Jerusalem,where the students planted trees and exchanged fruits witheach other. This Jewish Arbor Day was further cultivated by theJewish National Fund in an effort to combat the deadly diseaseof malaria in the swamplands of the Hula Valley (see source 10)by planting eucalyptus trees. Such campaigns succeeded inestablishing Tu Beshvat as a holiday that embodied the veryessence of the Zionist enterprise (see source 11).As such the date was also chosen as an inaugural date by variousinstitutions since it was perceived as the day which symbolizedthe renewed ties between the Jewish people and its land. Thecornerstone of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem was laid in1918; the Technion in Haifa in 1925; The Knesset - the Parliamentof Israel in 1949. (See source 12)v. This emphasis on tree planting continues until today in Israel, butas time went on and Zionist ideals of “redeeming the Land” beganto loosen their hold on the national psyche the day has once againtaken on new shades of meaning.d. Tu Beshvat in Israel Todayi. As the new state grew and became more and more urbanizedthe tradition of planting trees became a symbolic activity ratherthan one that was actually needed, as it had been in the earlyZionists’ day. As tree planting became less relevant Tu Beshvatbegan to encompass broader themes including a generalappreciation of nature, ecology and conservation. (see source13)ii.iii.In the last decade the custom of having a Seder Tu Beshvat hasbecome popular. No longer necessarily based on Kabbalistictexts, different communities have adapted and designed theirown version of the Tu Beshvat “seder” choosing songs, texts,themes and customs that they find relevant and meaningful.(see source 14)In recent years, in reaction to the “greening “ of Tu Beshvat,Religious Zionist rabbis have started speaking about how TuBeshvat is losing its meaning and the need to return to the “truemeaning” of the day. They suggest that the day should alsoinclude studying of the agricultural mitzvot - both the laws andtheir significance - as an expression of the Jewish people’sconnection to the land. Is this a closing of the circle? (see source15)233 Ksharim

Conclusion and Questions for Discussion:The changing character of Tu Beshvat reflects the changing circumstances of theJewish people, their perception of the land of Israel and their relationship to it. Howdo you think the holiday will continue to evolve? Are any interpretations more“authentic” than others? What texts and customs would you include in your TuBeshvat Seder?234 Ksharim

Sources1. Mishna Rosh Hashanah Chapter 1 Mishna 1:"There are four New Year days:The first of Nissan, the New Year for kings and the festivals;The first of Elul, the New Year for the tithing of animals;The first of Tishrei, the New Year for the counting of years, the Sabbatical year(shemitah), and the Jubilee, and planting and vegetation; andThe first of Shvat, the New Year for Trees - according to the followers of Shammai.Those who follow Hillel say (and we abide by this ruling): it is on the fifteenth ofShvat."2. Tosefta Shvee’it 4/13:“All trees that blossomed before the 15 th day of Shvat – they are of the previousyear; after the 15 th of Shvat they are of the next year.”3. Babylonian Talmud , Tractate Rosh Hashanah 14b:"If one picked fruit from an etrog tree on the eve of the 15th of Shevat before thesun went down, and he then picked more of its fruit after the sun went down, wemay not separate the tithes from one batch for the other... either from the newcrop for the old or from the old crop for the new one..."4. Babylonian Talmud Tractate Rosh Hashanah 14a:“Rabbi Eliezer says in the name of rabbi Oshiya: Since most of the rains for the yearhave fallen (the Rabbi’s chose the 15 th of Shvat)Rashi explains: Since most of the rains have fallen the sap has started running inthe trees and fruits have begun to blossom.5. Jerusalem Talmud, tractate Rosh Hashanah Chapter one Halacha 2:“Rabbi Zeira says “until now (the 15 th of Shvat) the trees lived off the rains of theprevious year from now on they live off the rains of the next year.”שלג על עירי כל הלילה נח .6אל ארצות החום אהובי הלךשלג על עירי והלילה קרמארצות החום לי יביא תמרדבש התאנה מתק החרובאורכת גמלים עמוסים כל טובומשם ישיב שמש ללביומשם תפוח זהב יביאשלג על עירי שלג על פני ובתוך הפרי כל געגועי235 Ksharim

Snow is falling on my city through the night,My beloved is in warmer lands.Snow is falling and the night is cold,From the warmer lands he will bring me a date.Honey of figs and sweetness of carobs,Caravans of camels loaded with goods,From there the sun will return to my heartAnd bring me a golden fruit.Snow on my city and on my face,And all my longings are embodied in this fruit.To hear the song open by title שלג על עירי at:http://shironet.gpg.nrg.co.il/homepage.aspx?homep=17. From Chemdat Yamim, a kabbalistic text on the holiday“On this day the earth in Eretz Yisrael renews its ability to produce grain, to bearfruit, to flow in oil and honey. It is a day of great joy for all of Am Yisrael. On this dayAm Yisrael eat the fruit of the land and enjoy its bounty, blessing He who gavethem this “Eretz Chemda”- beloved land - and they pray to go up to the land andrejoice in its rebuilding.”“May it be Your will, O Lord our G-d and G-d of our ancestors, by virtue ofthe fruits which we shall now eat and over which we will make blessings,that You abundantly bestow on the fruit trees Your grace, blessing, andfavor. May the angels appointed to rule over the fruit trees be strengthenedby Your glorious grace, causing the trees to sprout and grow once again,from the beginning to the end of the year, for good and for blessing, forgood life and for peace. And let us say: Amen.”8. http://hillel.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Tu_Bishvat/TO_Tu_Beliefs/Kabbalah_365.htmhttp://www.shemayisrael.co.il/tubishvat/index1.htmwww.aish.com/holidays/tu_bshvat/last/seder1.htmhttp://www.aish.com/tubshvat/tubshvatcustoms/Kabbalistic_Tu_Bshvat_Seder.asporld.std.com/~muffin/design/judaica/tubshvat.pdf9. Another example of tying Biblical texts with tree planting is the popular song KiTavo’u el Haaretz which is based on the Biblical verse in Leviticus 19/23:236 Ksharim

כי תבאו אל הארץ ונטעתםכל עץ מאכלונתן העץ פריווהארץ יבולהעת לנטוע אילנותעת לנטוע ולבנות,kol Eitz MaachalVenatan haEitz PriyoVeHaaretz yevulahEit lentoa ilanotKi Tavo’u el Haaretz ue netatemAnd when you come to the land you shall plant fruit treesAnd the trees shall give their fruit and the land its produceA time to plant treesA time to plant and buildEit lentoa ve livnot10. The history of the Hula Valley provides an interesting example of the changingattitude in Israel toward the land and its development that have also effectedIsraeli perception of Tu Beshvat. The draining of the hula swamp was seen as oneof the major accomplishments of the State. The main aims of the drainage planwere to eradicate malaria and to convert the swamp into arable land. The projectbecame the standard bearer of the entire Zionist movement to resettle the landand re-establish the Jewish National Home in the Holy Land. The project was onlypartially successful. The environment was negatively impacted. The quality of thesoil deteriorated and eventually the quality of water in Lake Kinneret wasthreatened. In the early 90’s the decision was taken to partially reflood the Hulavalley. The aim of re-flooding was to rehabilitate the diverse wetland ecology andcreate an area attractive to eco-tourism (the Hula Valley is on the main migrationroute of birds between Africa and Europe), as well as to create a clear water body,to help clean the water flow to the Lake of Kinneret. Where once clearing the landand developing agriculture were the ideals today ecology, environment anddeveloping tourism have become important in determining Israel’s decisions inland use and development.See : www.migal-life.co.il/history.htm11. For example, the prominent historian and educator, Joseph Klausner, wrote in1920:237 Ksharim

[Tu Beshvat] is a reminder to us that we will not leave father nature and motherearth; that the land is holy in the most exalted religious national sanctity; …thatthe people and the tree will be bound together and will not be separated, on thegood land that was given to our ancestors and to us to eat of its fruit and to besatisfied with its plenty – and in the end, that as long as we have a closeness andsensitivity to nature as expressed in the holiday of Tu Beshvat, we will be rooted inthe soil and all the evil winds that blow on us from all sides will not move us fromour place. Let this minor holiday arouse in us the desire to be rooted in our landlike a green tree in the earth of its orchard… and then the spring will come also forus, then a new year will begin for us as for the trees in our beloved land, after thecold winter of exile.12. http://www.knesset.gov.il/tubishvat/ebday.htm13. From the JNF site:http://www.jnf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=CR_tu_bshevat_2004“Tu Beshvat - the New Year for Trees - is a time when trees start drinking the NewYear's rainwater and the sun renews itself. As the Jewish Arbor Day, Tu Beshvatembodies the strong dedication to ecology, environmentalism and conservationthat Jewish National Fund has championed since its inception in 1901…."Tu Beshvat reminds us that no matter what happens, we all have to share thisplanet and care for it," said Russell F. Robinson, CEO of Jewish National Fund. "Overthe years, Tu Beshvat has taken on the theme of planting trees in Israel, making itJNF's holiday," he added. "Perhaps no other organization is as strongly associatedwith a holiday as JNF is with Tu Beshvat."Since its founding, JNF has planted more than 240 million trees in Israel to protectthe land, prevent soil erosion, green the landscape and preserve vital ecosystems.The trees maintain forest health, combat desertification, protect watersheds andmanage water flow. Additionally, they create a ‘green lung' to combat carbondioxide emissions in the region. JNF's success at planting trees in Israel hasresulted in naturally expanded forests and reclaimed deserts.During the early pioneer movement in late 18th and early 19th century Palestine,Jewish pioneers linked the environmentalism of Tu Beshvat with the practice ofplanting trees in the land of Israel. In recent years, Jewish environmentalistsadopted Tu Beshvat as a "Jewish Earth Day," with organized Seders, tree-plantingsand ecological restoration activities, as a way to express a specifically Jewishcommitment to caring for nature and protecting the land…..238 Ksharim

In Israel, Tu Beshvat is a time for families to get together, visit forests and planttrees. A 2002 poll showed that 93% of Israelis believe that Tu Beshvat treeplantings are essential to enlarging the country's green belts. More than twomillion trees are planted annually in Israel during Tu Beshvat alone.Or:http://www.jnf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=Celebrate_Tu_BShevatOn Tu Beshvat we celebrate the New Year for the trees. We eat the wonderful fruitsthat grow in Israel and we pray for a fruitful and bountiful year. As Jews we havetwo homes - Israel and planet Earth, and we are responsible for each. Join over250,000 other students like yourself and celebrate your relationship with both byplanting trees in Israel. Trees help Israel's environment by providing green spacesthroughout the country. They make the land beautiful, prevent soil erosion, andproduce oxygen.14. Some examples of modern “Haggadot” or “Tikkun” for Tu Beshvat:A version of a "Ma Nishtana" (the Four Questions) for Tu Beshvat composed byNogah Hareuveni of Neot Kedumim (1979):"Why is the seder of the night of Tu Beshvat different from the seder of the night ofPassover ?Because at the Passover seder we eat Matzot (unleavened bread), on this night:only fruit.At the Passover seder we drink wine of any color, on this night: white and red wine.At the Passover seder we tell of the exodus from Egypt, on this night: we speak ofthe fruits of the trees".In his "Seder Chamisha Asar Beshvat" (Seder of the Fifteenth Day of Shvat),Rabbi Y. Ariel, of Yeshivat Yamit (Neve Dekalim, 1988) gave symbols to theseder of Tu Beshvat along the lines of Kadesh U-rehatz of Passover:"Reading, washing, blessing, eating,The olive, the date and the vineOne should eat and drink the wine;Pour the wine well; eat a nut from its shell;With pomegranates and figs from their trees to eat239 Ksharim

Our seven kinds of fruit are complete;End with an apple and new wine to give praise;In song and prayer each voice to raiseAnd blessing upon G-d we callOther “haggadot”:http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/kids/together/tubshevat/ (from the JTS site)http://sixthirteen.org/images/tubishvat/haggadah5763.pdf (an Orthodox site)http://www.mosaicoutdoor.org/form-files/Tu-B-Shvat_Seder.pdfhttp://www.coejl.org/tubshvat/documents/tub_haggadah.php (from theCoalition of Environment and Jewish life: COEJL is the leading Jewishenvironmental organization in the United States.)15. From: http://www.kipa.co.il/jew/show.asp?id=3475Rabbi Yuval Sherlo- Rosh Yashiva of the Hesder Yeshiva in Petach Tikva and a memberof Rabbanei Tzohar“Tu Beshvat is an essentially a significant date in halacha.… important for establishingthe halachic status of the fruit….This is the original significance of the date. The worldof halacha created this date…not the Keren Kayemet [JNF].Therefore it is incumbent on us to do two things. Firstly to bring back, at least forourselves, the original significance of the day. This is done by studying the lawspertaining to the day (the laws of orlah, tithes, etc.) on Tu Beshvat as well as lawsconcerning the holiness of the land in connection with the mitzvot, the differentcategories of holiness, their definitions and relevance. This way we can educate ourchildren and accustom them to connect to the original meaning of the day and not itsadopted one.Once we know the original meaning of the day we can join in the planting andenjoy…..This way we tie its essential roots with today’s reality... (my translation).240 Ksharim

כך גם אירע לט"ו בשבט.‏ ביסודו של דבר זהו יום הלכתי,‏ בו משתנה מעמדו ההלכתי של האילן.‏ביום זה שנת הערלה מתחלפת,‏ ואם ניטע לפני ט"ו באב שנתיים וחצי לפני יום זה,‏ הוא נכנסלשנתו הרביעית ומקבל דין נטע רבעי;‏ ביום זה נקבע מעמדם ההלכתי של הפירות,‏ ואם חנטולפני ט"ו בשבט הם מקבלים את מעמד השנה הקודמת לעניין ההבחנה בין מעשר שני למעשרעני;‏ לפי חלק מהמקורות עד יום זה חלה על הפירות קדושת שביעית,‏ ואף אם חנטו בשנההשמינית לפני ט"ו בשבט הם מקודשים בקדושת פירות שביעית זו המשמעות המקורית שלט"ו בשבט.‏ עולמה של ההלכה הוא שיצר יום זה,‏ ומשמעותו נקבעת לפי עקרונות ההלכה,‏ ולאלפי יסודות הקרן הקיימת לישראל.‏לפיכך,‏ מוטל עלינו לעשות שני דברים.‏ ראשון בהם הוא להשיב,‏ לפחות לעצמנו,‏ את משמעותוהמקורית של יום זה.‏ השבה זו נעשית על ידי לימוד עצמי של הלכות חג בחג ‏(לאמור:‏ לימוד דיניערלה ורבעי,‏ תרומות ומעשרות)‏ ביום זה,‏ ולימוד קדושתה של ארץ ישראל לעניין המצוות,‏ כגוןיסוד סוגיית קדושה ראשונה וקדושת שניה,‏ והצורך ב"רוב יושביה עליה"‏ לגבי דינים שונים.‏ לאחרמכן אנו יכולים לחנך את ילדינו להתרגל להתקשר לדברים לאור המשמעות המקורית שלהם,‏ ולאלאור המרתם.‏לאחר שהכתרנו את המשמעות האמיתית והשבנו את ט"ו בשבט למקורו,‏ אנו יכולים להצטרףלנטיעות ולשמוח בהן,‏ שהרי אין דבר רע בנטיעת ארץ ישראל,‏ ואין דבר פסול בחגיגתההתקשרות המחודשת לארץ זו,‏ אם היא באה מקדושת הארץ ומההתיישבות בה.‏ כך אנוקושרים את שורשינו המהותיים עם המציאות של ימינו,‏ ומשיבים לב אבות על בנים ולב בנים עלאבותם.‏–241 Ksharim

L e s s o n 28:Megilat Esther, Exile, and Zionism1. OutlineReading Megilat Esther thought Zionist glassesPurim in Israel today2. IntroductionPurim is generally viewed as a particularly happy holiday, characterized by anumber of customs designed to make us laugh, to make us “push theenvelope” of what is permitted and what is acceptable, in the direction of wildcelebration. The story behind the holiday, contained in Megilat Esther, is anentertaining drama, with suspense, irony, sexual innuendo, cartoon violence,and a happy ending. So we read the scroll, but parts we drown out with noise;and we sing, and clown, and masquerade, and party – and move on to themore serious joy of Pesach. This picture is true in the Diaspora as well as inIsrael, and part of this unit will look at Purim observance in Israel.However, it is possible to see in the Esther narrative a darker view of the events,which all the merriment, perhaps, comes to cover up. Perhaps the Purim storycan be seen as a dark satire on the Diaspora, as a “Zionist” tract, emphasizingthe vulnerability of the Jews when they are not in their own land. Thus, it cangive us some insight into the meaning of Exile and the necessity of nationalsovereignty.3. Lesson goals4. Awareness of the “Zionistic” reading of Megilat Esther and its implications for ourself-understanding as Diaspora Jews5. Knowledge of Purim observance in Israel6. Expanded outline7. Reading Esther: a few suggestions for interpretation of particular passages8. Chapter 1: the setting: a world of hedonism and perverted values. This is theculture in which we are a minority, in which we need a degree of acceptance inorder to survive.9. Chapter 2: a queen is chosenVss. 5-6: we are dealing with the descendants of the exiles from theBabylonian conquest – 3 generations after the exile – presumablythus after Cyrus’ proclamation allowing the Jews to return: these arethe Jews who chose to remain in the Diaspora.242 Ksharim

10-11: Esther is sent by her cousin/foster father Mordecai to enter theharem competition, with instructions to keep her Jewish identitysecret.14-16: Esther spends the night with the king, wins the competition,and is crowned queen.What is clear so far is that this is not a beauty contest, as we like toteach it. It is, if we think about it in terms of our values, a terriblestory, about a foster father who prostitutes his charge (what for? Togain power and favor for himself at the court?), sending her into theharem of a king who is not only not Jewish, but is a disgustingcaricature of a Levantine despot. Of this we are supposed to beproud? And yet, as Diaspora Jews, it is just such perverse victoriesthat often make us proud (so the book seems to be saying). We loveJewish celebrities – even gangsters.21-23: a secondary plot, showing us that Mordecai is indeed a courtinsider, and uses Esther’s connection to ingratiate himself with theking.10. Chapter 3: the plot thickensVss. 1-6: Mordecai refuses to bow to his competing courtier, Haman;he doesn’t say this is because he only bows to God; that is ourinterpretation. Perhaps he, as a descendant of Saul, refuses to bow toa descendant of Agag, the Amalekite (see Ex. 17:14-16, Deut. 25:17-19, and I Sam. 15). In any case, he says he won’t bow because he is aJew – so Haman decides to get rid of the Jews.8-11: Haman brings the classic anti-Semitic claim: a people “whoselaws are different from those of any other people and who do notobey the king’s laws.” And that plus a bribe of 10,000 talents of silveris enough to seal the fate of the Jews. A power struggle between twocourtiers – and the Jews are sentenced, gratuitously andmeaninglessly, to death. Life in the Diaspora.11. Chapter 4: Mordecai has an ace (actually a queen) up his sleeveVss. 1-9: Mordecai seeks to exploit Esther’s position to save the Jews.10-11: But Esther has paid a high price for her position, and it is stillprecarious; she is unwilling to risk it.243 Ksharim

12-14: Mordecai brings her down to earth: “you may think you have‘made it,’ but you’re really just one of us. If we go down, you godown with us.”15-16: Esther’s moment of truth, of heroism. She could just walkaway, but she fulfills our Diaspora fantasy, and accepts her identity,takes the risk.12. Chapters 5-6: The tension builds, the conflict between Haman and Mordecaisharpens.13. Chapter 7: sex trumps money. Haman and his plan are crushed by Esther’spersonal appeal to the king.14. Chapter 8: Mordecai replaces HamanThe Jews go from powerless to powerful, from slated for annihilationto wielders of the sword against their helpless enemies.Vs. 17 “…and many of the people of the land professed to be Jews,for fear of the Jews had fallen upon them.”15. Chapter 9: consolidation of the victoryVs. 4: “For Mordecai was now powerful in the royal palace, and hisfame was spreading through all the provinces; the man Mordecai wasgrowing ever more powerful.”16. Chapter 10: We might say that Mordecai is the first “court Jew,” ranking “next tothe king” and using his rank “for the welfare of all of his kindred” – except that wehave seen that Joseph was already in a similar position, centuries earlier.17. Chapter 11: It is interesting to make up a next chapter of the Megila. Whathappens when Esther falls out of favor like Vashti? Or when after further palaceintrigue, a new Haman arises and displaces Mordecai? Or the king dies?It is in thinking about what comes next that we realize the darknessof this happy story. The Jews in the Diaspora are as secure as theircurrent protector – and s/he is never very secure. Not only that, buteven to gain that protection we have to make horrendouscompromises, to prostitute ourselves, to live by the values of aculture that we find repulsive. We are, in short, powerless in a worldthat is run by power. We can have the illusion of power for a momentor a lifetime, but in the end, we are vulnerable to the whim of everyking and to the machinations of every petty court conniver.244 Ksharim

Could it be that the laughter of Purim is the laughter of the author ofthe Megila – laughing at us for thinking it can ever be otherwise? Oris it our own nervous laughter, as we think about the next chapter isit happened time and again in Jewish history.Except, of course, when we are sovereign in our own land.18. Purim in Israel19. Endless holiday. From a minor one day holiday, Purim in Israel has beentransformed into nearly a week of festivity:20. There is of course no school on Purim, so Purim parties in school must be held theday before.21. But the day before is Ta’anit Esther, when it is customary to fast, in identificationwith Esther’s order to the Jews to fast before she goes to the king (4:15-16); that isnot an appropriate day for parties.22. So school parties are moved back to two days before Purim.23. But according to custom cities that are believed to have been walled since the timeof Joshua observe Purim a day later (“Shushan Purim” 9:17-19 seehttp://www.ou.org/chagim/purim/when.htm ); today this includes only Jerusalem;but since there can’t be different days off in different cities in a proper modernstate, Purim is a two-day vacation from school.24. Thus, we end up with a least a four day sequence, not to mention various privateparties, festivals, etc., before and after.25. Public holiday: Purim is modern Israel is reminiscent of Carnival or Mardi Gras inChristian countries: a public festival of masquerade, wild partying, drinking. Foryears the central event was a huge parade and fair in Tel Aviv, called the Adloyada(from the traditional term for a Purim celebration based on the Talmudicstatement that one is obligated to drink enough on Purim so as not to know [add’lo yada] to differentiate between “cursed is Haman” and “blessed is Mordecai.”).Today the Tel Aviv Adloyada is not always held, but there are others. Seehttp://www.virtualtourist.com/travel/Middle_East/Israel/Tel_Aviv_District/Tel_Aviv_Yafo-1708077/Local_Customs-Tel_Aviv_Yafo-Purim_holiday-BR-1.html andhttp://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3063333,00.htmland here are some weird pictures:http://www.hatzolah.org.il/gallery/61/26. Of course, in synagogues, the Megilah is read evening and morning (often with cappistols in place of graggers). But for most Israelis, Purim is a secular celebration,primarily for children. The buying and making of costumes is a big deal, and therange of possibilities is endless, from pop culture figures to traditional costumes.You know you’re in the Jewish state when you meet all these characters on the busand on the street during Purim week.245 Ksharim

27. Hamantaschen (“Haman pockets” in German; apparently based on “mohntaschen”– poppyseed pockets) are called Oznei Haman in Israel (Haman’s ears).28. A number of recent Purims in Israel have been associated with historical eventsthat seemed to have a connection to the content of the holiday:29. The end of the first Gulf war in 199130. Baruch Goldstein’s massacre in Hebron, 199431. A brutal terror attack at Dizengoff center in Tel Aviv, 1996246 Ksharim

L e s s o n 29:Pesach1. Outlinea. The first Pesach in Eretz Yisraelb. Evolution of the Haggadah in ancient timesc. Transformation of the Haggadah in the kibbutzim2. IntroductionIn this unit we will trace Pesach from its first celebration, by Joshua and the people ofIsrael immediately upon entering Eretz Yisrael, to its transformation in modern timesby the pioneers of the kibbutzim in Israel.From Joshua's time onwards, while the tabernacle and then the Temples existed inIsrael, Pesach was celebrated by the sacrifice of the Paschal lamb, to commemorate themeal eaten by the children of Israel on their last night in Egypt. When the SecondTemple was destroyed, Pesach (along with the other festivals, and indeed the whole ofJudaism) was transformed by the sages into something completely different – a familycelebration, comprising a festive meal and learned discussions on the topics of the day(the proportions between the two differ from family to family…). The Haggadah, thetext that accompanies the seder, began to take shape during that period, butcontinued to develop throughout the ages. The pioneers of the kibbutzim, trying todesign a celebration which would express their commitment to Zionism, socialism andcommunal life, transformed the Haggadah in new and interesting ways. We willexamine a large collection of excerpts from different kibbutz Haggadot to see how thevalues of the members shaped the texts they used.Pesach is the holiday that celebrates our deliverance from slavery in Egypt. It is strangethat the culmination, as it were, of that event, namely the entry into Eretz Yisrael, is notcelebrated – neither on Pesach nor on any other traditional holiday. As we shall see,the editors of the kibbutz Haggadot tried to remedy this omission by transformingPesach into a festival which celebrates their modern-day exodus and return to theland.3. Lesson goalsa. Reflection on the development of the Pesach celebration, and in particular thetext of the Haggadah, through the agesb. Familiarity with some of the unique characteristics of the kibbutz haggadot, as areflection of the values of the kibbutz4. Expanded outline247 Ksharim

a. The first Pesach in Eretz YisraelThe book of Joshua (and the first few chapters in particular) tells the end of the storywhich began with the exodus. After 40 years of wandering, the children of Israel havedone their penance in the desert and are ready to enter the Land. The parallels in theprocess are striking: Joshua 3, 5-17, in which the crossing of the Jordan reminds us of the crossing ofthe Red Sea.How are the people crossing the Jordan different from the people who crossedthe Red Sea?40 years have passed, and the slaves who left Egypt have all (except Joshua andKalev ben Yefune) died in the desert. Joshua is leading now, not Moses – a warleader, not a law-giver . The people carry with them the Ark with the tablets ofLaw, and the river parts when the Ark-bearers’ feet touch it, and not as aresponse to Moses' raised staff. There is no sense of hesitation and fear in thepassage – the story exudes a sense of confidence and purposefulness lacking inthe escape from Egypt. Joshua 4:4-9, 20-24. At the site of the passage, Joshua erects a monument tothe event. The reason he gives echoes the reason given for variouscommandments that commemorate the exodus (Exodus 12:26, Exodus 13:14 –the phrases used are identical) – to raise questions from the children who havenot undergone the formative experience themselves.Why was the exodus commemorated in commandments, while the entrance iscommemorated by a monument?Perhaps because the children who ask the questions will see the monumentwhen they walk by it in their Land, and have their interest piqued, whereas amonument left in Egypt will hopefully never be seen by children of Israel again. Joshua 5:2-12. What are the first events that take place in Eretz Yisrael? Thecovenant (literally, the Brit) which they have not been practicing during all theiryears in the desert, needs to be renewed, so all the males undergocircumcision. After this ceremonial act is done, they celebrate the Pesach, andthe next day, they eat of the fruits of the Land for the first time. The manna,which has been feeding them for all the desert years, ceases.What is the symbolism behind each of these events?The entrance into the land is marked by a renewal of the covenant with God(which also commemorates Abraham – the first Jew), and then acommemoration of the journey's beginning, with Exodus. Then the children ofIsrael part from their life in the desert by weaning themselves from the manna,which has nourished them for forty years, and starting to eat a "grownup diet"– from the crops of Eretz Yisrael. A national rebirth?The long journey which began exactly 40 years ago ends symbolically with thecelebration of the Pesach - for the first time as a commemoration and not as the event248 Ksharim

itself – but also – for the first time as the agricultural festival described in the Torah(Leviticus 23:4-14).b. Evolution of the Haggadah in ancient timesWhat we know as the traditional Haggadah of today began to evolve during the endof the time of the Second Temple, or after its destruction. As part of the revolution ofRabban Yochanan Ben Zakkai, who created a Judaism that could be transported toexile and survive without a temple, the Haggadah replaces the rituals of thepilgrimage and the temple sacrifice with an educational ritual performed by eachfamily at home.The main body of the Haggadah is a long midrash on Deuteronomy 26:1-10, asspecified by the Mishnah (Pesachim 10:4): "… and one should interpret from 'My fatherworked…'. As you can see in Deuteronomy, this "short history of the Jewish people"was recited by people who brought their first fruits to the Temple. The biblical textstarts with the forefathers and ends with the entrance to the Land; but curiously, theHaggadah discusses all the verses except the last one, which tells of the entrance tothe Land!Why is this so?Did the Rabbis want to spare the Jews in exile the salt on their wounds, and so omittedwhat could have been a long midrash extolling the virtues of the Land? Were theytrying to suggest that the miracle of the exodus, and later the giving of the Torah inthe desert, were the real high points of the story, and the entrance just the tail end?Were they leaving the completion of the midrash to the Rabbis in the age of the ThirdTemple?It is interesting to note that the text of the Haggadah changed over time, affected bylocal customs, historical events and contemporary fashions. To see an example of earlyevolution, examine sources 1-3 (see also the summarizing table). All three are versionsof the questions asked by the child at the beginning of the seder. Sources 1 and 2 aredifferent versions of the Mishnah, while source 3 is from the traditional Haggadah weuse today.What are the differences between the versions, and why do they occur?The first version (which contains only 3 questions!) contains a question about roastmeat, which refers to the Pesach lamb, a sacrifice which each family roasted on anopen fire and ate on Pesach eve. After the destruction of the temple, this sacrificecould no longer be brought, the ritual of the Paschal lamb ceased, so the question nolonger applied in reality. As Maimonides says: "These days one does not say ' this nightonly roasted ', as we have no sacrifice" ( Mishneh Torah, Hametz u'Matzah, 8, 3). Thisquestion was replaced by the question about the maror, which used to be a part of thePesach sacrifice, but was continued even after the Pesach lamb was retired. Thequestion about reclining was apparently added even later, in Babylonia, reflecting the249 Ksharim

surprise of Babylonian children at the custom (copied by the Rabbis of the Mishnahfrom Greco-Roman nobility) of reclining during the seder meal. The difference in the"dipping question" stems again from a difference in the eating customs between EretzYisrael (as reflected in the Mishnah) and Babylonia (as reflected in the traditionalversion, taken from the Talmud). In Eretz Yisrael, under the influence of Greco-Romanculture, it was customary to eat vegetables dipped in salt water as appetizers. This wasnot the case in Babylonia.c. Transformation of the Haggadah in the kibbutzimAs we saw in the above exercise, former generations saw fit to alter and change theHaggadah to adapt it to their circumstances. When the Zionist pioneers came toPalestine and founded new kibbutzim, in the beginning of the 20 th century, a wave ofnew Haggadot began to appear. The pioneers were fueled by youthful rebellionagainst the tradition of their forefathers, yet retained a measure of nostalgia for the oldrituals they had left behind, along with family and traditional community. Therefollowed a period in which each kibbutz published its own version of a Haggadah,used by kibbutz members in a communal seder. It is estimated that about 1000Haggadot, a fifth of the Haggadot ever to be published throughout history, wereproduced by the kibbutzim.Examine the attached excerpts from a collection of kibbutz Haggadot, to see somedifferences from the traditional versions. Some differences to note: The stress on Pesach as a spring festival, including songs extolling the beauty ofnature in Eretz Yisrael, and agricultural references to the season of harvest;frequent quotations from Song of Songs. Eretz Yisrael itself, omitted from the traditional Haggadah, is ushered back inthe kibbutz Haggadot. The biblical story, glossed over in the traditional Haggadah, became thefoundation of many kibbutz Haggadot. Similarly, Moses, who does not appearat all in the traditional Haggadah, makes a comeback in the kibbutz version. Contemporary questions, about the status of the world, the Jewish people andthe kibbutz, replace the traditional four (Methodological note: an interesting activity isfor students to write their own four questions, after examining some of the kibbutz versions). The emphasis on the parallels between the story of the exodus from Egyptconcluding with the entry to Eretz Yisrael, and the exodus from Europeculminating in the birth of the Jewish State. References are made to currentevents, with heavy emphasis on the Holocaust. The words of contemporary poets (Bialik, Tshernichovsky, Rachel) areincorporated into the Haggadah. The artistic styles depart from the traditional Haggadot, depicting scenes fromnature, influenced by the oriental style affected in Bezalel (the first art school inIsrael).250 Ksharim

Sources1. Mishnah Pesachim 10:4 according to (among others) the Parma manuscript, one ofthe most reliable ancient manuscripts.Look, how different this night is from all other nights!On all other nights, we dip once, this night twice.On all other nights, we eat chametz or matzah, this night – only matzah.On all other nights, we eat meat roasted, fried or cooked, this night only roasted.2. Mishnah Pesachim 10:4 according to the printed versions of the Mishnah andTalmud.Look, how different this night is from all other nights!On all other nights, we eat chametz or matzah, this night – only matzah.On all other nights, we eat all kinds of vegetables, this night only maror.On all other nights, we eat meat roasted, fried or cooked, this night only roasted.On all other nights, we dip once, this night twice.3. The Four Questions, from the traditional Haggadah (translation from the OpenSource Haggadah Project at http://www.opensourcehaggadah.com/).What makes this night different from all [other] nights?On all nights we need not dip even once, on this night we do so twiceOn all nights we eat any kind of vegetables, and on this night marorOn all nights we eat sitting upright or reclining, and on this night we all reclineMishnah, ParmamanuscriptOn all other nights, we diponce, this night twiceOn all other nights, we eatchametz or matzah, thisnight – only matzahOn all other nights, we eatmeat roasted, fried orcooked, this night onlyroastedMishnah and Talmud,printed versionsOn all other nights, we eatchametz or matzah, thisnight – only matzah.On all other nights, we eatall kinds of vegetables, thisnight only marorOn all other nights, we eatmeat roasted, fried orcooked, this night onlyroastedOn all other nights, we diponce, this night twice.Traditional HaggadahOn all nights we need notdip even once, on thisnight we do so twice!On all nights we eatchametz or matzah, and onthis night only matzahOn all nights we eat anykind of vegetables, and onthis night marorOn all nights we eat sittingupright or reclining, andon this night we all recline251 Ksharim

Translations of excerpts from:מוקי צור ויובל דניאלי ‏(עורכים),‏יוצאים בחודש האביב – פסח ארץ-ישראלי בהגדות מן הקיבוץ.‏.2004Note: words from the traditional Haggadah are underlined.p. 57 – Ha'Kibbutz Ha'Artzi. (From Bialik's "The last dead of the desert", 1897)Arise, desert wanderers, and leave the wilderness,The road is long, the battles are many.Cease your rootless drifting in the wasteland,Before you lies the great, open road.Forty years we have wandered between the mountains -Six hundred thousand corpses we have buried in the sand.Let not the corpses of the falterers delay us,They died in slavery, let us pass over them!They shall rot in their shame, sprawled over their parcelsCarried on their shoulders from Egypt.Let them dream pleasantly of onions, garlic,Huge tureens of meat.Today or tomorrow the wind shall shareWith the vulture the corpse of the last of the slaves.Arise, therefore, wanderers! Leave the wilderness,But do not raise your voices, tread silently!Lest your footsteps anger the desert and its sleepers –Let every man hearken in his heart to the echo of his tread!Let every man hear in his heart the voice of God speak:"Go! Today you pass to a new land!No! Not worthless bread, quails and the fruit of the heavens,You shall eat the bread of sorrow, the fruit of your labor!No, not a flyaway tent, or a heavenly loft,You shall build a different house,For besides the desert, under the sky,God's world is wide.And besides the howl of the desert, the silence of the void,A beautiful land lies under the sun.p. 70 – Ein Gev, 1944This Passover seder nightof the year 1944 is the ninth seder on our land, this strip of land between the Kinneretin the west and the Golan mountains in the east.252 Ksharim

This Passover seder nightIs the ninth of our kibbutz as one body, uniting our people from the differentdiasporas.Let us commemorate our devoted comrades who were uprooted from us in the primeof their youth: at work, in defense, in disease and in the depths of the sea – may theirmemory be always present in our endeavors!p. 73 – Ein Gev, the 1940's. (Note the tower and stockade)This is the bread of affliction that our fathers ate in the land of Egypt. Whoever ishungry, let him come and eat; whoever is in need, let him come and conduct theSeder of Passover. This year [we are] here; next year: we will all be together, with oursoldier comrades, with the new olim in our rebuilding land. This year – the wholeworld is in the flames of war and oppression. Next year – freedom.How is this night different from all other nights?On all other nights and days we are engrossed in everyday matters. This night we raisethe memory of redemption and the vision of salvation.p. 81 – Ashdot Yaakov, 1942 (From a song by Rachel)I did not plow, neither did I sow,I did not pray for rain.But suddenly, see: my fields have spoutedBlessed wheat instead of thorns.p. 83 – Beit Hashita 1939 (Song of Songs, 2:11-13)p. 86 -Na'an, 1942 (translation from Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi, Haggadah and History,JPS, Philadelphia 1975)Why does this night differ from all other nights? For on all other nights the children eatin their own dining hall; but on this night we are all seated together, parents, childrenand comrades.Why is the position of the Jews different from that of all the nations? For every nationdwells in its house and homeland, but the Jews are scattered throughout the world,hated, persecuted, and even to the Land of Israel, their homeland, they are notpermitted to come without hindrance.Why are there in the world poor and rich, well-fed and hungry, workers and idlers?And why do men fight instead of giving a helping hand to one another so as to behappy and joyful together?When shall the day come in which Na'an will be large, beautiful, expanded with muchland about, and many brothers from exile will come to build it together with all itscomrades?253 Ksharim

p. 101, Ayelet Hashachar, 1953Excerpts from Numbers 13 – the story of the spies sent to explore the land, who returnwith word of the difficulties they foresee in conquering and inhabiting it. The excerptends with Kalev's words: "Let us go up at once, and possess it; for we are well able toovercome it!"p. 113 – Hamadia 1943 – illegal immigration to Palestine was the only way to save theJews from their fate.If we cannot save those who are being led to their deaths – we, the saved, areresponsible for the remnants of Israel. No other shoulders can take the burden. Noback to hide behind.The fact that we, standing here today, were washed by the fate of Israel to the shore –is binding upon us. It cannot but be binding.In exile a man of Israel would turn to Zion. In Zion a man of Israel must turn to thefallen Sukkah of Israel, that is falling everywhere.On every day a man must see himself as tilting the balance: either exodus or theextension of exile.May all our deeds be directed towards parting the sea and receiving the prodigals.p. 138 – Ein Gev 1945Pour out thy wrath upon the heathen that have not known theeFor they have devoured Jacob,And laid waste his dwellingplace.Persecute and destroy them in angerFrom under the heavens of the Lord.Those who survived the terrible destruction have resolved no longer to live in theshadow of the goyim, and to set off for the land of their forefathers, now coming alive.p. 142 – Ein Gev 1949Nathan Alterman's poem "The Silver Platter" (see translation inhttp://www.aj6.org/jpbo/410/page2.html), glorifying the fallen soldiers in the battlefor the Jewish State.p. 165 – Givat Brenner , the 1950sChad Gadia, the song that ends the Haggadah with a tale of various creatures eating,hitting, quenching and killing each other, is replaced in the kibbutz version with thisvision of universal peace, cooperation and a high work ethic. Notice the omission ofthe butcher, the angel of death, and God himself:254 Ksharim

On a high hill,A shepherds' flute singsA new song for Israel.The shepherd had but a clothtentAnd a kid, one kid,Chad gadia, chad gadiaWho came along? A plant-rod:"Plant me, comrades, on the hill,I will give fruit and shade!"They answered in song, inunison,"Fruit and shade – how nice!"Chad gadia, chad gadiaAlong came a bull"I plow the whole hill,Is there any as hardworking asI?"They answered in song, inunison,"As long as we have bread, weshall not fear!"Chad gadia, chad gadiaAlong came a meowing cat"Make room for me too,I will not sit idly"They answered in song, inunison,"Gladly, hunter cat!"Chad gadia, chad gadiaAnd a fire leapt from the dark:"Let there be light and fire onthe hill,To roast, bake, cook!"They answered in song, inunison,"Welcome, light!"Chad gadia, chad gadiaOn a high hill,A scythe glitters and ringsSounds of harvest in Israel.Let us raise our voices in unison,And raise the sheaf in song,Chad gadia, chad gadiaAlong came a dog, eager toplease,"Is there room for me too –I will guard day and night!"They answered in song, inunison,"Give us a hand, comrade, giveus a hand!"Chad gadia, chad gadiaA quiet spring whispered:"Divert me to the hill,and build a farm to give praisefor!"They answered in song, inunison,"We have found water to raiseour spirits!"Chad gadia, chad gadiap. 193 – Ha'Kibbutz Ha'Artzi 1945On the right – excerpts from Bialik's "The Dead of the Desert", describing the groupwho rebelled against God's punishment of Israel, in which he condemns them towander 40 years in the desert for their reluctance to enter the land after the reports ofthe spies:They suddenly rouse themselves, the stalwart men of war,"We are the brave!Last of the enslaved!First to be free!With our own strong hand,our hand alone,we tore from our neckthe heavy yoke.In the desert imprisoned,to misery abandonedby an avenging God,a mere whispered songof defiance and revoltstirred us to rise.255 Ksharim

To arms, comrades!Seize sword and lance,spear and javelin – advance!Heaven's rage defyand in storm reply.The storm calls: Dare!Take lance, take spear.Let the mountains break up,the hills collapse,or our bodies lie heapedcorpse upon corpse.Onward to the hillsarise, ascend!".Source: Chaim Nachman Bialik Selected Poems, translated by Ruth Nevo. Dvir and TheJerusalem Post. See the full poem inhttp://www.jafi.org.il/education/anthology/english/gate5/e5b-metey_midbar.html.On the left, excerpts from the song which the children of Israel sang after the partingof the Red Sea (the Song of the Sea – Exodus 15).256 Ksharim

L e s s o n 30:Yom Hashoah1. OutlineYom haShoah in IsraelIsraeli youth expeditions to Holocaust sites2. IntroductionIn this unit we will address some of the unique aspects of the relationship betweenIsrael (and Israelis) and the Holocaust. Some say that the state of Israel would neverhave been born were it not for the Holocaust, but whether or not this is true, therelationship is fundamental, complex and evolving.The Holocaust is mentioned daily in the media in a variety of contexts, and is animportant part of the Israeli consciousness. The Holocaust is commemorated inIsrael by law, and in recent years is one of the guiding principles of the educationalsystem. Thousands of Israeli teenagers go each year on pilgrimages to Holocaustrelatedsites in Poland, and return infused with the conviction of the vital role ofIsrael as a haven for worldwide Jewry. By examining Yom Hashoah, a yearly eventwhich affects the lives of every citizen in the state, and the expeditions to Poland, asignificant and formative experience for many young Israelis, we will try tounderstand some of the distinctive features of Israel's relationship to theHolocaust.3. Lesson goals4. Familiarity with Yom haShoah in Israel5. Knowledge about the development of Israelis' regard of the Holocaust6. Reflection on the educational dilemmas associated with Israeli youth expeditionsto Holocaust sites.7. Expanded outlinea. Yom Hashoah in IsraelThe Holocaust and Ghetto Revolts Day was first announced by the Knesset in 1951,and later was mentioned in the Yad vaShem law as Holocaust and Heroism MemorialDay. In 1959, it was made into law (see source #1). The date, the 27 th of Nissan, waschosen as it is close to the date of the Warsaw Ghetto revolt. The day is observed inIsrael by official ceremonies in Yad vaShem and in Kibbutz Lochamei Hagetaot 14 , a 2-minute siren during which all work and traffic stops and all stand in silence, media14 Translating to "Ghetto fighters", the kibbutz was founded by survivors of the Warsaw Ghetto revolt, andruns a museum and education center – Beit Lochamei Hagetaot.257 Ksharim

coverage of related topics, and sad music on the radio. Reading the law, severalquestions arise:Does Israel really need a law to commemorate the Holocaust? And should the law beso explicit in its listing of the ways in which the day must be marked? Does the lateentry of the day into the law books signify a strengthening of the commitment toremember, or a step taken to hold on to the memories when they began to fade?Would you add to or change anything in the law?Why is the day called "Holocaust and Heroism Memorial Day", with equal stress on theHolocaust and the Heroism? What is the significance of the date chosen?During the Holocaust and for years after it had ended, the Israeli public regarded themajority of the Holocaust victims, who had not resisted the Nazis, with a mixture ofshame and disgust. Why had these people gone "as sheep to the slaughter"? Productsof years of Shlilat Hagolah, the "negation of the Diaspora," the younger generations ofIsraelis were inclined to blame the Jews in the diaspora for not arriving at the obviousconclusion that they should join the Zionist effort in Palestine, and, that mistakehaving been made, for not resisting bravely to the end.As the Nazi armies advanced in Egypt, the yishuv began to organize "the Masada Plan"- a desperate heroic defense in the mountains of the Carmel. The rhetoric implied:"We, the brave sabras, will not be meek and willing victims like our diaspora brethren,but rather fight bravely to the death." The Jews who revolted in the ghettos andcamps or joined the partisan fighters in the forests were warmly embraced by themembers of the yishuv, who did not wish to hear the stories of the others. In additionto looking down on the broken survivors, seen as representing all that wasreprehensible in diaspora Jews, the Israelis also felt guilt for having lived normal liveswhile the Holocaust raged in Europe, remorse for not doing enough during the war tosave the victims, resentment of the survivors for staying alive when so many had not,apprehension about hearing their stories and doubt whether they could be partners inbuilding the state. Many survivors complained that the Israelis "just didn't want tolisten," and they were left with their stories pent up inside. Amos Oz summarizes thissuccinctly in his recent autobiographical book:"…the refugees, the survivors … we generally treated with compassion and a certainrevulsion: miserable wretches, was it our fault that they chose to sit and wait for Hitler insteadof coming here while there was still time? Why did they allow themselves to be led like sheepto the slaughter instead of organizing and fighting back? And if only they'd stop nattering onin Yiddish, and stop telling us about all the things that were done to them over there, becauseall that didn't reflect too well on them or on us for that matter. Anyway, our faces here areturned towards the future not the past, and if we do have to rake up the past, surely we havemore than enough uplifting Jewish history, from biblical times, and the Hasmoneans, there'sno need to foul it up with this depressing Jewish history that's nothing but a bundle oftroubles (they always used the Yiddish word tsores, with an expression of disgust on their258 Ksharim

faces, so the boy realizes that these tsores are a kind of sickness that belonged to them, not tous)." 15This attitude changed gradually during the 60's and 70's, after many Israelis hearddetailed descriptions of the events for the first time at the Eichmann trial, which waswidely broadcast. In that period, the "Heroism" component was moved to back stage,and a new definition of courage, one that included the Jews' spiritual resistance, tookover. In recent years, the day is universally called Yom haShoah, with the "Heroism"component quietly dropped.Was the reception the survivors received in the US different from the one describedabove? Are there differences in the way the Holocaust is commemorated betweenIsrael and the US?The Holocaust is still very present in Israeli consciousness. Some recent examples fromnews reports of the past few years: Israeli settlers uprooted from Gaza wore orange stars to evoke Holocaustimagery (see http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4115505.stm) World leaders are led on obligatory tours to Yad vaShem on state visits (e.g.http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3208083,00.html) Squabbles over Holocaust reparations money between various Israeligovernment bodies, banks, survivor organizations and Jewish organizations areperiodically reported (e.g.http://www.haaretzdaily.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=148986&contrassID=2&subContrassID=5&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y&itemNo=148986) Occasionally musicians will attempt to play music by Richard Wagner,invariably provoking loud protests (e.g.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/1311347.stm)A good survey of the Israel-Holocaust relationship can be found in Israeli historianTom Segev's book – The Seventh Million: The Israelis and the Holocaust (translated byHaim Watzman).b. Israeli youth expeditions to Holocaust sitesSince the onset of diplomatic relations between Israel and Poland, Israelis have goneon visits to sites connected with Jewish existence and extermination in Poland. Sincethe 1980s, many groups of teenagers, organized by the Ministry of Education, schools,youth movements and independent travel agents, are sent on these expeditions. Thetrips have gained immense popularity – for the first decade, 1985-95, it has beenestimated that approximately 50,000 youths went on the trip, and the numbers havegrown since.15 Amos Oz, A Tale of Love and Darkness, Nicholas deLange (trans.), London, 2004, p. 13.259 Ksharim

Source #2 is an excerpt from a circular by the head of the Education Ministry of Israel,concerning trips of youth delegations to Poland, listing the goals of the expeditions (itmay be interesting to compare this to source #3 – a brochure to prospective "March ofthe Living" participants).Would you add more goals to the list?Perhaps getting to know modern Polish Jewry, both as a general example of a Jewishcommunity in the diaspora, and as a special community living on the ashes of one ofthe largest communities in the past? Getting to know modern Poland, with its recenthistory of transition from communism? Meeting Polish youth, and hearing what theyknow and think about the Holocaust?Can and should the Holocaust be used to "strengthen the ties of young Israelis withtheir communal Jewish identity"? How about the "understanding of their personalcommitment to the … sovereign existence of the State of Israel"?See source #4, an article by Rabbi Professor David Hartman, who calls for making Sinai,not Auschwitz, the "orienting category shaping our understanding of the rebirth of theState of Israel". Do you agree?The circular proposes two main moral lessons to be learnt from the Holocaust; anational lesson, and a universal one. Sources 5 and 6 are cited, in one textbook used inIsraeli schools 16 , as personal testimonials of young people who reached theseconclusions. Which moral lesson do you think should be stressed more? Should weeven attempt to learn from the Holocaust?Do you think there may be risks associated with the "Holocaust pilgrimages" inparticular, and Holocaust education in general? Do you think the high level of"Holocaust-consciousness" in Israel affects its policies?See source #7, an article by Professor Yehudah Elkanah, in particular the sections inbold. Elkanah suggests that the imperative command to "Remember!", dinned intoIsraeli youth, causes them a deep-seated anxiety and causes some of them to use theHolocaust as a justification for violent attacks against people they perceive asthreatening their existence. In his book The Seventh Million: The Israelis and theHolocaust, Israeli historian Tom Segev claims that three of modern Israel's landmarkdecisions were predominantly affected by Israeli leaders' perception of the Holocaust:- The decision to bring large populations of Jews from Arab countries wasmotivated by fear for their future, and Israeli leaders' wish to avoid repeatingwhat they viewed as their insufficient efforts to save the Jews in Europe. Theywere also brought to supplement the relatively small Jewish population inIsrael, after the reserves of potential olim from Europe had been depleted bythe Nazis.16 Shalom Hartman Institute's "Arachim BeMoadam" (Values in Holidays).260 Ksharim

- Israel's determination to manufacture and stockpile atomic bombs stemmedfrom a fear of being caught again by surprise, this time by a neighboring Arabcountry's achievement of nuclear power status.- Israel's preemptive strike against the Arab countries in the Six Day War was aresponse to the widespread perception of Nasser, leader of Egypt, as a newHitler, and deep-seated fears of a repetition of the Holocaust.Sources1. The law of Holocaust and Heroism Memorial Day (Yom HaShoah VehaGvura) - 1959The 27 of Nissan is Holocaust and Heroism Memorial Day, dedicated, every year, tocommuning with the memory of the Holocaust that the Nazis and their helpersperpetrated upon the Jewish people, and the memory of the acts of heroism andrevolt in those days…On Memorial Day there will be a two-minute silence throughout the state in which allwork and traffic will be stopped; memorials, public gatherings and commemorativeceremonies will be held in army camps and educational institutions; the flags onpublic buildings will be flown at half mast; radio broadcasts will express the distinctcharacter of the day, and houses of entertainment will hold events in its spirit.Public celebrations will not be held on Memorial Day, and on Memorial Day eve thecafé's will be closed…Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, presidentDavid Ben-Gurion, prime minister(available in Hebrew at http://www.knesset.gov.il/shoah/heb/memorial_law.htm)2. Goals of the journey to Poland Getting to know the spiritual and cultural richness, the extent and vitality ofJewish life in Poland before World War II by visiting sites and meeting remnantsof Jewish life spread across the breadth of Poland Feeling and attempting to grasp the meaning, depth and extent of thedestruction and loss of the Jews murdered, and the Jewry uprooted Getting to know the main tenets of Nazi ideology, understanding the motivesand circumstances that brought about Nazism's rise , and deeds of cruelty andbestiality unprecedented in human history; to understand the foundations ofthe totalitarian regime under which Nazi Germany declared a war ofextermination against the Jewish people and murdered a third of our people,and also committed other crimes against humanity, and to reflect upon thenational moral lesson of the need for a sovereign and strong Jewish state, andalso the universal moral lesson of the duty to protect and defend democracyand fight all forms of racism Getting to know and appreciate the full significance of the brave stand and thehopeless struggle of the Jews who set out to fight the bitter enemy and his evilintent261 Ksharim

Strengthening the ties of young Israelis with their communal Jewish identity,deepening their identification with the fate of the Jewish people andstrengthening their feeling and understanding of their personal commitmentto the continuity of Jewish life and the sovereign existence of the State of IsraelGetting to know and understand the complexity of relations between Jews andPoles throughout their joint history, with its positive and negative aspects, andunderstanding the history and legacy of the Jews of Poland against thebackground of Polish history and cultureBringing about a reevaluation and rethinking of concepts, basic assumptionsand patterns of thought connected to the history of Israel, Jewish behaviorduring the Holocaust, the values of Zionism, Gentile-Jewish relations, ethicsand humanism.Providing the youths with the opportunity to act to reconstruct, rebuild, cleanand restore Jewish sites and remains scattered throughout PolandExcerpt from circular by the head of the Education ministry, concerning trips of youth delegations toPoland (available in Hebrew at http://www.education.gov.il/edun_doc/se4bk7_6_10.htm).3. March of the Living brochure http://www.motl.org/docs/2005_March_brochure.pdf4. Rabbi Professor David Hartman, Auschwitz Or Sinai?http://www.hartmaninstitute.com/ShowContent.asp?id=895.I have just finished reading a horror book about the Holocaust: House of Dolls, and Ifeel with all my soul the horrors of this awful Holocaust…I feel that out of all the horror and helplessness there arises and grows within me ahuge power – to be strong; strong to tears; sharp as a knife; quiet and terrible; I wantto know that never will those bottomless eyes look at me from behind the barbedwires! They will not look at me like that if only I am strong! If we are all strong! Strongand proud Jews! Never led again to the slaughter.From the letters of Ofer Fenigger, a kibbutznik from Givat Haim, who fell in the battle for AmmunitionHill near Jerusalem, in the Six Days War.6.I would like to ask you not to forget the dead. I would like to beg you, and fervently askthat you avenge us, that you take revenge upon those criminals whose cruel handremoved us from among the living. I would like you to erect a monument for us – amonument that will reach the sky, a monument the whole world will see – a statue,not of marble or stone, but of good deeds. For I believe wholeheartedly that only sucha monument may promise you and your children a better future, and then the sameevil which took over the world and made it a living hell will never return.Donya Rosen, Friends of the Forest (Hebrew), Yad vaShem, Jerusalem, 1988, pp 93-94. Written by DonyaRosen at age 12, hiding in the forest after the murder of her family. She survived and made Aliyah toIsrael.262 Ksharim

7.As a 10 year old I was taken to Auschwitz and went through the Holocaust. I wasliberated by the Russians and spent a few months in a Russian "liberation camp". LaterI told myself, that similar behavior characterized many of the people I hadencountered: Germans, Austrians, Croats, Ukrainians, Hungarians, Russians and more.It was clear to me that what happened in Germany could happen anywhere, and toany people, including my own. On the other hand, I was aware that it was possible toprevent events like these by proper education, and a suitable political climate.There is, and never has been, an inevitable historical process that unavoidably bringsabout the murder of one nation by another. For decades after my Aliyah (I arrived withthe founding of the state) I did not consciously reflect upon the question of whetherthe Holocaust has a pure educational-political lesson. I must have been building myfuture, and did not attempt to generalize theoretically about the use of the past. It wasnot that I repressed my memories or refused to talk about them. I often discussed thepast and my personal conclusions from it with my four children. I shared my feelingsand thoughts with them – but did it strictly on a personal level. I recoiled fromfollowing the Eichmann trial 17 , and my strong objections to the Demjanjuk trial 18 andto accompanying my children on visits to Yad vaShem, I attributed to a personal,somewhat idiosyncratic tendency. Today I see things differently.In the last few weeks, in conversations with my friends, I feel a strange advantage overthose born in Israel, who did not go through the Holocaust. Every time a "deviation" 19is reported, they initially refuse to believe, and only when reality strikes their face dothey surrender to the facts; many lose all proportions, and are ready to believe that"everyone behaves this way" or that "the IDF behaves this way," and some have heartsfilled with hatred both for the perpetrators and for the Arabs who bring us to this.Existential fearMany think that most of the nation is devoured with deep hatred, and on the otherhand are sure that the Arabs really hate us deeply. This does not happen to me. First,there is no "deviation" which I have not witnessed with my own eyes. This is nopassing remark; I was an eyewitness time after time: I have seen a bulldozer bury livingpeople, I have seen a group running amok, snatching respirators from old people in ahospital, I have seen soldiers in a frenzy breaking the arms of civilians, includingchildren. None of this is new to me. Still, I will not generalize, I do not believe everyonehates us, I do not believe all the people of Israel hate Arabs, and I don't even hate theperpetrators of the "deviations" – not that I condone them, of course, or that I do notexpect them to be handled within the full extent of the law.17 See details at http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=1000517918 See details at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Demjanjuk19 This phrase was used to designate reported violent behavior of Israeli soldiers and settlers towardsPalestinians during the Intifada (the Palestinian uprising).263 Ksharim

On the other hand, I wonder about the roots of the matter. I do not belong to thosewho believe that half this nation are brutal beasts. Most emphatically I do not belongto those who see frenzy and brutality as a matter of ethnic background. There is noconnection in my eyes between uncontrolled behavior and ideological extremism. Onthe other hand, ideological extremism is more characteristic of the Jewry from Russia,Poland and Germany than the Jewry from Africa or Asia.Some think the economical, social and security pressures have created a generationthe majority of whom are frustrated and do not see a future for themselves on thesimple level of personal existence – the ability to gain an education and a profession,the ability to make an honorable living and attain suitable accommodation and livingstandards. It is hard to estimate the truth of this conjecture, and especially the size ofthe population for which such frustration holds true. It is well known that personalfrustration can bring about any deviant behavior.Recently I am becoming convinced that not personal frustration, as a socio-politicalforce, motivates Israeli society in its relations to the Palestinians, but a deep existentialfear, fed by a specific interpretation of the lessons of the Holocaust, and a willingnessto believe that the whole world is against us and we are the perpetual victims. I seethis ancient belief, which so many hold today, to be Hitler's tragic and paradoxicaltriumph. From Auschwitz, two nations emerged, symbolically: a minority who claim "Itwill never happen again," and a frightened and apprehensive majority who claim "Itwill never happen to us again."A danger to democracyOf course, if these are the only two possible lessons, I have adhered all my life to thefirst, and have seen the other as disastrous. But my words here do not aim atsupporting one of these beliefs, but to the normative claim that any lesson or view oflife that is rooted in the Holocaust is disastrous. Without overlooking the historicalimportance of collective memory, an atmosphere in which a whole nation decides itsattitude towards the present and molds its future by making major reference to thelessons of the past is disastrous to a society that wishes to live in relative peace andsecurity like all the nations.Collective history and memory are an inseparable part of the culture of a people, butthe past should not be let to control and decide the future of a society, and the fate ofa people. The existence of democracy is in danger when the memory of the victims ofthe past participates as an active force in the democratic process. All the ideologues offascist regimes well understood this. It is no coincidence that most of the research onNazi Germany is concerned with the political myths of the Third Reich. Leaning on thelessons of the past in order to build a future, using the suffering of the past as apolitical argument, are like inviting the dead to participate in the democratic processof the living.264 Ksharim

Jefferson, one of the founding fathers of the American nation, expressly wrote in oneof his political letters, that democracy and worship of the past are incompatible.Democracy is the cultivation of the present and the future, cultivating remembranceand an addiction to the past undermine the foundations of democracy.In my opinion, if the Holocaust was not so deeply engrained in the nationalconsciousness, the conflict between Jews and Palestinians would not bring about somany "deviations", and possibly even the political process would not reach a deadend.A call to hateI do not see a greater danger to the future of the State of Israel than the fact that theHolocaust has been systematically and powerfully inculcated into the consciousnessof the entire Israeli public, even that very large sector who did not experience theHolocaust, and into the generation of sons who were born and raised here. For the firsttime I understand the enormity of our actions, when for decades we sent every child inIsrael to visit again and again at Yad vaShem. What did we want these tender childrento do with this experience? We recited with unswayable minds and hearts, withoutexplaining – "Remember!" – what for? What is the child supposed to do with thesememories? For many the horrific pictures may serve as a call for continuing, blindhatred.It may be important that the world remember. I'm not even sure of that, but in anycase this is not our concern. Every nation, even the Germans, will decide in its own wayand for its own reasons if it wishes to remember. We, on the other hand, must forget. Ido not see a more important political and educational task for the leaders of thisnation today than to stand by the living, to devote themselves to building our future,and not occupy themselves, morning and night, with the symbols, ceremonies andlessons of the Holocaust. They must uproot the dominance of the historical"Remember!" over our lives.* * *I have written harsh words, uncharacteristically for me, black on white. It is nocoincidence or passing mood. I did not find a better way to emphasize the gravity ofthe situation. I do know that a nation does not, should not completely forget its wholepast. And of course, some myths are necessary to build our future, like the myth ofexcellence or the myth of creativity. And of course I do not mean that history shouldno longer be taught. I tried to fight the continuation of the pivotal role of theHolocaust in our national existence.Professor Yehuda Elkanah 20 / In Favor of Forgetfulness (Ha'aretz, 2.3.1988)20 At the time of writing, Professor Yehudah Elkanah was the head of the Institute for the History andPhilosphy of the Sciences at the University of Tel-Aviv, and headed the Van-Leer Institute in Jerusalem.265 Ksharim

L e s s o n 31:Yom Yom Ha-Atma'aut1. Outline:a. A summary of the origins of the day and its establishment as a holidayin the State of Israel.b. An examination of the connection between Yom HaZikaron (MemorialDay for Fallen Soldiers and Victims) and Yom HaAtzmaut and Israeliambivalence to the proximity of the dates.c. Exploring the religious connotations of the day and its celebration as areligious holiday.2. Introduction:Yom HaAtzmaut – Israel’s Independence Day -has become an accepted almostuniversally in the Jewish world as a day of celebration and identification withthe State of Israel. Jewish communities the world over mark the day with galadinners, Israel parades, picnics, youth activities etc. This date, more than any ofthe traditional holidays, expresses Jews’ connection to the State and the land.In this lesson we will examine some of the issues and different perceptions ofYom HaZikaron and HaAtzmaut in various segments of Israeli society. Thisstudy will help illustrate issues and ideologies discussed in Israel today andquestion how these might be relevant to Diaspora Jewry’s perception of thestate as well as the day.3. Goals:a. To familiarize the class with how Yom HaAtzmaut is perceived andcelebrated in Israel in general.b. To examine the connection between Yom HaZikaron and YomHaAtzmaut in Israeli and its changing meaning in Israeli society.c. To examine the religious significance given to the day and itsexpression in emerging rituals.d. To explore if and how these expressions of Israeli society are relevant toJews outside of Israel.4. Expanded Outline:a. Historical Summaryi. The State of Israel was proclaimed on the day the British HighCommissioner left Palestine and ended the British Mandateseveral months before its official deadline. In order to prevent avacuum of authority David Ben Gurion convened the people’s266 Ksharim

epresentatives in the Tel Aviv Museum, proclaimed theestablishment of the State of Israel and installed a provisionalgovernment. The date was Friday the 14 th of May 1948corresponding to Hebrew date of (see calendar lesson) 5 th of Iyar5708. The establishment of the State of Israel at that time wasnot an obvious course of action as a guerilla war against the localArabs had been in progress for months, claiming many lives, andit was clear that the armies of the neighboring Arab States wouldinvade the infant state as soon as it was proclaimed. Ben Gurionwas under both international and domestic pressure to delay theofficial establishment of the State. He felt that if the historicalopportunity was lost it might not return and chose to declare theState despite the situation. (See source 1)Discussion: It is always fun to second guess history and an interesting discussioncan be “what if?” What if the state was actually proclaimed later as a result ofdiplomacy, without the War of Independence – how would that affect thecharacter of the State? The myth of an embattled people triumphant against allodds? Would that effect the Jewish perception of the State of Israel?1. The following year the first Knesset enacted a law declaring the 5 th day of themonth of Iyar as a national holiday called Yom HaAtzmaut - Independence Day.(see source 2) The 5 th of Iyar was chosen over the 20 th of Tammuz - theanniversary of Herzl’s death - or the 11 th of Adar which was “Yom HaHagana”commemorating the battle of Tel Chai.Discussion: What were the possible reasons/significance for suggesting each ofthese dates? Why do you think they weren’t chosen? Why was the 5 th of Iyarchosen? Note how different dates are important in different eras. Today almost noone remembers the 11 th of Adar. Would we have remembered the 5 th of Iyar if adifferent date had been chosen?2. In Israel Yom HaAtzmaut is an official day off (much appreciated in a countrylacking in Sundays). In the earlier years of the State the main celebrationscentered on public gathering and celebrations in the streets at night, militaryparades in the day. Today public Israeli rock and pop concerts in city squaresand parks are more common in the evening. Most Israelis spend the day itselfgoing on picnics and having BBQs, hiking and nature walking, visiting etc. Allnational parks, archeological and historical sites are open to the public free ofcharge as are army bases and police training centers. Military museums arealso opened free of charge. Annual events include the ceremony of grantingthe "Israel Prize,” recognizing individual Israelis for their unique contribution tothe country's culture, science, arts, and the humanities, and the World BibleContest, both of which are televised.267 Ksharim

Discussion: Do the ways Israelis choose to celebrate officially and personallyreflect their feelings toward the State? In what ways?b. Yom HaZikaron and Yom HaAtzmauti. Yom HaZikaron is observed on the 4th of the Hebrew month ofIyar. This state holiday honors veterans and fallen soldiers of theState of Israel and the Israel Defense Force who died in themodern Arab Israeli conflict. In recent years Yom HaZikaron alsocommemorates civilians murdered by Palestinian acts of terror.ii.In 1949 the army decided to investigate the possibility ofdedicating a specific date to consolidate all the differentmemorial services for the fallen of the various military branches.The choice of dates was not obvious. Three dates weresuggested: Lag B’Omer (a date that recalls Jewish valor in RomanTimes), the 11 th of Adar (the Hagana Day- recalling the battle TelChai and the modern Jewish fighters), or as part of YomHaAtzmaut. At first Ben Gurion decided to combine the day withYom HaAtzmaut by including a memorial ceremony at thebeginning of the festivities (as exists in many communities in theDiaspora today) and adding the laying of wreaths as one of theday’s activities. In 1950 such was the intention but theOrganization of Bereaved Parents objected. They argued that thememory of the fallen deserved a day in its own right and not justan addition to Yom HaAtzmaut. As a result a compromise wasreached in which the memorial ceremonies were separated fromIndependence day events and moved up to Thursday the 3 rd ofIyar (the 5 th fell that year on Shabbat). Thus was set the custom ofcommemorating the fallen near but not on Yom HaAtzmaut. In1951 an official decision was made to commemorate YomHaZikaron always on the day before Yom HaAtzmaut.iii. The day includes many national ceremonies for the fallensoldier, in which senior public officials and military officers arepresent. Yom HaZikaron opens the preceding evening at 8:00pm, with a one-minute siren during which most Israelis stand insilence, commemorating the fallen and showing respect. Manycommunities hold community services right after the siren,recalling the fallen through personal stories, singing songs aboutwar and loss and saying prayers for the souls of the fallensoldiers. A two-minute siren is heard the following morning, at11:00, which marks the opening of the official memorialceremonies and private remembrance gatherings which are held268 Ksharim

at each cemetery where soldiers are buried. Schools hold theirown services and children are dressed in blue and white.iv.The media that day is dedicated to shows depicting fallensoldiers and victims as well as their families coping with theirloss. The radio plays sad music from a large repertoire of balladsand music written about the wars and their victims found inIsraeli music. (see source 3)v. Memorial day in Israel is a day of raw emotions of sorrow andloss. In Israel time has not dulled the pain and many losses arerelatively new, being recalled first-hand by family and friends. Itis not as much about a nation paying respect to its forbears as aday of mourning for fallen children, parents and brothers. (seesource 4)vi.vii.viii.The official "switch" from Yom HaZikaron to Yom HaAtzmauttakes place a few minutes after sundown, with a ceremony onMount Herzl in Jerusalem in which the flag is raised from halfstaff (due to Yom HaZikaron) to the top of the pole. Thepresident of Israel delivers a speech of congratulations, andsoldiers representing the army, navy, and air force parade withtheir flags. In recent decades this small-scale parade has replacedthe large-scale daytime parade, which was the main eventduring the 1950s and '60s. The evening parade is followed by atorch lighting ( hadlakat masuot) ceremony, which marks thecountry's achievements in all spheres of life.The message of linking these two days is clear: Israelis owe theirindependence--the very existence of the state--to the soldierswho sacrificed their lives for it. This sentiment is expressedmovingly in Natan Alterman’s poem “The Silver Platter” which istraditionally read at memorial services. (see source 5). Despitethe strong feeling of connection between the two days in recentyears, perhaps because unfortunately more and more familiesare joining the ranks of the bereaved, or due to a change inpublic sentiment and sensitivity, there have been suggestions ofseparating the two days. It is argued that the sudden swing frommourning to celebrations is too much for the bereaved to bear.(see source 6)Another interesting question raised by the proximity of dates is achange in perception about which day impacts Israeli societymore strongly. It is clear that the “founding fathers” of the state269 Ksharim

envisioned Yom HaAtzmaut as the focus and Yom HaZikaron asa preliminary leading up to it. Yom HaAtzmaut was legallydeclared a national holiday in which there is officially no work.Yom HaZikaron was established when the government acceptedthe recommendation of the Committee for Memory of the FallenSoldiers. It is not an official day off. However, partially due to itbeing the eve of Yom HaAtzmaut and partially since many havememorial services to attend it has turned de facto into a partialday of work with most businesses closing early as on ErevShabbat. It can be argued that the hope of the early years wasthat Israel would follow in the path of most Western nations,whose memorial days gradually lost their importance andimpact as the years pass and the fallen are forgotten. Howeverthe Israeli reality has been one of continual war and losses withmore and more of the population being directly affected. At thesame time the ideals of nationalism and Zionism have becomeless evident on the national psyche as the Zionist dream becamereality. As such the emotional impact and relevance of YomHaZikaron has increased over the years and it has acquired aquasi-religious aura as a “holy” day meaningful to secular Israelisociety. There are some who say that as such it eclipses thecelebrations of Yom HaAtzmaut in Israeli consciousness today.c. The Religious Significance of Yom HaAtzmauti. Jews with a religious outlook on life find religious significance inthe renewal of Jewish Independence. The State of Israel isperceived as the answer to millennia of prayers for a renewal ofJewish political power in our ancestral land. It is recognized as adivine kindness allowing the Jewish people a measure of safetyin an often anti-semitic world. For some it is seen as a herald ofthe final redemption. (see for instance in the prayer for the Stateof Israel composed by S.Y. Agnon- source 7). These perceptionsof the day and the events it signifies elicit in the believer feelingsof thanksgiving and joy that require religious expression. Thisneed for a religious framework for the day has generated bothdebate and ritual. In Israel, this side of the day has evolvedmainly among the religious Zionists and it is interesting toexamine the questions, debates and forms it has given rise to.ii.The first halachic difficulty posed by establishing the 5 th of Iyar asYom HaAtzmaut was that this day falls in a period known asSfirat Haomer (the days between Passover and Shavuot); sincetannatic times this period as been observed as a period ofmourning. (The official reason for the mourning is the death of270 Ksharim

24,000 students of Rabbi Akiva in a plague. Some explain theplague as defeat at the hands of the Romans during the BarKochba revolt). Observant Jews refrain from wearing newclothes, holding celebrations or attending public forms ofentertainment, cutting their hair etc. During such a time thecelebrating of Yom HaAtzmaut requires rabbinic recognitionthat the “miracles” celebrated are of such significance andimportance to all of the Jewish people that they override themourning observed due to Sfira. (see source 8)iii.iv.Even once the day is recognized as a holiday worthy ofcelebrating, the question arises of what form such celebrationsshould take. The most debated question is whether or not torecite Hallel. Hallel is a set of Psalms, a prayer of thanksgiving,traditionally added to the morning service on the three regalim,Rosh Hodesh, Chanukah and Purim. The Babylonian Talmudstates: Our Rabbis have taught: who composed Hallel? Theprophets decreed it for Israel, to be recited on festivals, and alsowhenever they are delivered from trouble." The ensuing halachicdebate concerns whether Yom HaAtzmaut answers this criterionor not and whether Hallel should be recited with or without ablessing. For those who rule against saying Hallel the question ofwhat to do about Tachanun (a penitential section of the morningservice omitted on holidays or congregational celebrations)arises. The varying responsa are a mix of legalistic concerns andideology (see source 9). Officially the Chief Rabbinate hasdeclared the day a holiday with an obligation to say Hallel with ablessing. Most, but not all, religious Zionist communities in Israelact accordingly. Many (especially outside of Israel) try to equatehalachic rulings on this issue with Zionist fervor. While there isdefinitely an ideological influence on the halachic discourse it isnot only about ideology but also about legalistic interpretationswhich lead to some anomalies. The most obvious of these is thepractice of Yeshivat Merkaz Harav Kook (the very source theideology that sees the State as something intrinsically holy)where Hallel is said without a blessing (due to a different legalinterpretation). It is interesting also to note that these issues aremuch more fervently debated by the modern religiouscommunities outside of Israel than those within, who seem tohave reached a modus vivendi on a community by communitybasis.Last year’s events surrounding the Gaza withdrawal causedrenewed debate on the Hallel issue as a reflection of the271 Ksharim

questions troubling the religious Zionist community regardingtheir relationship to a State that they felt had turned on Jews,forcefully expelling them from their homes, betraying the idealsof Zionism and the right of Jews to settle the land. There weresome who called for not celebrating Yom HaAtzmaut or sayingHallel but most authorities and people continued to celebrate asbefore, believing that the state itself is essentially a “miracle,”worthy of our thanks and praise to G-d, regardless of its presentpolicies or government. (see source 10)v. Alongside the halachic debate, rituals and traditions haveevolved to make the day one of festive thanksgiving. On the eveof Yom HaAtzmaut festive services are held as part of the Maariv(evening) prayer (see source 11). The congregation dresses inholiday clothes, sometimes in blue and white. After the servicesfamilies or communities gather for a “Seudat Hoda’ah,” Meal ofThanksgiving. The table may be decked in white and blue,candles lit. there have been creative attempts to compose aspecial “Kiddush” for the meal or special “haggadot.” As opposedto the evening prayer no standard texts have been widelyaccepted to date. The following day Shacharit, the morningprayer, contains festive additions and a special Haftorah fromIsaiah 10-11 is read. The rest of the day is usually spent hikingand picnicking along with the rest of the populace.Conclusion:Yom HaZikaron and Yom HaAztmaut are intrinsically “Israeli” holidays. As such the wayIsraelis celebrate, the content and form they give to these days reflect the changingrealities and sentiments in contemporary Israeli society. However, the fact that Jews allover the world have adopted Yom HaAtzmaut as a holiday of their own is a sign of theconnection between Jews the world over as well as an indication of the impact thatthe State of Israel has on Jewish life. Understanding and discussing Israeli perceptions,concerns and customs connected with this day can help Diaspora Jews understandIsraeli society and perhaps enrich their own celebrations by adding new elements orawareness about the State of Israel, its role in Jewish life and its meaning for everyindividual Jew.Suggestions:An interesting classroom activity can be to devise a program for Yom HaAtzmaut or tocompose a special prayer, Kiddush for the day.Another possibility is to use the day to explore personal attachments, meaning towardIsrael (see source 12)272 Ksharim

Sources1. The Declaration of the establishment of the State of IsraelERETZ-ISRAEL (the Land of Israel) was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here theirspiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained tostatehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave tothe world the eternal Book of Books.After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughouttheir Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for therestoration in it of their political freedom.Impelled by this historic and traditional attachment, Jews strove in every successivegeneration to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decadesthey returned in their masses. Pioneers, ma'pilim (immigrants coming to Eretz-Israel indefiance of restrictive legislation) and defenders, they made deserts bloom, revivedthe Hebrew language, built villages and towns, and created a thriving communitycontrolling its own economy and culture, loving peace but knowing how to defenditself, bringing the blessings of progress to all the country's inhabitants, and aspiringtowards independent nationhood.In the year 5657 (1897), at the summons of the spiritual father of the Jewish State,Theodore Herzl, the First Zionist Congress convened and proclaimed the right of theJewish people to national rebirth in its own country.This right was recognized in the Balfour Declaration of the 2nd November, 1917, andre-affirmed in the Mandate of the League of Nations which, in particular, gaveinternational sanction to the historic connection between the Jewish people andEretz-Israel and to the right of the Jewish people to rebuild its National Home.The catastrophe which recently befell the Jewish people — the massacre of millions ofJews in Europe — was another clear demonstration of the urgency of solving theproblem of its homelessness by re-establishing in Eretz-Israel the Jewish State, whichwould open the gates of the homeland wide to every Jew and confer upon the Jewishpeople the status of a fully privileged member of the community of nations.Survivors of the Nazi holocaust in Europe, as well as Jews from other parts of theworld, continued to migrate to Eretz-Israel, undaunted by difficulties, restrictions anddangers, and never ceased to assert their right to a life of dignity, freedom and honesttoil in their national homeland.273 Ksharim

In the Second World War, the Jewish community of this country contributed its fullshare to the struggle of the freedom- and peace-loving nations against the forces ofNazi wickedness and, by the blood of its soldiers and its war effort, gained the right tobe reckoned among the peoples who founded the United Nations.On the 29th November, 1947, the United Nations General Assembly passed aresolution calling for the establishment of a Jewish State in Eretz-Israel; the GeneralAssembly required the inhabitants of Eretz-Israel to take such steps as were necessaryon their part for the implementation of that resolution. This recognition by the UnitedNations of the right of the Jewish people to establish their State is irrevocable.This right is the natural right of the Jewish people to be masters of their own fate, likeall other nations, in their own sovereign State.ACCORDINGLY WE, MEMBERS OF THE PEOPLE'S COUNCIL, REPRESENTATIVES OF THEJEWISH COMMUNITY OF ERETZ-ISRAEL AND OF THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT, ARE HEREASSEMBLED ON THE DAY OF THE TERMINATION OF THE BRITISH MANDATE OVERERETZ-ISRAEL AND, BY VIRTUE OF OUR NATURAL AND HISTORIC RIGHT AND ON THESTRENGTH OF THE RESOLUTION OF THE UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY,HEREBY DECLARE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A JEWISH STATE IN ERETZ-ISRAEL, TO BEKNOWN AS THE STATE OF ISRAEL.WE DECLARE that, with effect from the moment of the termination of the Mandatebeing tonight, the eve of Sabbath, the 6th Iyar, 5708 (15th May, 1948), until theestablishment of the elected, regular authorities of the State in accordance with theConstitution which shall be adopted by the Elected Constituent Assembly not laterthan the 1st October 1948, the People's Council shall act as a Provisional Council ofState, and its executive organ, the People's Administration, shall be the ProvisionalGovernment of the Jewish State, to be called "Israel".THE STATE OF ISRAEL will be open for Jewish immigration and for the Ingathering ofthe Exiles; it will foster the development of the country for the benefit of all itsinhabitants; it will be based on freedom, justice and peace as envisaged by theprophets of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all itsinhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex; it will guarantee freedom of religion,conscience, language, education and culture; it will safeguard the Holy Places of allreligions; and it will be faithful to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations.THE STATE OF ISRAEL is prepared to cooperate with the agencies and representativesof the United Nations in implementing the resolution of the General Assembly of the29th November, 1947, and will take steps to bring about the economic union of thewhole of Eretz-Israel.WE APPEAL to the United Nations to assist the Jewish people in the building-up of itsState and to receive the State of Israel into the comity of nations.274 Ksharim

WE APPEAL — in the very midst of the onslaught launched against us now for months— to the Arab inhabitants of the State of Israel to preserve peace and participate inthe up building of the State on the basis of full and equal citizenship and duerepresentation in all its provisional and permanent institutions.WE EXTEND our hand to all neighbouring states and their peoples in an offer of peaceand good neighbourliness, and appeal to them to establish bonds of cooperation andmutual help with the sovereign Jewish people settled in its own land. The State ofIsrael is prepared to do its share in a common effort for the advancement of the entireMiddle East.WE APPEAL to the Jewish people throughout the Diaspora to rally round the Jews ofEretz-Israel in the tasks of immigration and up building and to stand by them in thegreat struggle for the realization of the age-old dream — the redemption of Israel.PLACING OUR TRUST IN THE ALMIGHTY, WE AFFIX OUR SIGNATURES TO THISPROCLAMATION AT THIS SESSION OF THE PROVISIONAL COUNCIL OF STATE, ON THESOIL OF THE HOMELAND, IN THE CITY OF TEL-AVIV, ON THIS SABBATH EVE, THE 5THDAY OF IYAR, 5708 (14TH MAY,1948).David Ben-Gurion, Rabbi Kalman Kahana, Aharon Zisling, Yitzchak Ben Zvi, SaadiaKobashi, Daniel Auster, Rachel Cohen, David Zvi Pinkas, Mordekhai Bentov, MosheKolodny, Eliyahu Berligne, Rabbi Yitzchak Meir Levin, Eliezer Kaplan, Fritz Bernstein,Abraham Katznelson, Rabbi Wolf Gold, Meir David Loewenstein, Felix Rosenblueth,Meir Grabovsky, David Remez, Yitzchak Gruenbaum, Zvi Luria, Berl Repetur, Dr.Abraham Granovsky, Golda Myerson, Mordekhai Shattner, Nachum Nir, Ben ZionSternberg, Eliyahu Dobkin, Zvi Segal, Bekhor Shitreet, Meir Wilner-Kovner, RabbiYehuda Leib Hacohen Fishman, Moshe Shapira, Zerach Wahrhaftig, Moshe Shertok,Herzl Vardi2. http://www.knesset.gov.il/laws/special/eng/independence_day_law.htm3. For a selection of such songs see:http://www.wujs.org.il/activist/learning/festivals/yom_hazikaron/yom_hazikaron_poems.shtml4. For a personal account of Yom HaZikaron see:http://www.jewishsf.com/bk030523/supp13a.shtml5. The Silver Platter275 Ksharim

Nathan Alterman (translated by David P. Stern)...And the land will grow stillCrimson skies dimming, mistingSlowly paling againOver smoking frontiersAs the nation stands upTorn at heart but existingTo receive its first wonderIn two thousand yearsAs the moment draws nearIt will rise, darkness facingStand straight in the moonlightIn terror and joy...When across from it step outTowards it slowly pacingIn plain sight of allA young girl and a boyDressed in battle gear, dirtyShoes heavy with grimeOn the path they will climb upWhile their lips remain sealedTo change garb, to wipe browThey have not yet found timeStill bone weary from daysAnd from nights in the fieldFull of endless fatigueAnd all drained of emotionYet the dew of their youthIs still seen on their headThus like statues they standStiff and still with no motionAnd no sign that will showIf they live or are deadThen a nation in tearsAnd amazed at this matterWill ask: who are you?276 Ksharim

And the two will then sayWith soft voice: We--Are the silver platterOn which the Jews' stateWas presented todayThen they fall back in darknessAs the dazed nation looksAnd the rest can be foundIn the history books.6. http://www.jerusalemdiaries.com/article/127. Our Father in Heaven, Rock and Redeemer of Israel, bless the State of Israel, thefirst manifestation of the approach of our redemption. Shield it with Yourlovingkindness, envelope it in Your peace, and bestow Your light and truthupon its leaders, ministers, and advisors, and grace them with Your goodcounsel. Strengthen the hands of those who defend our holy land, grant themdeliverance, and adorn them in a mantle of victory. Ordain peace in the landand grant its inhabitants eternal happiness. Lead them, swiftly and upright, toYour city Zion and to Jerusalem, the abode of Your Name, as is written in theTorah of Your servant Moses: “Even if your outcasts are at the ends of the world,from there the Lord your God will gather you, from there He will fetch you. Andthe Lord your God will bring you to the land that your fathers possessed, andyou shall possess it; and He will make you more prosperous and morenumerous than your fathers.” Draw our hearts together to revere and venerateYour name and to observe all the precepts of Your Torah, and send us quicklythe Messiah son of David, agent of Your vindication, to redeem those whoawait Your deliverance.Manifest yourself in the splendor of Your boldness before the eyes of all inhabitants ofYour world, and may everyone endowed with a soul affirm that the Lord, God of Israel,is king and his dominion is absolute. Amen forevermore.8. Rav Shlomo Yosef Zevin ( Moadim BaHalacha p.371) in a celebrated passage,rules that we do not tear (our garments in a sign of mourning) upon seeing AreiYehuda (cities of Judah) after the establishm ent of our beloved MedinatYisrael. This ruling appears to be supported by the Magen Avraham (561:1) andMishna Brura (561:2) who rule that one should tear upon Arei Yehuda even ifJews inhabit these cities, if non-Jews maintain sovereign control of thearea. The implication is if Jews enjoy sovereign control over Arei Yehuda then277 Ksharim

there is no need for Kria (rending of garments). ….This Halacha has enormousimplications for our observance of Yom Haatzmaut. This Halacha teaches thatwe mourn the loss of Jewish sovereignty over Eretz Yisrael. Thus, we mustcelebrate the restoration of Jewish sovereignty over portions of EretzYisrael….Moreover, Rav Yehuda Amital, Rav Menachem Genack and othershave noted that the Rambam Hilchot Chanukah 3:1, which is cited by theMishna Brura in his introduction to Hilchot Chanukah, notes that we celebrateChanukah in part because of the restoration of Jewish sovereignty over EretzYisrael for more than two hundred years.See also relating to a relationship between Yom HaAtzmaut is during sfira:http://www.torahmitzion.org/eng/resources/show.asp?id=180For the religious significance of Yom HaAtzmaut see.http://www.vbm-torah.org/yyerush/atz59.htm9. An excellent (if long and legalistic) survey of the halachic and ideologicalconsiderations about saying Hallel :http://www.midreshetharova.org.il/onlinetorah/archive/holidays/yomhaatzmaut5764.php10. http://www.yeshiva.org.il/ask/Eng/print.asp?id=2183andwww.rza.org/sbs%5CSBS%20Behar%201066.pdf11. From the Rinat Yisrael Prayer Book (Orthodox):"Festival clothing is worn and then the community gathers in the synagogue... theevening prayer is recited in a festive melody.. .The cantor recites the following, and thecongregation repeats:Hear 0 Israel! The Lord is our God, the Lord is one.The Lord is God (3 times)The cantor recites the following, and the congregation repeats:May He who has performed miracles for our ancestors and for us and Who hasredeemed us from slavery to freedom, redeem us speedily with the ultimateredemption. May He gather our scattered ones from the four corners of the earth, all ofIsrael becoming comrades. Now let us respond: AmenThe cantor reads: (from Numbers 10:9-10)When you are at war in your own land against an aggressor who attacks you, you shallsound short blasts on the trumpets, that you may be remembered before the Lordyour God and be delivered from your enemies. And on your joyous occasions, yourfixed festivals and new moon days, you shall sound the trumpets over your burnt278 Ksharim

offerings and your sacrifices of well-being. They shall be a reminder of you before theLord your God: I the Lord am your God."The Shofar is blown with one long blast and all declare:Next year in rebuilt JerusalemThe entire congregation recites:"May it be your will, Lord, our God and the God of our forefathers, just as we havemerited the start of the redemption, may we also be worthy to hear the sound of theShofar of the Messiah, speedily in our days."The following Psalm (126) is sung to the tune of Hatikvah:A Song of Ascents.When the Lord restores the fortunes of Zion - we see it as a dream - our mouths shallbe filled with laughter, our tongues, with songs of joy. Then shall they say among thenations, "The Lord has done great things for them!" The Lord will do great things for usand we shall rejoice. Restore our fortunes, 0 Lord, like water courses in the Negev. Theywho sow in tears shall reap with songs of joy. Though he goes along weeping, carryingthe seed-bag, he shall come back with songs of joy, carrying his sheaves"The "Ani Maamin" is sung:I believe with complete faith in the coming of the Messiah, and even though he maytarry, nevertheless I anticipate every day that he will come.Congregants greet each other:Joyous holidays towards full redemption!A festive meal is eaten accompanied by songs of praise. During the meal candlesshould be lit"See also: A source book for Yom HaAtzmaut from the UJR:http://urj.org/_kd/Items/actions.cfm?action=Show&item_id=5119&destination=ShowItemA Yom HaAtzmaut haggada from the kibbutz site on holidays:http://www.chagim.org.il/atz30.html12.Educational activities for Yom HaAtzmaut from WUJIS dealing withpersonal connection with the State):http://www.wujs.org.il/activist/programmes/programmes/index.shtml#yomha279 Ksharim

L e s s o n 32Counting down to Shavuot1. OutlineBarley and wheat and the harvest calendarFirst fruits and Matan TorahThe Omer period and its special daysIn modern Israeli culture2. IntroductionPerhaps more than any other holidays, the shalosh haregalim – the threepilgrimage festivals of Sukkot, Pesach and Shavuot – are rich in physicalassociations with Eretz Yisrael. All three were originally festivals of thanksgivingfor the bounty of the land, so they speak of the produce of Israel and theseasons of Israel – and, because they involved a pilgrimage to the Temple inJerusalem, they speak of the geography of the land as well. As we observedthem in their somewhat abstract, attenuated form in exile, they served as aconstant link, a sort of virtual reality connection, between Jewish lifethroughout the world and the physical reality of Eretz Yisrael. And when weconsider that Sukkot is eight days, and the period from the beginning ofPesach through Shavuot is over seven weeks, we realize that for two fullmonths of the year the Diaspora Jew lives through a symbolic reenactment ofthe experience of farming in Eretz Yisrael. This is a powerful form of Israelengagement; it is of interest for us consider what kind of relevance andmeaning it can have for non-orthodox urban/suburban Diaspora Jews living inthe plastic age. This unit focuses on the agricultural origins of the Omercounting and of Shavuot, and explores the place of these days in modern Israeliculture.3. Lesson goals4. To understand the agricultural basis of Shavuot and the Omer period in EretzYisrael5. To be aware of the later rabbinical additions to the meanings of these days6. To be familiar with the modern Israeli observance of these days7. Expanded outline8. Barley and wheat and the harvest calendar9. The instructions for the ritual associated with the barley and wheat harvest arefound in Leviticus 23:9-21. It seems that barley, the coarser grain, ripens first;the barley harvest was begun at Pesach – the new year’s crop was not eatenuntil a first thanksgiving offering was brought [ Lev. 23:14] (and all old grainproducts were cleaned out – for Pesach). According to the traditional280 Ksharim

interpretation, the phrase in verse 23:15, “after the sabbath,” means after thefirst day of the Pesach holiday. While the barley was being harvested, for thenext seven weeks, the wheat was ripening; on the 50 th day, an offering from thenew wheat crop was brought, and a festival observed, as the wheat harvest wasofficially begun – wheat was considered a finer, more nutritious grain, and thedanger that the ripening grain would be struck by a hailstorm or a pest wasprobably an important concern.Note that according to Joshua chapter 5, throughout the 40 yearswandering, the Children of Israel did not practice circumcision, nordid they observe Pesach. Only after they had crossed into the landand begun to harvest its grain, did Pesach become relevant: itmarked the end of the manna and the beginning of agriculture.Thus, each year, Pesach carries with it this symbolism that gets a bitlost in the smoke and thunder of the Exodus: matzah can be seen notonly as a symbol of leaving Egypt in a hurry, but also as a symbol ofthe agricultural cycle of Eretz Yisrael; it is about cleaning out the oldgrain and celebrating the new harvest; it is about having a land inwhich we can grow grain, and in which we are responsible for theeconomy (“Let all who are hungry com e and eat” at Pesach – andnotice the interesting juxtaposition of the instructions for Shavuotwith the commandment of leaving grain for the gleaners, in Leviticus23:22).For more on barley and wheat and these practices, see these GalileeDiary entries:Barley:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4053&pge_prg_id=15515&pge_id=1698Wheat:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4007&pge_prg_id=15515&pge_id=1698Nutritional and cooking information about barley:http://waltonfeed.com/self/barley.html10. It is also interesting to note that the date of Shavuot is not given in the Bible: itis simply the 50 th day after the bringing of the first sheaf of barley, the omer.However, as indicated above, the day of the bringing of that first offering ofgrain is a little vague in the text: it is not intuitively obvious that “after thesabbath” means after the holiday, and not, for example, after the Sabbathwithin Pesach. This was a subject of debate in Second Temple times.The ritual for harvesting the first sheaf, for the omer offering, after thefirst day of Pesach, is elaborated in the Mishnah, Menachot 10:3):281 Ksharim

Once it gets dark, he says to them: Has the sun set?They say: Yes!Has the sun set? Yes!With this sickle? Yes!With this sickle? YesWith this basket? YesWith this basket? Yes…Shall I reap? Reap!Shall I reap? Reap!Three times for each and every matter. And they say to him, “Yes, Yes,Yes.” All of this for what purpose? Because of the Boethusians, for theyinsist that the reaping of the omer is [done after Shabbat] and notimmediately after the [first day of the Pesach] festival.The Boethusians were apparently Sadducees who disagreed with thePharisees’ (i.e., the rabbis) interpretation of the word “after theSabbath” in Leviticus 23:15; thus this elaborate ritual was a publicaffirmation of the Pharisees’ control of the calendar.In any case, the Pharisaic interpretation became the only one, andShavuot thus always comes out on the 6 th of Sivan.11. First fruits and Matan Torah12. A different picture of Shavuot is found in Deuteronomy 26:1-11. Here we havethe bringing of the first fruits – not just grain – as an offering, accompanied bya liturgy (26:5-10) that happens to be the core text of the Pesach Haggadah. Anentire tractate of the Mishnah is devoted to the laws regarding the selectionand offering of the bikkurim, or first fruits, in a colorful public celebration. Thispart of the Shavuot observance was lost from Diaspora experience, except inthe text of the Mishnah.An interesting example of the way text and archaeology sometimescomplement each other is the picture attached below, from themosaic floor of the 6 th century synagogue at Zippori, in the Galilee.The floor shows a number of objects from Temple worship – at a timewhen the Temple was not standing – apparently to show faith in thepromised restoration. Among them is this illustration of a basket ofbikkurim. Notice the two birds hanging from the rim.Rabbi Yossi taught: “They did not put pigeons on top of thebasket, to avoid spoiling the fruit, but suspended them outside thebasket.” (Jerusalem Talmud, Bikkurim 3:4, 65d)282 Ksharim

(Note: this illustration is from a student project posted athttp://www.mehalev.org.il/zipori/knst/syngg.files/frame.htmNote that the heading superimposed on the picture is incorrect,referring to an adjacent part of the mosaic.)It is also interesting to note that this illustration shows that thebasked seems to contain fruits that belong to the “seven species”listed as characterizing the bounty of the land (Deuteronomy 8:8,where honey is understood as date honey). Though the Bible doesnot specify it, the law developed that the bikkurim offering consistedonly of fruits from these seven ( Mishnah Bikkurim 1:3). For ananalysis, see the article by Nogah Hareuveni of the Ne’ot Kedumimbiblical botanical garden:http://www.jhom.com/topics/seven/species.htmlStudying the Mishnah tractate Bikkurim, and using art and/or dramato bring its descriptions to life, makes a good way to help studentsfind the connection between the holiday and the land of Israel.13. According to Exodus 19:1, “On the third new moon after the Israelites had goneforth from the land of Egypt, on that very day, they entered the wilderness ofSinai.” The rabbis understand this to mean the beginning of the third month,counting the month of the Exodus (Nisan), so it is Rosh Chodesh Sivan; fromthere, it takes only a little fudging to get the giving of the Torah to come out onShavuot. Hence, in the liturgy and in folk custom, Shavuot became chag matantorateinu – the festival of the giving of the Torah, and took on various customsassociated with this, like studying all night, holding confirmation, etc. Clearly,this set of meanings was perfect for helping the holiday keep its importance inthe Diaspora, when the agricultural aspects had become distant from ourexperience.14. The Omer countdown15. Though there is no reference to it in the Bible, there is a tradition that the 49days of the counting from omer to Shavuot are treated as a time of mourning.It seems fair to say that no one knows why. A few possibilities:16. The traditional view is based on this passage, from the Babylonian Talmud,Yebamot 62b:It was taught: Rabbi Akiba had 12,000 pairs of students,from Gevat to Antipatris, and they all died at the same time283 Ksharim

ecause they did not show respect for each other… Andthey all died between Pesach and Shavuot.Medieval commentators understood this rather crypticaccount as referring to religious persecution – after all,Rabbi Akiba himself was killed in the Bar Kochba revolt.Thus, today, most people believe that the mourning ofthe omer period is somehow based on the sufferings ofthe Bar Kochba revolt.17. It seems, however, that the mourning custom really arose in the middle ages, inresponse to persecutions in Europe; see for example,http://www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/Shokel/950518_Omer_Mourn.html18. And there are those who see an anthropological basis to the custom: duringthe sensitive and vulnerable time of the ripening of the grain, we have to becareful not to be too cocky or happy, as that would attract bad luck.19. Omer traditions, special days20. There are a variety of different traditions regarding dividing the omer periodbetween mourning and relief, and about the exact prohibitions of themourning days. For different divisions of the period, seehttp://www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/Shokel/950518_Omer_Mourn.htmlIn terms of what is prohibited, the main thing isweddings; regarding music, and haircuts, etc., there are avariety of customs and opinions.21. For reasons that are not known, one of the days accepted by all communities asa respite from (or the end of) the omer mourning period is the 33 rd day, or “lag”(the numerical value of lamed gimel is 33). Needless to say, there are a lot ofweddings in Israel on Lag B’omer. A particularly important tradition relating tothis day in Israel is the belief that Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, according to folktradition the author of the Zohar, the central text of kabbalah, was born anddied on Lag B’omer. Hence, his tomb in the village of Meiron is the site of amass pilgrimage and celebration on that day. And there is a custom for boys tohave their first haircut there, at age 3. Typically, 250,000 people converge onthis sleepy little village of a few hundred inhabitants. See, for example,http://www.photographersdirect.com/stockimages/yochai.asphttp://chaptzem.blogspot.com/2005/05/meron-lagbomer-video-for-all-of-those.html284 Ksharim

This celebration attracts in particular those groups whohave a tradition of studying the Zohar (e.g., Hasidim) or ofvenerating the graves of important rabbis (e.g., Jews fromNorth Africa).There is a custom to light bonfires and play with bowsand arrows on Lag B’omer. Some say this is tocommemorate the Jews’ pretending to be picnicking andhunting in order to study Torah under the Romans’ noses;others connect these customs with mystical teachingsand events associated with Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai.22. In modern Israeli culture23. One of the best-known revaluations of a lapsed tradition is the creation ofbikkurim festivals by kibbutzim: On many kibbutzim, Shavuot is a time tocelebrate the agricultural (and later, industrial) harvest of the past year, with acolorful field day and pageant, with parade floats, dance troupes, children’schoirs, displays of produce, all decorated with a harvest motif. The observanceon most kibbutzim, of course is completely secular – a celebration of thecommunity’s achievements, not really a pageant of thanksgiving to God. But inany case, the participants see themselves as restoring a biblical tradition.For pictures, look at Google Images for “Shavuot on kibbutz.”For two short stories for primary grades depicting Shavuot in Israel(and lots of general material about the holiday), look here:http://learn.jtsa.edu/shavuot/shavuotguide2.shtml24. A medieval custom, associated with Shavuot as the holiday of the giving of theTorah, popular throughout the Diaspora, is the Tikkun Layl Shavuot, whenpeople gather to study through the night. Interestingly, this has caught on inIsrael in recent years – and some would even say it has replaced the kibbutzbikkurim festival as a symbol of the holiday – as we have moved away fromagriculture, perhaps, the “religious” side of the holiday has moved back to thecenter. See, for examplehttp://www.masorti.org/media/archive2004/05272004_h.html25. The omer period is a good example of the distance between religious andsecular Jews in Israel today: while the various orthodox communities take greatcare to observe various mourning customs, growing their hair and beards,avoiding concerts, etc., the secular public sees this as bizarre, if they see it at all.It impinges on them mostly in the prohibition of weddings, which is universal,as rabbis won’t officiate during the omer counting, and civil marriage does notexist. One point of intersection is Lag B’omer, when the custom of lighting285 Ksharim

onfires has morphed into a fiery night for every child and teenager;construction sites are raided for days in advance, and the pall of smoke hangsover the land for a day after.Bikkurim basket rom the Zippori synagogue floor…286 Ksharim

L e s s o n 33Shabbat in Israel1.OutlineShabbat in the DiasporaShabbat in secular ZionismCurrent issuesLooking to the future2. IntroductionShabbat is one of the hallmarks of Judaism, and can be seen as perhaps the centralinstitution of Jewish life and symbol of Jewish identity. From ancient times until todaythe sanctifying of the Sabbath has set Jews apart from the other nations and affordedthem a holy “space” in time. Although different streams of Judaism observe Shabbatdifferently, all are united in viewing it as a precious and unique day. From thebeginning of the Zionist revolt against the Jewish religious tradition, Shabbat hasprovided the focus of many unresolved questions pertaining to the role of Jewishreligion in the State. What makes it a “Jewish” state? How is that Jewishness to bereflected in the public realm? Can a democratic state legislate “Jewishness”? The issueof Shabbat and the ongoing debates, tensions and disputes it has caused in Israelmake it a relevant and salient case study for exploring these issues and dilemmas.Compared to all the other holidays we have considered, Shabbat is the most universal,the least tied directly to Eretz Yisrael and its landscape. The study of Shabbat in Israelfocuses not on our historical memories of Israel, but on our struggle to find the placeof “Jewish values” in a real-life Jewish state.3. Lesson goals4. Awareness of the issues arising regarding the place of Shabbat in Israel5. Knowledge of highlights of historical development of place of Shabbat in Israelilaw and culture6. Awareness of the status quo and major ideas for future solutions7. Expanded outline8. Shabbat in the Diaspora9. One of best known modern work exploring the centrality of Shabbat in Jewishlife through the ages is Abraham Joshua Heschel’s “The Sabbath.” There heargues that what is distinctive about the Jews is their preference for sanctifyingtime over space (perhaps a byproduct of our exile??) – and the key symbol ofthis preference is the Shabbat, which has no referent in nature or in the land.For an excerpt look here:287 Ksharim

http://www.myjewishlearning.com/daily_life/Shabbat/Shabbat_Themes_and_Theology/Shabbat_Sanctuary_in_Time.htm10. There is a huge amount of literature – polemic, homiletic, fiction, poetry, etc.,dedicated to showing the impact of and importance of Shabbat as a keyhalachic, spiritual, and sociological component of Jewish life, sustaining theindividual and the community. Shabbat observance was traditionally taken asa symbol of adherence to Jewish law at large and of loyalty to the community –it served as a criterion for admitting the credibility of a witness in court.11. In a way, as the famous (or infamous) concept of the “Shabbes-goy” suggests, itis easier to observe the Shabbat in a non-Jewish environment. The fact that thenon-Jewish majority is not obligated to observe Sabbath makes life easier forJews, who don’t have to think about who is running the generators in theelectric power station, or policing the streets, etc., on Shabbat. Shabbat as anobservance within a minority Jewish community, while it has its frustrations(conflicts regarding work, school, cultural life – wherein Jews observingShabbat can be excluded from opportunities), overall serves as a uniting andstrengthening factor, a peaceful island in time. The abovementioned conflictsremain essentially dilemmas for the individual and his/her conscience. If theentire population were Jewish, the dilemma would be more difficult, and couldnot be seen as only personal… And indeed, that is what we face in the Jewishstate.12. Shabbat in secular Zionism13. There were powerful streams within the early Zionist movement that sawJewish religious observance as a temporary measure, needed to preserve theJewish people in exile, but becoming irrelevant with the restoration of ourstatus as a nation, whose Jewishness would be defined by cultural attributeslike land and language. For example, see the excerpt by Jacob Klatzkin amongthe sources below. And for a discussion of the secular-religious conflict in earlyZionism, see these two chapters in Steve Israel’s overview of Zionist history:http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Eye+on+Israel/Story_Zionism/Zionism+in+Practice++The+Organisation+and+its+Tensions.htmhttp://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Eye+on+Israel/Story_Zionism/Different+Models+of+Zionism.htm14. The crucial question became, of course, what should become of Shabbat andthe Jewish holidays in general in the new secular nation state: are they part ofJewish religion and hence to be discarded, or part of Jewish culture and henceto be preserved and renewed? Can Jewish religion be separated from Jewishculture? See the famous answer of one of the most influential thinkers in themovement, Achad Ha’am, in the sources below…288 Ksharim

15. Throughout the pre-state period there was a three way struggle among theOrthodox, who argued that the public halachic observance of Shabbat in aJewish state was a sine qua non; the secular traditionalists (disciples of AchadHa’am) who believed that Shabbat had to be a part of Jewish culture, but withupdated definitions and observances, without the strictures of halachah; andthose who argued that Zionism must reject the Jewish religion and itsobservances, relics of the Diaspora life we were abandoning. For an example ofthe rhetoric of this conflict, see the proclamation of the rabbinate, in thesources below, concerning one of the secular Zionists’ most beloved new“religious” activities: the folk dance.16. Perhaps it was our gut feeling that Shabbat and the Jewish tradition must bepart of a Jewish state – without a clear definition of what part – that led to acentury of conflict. For example, see the passage below, in the sources, fromthe American textbook “Guide to Zionism,” by the prominent American Zionisteducator Jesse Sampter, from 1920.17. Current issues18. When the United Nations delegation came to Palestine in 1947 to negotiatethe details of the partition resolution, it was crucial that there be unanimousacceptance by the various subgroups of the Yishuv (the Jewish community). Inorder to gain the acceptance of the Agudat Yisrael faction (what we call today“ultra-Orthodox,” or non-Zionist Orthodox, the Jewish Agency wrote a letter ofcommitment that later became known as the “status quo agreement,” andwhich has governed, at least officially, religion-state relationships ever since.The letter stated:19. It is clear that the legal day of rest in the Jewish state will be the Shabbat, withthe understanding the Christians and members of other religions shall havepermission to rest on their weekly holy day.20. All necessary measures must be taken to insure that in every governmentsponsoredkitchen serving Jews, the food will be kosher.21. With respect to personal (marital) status, all the members of the executiverecognize the seriousness of the problem and the great difficulties, and on thepart of all the bodies that the Jewish Agency executive represents, themaximum will be done in order to provide for the deep needs of the religious,and to avoid, God forbid, the division of the House of Israel in two.22. With respect to education, full autonomy is promised to every “stream” ineducation… and there will be no infringement by the government on thereligious conscience… of any part of Israel. The state will, of course setminimum requirements in the area of Hebrew language, history, science, etc.,and will oversee the fulfillment of these requirements, while granting completefreedom to each “stream” to run its education system according to its views,and will avoid any infringement of religious conscience.289 Ksharim

23. Clearly, there were some vague statements in this agreement – sufficient tosustain almost 60 years of acrimonious debate. The agreement wasunderstood to include some interesting anomalies, as it was accepted by thesides that the actual status quo “on the ground” at the end of the Mandatewould be binding. For example – in Haifa, a mixed city, the buses ran onShabbat – and so they do to this day, while in other cities they do not.24. The conflict that became part of Israeli culture before 1948 seems only to havebecome more entrenched and polarized once the Jewish state came intoexistence. The battlefield constantly shifts – from opening movie theaters onShabbat to opening shopping malls, from cabinet crises over moving giantelectric generators on empty roads on Shabbat to El Al flights landing on Fridaynight. Here are four essays that present our current dilemma:http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1833http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1834http://www.juf.org/news_public_affairs/article.asp?key=2916http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles/sabbobs.htm25. Looking to the future26. In recent years there have been several proposals for redefining the “statusquo” that have achieved a lot of public attention. Perhaps the best known isthat set forth by Dr. Ruth Gavison, a secular judge, and Rabbi Y. Medan:www.gavison-medan.org.il/english/faq/27. And here is another, from the liberal-religious party, Meimad:http://www.wujs.org.il/activist/programmes/programmes/shabbat/rappendix2.shtml28. And another…http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3180388,00.html29. But the question arises, can this be resolved by law, or is there a deeperproblem of identity, of tolerance and respect, that remains outside whateverelaborate choreography we create? See, for example,http://www.jewishmediaresources.com/article/606/www.jewishsf.com/content/2/module/displaystory/story_id/10159/edition_id/194/format/html/displaystory.htmlAnd two Galilee Diary entries on this dilemma:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=8128&pge_prg_id=28355&pge_id=1697http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=4014&pge_prg_id=17074&pge_id=1698290 Ksharim

And some interesting numbers:A Portrait of Israeli Jewry—Beliefs, Observances and Values Among Israeli Jews 2000,Guttman Center of the Israel Democracy Institute for the Avi Chai Foundation.Findings: Between 48-55% of Israeli Jews observe Shabbat with some ritual (e.g. candlelighting or Kiddush, Sabbath meal). 24-27% attend synagogue, don’t travel or use electricity or attend entertainmentrequiring payment. 41% refrain from working publicly outside the house. 37% refrain from working in the house or kindling a fire. The large majority of Jewish Israelis spend Shabbat together with family 70% answered that generally there was a need for a public expression of Shabbatbut on specific questions most are for opening up public entertainment on Shabbatwith 61% supporting opening shopping centers within cities but only 17% said theywould shop on Shabbat.SourcesJacob Klatzkin, “Boundaries” (1914)What is really new in Zionism is the territorial-political definition of Jewish nationalism.Strip Zionism of the territorial principle and you have destroyed its character anderased the distinctions between it and the preceding periods. This is its onginality -that Judaism depends on form and not on content. For it the alternatives are clear:Either the Jewish people shall redeem the land and thereby continue to live, even ifthe spiritual content of Judaism changes radically, or we shall remain in exile and rotaway even if the spiritual tradition continues to exist.In longing for our land we do not desire to create there a base for the spiritual valuesof Judaism. To regain our land is for us an end in itself - the attaining of a free nationallife. The content of our life will be national when its forms become national. Indeed, letit not be said that the land is a precondition for a national life; living on the land is ipsofacto the national life.It is no accident that the theory of Judaism as a spiritual outlook, even in its nationalistform, has fought hard against the territorialist conception of Zionism. It feared,correctly, that from such Zionism it would receive its deathblow. All the varieties of"spiritual" thought, including the nationalist, have joined in combating politicalZionism in the name of the spirit of Judaism, i.e., the ethics of the prophets, and haveasserted that the ultimate goal of the Jewish people is not a political state but thereign of absolute justice. All these schools of thought mocked Herzl, the hero andgenius of our renaissance, by saying: We are a priest people, a nation of prophets -291 Ksharim

what does he mean coming to us talking about political action? Tlie "spiritists" all citedthe Galut as evidence that the basis for our life is the eternal content of Judaism.Zionism stands opposed to all this. Its real beginning is The Jewish State and its basicintention, whether consciously or unconsciously, is to deny any conception of Jewishidentity based on spiritual criteria.Zionism began a new era, not only for the purpose of making an end to the Diasporabut also in order to establish a new definition of Jewish identity - a secular definition. Iam certain that the builders of our land will in the future sacrifice themselves fornational forms, for land and language, as our ancestors accepted martyrdom for thesake of the religious content of Judaism. But we are, as yet, standing at the crossroadsand do not yet see the distinction between one period and another. The Galut figureof Ahad Ha-Am still obscures the nationalist light of Herzl.The "spiritual" criterion is a grave danger not only to our national renaissance but,even more, to our renaissance as individuals. It binds our spirit with the chains oftradition and subordinates our life to specific doctrines, to a heritage and to the valuesof an ancient outlook. We are constrained by antiquated values, and, in the name ofnational unity and cohesiveness, our personalities are crippled, for we are deniedfreedom of thought. Moreover, the "spiritual" definition of what is a Jew leads tonational chauvinism. National freedom is meaningless unless it fosters the freedom ofthe individual. There can be no national renaissance worth fighting for unless itliberates and revives human values within the national ethos.Echad Ha’am, “Shabbat and Zionism,” 1898(responding to a discussion in the Berlin community about postponing Shabbat toSunday)We see great men, secular researchers, who are far removed from religious belief andfreely admit that they do not keep Shabbat or any other religious laws – neverthelessvehemently defending the Shabbat, as a historical institution of the whole nation, andwithout a shadow of religious hypocrisy that used to take a central place in thesedebates, opposing the idea of adding a “second Shabbat for the Diaspora:” Is therebetter evidence than this for the awakening of the national “Jewish spirit,” among ourwestern brethren even outside the Zionist camp?There is no need to be a Zionist or to be a strict observer of the mitzvot in order torecognize the value of the Shabbat, one of the leaders of the community stated. Andhe is right. Whoever feels in his heart a true connection to the life of the nationthrough the generations cannot possibly – even if he denies the world to come andthe Jewish state – imagine the reality of the People of Israel without the Shabbatqueen. It can be said with no exaggeration, that more than Israel kept the Shabbat –the Shabbat kept them, and without it and its return to them of their “soul” and itsrenewal of their spiritual life each week, the tribulations of the work week would have292 Ksharim

pulled them farther and farther down into the depths of materialism and moral andintellectual degradation.A rabbinical proclamation, 1947… regarding the folk dance festival that attracted 25,000 people to Kibbutz Dalia in1947, held on a weekend…This is high-handed desecration of the Shabbat, an insult to the land and to theYishuv, and the desecration of the memories of the nation’s sacred dead, done in acrude and offensive manner. This is the content of the “folk dances” held on Fridaynight the 2 nd of Tamuz 5707 in Dalia, which stands on the land of the nation, inimitation of the primitive Aryan pagan custom that the Nazi tyrant renewed in theyears of his rule… Wipe the dust from your eyes, holy and pure brothers, and see howyou are memorializing them in our land in the presence of 30,000 people – with thedesecration of the Shabbat, the glory of the nation, which was dearer to them than life,and with the mocking dances of male and female dancers to the music of an orchestra,just a short time after the Holocaust of the Jews in Maidanek, Auschwitz, and BergenBelsen… We protest and reject in shame the “culture center” of the Histadrut,organizer of these dances, which ignored all of the appeals made to it to cancel thesefolk dances or at least postpone them to a weekday. By their actions they aredeviating from the Torah of the nation, attacking its living soul, and undermining thefoundations of the culture of Israel.Jesse Sampter, Guide to Zionism, 1920…There will be no State Church. The State Church tyranny grew out of Christianity,where a religion was thrust from above upon a people which had not developed it.From the day of Protestantism the State Church was imperiled, and democracy cannotendure it. However, national religion is very different from a State Church. Ournational religion will be Judaism not because it will be forced upon anyone – forindeed minority religions and other interest must be carefully safeguarded – butbecause it will be the natural expression of the life of the Jewish people.If the community observes the Sabbath in its public life, the national festivals and holydays, if Jewish law is embodied in the law and moral and social code and publicopinion of the country, if Jewish ideals of internationalism and justice are practiced inour dealings with foreign powers, will not the Jewish nation be living by the Jewishfaith? A new conception of religion is attracting the attention of psychologists andsociologists, the conception of religion as the soul of a people, as a corporatemanifestation of group life, not merely, in the Christian sense, as a form of personalbelief. That new conception is the ancient Jewish conception which must now betested by modern experience.293 Ksharim

L e s s o n 34Israel in the Liturgy1. OutlinePrayer as replacement for the sacrificesReferences to the land in the liturgyLonging for redemption in the form of return2. IntroductionProbably the one text with which most of our students are likely to havecontinued and maybe even frequent contact is the siddur. The siddur providesopportunities for teaching about our connection to Israel on a number ofdifferent levels, each of which might be appropriate for different age levels anddifferent ideologies. This lesson seeks to chart several different Israelconnections in the standard weekday and Shabbat liturgy. Note that forpurposes of illustrating these connections we use the traditional prayerbook;some of the passages may not be present, or may have been edited, in Reformand Conservative and Reconstructionist liturgy; these changes themselves canserve as teaching opportunities.3. Lesson goals4. To stimulate thinking about the spiritual significance of Eretz Yisrael in Jewishreligious identity5. To raise awareness of the specific Israel links in the siddur6. To stimulate thinking about the place of Israel in the siddur’s vision ofredemption7. Expanded outline8. Prayer as replacement for the sacrifices9. While there are certainly examples of personal prayer in the Bible, theoverwhelming emphasis is on the sacrificial cult as the main means ofcommunication with God. And, of course, that means that initially thatcommunication can occur only at the Mishkan in the desert – and ultimately, atthe Temple in Jerusalem.10. The opening chapters of Leviticus describe the rules for various ad hocsacrifices, for a sin, or in thanksgiving. Chapter 17 emphasizes the law thatsacrifices of any kind can only be offered at the Mishkan – not in one’s backyard or any other shrine. And 23 describes the sacrifices for the holidays. Then,Numbers 28 recapitulates the holidays, and adds the sacrifices for every day(vss. 3-8), Shabbat (vss. 9 -10), and Rosh Chodesh (vss. 11 -15). Note that thedaily sacrifices are two, one in the morning and one at twilight, and on Shabbatthere are the regular two daily sacrifices plus an extra two lambs.294 Ksharim

11. Sacrifices, really?The question arises, of course, how we are supposed to feel aboutthis glorious period in our history, when we worshipped God by aceremony that seems to many of us today barbaric and disgusting.Perhaps the best known discussion of this problem is not modern,but medieval, in Rambam’s Guide for the Perplexed, where hesuggests what seems to be an evolutionary approach which actuallymight work for modern perplexed Jews as well. The whole chapter(Part III chapter 32) is appended to this outline.12. Consolidation:During the period of the Judges there was no central shrine, andreligious life seems to have been somewhat chaotic. In the lastchapter of Judges and the first of Samuel, it appears that there was amajor shrine where people went to sacrifice from at least some of thetribes, at Shiloh, in Samaria. As soon as David assumes power, heconquers Jerusalem from the Jebusites and makes it his capital ( IISamuel 5) and begins a process of centralizing the government andcult of the whole nation there, a process that reaches its peak inSolomon’s dedication of the Temple in I Kings 8. When the northerntribes rebel after Solomon’s death, a major act of the rebels’ king,Jeroboam, is to create a new sacrificial center to wean the peopleaway from the centrality of Jerusalem (I Kings 12:25-33). But later, itseems, even in Judah, there were those who deviated from theabsolute centrality of the Temple, as we see from Josiah’s cleanup ofcompeting shrines in his reform, not long before the end of theJudean kingdom (II Kings 23:4-25).13. The destruction: crisis and responseThe destruction of the Temple represented a religious crisis – for if itwas the only place God could be worshipped (by means of sacrifices),and it was gone, what would become of our relationship to God?And so began the process which continued even after the restorationand the rebuilding of the Temple, of shifting the emphasis fromsacrifice to prayer, and the creation of the institution of thesynagogue, and a ritual of prayer that ultimately replaced thesacrifices completely. The early synagogue, and the earlydevelopment of prayer are huge fields of archaeological andhistorical research and there are lots of unanswered questions. Wewill not go into the details in this unit. For our purposes, what isimportant is that by the time of the destruction of the SecondTemple, the institution of the synagogue was ready to take over, andwithin the century, the core of the liturgy of regular communal prayerin the synagogue had been set.295 Ksharim

It seems that the groundwork for the decentralization and/orspiritualization of worship was already laid in Josiah’s time – if it istrue, as many scholars believe, that the book of Deuteronomy waswritten in the context of Josiah’s reform, then in his consolidation ofthe sacrificial cult in Jerusalem he simultaneously had to permitsecular slaughter, since people couldn’t come to Jerusalem everytime they wanted to eat meat. Thus, Deuteronomy 12:13-28.The traditional view is that the basic structure of the liturgy was setby the “Great Assembly” established by Ezra during the restoration, inthe 5 th century BCE – this is stated in the Talmud, Berachot 33a. Andthe Mishnah describes a service performed by the kohanim in theSecond Temple, not so different from our own, in Tamid 5:1.14. The Talmud in Berachot 26b offers two explanations for three daily prayers,morning, afternoon, and evening (beyond the re ference to three prayers inDaniel 6:11):15. The Patriarchs instituted them:16. Shacharit – Abraham – Genesis 19:2717. Mincha – Isaac – Genesis 24:6318. Ma’ariv – Jacob – Genesis 28:1119. They correspond to sacrifices20. Shacharit – the morning sacrifice – Numbers 28:3-421. Mincha – the twilight sacrifice – Numbers 28:422. Ma’ariv – the remnants that continue to burn all night23. Musaf on Shabbat – the extra sacrifice – Numbers 28:9The fact that the Ma’ariv service is not based on a specificallycommanded sacrifice explains the difference with respect to therecitation of the Amidah – in Shacharit and Mincha, it must be recitedout loud, whereas in Ma’ariv it is prayed silently.The bottom line, conceptually: every time we participate in publicworship, in one of the three services, we are in a way reenacting thesacrificial service in the Temple. And note, it is customary to face inthe direction of the Temple when we pray, lest we forget thatconnection. God may be everywhere, but we “aim” our prayers to theTemple Mount. See, the summary of the halacha in this matter in thisadvertisement for a “Kosher Compass:”http://koshercompass.com/catalog/information.php?info_id=4&osCsid=f62d69ffcac2544c0cdb2bbab90ab98124. References to the land in the liturgy25. The ShmaWhile the Shma is of course seen as a universal declaration of faith,the fine print contains rather specific references to our covenantal296 Ksharim

elationship to the land of Israel. The second paragraph of therecitation of the Shma consists of Deuteronomy 11:13-21, which is anexplicit restatement of the concept of covenant regarding the landitself: obey the commandments, and the rain will fall and you willprosper; be tempted to serve other gods – and “you will soon perishfrom the good land…” What do we think when we read this? What isits referent for us? A historical memory? A universal equation(effective anywhere)? A warning regarding the modern state ofIsrael?26. Seasonal referencesAside from holiday references to the seasons in Israel, the daily andShabbat liturgy contains a few reminders of where we are:27. In the second blessing of the amidah: from Shemini Atzeret until Pesach, Jewseverywhere in the world add the words “who makes the wind blow and therain fall.” (referring, of course, to the wind and rain in Eretz Yisrael). And in Israel(only), from Pesach until Shemini Atzeret, they replace that phrase with “whobrings down the dew.”28. In the ninth blessing, “Bless for us, O Lord our God, this year and and all thevarieties of its produce for our good…From Pesach to December 4: …Bestow a blessing on theearth and satisfy us with Your goodness…From Dec. 4 to Pesach: Bestow dew and rain for a blessingon the earth and satisfy us with Your goodness… [wheredew and rain apparently means “rain”]This blessing, in general, refers to the agriculture of EretzYisrael.29. Of the Psalms included in the standard liturgy, one stands out for itsgeographical emphasis. A common interpretation of Psalm 29, which isincluded both in Kabbalat Shabbat and in the Torah Service on Shabbatmorning, is that it is a description of a thunderstorm moving across Israel,coming in from the Mediterranean from the northwest, sweeping fromLebanon to the desert, breaking trees and reminding us of the Flood.30. The Birkat Hamazon (grace after meals) contains a number of links to the land.In particular:31. The second blessing opens with the words: “We thank you O Lord our God, forhaving given to our fathers such a desirable, good and spacious land as aheritage…” and ends with “Blessed are You, O Lord, for the land and for thefood. This blessing seems to be based on our agricultural relationship to theland of Israel: our universal prayer of thanks for food, after every meal, remindsof the good old days when our food was derived from the soil and rain of EretzYisrael; hence every time we eat, we think about those days and that place.Our gratitude for food in general connects to all land – but through it, to the297 Ksharim

specific land of Israel. It could be said that not only with every visit to thesynagogue does the traditional Jew remind him/herself of the connection toIsrael – past and future – but even with every bite of food s/he takes. Israel isnature to us, the soil, our roots, the source of our sustenance – even if we liveelsewhere and eat bread made of wheat from Kansas (indeed, in Israel todaymost grain is imported…)32. The third blessing, asking for redemption, also emphasizes a specificgeographical reference: “Have mercy, O Lord our God, on Israel Your people, onJerusalem Your city, on Zion the abode of your glory, on the royal house ofDavid…etc.” After every meal, no matter where we eat it, we remember wherewe wish we had eaten it…33. Note that versions of the Birkat Hamazon printed since 1948 include among theshort prayers at the end: “May the All-merciful one bless the State of Israel, thefirst flowering of our redemption.” This of course bring us to a discussion notabout our connection to the land, but about the meaning of the modern statein Jewish history: is it indeed the first stage of the redemption?34. Longing for redemption in the form of return35. In the second blessing preceding the Shma:“O bring us home in peace from the four corners of the earth, andlead us upright to our land…”36. The daily amidah contains several prayers reminding us of our exiled state andasking for return/restoration:37. Tenth blessing: “Sound the great shofar of our freedom, raise the signal togather our exiles…”38. Fourteenth blessing: “Return in mercy to Jerusalem Your city, and dwell in it asYou have promised. Rebuild it soon in our days…”39. Seventeenth blessing: “…Restore the service to Your most holy house andreceive in love and with favor the sacrifices of Israel and their prayer…”40. And on Shabbat:41. Lecha Dodi in Kabbalat Shabbat: “…O royal city, sanctuary of the King, ariseand go forth from your ruins…” etc.42. Musaf on Shabbat – middle blessing: “…lead us in joy back to our land andplant us within our borders…”[By the way, the early Reform movement decided toeliminate Musaf, as the movement wanted to cleanse theservice of things they didn’t believe in – like the longingfor restoration – but in the end realized that if theyeliminated it, most people would arrive in time forKiddush…]43. There are of course many more references to redemption and return in theholiday liturgy – the high holy days and the three pilgrimage festivals.298 Ksharim

However, these days have been treated in different units, and our focus here ison the everyday or every week repetition of texts that connect the worshipperwith the land and our exile from it and longing for return.Appendix: Maimonides on sacrificesGuide for the Perplexed, Part III, Chapter 32CHAPTER XXXIION considering the Divine acts, or the processes of Nature, we get an insight into theprudence and wisdom of God as displayed in the creation of animals, with the gradualdevelopment of the movements of their limbs and the relative positions of the latter,and we perceive also His wisdom and plan in the successive and gradual developmentof the whole condition of each individual. The gradual development of the animals'movements and the relative position of the limbs may be illustrated by the brain. Thefront part is very soft, the back part is a little hard, the spinal marrow is still harder, andthe farther it extends the harder it becomes. The nerves are the organs of sensationand motion. Some nerves are only required for sensation, or for slight movements, as,e.g., the movement of the eyelids or of the jaws; these nerves originate in the brain.The nerves which are required for the movements of the limbs come from the spinalmarrow. But nerves, even those that come directly from the spinal cord, are too soft toset the joints in motion; therefore God made the following arrangement: the nervesbranch out into fibres which are covered with flesh, and become muscles: the nervesthat come forth at the extremities of the muscles and have already commenced toharden, and to combine with hard pieces of ligaments, are the sinews which are joinedand attached to the limbs. By this gradual development the nerves are enabled to setthe limbs in motion. I quote this one instance because it is the most evident of thewonders described in the book On the use of the limbs: but the use of the limbs isclearly perceived by all who examine them with a sharp eye. In a similar manner didGod provide for each individual animal of the class of mammalia. When such an animalis born it is extremely tender, and cannot be fed with dry food. Therefore breasts wereprovided which yield milk, and the young can be fed with moist food whichcorresponds to the condition of the limbs of the animal, until the latter have graduallybecome dry and hard.Many precepts in our Law are the result of a similar course adopted by the sameSupreme Being. It is, namely, impossible to go suddenly from one extreme to theother: it is therefore according to the nature of man impossible for him suddenly todiscontinue everything to which he has been accustomed. Now God sent Moses tomake [the Israelites] a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exod. xix. 6) by means ofthe knowledge of God. Comp." Unto thee it was showed that thou mightest know thatthe Lord is God (Dent. iv. 35):" Know therefore this day, and consider it in thine heart,that the Lord is God" (ibid. v. 39). The Israelites were commanded to devotethemselves to His service; comp." and to serve him with all your heart" (ibid. xi. 13):"and you shall serve the Lord your God" (Exod. xxiii. 25);" and ye shall serve him" (Dent.299 Ksharim

xiii. 5). But the custom which was in those days general among all men, and thegeneral mode of worship in which the Israelites were brought up, consisted insacrificing animals in those temples which contained certain images, to bow down tothose images, and to bum incense before them; religious and ascetic persons were inthose days the persons that were devoted to the service in the temples erected to thestars, as has been explained by us. It was in accordance with the wisdom and plan ofGod, as displayed in the whole Creation, that He did not command us to give up andto discontinue all these manners of service; for to obey such a commandment it wouldhave been contrary to the nature of man, who generally cleaves to that to which he isused; it would in those days have made the same impression as a prophet would makeat present if he called us to the service of God and told us in His name, that we shouldnot pray to Him, not fast, not seek His help in time of trouble; that we should serveHim in thought, and not by any action. For this reason God allowed these kinds ofservice to continue; He transferred to His service that which had formerly served as aworship of created beings, and of things imaginary and unreal, and commanded us toserve Him in the same manner; viz., to build unto Him a temple; comp." And they shallmake unto me a sanctuary" (Exod. xxv. 8): to have the altar erected to His name;comp." An altar of earth thou shalt make unto me" (ibid. XX. 2 1): to offer the sacrificesto Him; comp." If any man of you bring an offering unto the Lord" (Lev. i. 2), to bowdown to Elim. and to bum incense before Him. He has forbidden to do any of thesethings to any other being; comp." He who sacrificeth unto any God, save the Lord only,he shall be utterly destroyed * (Exod. xxii. 19):" For thou shalt bow down to no otherGod" (ibid. xxxiv. 14). He selected priests for the service in the temple; comp." And theyshall minister unto me in the priest's office" (ibid. xxviii. 41). He made it obligatory thatcertain gifts, called the gifts of the Levites and the priests, should be assigned to themfor their maintenance while they are engaged in the service of the temple and itssacrifices. By this Divine plan it was effected that the traces of idolatry were blottedout, and the truly great principle of our faith, the Existence and Unity of God, wasfirmly established; this result was thus obtained without deterring or confusing theminds of the people by the abolition of the service to which they were accustomedand which alone was familiar to them. I know that you will at first thought reject thisidea and find it strange: you will put the following question to me in your heart : Howcan we suppose that Divine commandments, prohibitions, and important acts, whichare fully explained, and for which certain seasons are fixed, should not have beencommanded for their own sake, but only for the sake of some other thing: as if theywere only the means which He employed for His primary object ? What prevented Himfrom making His primary object a direct commandment to us, and to give us thecapacity of obeying it ? Those precepts which in your opinion are only the means andnot the object would then have been unnecessary. Hear my answer, which win cureyour heart of this disease and will show you the truth of that which I have pointed outto you. There occurs in the Law a passage which contains exactly the same idea; it isthe following :" God led them not through the way of the land of the Philistines,although that was near; for God said, Lest peradventure the people repent when theysee war, and they return to Egypt; but God led the people about, through the way of300 Ksharim

the wilderness of the Red Sea," etc. (Exod. xiii. 17). Here God led the people about,away from the direct road which He originally intended, because He feared they mightmeet on that way with hardships too great for their ordinary strength; He took themby another road in order to obtain thereby His original object. In the same mannerGod refrained from prescribing what the people by their natural disposition would beincapable of obeying, and gave the above-mentioned commandments as a means ofsecuring His chief object, viz., to spread a knowledge of Him [among the people], andto cause them to reject idolatry. It is contrary to man's nature that he should suddenlyabandon all the different kinds of Divine service and the different customs in which hehas been brought up, and which have been so general, that they were considered as amatter of course; it would be just as if a person trained to work as a slave with mortarand bricks, or similar things, should interrupt his work, clean his hands, and at oncefight with real giants. It was the result of God's wisdom that the Israelites were ledabout in the wilderness till they acquired courage. For it is a well-known fact thattravelling in the wilderness, and privation of bodily enjoyments, such as bathing,produce courage, whilst the reverse is the source of faint-heartedness: besides,another generation rose during the wanderings that had not been accustomed todegradation and slavery. All the travelling in the wilderness was regulated by Divinecommands through Moses; comp." At the commandment of the Lord they rested, andat the commandment of the Lord they journeyed; they kept the charge of the Lordand the commandment of the Lord by the hand of Moses" (Num. ix. 23). In the sameway the portion of the Law under discussion is the result of divine wisdom, accordingto which people are allowed to continue the kind of worship to which they have beenaccustomed, in order that they might acquire the true faith, which is the chief object[of God's commandments]. You ask, What could have prevented God fromcommanding us directly, that which is the chief object, and from giving us the capacityof obeying it ? This would lead to a second question, What prevented God fromleading the Israelites through the way of the land of the Philistines, and endowingthem with strength for fighting ? The leading about by a pillar of cloud by day and apillar of fire by night would then not have been necessary. A third question wouldthen be asked in reference to the good promised as reward for the keeping of thecommandments, and the evil foretold as a punishment for sins. It is the followingquestion: As it is the chief object and purpose of God that we should believe in theLaw, and act according to that which is written therein, why has He not given us thecapacity of continually believing in it, and following its guidance, instead of holdingout to us reward for obedience, and punishment for disobedience, or of actually givingall the predicted reward and punishment ? For [the promises and the threats] are butthe means of leading to this chief object. What prevented Him from giving us, as partof our nature, the will to do that which He desires us to do, and to abandon the kind ofworship which He rejects ? There is one general answer to these three questions, andto all questions of the same character: it is this : Although in every one of the signs[related in Scripture] the natural property of some individual being is changed, thenature of man is never changed by God by way of miracle. It is in accordance with thisimportant principle that God said," 0 that there were such an heart in them, that they301 Ksharim

would fear me," etc. (Dent. v. 26). It is also for this reason that He distinctly stated thecommandments and the prohibitions, the reward and the punishment. This principleas regards miracles has been frequently explained by us in our works: I do not say thisbecause I believe that it is difficult for God to change the nature of every individualperson; on the contrary, it is possible, and it is in His power, according to the principlestaught in Scripture; but it has never been His will to do it, and it never will be. If it werepart of His will to change [at His desire] the nature of any person, the mission ofprophets and the giving of the Law would have been altogether superfluous.I now return to my theme. As the sacrificial service is not the primary object [of thecommandments about sacrifice], whilst supplications, Prayerss and similar kinds ofworship are nearer to the primary object, and indispensable for obtaining it, a greatdifference was made in the Law between these two kinds of service. The one kind,which consists in offering sacrifices, although the sacrifices are offered to the name ofGod, has not been made obligatory for us to the same extent as it had been before. Wewere not commanded to sacrifice in every place, and in every time, or to build atemple in every place, or to permit any one who desires to become priest and tosacrifice. On the contrary, all this is prohibited unto us. Only one temple has beenappointed," in the place which the Lord shall choose" (Deut. xii. 26): in no other place isit allowed to sacrifice: comp." Take heed to thyself, that thou offer not thy burntofferingsin every place that thou seest" (ibid. v. 13); and on ly the members of aparticular family were allowed to officiate as priests. All these restrictions served tolimit this kind of worship, and keep it within those bounds within which God did notthink it necessary to abolish sacrificial service altogether. But prayer and supplicationcan be offered everywhere and by every person. The same is the case with thecommandment of zizit (Num. xy. 38); mezuzah (Dent. vi. 9; xi. 20); tefillin (Exod. xiii. 9,16): and similar kinds of divine service.Because of this principle which I explained to you, the Prophets in their books arefrequently found to rebuke their fellow-men for being over-zealous and exertingthemselves too much in bringing sacrifices: the prophets thus distinctly declared thatthe object of the sacrifices is not very essential, and that God does not require them.Samuel therefore said," Hath the Lord as great delight in burnt-offerings and sacrificesas in obeying the voice of the Lord" (I Sam. xv. 22) ? Isaiah exclaimed," To what purposeis the multitude of your sacrifices unto me ? saith the Lord" (Isa. i. 11): Jeremiahdeclared:" For I spake not unto your fathers, nor commanded them in the day that Ibrought them out of the land of Egypt, concerning burnt-offering or sacrifices. But thisthing commanded I them, saying, Obey my, voice, andI will be your God, and ye shall be my people" (Jer. vii. 22, 23). This passage has beenfound difficult in the opinion of all those whose words .1 read or heard; they ask, Howcan Jeremiah say that God did not command us about burnt-offering and sacrifice,seeing so many precepts refer to sacrifice ? The sense of the passage agrees with whatI explained to you. Jeremiah says [in the name of God) the primary object of theprecepts is this, Know me, and serve no other being;" I will be your God, and ye shall302 Ksharim

e my people" (Lev. xxvi. 12). But the commandment that sacrifices shall be broughtand that the temple shall be visited has for its object the success of that principleamong you; and for its sake I have transferred these modes of worship to my name;idolatry shall thereby be utterly destroyed, and Jewish faith firmly established. You,however, have ignored this object, and taken hold of that which is only the means ofobtaining it; you have doubted my existence," ye have denied the Lord, and said he isnot" (Jer. v. 12): ye served idols;" burnt incense unto Baal, and walked after other godswhom ye know not. And come and stand before me in this house" (ibid. vii. 9-10); i.e.,you do not go beyond attending the temple of the Lord, and offering sacrifices: butthis is not the chief object.-- I have another way of explaining this passage with exactlythe same result. For it is distinctly stated in Scripture, and handed down by tradition,that the first commandments communicated to us did not include any law at an aboutburnt-offering and sacrifice. You must not see any difficulty in the Passover which wascommanded in Egypt; there was a particular and evident reason for that, as will beexplained by me (chap. xlvi.). Besides it was revealed in the land of Egypt; whilst thelaws to which Jeremiah alludes in the above passage are those which were revealedafter the departure from Egypt. For this reason it is distinctly added," in the day that Ibrought them out from the land of Egypt." The first commandment after the departurefrom Egypt was given at Marah, in the following words," If thou wilt diligently hearkento the voice of the Lord thy God, and wilt do that which is right in His sight, and wiltgive ear to His commandments" (Exod. xv. 26)." There he made for them a statute andan ordinance, and there he proved them" (ibid. ver. 25). According to the truetraditional explanation, Sabbath and civil laws were revealed at Marah:" statute"alludes to Sabbath, and" ordinance" to civil laws, which are the means of removinginjustice. The chief object of the Law, as has been shown by us, is the teaching oftruths; to which the truth of the creatio ex nihilo belongs. It is known that the object ofthe law of Sabbath is to confirm and to establish this principle, as we have shown inthis treatise (Part. II. chap. xxxi.). In addition to the teaching of truths the Law aims atthe removal of injustice from mankind. We have thus proved that the first laws do notrefer to burnt-offering and sacrifice, which are of secondary importance. The sameidea which is contained in the above passage from Jeremiah is also expressed in thePsalms, where the people are rebuked that they ignore the chief object, and make nodistinction between chief and subsidiary lessons. The Psalmist says:" Hear, 0 mypeople, and I will speak; 0 Israel, and I will testify against thee : I am God, even thy God.I will not reprove thee for thy sacrifices or thy burnt-offerings, they have beencontinually before me. I will take no bullock out of thy house, nor he-goats out of thyfolds" (Ps. 1. 29).-- Wherever this subject is mentioned, this is its meaning. Consider itwell, and reflect on it.303 Ksharim

L e s s o n 35Childhood1. Outlinea. Circumcisionb. Pidyon Habenc. Halakehd. Kabalat Hatorahe. Bar/bat mitzvahf. Army enlistment2. IntroductionIsraelis who define themselves as "chiloni" (non-religious) nevertheless chooseto undergo traditional Jewish lifecycle events, circumcising their sons,celebrating bar/bar mitzvah ceremonies and weddings, and burying their deadaccording to traditional practice. Some of this participation is enforced byIsraeli law (more on that in the lessons on marriage and death), but the ritualsof childhood are entered into voluntarily (at least by the parents…). While thecircumcision ceremony has remained largely identical to the traditional one,the bar/bat mitzvah ceremony has evolved and changed – perhaps because itis a relative newcomer on the scene. Other ceremonies contain different mixesof tradition and new invention.In terms of the Israel connection in life cycle observances in the Diaspora, theliturgy of the brit, and of bar/bat mitzvah, does not contain explicit references toIsrael or the hope of return. However, pidyon haben is wholly bound up withpreserving the role of the kohanim and thus serves as a reminder of the Templeand its centrality.3. Lesson goals4. Knowledge of current practices and dilemmas of childhood lifecycle events inIsrael5. Awareness of the role of pidyon haben as a link to the Temple cult and the hopeof restoration6. Knowledge about the evolution of the bar/bat mitzvah ceremony in Israel7. Reflection on the meaning of the bar/bat mitzvah ceremony8. Expanded outlineJews in Israel define themselves across a spectrum of religious belief andobservance. According to a recent study 21 , Israeli Jews define themselves:21 Beliefs, Tradition and Values of Jews in Israel, 2000, funded by the Avichai Foundation, carried out byhttp://www.avi-the Guttman Center of the Israeli Institute of Democracy, available in Hebrew atchai.org/Static/Binaries/Publications/guttman_0.pdf304 Ksharim

DefinitionPercentageUltra-Orthodox ("charedi") 5%Religious ("dati") 12%Traditional ("masorti") 35%Non-religious ("chiloni") 43%Anti-religious 5%On the other hand, when participants in the survey were asked about the importancein which they held Jewish lifecycle rituals, it turned out that a majority of Israeli Jewshold most of these rituals to be "very important". The percentages have fallen slightlyover the past decade, except for those pertaining to bar/bat mitzvah ceremonies,which have actually become important to a larger percent of the population.Percentage of those who 1991 1999answered it was "veryimportant" to have:Brit in a religious ceremony 74% 70%Bar mitzvah in synagogue 63% 66%Bat mitzvah in synagogue 46% 47%Wedding led by a Rabbi 69% 64%Religious funeral service 70% 66%Below is a short description of several childhood rites of passage in Israel, going intomore detail on the bar/bat mitzvah:a. Circumcision (Brit)Boys in Israel are almost invariably circumcised, for the usual religious and culturalreasons (this applies to Muslim and Druze males too), and also because parents areafraid of stigmatizing their sons in a society in which circumcision is the norm (armyshower-rooms are cited as a prime situation of potential embarrassment). However, inthe last few years a tiny but vocal minority has started actively advocating againstcircumcision, and in 1998 one organization petitioned the High Court of Justice tooutlaw circumcision, alleging that it contradicts the Basic Law of Human Dignity andFreedom (1992). The petition was turned down, but in such a way that similar petitionsmay be submitted in the future. While Jewish practices such as ritual slaughter andcircumcision have been adjudicated in courts of various countries recently, thepossibility of a ruling by the High Court of Israel against the basic Jewish ritual ofcircumcision boggles the mind…b. Redeeming of the Firstborn (Pidyon Ha'Ben)This ceremony is explained in the bible:"God said to Moses: Consecrate to me every firstborn male. The first offspring ofevery womb among the Israelites belongs to me, whether man or animal." (Exodus13, 2)305 Ksharim

And in a commandment to the priests:"But you must redeem every firstborn son…When they are a month old, youmust redeem them at the redemption price set at five shekels of silver, accordingto the sanctuary shekel, which weighs twenty gerahs." (Numbers 18, 15-16)The ceremony is one of the few instances in which descendants of the priests(kohanim), descendants of Aharon, are still sought out today to fulfill a special role. Inthe ceremony, a kohen symbolically accepts 5 coins of a certain value (although othervaluables may be used, it is customary in Israel to use specially minted coins, made forthis purpose by the Israel Government Coins and Medals Corporation) to redeem thefirstborn son. While in general kohanim live ordinary lives since the Temple wasdestroyed, from time to time these odd reminders crop up, reminiscent of their onceimportantrole - Kohanim are called to bless the congregation in synagogue on somespecial days, and they are held to more stringent laws of purity (they may not entergraveyards, and cannot marry divorcees). This in spite of the fact that after thedestruction (and indeed even in the preceding years) the priestly elite was graduallyreplaced by an elite distinguished not by birth but by talent – specifically in studyingthe Torah.Are these distinctions just an anachronism, or yet another way in which we(symbolically?) yearn for the rebuilding of the Temple and the renewal of its rituals?c. HalakehMany ultra-orthodox families do not cut their sons' hair until they are 3 years old, andthen do it ceremonially on Lag Ba'Omer near Rabbi Shimon Bar Yochai's grave inMeron, near Safed. This ceremony is called halakeh. The gravesite and surroundingsare visited on Lag Ba'Omer by hundreds of thousands of people, who camp out forseveral days, slaughter and barbecue sheep brought for the purpose, pray andpetition on the grave of the Rabbi. See, for example,http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/3857/edition_id/69/format/html/displaystory.htmlor for a more academic presentation:http://www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/Shokel/010503_Upshern.htmld. Receiving the Torah (Kabalat HaTorah)For students in 2 nd grade, schools often organize a ceremony to celebrate theirbeginning steps to study the Torah. Students often spend some time preparing for thisevent, in the classroom and outside it, meeting a scribe (sofer stam) who explains anddemonstrates his craft, and studying some biblical stories. This preparation processculminates in a ceremony (sometimes loosely modeled after the receiving of the torahat Mount Sinai) in which each child receives his/her own copy of Bereshit, which will beused from now on in the classroom. In some schools, parents are involved in preparinga special cover for the book, embroidered or decorated according to the skills andinterest of the individual parents.306 Ksharim

e. Bar MitzvahThe bar mitzvah ceremony has undergone a series of transformations since itsinception. While the age of 13 (for boys – 12 for girls) has been recognized since thetime of the Mishnah as the age in which Jewish boys become obligated to fulfill thecommandments, the formalization of the bar mitzvah ceremony was apparently agradual process. In contrast to rites of passage in African or Indian tribes, where boyswere called upon to prove their prowess in hunting and survival skills, the "initiationrite" for Jewish boys consisted of the boy showing his ability to read from the Torah. InReform congregations, the bar mitzvah ceremony was often superseded by theconfirmation ceremony, which marked the culmination of a child's formal Jewisheducation.In Israel, many non-religious families chose (and choose today) to retain the traditionalceremony, even though the ceremony marks a solitary departure from the familytradition of non-participation in synagogue life, instead of an embarkation upon alifetime of synagogue participation.True to their general attitude of evolving traditional Jewish customs to take on newmeanings, the kibbutz movement created different incarnations of the bar mitzvahceremony. Since reading Torah was not a meaningful ceremony for kibbutz children, adifferent initiation ceremony was designed. Source #1 tells of such a ceremony.How is the kibbutz ceremony described different from the traditional one? How is itsimilar? Would you adopt some of the changes made in the kibbutz?The author mentions the disconnection from religious significance, and thetransformation of the individual celebrations to a celebration by the group, true to thecollectivist aspirations of the kibbutz. The author does not even mention the fact thatthe kibbutz ceremony makes no distinction between boys and girls. The traditionalJewish custom of initiating the boy into Torah-reading is replaced by initiation intoother realms – secular studies, group life, knowledge of other forms of Jewish life.Source #2 lists other examples of tasks proposed in different kibbutzim.What can be learned about the lives of kibbutz children from the tasks they were setfor their bar mitzvah? If you were to design a list of bar/bat mitzvah tasks for childrenof your community, what would be the same? What tasks would you omit? What taskswould you add? Do the differences stem from different values, different emphases onthe same values, or differences in surrounding lifestyle and culture? Is the ceremonymore reminiscent of the traditional ceremony, which marks the start of a life ofobligation, or of the Reform confirmation ceremony, which marks the end of formalJewish education? What do you think the Bar Mitzvah celebration in your communityshould symbolize?Some important values that educators sought to instill in kibbutz children were (in noparticular order):307 Ksharim

Connectedness to Jewish history Importance of study Work ethic Social responsibility Awareness of other lifestyles Commitment to the (armed, if necessary) defense of the kibbutz and the State Responsibility for younger children Filial dutiesWith the gradual decline of the kibbutz way of life, ceremonies like these have beenreplaced in most kibbutzim with more traditional, synagogue-based ceremonies.Bar Mitzvah at the Western WallMany families in Israel (and indeed from abroad) choose to celebrate their sons' barmitzvah at a ceremony at the Western Wall. At any time during Monday and Thursdaymornings, when a Torah portion is read during the Shacharit service, one sees manygroups of men standing in the men's section of the Wall plaza, huddled around a tableon which a Torah scroll is laid, accompanying their boy in his first fumbling attemptsto put on tefillin, and listening to him reading from the Torah. Women participantssometimes climb on chairs in the women's section, craning their necks to watch fromafar. Some ethnic groups provide a colorful spectacle, dressing in traditional costumesand escorting the boy with singing, dancing and the playing of traditional instrumentsas he approaches the plaza. The ceremony is often concluded with toasts andblessings, and in recent years it has become customary for the family and guests totour the "Western Wall tunnels" adjacent to the plaza.What are the pros and cons of the Western Wall bar mitzvah ceremony?Pros The Wall is considered the holiest place in Israel (for Jews, that is) The Wall is one of the most powerful symbols of our connection to the past,and our connection to Eretz Yisrael The simultaneous reading from the Torah of so many bar mitzvah boys, of somany traditions and cultures, also strongly symbolizes our connection to theJewish people, in all its many-colored varietiesConsWhile the close family of the bar mitzvah will surely travel from the ends of theearth to participate, the larger community will not, and therefore the boy andthe family will be celebrating this rite of passage disconnected from theirnatural community308 Ksharim

The Western Wall is run by strictly Orthodox rules, so girls who wish to readfrom the Torah will have to use the "Southern Wall" area, set apart foregalitarian servicesWomen of the family will be able to participate in the ceremony only from afarSome Diaspora families choose to hold a bar or bat mitzvah in Israel, not at the Wallbut at a synagogue (of the denomination of their choice) or historical site (like Zipporior Metsada). This can, on the one hand, be a powerful experience for the child and thefamily, and clearly helps build a strong relationship with Israel; on the other hand, itsuffers from one of the “cons” of the Wall ceremony - the distance from family andcommunity in most cases. There are travel agents who specialize in family bar/batmitzvah tours.Other modes of celebrationBat mitzvah's have also begun to be explored in Israel. While traditionally theceremony did not exist for girls, the need for a ceremony parallel to the bar mitzvahbegan to be felt in many communities – in Orthodox communities, as awareness towomen's issues rose to the fore, and in non-religious circles, as children who wereaccustomed to equality in all areas suddenly confronted inequality in this domain.While some non-religious Israeli families celebrate bat mitzvah's in egalitarianConservative and Reform synagogues, others, both religious and non-, explore newways to mark the day, in study, ritual, or ceremony. Yet sadly, for some families (eventhose who would celebrate a bar mitzvah in a religious setting) a bat mitzvah iscelebrated with a large party or a family trip abroad, with no religious or ideologicalovertones.In schools, students in the 7 th grade (in which many turn 12/13) customarily arerequired to embark upon a project to explore their family history, in what is called a"Roots project." Students interview grandparents, collect documents, certificates,maps and pictures, research and produce a family tree. Often parents also becomeinvolved, and family discussions ensue.In addition to the ways described above, people are adding a variety of new ways tocelebrate children's coming of age. Some families organize a hike on the "Israel trail" –an 850-km-long trail that crosses Israel from north to south, traversing many of themost well-known trails in the country, crossing different terrains, passing throughvillages inhabited by a variety of ethnic groups and religions. Non-religiousorganizations fostering a "Judaism as culture" viewpoint organize parent-childseminars, focusing on the meaning of coming of age in today's modern society. Onegirl, an ardent dancer, was joined by her friends in dancing their interpretation of theScroll of Ruth in the ancient amphitheatre in Zippori, on her 12 th birthday close toShavuot. As Israeli society becomes more individualistic, more new ways are invented,but as shown in the survey, a majority of Jews in Israel are choosing (sometimes in309 Ksharim

addition to other ways of marking the event) to celebrate their child's bar/bat mitzvahthe traditional way.Interesting to think about: should we in the Diaspora Jewish community seek to insertinto the bar/bat mitzvah liturgy some ritual emphasizing connection to Israel?Perhaps on the order of the custom of “twinning” from the days of the Soviet Jewrystruggle…Should we encourage our families to take their bar/bat mitzvah celebrations to Israel?f. Army enlistmentThe rite of passage in Israel, which catapults tender high-school graduates into instantadulthood, is enlistment in the army. Kids have some contact with the army throughthe last years of high school, as they are summoned for physical and psychologicaltests to decide where they will be posted. Often, the day of enlistment is knownmonths in advance, but it is frequently shifted back and forth according to mysterious"army needs." When the day finally arrives, the new enlistee is brought by his proudand apprehensive parents to the appointed base, last-minute pictures are taken, andthe kid joins the throng. When he comes home on his first furlough, hair shorn,awkwardly wearing an ill-fitting uniform, it is clear that a threshold has been crossed.Still, with the advent of cellular phones and changing perspectives on the age ofadulthood, soldiers nowadays are still regarded, in some ways, as children. In somesense, the army has always extended the period of dependency – join the army andyou can postpone most of your decisions for another 2-3 years, as you are providedwith food, shelter, a small income and a purpose in life for the duration, the armyacting "in loco parentis." Today, army and parents "share custody." Army commanderswill give out their numbers to parents, who don’t hesitate to call and inquire if theirson is eating and sleeping properly; soldiers enlist parents' help in negotiating withdifficult officers; parents agonize over the effect soldiers' duties have on their tendersouls; retired soldiers in their 20's express remorse over things they've done in armyservice, excusing themselves for "being only children at the time." As in the rest of theWestern world, kids in Israel are postponing their adulthood until later in life.9. Looking back on the journey we have described, from birth to adulthood inIsrael – what are the similarities and differences to the parallel journeyexperienced by youngsters in your community?310 Ksharim

Sources1. Bar-what? Yossi Amir, Kibbutz Mizra, 1964It is customary in Israel today, in non-religious circles too, to hold a Bar-Mitzvah partyfor 13-year-olds. This trend, like any other, has quickly become popular among groupswhose connections to religion are extremely weak, but who fulfill this commandmentwith great devotion. I do not wish to describe in detail these "festivals", that are held inrented halls with invited guests and festive meals and so on, when the young star ofthe party does not yet truly understand all the tumult around him. Moreover, most ofthe celebrants have no connection to Jewish tradition. The child learns the haftarahand the laying of tefillin out of a necessity connected to the celebration, and the dayafter the celebration he truly "lays down" the tefillin in a closet and the whole religiousaspect is quickly forgotten.Some say that the bar mitzvah ceremony is catching on in the non-religious publicaround us as they grasp at crumbs of a tradition which they do not keep or carry out,and so they see the fulfillment of this mitzvah as a sop to unity. Others say, that thisdisease is rooted in sociological rules and the structure of society in Israel, and that thiscelebration of bar mitzvah is a status symbol that cannot be missed, etc, etc.Whatever the reason, the question must be asked – what have we to do with this? Barwhat(son of what) is a son of ours when he reaches the age of 13? Do we say of him,as the believing (truly religious) father says – "Blessed is he who has freed me from theresponsibility for his sins" – we are not "rid of their responsibility" even after their armyservice, if it is even possible to speak of it in these terms.Even so, I do not think we can close our eyes to habits and customs that penetrate usfrom outside. There have been luxurious bar mitzvah parties here, which werefollowed by unnecessary talk and gossip. Do our children need such festivals at such ayoung age? (Do their parents)? But, as I said, we must not say – "this does not suit us" –and therefore ignore the problem; we will not celebrate, and thus solve the issue.In the attempt to find a solution more fitting to our mentality and way of life, wefollowed a slightly different path in this celebration. Actually, we brushed aside the"main motives" of this celebration, which are: the exact date of each child, and also thereligious element. We said: let us celebrate together, the whole group, not a barmitzvah celebration but a celebration of the group! A celebration that symbolizes ourpassage from the young children's houses to the youth houses – to the kibbutzeducational institution. A celebration that will mark the yoke of more serious studies,the yoke of work and of social activities of a different form than those we wereaccustomed to. A celebration in which each child, or group of children, will receive atask which he must perform from start to finish; A celebration in which the childrenwill go out to know the lives of children their age in other places; a celebration inwhich they will prepare a large party for themselves and their parents. In a sentence –a celebration in which they prove that they can and want to take an active part in theyouth group which they have just joined.311 Ksharim

The "celebration of the group" which we celebrated last Shabbar in the Tomer groupwas held according to these principles. The group focused on this enterprise for 5-6weeks. The children received in advance a list of tasks, which included: lectures aboutdifferent topics, models of subjects which they were studying (a model of the SecondTemple, a model of a water wheel), and visual educational aids like "the times tableaccording to different bases", a humidity meter and a map of the national watercarrier. The children took upon themselves the preparation of a large party (choir,dancing, music, skit) and also embarked upon a two-day trip in the neighboringsettlements. On Motzei Shabbar the parents and children, along with other guests,congregated and in a pleasant and friendly atmosphere celebrated, each childreceiving a present from the educational institution – according to his choice.I do not think this is the best or most appropriate way to celebrate this occasion; theremay be other variations and emphases, different from the ones we chose, but it is clearto me, that if we want to achieve some form of celebration that is suitable to our lives,then the starting-point, at least, must be that which we embarked from.2. List of suggested "bar mitzvah tasks", kibbutzim in the 50s and 60s1. A night of guard duty in the kibbutz2. First-aid course3. A trip to the city without adult accompaniment, for the fulfillment of some task4. A visit to a neighboring kibbutz to get to know the lives of children there5. Writing an essay on a topic related to literature, society or the kibbutz6. Weeding a flower bed with the whole group7. Travel to a youth group in a slum area8. "Robinson Crusoe" day – a day's survival in a natural area9. A day's work in the kibbutz10. A study project on a topic related to the history of our people, in Israel orabroad.11. Learning to milk a cow, harness a horse, plow a field12. Biology research project13. Familiarizing oneself with a weapon14. Preparing a present for parents15. Preparing an activity for younger children in the kibbutz16. Preparing an activity for children in a new immigrants camp312 Ksharim

L e s s o n 36Youth and coming of age in Israel1. OutlineThe New JewThe school systemsInformal education: youth movements, volunteer serviceThe army2. IntroductionMany of the “founding fathers (and mothers)” of modern Israel came to thecountry as twenty-somethings (or younger), in the Second Aliyah (1904 -1914)and the Third Aliyah (1919 -1923). While they were small in number, theircultural influence was far-reaching and long-lasting, and it is perhaps largelydue to their experience that Israel’s self-image is that of a “young” society, asociety whose youth are its heroes and its leaders. There is an ironic reversalhere of the traditional respect accorded to age and wisdom. And needless tosay, this self-image affects many aspects of cultural life, from child-rearing toeducation to politics – not always in constructive ways. Another factorcontributing to this youth-centeredness is the central place of defense in thecollective consciousness – the near-universal conscription of both gendersmeans that the army is a major rite of passage and a huge cultural influence.This unit will examine the perception of – and the experience of – youth inIsraeli society in several important contexts. The materials and background arepresented straightforwardly – not as a comparative examination with the NorthAmerican Jewish experience; however, exploring the comparison isrecommended as a useful and effective educational method for using thismaterial.3. Lesson goals4. Understanding the educational implications of Israeli society’s origins in arevolutionary movement5. Understanding the ambivalent attitude toward youth and Jewish identity inIsrael6. Knowledge of some of the basic institutional frameworks affecting youngpeople in Israel7. Expanded outline8. The New Jew9. From the beginnings of modern Zionism, the hope of a Jewish return tosovereignty in Zion was accompanied by a parallel vision of a revitalized Jewish313 Ksharim

life based on the notion of a “New Jew.” One of the movement’s earliestleaders, Max Nordau, coined the phrase “muscular Judaism” that came tosymbolize this concept of Zionism as an anthropological revolution – arevolution not only against the fact of the Exile, but against the “type” of theExilic Jew (see: http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/concepts/sport/2.html ). Ina sense, many Jews accepted the anti-Semitic characterization of the Jew aspale, weak, timid, and parasitic, and dreamed of a new “race” of Jews whowould be just the opposite: tanned, strong, bold, and self-reliant. It is thisimage that morphed into the Sabra, as seen, for example, in Leon Uris’ Ari ben-Canaan (Paul Newman in Exodus). An examination of the rise (and fall) of theNew Jew in Hebrew literature can be found in this lecture by Prof. Arnold Band:http://isanet.org/judaic/bilgray/band/Band2.htmAnd this obituary for author Moshe Shamir gives some insight intothe values of the New Jew and how they can lead in differentdirections:http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,1292010,00.htmlAnd for something of the historical context – the aliyah of thechalutzim and their concept of renewal by settling the land, see:http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Eye+on+Israel/hityashvut/The+socialist+pioneers.htm10. It is of interest to consider our own stereotypes of Israelis – and of Jews – andwhat their emotional impacts on us are. To what extent does the image of theNew Jew fulfill fantasies for us? To what extent are we disappointed todiscover that Israelis are in fact just like us?11. Below (source 1) is a poll taken in 2002 that gives a sense of what Israeli youngpeople are like today; it is interesting to see how it fits and doesn’t fit the NewJew stereotype.12. By the way, it is interesting to note that the Sabra (prickly pear) cactus is notnative to the Israel; its origin is Mexico. The Conquistadores noticed that theIndians used a bright red dye, which they made from insects that infested cacti.The Spaniards took cuttings of these home, and the plants spread all aroundthe Mediterranean. In the middle east they were often used as a living fence.Today, in Israel, the tell-tale sign of an Arab village that was abandoned in 1948is the luxuriant growth of Sabras.13. Despite (or perhaps partly because of) the centrality of young people to theZionist revolution and the Zionist vision of a New Jew who will build the NewJewish State, Israel suffers from a full spectrum of the problems of children andyouth: poverty, abuse, homelessness, drug abuse, crime, etc. Theseoccasionally cause public outcry, and are much sensationalized by the tabloids.And there are many serious and dedicated persons and institutions working to314 Ksharim

emedy these social ills. In any case, it is important to be aware of Israel’s“normality” in this realm, for better or for worse. See, for example,http://www.iyfnet.org/section.cfm/76/90/102andhttp://www.ias.org.uk/publications/theglobe/02issue1/globe0201_p14.htmland some examples of attempts to respond…http://www.elem.org/about/about-elem.phpandhttp://www.jdc.org/p_is_ps_youth_roie.htmlThere have been, over the years, hundreds of glib attempts toattribute the problems of Israeli youth to the various circumstancesof life here; e.g., the threat of terror, the occupation, the expectationof military service, the climate, the experience of immigration, ethnicdiscrimination, permissiveness, provincialism, the loss of religiousfaith, etc. Any or all of these may contain some truth; on the wholehowever, it is not clear that young people in Israel are reallysignificantly different from their peers in other developed countries,reflecting primarily the sufferings generic to adolescents in modern,modernizing, and post-modern societies.14. Schools15. The institutional setting most affected by the concept of the New Jew was theeducation system. The generation of the founders saw their task as to createthe new “type” by means of education. From the beginning of the Zionistmovement, education was a hot topic; indeed, the very creation of a religiousZionist movement (Mizrachi) as a subdivision within the Zionist movementcame (in 1902) as a response to the decision of the Fifth Zionist Congress tomake “cultural work” a part of the Zionist agenda – instead of limiting Zionismto the political work of securing a state, the movement decided to get involvedin educating Jews to strengthen their national identity; this led to a split, as theOrthodox were not prepared to support educational programs that weresecular-national. Ultimately, this led to the formation of two separate schoolsystems in the Yishuv, in 1922, which were recognized by the state in 1948.Today there are three parallel government school systems: secular Jewish,religious Jewish, and Arab, and various “recognized” private or semi-privatenetworks of schools, the largest of which are the ultra-orthodox yeshivot andulpanot (girls schools). For a compact summary of historical developments anda description of the system, see: http://countrystudies.us/israel/59.htm .And/or:http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2001/8/Educati315 Ksharim

on%20for%20Democracy%20at%20the%20Start%20of%20the%20TwentyInterestingly, there are many thousands of ultra-Orthodox childrenin private schools because of the religious milieu; a few thousandArabs (mostly Moslem) attend private Christian schools because ofthe quality of the general education there. There are no privateMoslem schools – all Israeli Arabs except for the minority attendingprivate Christian schools study in schools operated in Arabic by theministry of education.16. Note that in only a very few cases do Jewish and Arab children attend schooltogether; there are a total of about four integrated schools in Israel. Seehttp://www.handinhand12.org/andhttp://nswas.org/rubrique22.html17. As in many modern societies, only, perhaps, more so, in Israel the schools –which began as “tools” of the Zionist revolution, and saw themselves asresponsible for creating New Jews and hence, the New Jewish society and state– are seen as responsible for the perpetually dismal “state of our youth.” Lackof Jewish knowledge, unclear Jewish identity, lack of commitment todemocracy, ignorance of math and science, violence, draft-dodging, drugusage, sexual permissiveness, street kids, social fragmentation, socio-economicgaps, ethnic tensions, etc. are all blamed by the popular culture on the failingsof the schools; already in 1912 such complaints were voiced by Zionist leaders.Hence throughout the years there have been countless commissions of inquiry,new curricula, reforms, etc. - and, due to the proletarization of the teachers,almost yearly (sometimes more often) strikes and a constant feeling that theeducation system lacks the resources to do its job properly. On top of this, dueto the parliamentary system of government, every time the governmentchanges or the coalition is renegotiated, the education minister changes;control of the schools is seen as an important political position, and the tonethat is set for the system is influenced by the ideology of the minister’s party.All of this means that school teaching is not a high status or highly paidprofession, is governed by a user-unfriendly bureaucracy, and is fraught withprofessional and personal frustrations.18. In 1993, the Shenhar Commission examined the whole area of “Jewisheducation” and came to the conclusion that the secular school system wasfailing to foster Jewish cultural identity. In the years since, many programshave been created in response, and a whole network of secular schools with“increased Jewish studies” (the Tali schools) established (actually, the Talinetwork antedates the Shenhar Report, but its most significant expansion has316 Ksharim

een in the past decade). See, on this, for example:http://www.masorti.org/media/archive2004/01132004.htmlhttp://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/4461/edition_id/81/format/html/displaystory.htmlThe discourse surrounding the Shenhar Report is part of theongoing discussion, since the early 20 th century, on just what shouldbe the “Jewish” content of Israeli education. What should be theplace of, for example, rabbinic literature in the curriculum of asociety that denies the relevance of halachah? The dominantphilosophy of Jewish education, over the years, has been theapproach of Achad Ha’am – that Jewish culture has a life of its ownthat can continue and flourish even without religious belief(Mordecai Kaplan was a disciple…); he believed that the building ofan authentic, independent Jewish culture in Israel would rejuvenateJewish culture world wide, rescuing it from the degeneration thathad come to characterize Diaspora Orthodox Jewish life. See below,from one of his essays. This philosophy allowed the general cultureof Israel, and the schools in particular, to develop a public Judaismthat was independent of religion: from Purim carnivals to Chanukahpageants, from Tu Beshvat plantings to Shavuot first-fruits festivals.The result, in many cases, has been a reduction of the tradition tothese public ceremonies, without any spiritual – or even ethical –components attached to it in the students’ consciousness.19. One of the most frequent criticisms of the school system, since before 1948,relates to the centrality of the bagrut, or matriculation, exams – nationallystandardized achievement tests administered at the end of high school,serving as the basis of the college admissions system – and serving as a way ofinsuring nationally standardized curriculum. However, the result is often anintensity of “teaching for the test” that precludes any freedom, any enrichment,any efforts to deal with value questions, with building community in theschool, after about 10 th grade. In recent years there have been changes thathave loosened the system somewhat, giving students and teachers morecurricular choices; however, the general atmosphere in 11 th and 12 th grade isone of “don’t distract us from our bagrut preparations; real life will have towait.” Of course, most students then move directly from high school to thearmy, without a serious opportunity to prepare for the serious personal andmoral challenges that await them in this next phase.317 Ksharim

20. Three Galilee Diary entries on education in Israel:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=3579&pge_prg_id=15531&pge_id=1698http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=3578&pge_prg_id=15531&pge_id=1698http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=3577&pge_prg_id=15531&pge_id=169821. Informal education22. As over against the self-perception by the teachers, in the period of the Yishuv,as cultural revolutionaries, there has existed a distinct strand in Israeli culturethat views schools as purveyors of knowledge and skills only – while valueeducation is the province of the informal educational institutions, primarily theyouth movement. Many olim, from the earliest days, were products of Zionistyouth movements – secular socialist, revisionist, religious – and saw themovements as the seat of the true revolution. Unlike the model of NFTY andother American educational youth organizations, run by adults for children, theZionist youth movements are based on an ethos of the self-reliance of youth.Adult supervision is rejected. Each age level serves as theleaders/teachers/coaches for the level beneath it. In the Yishuv period – and toa significant extent today – the movements were and are ideologically driven,and take their role as purveyors of ideology seriously.For a good historical survey, and a discussion of the decline of theyouth movements in recent years, see:http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1665For positive examples of how the movements continue to be a forcefor good in Israeli society, see:http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=1611&subject=29Some movement websites:http://www.hamahanot-haolim.org.il/profile-e.asphttp://www.noal.co.il/eng.htmhttp://www.bneiakiva.net/Index.asp?CategoryID=192http://www.betar.org.il/english/index.htmhttp://www.zofim.co.il/about_tnua_english.asp23. Perhaps the most significant impact of the youth movements today is thephenomenon of young people postponing their draft date by a year anddevoting a year to volunteer community service. This practice is very much ayouth movement tradition, but there are opportunities for kids who did notgrow up through the movements. In addition, there are many who enter prearmywork/study programs, also requiring a one-year draft postponement, andwhich feature intensive group living, pluralistic Jewish study, and community318 Ksharim

service. While the majority of kids don’t choose these options, the minority(under 2%) who do volunteer represent an impressive demonstration ofidealism and leadership, in a generation often accused of being materialisticand apathetic.See:http://www.carmelinstitute.org.il/YouthService/nysinisrael.htmandhttp://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3238314,00.html24. The army25. Every 3 months, large signs are hung on public billboards – all youngsters bornbetween the published dates are called to report to the induction centers forinitial tests. Most kids also receive personal notices by mail. From this momentuntil army enlistment, they are officially termed "intended for security service,"restricted from freely leaving the country – army property. In the year or twountil enlistment, kids report to induction centers at least twice for a series oftests, and many are repeatedly invited for additional assessments inpreparation for enlistment in various courses or units. For some backgroundmaterialseehttp://www.jafi.org.il/education/juice/2000/israeli_society/is9.html.Draft day is a major rite of passage; typically, the whole family drivesthe inductee to the induction center in a nearby city early in themorning, where an auditorium full of similar families sits and waits fora female soldier serving in the induction center to mount the podiumand begin to call off names, one bus-load at a time. As the names arecalled, the families accompany their draftees out to the parking lotand cry and laugh and call through the windows of the buses untilthey drive away. Generally, after a few days in an induction basegetting processed, the new soldiers are sent home for Shabbatbefore beginning basic training.Note that the Israeli army does not generally do laundry: soldiers areexpected to have their families launder their uniforms when they arehome for Shabbat leave.26. The high school period in Israel is permeated with consciousness of the armyperiod which typically follows, and high schools are officially required toactively encourage their students to enlist. A circular from the head ofeducation ministry (1999) stresses: "The central goal which the IDF and theMinistry of Education share: Preparing all youth for [service in] the IDF, whilestrengthening their readiness and motivation for meaningful and contributivearmy service, every person according to his/her capabilities and preferences,319 Ksharim

and stressing the importance of service in combat units". We will examinesome of the issues raised by ubiquitous army service in Israel by reading anexcerpt from the circular (see source 3 below), which lists the goals of the armypreparation program. (Goals 1-2, 7-8) – the fact that a stated goal of the Israelieducation system is to encourage army service and improve kids'readiness for it causes uneasiness in some circles, which arguethat this causes a surfeit of militarism in Israeli society. See thefollowing for information about New Profile, an organizationcalling for the "Civil-ization of Israeli society".http://www.newprofile.org/showdata.asp?pid=740&language=enFeminists argue that the militarization of Israeli society has farreachingconsequences for the status of women in Israeli society.See the following for an interesting analysis:http://www.eurowrc.org/13.institutions/3.coe/en-violencecoe/11.en-coe-oct99.htm(Goal 3) – the IDF is viewed as a "people's army" – one of theimportant institutions of Israeli society. Signs that the highparticipation level is beginning to erode are unwelcome. Thelevel of motivation to serve in the army is followed anxiously, andstatistics about enlistment rates, in-service dropout rates andpercentages of those preferring combat units are often publishedin the media, followed by soul-searching and committees taskedwith improving the rates. Some current statistics (from a paperpresented for discussion in the Knesset education committee,2001 - http://www.knesset.gov.il/MMM/data/docs/m00132.doc(inHebrew)):Jewish men who received exemptionsReason for exemptionUltra-orthodox exemptionMedical exemptionUnfitAbroadTotal19997.8%5.2%2.7%3.8%19.5%19966.7%4.9%2.7%5.2%19.5%In 2000, 19% of soldiers who joined the army dropped out without completingtheir full term of service. See more data, on attitudes to service, in Source 4below.320 Ksharim

(Goal 6) – army service, especially in the last decades which havebeen characterized by a low-grade war on terrorism, pose manyethical dilemmas to soldiers. Some argue that at their young age,the soldiers are not ready to face them. The situations which theyfind themselves in may come back to haunt them in later years.One explanation given for the "after-army trip" many Israelisundertake, backpacking in far-off countries for periods from a fewmonths to a few years, is the need to escape these ghosts.Another fear that has been raised is that soldiers who spend theirformative years in army service internalize violent standards ofbehavior, contributing to a violent atmosphere within Israelisociety. For an interesting discussion of some of these issues, seethe following articles:http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/07/11/listening_post/main708205_page2.shtmlhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A54448-2003Nov17?language=printer (Goal 12) – several sectors do not typically serve in the army –ultra-religious men, religious women, and Arabs. While manyIsraelis view members of these sectors with enmity, envyingthem the extra years which they do not contribute to serving thestate, not to mention the reduced risk of death in combat, theflip side of the coin is often not considered. Army service doesoffer benefits to the individual – some bestowed by thegovernment (such as housing benefits, preference in certainjobs, etc.) and some resulting from the characteristics of armyservice. Soldiers in the army often receive valuable professionaltraining and experience; soldiers gain opportunities to fill jobsthat often, in civilian life, require many more years of experience– operating sophisticated equipment, commanding units andbearing high levels of responsibility; the army is the mainhothouse for Israel's "old boy network", invaluable in later life incountless ways. Members of sectors who don't serve, alreadymarginalized from mainstream Israeli society, are doublymarginalized by these effects. (Goal 13) – the "hesder" program was developed especially forreligious soldiers. It combines periods of army service withperiods of yeshiva study, in units composed solely of religioussoldiers who go through the program together. This makes iteasier for religious soldiers to fulfill their army service duty whileretaining their commitment to a religious way of life; on theother hand, it lessens their exposure to other sectors of society,and reduces the army's ability to act as Israel's great "mixer",321 Ksharim

which some see as an important role. Recently, the question ofhesder soldiers' possible "double loyalty" (split between theirarmy commanders and their yeshiva rabbis) has been raised,especially in the context of the disengagement plan.(Goal 14) – most religious girls are exempted from army service,and most of those exempted undertake national service – forone or two years. Most religious Zionist rabbis recommend thisoption, feeling that it poses for the girls fewer challenges to theirreligious way of life. Once again, this impinges on the army's"mixing" role. It also raises the question of whether the time hasnot come for all youngsters to be able to choose betweennational service and army service, and not limit the option solelyto religious girls. See research on national service athttp://www.carmelinstitute.org.il/YouthService/nysresearch.html27. A few Galilee Diary entries dealing with the role of the army in growing up inIsrael:http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=3622&pge_prg_id=16071&pge_id=1698http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=3602&pge_prg_id=15657&pge_id=1698http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=3596&pge_prg_id=15510&pge_id=1698And two more entries, no longer available on the URJ archive, areappended below.Source 1:Poll of Israeli teenagers, 2002, by Dr. Mina TzemachQuestion: What is the most important thing for you to do in life?To raise a family 33%To find love 24%To help others 21%To serve the country 16%To make money 5%Question: In the framework of military service, which kind of unit would you like to serve in?322 Ksharim

Combat unit 55%Administrative unit 15%Professional unit 29%Undecided 1%Question: In the framework of military service, do you prefer to serve in a unit close to home or farfrom home?Close to home 72%Far from home 21%Doesn't matter 6%Undecided 1%The pollsters' comment in comparing the above two results was: "Even though most Israeli highschool students are prepared to serve in a combat unit, even so they don't want to be far from theirmothers."Question: What profession do you want to practice in the future?Doctor 12%Hi-tech 10%Teacher 7%Security services 6%Actor, singer, or D.J. 5%Business 5%Lawyer 4%Rabbi 3%Clerk 3%Media 3%Technician or electrician 2%Housewife 0%Question: In your opinion, should marijuana be legalized?Yes 15%No 84%Undecided 1%Question: Have you ever had sexual relations?Yes 33%No 62%Didn't answer 5%Question: If you had the choice, would you prefer to continue to live in Israel, or would you preferto move to a different country?323 Ksharim

Continue to live in Israel 84%Move to a different country 16%Source 2:Ahad Ha’am: Jewish State and Jewish Problem, 1897And now Judaism finds that it can no longer tolerate the Diaspora form which it had totake on, in obedience to its will-to-live, when it was exiled from its own country, andthat if it loses that form its life is in danger. So it seeks to return to its historic centre, inorder to live there a life of natural development, to bring its powers into play in everydepartment of human culture, to develop and perfect those national possessionswhich it has acquired up to now, and thus to contribute to the common stock ofhumanity, in the future as in the past, a great national culture, the fruit of theunhampered activity of a people living according to its own spirit. For this purposeJudaism needs at present but little. It needs not an independent State, but only thecreation in its native land of conditions favorable to its development: a good-sizedsettlement of Jews working without hindrance in every branch of culture, fromagriculture and handicrafts to science and literature. This Jewish settlement, which willbe a gradual growth, will become in course of time the centre of the nation, whereinits spirit will find pure expression and develop in all its aspects up to the highestdegree of perfection of which it is capable. Then from this centre the spirit of Judaismwill go forth to the great circumference, to all the communities of the Diaspora, andwill breathe new life into them and preserve their unity; and when our national culturein Palestine has attained that level, we may be confident that it will produce men inthe country who will be able, on a favorable opportunity, to establish a State whichwill be a Jewish State, and not merely a State of Jews.Source 3:Excerpt from a circular from the head of the Ministry of Education, 1999(http://www.education.gov.il/mark01/h0004825.htm#TQL). Goals of the armypreparation program in Israeli high schools:1. Encouraging the students' feeling of connectedness to the State of Israel andthe people of Israel and their identification with them, and bringing to theirconsciousness their duty and right, as citizens, to guard the security of the stateand nation2. Making the students conscious of the importance of the IDF's central role insecuring the existence of the state of Israel and the peace process3. Encouraging the students' willingness to serve in the army324 Ksharim

4. Raising students' consciousness to the moral and ethical questions and theresponsibility of each individual in his/her decisions in questions pertaining tohis/her military service5. Supplying students with information about the enlistment process andpossible options of army service6. Developing students' moral and ethical judgment while discerning betweenlegal and patently illegal orders7. Fostering a high standard of physical fitness and awareness in preparation forthe stresses expected during service8. Developing students' basic knowledge of physical training theory, so they canprepare themselves for meaningful army service9. Fostering a feeling of readiness and personal capability to handle the processof transition from parents home and school to army service10. Allaying fears of the unknown which enlistment often raise11. Encouraging positive parental participation in their children's preparation andenlistment process12. Clarifying the opportunities that meaningful army service can offer theindividual13. Fostering in religious boys the readiness for meaningful and contributoryservice in the "hesder" units, and informing them of the contribution of prearmyprograms14. Fostering in religious girls the readiness for meaningful and contributoryservice in the National Service organizations15. Preparing religious students for their encounter with different sectors, whileretaining their commitment to a religious way of life while serving the State ofIsrael in the army or National Service16. Individually preparing religious girls who wish to serve in the army325 Ksharim

Source 4:Intend to enlistafter highschoolIntend to servefor the full 3yearsIntend to servein a combat unitIntend to serveas an officer ina combat unitIntend tobecome acareer armyofficer1986Attitudes to army service1990Years1995100%90%80%70%60%50%40%30%20%10%0%Attitudes326 Ksharim

Galilee Diary #11; February, 2001Marc RosensteinPresent ArmsJust returned from Lev's “beret ceremony” for paratroopers: graduation from basictraining. This, it turns out, is a major rite of passage for Israeli males (except, of course,for ultra-orthodox and most Arabs). No matter what you have scheduled for that day, ifyou tell people you have your son’s beret ceremony, you are expected to cancel yourplans and go. And so we packed up snacks and umbrellas and picnic blankets and setoff for the three hour drive to Jerusalem, on a cold, showery day. Having doneextensive research among veteran parents about the appropriate fare for the postceremonypicnic, we stopped at one of the hole-in-the-wall “steakiot” in the MachanehYehuda market on the way into town. The proprietors, upon learning our destination,treated us as honored guests, filling styrofoam containers with salads and sauces andsoggy french fries to go with the grilled steaks.Arriving at Ammunition Hill, the memorial park where the paratroopers heroicallyovercame the well-fortified Jordanians in 1967, we found the kid waiting for us indress uniform, hobbling around painfully like all his colleagues, having marched 50miles overnight from the coast to Jerusalem - the institution of the “beret march.”After half an hour of hearing stories from the march, and being introduced to thebuddies and officers we had heard about for the past six months, the parents weredirected to seats in an amphitheater while the army organized the kids into looselylined-up companies in the center. The pot-bellied master sargeant called us to order,goose-stepped to the microphone, and emceed the ceremony - flag raising,recognition of outstanding trainees, trite but appropriate inspirational speech by thebase commander, lots of “company, attention” and “company, at ease,” and then“company commanders, present berets!”And then, with Israeli easy-listening songs playing on the loudspeaker, songs thatconjured up images of good old days of heroism and simplicity, each commander -himself just a year older than his charges - presented each new paratrooper with thetrademark maroon beret and gave him a slap or a hug of affection. At one point, whenthe slaps and hugs were taking too long, the master seargant barked, “companycommanders, hurry up!” Then, Hatikvah was sung along with the taped choir, and witha whoop, all the berets were tossed in the air, and the smiling troops hobbled off todine with their families on luke-warm steaks on the wet grass.Looking over the crowd, I was reminded again what a great leveler the army is here.The families represented every ethnic and socio-economic grouping, from professorsto executives to laborers, religious and non, city and kibbutz, left and right. We werejockeying for camera angles, annoyed in a good natured way by each others’umbrellas. Our kids were learning to depend on each other and support each other, totake on responsibility for each other and for all of us in ways that seem unimaginableto me.327 Ksharim

As a rite of passage and a leveler, the army with its silly ceremonies can make one feelproud. You find yourself qvelling to the taped military march music, and eagerlyphotographing your kid with his beret and rifle. And you know “we have no choice.”You know we have a right to exist. You know history. You know we live in a violentworld. And yet you wonder what you are doing, and if it has to be this way. Youwonder how our democracy might be if it weren’t led by generals. You wonder aboutthe effect of learning how to kill as a rite of passage, as the one thing that unites us.And you wonder how it is that you decided to move to a place where your child islearning hand-to-hand combat while his classmates from elementary school inPhiladelphia are learning liberal arts.And then the kid tells you with great enthusiasm that next week they move on toparatroop training - i.e., jumping out of airplanes. And you understand that armies arefor kids. And you wonder if it has to be this way.Galilee Diary #45; October, 2001Marc RosensteinCollege DaysOur daughter is starting college this year, and the other day we drove her and avanload of miscellaneous used furniture and housewares to her new apartment inBeersheba. Having lived through the American college “process” myself, and thenexperienced it as a high school principal for middle class Jewish kids, it is hard for meto get used to the experience here, which is so different.1. No essay, no interview, no alumni representatives, no need to accumulate animpressive list of extracurricular activities and honors. You simply enter your final 12thgrade average, your average score on the matriculation (end -of-high-schoolachievement) exams, and your score on the “psychotechnical” exam (an aptitude test)into a formula, and compare the resulting number to the chart published by eachdepartment in each university, showing the admission cutoff score. Thus, you canfigure out whether you will be accepted without waiting for an envelope to arrive onApril 15.2. Forget liberal arts. You must be accepted by the department in which you plan tomajor. There are minimal distribution requirements outside your major. A BA takesthree years.3. Perhaps the main difference: university study is not the immediate continuation ofhigh school. It is not the student’s first experience living away from home. Theuniversity does not see itself in loco parentis. Boys arrive after at least three years in thearmy - and often an additional year or more traveling and/or working; our daughter,who is fairly typical, comes to the college experience four years after graduating high328 Ksharim

school - two years of army service and two years working, studying, and traveling inEurope. Students are adults, often in a hurry to get on with careers and lives, notlooking for a moratorium, often not even interested in enrichment or “broadening.”The university does not address mail to the parents, but to the student. There is noorientation week - or day. It is up to the student to read all the fine print, fill out theregistration form, pay tuition at the bank, and find housing.And so, the university community feels very different from an American campus; and“taking our daughter to college” felt very different from the experience we remember.Not a rite of passage, but merely an adventure in moving. In a way, therefore, the tripwas a kind of disappointment; when your kid has already been living independently inher own apartment thousands of mile away for a couple of years, and when theuniversity couldn’t care less about your involvement, there is something anticlimacticabout the “sending off.” Here, I guess, the rite of passage for most kids happens at theinduction center, when their names are called on the loudpeaker to board the bus tobasic training, and all the parents and siblings and friends crowd around the buses,waving and crying and joking until they pull away. We’ve experienced the identicalscene three times. By the time they get to college, the innocence of adolescence is farbehind them, and they have seen the world and faced dilemmas and made decisionsthat will give them true insights into the classics of literature they will be reading incollege (if they happen to major in literature and not, say, biology).There is a price, of course, for everything. There is something to be said for associatingthe excitement of new-found independence with the intellectual challenge ofuniversity, so that one’s personal growth is integrated with intellectual growth. Butthere is also a case to be made for not wasting college on kids, who are so busygrowing up that they miss a lot of the deep content. Serious grappling with ideas,dedication to disciplines, connecting learning with life - these are projects for adults.And so, much as nostalgia makes me feel that something has been lost, at the sametime I envy my daughter the privilege of diving into university study as a grownup.And grownup or not, she’ll be home on weekends with a sack of dirty laundry...329 Ksharim

L e s s o n 37Marriage1. Outline:a. A study of elements in the marriage ceremony and customs that reflect aconnection to the land of Israel.b. Laws that set the value of marriage against the value of living in the land ofIsrael.c. A discussion of some of the issues and dilemmas involving marriage andthe state in Israel today (the fact that there is no civil marriage or divorce inIsrael and the problem of mamzerut) and their implications and relevanceto different approaches to Jewish nationhood.2. IntroductionMarriage and family life are central values in Judaism. Jewish law and custom is familyoriented and transmitting eternal truths to one’s children is the mainstay of Jewishthought. Israel, as we have seen, is also a central value in Judaism. It is thereforeinteresting to see how these two important principles reflect and reinforce each other.References to the land of Israel are intentionally included in the wedding ceremonyitself. On the other hand, what happens when these two principles come into directconflict with each other? The centrality of marriage in Judaism also makes it alightning rod for issues in Israel today dealing with religion and state, Jewish identityand nationhood. If marriage is the Jewish framework for families and families are thebricks out of which the Jewish nation is built then the question of what constitutes amarriage is not just a personal one but a national one as well and one which the statetoday is struggling answer.3. Goals:a. To make the class aware of the references to Israel embedded in thetraditional wedding ceremony and other customs and texts related tomarriage.b. To study the competing values of sanctity of marriage and living in Israelwhen a conflict arises between them.c. To study the issues surrounding marriage in modern Israel and to try tounderstand why marriage more than any other lifecycle ritual has becomethe business of the state, as well as the implications of the differentarguments on the Jewish identity of the state and the concept ofnationhood.4. Expanded Outline:330 Ksharim

a. References to Israel in the Marriage Ceremony.1. The traditional Jewish wedding ceremony is a combination ofsymbolic acts representing the sanctity of the union and the newhome being created, together with the contractual legalundertakings of each side to the other within marriage. (Seesource 1). As such there is no obvious need to mention orcommemorate the land of Israel - yet certain customs andblessings do just that.2. Seven blessings are traditionally recited under the weddingcanopy. The blessings begin with praising G-d for His creation ingeneral and creation of the human being and proceed with praisefor the creation of the human as a "two part creature," woman andman. The blessings express the hope that the new couple willrejoice together forever as though they are the original couple,Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. Both the fifth and seventhblessings recall the land of Israel, linking and drawing a parallelbetween the joys of the new couple with that of a rebuilt Zion.The fifth blessing reads: “The barren city shall rejoice as herchildren are gathered within her in joy. Blessed are Thou G-D whocauses Zion to rejoice with her children.” The seventh states:Blessed art Thou G-D who created joy and happiness, the brideand the groom…Soon may we hear in the cities of Judah and thestreets of Jerusalem the voice of happiness and the voice of joy,the voice of the groom and the voice of the bride, the happyshouts of wedding parties from their canopies and the music ofyouths from their feasts of song…” (see source 2).3. The well known custom of breaking the glass at the end of theceremony is also thought to symbolize the destruction of theTemple. Although there are other sources to the custom the mostpopular explanation is that the breaking of the glass is meant tosymbolize the destruction of the Temple thus enacting the verse “Iwill hold Jerusalem above my chiefest joy.” Moreover, a commoncustom among the Orthodox in Israel is to sprinkle ashes on thegroom’s head at this point and have him recite the verse “If I forgetthee O Jerusalem.” (It is rather ironic that it is precisely thismoment, the breaking of the glass, that is most associated withthe wedding celebration and joy, always causing a loud round ofMazel Tovs)4. It is considered a great mitzvah to celebrate a wedding and bringjoy to the bride and groom. In order to emphasize how importantand meaningful this is the Talmud likens the one who has331 Ksharim

gladdened the heart of a bridegroom to one who has rebuilt theruins of Jerusalem. On the opposite end of the spectrum theTalmud reports that the very altar in the Temple weeps for onewho divorces his first wife. (See source 3).5. Another custom connected with weddings is that of the Aufruf – orShabbat Chatan - the “Groom’s Sabbath” which for Ashkenazimoccurs on the Shabbat preceding the wedding, while theSephardim observe it on the Shabbat after the wedding. On thatShabbat the groom is given the honor of being called to the Torah;he sometimes chants the Haftorah and is usually showered withcandies and sweets. One of the sources for this custom links itwith the special gate designated for bridegrooms at the entranceto the Temple. Anyone who walked through this gate wasautomatically identified as a bridegroom thus enabling the rest ofthe people present to wish him well, bless him and share in his joy.In its place, after the destruction of the Temple, Shabbat wasdesignated as the time to give the entire community a chance tobless the new couple and share in its joy. (See source 4).6. Question for Discussion: Why are blessings recalling a rebuiltZion included in the marriage service? What type of connection isbeing recalled? How is the marriage being linked with the land ofIsrael?There is no parallel custom to breaking the glass at either a brit orbar mitzvah. Why specifically at a wedding is a sign of mourning inhonor of the Temple included? (Another custom commemoratingthe destruction is leaving a small part of a new house unplastered,how does this connect to the wedding custom?).How can the joy of a marriage be compared or related to the joy ofrebuilding Jerusalem? What role does the Temple play in the storyof the gates? Is that a role the land of Israel is meant to play inJewish consciousness?b. The Land of Israel vs. the Sanctity of Marriage1. Both the sanctity of marriage and the land of Israel are importantvalues in Jewish thought and practice. What happens then when aconflict arises between them? The Talmud deals with several suchissues.2. The sages ruled that a person living in the land of Israel was notpermitted to leave it. (There are some Orthodox Jews today who332 Ksharim

do not travel abroad for this reason). They listed three exceptionsto the rule. One is permitted to leave the land in order to: 1) tolearn Torah, 2) to make a living, 3) to find a wife. (See source 5).3. Another ruling deals with the fate of an existing marriage whenone spouse wishes to live in the land of Israel and the other doesnot. According to halacha a man may divorce his wife if she refusesto move with him to the land of Israel, and is exempt from payingher ketuba (i.e., she is at “fault” in the divorce). Likewise a womanmay sue for divorce and is entitled to her ketuba if she desires tolive in Israel and her husband does not. (See Source 6)4. Questions for Discussion: Is it clear from these sources whichvalue takes precedence over the other? Why do you suppose oneis permitted to leave the country to find a spouse while an existingmarriage may be broken to allow one spouse to live in Israel? Howdo these laws reflect the value given to the land of Israel? Thereare parallel laws allowing a son to disobey his father in order tolive in the land – is it the same thing?c. Issues of Marriage and Divorce in Israel TodayIn the following section I will try to briefly and objectively describe the status quo inIsrael today regarding the laws of marriage and divorce as well as the issues involved.Besides the actual debate itself the class can also discuss why it is that marriage aloneout of all life cycle events and rituals has generated such debate and stateinvolvement.1. In Israel today marriage and divorce are governed by religious law. In otherwords the law of the land recognizes only religious authorities and law asbinding in these areas. There is no civil law pertaining to either marriage ordivorce. All citizens are married according to their religious affiliation. Jewishlaw in these areas is defined as halacha which is determined by the ChiefRabbinate, i.e., Orthodox Jewish law. This situation originated in Ottoman Lawwhich defined “personal status” law by religious affiliation. In regard to Jews itwas legislated into Israeli law in 1953 in the The Law of Rabbinical Courts(Marriages and Divorces) – 1953 (see source 7). The rabbi performing th ewedding is considered, according to the Law of Population Registry - 1965 andthe Law of the Chief Rabbinate - 1980, the official Marriage Registrar. The noticeof the marriage is transmitted directly from the regional rabbinate to theInterior Ministry. The rabbi performing the wedding is also authorized,according to the Law of Financial Relations Between Couples - 1973, to put intoeffect a financial agreement between the couple, if they have agreed toarrange such a document. After the marriage, such an action will require333 Ksharim

certification by a court. There is no religious or legal obligation to write such anagreement.2. This situation has caused many difficulties and much controversy. As Israelabsorbs more non-Jews, both Russian Olim who are non-Jews and foreignworkers who live in the country, the lack of civil marriage means that there isno authority empowered to perform marriages or divorces between Jews andnon-affiliated people or between themselves unless they belong to arecognized religious group. Also according to halacha there are certainmarriages that are forbidden: a cohen and a divorced women or convert, amamzer with another Jew, a divorced women with a man identified as her loverwhile she was still legally married. As these marriages are prohibited byhalacha the rabbinate will not perform them. However if the couple managesto get married (for example, by civil marriage in another country) the marriageis recognized de facto. (see source 8)3. Another source of discontent is the fact that many Israelis feel alienated andunhappy with the traditional ceremony as offered or performed by theRabbinate-approved rabbis. They perceive the rabbi as a functionary of thestate bureaucracy, who generally does not have any kind of personalrelationship with the couple, and often represents a culture that is foreign tothem. They would prefer a liberal, innovative or personalized ceremonyinstead, ceremonies which are not officially recognized. (see source 9)4. There are many attempts to bypass the Rabbinate by getting married out ofthe country, known in Israel as a “Cypriot “ marriage since Cyprus is thepreferred destination for such trips, being close and inexpensive. This worksbecause a foreign marriage certificate is recognized by the ministry of interior.Those who want an alternate Jewish ceremony then do it separately and relyon their foreign certificate to register as a married couple. (see source 10)Other couples choose to marry in alternate ceremonies and remain officiallyunmarried. Approximately 30,000 Jewish marriages are registered annually inIsrael. 82% of these are registered with the rabbinate and are performed inaccordance with Jewish tradition. 81% of Jewish Israelis consider it 'veryimportant' or 'important' to be married with a rabbinic blessing. Almost half(49%) of this population believe that there should be legal civil marriage inIsrael, though only 26% would opt for this alternative. (These statistics arecompiled from the Central Bureau of Statistics and the study of the Avi ChaiFoundation, February, 2002; other studies suggest that a higher percentage ofcouples would opt out).5. In an attempt to address the dissatisfaction with the Rabbinate a group ofReligious Zionist Rabbis have formed an organization called Tzohar, (“skylight”)dedicated to making the traditional ceremony more meaningful and personal334 Ksharim

for all couples within the bounds of halacha. They also refuse to accept anymoney for officiating at weddings, which helps ease the added frustration ofhaving to pay for a service you really don’t want and aren’t at all pleased with.(see source 11)6. The problems get worse with the issue of divorce. Here the rabbinical courtshave often proven inefficient and unresponsive to the sensibilities of thegeneral population. There is much criticism about the status of women withinthe existing framework since by Jewish law a husband must grant his wifedivorce and while she can sue for divorce the halacha is reluctant to force ahusband to grant one against his will.7. Many organizations and lobby groups are pushing for a reform and thelegislation of civil marriage and divorce in Israel. At first glance this demandseems not only justified but inevitable. Stopping the Rabbinate’s monopolyon marriage and divorce would allow all people as well as all Jews to act inaccordance with their personal beliefs. (see source 12). Such is the case in theJewish world outside Israel. Jews choose the type of Jewish wedding theywant (if any) and are married by their respective rabbis in accordance with thatmovement’s laws and customs. Furthermore even in Israel, Orthodoxy’sstranglehold on marriage is unique. There is no state law requiring that a childbe circumcised or called to Torah on his bar mitzvah or that a person be buriedaccording to Jewish law, so why in regard to marriage must religious law beenforced nationally?8. There is a complication. The halacha mandates that any child born of an illicitrelation (one prohibited in Leviticus Chapter 18) is considered a mamzer. Amamzer is prohibited to marry any other Jew except another mamzer. One ofthe illicit relationships that produce a mamzer is one between a marriedwoman and a man who is not her husband. According to halacha as long as awomen does not receive a valid get or Jewish divorce then she is still married toher first husband, even if she has been granted a civil divorce. Any childrenproduced in her second marriage will be classified as mamzerim. ObservantJews are forbidden from marrying them. Therefore allowing Jews to divorceoutside the halacha is likely to create a situation where Orthodox Jews will notmarry other Jews. It is this scenario that is used to justify the status quo –despite its many shortcomings.9. The problem of mamzerut was one of the reasons some rabbis required theEthiopian Jews to convert. The accepted mode of divorce among EthiopianJews did not comply with accepted halacha and therefore there was a realchance that many would be classified mamzerim. Since a convert is consideredas a “newborn,” conversion was one way of saving many from such a335 Ksharim

classification that would have prevented them from marrying other Jews inIsrael.10. Once again the argument can be made that in the rest of the world Jews actaccording to their religious consciousness and affiliation and in the case ofmarriage between Orthodox and other Jews the specific couple and theircommunity choose whether to accept the marriage or not. Why not in Israel?11. The answering argument is that while in the Diaspora the fact that an OrthodoxJew may see himself as forbidden from marrying a reform Jew is a cause ofdivision between the different steams of Judaism and may be the cause ofpersonal tragedies, it doesn’t threaten the nationhood of the Jewish people.Judaism continues to exist as a pluralistic religion within the host nation. InIsrael where there is an attempt being made to create a nation of Jews, whereJudaism is conceived in terms of nationality and not just religion suchfragmentation of the society may pose a real threat not just to Jewish unity butto Jewish nationhood. The claim that is usually raised is that such a movewould lead to the creation of two separate nations in the country.12. This issue is currently being debated at all levels of Israeli society with differentproposals. It seems that the ultimate solution will be an indication of the abilityof different types of Jews to work together in the interest of Jewish unity andnationhood. (see source 13)Conclusion:Marriage holds a unique and significant place in Judaism. It is the framework of theJewish home and family, the bearers of Jewish tradition. It is this special status that onone hand encourages comparisons and connections with the imagery of the land ofIsrael, another central value and framework in Judaism. On the other hand it is becausemarriage is so highly valued and the family perceived as the basis of the Jewish nationthat the laws governing marriage have become concerns not of just the rabbis but ofthe state itself.336 Ksharim

L e s s o n 37Marriage1. Outline:d. A study of elements in the marriage ceremony and customs that reflect aconnection to the land of Israel.e. Laws that set the value of marriage against the value of living in the land ofIsrael.f. A discussion of some of the issues and dilemmas involving marriage andthe state in Israel today (the fact that there is no civil marriage or divorce inIsrael and the problem of mamzerut) and their implications and relevanceto different approaches to Jewish nationhood.2. IntroductionMarriage and family life are central values in Judaism. Jewish law and custom is familyoriented and transmitting eternal truths to one’s children is the mainstay of Jewishthought. Israel, as we have seen, is also a central value in Judaism. It is thereforeinteresting to see how these two important principles reflect and reinforce each other.References to the land of Israel are intentionally included in the wedding ceremonyitself. On the other hand, what happens when these two principles come into directconflict with each other? The centrality of marriage in Judaism also makes it alightning rod for issues in Israel today dealing with religion and state, Jewish identityand nationhood. If marriage is the Jewish framework for families and families are thebricks out of which the Jewish nation is built then the question of what constitutes amarriage is not just a personal one but a national one as well and one which the statetoday is struggling answer.3. Goals:g. To make the class aware of the references to Israel embedded in thetraditional wedding ceremony and other customs and texts related tomarriage.h. To study the competing values of sanctity of marriage and living in Israelwhen a conflict arises between them.i. To study the issues surrounding marriage in modern Israel and to try tounderstand why marriage more than any other lifecycle ritual has becomethe business of the state, as well as the implications of the differentarguments on the Jewish identity of the state and the concept ofnationhood.337 Ksharim

4.Expanded Outline:j. References to Israel in the Marriage Ceremony.1. The traditional Jewish wedding ceremony is a combination ofsymbolic acts representing the sanctity of the union and the newhome being created, together with the contractual legalundertakings of each side to the other within marriage. (Seesource 1). As such there is no obvious need to mention orcommemorate the land of Israel - yet certain customs andblessings do just that.2. Seven blessings are traditionally recited under the weddingcanopy. The blessings begin with praising G-d for His creation ingeneral and creation of the human being and proceed with praisefor the creation of the human as a "two part creature," woman andman. The blessings express the hope that the new couple willrejoice together forever as though they are the original couple,Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. Both the fifth and seventhblessings recall the land of Israel, linking and drawing a parallelbetween the joys of the new couple with that of a rebuilt Zion.The fifth blessing reads: “The barren city shall rejoice as herchildren are gathered within her in joy. Blessed are Thou G-D whocauses Zion to rejoice with her children.” The seventh states:Blessed art Thou G-D who created joy and happiness, the brideand the groom…Soon may we hear in the cities of Judah and thestreets of Jerusalem the voice of happiness and the voice of joy,the voice of the groom and the voice of the bride, the happyshouts of wedding parties from their canopies and the music ofyouths from their feasts of song…” (see source 2).3. The well known custom of breaking the glass at the end of theceremony is also thought to symbolize the destruction of theTemple. Although there are other sources to the custom the mostpopular explanation is that the breaking of the glass is meant tosymbolize the destruction of the Temple thus enacting the verse “Iwill hold Jerusalem above my chiefest joy.” Moreover, a commoncustom among the Orthodox in Israel is to sprinkle ashes on thegroom’s head at this point and have him recite the verse “If I forgetthee O Jerusalem.” (It is rather ironic that it is precisely thismoment, the breaking of the glass, that is most associated withthe wedding celebration and joy, always causing a loud round ofMazel Tovs)4. It is considered a great mitzvah to celebrate a wedding and bringjoy to the bride and groom. In order to emphasize how important338 Ksharim

and meaningful this is the Talmud likens the one who hasgladdened the heart of a bridegroom to one who has rebuilt theruins of Jerusalem. On the opposite end of the spectrum theTalmud reports that the very altar in the Temple weeps for onewho divorces his first wife. (See source 3).5. Another custom connected with weddings is that of the Aufruf – orShabbat Chatan - the “Groom’s Sabbath” which for Ashkenazimoccurs on the Shabbat preceding the wedding, while theSephardim observe it on the Shabbat after the wedding. On thatShabbat the groom is given the honor of being called to the Torah;he sometimes chants the Haftorah and is usually showered withcandies and sweets. One of the sources for this custom links itwith the special gate designated for bridegrooms at the entranceto the Temple. Anyone who walked through this gate wasautomatically identified as a bridegroom thus enabling the rest ofthe people present to wish him well, bless him and share in his joy.In its place, after the destruction of the Temple, Shabbat wasdesignated as the time to give the entire community a chance tobless the new couple and share in its joy. (See source 4).6. Question for Discussion: Why are blessings recalling a rebuiltZion included in the marriage service? What type of connection isbeing recalled? How is the marriage being linked with the land ofIsrael?There is no parallel custom to breaking the glass at either a brit orbar mitzvah. Why specifically at a wedding is a sign of mourning inhonor of the Temple included? (Another custom commemoratingthe destruction is leaving a small part of a new house unplastered,how does this connect to the wedding custom?).How can the joy of a marriage be compared or related to the joy ofrebuilding Jerusalem? What role does the Temple play in the storyof the gates? Is that a role the land of Israel is meant to play inJewish consciousness?k. The Land of Israel vs. the Sanctity of Marriage1. Both the sanctity of marriage and the land of Israel are importantvalues in Jewish thought and practice. What happens then when aconflict arises between them? The Talmud deals with several suchissues.339 Ksharim

2. The sages ruled that a person living in the land of Israel was notpermitted to leave it. (There are some Orthodox Jews today whodo not travel abroad for this reason). They listed three exceptionsto the rule. One is permitted to leave the land in order to: 1) tolearn Torah, 2) to make a living, 3) to find a wife. (See source 5).3. Another ruling deals with the fate of an existing marriage whenone spouse wishes to live in the land of Israel and the other doesnot. According to halacha a man may divorce his wife if she refusesto move with him to the land of Israel, and is exempt from payingher ketuba (i.e., she is at “fault” in the divorce). Likewise a womanmay sue for divorce and is entitled to her ketuba if she desires tolive in Israel and her husband does not. (See Source 6)4. Questions for Discussion: Is it clear from these sources whichvalue takes precedence over the other? Why do you suppose oneis permitted to leave the country to find a spouse while an existingmarriage may be broken to allow one spouse to live in Israel? Howdo these laws reflect the value given to the land of Israel? Thereare parallel laws allowing a son to disobey his father in order tolive in the land – is it the same thing?l. Issues of Marriage and Divorce in Israel TodayIn the following section I will try to briefly and objectively describe the status quo inIsrael today regarding the laws of marriage and divorce as well as the issues involved.Besides the actual debate itself the class can also discuss why it is that marriage aloneout of all life cycle events and rituals has generated such debate and stateinvolvement.13. In Israel today marriage and divorce are governed by religious law. In otherwords the law of the land recognizes only religious authorities and law asbinding in these areas. There is no civil law pertaining to either marriage ordivorce. All citizens are married according to their religious affiliation. Jewishlaw in these areas is defined as halacha which is determined by the ChiefRabbinate, i.e., Orthodox Jewish law. This situation originated in Ottoman Lawwhich defined “personal status” law by religious affiliation. In regard to Jews itwas legislated into Israeli law in 1953 in the The Law of Rabbinical Courts(Marriages and Divorces) – 1953 (see source 7). The rabbi performing thewedding is considered, according to the Law of Population Registry - 1965 andthe Law of the Chief Rabbinate - 1980, the official Marriage Registrar. The noticeof the marriage is transmitted directly from the regional rabbinate to theInterior Ministry. The rabbi performing the wedding is also authorized,according to the Law of Financial Relations Between Couples - 1973, to put into340 Ksharim

effect a financial agreement between the couple, if they have agreed toarrange such a document. After the marriage, such an action will requirecertification by a court. There is no religious or legal obligation to write such anagreement.14. This situation has caused many difficulties and much controversy. As Israelabsorbs more non-Jews, both Russian Olim who are non-Jews and foreignworkers who live in the country, the lack of civil marriage means that there isno authority empowered to perform marriages or divorces between Jews andnon-affiliated people or between themselves unless they belong to arecognized religious group. Also according to halacha there are certainmarriages that are forbidden: a cohen and a divorced women or convert, amamzer with another Jew, a divorced women with a man identified as her loverwhile she was still legally married. As these marriages are prohibited byhalacha the rabbinate will not perform them. However if the couple managesto get married (for example, by civil marriage in another country) the marriageis recognized de facto. (see source 8)15. Another source of discontent is the fact that many Israelis feel alienated andunhappy with the traditional ceremony as offered or performed by theRabbinate-approved rabbis. They perceive the rabbi as a functionary of thestate bureaucracy, who generally does not have any kind of personalrelationship with the couple, and often represents a culture that is foreign tothem. They would prefer a liberal, innovative or personalized ceremonyinstead, ceremonies which are not officially recognized. (see source 9)16. There are many attempts to bypass the Rabbinate by getting married out ofthe country, known in Israel as a “Cypriot “ marriage since Cyprus is thepreferred destination for such trips, being close and inexpensive. This worksbecause a foreign marriage certificate is recognized by the ministry of interior.Those who want an alternate Jewish ceremony then do it separately and relyon their foreign certificate to register as a married couple. (see source 10)Other couples choose to marry in alternate ceremonies and remain officiallyunmarried. Approximately 30,000 Jewish marriages are registered annually inIsrael. 82% of these are registered with the rabbinate and are performed inaccordance with Jewish tradition. 81% of Jewish Israelis consider it 'veryimportant' or 'important' to be married with a rabbinic blessing. Almost half(49%) of this population believe that there should be legal civil marriage inIsrael, though only 26% would opt for this alternative. (These statistic s arecompiled from the Central Bureau of Statistics and the study of the Avi ChaiFoundation, February, 2002; other studies suggest that a higher percentage ofcouples would opt out).341 Ksharim

17. In an attempt to address the dissatisfaction with the Rabbinate a group ofReligious Zionist Rabbis have formed an organization called Tzohar, (“skylight”)dedicated to making the traditional ceremony more meaningful and personalfor all couples within the bounds of halacha. They also refuse to accept anymoney for officiating at weddings, which helps ease the added frustration ofhaving to pay for a service you really don’t want and aren’t at all pleased with.(see source 11)18. The problems get worse with the issue of divorce. Here the rabbinical courtshave often proven inefficient and unresponsive to the sensibilities of thegeneral population. There is much criticism about the status of women withinthe existing framework since by Jewish law a husband must grant his wifedivorce and while she can sue for divorce the halacha is reluctant to force ahusband to grant one against his will.19. Many organizations and lobby groups are pushing for a reform and thelegislation of civil marriage and divorce in Israel. At first glance this demandseems not only justified but inevitable. Stopping the Rabbinate’s monopolyon marriage and divorce would allow all people as well as all Jews to act inaccordance with their personal beliefs. (see source 12). Such is the case in theJewish world outside Israel. Jews choose the type of Jewish wedding theywant (if any) and are married by their respective rabbis in accordance with thatmovement’s laws and customs. Furthermore even in Israel, Orthodoxy’sstranglehold on marriage is unique. There is no state law requiring that a childbe circumcised or called to Torah on his bar mitzvah or that a person be buriedaccording to Jewish law, so why in regard to marriage must religious law beenforced nationally?20. There is a complication. The halacha mandates that any child born of an illicitrelation (one prohibited in Leviticus Chapter 18) is considered a mamzer. Amamzer is prohibited to marry any other Jew except another mamzer. One ofthe illicit relationships that produce a mamzer is one between a marriedwoman and a man who is not her husband. According to halacha as long as awomen does not receive a valid get or Jewish divorce then she is still married toher first husband, even if she has been granted a civil divorce. Any childrenproduced in her second marriage will be classified as mamzerim. ObservantJews are forbidden from marrying them. Therefore allowing Jews to divorceoutside the halacha is likely to create a situation where Orthodox Jews will notmarry other Jews. It is this scenario that is used to justify the status quo –despite its many shortcomings.21. The problem of mamzerut was one of the reasons some rabbis required theEthiopian Jews to convert. The accepted mode of divorce among EthiopianJews did not comply with accepted halacha and therefore there was a real342 Ksharim

chance that many would be classified mamzerim. Since a convert is consideredas a “newborn,” conversion was one way of saving many from such aclassification that would have prevented them from marrying other Jews inIsrael.22. Once again the argument can be made that in the rest of the world Jews actaccording to their religious consciousness and affiliation and in the case ofmarriage between Orthodox and other Jews the specific couple and theircommunity choose whether to accept the marriage or not. Why not in Israel?23. The answering argument is that while in the Diaspora the fact that an OrthodoxJew may see himself as forbidden from marrying a reform Jew is a cause ofdivision between the different steams of Judaism and may be the cause ofpersonal tragedies, it doesn’t threaten the nationhood of the Jewish people.Judaism continues to exist as a pluralistic religion within the host nation. InIsrael where there is an attempt being made to create a nation of Jews, whereJudaism is conceived in terms of nationality and not just religion suchfragmentation of the society may pose a real threat not just to Jewish unity butto Jewish nationhood. The claim that is usually raised is that such a movewould lead to the creation of two separate nations in the country.24. This issue is currently being debated at all levels of Israeli society with differentproposals. It seems that the ultimate solution will be an indication of the abilityof different types of Jews to work together in the interest of Jewish unity andnationhood. (see source 13)Conclusion:Marriage holds a unique and significant place in Judaism. It is the framework of theJewish home and family, the bearers of Jewish tradition. It is this special status that onone hand encourages comparisons and connections with the imagery of the land ofIsrael, another central value and framework in Judaism. On the other hand it is becausemarriage is so highly valued and the family perceived as the basis of the Jewish nationthat the laws governing marriage have become concerns not of just the rabbis but ofthe state itself.343 Ksharim

Sources:1. http://www.itim.org.il/bin/en.jsp?enDispWho=CeremonySubTopic^l15&enPage=BlankPage_E&enDisplay=view&enDispWhat=object&enVersion=0&enInfolet=ViewObject_E.jsp&enZone=CeremonySubTopic: - this is an excellent sitedealing with the realities and possibilities of different life cycle events andcelebrations in Israel today from a modern Orthodox view.http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/marriage.html#Ceremonyhttp://www.aish.com/literacy/lifecycle/Guide_to_the_Jewish_Wedding.aspthese two sites detail a traditional orthodox ceremony.http://www.weddingdetails.com/lore/jewish.cfm#top –http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_view_of_marriageReform_and_Conservative_adaptationsthese sites include conservative and reform details as well2. http://www.ou.org/wedding/7brachot.htm - for a list and translation of all theblessings.http://www.todays-weddings.com/planning/readings/seven_blessings.htmlAn alternate seven blessings suggested by Anita Diamant in her book“The New Jewish Wedding” note that there is no mention of Jerusalem or Zionetc. What is the significance of the omission?3. Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Brachot Folio 6 Side BAnd if he does gladden him what is his reward? …R. Nahman b. Isaac says: Itis as if he had restored one of the ruins of Jerusalem.AndBabylonian Talmud Tractate Sanhedrin Folio 22 side AR. Eliezer said: For him who divorces the first wife, the very altar sheds tears, as it iswritten: “And this further ye do, ye cover the altar of the Lord with tears, withweeping and with sighing, in so much that he regardeth not the offering any more,neither receiveth it with good will at your hand” (Malachi 2)4. Pierkei D’Rabbi Eliezer Chapter 17:Solomon saw that acts of kindness were dear to the Holy One and so when hebuilt the Temple he built two gates; one for grooms and one for mourners. OnShabbat the people of Israel would go and sit between these two gates. Whoeverentered through the gate of groom, they knew he was a bridegroom and theywould say to him “May He Who dwells in this House cause you to rejoice you withsons and daughters. And whoever entered the other gate unshaven they wouldknow he was a mourner and say to him “May He Who dwells in this House comfort344 Ksharim

you…. And from the day that the Temple was destroyed our sages enacted thatbridegrooms and mourners should go the synagogue and the houses of learningthat the people of the place may see the groom and rejoice with him and see themourner and sit on the earth with him so that all of Israel may fulfill their obligationof acts of kindness…”5. Babylonian Talmud; tractate Avoda Zarah Folio 13 Side A:If he be a priest he may incur the risk of defilement by going outside the [Holy]Land for the purpose of arguing the matter with them and have it tried in court. ….…Likewise, one may incur similar defilement for the sake of studying the Torah ortaking a wife.Maimonides The Laws of Kings Chapter 5 Halacha 9:It is always forbidden to leave the land of Israel and go to the Diaspora except tolearn Torah, or to marry a women, or to save himself from the hands of the gentilesand then he should return to the land, and also for commerce…6. Mishna Ketubot Chapter 13 Mishna 11[A MAN] MAY COMPEL ALL [HIS HOUSEHOLD] TO GO UP [WITH HIM] TO THE LANDOF ISRAEL., BUT NONE MAY BE COMPELLED TO LEAVE IT. [ONE’S ENTIREHOUSEHOLD] MAY BE COMPELLED TO GO UP TO JERUSALEM BUT NONE MAY BECOMPELLED TO LEAVE IT. [THIS APPLIES TO] BOTH MEN AND WOMENBabylonian Talmud Tractate Ketubot Folio 110 side BOur Rabbis taught: If [the husband] desires to go up and his wife refuses she mustbe pressed to go up; and if [she does] not [consent] she may be divorced without aketuba. If she desires to go up and be refuses, he must be pressed to go up; and if[he does] not [consent] he must divorce her and pay her ketuba. If she desires toleave and he refuses to leave, she must be pressed not to leave, and if [pressure isof] no [avail] she may be divorced without a ketuba. If he desires to leave and sherefuses he must be pressed not to leave, and if [coercion is of] no [avail] he mustdivorce her and pay her ketuba.7. Rabbinical Courts Jurisdiction (Marriage and Divorce) Law (5713-1953):1. Matters of marriage and divorce of Jews in Israel, being nationals or residents ofthe State, shall be under the exclusive jurisdiction of rabbinical courts.2. Marriages and divorces of Jews shall be performed in Israel in accordancewith Jewish religious law.345 Ksharim

8. http://www.irac.org/article_e.asp?artid=16 –a background article by an actionorganization advocating civil marriage9. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/this_world/4215160.stm - a BBChuman interest article describing the dilemmas faced by one couple.10. http://www.schechter.edu/askrabbi/marriageceremony.htm11. http://www.tzohar.org.il/nisuim_show.asp?id=6183 – unfortunately there is noEnglish site12. http://www.hemdat.org/freedom_of_choice.htm -http://www.nif.org/content.cfm?id=2037&currBody=1the homepages of organizations lobbying for civil marriage13. http://www.irac.org/article_e.asp?artid=351 – Gavison-Meidan proposalFrom the current press (3/06):http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull&cid=1139395660493http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/697045.html14. http://www.itim.org.il/bin/en.jsp?enDispWho=CeremonySubTopic^l15&enPage=BlankPage_E&enDisplay=view&enDispWhat=object&enVersion=0&enInfolet=ViewObject_E.jsp&enZone=CeremonySubTopic: - this is an excellent sitedealing with the realities and possibilities of different life cycle events andcelebrations in Israel today from a modern Orthodox view.http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/marriage.html#Ceremonyhttp://www.aish.com/literacy/lifecycle/Guide_to_the_Jewish_Wedding.aspthese two sites detail a traditional orthodox ceremony.http://www.weddingdetails.com/lore/jewish.cfm#top –http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_view_of_marriageReform_and_Conservative_adaptationsthese sites include conservative and reform details as well15. http://www.ou.org/wedding/7brachot.htm - for a list and translation of all theblessings.http://www.todays-weddings.com/planning/readings/seven_blessings.htmlAn alternate seven blessings suggested by Anita Diamant in her book“The New Jewish Wedding” note that there is no mention of Jerusalem or Zionetc. What is the significance of the omission?346 Ksharim

16. Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Brachot Folio 6 Side BAnd if he does gladden him what is his reward? …R. Nahman b. Isaac says: Itis as if he had restored one of the ruins of Jerusalem.AndBabylonian Talmud Tractate Sanhedrin Folio 22 side AR. Eliezer said: For him who divorces the first wife, the very altar sheds tears, as it iswritten: “And this further ye do, ye cover the altar of the Lord with tears, withweeping and with sighing, in so much that he regardeth not the offering any more,neither receiveth it with good will at your hand” (Malachi 2)17. Pierkei D’Rabbi Eliezer Chapter 17:Solomon saw that acts of kindness were dear to the Holy One and so when hebuilt the Temple he built two gates; one for grooms and one for mourners. OnShabbat the people of Israel would go and sit between these two gates. Whoeverentered through the gate of groom, they knew he was a bridegroom and theywould say to him “May He Who dwells in this House cause you to rejoice you withsons and daughters. And whoever entered the other gate unshaven they wouldknow he was a mourner and say to him “May He Who dwells in this House comfortyou…. And from the day that the Temple was destroyed our sages enacted thatbridegrooms and mourners should go the synagogue and the houses of learningthat the people of the place may see the groom and rejoice with him and see themourner and sit on the earth with him so that all of Israel may fulfill their obligationof acts of kindness…”18. Babylonian Talmud; tractate Avoda Zarah Folio 13 Side A:If he be a priest he may incur the risk of defilement by going outside the [Holy]Land for the purpose of arguing the matter with them and have it tried in court. ….…Likewise, one may incur similar defilement for the sake of studying the Torah ortaking a wife.Maimonides The Laws of Kings Chapter 5 Halacha 9:It is always forbidden to leave the land of Israel and go to the Diaspora except tolearn Torah, or to marry a women, or to save himself from the hands of the gentilesand then he should return to the land, and also for commerce…347 Ksharim

19. Mishna Ketubot Chapter 13 Mishna 11[A MAN] MAY COMPEL ALL [HIS HOUSEHOLD] TO GO UP [WITH HIM] TO THE LANDOF ISRAEL., BUT NONE MAY BE COMPELLED TO LEAVE IT. [ONE’S ENTIREHOUSEHOLD] MAY BE COMPELLED TO GO UP TO JERUSALEM BUT NONE MAY BECOMPELLED TO LEAVE IT. [THIS APPLIES TO] BOTH MEN AND WOMENBabylonian Talmud Tractate Ketubot Folio 110 side BOur Rabbis taught: If [the husband] desires to go up and his wife refuses she mustbe pressed to go up; and if [she does] not [consent] she may be divorced without aketuba. If she desires to go up and be refuses, he must be pressed to go up; and if[he does] not [consent] he must divorce her and pay her ketuba. If she desires toleave and he refuses to leave, she must be pressed not to leave, and if [pressure isof] no [avail] she may be divorced without a ketuba. If he desires to leave and sherefuses he must be pressed not to leave, and if [coercion is of] no [avail] he mustdivorce her and pay her ketuba.20. Rabbinical Courts Jurisdiction (Marriage and Divorce) Law (5713-1953):1. Matters of marriage and divorce of Jews in Israel, being nationals or residents ofthe State, shall be under the exclusive jurisdiction of rabbinical courts.2. Marriages and divorces of Jews shall be performed in Israel in accordancewith Jewish religious law.21. http://www.irac.org/article_e.asp?artid=16 –a background article by an actionorganization advocating civil marriage22. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/this_world/4215160.stm - a BBChuman interest article describing the dilemmas faced by one couple.23. http://www.schechter.edu/askrabbi/marriageceremony.htm24. http://www.tzohar.org.il/nisuim_show.asp?id=6183 – unfortunately there is noEnglish site25. http://www.hemdat.org/freedom_of_choice.htm -http://www.nif.org/content.cfm?id=2037&currBody=1the homepages of organizations lobbying for civil marriage26. http://www.irac.org/article_e.asp?artid=351 – Gavison-Meidan proposalFrom the current press (3/06):http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull&cid=1139395660493http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/697045.html348 Ksharim

L e s s o n 38Women in Israel1. Outlinea. A historical survey of women’s roles and key female figures among theZionist pioneers and in the early years of the Stateb. Women and the armyc. Women in Israel todayd. A study of women in minority groups - Israeli Arab, Haredime. Conclusions2. Introduction:The formation of the modern State of Israel occurred in parallel to the evolution ofwomen’s movements. While its roots are traced to the French and AmericanRevolution, feminism emerged as a social and political force at the end of the 19 thcentury and the beginning of the 20 th . This is the period in which Zionism developedand Jews began to settle the land of Israel hoping to create a Jewish State. Since bothZionism and feminism “grew up” together, the early Zionist experience and the Stateof Israel provide an interesting case study of the changing roles and rights of women.Unique aspects of Israeli society, such as the central role of the defense forces and themosaic of different populations highlight the complexity of the issues surroundingwomen’s rights. As a Jewish State, Israel has had to address the disparity between thetraditional role of women in Judaism and Jewish law and contemporary concepts ofequality. Conversely, the issue and development of women’s rights in Israel canillustrate the social, economic, cultural and military issues that characterize the JewishState. In this lesson we try to give a survey of women’s roles and status from the earlyZionists until today.3. Goals:a. To familiarize the class with the feminine side of Israeli historyb. To demonstrate how Zionist and feminist history dovetailc. To introduce prominent women in Israeli history and /or Israel todayd. To discuss various issues and dilemmas involving women in Israel4. Extended Outlinea. Women Pioneers.1. Many of the pioneers of the First Aliya in the late 1880’s and 90’swere religious, but even so they were influenced by new ideas thatled them to establish new Jewish agricultural communities inIsrael for the first time in almost two millennia. The First Aliyah was349 Ksharim

almost entirely an aliyah of families, and while the decision-makerswere usually the husbands, the lives of their wives and childrenwere also drastically changed and influenced by the new ways ofthinking. The women who came with their husbands and familiesto Israel often did so at the risk of their lives due to the disease andpoor conditions in the country.2. Famous women of this era include Hemdah Ben Yehuda, thesecond wife of Eliezer Ben Yehuda. She married Ben Yehuda afterher older sister, his first wife, died. An emancipated woman ofgreat drive and conviction, she made it her life's work to supportEliezer and his enterprise. She took the Hebrew name Hemdah,quickly learned Hebrew, became a reporter for his paper, and laterbecame its editor, allowing her husband to focus on his research.She published Ben Yehuda, Hayyav u-Mifalo (1940), a life of BenYehuda, and Noseh ha-Degel (1944) on her stepson Itamar Ben-Avi.She continued work on Ben Yehuda’s dictionary after his death.3. Another prominent woman of the era was the writer NehamahPukhachewsky. Pukhachewsky’s writings begin with a critique ofthe women’s role in the exotic but extremely conservativeYemenite community in Palestine and graduate to a damningcritique of the men in her own Ashkenazi society, who subjecttheir women to scorn and ridicule whenever they try to assert theirindependence.4. There were women who were born into the families of the FirstAliyah who struck out on their own independent path, such asSarah Aaronson, the sister of Aaron Aharonson, agronomist,botanist and founder of NILI spy ring. During WWI NILI was aJewish organization that acted as spies on behalf of the British.They acted out of the small town Zichron Ya'akov in northernIsrael and provided the British with information about theOttoman forces. The most notorious member of NILI was SarahAharonson. Sarah, her father, her brother, and almost every othermember of NILI, were captured by the Turks on October 2, 1917.After being subjected to torture by the Turkish police Sarah shotherself during interrogation. (see source 1)5. The Second Aliyah, at the beginning of the 20 th century wasorganized by the Zionist movement after its formal foundationand characterized by immigration of workers and theestablishment of communal settlements. Most of its memberswere young people inspired by socialist ideals. Many models and350 Ksharim

components of the rural settlement enterprise came into being atthis time, such as "national farms" where rural settlers weretrained; the first kibbutz, Deganya (1909); and Hashomer, the firstJewish self-defense organization in Palestine, and Tel Aviv, the firstmodern all-Jewish city. The socialist and worker ideals espousedequal rights for women and the romantic ideal of women pioneerstilling the fields is widely held. In reality though the women wereoften relegated to kitchen duty and cleaning up. (see source 2) Inresponse the women who came to Israel in the Second Aliyahfrom 1904 to 1914 expecting equality organized the MoetzetHapoalot (the Working Women's Council, later to becomeNa’amat) in 1921, making it the first feminist movement inPalestine. Protesting a society in which women were relegated tothe kitchens while men worked the land and built the country, thewomen’s goal was to become full partners in the life of the Labormovement, the founding of the state. (see source 3)6. One of the results of socialist egalitarian ideals in the earlykibbutzim was the creation of the children’s house. In order to“free” parents to work, children were raised in a communalchildren’s home. Until the 1970’s children were raised together bynurses and teachers in the Hevrat Hayeladim (children'scommunity). They lived, and even slept, apart from their nuclearfamilies. The virtual elimination of motherhood as an occupationhad a profound impact on kibbutz women. In the 1920s, kibbutzwomen were performing the same duties as their malecounterparts – even guard duty. However, according to someresearchers, despite being liberated from traditional roles kibbutzwomen were still were primarily relegated to sex-typed jobs. Theunique structure of the kibbutz, especially in its early years,provides an interesting testing ground for many theories ofgender roles. (see source 4 )b. Subsection Two: Women in the Army1. Women played a vital role in the underground struggle for Israel'sindependence, including participation in signals and combat rolesin the pre-state militias: Haganah, Irgun, and Lehi. Famous femalefighters include Hanna Senesh, a partisan fighter who parachutedinto the occupied Hungary during World War II and was captured.Hanna withstood torture and was executed. She is remembered asa heroine not only for her bravery but also as a poetess and loverof the Israel (see source 5 )351 Ksharim

2. In 1948, the IDF began to reorganize its front-line brigades, andthe issue was raised as to whether women should be integratedinto men's units, or whether separate battalions of women shouldbe formed. The second option was decided upon, and theWomen's Corps was founded on May 16, 1948. Within a year,however, the Women's Corps was restructured, and femalesoldiers were dispersed throughout various units. For manydecades women were drafted to the military but were notpermitted to serve in combat positions. The rationale for thispolicy was that should a woman be captured by the enemy, theeffect on national morale would be devastating. Women served inpositions such as clerks, drivers, nurses, radio operators, flightcontrollers, and course instructors.3. The Defense Service Law of 1959 defines and regulates theobligation of service in the Israel Defense Forces. According to theLaw, all citizens and permanent residents of the State of Israel arerequired to perform military service. All women between the agesof 18 and 26, who are physically fit, unmarried, have not bornechildren, and have not objected on religious grounds or groundsof conscience must fulfill their military obligation.4. In November 1995, the High Court of Justice in Israel delivered alandmark decision granting women the right to volunteer forpilot-training courses in the Israel Air Force. The petition wassubmitted by Alice Miller, who had been denied the right to takeexams for the pilots training course. She was represented by theIsrael Women's Network and the Association for Civil Rights inIsrael. Ezer Weizman notoriously told Alice Miller, “Maydeleh, haveyou ever seen a man darning socks?” The Court ruled that theIsrael Air Force must allow Alice Miller to take the qualifying testsfor pilot training and, if found eligible, to participate in the pilottraining program. The court also ordered the Air Force to initiatean experimental program to facilitate integration of women intopilot training courses.5. In 1999, Israel announced that women would begin serving ascombat soldiers in the year 2000. In early 2000, the IDF decided todeploy women in the artillery corps, followed by infantry units,armored divisions and elite combat units. The Navy has alsodecided to place women in its diving repair unit. On August 1,2001, the existing Women's Corps was incorporated into theGeneral Staff rather than acting as an independent unit.352 Ksharim

6. Altogether, at the beginning of 2004, about 450 women were incombat units. Female soldiers are supposed to be trained andresponsible for the same duties as their male counterparts. Thoserecruited for combat units have to serve for 30 months instead ofthe current mandatory period for women of 21 months. (Seesource 6). The vast majority of women still serve in the supportpositions listed above. Note that while women from combat unitsare sometimes called for reserve duty, in general, the onus ofreserve duty (as much as a month per year) falls almost entirely onmen.7. Although women have always served in the IDF, the army offers apredominantly male environment that spills over into civiliansociety by means of the "old boys’ network". This in turn canhinder women’s advancement in Israeli society especially inpolitics and business where “connections” are important andwhere experience as a leader in the military can be translated intoa leadership position in civilian life.c. Subsection Three: Women in Israel Today1. While many women are professionally trained and holdprestigious and prominent posts in such fields as education,medicine and law, the general situation of women in Israel today isstill far from ideal. (see source 7)2. Women in the Labor Force: In 2000, 45.44% of the labor forcewere women, of whom only 15.8% worked full time, compared to34.1% of the men. The average monthly salary for women was60.18% of men's wages. The average wage-per-hour was 80.5% ofthat of men. In general, women work mostly in lower-paying jobs,in services, education, health, welfare and clerical positions, andare significantly less represented in prestigious and lucrativeoccupations such as hi-tech, management and engineering.3. Poverty: The economic gap between rich and poor has deepenedduring recent years. 16% of the women in Israel today live inpoverty, compared to 14% of the men. The difference may lie inthe fact that most single families are those of single women.4. Education: Measured by years of schooling in the Jewishpopulation, there is no educational gap between men andwomen. But many more boys study in the technical tracks thatprepare them for well-earning professions. Among non-Jewish353 Ksharim

groups there is a slight difference between men and women inyears of schooling, which is, however, closing swiftly. In theBedouin community, there is a high drop-out rate for girls. While57% of all academic degrees are earned by women, and 46% ofthe doctoral students are women, only 22% of senior facultymembers and 7.8% of full professors are women.5. Politics: One aspect of women’s lacking power in Israel, as well astheir limited ability to influence the public agenda, is their lowrepresentation in politics in general and in government inparticular. During the terms of 16 governments since theestablishment of the State, including that of Prime MinisterSharon, only nine women have served as cabinet ministers: GoldaMeir, Shoshana Arbeli-Almozlino, Shulamit Aloni, Sara Doron, OraNamir, Limor Livnat, Dalia Itzik, Yael (Yuli) Tamir and Zippi Livni(several served in more than one government). Although GoldaMeir served as Prime Minister, not even one woman held aministerial post in her government, despite the fact that hercabinet was one of the largest to date (24 cabinet ministers). ArielSharon’s first government included the largest number of femalecabinet ministers - 11.5%. Since the establishment of the Stateand up to the 14th Knesset (1949 -1996), the number of femaleKnesset members (MK’s) declined, ranging from 8 -11 women ineach Knesset - a representation rate of 6.6% - 9.1%. This rate islower than that of women in parliaments in Scandinaviancountries, western and southern European countries andindustrialized countries.6. A serious issue related to women’s rights and status in Israel is theincreasing number of women trafficked into Israel for prostitution.According to the U.S. State Dept Trafficking in Persons Report,(June 2005) Israel is a destination country for women traffickedfor the purpose of sexual exploitation and men and womentrafficked for the purpose of labor exploitation. Women fromEuropean and former Soviet countries are trafficked to Israel, oftenthrough Egypt, and sold to brothel operators, after which they areforced to work off debts through involuntary sexual servitude.Most trafficking victims for sexual exploitation originate fromUzbekistan, Moldova, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine. In a newtrend, traffickers in Ukraine reportedly have begun exploiting theIsraeli law that allows all Jews to immigrate to Israel, by providingvictims with false Jewish identity documents.The Government of Israel does not fully comply with the minimumstandards for the elimination of trafficking; however, it is making354 Ksharim

significant efforts to do so. A de-facto coordinator has continuedto work on trafficking in persons by coordinating information andanti-trafficking initiatives between various government agenciesand NGOs. The government lacks a law against trafficking for thepurpose of labor exploitation, although such a law was drafted in2003 and awaits approval. In 2004, Israel changed theParliamentary Inquiry Committee on Trafficking in Persons into aPermanent Committee on Trafficking in Persons. This Committeedrafted laws to enable closure of brothels, provide national healthinsurance to trafficking victims, grant witness protection for non-Israeli citizens and residents, and postpone the deportation oftrafficking victims. (See source 8)7. A striking feature of Israeli culture is the extent to which sexualinnuendo is used in advertising, to an extent that surpasses NorthAmerica. Occasionally ultra-orthodox vigilantes deface posters inbus stations etc., and while this causes an outcry from those whooppose religious coercion and support freedom of expression,many non-religious Israelis are silently appalled by the crudenessof the sexual exploitation employed by the advertising industry.(See source 9).d. Women in minority groups1. While at least in the national consciousness if not in reality, there isan image of the strong female Sabra, many women in Israelbelong to different minority groups where their roles are definedin traditional and paternalistic terms. Efforts are being made toempower the women within their own communities as well as toallow them assess to the opportunities available in the widerIsraeli society.2. Haredi Jewish women: The ultra-orthodox woman is oftenstereotyped in Israeli society as being relegated to motheringmany children. In reality many ultra-orthodox women studyprofessions and are bread-winners. However this does notnecessarily mean they have a higher status in their society whichvalues scholarship over financial independence or success. Themost respected men of the community study Torah all day (forwhich they receive minimal stipends), while their wives work, takecare of the home, and raise their usually large brood of children.They are the female infrastructure of the haredi world. Womentake great pride in their spouses' accomplishments, and men'slearning is valued above material possessions in the community at355 Ksharim

large. Women, however, are not encouraged to study. Manywomen, though, believe their private role as mother andhomemaker is the proper role for a Jewish women and do notwant to change it. All the same there are interesting initiatives tobetter the lives of women as well as examples of prominentwomen within the haredi society (see source 10).Note that the role of haredi women is to some extent distorted andforced upon the society by a particular Israeli law: haredi societystrongly opposes military service by its young men, as it fears thatthe experience will weaken their attachment to traditional valuesand ways of life, and introduce them to the temptations ofmodern western life. The law allows full time yeshiva students toreceive a draft exemption and a living stipend – but only if theystudy full time and do not work. Therefore, in order to avoid thearmy, haredi men must also avoid gainful employment, forcingtheir wives to be sole breadwinners in addition to their otherobligations. It has been argued that without this law, many moreharedi men would adopt a more traditional life style involving acombination of study and work - except for the exceptionallygifted Talmud students.Israel also has to contend with conflicts arising between traditionalJewish values as espoused by the rabbinate and changingwomen’s roles. In 1988 The Israeli Supreme Court overruled thenation's rabbis and ordered the appointment of Leah Shakdiel ofYeroham as the first woman on a religious council that administerssynagogues and ritual baths. (see source 11)In the mid eighties women began training and acting as to’anotrabbaniot – rabbinical court advocates. Since accredited lawyersare allowed to appear before the rabbinical courts and anextensive knowledge of halacha is required most women whoentered this field were religious women. The entrance of womeninto the field has helped to bring the plight of agunot and womenrefused a religious divorce to public consciousness. Womenadvocates also spearhead the legal and political battles on theseissues. They are the catalyst for much needed awareness andchange in these areas. (see source 12)3. Israeli Arab women: Israeli Arab women are a minority within aminority. As well as sharing the difficulties shared by all women inIsrael they are members of the Arab minority in a Jewish state andwomen in a patriarchal society based on traditional authority;356 Ksharim

These sources of marginalization all have severe consequences onthe political participation of Arab women in Israel who compriseapproximately 10% of the country's citizenry, and they combine tomake Arab women in Israel the lowest paid, least educated, andleast represented portion of Israeli society.( See source 13)The history of Arab women in Israel is different from that ofJewish women. The Zionist ethos at least advocated equalopportunities and education for women. Until 1948, Arabwomen were part of an agrarian society. They were locked intothe function that had imprisoned women for millennia: toproduce hands to work in the fields. They were also essential tothe household economy (cooking, cleaning, milling, baking,sewing, making cheeses and soap). After 1948, however, theagrarian economy disappeared. What little farming remainedcould not compete with the scientific agriculture practiced bythe Jewish collectives. Arab women were condemned to livesdevoid of social or economic significance. The shrinking ofagriculture reduced the need for so many children andhousehold cheeses, bread, soap, and clothing were replaced byfactory products. Women became socially superfluous.Israeli law provides compulsory free education between the agesof 4 and 15, and it remains free through the twelfth grade.Despite the opportunities that education should provide foryounger Arab women they are faced with two impediments.One is the general discrimination against Arabs. This is manifestin the lack of Arab industry, jobs and organizationalinfrastructure (such as childcare centers) that would enablewomen to work. The other is Arab society itself, whichsubordinates women in all aspects of life. According to SamyaNasser, Chairperson of the Workers Advice Center (WAC) andwomen’s activist in Nazareth, “No one will stop an Arab womanfrom getting a driver’s license, but once she has it, she will haveto get permission from her family-head, be it father, brother orhusband, to drive from one place to another. She can learn aprofession, but once she’s married, there is little chance she’ll bepermitted to work in it.”An exception to this picture is provided by a minority ofeducated Arab women with good family connections who havebeen able to find jobs in certain government offices (Education,Welfare, etc.) or in regional councils as teachers, welfare workersand clerks. In the 1990’s, there was also a mushrooming of NGOs357 Ksharim

in the Arab sector. A small number of female college graduatesfound work in them. But the vast majority of Arab women lackhigher education. In the Arab sector, the participation of womenin the labor force is significantly lower than that of Jewishwomen - only 22%, and the rate of unemployment is higher thanin the Jewish population -11.7%. The average salary of Arabwomen is only 71% of that of Jewish women. When almost 80%of women do not have jobs, they are deprived of all influence –social, political and domestic.The disappointment with secular solutions has fueled an Islamicrevival. The Islamic movement encourages Arab society to closein on itself. It downplays the things of “this world”. Women nowfind it harder than ever to get permission from their patriarchs towork. More and more are married off as minors.The question arises as to why there is little feminist awarenessamong Arabs in Israel. A principal reason is that the women havealways made common cause with the men against Israelidiscrimination. For many years, Hadash (the Arab -Jewish partyled by the Communists), as well as the national parties, raisedthe banners of “Jewish-Arab equality” and “an end to theOccupation.” Throughout the national struggle, the status ofwomen remained a side issue. In many respects, to stand up toone’s family and demand personal emancipation is more difficultthan to join the fight for equality within a national framework. Ifan Arab woman rebels against her family, insisting on her rightto marry whom she pleases, or to work outside her village, or todivorce her husband, she will be ostracized from the society.There are however some women trying to improve the situation.“Kayan” is a feminist organization for Arab women in Haifa andthe Galilee. (see source 14) Among the Bedouin in the Negev“Sidreh” is an organization dedicated to their empowerment andeducation. Lakiya Negev Weaving is Sidreh’s core project. Itspurpose is to enable social change by building a foundation forlocal economic development. As a vehicle of empowerment itchannels traditional skills into a profitable cottage industry,restoring women’s contribution to their family’s earning power.While educating participants with the tools of earning an incomein modern society, the project at the same time revitalizes andpreserves a craft which is central to Bedouin heritage. (seesource 15)358 Ksharim

Another example of successful female entrepreneurship is “SavtaGamila” an illiterate Druze woman who has established aninternational company manufacturing olive oil soap. She isbeing honored this year as a torch lighter on Independence Dayin recognition of her accomplishments. (see source 16)Conclusions: In this lesson we have just given a sample of women’s issues in Israelihistory and today. As with most aspects of life in Israel, the issues involved are manyand complex with different cultures, beliefs, needs and values being thrown together.Together they must find a way to co-exist , develop and build the modern Jewish Stateof Israel for all its citizens.A few more resources are listed at the end of the source list below.359 Ksharim

Sources1. http://www.ithl.org.il/book_info.asp?id=327 (This is an Israeli children’s classic;it’s author has been awarded the Israel prize for literature this year)2. The following is an excerpt from Sarah Malkin’s diary from the early days ofKvutzat Kinneret: “I went to the chores. The oven was not working at all. Therewere very few kitchen utensils or foodstuffs but I didn’t mind, nor did I noticethe heat. I was totally immersed in the important job… I cook outside over astone fire, in the heat without any shade…. I cooked for 30 people over a stonefire in the rain… the rain fell into the pots. No one discussed building thekitchen and I didn’t want to bring it up since we are only starting out and allbeginnings are difficult. .. There are thousands of francs being spent on thisfarm but they can’t find 20 to build an oven so that I won’t have to cook in theheat and the rain.http://www.degania.org.il/eng/malkin.htm3. http://www.naamat.org/History.htm4. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2294/is_n5-6_v29/ai_14777211http://www.tau.ac.il/~agass/judith-papers/kibbutz.pdf5. http://www.jewishgates.com/file.asp?File_ID=360israel.com/bio/biography_hannah_senesh.htmhttp://www.jewishmag.com/55mag/senesh/senesh.htmOne of Hanna’s most famous poems which has become a classic Israeli song is“A walk to Caesarea (“Eli Eli”)My God, my GodMay these things never end:The sand and the seaThe rush of the waterThe lightning of the heavensThe prayer of Manאלי,‏ אלישלא יגמר לעולםהחול והיםרשרוש של המיםברק השמייםתפילת האדם360 Ksharim

This is what she wrote about that walk to Caesarea:In the morning, I roam through the ancient ruins; in the afternoon, I walk in thefields, or to be more precise, on the land designated to become our fields. When Isee with what fury the foamy waves rush against the shore and how they becomesilent and peaceful upon crashing against the sand, I think that our enthusiasmand anger is not much different. As they roll, they are powerful and vigorous andwhen they touch the shore, they break, they calm down and they begin to play likesmall children on the golden sand.6. http://www.mahal2000.com/information/background/content.htm#womenStatistics of 2003 in the army:http://www.kokhavivpublications.com/2003/israel/05/0305201551.htmlhttp://www.joegrossberg.com/archives/002630.html - photo exhibit of Womensoldiers.A review of a newly released Israeli movie on women combat soldiers calledKarov LeBayit (Close to Home)http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/694709.html7. http://www.iwn.org.il/iwn.asp?subject=Archive&id=110 –statistics aboutwomen in 2002http://israel.jcca.org/articles.htm?y=6200511181523488. www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3062297,00.htmhttp://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/israel.htm9. Excerpt from International Women’s Rights Action Watch report on Israel,http://iwraw.igc.org/publications/countries/israel.htm“In advertising, negative stereotypes of women abound. Relatively inexpensiveitems are advertised by women filmed at home, while more expensiveproducts are advertised by men at work or outdoors. A content analysis ofadvertising reveals that the body of a woman in commercials is oftenaccompanied by sexual innuendo. Much advertising carries a diluted form ofpornography that finds its way into the mass media. Turning the woman andher body into a marketing tool is another step in the process of creating aninferior image of the role of women in society.”10. http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3101594,00.html – publicationsfor Haredi women361 Ksharim

An insider (male) view of Haredi women:http://www.jewishmediaresources.org/article/58/http://www.kavlaoved.org.il/katava_main.asp?news_id=1201&sivug_id=4 –about Haredi women programmersInitiatives for professional training of Haredei women:http://www.jewishmediaresources.com/article/583/11. http://www.irac.org/article_e.asp?artid=2212. www.ou.org/publications/ja/5765/5765winter/WOMENADV.PDhttp://www.jofa.org/speaker.php?sid=3213. http://www.arabhra.org/factsheets/factsheet5.htm– statistics and informationThe most severe consequence of their vulnerable status is tradition of honorkillings:http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=649254&contrassID=2&subContrassID=15&sbSubContrassID=0&listSrc=Y14. http://www.nif.org/content.cfm?id=1218&currBody=1http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/printable/galilee_briefing_print.html -Organization to help women open businessesa recent survey of Arab Israeli women in the Galilee done by Haifa Unversityhttp://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1145961264859&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull15. http://www.cjaed.org.il/Index.asp?CategoryID=97&ArticleID=79www.nif.org/content.cfm?id=1374&currBody=1www.nif.org/content.cfm?id=1374&currBody=1http://www.oxfam.org.ni/what_we_do/issues/gender/links/0402art3.htm16. http://www.onejerusalem.com/2005/12/14/savta-gamila-of-pqiinhttp://www.jewishaz.com/jewishnews/050218/arab.shtml362 Ksharim

Additional resourcesTeaching tool: Quiz on Famous Jewish women:http://www.funtrivia.com/playquiz/quiz115090d2f178.htmlTime line of women and women’s issues in the Yishuv and Israel, with bibliographyhttp://www.brandeis.edu/hbi/pubs/wp2.pdfhttp://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Eye+on+Israel/Israeli+Culture/Gender+Roles+The+Changing+Role+of+Women.htmhttp://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Eye+on+Israel/Women+in+Israel363 Ksharim

L e s s o n 39Death and Mourning1. Outlinea. Burial customs and their developmentb. Israel in the liturgy of mourningc. Burial practices in Israel todayd. Graves as holy sites2. IntroductionOne of the first symbolic acts in the Torah connecting the Jewish people to theland of Israel is Abraham’s purchase of a burial cave in Hebron for Sarah (Genesis23). Since burial represents a deeply emotional and long-term connection to aparticular piece of land, it stands to reason that in studying the beliefs and customscentered around burial, we will discover various dimensions of our connection tothe land of Israel. Beyond the historical and halachic questions, thinking aboutburial practices and places leads to a discussion of the nature of “holy ground:”what makes a place holy?3. Lesson goalsa. Awareness of Israel connections in the liturgy and customs of burial andmourningb. Familiarity with similarities and differences between burial practices in Israeland the diasporac. Awareness of the concept – and the problematics of – “holy ground”4. Expanded outlinea. Burial customs and their developmenti. When visiting any of the many burial caves in Israel – most familiarly,perhaps, the complex at Bet She’arim near Haifa – Jewish touristsoften wonder how the existence of elaborate stone sarcophagi linedup in large caves is congruent with the requirement of burial in theground in a biodegradable coffin. It turns out that Jewish burialpractice has varied widely over time and space, and that modernNorth American customs are not necessarily universal. As mentionedin the introduction, Genesis 23 refers to burial in a cave – a familycave which became a “holy” site that has given rise to experiences ofspiritual elevation and territorial violence for around 3,000 years.ii.In biblical and rabbinic times, it seems that most Jewish burials weresimply in the ground; caves like Hebron and Bet She’arim were364 Ksharim

eserved for the wealthy – but interestingly, though the halacha nowforbids burial in a mausoleum, and requires “returning to the soil,”this restriction was not interpreted then as forbidding burial in stonesarcophagi and in niches in caves. Even Rabbi Judah Hanasi, theredactor of the Mishnah, was apparently laid to rest in a cave in BetShe’arim.See:http://www.jewishmag.com/97mag/betshearim/betshearim.htmAnd of course, we have a number of examples of burial in caves, ofimportant persons, in Jerusalem:http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Archaeology/jerburial.htmliii.The Jerusalem Talmud, Moed Katan 80c, mentions that there used tobe a custom of laying the dead to rest in a pit or trough and thencollecting and burying the bones after the body had decomposed;this seems to accord with the use of troughs and sarcophagi in placeslike Bet Shearim. However, note that this custom is mentioned inpast tense, suggesting that sometime by the time the Talmud wasedited – which is around when Bet She’arim, as it happens, stoppedbeing used (4 th cent.), the accepted custom was simple burial in theground. See a good summary of research on this topic:http://www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/Shokel/021219_Ossuaries.htmliv. The biblical basis for burial is Deuteronomy 21:22-23v. Perhaps the emphasis in later tradition on burial only in the earth andnot in caves is a reflection of the economic-status concern reflectedin the famous account of Rabban Gamaliel’s establishment of the lawthat burial must be in a plain shroud. See the text below in Sources:Bab. Talmud, Moed Katan 27b.vi.According to the halacha, once buried, a body is not supposed to bemoved/reburied, unless it is to Eretz Yisrael (Shulchan Aruch, YorehDeah 363). Which suggests, of course, that burial in Israel issomehow “better” than burial elsewhere. Note that in Bet She’arim, anumber of caves were found that had been devoted to burials ofJews from various Diaspora communities – and this does not refer tothose who had immigrated while alive. See, of course, the examplesof Jacob and Joseph (Gen. 49:29-50:14; Ex. 13:19; Josh. 24:32). Andhere is a survey of the custom through the ages:http://www.biu.ac.il/JH/Parasha/eng/beshalah/are.htmlBut why?365 Ksharim

vii.There is a well-known belief, found in apocryphal and rabbinicalliterature, that the resurrection of the dead will occur only in Israel –or even, specifically at the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem – and thatthose buried outside of Israel will have to make their way throughunderground tunnels to Jerusalem to be resurrected – or, in othertraditions, to wait 40 years after those buried in Israel. The mostaccessible text relating this tradition is in the Bab. Talmud, Ketubot111a (see below, sources)b. Israel in the liturgy of mourningi. The first paragraph of the special burial kaddish is different from thestandard kaddish:Extolled and hallowed be the name of God in that world which He is tocreate anew, and to revive the dead and to raise them to an everlastinglife. Then will the city of Jerusalem be rebuilt, the Temple will be erectedtherein, the worship of idols eradicated, and the only true heavenlyworship restored to its dignity. O, may this happen in your lifetime, andin the lifetime of the whole house of Israel, speedily and without delayand say, Amen.ii.iii.The standard formula of condolence recited by those comforting themourners:May God comfort you together with all the mourners of Zion andJerusalemThe custom of placing a little bag of dirt from Israel in Diasporagraves – or of placing soil from Israel on the eyes, heart, and hands ofthe deceased - apparently is based on the belief described above –that those buried in Israel will be resurrected, resurrected sooner, orresurrected with less hassle; so, by bringing some of Eretz Yisrael tothe deceased, perhaps the same effect can be attained. If youthought the “Kosher Compass” was a little weird, look at this:http://www.holyburial.com/sac_jer.htmc. Burial practices in Israel todayi. While basic funeral laws and practices are the same in Israel as in theDiaspora, there are some interesting technical differences:1. There is no funeral home industry – all arrangements aredone by the Hevra Kadisha – what had been a voluntaryagency in the Diaspora but is now a part of thegovernment religious bureaucracy. They pick up thebody and take care of tahara and any other preparations,like digging the grave. The eulogy is the responsibility ofthe particular family or community – most Israelis don’t366 Ksharim

“belong” to a synagogue, and there is no officialresponsibility for the funeral service or the eulogy – somefamilies invite a local rabbi, others do it themselves.2. On kibbutzim and other rural communities, that havetheir own cemeteries, these are often very green andbeautiful and esthetically maintained. Urban cemeteries,on the other hand, are dusty and industrial inatmosphere, with almost no vegetation – just contiguousgravestones, with various stone or concrete retainingwalls, partitions, and pathways.3. Though there are geographical variations within thecountry, and exceptions for cases of violent (bloody)death, most burials are in a shroud with no coffin. Thebody is simply brought to the grave on a stretcher.4. It is quite common, even expected, especially at funeralsof secular families, that the grave will be piled withflowers and wreaths after it is filled. Mourners often bringan individual flower; employers, organizations,communities often bring standard wreaths with a ribbonidentifying the group – these can be ordered at any floristshop.5. The stone-setting usually takes place around a monthafter the burial.6. At the stone setting and at the memorial ceremony at thegrave after a year (and in some cases, on succeedinganniversaries of the death), a mainstay of the liturgy is thereading of the sections of Psalm 119 spelling out thename of the deceased, alternating with the letters of“neshama.” The sections are often assigned to differentfriends or family members to read.ii. Because cemeteries are under the control of the religiousestablishment, with the attendant restrictions on who qualifies forburial, how the burial must be done, how the gravestone may beinscribed, etc., there has been increasing agitation in recent years toopen alternative “secular” cemeteries that would be free of suchcontrol. There has been some success, finally, and there are a fewsuch cemeteries now. See:http://www.irac.org/sub_topics_e.asp?topic=25iii.Burial of Diaspora Jews in Israel is still quite common especially in theOrthodox world, and Jewish funeral homes serving suchcommunities have standard procedures for providing that service.For example…http://www.jewish-funerals.org/israelburial.htm367 Ksharim

Traveling with a dog on El Al can be a problem, as a dog cannot ridein the cargo hold if there is a dead body on board, which, it turns out,there often is.d. Graves as holy sitesi. For a fascinating and in-depth review of research on the venerationof the graves in Judaism, see:http://www.yarzheit.com/heavensregister/galileegiller.htmii.iii.It is interesting to consider our concept of holiness with regard toland: is a cemetery “hallowed ground”? Is Israel holy? Within whichborders? Consider:1. In the desert of Midian – Exodus 3:52. The prohibition of anyone entering the Holy of Holiesother than the High Priest on Yom Kippur is well-known.In the middle ages – and today – there is a debate as towhether we should be able to walk around on theTemple mount due to its holiness; see, for example thediscussion of the sources in two conflicting responsa ofConservative rabbis:http://www.responsafortoday.com/engsums/1_1.htm3. See the passage from Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, firstchief rabbi of Israel, in Sources below.4. The halacha is pretty clear that a cemetery may not besold – nor may those buried there be moved in order tosell the land, nor may part of the land as yet unused bysold off. See Shulchan Aruch Yoreh Deah 363.5. See the words imputed to Chief Seattle in Sources below.It is also interesting to consider the extent to which Israel is seen byvisitors (and by Israelis) as one huge memorial site, as we shlepp fromMetsada to Mt. Herzl to David’s Tomb to Rachel’s Tomb to YadVashem to Yad Mordecai to Kinneret Cemetery to Rambam’s Tomb toTel Hai etc. etc. See Yehuda Amichai’s famous poem addressing therelationship between the living and the dead in Israel, below, insources. To what extent is Israel for us Diaspora Jews merely awhirlwind tour of graves and memorials?368 Ksharim

Sources and references:General:http://www.myjewishlearning.com/lifecycle/Death.htmhttp://www.jewish-funerals.org/index.htmOn stacked burial due to crowdinghttp://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/8254/edition_id/156/format/html/displaystory.htmlOn reburial of Jews from Gaza cemeteries at time of withdrawal in 2005http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/objects/pages/PrintArticleEn.jhtml?itemNo=617763Bab. Talmud, Soncino Translation, Ketubot 111aR. Eleazar stated: The dead outside the Land 58 will not be resurrected; for it is said inScripture, And I will set glory 59 in the land of the living, 60 [implying] the dead of theland in which I have my desire 61 will be resurrected, but the dead [of the land] in whichI have no desire will not be resurrected.R. Abba b. Memel objected: Thy dead shall live, my dead bodies shall arise; 62 does not[the expression] 'Thy dead shall live' refer to the dead of the Land of Israel, and 'My deadbodies shall arise' to the dead outside the Land; 63 while the text, 64 And I will giveglory 65 in the land of the living 60 was written of Nebuchadnezzar concerning whom theAll-Merciful said, 'I will bring against them a king who is as swift as a stag'? 66 — The otherreplied: Master, I am making an exposition of another Scriptural text: He that givethbreath unto the people upon it, 67 and spirit to them that walk therein. 68 But is it notwritten, My dead bodies shall arise? 69 — That was written in reference tomiscarriages. 70 Now as to R. Abba b. Memel, what [is the application] he makes of thetext, 71 'He that giveth breath unto the people upon it'? — He requires it for [anexposition] like that of R. Abbahu who stated: Even a Canaanite bondwoman who[lives] in the Land of Israel is assured of a place in 72 the world to come, [for in thecontext] here it is written, unto the people 73 upon it, 74 and elsewhere it is written,Abide ye here with 75 the ass 76 [which may be rendered] 77 people that are like an ass'. 78And spirit to them that work therein 74 [teaches], said R. Jeremiah b. Abba in the name ofR. Johanan, that whoever walks four cubits in the Land of Israel is assured of aplace 79 in the world to come. Now according to R. Eleazar, 80 would not the righteousoutside the Land 81 be revived? 82 — R. Elai replied: [They will be revived] by rolling [tothe Land of Israel]. R. Abba Sala the Great demurred: Will not the rolling be painful tothe righteous? — Abaye replied: Cavities will be made for them underground.369 Ksharim

Thou shalt carry me out of Egypt and bury me in their burying-place. 83 Karna remarked:[There must be here] some inner meaning. Our father Jacob well knew that he was arighteous man in every way, and, since the dead outside the Land will also beresurrected, why did he trouble his sons? 84 Because he might possibly be unworthy to[roll through] the cavities. 85Similarly you read in Scripture, And Joseph took an oath of the children of Israel,[saying … ye shall carry up my bones from hence], 86 and R. Hanina remarked: [There ishere] an inner meaning. Joseph well knew himself to be a righteous man in every way,and, since the dead outside the Land 87 will be revived, why did he trouble his brothers[with a journey of] four hundred parasangs? Because he might possibly be unworthyto [roll through] the cavities. 88Bab. Talmud Moed Katan 27bIt used to be that the burial of the dead was harder for the family than the actualdeath; it reached the point where they would put down the body and run away – butthen Rabban Gamaliel came and set an example by having himself buried in a linengarment, and all the people followed him and were buried in linen garments.Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Eretz YisraelEretz Yisrael is not something apart from the soul of the Jewish people; it is no merenational possession, serving as a means of unifying our people and buttressing itsmaterial, or even its spiritual survival. Eretz Israel is part of the very essence of ournationhood; it is bound organically to its very life and inner being. Human reason,even at its most sublime, cannot begin to understand the unique holiness of EretzYisrael....The hope for the return to the Holy Land is the continuing source of the distinctivenature of Judaism. The hope for the Redemption is the force that sustains Judaism inthe Diaspora; the Judaism of Eretz Yisrael is the very Redemption.Chief Seattle [Washington Territory, 1877]Every part of this country is sacred to my people. Every hillside, every valley, everyplain and grove has been hallowed by some fond memory or some sad experience ofmy tribe. Even the rocks, which seem to lie dumb as they swelter in the sun along thesilent seashore in solemn grandeur, thrill with memories of past events connectedwith the lives of my people. The very dust under your feet responds more lovingly toour footsteps than to yours, because it is the ashes of our ancestors, and our bare feetare conscious of the sympathetic touch, for the soil is rich with the life of our kindred.370 Ksharim

Yehudah Amichai, “Tourists”They come to make condolence calls upon us,Sitting at Yad Vashem, somber at the Western WallAnd laughing behind heavy curtains in hotel rooms,Taking each others’ pictures with the distinguished dead at Rachel’s tombAnd Herzl’s tomb and Ammunition Hill,Weeping for the beauty of the heroism of our boysAnd lusting for the toughness of our girlsAnd hanging their underwearTo dry quicklyIn a cool blue bathroom.Once I sat down on the steps by the gate of David’s Tower; I set my two heavy basketsdown beside me. A group of tourists was standing around their guide and I served asa reference point for them. “Do you see that man with the baskets? A little to the rightof his head there is an arch from the Roman period. A little to the right of his head.”But he is moving, he is moving! I said in my heart: redemption will come only whenthe guide says to them: Do you see that arch there, from the Roman period? It is notimportant; but next to it, a little to the left and down, is sitting a man who has boughtfruit and vegetables for his family.371 Ksharim

L e s s o n 40Medieval Connections to the Land of IsraelOutline:1. Rabbi Judah Halevi2. The Kabbalists3. The Baal Shem Tov and Rabbi Nachman of BreslavIntroduction:Jews in the middle ages lived a balancing act, juggling loyalty to the Jewish faith andsurvival both personal and as autonomous communities within the Christian orMoslem world. It was a time of strong communal institutions and philosophicaldebate as Jews tried to comprehend and articulate (primarily to themselves) theircontinued exile and persecution as well as the basic tenets of their faith which set itapart from the surrounding religions that saw it at best as ”primitive” or forsaken byG-D if not downright corrupt and evil. Always at the mercy of Christian or Moslemrulers who intermittently sought forcibly to convert them, Jews suffereddiscrimination, persecution, and exile after exile. Despite these hardships in Diaspora,or perhaps because of them, there was no mass movement to “return” to the land ofIsrael. That land too was under foreign rule (alternatively Moslem/Christian/Moslem asthe Crusaders came and went) and there too Jews suffered. Although there was acontinued, tiny and impoverished Jewish presence in the land of Israel, for themajority of Jews the land of Israel was always present in the liturgy (piyutim, kinot) as acornerstone of faith but not as a physical alternative. The Holy Land acquired analmost mythical nature in Jewish consciousness as an unattainable paradise. Even thenumerous false messiahs that surfaced in different countries throughout the middleages remained localized phenomena never succeeding in enflaming the masses toactually consider moving to Israel (until Shabbetai Zevi). Paradoxically though,throughout the era there was a continuous flow of individuals including scholars andleaders making the difficult journey at least to die if not to live in the Holy Land. .This lesson will study some of those individuals, their stories and their writings,examining their varied motivations to “go up” to Israel. Are these individual responsesto each one’s specific circumstances or a reflection of the ongoing relationshipbetween the Jew and the land of Israel? How do their responses compare to thefeelings of Diaspora Jews who “make aliyah” today?372 Ksharim

Goals:1. Familiarity with medieval models of connection to Israel2. Exploration of the spiritual significance of the land in Jewish belief and practice3. Comparison and discussion of the different personalities and their motivations,to our own conceptions of the significance of Israel.Expanded Outline:Suggested Methodology:Divide the class into 3 groups. Each group reads the biographies and writings of one ofthe following personalities or groups as presented in the subsections. Each groupmust try to answer the question, what motivated their personality to move to Israel?What was their personality’s perception of the Jews’ tie to the land? Each group cansummarize in a class discussion comparing the motivations of the medievalpersonalities with those of Jews today to journey to or settle in Israel.1. Judah HaleviBiography:Judah Ha-Levi (lived ca. 1080-1141) was one of the greatest Spanish Jewish poets andphilosophers. He was born in Toledo, Spain while it was still under Islamic rule butlived most of his life in Cordova, a center of Jewish life at the time. His primaryoccupation throughout his life was as a physician to the king of Spain but he was aprolific writer of both Arabic and Hebrew poetry. His writings are very diverse andcover such topics as love, friendship, religious devotion, hope, wisdom, and sorrow. Hewas known as the "Sweet Singer of Zion” since many of his poems were paeans to theLand of Israel and mourning the loss of the Land to the Jews. (See sour ce 2 forexamples of his “Zionistic” poems)In Halevi's day, Jews were caught in the incessant wars between Christians andMuslims for control of the Iberian Peninsula. He himself felt constrained to remain inSpain most of his life, however, because of family attachments. Although personally heoccupied an honored position as a physician, he felt the intolerance of the Almoravidfanatics toward his coreligionists. He had long yearned for a new, or rather for the old,home—for the Holy Land. In 1141 on the death of his wife, he bade farewell todaughter, grandson, pupils, friends, rank, and affluence and set off to the land of Israel(aliya or a pilgrimage?).After a stormy passage he arrived in Alexandria, where he was enthusiastically greetedby friends and admirers. At Damietta he had to struggle against the promptings of hisown heart and the pleadings of his friend Halfon ha-Levi that he remain in Egypt. He,373 Ksharim

however, resisted the temptation to remain there, and started on the tedious landroute. There are records of his arrival in Tyre and Damascus. Here authentic recordsend; but Jewish legend has it that he made it to the holy land and as he came nearJerusalem, overpowered by the sight of the Holy City, he sang his most beautifulelegy, the celebrated "Zionide," "Zion ha-lo tish'ali." At that instant he was riddendown and killed by an Arab, who dashed forth from a gateThe Kuzari:Judah Halevi was fascinated by the stories circulating about the conversion of theKhazars, a tribe in the Caucasus region, in the 8 th centaury. Since, however, no hardevidence existed as to just how Khazaria became Jewish, Halevi was free to exercise hiscreativity.The product of his imagining was The Kuzari: A Book of Proof and Argument, An Apologyfor a Despised Religion, written in Arabic, which became (and remains) one of the mostpopular and best-known works of medieval Jewish philosophy. In it, Halevi imaginedthat the king had a dream indicating that his pious commitment to his pagan religion,while well-intended, was misguided. Therefore, he summoned a philosopher, aChristian scholar, and a Moslem scholar to present their systems of belief. Each wasrejected after one brief interchange, and the king felt he had no choice but to turn to aJew. It didn’t take long for the king to be convinced of the truth of Judaism, and heconverted in short order.The Kuzari consists primarily of the king’s ongoing conversation with the rabbifollowing his conversion, as he challenges his teacher, seeking a deeperunderstanding of Jewish beliefs. This creative format is unique in our literature.If the Rambam (Maimonides) is always seen as the prime representative of the attemptto harmonize Judaism with rationalism, Halevi is seen as a leading proponent of therejection of this attempt. For him, miracles, revelation, and chosen-ness don’t need tobe “explained away” by seeking the rational, scientific phenomena that underlie them;instead, our collective memory of these experiences is proof enough of their reality.No apologies needed.Halevi emphasizes throughout the book the specialness of the Jewish people as thepeople chosen to receive God’s revelation – and the specialness of the land of Israel,the land specifically promised to our people by God.(see Source 1 for excerpts from the Kuzari dealing with living in the land of Israel)Questions for discussion: Does the rabbi offer an explanation/justification for stayingin exile? Does the decision of the rabbi (and of Halevi himself) to personally travel tothe land of Israel indicate or symbolize a “general” obligation or need for Jews to doso? Notice the King reverses his stand when his friend actually decides to leave, why?Is this a familiar reaction?374 Ksharim

2. The Kabbalists of SafedOne of the results of the Spanish Expulsion in 1492 was an increase in the number ofJews who chose to emigrate to the Holy land. For example in 1488 there were 70Jewish families in Jerusalem. By 1495 it increased to 200 and by 1521 to 500 (from AHistory of the Jewish People, Margolis and Marx p. 518). The major center to emergefrom this influx of Jews was the city of Safed in the Galilee. In 1492 Joseph Sargossicame to Safed and found but a handful of Jews and a rabbi who kept a small shop toearn a living. A hundred years later there were 18 yeshivas in the city and 21synagogues. Especially drawn to Safed were scholars who specialized in mysticallearning (Kabbalah). This branch of scholarship had been prominent in Spain (TheZohar was compiled and written down first in Spain by Moshe de Leon in the 13 thcentaury). Apparently, one reason for Safed’s attraction of kabbalists was its proximityto Meron, where Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai’s grave is located; R. Shimon was believedto be the author of the Zohar. In the 16th century Safed became the spiritual andeconomic enter of the Jewish community in Eretz Yisrael and its influence was feltthroughout the Jewish world. Among its leading personalities were poets, kabbalistsand halachists including Rabbi Joseph Karo who fled Spain as a child and was a majorhalachic authority as well as the author of the Shulchan Aruch, Moses Cordovero,author of Pardes Rimonim which organized mystic thought, Rabbi Yitzchak Luria, ‘theLion’ and his student R. Haim Vital who popularized kabbalah, Rabbi Shlomo Alkabetzwho authored Lecha Dodi – the prayer said Friday night to welcome the Sabbath.(seesource 3)Rabbi Joseph Karo: Born in 1488; fled Spain with his parents at the age of four toConstantinople. Was a recognized scholar at a young age, authored the Kesef Mishna,a commentary on the Rambam’s Mishna Torah, the Beit Yosef and the Shulchan Aruchall of which are halachic codes. In 1530 Karo moved to Safed, where he was appointedas a member of the rabbinic court of Rabbi Yaakov Beirav. He established a yeshiva,counting among his students the great Rabbi Moshe Alshech and the illustriouskabbalist Rabbi Moshe CordoveroUpon the death of Rabbi Yaakov Beirav, he succeeded him as chief of the rabbiniccourt in Safed, which served as the main bet din (court) for worldwide Jewry. The cityof Safed was the only city in the country that had a printing press. The first printing ofthe Shulchan Aruch was in the year 1565, and it has been reprinted many hundreds oftimes since then, each one with additional comments by later scholars printed in themargins. Karo’s fame quickly spread far and wide and thousands of people fromaround the world would write to him, seeking his opinion on Jewish law. Karo wasalso a mystic. Legend has it that he was taught by a “Maggid” an angelic teachermentor/powerwho gave him daily instruction and encouraged him to move to theHoly Land.(see source 4) He died at the age of 87 in 1565 and is buried in Safed.375 Ksharim

Isaac Luria – the Lion (the Holy Ari or the Arizal) : Luria was born in Jerusalem in1534 to a German father and a Sefardic mother; his father died when he was a youngchild, and his mother moved to be near her family in Egypt, where Luria grew up, andstudied Jewish law and rabbinic literature. Luria's teachers considered himoutstanding in non-mystical study. In addition to study, Luria earned a living throughcommerce. In his twenties, he concentrated his studies on the Zohar and the works ofearlier kabbalists. He was also particularly interested in his contemporary, kabbalistMoses Cordovero. It was at this time that Luria wrote his commentary on the Sifra Di-Zenivta section of the Zohar. Luria believed that deceased teachers of the past spoketo him and that he had frequent interviews with Elijah the prophet.In one of these "interviews," Luria believed that Elijah instructed him to move to theland of Israel, so, in 1569, he moved to Safed where he studied kabbalah withCordovero until Cordovero's death in 1570.Luria originally won fame as a mystical poet. He later started teaching kabbalah in ayeshiva, and would occasionally speak in Ashkenazi synagogues. He was friendly withother Safed scholars, and formed a group of kabbalists who met each Friday to confesstheir sins to each other. He revealed to his disciples the locations of graves of rabbisthat he claimed to have discovered through spiritual revelations. He taught hisstudents orally, teaching both theoretical kabbalah and methods to communicatewith the souls of tzaddikim (righteous people). He was conservative in interpretingJewish law and believed that each commandment had a mystical meaning. Herespected all strains of tradition and customs in Judaism and although he was ofAshkenazic descent, preferred Sephardic prayer liturgy. Lurianic kabbalahh refersoften to messianism and many say that his messianic ideas paved the way for the falsemessiah, Shabbetai Zevi.Luria died in an epidemic in the summer of 1572 and was buried in Safed. Histeachings were recorded by his disciples, particularly Rabbi Chaim Vital.Questions for Discussion: Safed became a Jewish center after the expulsion fromSpain. Why? Was it in hope of finding a “home” from which the exiles could not bebanished? Was it the relative openness of the Ottoman empire that allowed them todevelop a community there both economically and religiously? Was it a desire forholiness? Were the mystics drawn to the Holy Land or did the Holy Land make mysticsof men? Why?It is interesting to note that the mystic thought that emanated from Safed does notaddress per se the question of the holiness of the land or the need/obligation to settleit. (As opposed to writings of the twentieth century in which the role of the State ofIsrael – and the Land of Israel - in religious thought is much discussed). Rather, itseems the mystics were drawn to it due to the belief that in the Holy Land one couldbetter succeed in holy study. The kabbalah developed in Safed emphasized the cosmicshattering that allowed a flawed world to be created. The great historian of kabbalah,376 Ksharim

Gershom Scholem, sees a clear connection in the upheaval of the times and theLurianic school of thought. He argues that this study gave hope and meaning to theJews after the destruction of Spanish Jewry that was as disastrous as the destruction ofthe Temple. The kabbalistic belief in the correspondence of the human and the divineled to the daring doctrine that the disaster of exile and expulsion was not just part ofJewish history but part of the biography of G-d. In order to create the world, G-d hadhad to exile part of Himself from Himself; and this creative withdrawal (tzimtzum) orexile was what was being reenacted on earth by Israel. This gave a positive function tothe exile that both comforted and stimulated hope; and new attention was given tothe stages of tikkun - restoring or fixing the world.Questions for Discussion: In the legends of both Rabbi Karo and Rabbi Luria it is asupernatural element that urges them to go to Israel? Why? What does this mean?3. HasidismThe development of Hasidism in Europe in the 17 th century can be seen as one of thedirect results of Lurianic thought and the growing influence of mystical thought inJudaism. However as opposed to the kabbalists’ center in the land of Israel, the newmovement was firmly rooted in the Diaspora. It taught that even the simplest Jew canachieve closeness to G-D . Hasidism emphasized the desire and hope for the messiahand the obligation of each Jew to hasten his coming, yet all its great centers wereentrenched in Eastern Europe. It is interesting therefore to note the ambivalentrelationship of some Hasidic leaders to the question of going to Israel, as seen in someof their tales and writings.Baal Shem Tov: Founder of Hasidism. He was born approximately 1700 in Okop, asmall village in the Ukraine on the Polish-Russian border. When he was thirty-six yearsold in the year 1734, Rabbi Yisrael “revealed himself” to the world. He settled in Talustand rapidly gained a reputation as a holy man. He became known as the Baal Shem Tov– Master of the Good Name. (The title Baal Shem (Master of the Name) was used forholy men who were known as miracle workers since they used the power of the Nameof God to work miracles.) Later he moved to Medzeboz in Western Ukraine, where helived for the rest of his life.Rabbi Israel's fame spread rapidly. Many important scholars became his disciples. Itwas during this period that the movement, which would eventually be known asChassidut (piety), began. The Baal Shem Tov's teachings were largely based upon thekabbalistic teachings of the Rabbi Yitzchak Luria, but his approach made the benefitsof these teachings accessible even to the simplest Jew. He emphasized the profoundimportance and significance of prayer, love of God, and love of one's fellow Jews. Hetaught that even if one was not blessed with the ability or opportunity to be a Torahscholar, one could still reach great spiritual heights through these channels.377 Ksharim

The Baal Shem Tov felt a powerful love for the land of Israel and his entire life hewanted to immigrate there. Many times he attempted to do so, once even reachingConstantinople, but always something prevented him from fulfilling his dream. (seesource 5). Despite his personal inability to move to the land of Israel, the Baal ShemTov succeeded in inspiring many of his disciples and followers to do so. In mid-1700s astudent of the Baal Shem Tov by the name of Gershon Kitover started the first Hassidiccommunity in Israel. This community was part of what came to be called, with theadvent of modern Zionist settlement, the “ Old Yishuv.” (the old settlement). The OldYishuv saw its purpose as the study of Torah on behalf of the Jews in the Diaspora,who were expected to support this scholarship by donations.Questions for Discussion: How does the tale (source 5) describe the Baal Shem Tov’srelationship to Israel? What does it say about personal affinity for the land as opposedto collective affinity? How do you understand the paradox of on one hand sendingstudents but on the other hand not going himself? What was the purpose of sendinghis students? What kind of existence did they have there?Rabbi Nachman of Bratslav: Rabbi Nachman was the great grandson of Rabbi Israel,the Baal Shem Tov. He was born in 1772 in the Ukrainian town of Medzeboz. Hebecame an outstanding Tzaddik: i.e., Torah sage, mystic, teacher, Hassidic master andstoryteller. During his lifetime he attracted a devoted following of Hassidim wholooked to him as their prime source of spiritual guidance in the quest for G-d. Forthem he was `the Rebbe.' After being ill with tuberculosis for several years, RabbiNachman passed away in 1810 at the age of thirty-eight. He had moved to theUkrainian town of Uman a few months earlier, and there he was buried. His gravesite isvisited by many Jews until today.When Rabbi Nachman passed away his followers saw no one on the same outstandinglevel to take his place. Instead of appointing a new Rebbe, they continued to turn toRabbi Nachman's teachings for inspiration and guidance and still looked on him as`the Rebbe.' The Bratslaver Hassidim have done so ever since, studying his writingsand endeavoring to follow his teachings in their day-to-day lives. In this sense RabbiNachman is still the leader of the Bratslaver Hassidim.Rabbi Nachman’s Journey to Israel:Many of Rabbi Nachman’s sayings praise the Land of Israel and its holiness and expressa yearning to be there (see source 6). And indeed Rabbi Nachman did make a strangetrip to the land of Israel, in 1799.On Passover, Rabbi Nachman announced to his followers, "This year I shall certainly bein the holy Land." To his wife’s objections and pleading of poverty, he only replied: "Aslong as my soul is within me, as long as I breathe, I shall totally dedicate myself totravel to the Land of Israel."– How would she and her daughters survive? – "You be a378 Ksharim

cook in someone else’s home, and let the girls be servants. But whatever is in thehouse, I must sell to pay for expenses on the way."The journey was hard and long. Nachman purposely chose the sea route via Odessa,usually avoided as dangerous. In Istanbul, he encountered problem after problem,from personal degradation to plague, all of which his faithful traveling companion,Rabbi Nathan, recorded.His amazing persistence can be understood only in the light of his later writings,wherein the Hassidic master records his vision of Israel. For Rabbi Nachman, Israel wasthe reward granted only those who observe the commandments. It was the source ofall blessing, the quintessence of divine pleasantness. For him, the bread of Israelencompassed the sweetness of all the foods in the entire world. To achieve victory, tosee the downfall of evil, or even to make progress as a human being, the Jew had to goto the Land of Israel. It was for that reason, he explained, that the pronouncing ofGod’s true name, the essence of His identity, had been restricted to the holy Temple,while it stood.The puzzle of Rabbi Nachman is not why he traveled to Israel, but why he returned. Hechose to be a pilgrim, not an immigrant. The minute he arrived in Israel, Nachman waswilling to turn back, applying literally the rabbinic dictum, "Whosoever walks fourcubits (six feet) in the Land of Israel, is assured a place in the world-to-come." "I havewalked my four cubits," said the rabbi – “let us return." Although he was persuaded tostay and tour the Land, he did return to Europe, there to spend the rest of his days .(see source 7)Questions for Discussion: What did Israel represent to Rabbi Nachman? What wasn’tthe land intended to be? Why do you think he wanted to leave without even seeingthe holy sites? Can you reconcile his behavior with his teachings?Conclusion:Several common conclusions can be made from the personalities above that may besaid to characterize Jews’ tie to the Land of Israel during the middle ages.1. All of them acted out of deep personal , religious feelings towards the Land ofIsrael. The concept of autonomy, rule, or statehood were not relevant to theirworld view. Such matters were for the messiah.2. Nonetheless, despite the physical difficulties and distance, Israel remainedprominent in Jewish awareness. Its mythical presence was so real as to allow forthe reality of going there. Once there even the grim reality did not lessen theemotional attachment the Jew felt for the land.3. The Jewish presence in Israel was maintained and from the 16 th century beganto grow, although it was still characterized by religious sentiments and notnationalistic goals.379 Ksharim

Discussion: Are these spiritual elements present in contemporary American Jews’desire to visit/connect with Israel? Does the issue of statehood complicate or simplfythings?Sources1. The Kuzari Book IIAt one point The Rabbi goes on at some length about the holiness of Eretz Yisrael,quoting a number of different passages from the rabbinic literature; then…15. The Kuzari: …Continue thy discourse about the advantages of Eretz Yisrael.16. The Rabbi: The land was appointed for the instruction of mankind andapportioned to the tribes of Israel from the time of the confusion of tongues, as it issaid: 'When the Most High divided among the nations their inheritance, when Heseparated the sons of Man, He set up the frontiers of the nations according to thenumber of the sons of Israel' (Deut. 32:8). Abraham, also, was not fit to be associatedwith the Divine power and to enter into a covenant with Him - the covenant 'of thepieces of sacrifice' (Gen. 15) - until he had reached that land. And what is now thyopinion of a 'picked community' which has merited the appellation 'people of God', ina land, called 'the inheritance of God' (I Sam. 26:19; Ps. 79:1)….,17. The Kuzari: In such a way we may expect the glory of God to be manifest.20. The Rabbi: Thus the knowledge of the 'sabbath of the Lord' and the 'festivals ofthe Lord' (Lev. 23:2 and 38) depends upon the country which is called 'the inheritanceof the Lord', and, as thou didst read, 'His holy mountain', 'His footstool', ‘gate ofHeaven’ (Gen. 28:7); it is now also said 'for the Torah goes out from Zion' (Micah 4:2).How greatly did the Patriarchs strive to live in the country, whilst it was in the hands ofpagans, how they yearned for it and ordered their bones to be carried thither as, forexample, Jacob and Joseph (Gen. 47:30; 50:25). Moses prayed to see it; he consideredit a misfortune when this was denied him, and as an act of grace, when the land wasshown to him from the summit of Pisgah. Persians, Indians, Greeks, and other nationsbegged to have sacrifices offered and prayers to be said for them in that Holy House,and they spent their wealth on it, though they believed in other religions, since thetrue religion did not admit them. Today, also, the country is honoured, although theShekhinah no longer appears in it; all nations make pilgrimages to it, long for it -excepting we ourselves, being oppressed and homeless.23. The Kuzari: If this be so, thou fallest short of thy religious duty, by notendeavouring to reach that place, and making it thy abode in life and death althoughthou sayest: 'Have mercy on Zion, for it is the house of our life', and thou believest thatthe Shekhinah will return thither. And had it no other distinction than that the380 Ksharim

Shekhinah dwelt there nine hundred years, this would be sufficient reason for the soulsto trust in it and to purify themselves there, as it has been done near the abodes of thepious and the prophets; moreover, it is the gate of Heaven; all nations agree on thispoint: Christians believe that the souls are gathered there and then lifted up toheaven; Islam teaches that it is the place of Mohammed's Ascension and that prophetsare made to ascend from there to heaven, and further, that it is the place of gatheringon the day of Resurrection. Everybody turns to it in prayer and visits it in pilgrimage.Thus, thy bowing and kneeling in the direction of it is either hypocrisy or thoughtlesspractice. Yet thy earliest forefathers chose it as an abode in preference to theirbirthplaces, and lived there as strangers rather than as citizens in their own country.24. The Rabbi: That is a justified reproach, O King of the Khazars! It was that sin whichkept the Divine promise with regard to the second Temple from being fulfilled: 'Singand rejoice, O daughter of Zion; for I come to dwell in the midst of thee' (Zechariah2:14). For the Divine power was ready to prevail in Zion as it had in the first place, ifthey had all willingly consented to return. But only a part of the people were preparedto do so; the majority and the men of rank remained in Babylon, preferringdependence and slavery, because they were unwilling to leave their houses and theireasy circumstances. The power of the promises was weakened in accordance withtheir weakness. For the Divine power inspires human power only in such measure asthe latter is prepared to receive it: if the readiness is little, little will be obtained, andmuch will be obtained, if it be great. Were we prepared to meet the God of ourforefathers with a pure mind, we should find the same salvation as our fathers did inEgypt. But when we only say: 'Bow to His holy hill, bow to His footstool' (Ps. 99:5, 9), 'Hewho restoreth His glory to Zion', and similar words, this is but as the chattering of thestarling and the nightingale. We do not realize what we are saying through these andother words, as thou observest, O Prince of the Khazars.Kuzari: Book V22. After this the Rabbi resolved to leave the land of the Khazars and to betake himselfto Jerusalem. The King regretted the parting, and he began a conversation with him.'What can be sought in Palestine nowadays, since the Shekhinah is absent from it?Through pure intention and strong desire we may approach to God in every place!Why dost thou expose thyself to the dangers of land and sea and to risks incurred bycontact with other people?’23. The Rabbi: To be sure, the visible Shekhinah has disappeared, revealing itselfonly to a prophet or to a community pleasant to God in the distinguished place; welook for that, as it is said 'they shall see, eye to eye, the Lord returning to Zion' (Isa.52:8) and as we say in our prayer, 'Let our eyes behold when Thou returnest to Zion,Thy residence'. But the invisible and spiritual Shekhinah is with every born Israelite ofpure life, pure heart and sincere devotion to the Lord of Israel. And Palestine has aspecial relation to the Lord of Israel. Pure life can be perfect only there; many of theIsraelite laws lose their force for him who does not live in Palestine. Sincere devotion381 Ksharim

and purity of life reach perfection only in a place which is believed to have a specialrelation to God, even though this belief be founded on an imaginary or comparativeconception; how much more so if it is right, as we have shown! Then the yearning isbound to be strengthened, and the desire for God must be sincere, especially in himwho travels to the Land from a great distance; still more in one who wishes to atonefor past transgressions!... Even if he incurs greater risks on account of his ardent desireof God and in order to obtain forgiveness, he is free from reproach for the sake of thedangers; it is as if he had closed the account of his life, expressed his gratitude for hispast life and his contentment with it, and devoted to his Lord the rest of his days.Running into danger, he praises God if he escapes; and should he perish through hissins, he forbears and acquiesces in his fate, being confident that he has obtainedatonement for most of his sins through his death….24. The Kuzari: I thought that thou didst love freedom; but now I see thoustrengthenest thy bondage by imposing duties which are obligatory only if thouresidest in Palestine and bidest not here.25. The Rabbi: I seek freedom-from the service of those numerous people only whosefavour I shall never obtain even if I work for it all my life and which would not profitme, even if l could obtain it: I mean the service of men and the courting of their favour.But I seek the service of One whose favour is obtained with the smallest effort andprofits in this world and the next: this is the favour of God; His service is freedom, andhumility before Him is true honour.26. The Kuzari: If thou meanest all thou sayest, God certainly knows thy piousintention; and intention is sufficient before God, who knows the intentions anddiscloses what is hidden.27. The Rabbi: This is true - only when action is impossible. But man is able toendeavour and also to work! He deserves blame when he does not apply for visiblereward through visible action...... Prayerful thoughts also are to be pronounced in themost imploring and submissive manner. Only when intention and action are broughtto perfection are they rewarded…. Actions without intention and intentions withoutaction are vain, except in that which is impossible; in such cases it is useful to bring tothe fore the good intention and to exculpate before God the omission of action, as wedo saying 'on account of our sins have we been driven out of our land' and in similarprayers. If we provoke and instill love of this sacred place among men, we may be sureof obtaining reward and of hastening the (Messianic) aim; for it is written: 'Thou shaltarise and have mercy upon Zion; for it is time to favour her, the moment is come. ForThy servants love her stones and pity her dust' (Ps. 102:14-15). This means: Jerusalemcan only be rebuilt when Israel yearns for it to such an extent that we sympathize evenwith its stones and its dust.28. The Kuzari: If this be so, it would be a sin to hinder thee; it is, on the contrary, amerit to assist thee. May God help thee: may He be thy protector and friend, andfavour thee in His mercy! Peace be with thee!382 Ksharim

2. A Longing to Return to the Land of IsraelA poem by Judah ha-LeviMy heart is in the east, and I in the uttermost west.How can I find savor in food? How shall it be sweet to me?How shall I render my vows and my bonds, while yetZion lieth beneath the fetter of Edom, and I in Arab chains?A light thing would it seem to meto leave all the good things of Spain -Seeing how precious in mine eyesto behold the dust of the desolate sanctuary.Translated by Nina Salaman, reproduced in Essential Texts of Zionism (Jewish Publication Society ofAmerica, 1924).From “Zion, Won’t You Ask?”Yehuda Halevi(Translated by Dennis Silk)Zion,won't you ask if your prisoners have peaceThat want your peace? They're the last of your flock.Peace from the Yemen, and the sea, from the far-offAnd close-at-hand, from west and north and peaceFrom desire's prisoner, he gives his tears like dewOf Hermon, he wants them to fall on your hills.Jackal-like I howl for you, but when I dreamOf your prisoners' return, I am your songs' harp.On the SeaA poem by Judah ha-Levitranslated by Nina Salaman(Excerpts from a poem thought to be written on his sea journey to Egypt on his way to theland of Israel.)383 Ksharim

My God, break not the breakers of the sea,Nor command to the deep, "Become dry".Until I thank Your mercies, and I thankThe waves of the sea and the wind of the west;Let them propel me to the place of the yoke of Your love,And bear far from me the Arab yoke.And how shall my desires not find fulfillment,Seeing as I trust in You, and You are pledged to me?……and I have no care for worldly goods,Nor for treasures nor for any perishables -Even so far that I can leave behind [in Spain] her that went forth of my loins,Sister of my soul - and she my only daughter -And I can forget her son, though it pierces my heart,And I have nothing left but his memory for a symbol -Fruit of my loins, child of my delight -Ah! How should Yehudah forget [my grandson] Yehudah?But this is a light thing compared to Your love,Since I may enter Your gates with thanksgiving,And sojourn there, and count my heartA burnt offering bound upon Your altar;And may make my grave in Your land,So that it be there a witness for me….For more see: www.angelfire.com/ct/halevi/3. Lechah Dodi by Shlomo AlkabetzCome, my beloved, with chorus of praise;Welcome Shabbat the bride, Queen of our days."Keep" and "remember," both uttered as oneBy our Creator, beyond comparison.The Lord is One and His name is One,Reflected in glory, in fame, and in praise.Come, let us all greet Shabbat, Queen sublime,Fountain of blessings in every clime.Anointed and regal since earliest time,In thought she preceded Creation's six days.Holy city, majestic, banish your fears.Arise, emerge from your desolate years.Too long have you dwelled in the valley of tears.384 Ksharim

He will restore you with mercy and grace.Arise and shake off the dust of the earth.Wear glorious garments reflecting your worth.Messiah will lead us all soon to rebirth.Let my soul now sense redemption's warm rays.Awake and arise to greet the new lightFor in your radiance the world will be bright.Sing out, for darkness is hidden from sight.The Lord through you His glory displaysIn your redemption you will never be shamed;Be not downcast, you will not be defamed.Sheltered by you will my poor be reclaimed.The city renewed on its ruins will He raise,Then your destroyers will themselves be destroyed;Ravagers, at great distance, will live in a void.Your God then will celebrate you, overjoyed,As a groom with his bride when his eyes meet her gaze.Break out of your confines, to the left and the right.Revere the Lord in whom we delight.The Messiah is coming to gladden our sight,Bringing joy and rejoicing in fullness of days.Come in peace, soul mate, sweet gift of the Lord,Greeted with joy and in song so adoredAmidst God's people, in faith in accord.Come, Bride Shabbat; come, crown of the days.4. Joseph Karoa. described in Shivchei Ha’ari:…every time he recited the Mishnah by heart, the Maggid appeared to him andpeople would hear his voice through the door or at the back of the house saying:'Peace upon thee, Rabbi Joseph Karo. I am the Mishnah which thou hast studied. Icame forth to teach thee understanding. The Holy One, blessed be His Name, praisesthee greatly in the celestial academy, saying, "my son Joseph, such and such are hisdeeds, such and such are his ways, such his diligence in his studies. Blessed is he andblessed she who bore him and blessed those who sit in his company." I the Mishnahhave seen the place that is prepared for thee in Paradise. How great are the joys anddelights awaiting thee there! Be strong and courageous in the fear of the Lord. And385 Ksharim

now I have come to reveal the following kabbalistic mystery....' And all the revelationsof the Maggid he collected in a book entitled The Book of the Maggid…b. from the “Book of the Maggid” (See R.J. Zwi Werblowsky, Joseph Karo, Lawyer andMystic, JPS 1977):…and I shall favour you to go up to Palestine this year to be united there with theTorah and to rejoice with the brethren… and whatever shall be doubtful to you [inyour studies], four-winged angels shall teach it to you.I shall privilege thee to go up to Palestine, to be united with the brethren… to raisemany disciples and make many repent. Thereafter I shall favour you to be burned forthe sanctification of my Name.(Note: Karo did go to live in Palestine. He was not burnt at the stake).5. A Tale about why the Baal Shem Tov turned back in Constantinople (as retold byRabbi Chaim Sabbato):The Baal Shem Tov yearned to go to the Land of Israel. He took his daughter and rabbiTzvi Sofer and sailed to Constantinople. They arrived at that great city on the eve ofPassover and no one recognized them. On the first intermediate day they hiredpassage to the land of Israel. A storm broke on the sea and their boat tossed in thewaves for days. On the third day the boat landed on an island. On the island the BaalShem Tov, his daughter and Rabbi Tzvi met a group of pirates who captured them andtied them up. The bandits started to sharpen their knives. Rabbi Tzvi pleaded with theBaal Shem Tov: “Do something. Use your powers and save us.” The Baal Shem Tovanswered: “My powers are gone. I remember nothing but you must remembersomething of what I taught you - do something.” But Rabbi Tzvi answered; “I tooremember nothing except for the Aleph Bet.” “What are you waiting for?” yelled theBaal Shem Tov, “Start saying them!” Together they recited the Aleph Bet again andagain until the Baal Shem Tov regained his powers and saved them. The Baal ShemTov then understood that Heaven was preventing him form entering the land of Israel,so he returned home.6. Prayer of Rabbi Nachman:From the end of earth I call to You . . . have mercy and compassion upon me, and aidme and grant me the merit to depart and arrive quickly in the holy land which is thesource of our sanctity. For You know, O Lord our God, that all our holiness and purity,and all our Jewishness are contingent upon the Land of Israel. . . . Lord of the Universe,have mercy upon us in Your great compassion and arouse in our hearts, in the heartsof our children and in the hearts of all Your people Israel desires, longings and greatyearnings for the Land of Israel.386 Ksharim

Rabbi Nachman of Bratslav used to say, "Wherever I walk, my steps turn toward EretzYisraelFrom the writing of rabbi Nachman: Rabbi Nachman of Bratslav said that when he wasin Eretz Yisrael, many of the more prominent people with whom he spoke, amongthose that had come to make their home there, told him that prior to coming to EretzYisrael they could not have pictured to themselves that it was an actual place in thisworld. And that they were convinced that Eretz Yisrael existed in another worldcompletely, because of the degree of holiness that attached to it according to theexplanations in books and the descriptions in the Torah… and because of this theycould not imagine that it was really of this world, until they came there and saw thatEretz Yisrael really is part of this world. Because physically, Eretz Yisrael is like all othercountries, and the dust of the land is like the dust of all other countries. There is nodifference. Nevertheless it is extremely holy - its holiness is absolute and very aweinspiring.7. Rabbi Nachman’s disciples record his reasons for going to Israel (in TormentedMaster, A Life of Rabbi Nahman of Bratslav, by Arthur Green, Schocken 1981)1. I heard in his name that he said before his journey to Eretz Yisrael that he wanted togo in order to attain supernal wisdom. There exist higher and lower forms ofhochmah; the lower he had already acquired, but he was yet to attain the higher. Forthis he had to go to the Land of Israel.2. It was heard from his holy mouth during the Passover season that preceded hisjourney from Medvedevka to the Land of Israel that he wanted to go to Eretz Yisrael inorder there to fulfill all of the six hundred and thirteen commandments, includingthose which are dependent upon the land together with those which may be fulfilledoutside it, fulfilling them all spiritually so that afterward he would be able to fulfillthem all physically.3. He then told R. Yudil that he wanted to go to the Land of Israel. R. Yudil offered himhis blessing and said to him: 'Our master! Surely you want to perform some great thingthere. May it be God's will to help you do that which you intend.' Our master noddedin response to his blessing and afterwards said: 'I could fulfill that which I seek anddesire to do in Eretz Yisrael right here by means of prayer and supplication alone. ThenI would not have to travel to Eretz Yisrael. The difference is that if I merit to be in ErezIsrael I will receive my understanding in "garments," whereasif I stay here I will receive it without the "garments." This is also the differencebetween the holiness of the Sabbath and that of the festival. He opened theprayerbook of the ARI of blessed memory for R. Yudil and showed him in thekawwanot that this was the difference between Sabbath and festival: that on Sabbaththe light is clothed in garments, while on festivals it does not have this garb, as isknown.387 Ksharim

4. He said that he was very happy to have merited to be in Eretz Yisrael. For on the wayto Eretz Yisrael he had undergone many obstacles, confusing thoughts, delays, andstruggles, including financial obstacles. But he had overcome them all and hadbrought the matter to completion by reaching Eretz Yisrael. He.further said this: Ibelieve, and indeed I know well, that of all the movements, thoughts and deeds thatone undertakes in order to perform some holy act, not a single one is ever lost. Forafter all the obstacles have been broken through and the act has been completed, allthose confusing thoughts and movements which had taken place while one was stillweighing the act . . . are elevated to the highest state of holiness. Everything isrecorded above for good, including every move one had to make along the way.Blessed are those who manage to overcome all the obstacles and to complete somegood deed.388 Ksharim

L e s s o n 41The Origins of ZionismOutline:1. Historical background and influences: Emancipation, Enlightenment,nationalism and persecution.2. Proto Zionists: Rabbi Judah Alklai, Rabbi Tzvi Kalischer, Moshe Hess3. The first Zionists: Pinsker & Herzl.Introduction:Zionism has changed the face of Judaism and the course of Jewish history. Was thedevelopment of Zionism a revolution – a break with all Jewish ideology that wentbefore it, the birth of a new Jew as master of his own destiny? Or, was it a realizationof the unbroken loyalty the Jewish people held for their ancestral land? Was it aJewish manifestation of nineteenth century state nationalism or a yearning for socialistutopia? Or maybe it was just another way to survive? Its origins, like Zionism itself, arecomplex and varied. In this lesson we will study the different ingredients andpersonalities that gave rise to modern Zionism and ask ourselves: did Zionism/theState of Israel provide the solutions to the problems its originators envisioned.Goals:1. Study of Jewish history in the 19th century and the various Jewish responses tothe upheavals felt by a changing world.2. Familiarity with proto-Zionists and some of their writings.3. Examination of the beginnings of modern Zionism.4. Discussion of Zionism as a revolution or a culmination and the repercussions ofeach perception.Expanded Outline:1: Historical Background and Influences1. Jews of Western Europe: From the end of the 18 th century on more and morecountries in Western Europe repealed laws that discriminated against Jewsallowing them to enter the general society as equal citizens of their respectivecountries. This new freedom came at the cost of Jewish communal autonomy. Itreplaced the concept of Jewish nationhood with that of Judaism as a religion onlythus allowing Jews to be “equal” members of any nation, loyal to their “fatherland.”One of the most interesting examples is Napoleon’s reconvened Sanhedrin. In1807, fifteen years after the emancipation of the Jews in France, Napoleon,recognizing the dangers of continued Jewish autonomy as well as the benefits of389 Ksharim

unlocking Jewish wealth and enterprise, established “the Great Sanhedrin” (71members – 46 Rabbis and 26 layman. Rabbi David Sinzheim of Strassburg was itsPresident.) They were presented with 12 questions regarding the positions ofJewry regarding polygamy, divorce, usury, other faiths, and most importantwhether they considered France to be their Fatherland (see source 1). Napoleondemanded and received from the Sanhedrin affirmations that rabbinicaljurisdiction would be limited to matters of religion, tradition and practice, thatFrance alone had claim on their political allegiance and that the dream of a returnto Israel had been renounced forever. (It is interesting to note that later Napoleonused these answers as a justification for limiting Jews’ rights and passingdecimator laws.)This perception of Jewishness, approved by the “Sanhedrin” became accepted inWestern Jewish communities where Jews sought to integrate fully into society. TheseJews, now equal or almost equal citizens in their respective in states, were free to livewhere they pleased, engage in business and professions as they chose. The Jewsproved themselves loyal, productive citizens, sure that this was the basis for theirequality. They saw themselves as Germans or Frenchmen or Americans of “Mosaic”faith and gradually dropped the references to Zion in their ritual (ritual itself becameless meaningful as more and more left religious life altogether). The messianic periodwas perceived as an era of universal brotherhood as opposed to a time of return to theland of Israel. They were educated and wealthy, organized and influential. They wereconcerned with the well-being of Jews in other places and succeeded at times inintervening on their behalf; for example during the Damascus Blood libel of 1840.These Jews were the minority of the Jewish people but they were the elite.Paradoxically, while these Jews had had no Zionist sentiments and indeed werestriving for the very opposite goal of integration in their countries, their success,wealth and influence served as both an inspiration and means for the first Zionistthinkers.Questions for Discussion: Read source 1: How would the participants answer those questions if theywere asked now of American Jews? Last year the French Government was outraged when Israeli ministerscalled for massive aliya from France in the face of growing anti-Semitism.How does that relate to the Sanhedrin’s assurance of loyalty to the Frenchfatherland in Napoleon’s times? How would you feel as a French/Americancitizen today in response to such a call? Does the existence of the State of Israel ease or exacerbate the question ofJewish national identity?2. Jews of Eastern Europe: In Eastern Europe, where the majority of Jews resided, lifewas not so good. Most were living under the repressive Romanov rule in Russiawhere they were confined to the Pale of Settlement and suffered many restrictions390 Ksharim

in opportunity for livelihood. Most lived very traditional lifestyles in small villages,shut off from all modern influences and ideas. Here Zion was a cherished dreamand hope always present in liturgy and ritual. The messianic ideal was a return tothe Holy land – the Jewish people transplanted to a Zion physically restored. Yet atthe same time as a result of the disaster of false messiahs there was an equallyentrenched belief against “forcing the end”. Redemption would be a physicalrevival in the Land of Israel but it would happen miraculously.In 1855 Alexander the Second became Czar and repealed some of the morerepressive laws. He allowed Jews to move out of the Pale, allowed Jews into theUniversities and practice professions. This period was the beginning of EasternEuropean enlightenment (Haskalah). Humanism and secularism became popular,urging Jews to become productive members of larger society. Liberalism,humanism and secularism influenced many Jews as they left the shtetl. At thesame time Russian Jews placed more value on their heritage than their WesternEuropean counterparts. For example there was a revival of Hebrew as manyHaskalah writers chose it as their language of expression instead of Yiddish. Othersurged Jews not to reject their ancestral loyalties in their quest to become citizensof the world. (see source 2).In 1881 Alexander the Third became Czar after his father was assassinated byrevolutionaries. He was a reactionary, almost immediately enacting the May Lawsthat closed all further rural areas to Jews even within the Pale, thus forcing manyout of countryside and into the city slums. Rural Jews were the object of enforced“Russification.” Quotas were put on high schools and universities and professionsclosed once again to Jews. At the same time the Jews were equated withrevolutionaries and a series of pogroms erupted throughout Russia and theUkraine. This is the time of the infamous "policy” to rid Russia of its Jews asreported by the minister of Interior: a third of the Jews will die, a third will emigrateand a third will assimilate. The majority of European Jews once again foundthemselves in a desperate situation with their very continued existence inquestion. This renewed persecution shattered Russian Jewry’s illusions of equality.Even their faith in enlightenment was destroyed as academics and intellectualsjoined in the anti-Jewish campaign. (See source 3). There was a strong awarenessof the need to leave. Most saw the United States as the best refuge yet a minorityof Jewish thinkers argues that to continuing being a minority anywhere was nolonger the answer. (see source 4)3. Nineteenth century Europe was replete with nationalist movements. Between1850 and 1914, strong nation-states developed. France under Napoleon III,Germany was united under Bismarck, Italy united. Pan-Slavic movements,Hungarian and Slovakian nationalisms emerged. These movements and theirsuccesses inspired early Zionist thinkers who asked “Why should we be any lessworthy or capable than other people?” (see source 5)391 Ksharim

Questions for discussion:Do you see Zionist thinking arising as a vision of an ideal Jewish identity oras an answer to a pressing need for Jewish existence? Notice the samequestion arises about the establishment of the State of Israel itself that wasrealized only on the heels of the Holocaust.If persecution and discrimination were forces behind the emergence ofZionism why didn’t it evolve before the late 19 th century – There was plentyof Jewish suffering before? Compare the conclusions of the first Zionists tothose of the medieval philosophers and Jews who went to the land of Israelon the heels of the expulsion from Spain; what similarities find, whatdifferences?2: Proto-ZionistsDecades before Herzl, there began to appear treatises and articles outlining theneed for establishing a Jewish presence in the Holy Land. These writers drewmainly from the Orthodox world and the messianic dream but where as theirpredecessor spoke of a mystical redemption they urged and implementedpractical initiatives to bring about the return of large numbers of Jews to theirancestral land. These writings can be seen as catalysts that helped set theideological stage for the emergence of political Zionism.1. Rabbi Judah Alklai: Born at the end of the 18 th century R. Alkali served as apreacher in the Sephardic community of Semlin, near Belgrade. In 1839 hepublished a book in Ladino-Hebrew called Darchei Noam (Pleasant Paths)in which he wrote of the need to establish Jewish colonies in the Holy Landas a prelude to the Redemption. Later he published a book called “ShemaYisroel” (Hear O Israel) where using proof texts he argued that humaninitiative and effort were justified as means needed to bring theredemption. In 1843 He published a booklet called “Minchat Yehuda” (theOffering of Judah) calling on twenty two thousand Jews to settle the landas a pre-requisite or initial stage of the final redemption. (based on theBiblical passage “Return O L-rd, unto the tens and thousands of families inIsrael” which the Talmud says proves that the Divine Presence can be felt ifthere are at least two thousand and two tens of thousands of Israelitestogether). R. Alkali published his ideas extensively and settled himself inPalestine where he managed to organize a small group of followersincluding Simon Leob Herzl – Theodor Herzl’s grandfather.R. Alkalai saw in the “miracle” of Jewish intercession for the victims of theDamascus blood libel a precedent for utilizing the wealth and influence ofthe wealthy Western European Jews to settle Jews in the Holy land. Aforerunner of the ideas that Herzl later realized, R. Alkalai envisioned392 Ksharim

encouraging Jewish unity through an all embracing organization a “GreatAssembly” and the creation of a national fund to purchase land. (see source6).2. Rabbi Tzvi Hirsch Kalischer: Born in 1795 in a village in western Poland.He grew up on the border between western and eastern Poland, influencedboth by the Orthodoxy of the east and enlightenment of the west. He wasrecognized as an outstanding Talmudic scholar, known for his saintliness. RKalischer was also versed in both Jewish and general philosophy as well asKabala. He served as the Rabbi of a large congregation in Thorn, Prussia. Hetoo saw the triumph of Western emancipation as a harbinger of messianicredemption in Palestine. In 1843 R. Kalischer first published his views in twovolumes called "Emunah Yesharim” (An Honest Faith) and in 1862published “Drishat Zion” (The Search for Zion). Using proof texts from theBible and Talmud R. Kalischer argued that the salvation of the Jews asforetold by the prophets could take place through natural means, by selfhelpas opposed to waiting for the messiah. Therefore the settlement ofPalestine should start immediately and even the revival of sacrifices waspermissible in the Holy land. Only when many pious Jews lived in the landwould G-D heed their prayers and speed the days of the redemption. R.Kalischer was a man of action, not just words and prayers. He urged theformation of a society of rich Jews to undertake the colonization of Zion,including settling Jews in the land, training them in self-defense and evenestablishing an agricultural school. In 1836 he petitioned Anschel Rothchildto purchase the Land of Israel or at the very least the Temple Mount. RabbiKalischer saw these practical acts as necessary for bringing the redemption.Later, together with a few influential contemporaries, R. Kalischer formed a“Society for the Colonization of the Land of Israel” At R. Kalischer’s initiativethe “Alliance Israelite Universelle” - French Jewish philanthropy, providedthe initial subsidy for a Jewish Agricultural school which was established in1870 near Jaffa and called “Mikveh Yisrael” (The Hope of Israel). In 1872 R.Kalischer was asked to serve as the religious overseer at Mikveh Yisroel butdue to his age and infirmity was unable to travel. R. Kalischer died in 1874in Thorn. (see source 7)3. Moses Hess: Moses Hess was born in Bonn to an Orthodox family in 1812.He received a traditional Jewish education but as an autodidact learnedGerman and French as a means to secular learning. Initially, Hess was autopian socialist but following his acquaintance with Marx he moved fromphilosophy to ideological politics. Influenced by the Damascus blood libel,the writings of Mazzini and the unification of Italy and the emergence ofGerman anti-Semitism, Hess eventually returned to his Jewish roots. His393 Ksharim

ooklet Rome and Jerusalem; The Last National Question, written in 1862, isevidence of this change. In it he argues: (1) The Jews will always remainstrangers among the European peoples, who may emancipate them forreasons of humanity and justice, but will never respect them so long as theJews place their own great national memories in the background and holdto the principle, "Ubi bene, ibi patria." (2) The Jewish type is indestructible,and Jewish national feeling can not be uprooted, although the GermanJews, for the sake of a wider and more general emancipation, persuadethemselves and others to the contrary. (3) If the emancipation of the Jews isirreconcilable with Jewish nationality, the Jews must sacrifice emancipationto nationality. Hess considered that the only solution of the Jewish questionlies in the colonization of Palestine. He confidently hoped that Francewould aid the Jews in founding colonies extending from Suez to Jerusalem,and from the banks of the Jordan to the coast of the Mediterranean. Hess’sproposed Jewish State was to be socialist in nature. Rome und Jerusalemmet with a cold reception. Hess died 1n 1875 in Paris although at hisrequest was buried in the Jewish cemetery in Cologne. In 1961 his remainswere transferred to Israel where they were buried in the Kinneret cemeteryalongside other Socialist-Zionists such as Nahum Syrkin, Ber Borochov, andBerl Katznelson.Questions for Discussion:Most of the main themes of modern Zionism are present in Alkalai,Kalischer and Hess’s writing yet at the time their work had littleinfluence on their respective audiences and seemed to have nolasting effect. Why? Was the difficulty in their personalities or thesurrounding audience?The Zionists writers that arose twenty years later were unfamiliarwith these men and their works even though the arguments setforth are very similar. The second time these ideas were set forththey set off a continuous, growing process that became Zionism,why didn’t it start with these personalities?Do their arguments convince you today? Why or why not?3: The First Zionists: From Pinsker to Herzl.The Proto-Zionists lived and wrote at the height of mid-century liberalism, in a time ofoptimism on the future of Jewish emancipation in Europe. Most of their argument andphilosophy were based on messianic beliefs or renewed nationalism. They lackedurgency. Hess was the first to argue that not only Jewish religious or national idealsneeded fulfillment in the land but that physical survival also demanded it; but in hisday the climate was of emancipation, enlightenment and liberalism, which held onlypromise for the future - not threats - making such arguments less than convincing.394 Ksharim

Most of these writers hailed from the Orthodox world (even Hess, who left it, returnedto his Jewish roots) and so they failed to reach or have relevance for the secular,liberal, enlightened Jews. It took the renewed persecution in form of the May Laws,the pogroms that erupted in Russia and eastern Europe, and outbreaks of anti-Semitism in western Europe to crystallize Zionist thought into a form meaningful tothe secular liberal Jew. The continuous history of Zionism can be traced from 1881.Leon Pinsker: Born in to an enlightened family in Odessa, Pinsker studied first law inthe University of Odessa and then Medicine in the University of Moscow. Until thepogroms in 1871 Pinsker was an adherent of emancipation and enlightenment. Hewas one of the founders of a Russian-language weekly which encouraged Jews tospeak Russian and was later a contributor to a weekly which urged Jews to assimilate.After the events of 1881, government-sponsored anti-Semitism caused Pinsker tomake a complete about-face. He no longer viewed the Enlightenment and Haskalahmovement as the correct course for Russian Jews and no longer believed thathumanism would defeat hatred of the Jews. He came to think that anti-Semitism wasrooted in the fact that Jews were foreigners, and that they should emigrate to EretzYisrael. He traveled to western Europe where he tried to convince Jewish leaders of hisplan for Jewish survival. In 1882 Pinsker published his essay “Auto-Emancipation”(originally written in German). It was the first time that the vulnerability of the Jews asa homeless people was systematically demonstrated. Pinsker argued that Jews wouldnever be treated with respect until they attained national equality with the othernations in their own land with their own government and representation as opposedto being an unnatural “phantom people” among the nations. (see source 9)In 1884 Pinsker summoned a national conference of the various Zionist study groupsthat had begun to function in many of the Pale’s towns and cities, known since the1870’s collectively called Chovevei Zion (Lovers of Zion). Thirty four delegates met inthe German city of Kattowitz and reached a consensus to finance Jewish settlement inPalestine. The organization’s central office was established in Odessa with Pinsker asits president. Chovevei Zion grew rapidly in the 1890’s with branches in many parts ofEurope and even in the States. Pinsker died in 1891, pessimistic about the reality ofsettling Palestine after the Ottomans outlawed Jewish immigration. He began toconsider forming a Jewish country in Argentina. In 1934 his remains were moved toMount Scopus in Jerusalem.Theodor Herzl:Born in 1860 to a prosperous, emancipated Budapest family, he was fluent in Germanand French but lacked Hebrew, Yiddish, and Russian; he was secular, cosmopolitanintellectual, a doctor of law, a successful journalist and editor and a minor playwright.Preoccupied with the Jewish question form the early 1890’s what catalyzed Herzl'sconversion to Zionism was the Dreyfus affair in France. In 1894-95 Alfred Dreyfus, aFrench Jewish officer, was wrongfully convicted of treason and confined to Devil'sIsland. The trial triggered a wave of anti-Semitism in France. Herzl himself wrote that it395 Ksharim

was the crowd shouting at Dreyfus “A la Mort les Juifs” that caused his own criticalmoment of recognition.In 1895 Herzl met with Baron de Hirsch and tried to unsuccessfully convince him tosupport Jewish political education for self-support and ultimately self-government in aland of their own. Undiscouraged by Hirsch’s refusal Herzl continued to meetinfluential Jews and in 1896 he published Der Judenstaat, or The Jewish State:AnAttempt at a Modern Solution of the Jewish Question. In it Herzl argued that anti-Semitism was a fact that could not be wished away and that the Jewish question wasneither social nor religious but national. All attempts to merge with nationalcommunities have failed and therefore the only solution was to gather all Jews fromall over the world into a land of their own. Most of the essay detailed in practical terms,how to go about this Jewish exodus and transplantation. He argued that gradualsettlement, which had been advocated until now, was not enough but first there mustbe international recognition of the right of the Jews to collective national settlement.While Palestine was the logical first choice because of historic ties, Herzl was preparedto consider other locations such as Argentina or later Uganda.While scorned by the liberal European press and Jews, Herzl met with the Turkishgrand vizier and foreign minister, to whom he offered what he had outlined in hisessay: Jewish financiers would relieve the economic distress off the Ottoman Empire inexchange for a charter of Jewish settlement in Palestine. The Sultan refused. In 1896he met with Baron Edmond De Rothschild in Paris who was also less than impressedwith Herzl’s scheme. Meanwhile his essay had made its way to eastern Europe where itwas enthusiastically received. Chovevei Zion asked Herzl to accept leadership of themovement. As a result of the growing mass support Herzl decided to organize “ageneral Zionist day;” after being refused cooperation in Munich, Herzl organized thefirst Zionist congress in Basel, Switzerland on August 29, 1897. 204 delegates from 15countries participated. The congress established the Zionist Organization. Herzl keptup his international efforts to secure a charter for Jewish settlement. He hoped to winthe support of Kaiser Wilhelm and eventually the Sultan himself, but was unsuccessfuldue first to the Sultan’s refusal and later to the refusal of the Jewish philanthropists tofinance the project. Later Herzl tried to convince the British to allow Jewish settlementin Cyprus or el Arish.In 1903 Joseph Chamberlain (British Colonial Secretary) offered Herzl Uganda.Although Herzl initially refused the offer, a wave of pogroms that swept throughRussia that year convinced him of the need to find an immediate solution. The sixthZionist congress in 1903 was bitterly divided over the idea. Herzl died in July 1904. In1949 Herzl’s remains were flown To Israel where they were interred on a ridge facingJerusalem called Mount Herzl.What made Herzl unique as opposed to Pinsker and the other Russian and easternEuropean Zionists was the fact that he was a secularized, emancipated Jew living396 Ksharim

successfully in a pluralistic Hapsburg society. His was the first time these argumentswere presented without being based on Jewish tradition or culture. Herzl’s articulateessay introduced Zionism to European readers, scholars and statesmen in a languagethey could understand. At the same time his regal appearance and charisma capturedthe imagination and hearts of the Jewish masses, especially in eastern Europe, whosaw him as a modern day Moses. More important Herzl saw the attempt to resolve theJewish question not just as an idea of a Jewish State but as a real political solutionattainable through the help and collaboration of the European powers. He tookZionism from the realm of ideas and dreams to the real world of politics and statecraft.Theodor Herzl put Zionism on the map. He in effect invented Zionism as a truepolitical movement and an international force.Questions for discussion:Conclusion Has the State of Israel helped solved the Jewish Question – has it mitigatedanti-Semitism as Pinsker and Herzl envisioned? Has Israel become the world’s Jew as Natan Scharansky argues (see:http://www.geocities.com/munichseptember1972/on_hating_jews.htm)? As American Jews does having a “homeland” enrich your Jewish identityor complicate it?The roots of Zionism were many and varied. It can be argued that modern Zionism wasa revolution, a break with all that had defined Jews and Judaism for two thousandyears. Indeed the Zionist leaders saw themselves as New Jews, different and divorcedfrom the weak subjugated Jews of the Diaspora. Does that mean that the State ofIsrael as the realization of Zionism also has no connection to the “old Jewish” identityand culture and tradition? Two thousand years of history are to be erased? Or it canbe said that Zionism was but a Jewish version of state nationalism that was prevalentin the 19 th century. Does that mean that it has no place in today’s “global’ world? Botharguments ignore the sources that Zionism drew almost instinctively from Jewishthought, religion and philosophy. Zionism was an innovation but it was also aculmination of the 2000 years that led to its evolution. The new Jew has realized theold Jew’s prayers – or has he? The first Zionists had disdain for assimilated Jewstrying, in vain, to become equal members of European society. Does that mean theState they envisioned was culturally different from the West? What about the“Americanization” of Israel today (the most prevalent restaurant in the country isMacDonald’s)?397 Ksharim

Sources1. THE ASSEMBLY OF JEWISH NOTABLES Answers to Napoleon(For full Transcript see www.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/363_Transp/Sanhedrin.html)Second Question:Is divorce allowed by the Jewish religion? Is divorce valid when not pronounced bycourts of justice by virtue of laws in contradiction with those of the French Code?Answer:Repudiation is allowed by the Law of Moses; but it is not valid if not previouslypronounced by the French code.In the eyes of every Israelite, without exception, submission to the prince is the first ofduties. It is a Principle generally acknowledged among them, that, in every thingrelating to civil or political interests, the law of the state is the supreme law. Beforethey were admitted in France to share the rights of all citizens, and when they livedunder a particular legislation which set them at liberty to follow their religiouscustoms, they had the ability to divorce their wives; but it was extremely rare to see itput into practice. Since the revolution, they have acknowledged no other laws on thishead but those of the empire. At the epoch when they were admitted to the rank ofcitizens, the Rabbis and the principal Jews appeared before the municipalities of theirrespective places of abode, and took an oath to conform, in every thing to the laws,and to acknowledge no other rules in all civil matters...Fourth Question:In the eyes of Jews, are Frenchmen considered as their brethren? Or are theyconsidered as strangers?Answer:In the eyes of Jews Frenchmen are their brethren, and are not strangers.The true spirit of the Law of Moses is consonant with this mode of consideringFrenchmen. When the Israelites formed n settled land or independent nation, their lawmade it a rule for them to consider strangers as their brethren.With the most tender care for their welfare, their lawgiver commands to love them,"Love ye therefore the strangers," says he to the Israelites, "for ye were strangers in the`398 Ksharim

land of Egypt."" Respect and benevolence towards strangers are enforced by Moses,not as an exhortation to the practice of social morality only, but as an obligationimposed by God himself.A religion whose fundamental maxims are such--a religion which makes a duty ofloving the stranger--which enforces the practice of social virtues, must surely requirethat its followers should consider their fellow-citizens as brethren.And how could they consider them otherwise when they inhabit the same land, whenthey are ruled and protected by the same government, and by the same laws? Whenthey enjoy the same rights, and have the same duties to fulfill? There exists, evenbetween the Jew and Christian, a tie which abundantly compensates for religion--it isthe tie of gratitude. This sentiment was at first excited in us by the mere grant oftoleration. It has been increased, these eighteen years, by new favors fromgovernment, to such a degree of energy, that now our fate is irrevocably linked withthe common fate of all Frenchmen. Yes, France is our country; all Frenchmen are ourbrethren, and this glorious title, by raising us our own esteem, becomes a sure pledgethat we shall never cease to be worthy of it.Fifth Question:In either case, what line of conduct does their law prescribe towards Frenchmen not oftheir religion?Answer:The line of conduct prescribed towards Frenchmen not of our religion, is the same asthat prescribed between Jews themselves; we admit of no differences but that ofworshipping the Supreme Being, every one in his own way.The answer to the preceding question has explained the line of conduct which theLaw of Moses and the Talmud prescribe towards French men not of our religion. At thepresent time, when the Jews no longer form a separate people, but enjoy theadvantage of being incorporated with the Great Nation (which privilege they consideras a kind of political redemption), it is impossible that a Jew should treat a Frenchman,not of his religion, in any other manner than he would treat one of his Israelitebrethren.Sixth Question:Do Jews born in France, and treated by the laws as French citizens, consider Francetheir country?Are they bound to defend it?399 Ksharim

Are they bound to obey the laws and to conform to the dispositions of the civil code?Answer:Men who have adopted a country, who have resided in it these many generations--who, even under the restraint of particular laws which abridged their civil rights, wereso attached to it that they preferred being debarred from the advantages common toall other citizens, rather than leave it--cannot but consider themselves as Frenchmenin France; and they consider as equally sacred and honorable the bounden duty ofdefending their country.Jeremiah (chapter 29) exhorts the Jews to consider Babylon as their country, althoughthey were to remain in it only for seventy years. He exhorts them to till the ground, tobuild houses, to sow, and to plant. His recommendation was so much attended to,that Ezra (chapter 2) says, that when Cyrus allowed them to return to Jerusalem torebuild the Temple, 42,360 only, left Babylon; and that this number was mostlycomposed of the poor people, the wealthy having remained in that city.The love of the country is in the heart of Jews a sentiment so natural, so powerful, andso consonant to their religious opinions, that a French Jew considers himself inEngland, as among strangers, although he may be among Jews; and the case is thesame with English Jews in France.To such a pitch is this sentiment carried among them, that during the last war, FrenchJews have been seen fighting desperately against other Jews, the subjects of countriesthen at war with France.Many of them are covered with honorable wounds, and others have obtained, in thefield of honor, the noble rewards of bravery.Eighth Question:What police jurisdiction do Rabbis exercise among the Jews?What judicial power do they enjoy among them?Answer:The Rabbis exercise no manner of Police Jurisdiction among the Jews. It is only in theMishnah and in the Talmud that the word Rabbi is found for the first time applied to adoctor in the law; and he was commonly indebted for this qualification to hisreputation, and to the opinion generally entertained of his learning.400 Ksharim

When the Israelites were totally dispersed, they formed small communities in thoseplaces where they were allowed to settle in certain numbers.Sometimes, in these circumstances, a Rabbi and two other doctors formed a kind oftribunal, named Beth Din, that is, House of Justice; the Rabbi fulfilled the functions ofjudge, and the other two those of his assessors.The attributes, and even the existence of these tribunals, have, to this day, alwaysdepended on the will of government under which the Jews have lived, and on thedegree of tolerance they have enjoyed. Since the revolution those rabbinical tribunalsare totally suppressed in France, and in Italy. The Jews, raised to the rank of citizens,have conformed in every thing to the laws of the state; and, accordingly, the functionsof Rabbis, wherever any are established, are limited to preaching morality in thetemples, blessing marriages, and pronouncing divorces....Ninth Question:Are these forms of Election, and that police-jurisdiction, regulated by law, or are theyonly sanctioned by custom?Answer:The answer to the preceding questions makes it useless to say much on this, only itmay be remarked, that, even supposing that Rabbis should have, to this day, preservedsome kind of police-judicial jurisdiction among us, which is not the case, neither suchjurisdiction, nor the forms of the elections, could be said to be sanctioned by the law;they should be attributed solely to custom.2. Peretz Smolenskin: Am Olam (An Eternal People) published in HaShachar in1872:“The willfully blind bid us to be like all other nations, and I repeat after them: let usbe like all other nations, pursuing and attaining knowledge, leaving off fromwickedness and folly….Yes, let us be like all other nations, ashamed of the rockwhence we have been hewn, like the rest in holding dear our language and theglory of our people.”3. Lev Levanda Rassviet ( A Russian Jewish Journal as recorded in “A history ofIsrael “ H. Sachar p/13“ When I think of what was done to us, how we were taught to love Russia and theRussian word, how we were lured into introducing the Russian language andeverything Russian into our home and how we are now rejected andhounded…my heart is filed with corroding despair from which there is no escape.”401 Ksharim

4. Moshe Lilienblum, (b in 1843, raised in an Orthodox home and taught Talmudin his younger years, became interested in the Haskala and moved to Odessawhere he became a distinguished humanist writer, hid in a basement in Odessaduring the riots of 1881 which totally changed his world view and he devotedthe rest of his life to Zionist movement. He was a significant factor in HibbatZion and a active supporter of Herzl)From his diary: “May 7 1881: ..The rioters approached the house I am staying in.The women shrieked and wailed, hugging the children to their breasts, anddidn’t know where to turn. The men stood dumbfounded. We all imagined thatin a few moments it would all be over with us… but thank G-D , they werefrightened away by the soldiers and we were not harmed. I am glad I havesuffered. At least once in my life I have had the opportunity of feeling what myancestors felt every day of their lives….”Later he wrote of those days cowering in a basement as Russian mobsrampaged his neighborhood: “All the old ideals left me in a flash. There is nohome for us in this or any other Gentile land.”5. Moses Hess: Rome and Jerusalem: “On the ruins of Christian Rome aregenerated Italian people is arising, …The nations will awaken oncemore...only a national renaissance can endow the religious genius of the Jews,like the legendary giant when he touches mother earth, with new strength, andraise its soul once again to the level of prophetic inspiration”R. Tzvi Hersch Kalischer, Seeking Zion: Why do the people of Italy and ofother countries sacrifice their lives for the land of their fathers, while we, likemen bereft of strength and courage do nothing? Are we inferior to all otherpeoples, who have no regard for life or fortune as compared with love of theirland and nation? Let us take to heart the examples of the Italians, the Poles?And the Hungarians who laid down their lives and possessions and whostruggle for national independence, while we, the Children of Israel, who havethe most glorious and holiest of lands as our inheritance, are spiritless andsilent. We should be ashamed of ourselves, for our duty is to labor not only forthe glory of our ancestors but for the glory of G-D who chose Zion.”6. Rabbi Judah Alkalai; Minchat Yehuda “In the first conquest, under Joshua,the almighty brought the children of Israel into a land that wasprepared…..This New redemption will – alas because of our sins - be different:our land is waste and desolate, and we shall have to build houses, dig wells,and plant vines and olive trees…Redemption must come slowly. The land mustby degrees be built up and prepared….The Redemption will begin by theefforts of the Jews themselves; they must organize and unite, choose leadersand leave the lands of the exile. Since no community can exist without agoverning body, the very first ordinance must be the appointment of the402 Ksharim

elders of each district, men of piety and wisdom, to oversee all the affairs of thecommunity. I humbly suggest that this chosen assembly – the assembly of theelders - is what is meant by the promise to us of the messiah, the son ofJoseph.”7. Rabbi Tzvi Hirsch Kalischer; Drishat Zion (Seeking Zion): “My dear Reader!Cast aside the conventional view that the Messiah will suddenly blast on thegreat Trumpet and cause all the inhabitants of the earth to tremble. On thecontrary, the redemption will begin by awakening support among thephilanthropists and by gaining consent of the nations to the gathering of someof the scattered of Israel into the Holy Land…….. I would suggest that anorganization be established to encourage settlement in the Holy Land, for thepurpose of purchasing and cultivating farms and vineyards. Such a programwould appear as a ray of deliverance to those now living in the Land in povertyand famine… The situation would be different if we were inspired by the fervorof working the land with our own hands. Surely G-D would bless our labor andthere would be no need to import grain form Egypt and other neighboringcountries, for our harvest would prosper greatly….another great advantage ofagricultural settlement is that we would have the privilege of observing thereligious commandments that attach to working the soil of the holy Land.…Such a policy would also raise our dignity among the nations, for they wouldsay that the Children of Israel, too, have the will to redeem the land of theirancestors, which is now so barren and forsaken.”8. "After an estrangement of twenty years I am back with my people. I have cometo be one of them again, to participate in the celebration of the holy days; toshare the memories and hopes of the nation, to take part in the spiritual andintellectual warfare going' on within the House of Israel, and between ourpeople and the surrounding civilized nations. The Jews have lived and laboredamong the nations for almost two thousand years but none the less theycannot become rooted organically within them. A thought which I believed tobe for ever buried in my heart has been awakened in me anew. It is the thoughtof my nationality, which is inseparably connected with the ancestral heritageand the memories of the Holy Land and the Eternal City-the birthplace of thebelief in the divine unity of life and of the hope in the future brotherhood ofman... ."“..the main problem of the Jewish national movement is not of a religiousnature but centers on one point, namely on how to awaken the patrioticsentiment in the hearts of our progressive Jews, and how to liberate the Jewishmasses, by means of this reawakened patriotism from a spirit deadeningformalism. If we succeed in this beginning then no matter how difficult thepractical realization of our plan may be, the difficulties will be overcome by403 Ksharim

experience itself…The objections of progressive Jews to the restoration of aJewish state…rest in moral and intellectual narrow mindness, which is unableto risotto that high humanitarian standpoint from which one can see the depthof the misfortune of our people, as well as the means of its salvation.”For details on Pre-Zionists see:www.jafi.org.il/education/timeline/prezionists/9. Leon Pinsker; Auto-Emancipation: excerpts“The Jews are not a nation because they lack a certain distinctive nationalcharacter, inherent in all other nations, which is formed by common residence in asingle state. It was clearly impossible for this national character to be developed inthe Diaspora; the Jews seem rather to have lost all remembrance of their formerhome. Thanks to their ready adaptability, they have all the more easily acquiredcharacteristics, not inborn, of the people among whom fate has thrown them.Often to please their protectors, they recommend their traditional individualityentirely. They acquired or persuaded themselves into certain cosmopolitantendencies which could no more appeal to others than bring satisfaction tothemselves.”“In seeking to fuse with other peoples they deliberately renounced to some extenttheir own nationality. Yet nowhere did they succeed in obtaining from their fellowcitizensrecognition as natives of equal status.But the greatest impediment in the path of the Jews to an independent nationalexistence is that they do not feel its need. Not only that, but they go so far as todeny its authenticity.In the case of a sick man, the absence of desire for food is a very serious symptom.It is not always possible to cure him of this ominous loss of appetite. And even ifhis appetite is restored, it is still a question whether he will be able to digest food,even though he desires it.The Jews are in the unhappy condition of such a patient. We must discuss thismost important point with all possible precision. We must prove that themisfortunes of the Jews are due, above all, to their lack of desire for nationalindependence; and that this desire must be awakened and maintained in time ifthey do not wish to be subjected forever to disgraceful existence -- in a word, wemust prove that they must become a nation.”“But after the Jewish people had ceased to exist as an actual state, as a politicalentity, they could nevertheless not submit to total annihilation -- they lived on404 Ksharim

spiritually as a nation. The world saw in this people the uncanny form of one ofthe dead walking among the living. The Ghostlike apparition of a living corpse, ofa people without unity or organization, without land or other bonds of unity, nolonger alive, and yet walking among the living -- this spectral form withoutprecedence in history, unlike anything that preceded or followed it, could butstrangely affect the imagination of the nations. And if the fear of ghosts issomething inborn, and has a certain justification in the psychic life of mankind,why be surprised at the effect produced by this dead but still living nation.A fear of the Jewish ghost has passed down the generations and the centuries.First a breeder of prejudice, later in conjunction with other forces we are about todiscuss, it culminated in Judeophobia.”“If the basis of our argument is sound, if the prejudice of mankind against us restsupon anthropological and social principles, innate and ineradicable, we must lookno more to the slow progress of humanity. And we must learn to recognize that aslong as we lack a home of our own, such as the other nations have, we mustresign forever the noble hope of becoming the equals of our fellow-men. We mustrecognize that before the great idea of human brotherhood will unite all thepeoples of the earth, millenniums must elapse; and that meanwhile a peoplewhich is at home everywhere and nowhere, must everywhere be regarded asalien. The time has come for a sober and dispassionate realization of our trueposition.With unbiased eyes and without prejudice we must see in the mirror of thenations the tragi-comic figure of our people, which with distorted countenanceand maimed limbs helps to make universal history without managing properly itsown little history. We must reconcile ourselves once and for all to the idea that theother nations, by reason of their inherent natural antagonism, will forever rejectus. We must not shut our eyes to this natural force which works like every otherelemental force; we must take it into account. We must not complain of it; on thecontrary, we are in duty bound to take courage, to rise, and to see to it that we donot remain forever the Cinderella, the butt of the peoples. We are no morejustified in leaving our national fortune in the hands of the other peoples than weare in making them responsible for our national misfortune. The human race,including ourselves, has hardly reached the first stage of the interminable road toperfection in human conduct, providing the goal is to be reached at all. We must,therefore, abandon the delusion that we are fulfilling by our dispersion aProvidential mission, a mission in which no one believes, an honorable post whichwe, to speak frankly, would gladly resign, if the odious epithet "Jew" could only beblotted out of the memory of man. We must seek our honor and our salvation notin self-deceptions, but in the restoration of our national ties. Hitherto the worldhas not considered us as a firm of standing, and consequently we enjoyed nogenuine credit.405 Ksharim

If other national movements which have risen before our eyes were their ownjustification, can it still be questioned whether the Jews have a similar right?”“If we would have a secure home, give up our endless life of wandering and rise tothe dignity of a nation in our own eyes and in the eyes of the world, we must,above all, not dream of restoring ancient Judea. We must not attach ourselves tothe place where our political life was once violently interrupted and destroyed. Thegoal of our present endeavors must be not the "Holy Land," but a land of our own.We need nothing but a large tract of land for our poor brothers, which shall remainour property and from which no foreign power can expel us. There we shall takewith us the most sacred possessions which we have saved from the ship-wreck ofour former country, the God-idea and the Bible. It is these alone which have madeour old fatherland the Holy Land, and not Jerusalem or the Jordan. Perhaps theHoly Land will again become ours. If so, all the better, but first of all , we mustdetermine -- and this is the crucial point -- what country is accessible to us, and atthe same time adapted to offer the Jews of all lands who must leave their homes asecure and undisputed refuge, capable of productivization.”For complete essay see: http://www.mideastweb.org/autoemancipation.htm10. Theodor Herzl; The Jewish State, excerptsThe idea I have developed in this pamphlet is an ancient one: It is the restoration ofthe Jewish State. . . The decisive factor is our propelling force. And what is that force?The plight of the Jews. . . I am profoundly convinced that I am right, though I doubtwhether I shall live to see myself proved so. Those who today inaugurate thismovement are unlikely to live to see its glorious culmination. But the veryinauguration is enough to inspire in them a high pride and the joy of an innerliberation of their existence. . .The plan would seem mad enough if a single individual were to undertake it; but ifmany Jews simultaneously agree on it, it is entirely reasonable, and its achievementpresents no difficulties worth mentioning. The idea depends only on the number of itsadherents. Perhaps our ambitious young men, to whom every road of advancement isnow closed, and for whom the Jewish state throws open a bright prospect of freedom,happiness, and honor perhaps they will see to it that this idea is spread. . .It depends on the Jews themselves whether this political document remains for thepresent a political romance. If this generation is too dull to understand it rightly, afuture, finer, more advanced generation will arise to comprehend it. The Jews who willtry it shall achieve their State; and they will deserve it. . .I consider the Jewish question neither a social nor a religious one, even though itsometimes takes these and other forms. It is a national question, and to solve it we406 Ksharim

must first of all establish it as an international political problem to be discussed andsettled by the civilized nations of the world in council.We are a people — one people.We have sincerely tried everywhere to merge with the national communities in whichwe live, seeking only to preserve the faith of our fathers. It is not permitted us. In vainare we loyal patriots, sometimes super loyal; in vain do we make the same sacrifices oflife and property as our fellow citizens; in vain do we strive to enhance the fame of ournative lands in the arts and sciences, or her wealth by trade and commerce. In ournative lands where we have lived for centuries we are still decried as aliens, often bymen whose ancestors had not yet come at a time when Jewish sighs had long beenheard in the country. . .Oppression and persecution cannot exterminate us. No nation on earth has enduredsuch struggles and sufferings as we have. Jew-baiting has merely winnowed out ourweaklings; the strong among us defiantly return to their own whenever persecutionbreaks out. . . Wherever we remain politically secure for any length of time, weassimilate. I think this is not praiseworthy. . .Palestine is our unforgettable historic homeland. . . Let me repeat once more myopening words: The Jews who will it shall achieve their State. We shall live at last asfree men on our own soil, and in our own homes peacefully die. The world will beliberated by our freedom, enriched by our wealth, magnified by our greatness. Andwhatever we attempt there for our own benefit will redound mightily and beneficiallyto the good of all mankind.For entire text see:http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Zionism/herzl2.html407 Ksharim

L e s s o n 42Different Directions within Zionism1. Outline2. Religious vs. secular Zionism3. Socialist vs. liberal Zionism4. Cultural vs. political Zionism2. IntroductionFrom the very beginning, Zionism meant very different things to differentpeople. Coming on the world historical scene at a time of great change, in themidst of the collapse of the old order in Europe and the conflicting currents ofthought which gave rise to decades of bloody conflict there, Zionism couldn’thelp but develop different facets, that reflected these different currents. Likemany revolutions, Zionism knew what it wanted to change (exile existence),but wasn’t quite sure what the new order would look like. Later developments– and current dilemmas – in the State of Israel very much reflect these originalconflicting visions. This lesson examines three of the major fault lines: a)between those who saw Zionism as a rebellion against Judaism and those whosaw it as the fulfillment of Judaism; b) between those who saw in Zionism thehope for creating a socialist utopia and those who sought “normalization;” andc) between those who anticipated the ingathering of all the exiles and thosewho saw the state as a sustaining center for a revitalized world Jewry.3. Lesson goals4. Awareness of the necessity of “hyphenated Zionism” – Zionism does not havemeaning as a “pure” concept, but needs definition.5. Knowledge of the ideological roots of current discourse about and withinZionism6. Exploration of participants’ personal views on competing directions in Zionism7. Expanded outline8. Religious vs. secular Zionism9. On the one hand, of course, Zionism is based on the Jewish messianic belief inthe restoration of our sovereignty. On the other hand, however, it is at thesame time a rebellion against God’s management of the Jewish people’shistory. The Jews had learned to live in exile, praying for redemption, waitingfor God to bring it about. Zionism, in its initial manifestation as a movement,called for us to take matters into our own hands. The Orthodox leaders whosaw Zionism as a direct violation of the Jewish understanding of the world andas a threat to Judaism were not hallucinating; for indeed, many Zionists408 Ksharim

explicitly sought to replace Jewish religion with secular nationalism, to redefineJewish identity as national, not religious.Jacob Klatzkin can serve as a perfect example: the son of a rabbi fromRussia, he published a book of rabbinical scholarship before rebellingagainst his religious upbringing, moving to Germany for academicstudies. He became a leader of various institutions in the Zionistmovement, and articulated forcefully the view that Judaism’s“religious phase” had to give way to a new definition, purely national.Source 1For discussion: For a Jew who had lost faith, but for whom Jewish identity wasimportant, what other options were there? Do we believe one canbe a Jew without faith? If Judaism is not a religion, what do we do with our religious texts,with our religious behaviors?ii.Views like Klatzkin’s helped reinforce the enmity of much of theOrthodox world to Zionism. What we call today “ultra-Orthodox”refers to the movement within Orthodoxy that took a positionactively opposed to Zionism; in 1912, leaders of this streamorganized into a movement and political party, Agudat Israel.However, other Orthodox Jews felt attracted to Zionism, either as apractical solution to the Jewish problem based on age-old traditionsencouraging return to Israel – or out of a belief that if we could infact create a Jewish state in Eretz Yisrael, then perhaps the messiahwas en route. Thus, from the very beginnings of the Zionistmovement, there were tensions between Zionists who saw theirZionism as integral in their Judaism and those whose Zionism was arebellion against Judaism, a reformation.For example: Yehiel Michael Pines, a product of the traditional PolishJewish community, made aliyah in 1878 and represented a bridgingfigure, involved in Zionism, yet believing that Zionism withoutreligion was impossible.Source 2And a different kind of example: Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook wasappointed by the British as Ashkenazic chief rabbi of Palestine in1921. Before him (as in the case of Pines, above), Orthodox Zionismfought for a vision of Zionism as embedded within Judaism (not arebellion); Rabbi Kook is the leading thinker of the school that seesZionism as not just a mitzvah opportunity and a solution tohistorical problems, but as the fulfillment of the messianic hope. In409 Ksharim

other words, Zionism is not just an option for a religious Jew - it iscentral to Judaism.Source 3 What would a Jewish state look like according to Klatzkin, Pines,and Kook? Is a compromise or synthesis possible? Which vision seems dominant in Israel today? Which vision seems dominant in Israel today? Do you think that the state of Israel represents a turning point inhistory – the “first flowering of our [messianic] redemption?” What is the relationship between Zionism and Jewish religion inyour own identity?10. Socialist vs. liberal Zionism11. The messianic idealism that drove Zionism among young Jews in EasternEurope gave rise to another redemptive movement: socialism. Marxismprophesied the end of religious and national divisions, and hence, socialismand Zionism were opposing forces. Indeed, there was ongoing enmitybetween the Jewish socialist organization (the Bund) and the Zionists.What was the Bund?•The Bund was the Jewish Social Democratic party; its raison d’etrewas twofold: a) to reach the Jewish proletariat, it was necessaryoperate a campaign in Yiddish, geared to the particular culturalneeds and background of the Jewish workers; and b) anunwillingness to give up Jewish identity completely — togetherwith the realization that our Russian fellow-revolutionaries wouldn’tlet us even if we wanted to.•The high point of the Bund’s activity in Russia came in the 1905revolution, when it had about 30,000 members (compared to under9,000 members in the Russian Social Democratic Party).•The Bund in Russia was disbanded after the Bolshevik revolution; itcontinued its activities in Poland.What was Jewish about the Bund?•A commitment to work in — and preservation of — the Yiddishlanguage and the (secular) Jewish culture associated with it.•A recognition of the right-to-exist of the Jewish nation as anational-cultural (but not geographical or political) entity.•A concern with the particular problem of the persecution of theJews.How could the existence of the Bund be reconciled with socialistuniversalism?410 Ksharim

•This was indeed the ideological issue that split the Bund fromLenin’s Social Democrats, who argued that the Bund could be atmost a temporary means for reaching out to the Jewish masses;beyond this utilitarian function, it had no long-term right to life inthe new order.The Bund, on the other hand, had been formed out of arealization that there was no pure universalistic culture, and thatRussian socialism, with its Russian cultural foundations, would neverbe able to welcome the Jews as full, equal comrades.The opposition of the Bund to Zionism continued through theHolocaust.What were the origins of socialist Zionism?•The first attempt to articulate a synthesis of socialism and Zionismwas Moses Hess’ Rome and Jerusalem, published in 1862. Hess, afterspending most of his career as a socialist thinker and activist, cameto the conclusion that the socialist society was only implementablein a national context — and hence, the Jews must return toestablish a free, independent, socialist Palestine.•Then, in 1898, with the rising the tension between Jewish identityand commitment to the revolutionary movement, Hess’ synthesisfound an energetic proponent in Nachman Syrkin. Syrkin played anactive role in seeking to turn the newly organized Zionist movementtoward the goal of establishing a socialist society in Palestine.Over the next few years, as ideological ferment among RussianJewish students and intellectuals grew more intense — andespecially after the pogroms of 1903 — this goal attracted more andmore adherents. Circles of Poalei Zion (Workers of Zion) formed invarious cities. The combination of the rise of the Zionist movementand the beginning of actual colonization in Palestine with thegrowing disillusionment with the prospects for Jewish life inrevolutionary Russia made socialist Zionism an attractive solutionfor many young Jews. In 1904 the first groups of Poalei Zion madetheir way to Palestine to begin the struggle to build the socialistJewish state. This marked the beginning of what is termed the“Second Aliya,” a period of immigration that lasted until the FirstWorld War, and provided much of the political and intellectual eliteof Israeli society during its formative years.411 Ksharim

How could socialist Zionism be reconciled with socialistuniversalism?•Socialist Zionists argued that nationalism and socialism were notmutually exclusive. On the contrary, the classless society could bestbe realized in the context of national self-determination. The Jewishpeople (like every other nation) could build utopia. The valuesmight be universal, but the implementation had to be particular, tofit the history and needs and culture of each nation.Source 4 Syrkin writes: “For a Jewish state to come to be, it must, from thevery beginning, avoid all the ills of modern life.” In his utopianmessianism, this secular socialist Zionist sounds rather like areligious Zionist! Do we ourselves harbor such utopianperceptions of the Zionist endeavor? Should we? Aren’t wedisappointed when we discover imperfections in Israel?12. The socialist Zionists dominated the institutions of the Zionist movement andof the New Yishuv (the Zionist community in Palestine) – and of the state, fromthe mid-1930s until 1977. However, throughout that time, there was an activeand strong opposition to the socialist Zionist vision, that saw it as utopian andout of touch with reality. Many Zionists believed that the main thing wasnormalization, the creation of a national state for the Jews – and that thedebate on world-redeeming economic systems was beside the point. Forexample, Herzl’s friend and disciple, Dr. Max Nordau, is remembered for hisassociation with the concept of “normalization;” his comments on the socialistvision are given in source 5. Herzl and Nordau and the other “normalizers” saw Zionism as theanswer to anti-Semitism: by becoming strong, proud, productive,and naturally rooted in their own land, Jews would prove thefalsity of the reasons behind anti-Semitism. How does this sound acentury later?13. Cultural vs. political Zionism14. What was “political Zionism?”•Herzl’s conception of Zionism, a messianic dream of establishing asovereign Jewish state, is the classic expression of political Zionism.Herzl was not interested in small-scale efforts, or in consciousnessraising. He was playing all-or-nothing. He shuttled on theinternational diplomatic circuit, trying to play off the interests of thegreat powers, in order to extract from them a state for the Jews. Hesaw himself as negotiating salvation.For political Zionists, the Jewish problem was a political andeconomic one, the anomaly of the status of the Jews in European412 Ksharim

society. The solution can be seen as a kind of assimilation: the Jewswould become a nation like all other nations — we would become“normal.” For political Zionists, the state came first; the culture wouldthen take care of itself. This approach had two practical implications:a) Palestine was not the only possible solution; and b) one couldsupport the program regardless of one’s relationship to the tradition— it created no conflict for the religiously observant.See source 6ii. What was “cultural Zionism?”•Cultural Zionism, identified with Ahad Ha’am, advocated theestablishment of a Jewish state primarily as a means for therevitalization of the Jewish people world-wide. Internationalrecognition was not an important priority, nor did cultural Zionistsseek to shut down the Diaspora and move all Jews to Palestine.Rather, they sought to establish a spiritual and cultural center thatwould create new meaning and new pride and infuse these into thetraditional forms that had become lifeless under the assault ofmodern secular humanism. Ultimately, the new society thus createdwould, in due time, give rise to a Jewish state. See source 7Cultural Zionists, unlike, political Zionists, could not consider anyoption other than Palestine. And since cultural Zionism wasessentially a secular movement, seeking an alternative source ofvitality in the tradition (i.e., an alternative to faith in God and Hiscommandments), it constituted a problem for Orthodox Zionists —and indeed was the impetus for the formation of an independentreligious strand within the Zionist movement. Had the movementlimited itself to political mobilization and colonization withoutcultural and educational activities, the Orthodox would have beenable to find a place in the movement without a special “section.” An interesting paradox to consider: if secular political Zionism haddominated, the whole issue of religion and state would not havearisen – the state would be neutral – but the connection with Jewsin the Diaspora would be problematic; cultural Zionism allows for amutual relationship between Israel and the Diaspora, but since itdefines the state as something more than just a nation state, as acultural center, it gives rise to the bitter controversy over thedefinition of Jewish culture (vis a vis religious tradition).15. Thoughts on practical applications in the classroom, materialsThis lesson lends itself to a “choose sides” kind of activity, in which participantsread about the three sets of two positions and choose their preferred option ineach case and justify their choices.413 Ksharim

Another possibility is to bring a particular current issue from the news media to theclass and together seek the roots of the present conflict in one of the divisionspresented in the lesson (e.g., setting policy regarding withdrawal from Gaza – dowe operate on a religious or secular democratic basis?; is Israel a cultural center forus? Does Israel have an obligation of be a model of social justice? Is it fair of us todemand it be a utopia?)16. Connections to previous and future lessonsThis lesson is supposed to follow a discussion of the origins of Zionism, andprecede an examination of practical Zionism (which is not discussed here) – thesettlers of the first two aliyot – who manifest, between the first and second aliyot,the conflict between socialist and general Zionism, and between religious andsecular Zionism.Sources1. Jacob Klatzkin, “Boundaries” [1914], in Arthur Hertzberg, The Zionist Idea,Atheneum, 1973, pp. 316-8What is really new in Zionism is the territorial-political definition of Jewish nationalism.Strip Zionism of the territorial principle and you have destroyed its character anderased the distinctions between it and the preceding periods. This is its onginality -that Judaism depends on form and not on content. For it the alternatives are clear:Either the Jewish people shall redeem the land and thereby continue to live, even ifthe spiritual content of Judaism changes radically, or we shall remain in exile and rotaway even if the spiritual tradition continues to exist.In longing for our land we do not desire to create there a base for the spiritual valuesof Judaism. To regain our land is for us an end in itself - the attaining of a free nationallife. The content of our life will be national when its forms become national. Indeed, letit not be said that the land is a precondition for a national life; living on the land is ipsofacto the national life.It is no accident that the theory of Judaism as a spiritual outlook, even in its nationalistform, has fought hard against the territorialist conception of Zionism. It feared,correctly, that from such Zionism it would receive its deathblow. All the varieties of"spiritual" thought, including the nationalist, have joined in combating politicalZionism in the name of the spirit of Judaism, i.e., the ethics of the prophets, and haveasserted that the ultimate goal of the Jewish people is not a political state but thereign of absolute justice. All these schools of thought mocked Herzl, the hero andgenius of our renaissance, by saying: We are a priest people, a nation of prophets -414 Ksharim

what does he mean coming to us talking about political action? Tlie "spiritists" all citedthe Galut as evidence that the basis for our life is the eternal content of Judaism.Zionism stands opposed to all this. Its real beginning is The Jewish State and its basicintention, whether consciously or unconsciously, is to deny any conception of Jewishidentity based on spiritual criteria.Zionism began a new era, not only for the purpose of making an end to the Diasporabut also in order to establish a new definition of Jewish identity - a secular definition. Iam certain that the builders of our land will in the future sacrifice themselves fornational forms, for land and language, as our ancestors accepted martyrdom for thesake of the religious content of Judaism. But we are, as yet, standing at the crossroadsand do not yet see the distinction between one period and another. The Galut figureof Ahad Ha-Am still obscures the nationalist light of Herzl.The "spiritual" criterion is a grave danger not only to our national renaissance but,even more, to our renaissance as individuals. It binds our spirit with the chains oftradition and subordinates our life to specific doctrines, to a heritage and to the valuesof an ancient outlook. We are constrained by antiquated values, and, in the name ofnational unity and cohesiveness, our personalities are crippled, for we are deniedfreedom of thought. Moreover, the "spiritual" definition of what is a Jew leads tonational chauvinism. National freedom is meaningless unless it fosters the freedom ofthe individual. There can be no national renaissance worth fighting for unless itliberates and revives human values within the national ethos.2. Yehiel Michael Pines, “Religion is the Source of Jewish Nationalim [1895] – in ArthurHertzberg, The Zionist Idea, Atheneum, 1973, pp. 412-414Science and education are no less precious to me than they are to you, secularists.I set a high value on this divine light which has been given us by our Creator at ourbirth. I, too, no less than you, would like to see the Jewish people advance in scientificknowledge and in worldly education, for I know how important such advance is inimproving human nature, in improving manners and ethics, and in raising the culturallevel. I also know how much real knowledge can contribute to the ennobling ofreligious feeling. But knowledge divorced from faith is not what I consider a desirablegoal. That is not the enlightenment which our better leaders of the precedinggeneration declared to be the sister of faith, while their predecessors thought it thehandmaiden of faith. But a sister or a handmaid who sets herself up as a rival to hersister or her mistress will only lure the master away from his wife; without leaving evena small corner in his heart for the affection he once bore her.The enlightenment we seek is one that is organically integrated in faith, so that thetwo are inseparable. Why should we try to isolate the one from the other? Have we not415 Ksharim

een given the Torah to teach us to purify our thoughts and our sentiments as thegoldsmith refines the gold? Has not reason been given us by Heaven so that we maybe able to contemplate the greatness of our Creator as revealed in His work and theglory of the Law He implanted in our hearts? In the world of the spirit there are nocompartments. Whatever the man thinks and feels, if it is directed toward Truth, isenveloped in holiness.Nor have you, the secularists, any monopoly on the Zionist sentiment. I am as much aLover of Zion as you are, not a whit less. But mine is not the Love of Zion which youhave abstracted from the whole Jewish tradition to set it up in a separate existence.Any other people can perhaps have a national aspiration divorced from its religion,but we, Jews, cannot. Such nationalism is an abomination to Jews. Moreover, it cannotsucceed, since it has no roots in our reality. What is Jewish nationality divorced fromJewish religion? It is an empty formula, nothing but pretty phrases. After all, what is"nationality" if not a concept, or, in other words, a though-image. But a thought-imagewhich has no basis in reality is an illusion. What other basis in realitv can there be forthe thought-image of Jewish nationality except the unity of the Jewish people with itsTorah and its faith?I know the answer you will give me: Our history and our language also form part of ournational heritage. True enough, a common past is a national heritage, but it is not thebegetter of nationality. It is unheard of for an effect to turn around and become thecause of its own cause! Can a man sate his hunger by eating his own flesh? And as forthe Hebrew language you mention - perhaps, if we still spoke it, it might offer someslight basis for our nationality, but in view of the state of the Hebrew language today,one can hardly see why you are ready to dedicate yourself to it. Who or what forcesyou to bring it back to life? Is it national sentiment? Again we see the effect becominga cause! All of the vitality of national sentiment is in the national language, but thelanguage itself has no vitality except in so far as it is nourished by national sentiment!But this is a circular argument which can go on ad infinitum!The nationalism I represent is the nationalism of Rabbi Yehudah Halevi and of RabbiMoshe ben Nahman, of blessed memory, a national sentiment organically integratedin faith, nationalism whose soul is the Torah and whose life is in its precepts andcommandments.3. Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, Orot, in Hertzberg, ibid., pp. 430-1There is an eternal covenant which assures the whole House of Israel that it will notever become completely unclean. Yes, it may be partially corroded, but it can neverbe totally cut off from the source of divine life. Many of the adherents of the presentnational revival maintain that they are secularists. If a Jewish secular nationalism werereally imaginable, then we would, indeed, be in danger of falling so low as to bebeyond redemption.416 Ksharim

But Jewish secular nationalism is a form of self-delusion: the spirit of Israel is so closelylinked to the spirit of God that a Jewish nationalist, no matter how secularist hisintention may be, must, despite himself, affirm the divine. An individual can sever thetie that binds him to life eternal but the House of Israel as a whole cannot. All of itsmost cherished national possessions - its land, language, history, and customs - arevessels of the spirit of the Lord.How should men of faith respond to an age of ideological ferment which affirms all ofthese values in the name of nationalism and denies their source, the rootedness of thenational spirit, in God? To oppose Jewish nationalism, even in speech, and todenigrate its values is not permissible, for the spirit of God and the spirit of Israel areidentical. What they must do is to work all the harder at the task of uncovering thelight and holiness implicit in our national spirit, the divine element which is its core.The secularists will thus be constrained to realize that they are immersed and rooted inthe life of God and bathed in the radiant sanctity that comes from above.Despite the grave faults of which we are aware in our life in general, and in Eretz Yisraelin particular, we must feel that we are being reborn and that we are being createdonce again as at the beginning of time. Our entire spiritual heritage is presently beingabsorbed within its source and is reappearing in a new guise, much reduced inmaterial extent but qualitatively very rich and luxuriant and full of vital force. We arecalled to a new world suffused with the highest light, to an epoch the glory of whichwill surpass that of all the great ages which have preceded. All of our people believesthat we are in the first stage of the Final Redemption. This deep faith is the very secretof its existence; it is the divine mystery implicit in its historical experience. This ancienttradition about the Redemption bears witness to the spiritual light by which the Jewunderstands himself and all the events of his history to the last generation, the onethat is awaiting the Redemption that is near at hand.The claim of our flesh is great. We require a healthy body. we have greatly occupiedourselves with the soul and have forsaken the holiness of the body. We haveneglected health and physical prowess, forgetting that our flesh is as sacred as ourspirit. We have turned our backs on physical life, the development of our senses, andall that is involved in the tangible reality of the flesh, because we have fallen prey tolowly fears, and have lacked faith in the holiness of the Land. “Faith is exemplified bythe tractate Zeraim (Plants) - man proves his faith in eternal life by planting."Our return will succeed only if it will be marked, along with its spiritual glory, by aphysical return which will create healthy flesh and blood, strong and well-formedbodies, and a fiery spirit encased in powerful muscles .Then the one weak soul willshine forth from strong and holy flesh, as a symbol of the physical resurrection of thedead.417 Ksharim

4. Nahman Syrkin, “The Jewish Question and the Socialist Jewish State,” [1898] inArthur Hertzberg, ibid, pp. 347-50For a Jewish state to come to be, it must, from the very beginning, avoid all the ills ofmodem life. To evoke the sympathetic interest of modern man, its guidelines must bejustice, rational planning, and social solidarity. Once a Jewish state has been realizedon such scientific social principles, the time will come for modern technology toflourish within it. The Jewish state can come about only if it is socialist; only by fusingwith socialism can Zionism become the ideal of the whole Jewish people - of theproletariat, the middle class, and the intelligentsia. All Jews will be involved in thesuccess of Zionism, and none will be indifferent. The messianic hope, which wasalways the greatest dream of exiled Jewry, will be transformed into political action.The Jewish people, presently living in misery, will gain lofty content.Not only the Jews, and the countries which desire to be rid of them, will be greatlyinterested in the socialist Jewish state, but also all those who strive for higher forms ofsocial life---the socialists and the social reformers.Because the Jews are placed in an unusual situation, that they are forced to find ahomeland and establish a state, they therefore have been presented with theopportunity to be the first to realize the socialist vision. This is the tragic element oftheir historic fate, but it is also a unique historic mission. What is generally the vision ofa few will become a great national movement among the Jews; what is utopian inother contexts is a necessity for the Jews.The Jews were historically the nation which caused division and strife; it will nowbecome the most revolutionary of all nations. From the humblest and most oppressedof all peoples it will be transformed to the proudest and greatest. The Jews will derivetheir moral stature from their travail, and out of the pain of their existence will come apattern of noble living. The Jew is small, ugly, servile, and debased when he forgetsand denies his great character. He becomes distinguished and beautiful in the moraland social realms when he returns to his true nature.Israel is to be compared to a sleeping giant, arising from the slough of despair anddarkness and straightening up to his infinite height. His face is rimmed by rays of gloryof the pain of the world which he has suffered on his own body. He knows his task, todo justice and proclaim truth. His tragic history has resulted in a high mission. tie willredeem the world which crucified him.Israel will once again become the chosen of the peoples!5. Max. Nordau (Zionistiche Schriften, quoted in W. Laqueur, A History of Zionism,Schocken 1976, p. 388)418 Ksharim

Socialism will bring the same disappointments as did the Reformation, theEnlightenment, the movement for political freedom. If we should live to see socialisttheory become practice, you’ll be surprised to meet again in this new order that oldacquaintance, anti-Semitism. And it won’t help at all that Marx and Lasalle wereJews… The founder of Christianity was a Jew too, but to the best of my knowledgeChristianity does not think it owes a debt of gratitude to the Jews. I do not doubt thatthe ideologists of socialism will always remain faithful to their doctrine, that they willnever become racialists. But the men of action will have to take realities into account.In the foreseeable future the feelings of the masses will dictate to them an anti-Semiticpolicy.6. Theodore Herzl, The Jewish State, 1896; in Arthur Hertzberg, The Zionist Idea,Atheneum, 1973, pp. 220-226The whole plan is essentially quite simple, as it must necessarily be if it is to becomprehensible to all.Let sovereignty be granted us over a portion of the globe adequate to meet ourrightful national requirements; we will attend to the rest.To create a new State is neither ridiculous nor impossible. Haven't we witnessed theprocess in our own day, among nations which were not largely middle class as we are,but poorer, less educated, and consequently weaker than ourselves? The governmentsof all countries scourged by anti-Semitism will be keenly interested in obtainingsovereignty for us.The plan, simple in design but complicated in execution, will be executed by twoagencies: the Society of Jews and the Jewish Company.The scientific plan and political policies which the Society of Jews will establish will becarried out by the Jewish Company.The Jewish Company will be the liquidating agent for the business interests of thedeparting Jews, and will organize trade and commerce in the new country.We must not visualize the exodus of the Jews as a sudden one. It will be gradual,proceeding over a period of decades. The poorest will go first and cultivate the soil.They will construct roads, bridges, railways, and telegraph installations, regulate rivers,and provide themselves with homesteads, all according to predetermined plans. Theirlabor will create trade, trade will create markets, and markets will attract new settlers -for every man will go voluntarily, at his own expense and his own risk. The laborinvested in the soil will enhance its value. The Jews will soon perceive that a new andpermanent frontier has been opened up for that spirit of enterprise which hasheretofore brought them only hatred and obloquy.The founding of a State today is not to be accomplished in the manner that athousand years ago would have been the only possible one. It is silly to revert to olderlevels of civilization, as many Zionists propose. Supposing, for example, we wereobliged to clear a country of wild beasts, we should not set about it in the fashion of419 Ksharim

the fifth-century Europeans. We should not take spear and lance and go outindividually in pursuit of bears; we would organize a grand and glorious hunting party,drive the animals together, and throw a melinite bomb into their midst.If we planned to erect buildings, we should not drive a few shaky piles in a marsh likethe lake dwellers, but should build as men build now. Indeed, we shall build in bolderand more stately style than has ever been done before; for we now possess meanswhich heretofore did not exist.The emigrants standing lowest in the economic scale will be gradually followed bythose of the next grade. Those now in desperate straits will go first. They will be led bythe intellectual mediocrities whom we produce so abundantly and who are oppressedeverywhere.Let this pamphlet serve as the beginning of a general discussion on the question ofJewish emigration. That does not mean to suggest, however, that the question shouldbe called to a vote. Such an approach would ruin the cause from the outset. Whoeverwishes may stay behind. The opposition of a few individuals is quite immaterial.Who would go with us, let him fall in behind our banner and fight for the cause withword and pen and deed.Those Jews who agree with our State idea will rally around the Society. Thereby theywill give it the authority in the eyes of governments to confer and treat on behalf ofour people. The Society will be recognized as, to put it in terminology of internationallaw, a State-creating power. And this recognition will, in effect mean the creation ofthe State.Should the powers show themselves willing to grant us sovereignty over a neutralland, then the Society will enter into negotiations for the possession of this land. Heretwo regions come to mind: Palestine and Argentina. Significant experiments incolonization have been made in both countries, though on the mistaken principle ofgradual infiltration of Jews. Infiltration is bound to end badly. For there comes theinevitable moment when the government in question, under pressure of the nativepopulace - which feels itself threatened - puts a stop to further influx of Jews.Immigration, therefore, is futile unless it is based on our guaranteed autonomy.The Society of Jews will treat with the present authorities in the land, under thesponsorship of the European powers, if they prove friendly to the plan. We could offerthe present authorities enormous advantages, assume part of the public debt, buildnew thoroughfares, which we ourselves would also require, and do many other things.The very creation of the Jewish State would be beneficial to neighboring lands, sincethe cultivation of a strip of land increases the value of its surrounding districts.7. Ahad Ha’am, “The Jewish State and the Jewish Problem,” published in Hashiloach II,1897; in Hertzberg, ibid, pp. 267Judaism is, therefore, in a quandry. It can no longer tolerate the Galut form which ithad to take on, in obedience to its will-to-live, when it was exiled from its own country;but, without that form, its life is in danger. So it seeks to return to its historic center,420 Ksharim

where it will be able to live a life developing in a natural way, to bring its powers intoplay in every department of human culture, to broaden and perfect those nationalpossessions which it has acquired up to now, and thus to contribute to the commonstock of humanity, in the future as it has in the past, a great national culture, the fruitof the unhampered activity of a people living by the light of its own spirit. For thispurpose Judaism can, for the present, content itself with little. It does not need anindependent State, but only the creation in its native land of conditions favorable toits development: a good-sized settlement of Jews working without hindrance in everybranch of civilization, from agriculture and handicrafts to science and literature. ThisJewish settlement, which will be a gradual growth, will become in course of time thecenter of the nation, wherein its spirit will find pure expression and develop in all itsaspects to the highest degree of perfection of which it is capable. Then, from thiscenter, the spirit of Judaism will radiate to the great circumference, to all thecommunities of the Diaspora, to inspire them with new life and to preserve the over-allunity of our people. When our national culture in Palestine has attained that level, wemay be confident that it will produce men in the Land of Israel itself who will be able,at a favorable moment, to establish a State there - one which will be not merely a Stateof the Jews, but a really Jewish State.421 Ksharim

L e s s o n 43Jews in Eretz Yisrael before WWI1. Outline2. IntroductionAs the ideological and political battles of Zionism were being fought out in Europe,the first mass immigrations to Eretz Yisrael formed. Facing incredible hardships –economic deprivations, disease, friction with the local population and cultureshock – these immigrations were to form the basis of much of the Israel we knowtoday. In this lesson we will follow some of the history of the new immigrants inPalestine, address some of the dilemmas they faced, and get to know some of thelegendary figures of that era.3. Lesson goals4. Knowledge of the history of the first aliyot in general.5. Familiarity with some of the dilemmas the olim faced.6. Acquaintance with some of the heroes of the first aliyot.7. Expanded outlineSuggested Methodology:After a short historical survey (use background essay b y MJR attached below),divide the class into 3 groups. Each group reads the biographies and writings ofone of the following personalities, answers the questions, and presents a summaryin a general discussion. Note that some of the sources are fully attached, and someare links to the internet. The facilitator should be ready to supply additionalbackground information which the participants may require as they read thesources.Each of the three personalities was chosen both because they constitute animpressive, well-known figure, and because through their life story we canexamine one of the central challenges confronting the first aliyot. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda's memoirs afford a taste of the pioneering wonder felt by the members ofthe first mass-immigration to Eretz Yisrael in thousands of years, and provide aglimpse at the enormous challenge of the revival of the Hebrew language; Rachel,the poet, describes in her lyrical language the deep connection felt by the halutzim[pioneers] to the land, presents a typical story of work in one of the first communalsettlements, and facilitates discussion of the personal sacrifices which many of thepioneers gave. And finally, Manya Shochat's exploits in Hashomer provides a422 Ksharim

convenient trigger for the discussion of the inevitable conflict that arose betweenthe new immigrants and the native population.This lesson can also be accompanied by a musical component. There is a songabout Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, a song about Alexander Zeid – a colleague of ManyaShochat's in HaShomer, many of Rachel's poems have been put to music, and manywell-known songs were written in or of the era – see list at the end.Sources:1. Background essayWhen the first Zionist immigrants arrived in the late 19th century, they foundOrthodox communities living in poverty in the four “holy cities” of Tzefat, Tiberias,Hebron, and Jerusalem. These Jews were supported mainly by the “haluka,” asystem of collecting and distributing funds raised in the Diaspora — based on thebelief that Jews studying Torah in the land of Israel were fulfilling a mitzvah onbehalf of Jews everywhere. The Sephardic Jews were Turkish subjects, whileAshkenazim were generally under the protection of the various European powerswith autonomous consular offices in Jerusalem. Each separate ethnic group hadits own fund-raising bureaucracy and its own rabbinical authority.Some elements of modernization entered the “Old Yishuv” (old community) duringthe second half of the century. The French Jewish philanthropic organizationAlliance Israelite Universelle founded the Mikveh Israel agricultural school in 1870.Some other modern schools were opened. New neighborhoods were built andvarious efforts at “productivization” were tried, often with the support of Sir MosesMontefiore, who visited frequently from England. And two unsuccessful attemptsat agricultural settlement were made in 1878.The pioneers of the First Aliya (1881 -1904) came from Romania and Russia; theimpetus to the migration was the 1881 wave of pogroms. They came in organizedgroups, many with families, with some funding by supporters back home, andlimited (i.e. no) experience in agriculture. The first settlers, at Zichron Yaakov, RoshPina, Rishon Letzion, Ekron, (and Petah Tikvah, which had been founded in 1878)endured great suffering from malaria, hunger, the climate, insufficient funding,lack of agricultural expertise, and unfriendly natives. Of the 300 settlers at ZichronYaakov, 10% died during the first year. In 1883, appeals to Baron Edmund deRothschild for assistance were successful, and he took on the support (and heavyhandedguidance) of these settlements and others that were founded over thenext twenty years.The Second Aliya (1904 -1914) consisted mostly of young single revolutionarytypes, seeking not only to build a Jewish homeland, but to make it a socialistutopia. They rebelled against the bourgeois ambitions of the First Aliya settlers(and of their own parents) and against the Jewish tradition. They were in somerespects the “hippies” of their time, rejecting institutions of property and family,423 Ksharim

seeking authenticity in a return to the soil. They created the kibbutz, and withtheir colleagues of the Third Aliya, after the war, they built many of the institutionsthat became the core of the Jewish state; they also provided the leadership elite.David Ben-Gurion, Berl Katznelson, Yitzhak BenZvi, Joseph Trumpeldor, A. D.Gordon – all came to Palestine during those years.The war years were a time of great suffering for the Jewish communities ofPalestine. Caught between the Turks and the British, living in the shadow of theTurkish massacre of the Armenians, many Jews were exiled, many died, many fled;the Jewish population dropped by a third.Nevertheless, once the dust had settled, Jews in Eretz Yisrael could claim creditfor...a growing community of Hebrew-speakersabout twenty agricultural settlements, including both capitalist andsocialist models (see map at http://www.wzo.org.il/home/aliyah/d146.htm)an education systema university and a technical instituteHashomer, a self-defense organizationTel Aviv – "the first Hebrew city"Jewish units within the British army1. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda – reviver of the Hebrew LanguageSee a biography of Ben-Yehuda athttp://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/ben_yehuda.html ."I am truly, actually, in the land of my forefathers, myfeet are treading on the same earth on which myforefathers trod, my eyes are seeing the same sky,the same mountains, hills and valleys that myforefathers' eyes saw, I am breathing the same airmy forefathers breathed.Perhaps the reader wonders, what all this"excitement" is about? Hundreds and thousands ofyoung Jews are coming to Eretz Yisrael and this isnot so strange, that they need to get accustomed toit? – Let us not forget, that this was in the year 1882,that is 40 years ago. In those days Eretz Yisrael wasnot yet a normal thing, an everyday thing, as it laterbecame. At that time Eretz Yisrael was for most Jewsmore like a legend, hardly more real than theKingdom of the Sons of Moses over the Sambatyon424 Ksharim

iver, and people from Eretz Yisrael, young men and maids from Eretz Yisrael, one didnot meet them abroad as you meet them today almost in every city. And even thename "Eretz Yisrael" was not carried on the tongues of a Jewish man except in prayeror reading the scriptures, and such. And in this land, that seemed so far away, soimaginary, I, who only a month ago was in the center of the great, magnificent worldof Europe, I am now living in it, it is now not only the land of my forefathers but alsothe land where I live! In the first two or three days I felt this wonder in my life everyminute, every hour, but slowly this feeling dimmed, and at the end of a week therewere hours in which I forgot I was in Eretz Yisrael…All our souls in the land then were not more than 30,000 in the whole of the country,of these 16,000 in Jerusalem and 14,000 in the other cities which had a Jewishpopulation of some importance – Hebron, Jaffa, Safed and Tiberias, and a fewhundreds in Haifa, Acre and Sidon. And these 30,000 were not united by language.They were truly separated, congregations speaking different languages, eachcommunity speaking the language of the country from whence it came, and theselanguages caused the communities to feel almost as people of different nations. Addto this, that most of these 30,000 were not natural people, leading natural lives,making their living as is customary in the world. Only the Sephardic community, about7,000 people, were more or less a natural community, for most of its people weresimple people, who made their living from artisanship and simple trade, and only aminority of this community, about 300 heads of families, were from the group of"chachamim", whose Torah is their trade and who make their living from the "haluka"...But the Ashkenazim, they too about 7,000 people, were at that time almost solely"taught by the Lord" (Isiah 54:13) , whose vocation was the study of Torah and prayer,and who made their living almost solely from the "haluka"…As to the revival of the language there was nothing I could do, save speak Hebrew athome to my wife and the people I met occasionally. But this was not sufficient in myeyes. I felt success depended on the children of the new generation, but this newgeneration was yet to be. It was on its way. But I could do nothing to speed its arrival. Iwas angry at the way of the world, that a woman gives birth after 271 days, I wasenvious of Adam and Eve, who would get into bed two and come out four, but in allmy impatience could only wait.But apart from the sorrow of the long wait, I saw that the new generation alone couldspread the Hebrew language slowly. To speed the process of the revival of the spokenHebrew language, the children already living in the land should be used, and thelanguage should be put in their mouths. But these children – who would put them inmy hands? A year ago, in one of my letters from Paris to "Hahavazelet" [Jewishnewspaper] I said that in cheders, Talmud torahs and yeshivas in Eretz Yisrael theteachers should speak Hebrew to their students. The editor answered that this was afalse hope. And now I saw that he was right. I saw that it was impossible to convincethose in charge of schools in Eretz Yisrael to institute in them spoken Hebrew betweenteachers and students.But in this I received help from an unexpected quarter. One rainy day in the month ofTevet a man entered my house, spoke Hebrew and said: 'My name is Nissim Becher,425 Ksharim

and I am sent from the 'Alliance Israélite Universelle' company to open a boys' schoolin this city, and I came to you to offer you a post as a Hebrew teacher in my school'. Ianswered: 'I would gladly accept your offer if it were possible, but I'm afraid it'simpossible, as I will only accept on this condition: that I speak to the students only inHebrew. They will not hear any other language from me, and I will not permit them tospeak to me in any other language'.'That is why I gave my offer' – said Mr. Nissim Becher – 'I have heard of you and yourthoughts about the revival of the language, and I wish it too, and so I will give you achance to execute your idea at the school'.I agreed… Thus was formed the method of "Hebrew in Hebrew" ( Ivrit be'Ivrit), andthus began the conversing of student and teacher in Hebrew in our time.…ships brought to the shores of Jaffa tens of families every week, families of RussianJews fleeing "galut" and coming to settle in Eretz Yisrael, and thus began the secondera of the realization of my dream, the era of real action on the Land of the Fathers, thegreat era – however small and modest – still wonderful and amazing, in all its poverty,the era of the beginning of the new "Yishuv", of the founding of our "moshavot"……on the 15 th of Av [1882 ]… in a dark corner of a small room, close to the site of thetemple, the boy was born on which the first trial of the revival of spoken Hebrewwould be performed… The mother, who was weak in the first place, was weakenedfurther by poverty, pregnancy and childbirth. Even so, she agreed of her own good willnot to take any servant into the house, so that the child would not hear the words ofany language except of the Hebrew language. We were afraid of the walls of ourhouse, afraid of the air in our room, lest the sounds of a foreign language would beabsorbed as they were uttered by the servant, and their echo reach the ears of thechild, and these foreign sounds would disturb the Hebrew sense of listening, and theHebrew words would not be properly absorbed, and the child would not speakHebrew…"Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, in Memoirs of Eretz Yisrael, Avraham Ya'ari, Ramat-Gan 1983, part I pp. 349-380 (inHebrew), written 1881-1882.Ben-Yehuda movingly describes the excitement he felt at arriving in EretzYisrael. Do we feel some remnant of this excitement when we arrive today?What picture of the "Old Yishuv" arises from Ben-Yehuda's description?How does he describe the effects of the multi-lingualism of the Yishuv?In what ways did Ben-Yehuda strive to revive the Hebrew language?Discuss the endeavor of the revival of spoken Hebrew: the challenges, the prosand cons, the methods, the chances of success. Can you picture a non-Hebrewspeakingmodern Israel?The settlers in the "moshavot" suffered great hardship, and many succumbedto disease. One of the first settlers of Hadera describes the first winter:"The first case of malaria erupted suddenly at the end of the summer. We werewoken in the night: 'Lerman is dead!' How? Who? Why? We staggered to thedead man's shack, our heart full of dark forebodings, our mind as if suppressedunder a heavy load. We came to the shack, and it was full of people, most of426 Ksharim

them young. All faces fearful, everyone apprehensive, depressed… Theepidemic began. Sometimes all a shack's inhabitants fell ill, and there was noone to take care of the sick. A heavy cloud rested on the new "moshava"… Wewere helpless, we walked about pale and stunned, the mark of death on ourforeheads, horror in our hearts. Relatives and friends came from all the"moshavot", bearing advice and prayers: 'Leave the place, save your souls…'".Moshe Smilansky, in Memoirs of Eretz Yisrael, Avraham Ya'ari, Ramat-Gan 1983, part II pp. 713-717-380 (in Hebrew), written 1891.The people of Hadera stayed on, despite the hardships. Were they mad? Howcould they subject their children to these conditions? Do people have a right torisk their families' lives for their ideology? Where would Israel be if not forthem? Are there equivalents to these first settlers in modern Israel?2. Rachel – pioneer and poetSee biography at http://www.ithl.org.il/author_info.asp?id=207.Read Rachel's description of life and work beside the Kinneret athttp://israel.poetryinternational.org/cwolk/view/24169. What explains Rachel's fascination with the surroundings?Rachel came to Eretz Yisrael with her sister Shoshana,and both worked at the agricultural school for girls atKinneret. Shoshana writes:"'Work intelligence' demands not only the 'hands', butalso the head and the whole body. 'Everything isimportant', says Channa [Meizel, founder and teacherof the school], 'even how you tie your kerchief to yourhead. If it moves every time and you must fix it, that's aloss of time, right'?...And along with all this, "tempo", speed. If you approachit with understanding and calm, and you know thework, why should it not be fast? Then the fingersthemselves take on a rapid, lively, continuous motion,and you breathe in relief. There is satisfaction in work.You live in it. – What more can there be: life! And thusyou must teach your legs, arms, your whole body to work… And the heart too, it mustconsecrate itself to the day ahead. If you are irritated, or pursued by dire thoughts,then immediately – your work suffers. The life that depends upon you, your hands, thelife that you must create and develop – is spoilt and lost. Shoddy work – that's a sin…Our social education started from the minutest things. If you're on duty, you must arisevery quietly in the morning, so as not to disturb your sleeping friends, for the sleep ofthe worker is precious. You must fulfill your tasks perfectly. The morning could bespoiled because of your carelessness, or laziness. "Laziness!" Strange word. All yearn427 Ksharim

for industriousness, conquest of life, triumph at work. That is the spirit, which speaks tous each day: Work and succeed!…Each of the women workers felt the torments of adjustment. The men too. There aretwo approaches… The first: to "sift out" the workers using all manner of sieves untilthey are found "fit" and "worthy" for work. The second: on the contrary, give everycomrade the opportunity to become a "worker". And if they need help, a "bridge" –hand it to them. For it is a great responsibility to cut off a soul from this new world oflife."Shoshana Blaustein, in Memoirs of Eretz Yisrael, Avraham Ya'ari, Ramat-Gan 1983, part II pp. 817-819 (inHebrew), written 1909-1910.What explains the stress on the importance of work in Shoshana's descriptionof life at the farm?The immigrants of the Second Aliyah, who set the pattern of Israeli life for morethan half a century, were predominantly socialists, who set great importanceon group life. Can you compare their stories and legacy to the individualisticpioneers of the American West?Communal forms of settlement, which were to become the basis of the kibbutzmovement, were invented by the pioneers of the Second Aliyah. What do youthink were the advantages and disadvantages of settling the land communally?Can you explain and justify both approaches which Shoshana Blausteindescribes to potential new workers? Of the 35-40,000 of the Second Aliyah,about 4,500 remained 10 years later. Some returned to Russia to build thesocialist utopia, some went to America to try capitalism. Yehoash, a Yiddishpoet who lived in Eretz Yisrael in 1914 and returned to America at thebeginning of WWI writes:"I wanted to know what percentage of the workers who come to Eretz Yisraelstay here for good, and I found that it was very small. They come in largeparties before Passover, settle in the "moshavot" [villages], work by day in theorchards and vineyards, sing and dance by night until their legs collapse, orwalk in the hills between the orchards, slightly feverish but accepting it withlove, after all, it is Eretz Yisrael.Weeks and months pass and the weak, who are the majority, are tired, theirenergy gone, and one day they decide to go, some to America, some to Africa,and some return home. They did not stand the test. The chosen remain, thosewho stood the test, the fighters and pioneers. They send roots into the landand become the best and healthiest element of the "yishuv".In "Between Zion and Zionism", Open University of Israel, Unit 10.Did the triumph of the few justify the disappointment of the many?Rachel herself was "sifted out" when she returned from Russia after WWI. Her friends atDegania were afraid that she would infect her neighbors with TB, and she was exiledto Tel-Aviv, where she wrote most of her poems. Many express longing for her days asa pioneer. Some poems:http://israel.poetryinternational.org/cwolk/view/24165428 Ksharim

http://israel.poetryinternational.org/cwolk/view/241663. Manya Shochat – pioneer and fighterSee biographical article at http://www.jewishmag.com/68mag/manya/manya.htmThe youngsters of the Second Aliyah wereshocked by the dependence of theirpredecessors on Arab labor and BaronRothschild's philanthropy. The following is adescription of life in Zikhron Ya'akov, one ofthe first "moshavot", in 1893:"Every farmer in the "moshava" got 12 francsa month for every member of the household,except babies; they received only 6 francs.Medical help – on the Baron's account. Tripsto Lebanon for convalescence, lodging andfood in an expensive hotel – on the Baron'saccount. All the work in the farmers'vineyards was done by Arabs – on theBaron's account, and the farmers "supervise".Two agronomists – on the Baron's account; one for the vineyards, and one for thevegetable gardens and fruit trees. And under the supervision of the two agronomistswere ten young farmers' sons, who rode their horses all day in the fields, and with theirhelp the farmers counted the numbers and work of the Arab workers."Hillel Yaffe, in Memoirs of Eretz Yisrael, Avraham Ya'ari, Ramat-Gan 1983, part II p. 739 (in Hebrew),written 1893.Judging from newspaper reports, are there parallels to these phenomena intoday's Israel? If so, is this process inevitable?The new immigrants set out to establish "Hebrew work" and "Hebrew guards". Thefollowing excerpt tells of one of the exploits of HaShomer, the organization of guardsfounded by Shochat and her colleagues:"In those days the manager of the lands of the Palestine Jewish ColonisationAssociation (PJCA), Mr. Yehoshua Chankin, was trying to extract the land which hadbeen previously purchased by the Baron [Rothschild] from the hands of the Arab-Zbehtribe. The Bedouins inhabited this land without heeding Chankin's demands that theydepart, saying that the Jews would not dare evict them by force. After negotiationsbetween Chankin and our "chief", it was decided that we would take upon ourselves toconquer this land from the Bedouins. At our gathering, called for this purpose, our"chief" posed the question: Are we strong enough to go and plow the land, withoutusing arms and without leaving the plow even if the Bedouins attacked.429 Ksharim

This step required much deliberation, as the consequences might affect the relationsbetween the Jews and their neighbors in the Lower Galilee. We left the meetingfeeling in our hearts that not one of us would leave the plow while he was alive. Wesent immediately to rent plows and work animals, quietly made all the necessarypreparations, and in Tishrei 1910 went as one under the leadership of the "chief" to theland of the Zbeh, and started plowing it... The Bedouins heard that the Jews wereplowing the land, and they all rushed to the field. But when they were still far awaythey sent two of their men to see who was plowing. When they recognized themembers of HaShomer, they informed their senders, and much excitement ensued.They argued whether they should attack or refrain, and finally they turned back. Thisaction had a great effect on the whole area. That year there was calm in Hebrew farmsin the Galilee. After we finished plowing, the PJCA settled a few young farmers on theland. Chankin saluted us with a "Mazal Tov", and our reputation in the "yishuv"increased."Israel Giladi, in Memoirs of Eretz Yisrael, Avraham Ya'ari, Ramat-gan 1983, part II pp. 827-828 (in Hebrew),written 1907-1914.What psychological effect did HaShomer's activities have on Jews and Arabs?Can you detect similar attitudes in modern Israel?The next excerpt explains similar incidents from the point of view of the Arabs, eventhough the author is Jewish:"It is time to root out the false conviction that has spread among the Zionists, that inEretz Yisrael there is uncultivated land for lack of working hands and because of thelaziness of the inhabitants. There are no abandoned fields, on the contrary every(Arab) farmer tries to add to his plot from the uncultivated land adjacent to it, if it doesnot require too much labor. Near the cities the sloped mountainsides are plowed, andbeside the "moshava" [village] Metulla the poor farmers plant, as in Lebanon, betweenthe rocks, and leave not a square yard fallow. And so, when we arrive to take hold ofthe land, the question arises: what will the farmers do, whose fields we shall buy?Usually we buy the lands from the big estate-holders, who took hold of the land, theyor their forebears, by larceny and deceit and lease it to the farmers, and sometimes webuy from the villages which sell part of their lands. The tenant farmer is not anitinerant on the leased land, he is a permanent resident who does not change hislocation, and some tenants are working land which their forefathers before them haveworked. It is customary in this area that when estates pass from one to another thetenants remain. But when we buy such a plot, we remove its former tenantscompletely. Indeed, we do not send them away empty-handed, we pay the value ofthe houses and crops handsomely, we do not stint, and from the point of view ofcustomary justice and official integrity we are completely moral, and even go beyondthe letter of the law. But, if we do not wish to willfully fool ourselves, let us admit, thatwe have cast away these poor people from their humble nest and taken theirlivelihood. Where will the evicted go, who have but little money? Indeed, the Hebrew"moshava" offers him work sometimes, whose wages are higher than his income fromhis humble tenancy. But, first, we cannot guarantee that we can supply him with430 Ksharim

egular work, and second, when we do this we deal unkindly with him, as when wesupply him with work in the "moshava" founded on his land, he can avoid parting withthe land that nurtured and fed him from the day he was born, and he continues tolook upon it now as its owner, who has been temporarily exploited by strangers. Thework we give the Arab will never, in his eyes, compensate him for his land that wastaken from under him; he will accept the good, but will not forget the evil."I. Epstein, A Hidden Question, published in Hashiloach 17, 1907. Reproduced in "Between Zion andZionism", Open University of Israel, unit 11 p. 50 (in Hebrew).From the 3 excerpts above, what were the sources of friction between Jewsand Arabs in Eretz Yisrael? Could they have been avoided or ameliorated, and ifso – how? Which parallels to the hostilities between American pioneers andIndians are you reminded of?Songs of the first aliyot (search http://www.shiron.net/ for Hebrew words):Rachel's poems put to music (there's a Chava Alberstein album, but many artistsperform single songs):Other songs:רק על עצמיהנה אקחבלא ניבבגני נטעתיךהן יצאנו בסךיונתןעקרהולואניזמר נוגהכוחי הולך ודלליד החלוןבלילה בא המבשראל ארציכנרתמתיספר שירישיאליעזר בן-יהודה.‏ מלים:‏ ירון לונדון.‏ לחן:‏ מתי כספי.‏על גבעות שיך אברק:‏ מלים:‏ אלכסנדר פן.‏פה בארץ חמדת אבות.‏ מלים:‏ ישראל דושמן431 Ksharim