the systems of grassland management in spain - Publicaciones del ...

40day' when the areas of important thermal inversionare localized in the Duero and Ebro Valleysand in La Mancha. In areas c10se to the ocean(Galicia and Cantabrian coasts), the high atmospherichumidity tempers extreme changes oftemperatllre, so the summers are reasonably coal,favouring the growth ofmeadow without necessityof irrigation. In thc northeast, especially aroundGerona, humidity from the Mediterranean Seaacts as a thcrmal regulator preventing extremedesiccation. In the south and the Balearic Islands,summer droughts are more extreme, due to theexcessive 1085 of llloisture caused by.long hours ofstrong sunshine heating the soi!. Andalucia isunder a joint influence of the Atlantic and theMediterranean Sea with a maritime climate in theStrait of Gibraltar, cool and wet except at theheight of summer.Wind plays an important part in mountainareas, such as the leeward foehn typical ofthe greatmountain ranges. Moist maritime air is drawn upover the crest and mists are frequen!. Thedescending currents of air are hot and dry. Wehave endeavoured to show (Fig. 3.2B) those windsthat are best known and intense in action such asthe aptly-named Tramontana (the Mistral ofAmpurdán) the Cierzo and MeS/l'a/ of the EbroValley and Tarragona, and the Abrego, a hot drywind which blows down from the Meseta towardsthe Cantábrico. The Regañon blows from. Galiciatowards the Duero Valley.Finally, to give an idea of the seasonal fluctuationsof rainfall in different parts of Spain we havedrawn a map (Fig. 3.3) showing the predominanceof rainfall in any given season. The typical winterrains of the Atlantic zone do not penetrate very farinland due to the action of the Iberian anticyclone;located in the centre ofthe Peninsula in this season.However, these heavy winter and autumn rains doprevail in some valleys, Iike that of the Guadalquivirand especial1y the Tajo.Moving inland from the Atlantic-CantabrianRegion and because of the altitude it can be seenthat the maximum amount of rain falls in winterand spring ("winter-spring-autumn-summer" onthe map). In the east, the rains are characterized byMediterranerlO infiucnce and the autumn is thetypical season (Balearic Islands, Valencia); in theEbro Valley the spring rains are more important("autumn-spring-winter-summer" on the map).PEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FILLATThe dotted areas on the map indicate the c10sedinterior valleys of the Peninsula where Iittle rainfalls, and it is irregularly dispersed tending to fall inthe hotter months as a result of convectionalstorms. In these valleys there is a predominance ofspring rains ("sprin'g-autumn-winter-summer").Only in a few places such as the basins of the Jilocaand Alfambra (Teruel), La Cerdaña, the eastemPirinéos and Cadí, thcrc are frequent summerstorms and this season is the rainiest ("summerspring-autumn-winter").The areas which have been left blank are thoscwhel'e c1imate is very changeable, oscillatingbetween the types aIready mentioned.Logically, the regions with autumn and winterrains are those affected by the above-mentionedmaritime air-masses during the colder months andwhere, therefore, the humidity is acting as athennic regulator. The summers are usually dryand, since vegetation is scarce, this general characteristicof Spain has contributed to the traditionalimportance of sheep, which must be moved to theweUer and cooler mountain areas. The autumnand spring rains characteristic of the Mediterraneanc1imate facilitate the growth of trees such asthe evergreen oak and the pine, especially Pin"sha/epensis. As one moves further inland theweather becomes variable with sudden changes oftemperature, and the vegetation becomes steppelike,dry, with scrubbier grazings and very roughgrasses.The c1imatological studies of Spain are numerousand we select only some papers like: Filia t(1983) for seasonality ofrains, and a simplifica tionby leona and González Rebollar (1974). Maps arebased also on those of the Servicio MeteorológicoNacional (1965, 1972) and the Instituto Nacionalde Meteorologia (1983). Regional studies includethose on Galicia by Diaz Fierros (1971); onCataluña, by Febrer(l930); on Aragón by Lisoand Ascaso (1969); and central Spain by SánchezEgea (1975).1Priday 4 February 1983, mininlllm temperatures. Highpressure centre of 1043 robar in 43°N, 17°W; anticyclol1c curveson thc Iberian Peninsula.

THE SYSTEMS üF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN 41FRANCE~~~~~~nrr.Fig. 3.3. Seasonal distribulion of precipitalion. Thc scasons are ordcrcd froro the railliest to Ihe driesLaYER 1000 MWINTER-AUTUMN-SPRING-SUMMERWINTER-SPRING-AUTUMN-SUMMERAUTUMN-WINTER-SPRING-SUMMERAUTUMN-SPRING-WINTER-SUMMERSPRING-AUTUMN-WINTER-SUMMERSUMMER-SPRING-AUTUMN-WINTERDynamies of vegelalion related to soH andtopographyThere is a tendeney of plant eommunities lochange until lhe oplimum vegetation for lhe soilconditions establishes itself, Ihat is unlil a climax isreaehed. Where there is a genller lopography anderosion is mínimal, a balance can be reached fOIgiven climatic conditions, if this is not prevented bylhe aclion of animals or mano Exploitation byanímals togcther with acute erosion on mountainslopes results in a simplifieation of local planlcommllnities, until autogenic succession balancesthe losses. Every permanent cornmunity is anexpression of this balance.The formation of the soil layer is slow and Ihenatural plant commllnities tend to preserve it.Compact shoots, 8tolon8 and rhizomes, intcrwcavingof roots al the surface and deeper down,prevent Ihe soil being carried away and contribulelo the formation of a glacis. Herbs eovering a soilwhich is basically unslable provide a dynamic andefficient protection.The main topographieal features of lhe Peninsula(Fig. 3.4A)The Pyrenees were formed by a very fragmenled

42 PEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FILLATbaAtlanticOceanaCordilleraIbérica~+-~--r +"Macizo Hespérico"PyreneesEbro ~Valle~.\'bW Spain"Alcarria""Síerras"E Spaine+ +d(A)PastureCrest ~-='r:-:¡=Fores tHeadowsRiverCulture(E)Glacis:. 1 •••• 6" • " •Fluvial terracesPig. 3.4. A. The main lopographical [catmes of Lhe Peninsula. a-b is a cross-section from Portugal to the Pyrenees, c-d is a crosssectionfmm Ihe Meseta lo lhe Mediterranean Sea; lhe gcomorphological names in Spanish are puL on lhe drawing. n. Typical slopewilh lopographical sequences.

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN43ancient socIe l and its recent üligocene orogeny isvery rich in lime and flysch.The great "Macizo Hespérico"2 of Caledonian­Hercynian orogeny presents an overall homogeneityexcept at the extreme edges where Meso­Cenozoic mountains are found (Montes Cantábricos,Montes Ibéricos, Sierras Béticas). It is a horstlimited by a system of faults to the northeast (theEbro Basin) and south (the Guadalquivir Basin).Duúng the Miocene, the Pliocene and at thepresent time, evaporites have been laid down in theEbro Valley (dry with strong W-NW winds), inCastilla and La Mancha. The endorheic basinswere of less importance in the Guadalquivir Basinbut they are still to be found in the great mountainranges of the southeas!. The tilting of the Meseta,combined with partial subsidence on the Atlanticside (Rías gallegas), drained Castilla and LaMancha, reducing endorheism but re-activatingerosion along the Iberian edge, with the consequentrenewal of soHs and the expansion ofgypsophilic communities.TopographieaI mieroelimatesOn mountain slopes microclimate varies accordingto the degree of exposure to sunshine and thetype of prevailing winds. They can be ascendingwinds, with the formation of mist or descendingfoehn winds. When there is a channelling of wind(Venturi elfect) it causes drought in certainlocalized spots (this is often caused by descendingwinds). Each type of microclimate favours adilferent kind of plant growth, and as a result theflora of the Iberian Peninsula is very rich. Beeauseof the mountain-valley sequenees already mentioned,drought conditions can be found even inenvironments with a wet oceanic type of c1imatc.This is a source of diversity, with prcservation afvery particular plants, and also eausing greatspeeialization in pasture management (see alsoMontserrat, 1980, 1981, 1983).Thc dynamies of waterAs mentioned aboye, the prcsence of water¡nfluenees temperature due to its high specifie andlatent hea!. Water also causes erosion throughfreezing-thawing, imbibing-drying out· and runolf.On the other hand, in its role as transportagent, it eontributes to fertilization and facilita tesplant reeuperation. The topography, frequency ofmists, water-vapour condensation under ground,etc., all inOuence the dynamism of pasture-Iands,as do both erosion and rapid soi] reeovery.Erosion is a process which liberates soil-enrichingnutrients, the loss of which is prevented by soilbacteúa aud the iutense root activity of certainplants. This activity is greatest in luxuriant arcasbordeúng forest, in meadows, and espeeially wherethere is a productive grassland. Watercourses havebeen changed to irrigate pasture-Iand, fodder eropsare grown where they are appropriate to thesurrounding environment, with an eye to choosingspecies that resist unpredictable periods of dryness,and the herds are moved to places where thetopographical microclimate is optimal. Plants,animals and human activities are a refiexion ofclimate,Watercourses and associated phenomena(Fig. 3.4B)Topographieal sequences on slopes are linkedmainly to geophysical characteústics like rockhardness, 01' to protection of the soil by plantsagainst erosiono Deeper soils are found mainly onfluvial terraees and glacis, but also on slopes,cl/estas, protected by hard rocks (polycyc1ic relief)as in our scheme, obviously favouring accumulationof soil, and the establishment of grasses andtrees, and causing great diversity in a restrictedspace.The rclationship between the animals and environmentis reciprocal; fOI example, mountaintops are fertilized by animals in their search forcool windy areas where they will not be plagued byflies. Although high mOllntain erests are oftenlInproductive and stony, they are nevertheless asouree of the water needed for lower mountainpastnres.The deve!opment of the vegetation, transhumaneeof animals and human activities have beenshaped by the variation of these environments,forming repetitive patterns which can be studied.Since snch diversity exists in Spanish valleys itmight be helpful to study some examples which willenable us to nnderstand the general trends oflThc Axial Pyrenecs formed during Hercynian orogeny.2The olclest part of the Ibccian Peninsula.

44animal husbandry in the past and also its futurepossibilities.Soil evolution in different habitatsIt seems necessary to consider not only theclimatic and topographical frames within whichsoil develops but also the type of rock which formsthe parent materia!.In siliceous zones of Spain, and also in a part ofPortugal, the so-calIed "Escudo Hespérico" withPalaeozoic mountains is formed mainly ofsiliceousrocks (Galicia, Montes de León, Sierras de Gredosand Guadarrama, Oretana 01' Montes de Toledo,and Sierra Morena), and this is most evident on theCambrian slates 01' in the granitic regions. Mountaincrests where quartz is present in quantity haveresisted erosion, but the soil is very pOOl". TheSpanish oak (QlIerclIs pyrenaica) in these areaseffectively mobilizes and retaios mineral cationswhich would otherwise be lost to the pastureland,and thus helps to form the grazed bardal, a verytypical kind of Spanish westem grasslands.Hard limestone rocks, which form cliffs andstony mountain crests, provide a suitable base forthe deep-rooted legumes so sought by sheep.Mixed woods evolve at the base of these cliffs.They are rich in a variety of species and readilylend themselves to pastoral exploitation. Thefrequency of alternating areas of marl, sandstoneand conglomerates favours diversity of soH typesand the different kind of pastures which may befound in valleys dedicated to grazing.Finally, the geological deposition of evaporitesin the wide valleys of Aragón, La Rioja and LaMancha has helped to preserve a very speeializedfiora, adapted to the presence of both gypsum andsalt. The large quantity of gypsum prevents theformation of black alkali (sodium carbonate),which has had such a devastating effect on similarenvironments in other countries.Diversiflcation of pasture-landTaking a broad view of the dynamics of (henatural vegetation and its development, especiallythat which has been subjected to erosion, recoveryand diversificatiol1, the extreme importance ofsuchdiversification can readily be understood.By observing the behaviour of gregarious animalsman leamt how best to make use of thesediversities. Gregarious ethology, and knowledge ofPEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FtLLATthe traditional methods of the past, both contributedto the development of grazing land and alsoto the integration of the farmer with his surround­¡ngs. For this reason it is necessary to describe theinterplay between the animals and their habita t,whether in terms ofplants and animals found there01' geophysical conditions. Any given breed is theconsequence of ¡ts evolution in a specific envirOllment.The group adapts by a process of selectionand the resulting genetical evolution. This means,within any given mountain habitat, that it ispossible to preserve those breeds that are not onlywell adapted but can be maintained at a minimumcostoAn historieal perspeetive of animal husbandry inSpain (Fig. 3.5)The shepherd of the Neolithic revolution(Moore, 1981) leamt fram the wild fiocks. Nomadismand also fiock movements in the moming,resting at noon and sheepfolding, have evolvedfrom the behaviour of wild animals. Similarly,gregariousness and graup life pass directly framanimals to menoWe present by maps (Fig. 3.5) the culturalinftuences in Spain from Neolithic times to theMiddle Ages. Megalithism and "Campaniforme"culture carne fram Egypt to the Balearic Islandsand southem Spain. In Fig. 3.5A we show a rangeof these infiuences fram 4000 years ago. Megalith­¡sro was very rare in central Spain.From 2000 RC until the beginning ofRomaninftuence (200 B.C.) there was a continuous fiow ofinftuences from the Near East (Phoenicians,Greeks) to eastem and southem Spain (Fig. 3.5B)and also fram the northwest of Africa (Argarculture). Before the Romans carne to Spain(900-650 RC.), the Celts infiuenced Spain, mainlyin the northwest. In our map we outline approximatelythe zones of infiuence and their limits.Romanization was ¡ntense in eastern Spain andAndalucía (Fig. 3.5C), developing the agricnlturaltechniques founded in the villa organization of theconntry (this is found typicalIy in the mas of thenortheast and the cortijo in southem Spain).Roman penetration to the west of the Peninsula(Evora and Mérida) was slow and only veryscattered, limited to mines or thermal waters incentral Ol' nol'thern Spain. Wine and cereals wcrc

A - SHEEP,. .---'=,"B- SWINE...,:t"''"~~'--=;~~'" ọ"DONKEYS-o~"'?J~ 1> []]TXISQUETtU 3-IBERICA EaZi0JALADA0"0~ nDNKEYS~ ANDALUZ ~ANDALUZPONY GALAICD- " " ZAMDRJ\.-~ ASTUR m::::B NO-LEONESITlIIIlJl PON'! VASCO-NAVARRO[gMONTEsn~Q:L2] RASA mSEGUREf:I~ RIPDLLESA BGUIRRA4-ENTREFINA mJ CASTELLANA~ ALCARRE~A~ l1I\NCHEGACIDVICH"""'#~W~/d­Zo¡,:>-~¡,:"' ~Z~ZFig. 3.6. Geographical distribution of farm animals. A. Breeds of sheep (from Sánchez Belda and Sanchez Trujillano. 1979). B. Swine breeds (from de Juana and Zuzuarregui,1966). C. Horses and donkeys (from Saraza Ortiz et aL 1975). D. Cattle (from Sánchez Belda. 1976 and Saraza. 1975).:':;

48Information on the distribution of traditionalherds in Spain can be found in general books, forinstance, Sarazá et al. (1975) 01' in regionalmonographs: Rodríguez (1955); Echevarria Belzunegui(1975); Francia (1978); de Miguel (1978);Sánchez (1978).THE MAIN GRAZING SYSTEMS IN SPAIN AT THEPRESENT TIMEInlroduelionThe maps in Fig.3.7 summarize the uses ofagricultural and forested land. They are based onthe most recent statistics supplied by the Ministeriode Agricultura (1980). Our main aim has been toshow, quantitatively, the relationship of differentprovinces to ane another.The relative importance of different types ofland usage is summarized in the central diagram,that is, agricultural, forested, meadow and pasturelandand other miscellaneous uses. More than 70%of the land is taken up by cultivation and forestry.The great plains of the Duero, the Tajo, LaMancha, La Campiña in Andalucía and a big partof the southeast (Murcia-Alicante) have beenploughed for centuries. Permanent grasslands arefound in the northern region 01" in mountains, andalso in lhe lVestern region (Salamanca-Extremaduraand western Andalucía) IVhere the dehesaorganization of pasture-Iand is typical. Extensivereforestation has taken place in Galicia, theBasque country, and the provinces of Barcelona,Gerona and Huelva.Figure 3.8 sholVs further details of land use withspecia! reference to grazing land. In the north andlVest the distribution of grassland is dependent onhumidity and edaphic factors and it is generallyprivately owned, while the rough pastures arecommunal. In areas such as the dehesa (a type ofnatural evergreen oak [orest, managed underextensive farming), the timber production is unimportan!.Lastly (Fig. 3.80) there is the southeasternregion with "Esparto" (Stipa tenacissima)rough grassland.To complete the picture, lVe have also shown(Fig.3.9) the areas IVhere trees are cuitivated fortheir fruit (olives, almonds, etc.) and the dehesarcgion.PEDRO MONTSERRAT "nd FEDERICO FlLLATSorne types of grazing syslemsFigure 3.10 sholVs sixteen different types ofpasture-Iand found in Spain and the main routes oftranshumance traditionally followed by flocks toreach areas of winter grazing.European-Atlanlic sectorCanlabrian meadows. General characlerislics(Montes Cantábricos and Galicia Regions, No. la,lb and Ic in Fig. 3.\0). In a wet climate it is easy tomaintain the meadows in good condition byperiodic cutting. Maritime air and also frequentmists provide the necessary humidity to pasturessurroundcd by 1V00dland. Grazed lands are foundin the more rocky rugged slopes (brañas in theCantabrian Mountains) and meadows in moreaccessible regions for cutting and storing (hay orsilage). The grass lVas fonnerly scythed up to aslope of 30-40°, although nOlVadays, because mostof this grassland has been abandoned, bracken andna tural woods have replaced meadolVs while thelVarmer, lower slopes have been reafforested withpine (Pinus radiata) or ElIcalyptus.Near the more densely populated coastal regions,IVhere there are scattered factories, one findsthe so-called prado-jardín or grasslands dedicatedto dairy cattIe. This dual activity (industry andcattle) is typical of Cantabria, Asturias andGalicia, with well-managed meadows interspersedwith small allotments. Most of these grasslands aredominated by Fes/uca arulldinacea, a spontaneousgrass standing up well to frequent cutting, andcharacteristic of good soils near the Cantabriancoast (Sociedad Nestlé, 1980).Further inland, winter production decreascstogether with cutting frequency. Away from thevillages there are stabIes near the cut grass and theproduction is stored as hay for feeding to stock in\Vio ter; generally, pastures are more importantthan in the coastal region. There are plantcommunities of Arrhenalflefion e1a¡;oris or Cynosurion(Tiixen and Oberdorfer, 1958) and Nardetalioin the wetter depressions. The practice of burningwinter grassland has given rise to communities ofheathlands (mainly Ulex europeus or U. gallii).Erica l'agan~ abounds in dry limestone mountainregions, as against E. cinerea and Calfuna vulgaris\Vhere the substrate is siliceous. The big Edca

1iI§¡¡IlI>60~ 50-60§ 30-50[[[]] 20- 300

lA GRASSLAND(%)1W1! >75~50-75825-50ITOJ15-25c::=l < 15FORESTED, NO!e PRODUCUilG TIMBER(% o f total forested)!ii28l > 75EZ!!J 50-758 25- 50rrm ///~/~i/(;;75~ 50-75Pig. 3.8. Usage ofland. Sorne subdivisions. A and B are two subclasses ofFig. 3.7C. e The "over 75%" category represents the dehesa zone; the figures are for the proportion offorest land (Fig. 3.7B) Dot producing timber. D. Grazed agriculturalland; the Erial a pastos class is typical ofthe driest part ofSpain (% afthe "Others" category in Fig. 3.7D).IIII I '--l :"-'·.... ···.:....:....-.:;:i.:::~.....J#,0..- ",'!.Ih~,-:I. '"_r_ ~_~ %." "''''o~~¡::~'" ~~•,Po."'" tJ'"~8."~:¡

THE SYSTEMS üF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN51&>'"CULTIVATED J,AND (over 50 %)FDRESTED LAND (aver 50 %)GRASSLAND ANDROUGH GRAZINGS (over 15 %)DEHESAZONE[MJ OLIVE-TREESv (over 5 % of cultivated land)Fig. 3.9. Usage of land in Spain. Summary.C-:J OTHERarborea is typical of good woodlands with deepsoils, sometimes associated with Gel/ista florida.Bracken (Pteridiwl1 aqllilil/llm) quickly colonizesderelict grasslands in the hills, but occurs only onthe southern slopes of the highest mountains;everywhere the prevalence of bracken is reduced byheavy cattle grazing 01' early cutting in spring.The Galician minifllndlls (la in Fig. 3.10). Evennowadays the poplIlation of Galicia is widelydispersed (there are here 32700 hamlets, a similarnumber to the total of aH vilIages in the rest ofSpain) covering an area where the resources forcultivatiou are few (less than20% oftotal surface).This means that the farms are smalI (5.5 haaverage) consisting of a great number of plots(average 22) at sorne distance one from other(10-15 km) (Otero Díaz, 1977). Given these cir-cumstances it is not surpnsmg to find thal theGalician farmer is very attached to his smalIholding,espeeialIy as the whole family is usualIyinvolved in its management. In spite of this, theIand has been abandoned in certain mountainregions and is now overgrown with scrub (utexellropells) and heather (Erica species 01' Cal/lino),which may cover up to 34% of the nominalIyforested areas.It is thought, historicalIy, that the practice ofsplitting up land into plots originated with theSuevi (Sánchez, 1978), when Ihey divided up theland. During the Reconqllista (9th, 10th and Illhcenturies) stock-farming in Galicia was under thecontrol of the feudal lords and the monasticorders. The autochthonous eattle breed (/'libiagallega) increased after the potato and maize wereintrodueed from America (afiel' 1541 when Perú

@'""+ ...."4@ o l. European-Atlantic sector~'"... ".-'t-La -The Galician minifuncluslb -Mou:l.tain grasslandle -The "pasiego" type2. The pyrenean sector28 -SubcarLtabrian part of Burgos-K1.v¿Jn:a2b -Ar

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN 53was finally conquered), thus enriching lhe traditionalrange of foodstuffs, such as rye, turnips,linseed, acorns and chestnuts.Al lhe end of the 18th century, as lhe result ofSpain's ties wüh lhe United Kingdom and lhegrowth in demand from urban centres of induslrializedEngland, a new market for lhe exporl ofmeat was crealed. This broughl about the specializationof the rubia gallega as beef cattle, whichlater found a new markel in the induslrial cenlresof Spain (Rodríguez el al., 1979).Generally speaking, Friesian cows are found onthe richer grazing land oflhe Atlantic coastal areaswhile lhe rubia gallega breed has spread furtherinland. Two importanl varieties of this breed havegradually evolved, lhe dairy cattle of lhe valleysand lhe mounlain beef-cattle. Nowadays, in spiteof lhe small scale of farming in Galicia (96% offarms support less than 6 cows) and difficultieswüh feeding because of the intricate syslem of verysmall plots, Galicia produces something more lhan23% of the calves raised in Spain. These are laterfattened in arcas situated closer lo lhe mainmarketing cenlres.Mountain grassland (1 b in Fig. 3.10). The CantabrianMountains act as a filter for the moisl sea airwith frequent mists on lhe norlh-facing slopes andto lhe northwest. On lhe leeward side, thecombination of drier descending currents of airand a southerly orientation is associated wilh achange in the lype of pastures and woodland foundlhere. Meadow-Iands are restricted here lo thedeeper soils in the valley bottoms or irrigatedgentle slopes. Looking at the map one canappreciale lhe imporlance of lhese mountains andtheir role as a screen against moisture-carryingwinds.The walershed is complicated especially roundthe Picos de Europa which form a gianl barrier. Inlhe southern part of the mountains the drylimeslone supports good pastures which, logetherwilh eroded slopes on slate rock making ploughingdifficult, have facilitated the development of thenomadic movements of sheep flocks (trashumancia).The basic major routes are shown in Fig. 3.10;they are called lhe "Zamorano-leonesa" and the"Segoviana" ane.Figure 3.11 shows a lransection from Cabuér-Cantabrian Sea/.//////®./././>O" m150() "~1.~: o.,A/,/ ,",,,, , , , , ," , ,"................ ----....BihcenaB©¡ ~ "INVERNALf,S""- ''''VILLI,GEFig. 3.11. MOUlllaill grasslands in Cantabda province (from Montserrat and Fillat, 1978).'"~"WN'SUl'NER PASIURE~

54niga (Valle de Cabuérniga), on the norlh side of theCantabrian Mountains, to the river Ebro nearReinosa (Bárcena). This is lypical of many mounlainsof northern Spain, with humid cloudy slopeschanging to lhe sunny climale of lhe Ebro Valley.The gentle slopes nol very far from the MarCantábrico are cultivaled, and very good meadowsare dominanl, grazed or heavily cul near lhehouses. Hedges are common with relics of climaxoak (Quereus roblll'J and ash (Fraxinus exeelsior).The doudy slopes (ascending maritime winds)have dense forests of beech (Fagus sy/vatiea),meadows, grazed pastures, and bracken (Pter¡diul1laquifil1um) in sorne cases. The cross-section e is amore detailed representation of lhis part.As one moves lowards the 1000 m conlourgrazing becomes more intensive and beech disappears,givillg way lo holly (l/ex aquifoliul1l),hawthorns (erataegus l1lonogyna) and gorse (UlexgalliO with healh (Edea vagans). This is lhe Montetojo, lhe home ground of very wild cattle, lheTudanea breed. Fires and grazing acting lhroughcenluries have impoverished lhe highest parts ofthe cornmunal pastures.The maritime winds, with frequent rain, passacross lhe mOllnlains and drop down towards lheriver Ebro, so lhal fine weather is dominanlthrollghoUl lhe year in this part. The dry air wilhsunny soulh-facing slopes, means dry-pasturedominantes logether wilh lhe characleristic piorna/es(Genista oblusiramea and Cytisus pllJ'gans), a"retamoid" type ofshmbs very lypical of Spain. Inthe upper Ebro Valley very deep soils are found inthe bottom of the glacis on gentle slopes; only nearthe top part is lhe piorna/ dominanl, logether withhard grasses like Festuea indigesta and Agrostisdelicatu/a. Shrubs like Eriea G/'borea and Genistaflorida are found in hedges on the besl soils, bulnear lhe villages ashes and oaks also help lo crealea very lypicallandscape (see Fig. 3.lIB).The climax fores! of this region is fonned ofQuerells (Q. pyrenaica, Q.faginea), and grasslandsare good because lhc soil is deep and rich inlimestone; but it is dry in summer, and irriga tian i8essential in order lo have good meadows. TheTlIdanea breed is well adapted to (hese grasslandsbut now it i8 necessary to change it8 utilization fromoxen for throughing and ploughing lo meal productionby erossing (heterosis) with olher breeds (seealso FilIal and Montserrat, 1978; López, 1978).PEDRO MONTSERRAT ,ud FEDERICO FILLATThe Pasiego in lhe mountains of Burgos-Canlabria(lc in Fig.3.1O and Fig.3.12). While moreextensive grazing systems are dominant in thewest-northwest of Reinosa, intensive systems producingmilk from grass are found in the norlheaslcmmountains. The pasiego people have manyspecial cullural characteristics sludied by de Terán(1947), Madariaga (1970), Tax de Freeman (1970),Ortega Valcarcel (1974, 1975) and Leal (1976).Figure 3.12B is a detailed map showing thescattered "habita!" of the lhree municipalitieswhich make up lhe pasiego region of the Cantabria.The farm buildings (cabañas) are located inplaces where grass is mosl easily grown. Eaehfamily owns several houses in differenl places,living firsl in one and then another depending onlhe needs of their cattle and lhe condition of lhepaslures in any given area (these moves can takeplace as often as once a week). The hay is harvesledin summer and lhen stored, together with lucernewhich is purchased. The farmer of this region hasperfected the melhod of converting healhland orareas of bracken into meadows. The land to beused as meadow is covered with a certain quantityof manure enough lo buffer lhe pH and ensure arapid enrichment of the soi!. Each year a little moremeadow can lhus be rec1aimed depending on theneed of lhe cattle owned by each family.In Machorras (a Iittle village in the north ofBurgos Province), lhe meadows closed by walls ofstone and their concomitant farmhouses arecharacleristic of the area, whieh exlends from analtitude of 800 to 1300~ 1400 m. Here, the grazingsare periodically burnl olf, and are domina ted byUlex gallii and Eriea vagans. The latter are grazedby horses and donkeys, cows and sheep (lheChurro breed). The farmers bum lhe roughpasture in February-March while lhe ground isstill frozen and winds are nol likely to be strong.The origin of the pasiego system reaehes a long wayback and is historically interesting.Future perspeetives. Within a relatively small areaof lhe greal mountains and the ,associated valleysthere is a gamut of habitats, dlfferenl vegetalioncommunities, different typcs of woods, meadowsand pasture-Iand with lhe accompanying variationof animal breeds. Associated with the animalswhich have adapled to lheir particular environmenl,human groups have grown up with a

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN 55SANTANDER(A)\ "PASIEGOS"""\ -.~,. - , \ ."oo', .",I ••• \ I",.. ..'\ Vega de Pas __ .1\:.... '"$~_:~__ ~-'_~~¡; l'(. .I ~ ••,. .\., e.e •" .., e."- . .• e.,\/'-/San ROlJ.uede Riomi era•,,

56However, nowadays the autumn grazing of acornsby pigs (montanera) has disappeared and the lachasheep are grazing all the year in foresl and serubs,logether wilh an inereasing number of horses. Thepony (jaca navarra) is also typieal of lhis landseape.Al lhe present time, the more intensified agrieullureis limited to the deep vaIley soHs, but the fieldsare aIways surrounded by hedges, shrubs and trees,mainly relicts fram the anclent forests. Permanentgrasslands are dominant on slopes, situated bolowthe grazed forests.Pastures with Brachypodium pinnatum dominanl,togelher with Erica vagans or braeken(Pteridium aquilinum) show bad grazing teehniquesin lhis landseape, promoted by the abandonmeutofmarginallands. Ecological diversity is favouringgrazing husbandry in this attractive part of Spain.The communal organizalion and other historiealinfluences, together with an improved road system,will be helpful in improving a new animalhusbandry.Aragón (2b in Fig. 3.10)The boa/m·es. The villages of lhe HuescaPyrenees, like many other agrieultural provinees ofSpain, retained sorne plots of forest from lhecommunal property. Traditionally these plols weregrazed by traetÍon animals (oxen, horses, mulesand donkeys). They are ealled dehesa boyal, boveral01' boalar, meaning a surface reserved fOI oxeo. Thedominant tree is a local oak or quejigo (manyslrains ofQ.faginea) or in the more Mediterraneanpart lhe evergreen oak (Q. ilex subsp. I"Otundifolia).Until recent times (1940-1960) shrubs were verysparse under the trees, and were eliminated byheavy grazing, but since the use of mechanicflltraetors has become frequent, this special grasslandhas evolved towards a natural forest.Every hamlet in this part of the Pyrenees has itsown boalar wilh an area of 2 to 10 ha according tothe exigences of ploughing. Under this very sunnyclimale, good grassland can be proteeted by acanopy screen of pruned trees. Animal dung andurine ereate good eonditions for grass under heavygrazing pressure. This special sod and very produetivelurf should be used in the future todiversify the grassland in every mounlain village,mainly because it is aeeessible and well adapted tograzmg.PEDRO MONTSERRAT aud FEDERICO FILLATDevelopmenl of meadows from fields of sainfoinand lucerne. Same characteristics of mountainmeadows are summarized in Fig. 3.13. The graph(Fig.3.13c) explains two importanl effects onquality of meadows. The ordinate axis is a qualityindex for the firsl eul [DNDF~Digestibility of theeeIl-wall material (neutro-detergent fibre - Goeringand Van Soesl, 1970-)] and the abseissa theeutting date. The oeeanic type of climate of themore westerly sites (Hecho and Siresa) wilh amilder spring faeilitate an early cut as camparedwith Anciles and Cerler. The hay quality is betterat lower (Hecho, 833 m) than al higher altitude(Siresa, 1050 m), and the same is lrue in theeomparison belween Anciles (1200 m) and Cerler(1500 m) in the easlern Alto Aragón.Table 3.1 shows the location of eight samplingsiles on present-day grassland: sorne of them arecoming from old fields (2, 3 and 5), others fromlucerne fields (1 and 4) and finally one comesdireetly from a cleared foresl (8). In the lasl yearssome fieIds were sown with selecled grassland seed(6 and 7). In general, we can see lhe height ofgrasses and the stabilization of legumes at lowlevels.Table 3.2 summarizes the total production(eutting and grazing) of a typieal meadow of lhisreglOll.Table 3.1 emphasizes the effeet of manuring onlhe first cut (June 1977) under diversified eondi'tions of mountains. Lucerne remains many yearstogether with new-coming spontaneous species,and maintains fertility in the topsoi!. In the sameway, sainfoin improved soil ferlilily on dry slopeson limes tone. In order to establish new meadows, itwill be essential to use adapted legumes and grasseslike eoeksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) or other seleetedseeds, always wilh heavy manuring.Thc borda for hay and animals. In the SpanishPyrenees, bordas are not very frequent except in thecenlral region where the big valleys are suitable forimportant hay produetion. Figure 3. 14C shows thebig dissimilarily between lhe easlern and westernsides of the Monte Perdido, in lhe centre of thisseelion. The Aneient Pyrenees (of Primary orPalaeozoie age) are more important lo lhe east,while the Sierras Interiores (more reeent, ofOligocene age) are predominant in lhe west;consequently, the big valleys are frequenl in theeast. The altitudinal distribution of bordas is

THE SYSTEMS üF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN 57SmlMER BEGINNINGSU.M1lER F.ND~·MPASTURE~¡ean DE plantbiomass offered:7000 kg [resh ha- 1 CALFGrowth of:60-150 kgPLAN! RESIOUES4-50 % oEofferDUNG1000 lloiLshaCADAVERS1-2 % ofto tal animalsgrazing1950 m®GENERALCHARACTERISTTCSOr PASTURES qN A SLOY~Non disturbed pastureNos.: 1,2,3,4Pasture disturbad bytIJe ,,,ild hoarNos.: 5 319001830178017501720,ravin~6 I 7hutI8 ,Floodccl zoneNos. : G 7GEOGRAPHICAL AND ALTITUDINAL INFLUENCESONHEADOWSDNDF (% ofdry maller)40Zaragoza3530• ~ Hechot Siresa833 m1050 m>1- [ AncílcsCerler1200 ID1500 m2520June30 15July31 20AugustFlg. 3.13. Same characteriSlics ofPyrcncan paslurcs and meadows. A. A lypical scasonal sequence ror cows in a Pyreneall grassland. B.A lopographical sequencc in the weslern Pyrenees from 1720 lo 1950 m. The diversified production is specified in Tablc 3.3. C. Thefigure cxplains thc productiol1 ofmeadows situatcd in (he \Vcstern and Centml Pyrcnccs. Produclion is indicatcd (Tablcs 3.1 and 3.2).

THE SYSTEMS QF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAINrn1I Summer pasturespropertyrn Spring and autumn p. =land€;; winter pastures of cattle OLand onhireq¡¡¡o Winter pastures of sheep- lj~ i/;Od~~ItLZJ VILLAGE\30-40 km1 day®SUMMER Shcep andPASTURES cattie grazeLt months(June-Sept.)"PARDINAS"@ZüNE130-HIO xm10-15 days oE"cranshumance"Sheep andcattie graze2 months(May and Oc t.)CatCle graze6 months(Nov.-Apri 1)59WINTERPASTURESShcep graze6 months(Nov.-April)©l'erdidoVIELLA3000 ID2000 ID1000 IDH AABCAA y T. B F Nkm • Mountain vil1ages3000 roThe westernAlto Arag6n@,,,1Village ~)lI1h 5 900Qtf()"Pardina"'!....,",.!'IdV' '\ñl'Ebro32300ti2000 "Borda"W$-,-150011#Village ~4~ ~600,'~ .". 6 q/B•....(J'lllvEbro".'.,",/~,1B .-Ancl-ent Pyrenees- Secondary "Sierras",The easternAlto Arag6n68

THE SYSTEMS üF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAIN 61TABLE3.3Some characterislics of Pyrenean pasluresSites Height of Fresh weight Composilioll (% of DM) DM(%)plants (cm) g m- 2 grasses legumes Carex spp. otherspanicles foliage1 25 5 100 45 J9 7 9 362 35 5 240 84 15 O I 403 50 12 530 81 8 7 4 294 60 15 780 72 5 O 23 315 50 12 400 81 19 O O 386 30 5 120 2 3 95 O 377 50 10 400 53 4 34 9 368 55 15 1020 60 19 O 21 JIDate of sampling: 5 AlIgusl 1974.adapted to the brackish wa ter and soil. Among theChenopodiaceae there are sorne genera preadaptedto these soi! and climate conditions,mainly species of Atriplex and Salsola; Salsolal'ermiculata (sisallo) produces its fruit in autumn,and the sheep enjoy it. The C. plants (especíallythose with grey and glaucous colouring) areresistant to losses by photorespiration, and arevery promising for this environment. The productiooaf C/1enopodium and Amaranthus seeds rorirrigated brackish soils should also be invesligated.The northeastern sector of Cataluña (2c inFig.3.1O). The humid Mediterranean climate ofthis part of Spain favours a farming dispersed overhills and valleys. Such a dispersion is typical ofoceanic clima tes and regions under a long polilicalstability from the Middle Ages till recent times.Effectively, this sector fonned the boundary of theempire of Charlemagne ("Marca Hispanica").The Roman institulion of inheritance linked tothe farmhouse (family unit) was also a new factorfor stability. So, diversity of geophysical conditionsand continuity in management allowed a verygood protection against historical changes, preservingthe more essential structures. In every farroone can find the following elements: forested part,permanent grassland, Mediterranean cultivation ofwinter cereals, maize, pota toes and typical forageefops like Tl'ifolium incarnatum, T. pratense, tur,..nips, cabbages, Italian ryegrass, lucerne, manyhorticultural plants and the poplar (Populus spp.)or plane tree (Platanus hybrida) on fluvial terraces.Nowadays, intensified exploilation is being directedto the famous calves, milk, al' selected fmitproduction.Near the Gulf of Rosas, on fluvial recent soils,one finds the c/oses, fields fenced by stone walIs 01'hedges. On these fields, bordering the wellermeadows, is also found the Emporda type oflucerne. Transhumancc from the eastern Pyteneesto this sector (see Fig. 3.10) was very important,and explains the devclopment oC lucerne andsainfoin forage.There are books on Pyrenees like Sorre (1943),Solé Sabaris (1951), Viers (1973) and Taillefer(1974), wilh good descriptions ofPyrenean life andalso those of Violant (1949), Montserrat (1966,1978) and BaleeIls (1971). A very good picture ofthe Atlantic part was given by Lefevre (1933); andthe eastern part ofNavarra, Roncal, was describedby Puigdefábregas and Baleells (1970). The centralpart of the Pyrenees, the Aragón sector, wasstudicd by Oaumas (1967 and 1976), Ocaña (1978)and Fillat (1980) and Cataluña by Vilá Valenti(1950, 1963) and Generalitat de Catalunya (1981).The central mounlains of SpainThe Calltabrian foothills facing into thc CastillianMeseta sometimes fonn a vast glacis wilh wcllwashedsoil. Here one is dealing with aucientmarojales (forest of Que/TUS pyrenaica) and quejigales(Q.faginea), reduced to the present state byfires which have got out of control. The vegetationof Ihe dry grassland and heathland (páramos) is

62made up of hard-leaved grasses (Avenulamirandana, Festuca hystl'ix, F. indigesta, Koeleriavallesiana, ele.) together wilh Cistaeeae and Fabaccae(Cislus, Halimiunl, Helianlhemwn, Tuberaria,As/raga/us, Genista occidellfalis, G. pwnila, Medicago,Trifoliwn, etc.). Dry air and contrastingtemperatures are characteristic of this environmentwhieh is epitomized by the juniper tree (Juniperus/hur!!era) so lypieal of lhis region, as are J. nauaand J. sabina.Although the above vegelation is lypieal of theCordillera Ibérica, Montañas de León, Sanabriaand lhe Carpelana between Somosierra andGredos, oak woods are also widespread, and lo alesser degree pine forests (Sierra de Guadarrama,Pinar de Lillo of León provinee, Sierra de laDemanda, Cameros, Sierra del Moncayo andMonles Universales): there are a few beeeh woodson slopes faeing north-wesl wilh lheir eharaeteristiefrequent mists eaused by lhe eooling of lheascending air currents. There are also extensivemoorlands, where lhe dominanl planl is Callunavulgaris associatcd with El'ica australis and at timesVaccinunl myrtilfus and V. uliginoswn. The prescnceof Erica arborea and Genista florida areindieative of a habilat where there is deep soil andunderground water.The Cameros (3a in Fig. 3.10). The environmentof lhe Cameros belween Logroño and Soria(Calvo, 1977) can be taken as generally representativefor lhe eenlral mountains of Spain. When lhecows lcave their winter stable, pregnant, they reachCameros rough pastures where they give birth, andlhey deseend lo lhe village when they sense theapproaeh of lhe lirsl heavy snowfall. The Cameranaeow or Pinariega, was perfeetly adapted lo lhepoor qualily of lhe grazings, seattered belweensmall woods and healhland, where eaeh eow has itshaunt, gives birth and retums home with ils ealf.Sheep graze on the drier slopes, and transhumantsare frequent in this part of Cameros.The phytosoeiology of lhe Cameros Mountainswilh grasslands has been deseribed by Mendiola(1983).Those meadows whieh need eutting only once ayear are loeated near centres ofhabilation; here lhepasiego and lhe borda of the Pyrenees and theCantabrian Mountains are virtualIy nOll-existent.Inslead lhere are meadows of ArrhenatheretaliaPEDRO MONTSERRAT ,ud FEDERICO FILLATeharaeterized by an abundanee of Malva moscha/a.Near the páramo, where lhe heathland is driest,are found oak woods of Quercus pyrellaicG, anexeellent oak for forage. It provides serub forgrazing, with shoots c. 10 lo 25 cm in length, andabounds in Zamora, Avila-Segovia, Sierra deGuadalupe, etc.Meadows in lhe high mounlains of Teme) (3b inFig. 3.10). In the high mountains of Teruel(1500-2000 m) pine forests predominate (Pinuss)'/l'eSfris) interealated wilh small woods of Quercusp)'renaiea and hazel (Cor)'/us al'el/ana) in theSierra de Gúdar-Valdelinares, where the soil iseooler and rieher. The meadow-Iands of thiseastern zone have been famous since ancient times(Asso, 1779) with pastures where Fabaeeae aredominanl (As/ragalus danieus, Medieago sufjruticosa,Onobrychis hispanica, .Ononis cris/ata, etc.).The paslures of the Monles Universales areseattered belween abundant pine forests and are ofa poorer qualily than those mentioned above.Methods used for ealtle farming were once verysimilar lo those found in the Cameros, bulnowadays exploitation for timber takes preeedenee.Sorne of lhe villages in lhe Sierra deAlbarracín keep f10eks of transhumanl merinosheep whieh winler in La Mancha (Mesta deAlbarracín). In the mountains where soil is gravellyor sandy, Cal/una vulgaris, Cisfus laurifolius andHalimium viscosum have invaded those pastureswhieh have been bumt olf. In these zones goats arethe ehief grazing animal. A monograph on thesegrasslands has been published by Gómez (1982).Meadows and grassland in the Carpetana Mountainsof Ceulral Spain (3e in Fig. 3.10). The Carpetanamountain ehain (Sierra Ministra, 1200 m; Somosierra,2000 m; Guadarrama, 2400 m) presents apieture of various extensive glacis sloping gentlydown towards the Castillian Meseta. The relativelyfertile deep soils (bardal soils) are most suilable forestablishmenl of meadows and green paslure-landduring thc summer. Where it is drier, as in Segovia,there are woods of evergreen oak (Quereus ro/undifolia)and pastures dotted with Juniperus /"urifera.Towards Somosierra there are grazings on deep soilwhieh are now overgrown wilh lhe braeken fem, anindex of both their abandonment and the deereasein livestoek aetivity.

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAINIn lhe Escorial and Guadarrama the meadowson dccp soil [ICC cut in spring and intensivelygrazed; lhe ash (Fl"axilluS allguslifolia) bordersthese meadows. Where QuerClls pyrellalca grows itis an indication of permeable soil, while evergreenoak and JUllipel'us oxycedrus grow in the drierenclaves al higher altiludes close to 800-1000 m(Rivas Martínez, 1982).The Avileña cattle are characterislic of thesemountains, and are well represented in the Sierrade Gredos and its foothills. Fesluca elegallsgrowing on the convexities is the dominantsummer plant of lhe upland paslures, whileCampanulo-Nardion communities grow in thedamper hollows (Rivas Martinez, 1963). Movingsoulhwards the change oflevel is extremely abrupt,and this contrasled landscape was advanlageous tothe Avileña breed, which make a short lranshumancelo the Mediterranean type of pastures ofArenas de San Pedro and lhe Tiétar Valley; inthese wintering zones, Poa bulbosa and Trifoliumsubterraneum are abundant.The Mesla lype of animal husbandry in León andCastillaThis is a sheep system which has been infiuentialfrom mediaeval times to lhe present day, and it ischaracteristic of lhe northem Meseta. This zonewas uninhabited for several centuries during theReconquista (Fig. 3.5E), thus favouring the movementof enormous flocks.In the par! which was reconquered before the10th century and colonized by freemen, thedominant breed of sheep is lhe Churra, useful farmilk and with rough wool. The landscape is one ofheathlands and criss-crossed by wide valleys ofdeep soil favouring the establishmenl of meadows.Flocks of 100 to 140 sheep also graze on thestubble of the crops sown in the area, and on otherforage crops sown lraditionalIy for work animals.The resident fiocks of milk sheep have originatedhere.The dominanl breed of sheep on lhe resl of theMeseta is the Entrefina Castellana, used for bothlheir meat and milk. Floeks of about 200 sheepgraze in the area all the year round. Here one mustdistinguish between lwo principal pattems: that inthe west assoeiated with extensive wooded pastureland,and the eastern pattern, where moorland onlimy soil is suilable for lhe cultivation of sainfoin.The winlers are long, and, while grazing stillcontinues in same of the meadows borderingwatereourses, feeding is supplemenled by haymade from sainfoin and luceme. The moorlandsheep graze also on the stubble which remains afterharvesting sainfoin and lucerne, and this ensuresthal the meadows lying along lhe watercoursecontinue lo be productive.When the severe winter conditions of the páramoprcvail, orre finds in this zone (Sierra Ministra,Molina de Aragón, etc.) the hardy Ojalada Sorianabreed of sheep, a brancl! of the Ibérico stock. Tothe southwest, in La Alcarria, yel another hardierbreed ofsheep is found, lhe Alcarreña, a branch ofthe Enlrefina especially adapted to mountain areas(see Fig. 3.6A).The lack of emphasis on wool production insheop farming is due lo lhe running down of lhewool induslry and the collapse of the Mestaorganization. The BHonrado Concejo de la Mesta"was ariginally created and supported by the King in1273 (Klein, 1964) in order lo lake advantage oflheproduction of enormous quantities of wool obtained[rom the merino. This association concernedwilh sheep farming crealed wealth for lhe RoyalTreasury, and was lhus encouraged lo lhe detrimentof a more general agricultural policy (cultivation ofarable land). However, lhe increase in populalionduring the 18lh century and the collapse of theforeign markel caused lhe loss of these privilegesand lheir legal abolition in 1836 (Garda, 1978).Figure 3.10 shows lhe great sheep lrails of thecenlral-westem area where the Castillan Mesta wasimportan!. To the east lhere were lhe Mesla deAlbarradn and the Casa de Ganaderos de Zaragozaorganizing the Montes Ibéricos and EbroValley transhumances. The shorl grazing providedby Poa bulbosa and Trifolillln sublerralleum (RivasGoday and Rivas Martínez, 1963) is good for lhemerino sheep. This type of paslure-land is principallyconfined lo lhe west (end of lhe arrows inFig.3.l0) and has a high winler production asindicaled by the rainfall maps (Fig. 3.3). The longjoumey involved in lranshumance enables thesheep lo lake advanlage of the shart loughpastures of the páramos and of the limestonesubcanlabrian mountains of León, Palencia andSoria. This is why the wide sheep trails, with areasset aside for resting, have persisled in all theircomplexity until the present day.63

64As wooI has become a less important cornmodityand the importance of producing prime lamband cheese has taken over, the need for tmnshumanceis no longer pammount, lhe result beinglhal more and more flocks of merino slay all lheyear in their original provinee. From lhe aboyebreeds and crossbreeds enough lamb is producedto be industrially exploited. Merino is now exploitedfor its wool in Auslralia, where populationdensity is low and there are similar Mediterraneanconditions to those found in the west ofthe IberianPeninsula.The Manchego syslem of husbandry (5 inFig. 3.10)To the south ofMadrid, the Meseta is al a loweraltitude than to the north (average altilude 600 mas opposed to 800 m), the summer is hotter anddrier, and thus lhe gmzings are rougher and poorin quality. Less arable land is dedicated to pastureor scrub, most of it being under cultivation, withgrapes as lhe main crop. Frequently olive grovesalternate lVith the vineyards, and occasionallyolives, vines and almond trees all grow in the samefield.The eombination of a lemperale winter, deepsoil and the diversity of crops, (including fodderbarley, oats and legumes grazed in lhe field), opensout lhe possibilities of a much greater variety indiel for the sheep during lhe lactation periodo Themilking ofsheep for the manufacture of cheese is avery old industry. Vines and trees supply a soureeof [oad in auturnl1, and modern irrigation hasmeant that the small flocks of40 to 60 sheep can bekept near the centres of habitation in La Mancha.However, the larger flocks (200-250 sheep) needmore extensive areas of uncultivated land wherethere are wide sheep tmils. Usually they are kepton large provincial eslates which were previouslyassociated lVith lhe mediaeval Ordenes Militares(Calatmva, Alcántara) on the southern frontiers ofthe Christian Kingdoms.As wilh olher breeds of sheep, the Manchegagraze on the stubble in summer and on theuncultivated land around in winter. The number offomge crops grolVn (such as cereal-legume mixturesfor grazing by sheep) have increased but ther.eis not sufficient humidity lo produce summerforage, like some of lhe ¡egumes sown in thenorthern part of the Caslillian Meseta. The deepPEDRO MONTSERRAT and FEDERICO FtLLATsoil pennits the dry farming of lucerne and also,where thcre is irrigation, a variety of forage eropsplus lucerne. Pastures are domina ted by roughgrasses as Aegylops, Bro11lus and Taenialherum,logelher lVith Medicaga and other annuallegumes.To sum up, we find a great diversity lVilhin thisenvironment, a variety of different products evenin autumn lacking pasture in Meditcrraneanclimate and a breed of sheep resislanl to both heatand drought. Given lhe possibilities for the furtherexpansion of foragc crops, using undergroundwater for irrigation, the Manchega sheep couldhave a promising futufe.A greater diversily in diel can be provided by useof vine shoots and the leaves of trees in autumn,thereby avoiding the destruction of annuals in aseason which is critical for their establishment. Asmenlioned aboye, the sheep of this region stand upwell to the extreme summer heat and continue toproduce milk, which is IVhy they have been selectedto populate this Mediterranean type habitat.Thc Segureña type of grassland syslem (6 IIIFig.3.10)To the soulheasl of the Peninsula the clima tebecomes drier and lhe vegetation woodier. Becauseof these conditions there are more goats and fewersheep. As well as the sheep indigenous to thecoastal regions (GII!rra in Valencia and Alicante), ahardy animal which resists heat and drought, thereis a second breed of sheep, the Segureña, scalteredthroughout the region. The lalter is similar lo lheManchega sheep but produces less milk and is af ahardier slock.The vegetalion covering the area inhabited bythe Segureña sheep is mainly rosemary (RosmarinllsojJicinalis) and rush (Lygell/1/ spar/llm) lVithtough grasses (AgJ'0pYI'OJl, Bl'achypodium, Helictotrichonfilifalill/1/, S/ipa, etc.) and scrubby pastures,thus producing conditions for grazing which wouldnot be tolemled by lhe more productive breeds ofsheep. Traditionally, the land is used for lheproduction of rushes and in lhe valleys, interspersedbetween the .arid mountains, some cerealsare cultivated. Given these circumstances it wouldseem sensible to encourage the expansion of theSegureña breed, thus increasing the production oflambs which are much in demando

THE SYSTEMS OF GRASSLAND MANAGEMENT IN SPAlN65The Dehesa lype of grassland in lhe wesl of lheIherian Peninsula (7 in Fig. 3.10)In the wesl, due lo the extreme summer droughtand the poomess of the soil, lhe cultivation ofcereals is not profilable, and instead there are largeareas of wooded pasture-Iand supporting a largerange of livestock, such as swine, sheep, cattle,horses and donkeys. In some areas there are alsoJIocks of domestic fowl of various types. Thedensity of trces ¡ocreases as Qfie gocs further 80uth,thus protecting the land surface from the intenseheat and insola tion. There is also an increase in thenumber of swine.The tradition of use of forest c1earings for thegrazing of animals is left over from earJier epochs.Al arre time, when demographic pressure was notso great, other mountain areas were grazed in thesame way; but nowadays it is a custom whichpersists mainly in the wes!. Here the originalevergreen oak has been preserved; and, where thisis not so, a more productive oak with a large sweetacom has been planted in woodland pastures.Historically speaking (Balcells, 1978-1982),from the time of the Reconquista lhe land wasdivided into large estates (100-500 ha). There hasbeen little change in this respect due to the lowfertility of the soil, a fact which has prec1udedintensive cultivation in the area. Only in Tierra deBarros (Extremadura Region), and along narrowriver valleys, properties are smaller and intensivecultivation takes place.If one considers a typical or average dehesa, 10to 30% of the land may be under cultivation whilethe rest is employed in different ways which varyfrom Salamanca to Huelva. In the westem sectorof Salamanca there are lwo main methods of usingthe land, one so-called al tercio and a secondnamed a cuatro hojas. Al tercio means that 2/3 ofthe land is used for cultivation of cereals while athird lies fallow. In the second, 30% of the land isdedicated to growing cereal which then providesslubble for grazing (Gómez Gutiérrez, 1982 inBaleells, 1978-1982). Where there is a greaterdensity of trees, grazing continues until it isinvaded by scrub or toxic plants and a system ofrotation musl be applied in order to c1ean the area.The dense evergreen oaks are intensively pruned,before ploughing lhe soil, and cereal is sown theyear after. This process conlinues until lhe soilbecomes impoverished and has to be abandoned.The abandoned fields of stubble are given over tograzing, and vegetation becomes progressivelydenser.The watercourses and hollows found betweenareas of cultivation provide productive pastureswhich are cut sometimes, especially where fertilizerhas been applied; it helps lo keep the pasture elearof undergrowth. The principal plants fOllnd hereare Trifolillll1 striafllm with T. slIbterraneunJ andAgrostis castellana.The Morucha cow is typical of dehesas ofSalamanca, and it keeps the paslure both elean andshort for subsequenl grazing by the EnlrefinnCastellana sheep. This is the limit of the zonewhere the Iberian pig occurs, the production ofacorns being scarce and variable from year to year.Even so, the herdsmen have been responsible forplanting acoms from which many of lhe evergreenSalamanca oaks grow. By rooting in lhe soil, theIberian pig causes a series of microchanges in thepaslures, thus creating a diversity used efficientlyby the ruminants. Finally, the common Spanishturkey (Pavo mexicano) feeds on acoms, and al thesame time controls the populations of sorne inscctsand molluscs.In Extremadura, acorn production is greater andthere are many more pigs, with a consequentdecrease in cattie density. The Blanca Cacereñacow is now practically non-existent, and variousbreeds ofcow can be seen locally. The environmentis optimal for merino sheep, and there are someJIocks resident all the year round while others stillpractice lranshumance to the Cantabrian Mountains,protected from wolves by the mastín extremeño.This big shepherd dog carries a collar withnails and fights with wolves, bul when animalssuch as horses and Cantabrian autochthonouscows graze without shepherd or dog the wolves kilisome - between 1974 and 1979 236 animals,predominantly colls, were killed in Aslurias (Branaet al., 1982; see also López et al., 1981).Approaching the west side of the Sierra Morena(Sierra de Tudia and Aracena) one finds anincrease in the number of herds of Retinta cows,which maintain the pastures elean without the needto resort to cultivation. In these dehesas there is agreat number of evergreen oaks, even along lheedges of walerways. The increase in tree densityprotects against insolation and feeds the greatnumber of pigs. This is the centre of lhe region of

68There are more diffieulties in the Ebro Valley,where ploughing and recent exlension of irrigaledfields are making it more and more diffieult lowinter in the steppe area. Moreover, one cannotforget the poor possibilities of marriage for youngshepherds. In fael, this is a very big social problemwhich can ruin a traditional transhumance.The lwo models of lranshumanee deseribedaboye, one linked to the Mesta and lhe olher to lheCasa de Ganaderos, clearly typify the situation inmany cases. Although diversily of grassIand produetionis slill persisting, unforlunately lhe shepherd'sorganization has disappeared wilhoul beingreplaeed by any modern equivalenl.Faeed wilh sueh a high diversily of grassprodnelion in spaee and lime, the firsl problem willbe a¡ways lo put grazing animals on eaeh pastureal lhe best time. Tradilionally, lhe family nsed lobe divided for half oflhe year, shepherds winleringvery far from home. NevertheIess, lhere are manyunpublished possibilities for overeoming lhis problem.The lypieal M ancolllunidades Ganaderasmighl be evolved and find legal solutions 10facilita te lhese lloek movemenls.On lhe other hand, animal seleetion is mainlydireeted to indoor produetion; we lhink il wouldbe more importanl to seleet for correet behaviour,and look for a good guiding animal. As gregariousbehaviour is normal for lhese animals, it should bepossible lo exploit il.The nexl step eould be a seleetion for makingbeller use of lhe hard grasses and sornetimes of lhebushes or shrubs dominant in every province. Forthis reasan, Qur grassland descriptions wece basedon eharaeteristie animal breeds. Among lhesetraditional speeializations it should be possible loseleet the most effieienl for every siluation, andpartieularly for mobilily.The reeenl teehniques of animal produetioninvolve helerosis by erossing sorne breeds. In ouropinion il wouId be easier to mainlain every breedin ¡ts own environment. As we have emphasized,sueh a genetie and eeologieal bank eould be full ofpossibilities for animal husbandry and grasslandmanagement in Spain.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSMrs. Vivian Boueher was very helpful doingmosl of the English translalion work and Dr. LuisPEDRO MONTSERRAT 'lld FEDERICO FILLATVillar improved lhe final version. The drawingshave been made by F. Filial.REFERENCESAguiJar, S.A., 1961. Nue~'o Atlas de España. AguiJar, Madrid,455 pp.Aljama, P., 1982. La Raza Retinta. Monle de Piedad y Caja deAhorros de Córdoba, 200 pp.Asso, l., 1779. S)'nopsis sfirpium illdigenarum AragoniaeProefotio. Massiliae, p. XIV.Balcells, E., 1971. El ambiente J' el hombre en la mOl/taña.Conferencia pronunciada en al Patronato Alonso deHerrera del C.S.Le. e14 de febrero de 1971, Madrid.Balcells, E. (Editor), 1978-1982. Estlldio integrado)' ntllltidisciplinariode la Dehesa Salmantina. 1 Estudio Fisiográficodescriptivo,2 fase. 243 pp., 3 fase. 343 pp., 4 fase. 83 pp.UNESCO MaB Projeet No 506. Salamanca-Jaca.Brana, F., Del Campo, J.C. and Palomero, G., 1982. Le loup auversant lIord de la cordillere Cantabriquc. Acta Bio/.Montana, 1: 33-52.Calvo, J.L., 1977. Los Cameros. Instituto de Estudios Riojanos,LogrOlio, Vol. 1: 298 pp. Vol. II: 18 mapas.Cavaillcs, H., 1931. la Vie Pastorale el Agricole dans lesPyrénées des Gm'es, de l'Adour et des Nestes. ArmandColin, Paris, 403 pp.Daumas, M., 1967. "Pardinas" et "masías" dans le HautAragon oriental. Pirinéos, 83-86: J05-1I8.Dal1mas, M., 1976. La I'ie rurale dans le Haute Aragon oriental.C.S.LC. Patronato "José María Quadrado" y "Alonso deHerrera". Instituto de Estudios Oscenses y de GeografiaAplicada, Madrid, 774 pp.De Bolós, O., Molinier, R. and Montserrat, P., 1970. Observa·Hons phytosociologiques dllns I'i1e de Minorque (Com.­S.I.G.M. no. 191). Acta Geob. Barcinonensia, 5: {-I50.De Juana, A. and Zuzuarregui, J., 1966. Ganado Porcino.Ministerio de Agricultura, Madrid, 182 pp.De Miguel, A., 1978. Pasado y presente de las razas vacunassantanderinas de mOlltaíla. Selección de textos y comentarios.An. Inst. Estud. Agropecuarios, 1II: 9-63.De Terán, M., 1947. Vaqueros y cabañas en los Montes de PasoEsrud. Geogr., 28: 7-57.DillZ Fierros, F., 1971. Confribución a la Climatología Agrfcolade Galicia. Universidad de Santiago de Compost~la.Echevarria Belzunegui, T., 1975. Raza vacuna pirenaica.Evolución, situación actual y perspectivas. Imp. DiputaciónForal de Navarra, Pamplona, 197 pp.Febrer, J., 1930. Atlas pluviométric de Catalunya. Mem.Patxot, 1: 523 pp.Fernández Casas, J., 1974 Vegetación y flora de Sierra Nevada.Los borreguiles. Bol. Estac. Central Ecol., 3(5): 29-39.Fillat, F., 1980. De la trashumancia a las "uel'as formas deganaderfa extensil'a. Estudio de los miles de Ansó, Hecho yBenasf}ue. Memoda Doctoral.Filial, F., 1983. Estacionalidad de las precipitaciones enEspaJia: clasificación de zonas homogéneas. v/u Reun.Ponencia de Bioclimatología. Zarago7.a.

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