Volume 3 nr 1 / 2011 - Academia Oamenilor de Stiinta din Romania

ACADEMY OF ROMANIAN SCIENTISTSA N N A L SSERIES ON E N G I N E E R I N G S C I E N C E SVOLUME 3 2011 NUMBER 1ONLINE EDITIONTOPICS: MECHANICAL ENGINEERI NG E LECTR IC AL ENGINEERI NG P OWER E NG INEERING E LECTR ONIC S E NGINEER I NG M ATERIAL E NGINEERING C I VIL ENG I NEERING I NDUSTR I AL ENGINEERI NG TR AN S POR T S E NGINEERI NG C HE M IC AL ENG INEERING AU T O MATION SYSTE M SISSN 2066 - 8570E d i t u r aACA DEMIEI OAMENI LO R DE ȘTII NȚĂ DI N ROM ÂNIA

A N N A L S O F T H E A C A D E M YO F R O M A N I A N S C I E N T I S T SSeries on ENGINEERING SCIENCESCONTENTSMIHAI CLAUDIU ANTAL, MARIUS CRISTIAN NEAGU, VLADIMIR MOLDOVEANUThe Remanufacturing of an Articulated Arm Robot with 5 Degrees of Freedom.Step In The Academic Practical Experience ............................................................................ 7BOGDAN ANDREI BARBU, FLORIN IORDACHE, ALEXANDRU DANIEL TUFAN, NICU CIPRIAN TANEAInfluence of Vibrations and Dynamic Characterizationof the Human Body Generated by Cars ................................................................................... 15ALINA BIANCA BONŢIU POP, CĂTĂLIN CUDALBUProducts Recovery Opportunities at the end of Technological Cycle .................................... 23IONUŢ DANIEL COZMUŢA, CRISTIAN VASILE PETRICRecycling and Remanufacturing - Two Forms of Recovery of End Life Products .................. 29ION V. POPESCU, CRISTIANA RADULESCU, CLAUDIA STIHI, GABRIELA BUSUIOC,ANCA IRINA GHEBOIANU, VALERICA GH. CIMPOCAThe Study of Heavy Metal From Environmental Samples by Atomic Techniques .................. 35MIRCEA O. POPOVICIU, ILARE BORDEASU, LIVIU MARSAVINAAnalytical Evaluation of Crack Propagation for Bulb Hydraulic Turbines Shafts.................... 47REMUS PRAVALIEGeneral Considerations Regarding the Impact of theVidraru Lake Hydro Facilities on the Environment .................................................................. 59CONSTANTIN RADUIntelligent Networks, Smart Grids Concept,Crucial Technologies for Sustainable Development ............................................................... 67LORAND CATALIN STOENESCUTwo-Dimensional Modelling of Accidental Flood Wave Propagation ..................................... 77ANDREI SZUDERProject Indicators – Essential Factors in the Designof the Project Proposals of the Structural Funds .................................................................... 93LIVIU MURESAN, SEPTIMIU CACEUCritical Infrastructures Protection - A Romanian Perspective (Part 1) .................. 103ALEXANDRU IONUȚ CHIUȚĂ, LIVIU MIHAI SIMA, NICOLETA DORIANA SECĂREANUDisturbances in the Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System .................. 119ONLINE EDITIONCopyright©Editura ACADEMIEI OAMENILOR DE ȘTIINȚĂ DIN ROMÂNIA, 2011

ACADEMY OF ROMANIAN SCIENTISTSA N N A L SSERIES ONE N G I N E E R I N G S C I E N C E SONLINE EDITIONVOLUME 3 2011 NUMBER 1ISSN 2066-8570TOPICS: MECHANICAL ENGINEERI NG E LECTR IC AL ENGINEERI NG P OWER E NG INEERING M ATERIAL E NGINEERING TR AN S POR T S E NGINEERI NG C HE M IC AL ENGINEERING AU T O MATION SYSTE M SE d i t u r aACA DEMIEI OAMENI LO R DE ȘTII NȚĂ DI N ROM ÂNI ABucureşti

ANNALS OF THE ACADEMYOF ROMANIAN SCIENTISTSSeries on ENGINEERING SCIENCESFounding Editor-in-ChiefGen.(r), Professor, M.D., Ph.D., Dr. H.C. Vasile CÂNDEAFounding, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsPresident of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsCo-EditorProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Adrian Alexandru BADEAPresident of the Technical Sciences Section of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsFull Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries EditorProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Mircea DEGERATUFull Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries Editorial BoardProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Petru ANDEA, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsDocent Ph.D. Eng. Masa BUKUROV, University of Novi Sad, SerbiaProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Ion CHIUȚĂ, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Radu Mircea DAMIAN, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsProfessor Ph.D. Jaroslav DUDRIK, Technical University of Košice, SlovakiaProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Stelian GĂLETUȘE, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsProfessor Ph.D. Evelyne GEHIN, Paris 12 Val de Marne University, FranceProfessor Ph.D. Alain GÉRARD, Bordeaux 1 Sciences & Technologies University, FranceProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Adrian GHEORGHE, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, USAProfessor Ph.D. K.T.V. GRATTAN, City University London, England,Full Member (Fellow) of The Royal Academy of Engineering, UKRes. Sci. Ph.D. Eng. Mircea GRECU, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, USAReader Ph.D. Kristine JURSKI, Paris 7 Denis Diderot University, FranceProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Teodor LEUCA, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Florea OPREA, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Valentin PAU, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Florin POPENȚIU-VLĂDICESCU, Full Member of the Academy of RomanianScientistsProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Mircea POPOVICIU, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsAstronaut Ph.D. Eng. Dumitru Dorin PRUNARIU, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Anghel STANCIU, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Yukio TOMITA, Hokkaido University of Education, JapanProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Nicolae ȚĂRANU, Full Member of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsProfessor Ph.D. Eng. Miron ZAPCIU, University “Politehnica” of Bucharest, RomaniaChief of Department: Mihai CĂRUȚAȘU, Eng., Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing HouseRedactor: Andrei D. PETRESCU, Physicist, Ph.D. Eng., Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House,Professor at National College “Gheorghe Lazăr”; University „Politehnica” of BucharestDocumentalist: Ioan BALINT, Eng., Academy of Romanian Scientists Publishing House, BucharestThis series is published by the sectionTechnical Sciences of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

3FOREWORDBased on a rich scientific tradition, the Academy ofRomanian Scientists (ARS) is the continuator and theunique heir of the Romanian Academy of Sciences (1936-1948). Then, together with the Academy of MedicalSciences and the Romanian Academy, it was included (byDecree of the Great National Assembly) into the Academyof the Romanian Popular Republic, with AcademicianTraian Savulescu as president.In 1956, Academician Traian Savulescu, togetherwith other scientists and members of the Academy, createdthe Association of the Romanian Scientists, as a partialcompensation for the disappearance of the Academy ofRomanian Scientists. In 1996, at the first NationalCongress of the Romanian Scientists (with internationalparticipation) the denomination Academy of RomanianScientists was readopted, with the same acronym and thesame statute as in 1936.By the Decree 52, from January 12, 2007, ARS wasrecognized as an institution of public interest, situatedbetween the Romanian Academy and the specializedAcademies and enjoying the status of chief accountant ofpublic funds.The Annals of the Academy of Romanian Scientistsreappeared and continued, during 2006-2007, the traditionfrom 1936, with one volume every year. Starting with2008, the Annals are published observing theinternationally recognized standards as several independentseries, for each section of ARS.Despite their great diversity, all published papersmust have something in common. They will be assessed byCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

4our referees, trusted researchers in their fields of activityand they must be able to prove be influential in the scienceprogress.In essence, we are seeking for papers of the highestquality that present an important advance in conceptualunderstanding to provide new insights into relatedprocesses or report a new level of technologicalperformance or functionality for the future developmentin different fields of interest.In the same time, the papers must offer broad appealto the scientific community, including the young scientistsalso. I would like, on this occasion to say a big thank-you toall members of the scientific community who eithersubmitted papers, or acted as referees, or intend toparticipate in the future at the success of the ARS Annals.It is my real pleasure to congratulate now themembers of the Technical Sciences Section of ARS and themembers of the Editorial Board for continuing the serieson Engineering Sciences of the Annals. To all of them andto the technical staff involved in the production of thejournal, my sincere thanks for their work and my bestwishes of success in the future activity.Gen.(r), Prof. univ., M.D., Ph.D., Dr. H.C., Vasile CândeaPresident of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066 - 8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 5C O N T E N T S1. MIHAI CLAUDIU ANTAL, MARIUS CRISTIAN NEAGU,VLADIMIR MOLDOVEANUThe Remanufacturing of an Articulated Arm Robot with 5 Degrees ofFreedom. Step in the Academic Practical Experience ................................ 72. BOGDAN ANDREI BARBU, FLORIN IORDACHE,ALEXANDRU DANIEL TUFAN, NICU CIPRIAN TANEAInfluence of Vibrations and Dynamic Characterizationof the Human Body Generated by Cars ................................................... 153. ALINA BIANCA BONŢIU POP, CĂTĂLIN CUDALBUProducts recovery opportunities at the end of technological cycle ............ 234. IONUŢ DANIEL COZMUŢA, CRISTIAN VASILE PETRICRecycling and Remanufacturing -Two Forms of Recovery of end Life Products .......................................... 295. ION V. POPESCU, CRISTIANA RADULESCU,CLAUDIA STIHI, GABRIELA BUSUIOC,ANCA IRINA GHEBOIANU, VALERICA GH. CIMPOCAThe Study of Heavy Metal from Environmental Samplesby Atomic Techniques ................................................................................ 356. MIRCEA O. POPOVICIU, ILARE BORDEASU, LIVIU MARSAVINAAnalytical Evaluation of Crack Propagationfor Bulb Hydraulic Turbines Shafts.......................................................... 47Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Science and Technology of Information6 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 ISSN 2066 - 85707. REMUS PRAVALIEGeneral Considerations Regarding the Impact of theVidraru Lake Hydro Facilities on the Environment ............................... 598. CONSTANTIN RADUIntelligent Networks, Smart Grids Concept,Crucial Technologies for Sustainable Development ............................... 679. LORAND CATALIN STOENESCUTwo-dimensional Modelling ofAccidental Flood Wave Propagation ........................................................ 7710. ANDREI SZUDERProject Indicators – Essential Factors in theDesign of the Project Proposals of the Structural Funds ........................ 9311. LIVIU MURESAN, SEPTIMIU CACEUCritical Infrastructures ProtectionA Romanian Perspective (Part 1) .............................................................. 10312. ALEXANDRU IONUȚ CHIUȚĂ, LIVIU MIHAI SIMA,NICOLETA DORIANA SECĂREANUDisturbances in The Power Supply Network ofBucharest Subway System ......................................................................... 119Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 7THE REMANUFACTURING OF AN ARTICULATED ARMROBOT WITH 5 DEGREES OF FREEDOMSTEP IN THE ACADEMIC PRACTICAL EXPERIENCEMihai Claudiu ANTAL 1 , Marius Cristian NEAGU 1 , Vladimir MOLDOVEANU 1Rezumat. În cadrul acestui proiect s-a urmărit procesul de refabricare a unui robotdidactic de tip braț articulat, cu 5 grade de libertate. Scopul final al proiectului esterealizarea unui model didactic funcțional, programabil și simplu de utilizat și înțeles decătre alți studenți. În urmărirea acestui scop, se prezintă aici primele întâlniri atât cureprezentanții industriei de profil din Romania, cât și cu furnizorii pentru diferitecomponente. Prin finalitatea proiectului se afirmă necesitatea următoarelor: planificareriguroasa a riscurilor, planificare a etapei de dezasamblare a proiectului și recuperarede componente, experiența câștigata în afara programului de studiu.Abstract. In this project we aimed at the remanufacturing process of a teaching robotwith an articulated arm and five degrees of freedom. The ultimate goal of the project is todevelop a functional didactic model, programmable and easy to use and understand byother students. In the pursuit of this goal, we will present to you here the first meetingswith the industry representatives from Romania and suppliers for various components.The stated purposes of the project show the necessity of: planning a rigorous stage ofdisassembly and recovery of components, the experience gained outside the normalacademic program, rigorous planning for risk, rigorous timetable planning.Keywords: remanufacturing, project planning, articulated arm robot, electronics1. IntroductionThe necessity of a working teaching model in a learning institution cannot be stressedenough. As well, the importance of a simple and easy to understand model for young,inexperienced students, is almost vital for the learning process.As such, the current project has the goal set at offering back a working,programmable device, that can be worked on by just about anyone who has aninterest in it. Alongside the physical model, it will offer upon its completion a detailedreport on both the construction of the robot, and the experience gained along the road.This experience, a valuable resource for any student, will include data aboutmanufacturers of components, retailers, the importance of having a risk managementplan and also the importance of having a recycling plan for the end of the device’slifecycle. Such aspects, as though during college years, have a great importance andrelevance in the industry; but it is only through experience that these can be trulyappreciated, and it is our interest to pass on this knowledge, in an accessible way.1 Student, IMST Faculty, University ”Politehnica” of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

8 Claudiu Mihai Antal, Cristian Marius Neagu, Vladimir Moldoveanu2. Articulated arm robotIt is difficult to compare numbers of robots in different countries, since there aredifferent definitions of what a "robot" is. The International Organization forStandardization gives a definition of robot in ISO 8373: "an automaticallycontrolled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three ormore axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrialautomation applications." This definition is used by the International Federationof Robotics, the European Robotics Research Network (EURON), and manynational standards committees.Particularly, the project is about the remanufacturing of an articulated robot, with5 degrees of freedom, all of them rotations (fig. 1.): 3 for positioning system and 2for orientation system. We have started from the existing robot structure (fig. 2. a)form University ”Politehnica” of Bucharest.Fig. 1. Cinematic representation of the robot.Fig. 2. Remanufacturing the articulated arm robot.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

The remanufacturing of an articulated arm robot, with 5 degrees of freedom 9We have made a redesign of the robot parts in a CAD software. Also we havedesigned the new components needed (fig. 3). The 3D models of the parts werecreated and assembled in CATIA V5 software. Making scale 3D models of theexisting parts help us to design the new optimal elements to complete the robotremanufacturing.3. Project planningFig. 3. Catia 3D design (no gripper).Having developed the idea for the project, the first and most important stage forus at the time had been the development of a timetable. We had great estimates forthe risks of such a project, and the length of time it would take for us to completeour tasks.In the first step the total time for the project was predicted at little over a month,most tasks being simplified or unified with others of little importance, so as tomeet this criterion of time.With the help of information acquired during “Project management” courses, therisks for the project had been estimated to offer a minimal resistance for itsprogress. Each risk had been calculated to not delay work for more than threedays a time, and that was the extreme (fig. 4).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

10 Claudiu Mihai Antal, Cristian Marius Neagu, Vladimir MoldoveanuFig. 4. Project planning in Microsoft project.4. Problems and solutions in project developmentAs a first stage for the project had been set to acquisitions of materials that couldnot have been manufactured internally, in the faculty, efforts had beenconcentrated on seeking out these. Many problems that had to be faced, and nowtaken into account in a new planning session had been: Scarcity of components and materials, especially electrical; Suppliers that kept small quantities on stock and henceforth we needed tomake special orders for small components, such as gears or connectors; The inaccessibility of some of the components that were needed, to thepoint of having to order them from abroad, thus lengthening thedevelopment process; Lack of professionalism towards students, cold receptions from manysuppliers and even dismissive attitudes.In these condition the initial (ideal) project planning had become obsolete even inthe very first stages of the project, prompting a reevaluation of the entire process.This led to accentuating the following aspects:The need for detailed market studies;The need for acquiring alternative solutions;Stricter risk planning, with realistic timetables for various activities, nowto include objective problems like college programs and activities;The need to plan for the life cycle end, to incorporate recycling tactics intothe foundation of the project.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

The remanufacturing of an articulated arm robot, with 5 degrees of freedom 11Alternative solutions had been found for a number of problems in recycling oldequipment to suit new needs. As such, a number of printers had been stripped forthe stepper motors they had in their construction, as well as other parts like gears,micro switches and transmission belts.This also convinced us of the importance of having a modular built system, as itwould greatly simplify the recovery of various components that may still proveuseful after the robot ceases to be.We also resorted to ordering components from on-line suppliers, many of whichnecessitating a long time for them to arrive. But it proved more accurate and thesedelays had been counter balanced by the boost in precision.5. Rebuilding the robot5.1. The mechanical partThe first step that was undertaken was to disassemble the mechanical structureand replace most of the elements that had been worn out by time. As such, we hadthe base of the robot machined of oxidation and excess paint, the transmissioncables replaced and had added new gears. The power transfer from the motors tothe movement joints would be assured via a series of reducing gears, of which wehad acquired new pinions.Each stepper motor assures the movement of one joint, and one for clenching thegripper at the end of the cinematic chain. There are 6 motors in all, everyonerecuperated from office equipment.At the base of the robot there two axial ball bearings, set to ease the base rotationof the device. These have been cleaned of dust and grime, and lubricated again fora better performance.As previously stated, solutions had to be improvised. As the ax for one of themotors proved too short for our needs, an extension had to be manufactured.5.2. The electronic partThe electronic part of this robot is made of the following: power supply; powerdelivery board; six motor drivers; a microcontroller board.The power supply consists of a toroidal transform, supplied with 220 VAC(standard mains voltage). It then outputs 218 V RMS (24 VDC afterrectification). One side of the transform is used to power 3 of the motors, and theother the other 3 motors, as well as the logic circuits.The job of the power delivery board is to convert the 24 V it receives from thepower supply into various voltages used by different components (8 V for themicrocontroller, 15 V for the motor drivers, etc.).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

12 Claudiu Mihai Antal, Cristian Marius Neagu, Vladimir MoldoveanuThe microcontroller is, however, not custom made. The “brain” of the controllerboard is an ATmega 640, produced by Atmel. It has a clock speed of 16 MHz andhardware PWM clock generators, which make it well suited for the application athand.The reason in choosing this controller board instead of a more traditional PLC isits cost/capability ratio. While relatively cheap, it has in excess of 40 I/O ports,and 16 10 bit ADC channels. It is well suited for controlling several devices atonce, and to process signals from a wide array of sensor types (from presencesensors or micro switches, to encoders of all kinds, and even GPS receivers).Also, the software used to program it is free, a fact which cannot be said aboutPLC software.With that being said about the controller board, the design idea behind this projectshould be apparent. From the conception stages, the electronics were meant to notonly control the robot itself, but also additional equipment that works in relationwith the robot, and even a completely different application (as long as it makesuse of stepper motors) (fig. 5). It is meant to provide a hardware platform onwhich students can start learning how to program robots or automated productionlines in industrial environments.Fig. 5. Electronic component produced in-house.The L298 is a dual H-bridge driver. While the L297 represents the low powerlogic stage, the L298 is the high power drive stage. It is capable of drivingunipolar and bipolar stepper motors with up to 2 A current draw. Usually, astepper motor that draws 2 A of power is capable of 1.5 – 2 Nm of torque. Thisallows for further improvement in the robots structure in the form of morepowerful motors.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

The remanufacturing of an articulated arm robot, with 5 degrees of freedom 135.3. The programmingFig.6. Circuit design for the motor driversThe actual software writing process is very user friendly. The language employedis ANSI C. The IDE used for project development is AVR Studio, availablewithout charge from Atmel’s website.Since the user base for the Atmel AVR processor series is so wide, softwarelibraries have been developed to facilitate software development. The mostcomplete and user friendly one is Clive “Webbot” Webster’s library. It makesprogramming the controller of our robot an almost trivial affair.Also made by Clive Webster is the Project Designer. A Java based applicationthat creates all the hardware specifications and initializations for the user. With itshelp, adding I/O ports, PWM clock generators or ADC channels is done via dragand-drop.Using the tools at hand, relatively complex programs can be done by completebeginners in a matter of hours. It is just a matter of telling the Project Designerwhere different devices connect on the controller, and then, using AVR Studio,writing the actual program. This process replaces abstract calls to I/O ports withliteral expressions (i.e. replacing _SFR_MEM8(port) |= mask; withpin_high(enable);).All these tools are meant to help a student get comfortable with the hardwareplatform and the development process, allowing him to focus on designing theprocess.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

14 Claudiu Mihai Antal, Cristian Marius Neagu, Vladimir MoldoveanuConclusionsThese projects offer us the experiences need to develop an industrial project evenif we were working in the educational level.All the logistics and financial requirements were offer by the National Center forresearch of the performances of the technological systems –Optimum from theUniversity POLITEHNICA from Bucharest. (http://sun.cfic.pub.ro )The goal of our project was to develop an articulated arm robot with 5 degree offreedom in order to be used in the learning process. The robot can be used fromapplication and/or from the programming point of view.The use of the robots doesn’t represent any risk for inexperienced studentsconcerning the dimensions of the robot and its technical characteristics. Theprinciples of programming and implementation into application are the same withthe one in the industrial environments.There is room for expansion built into the design. If a student decides that herather use the ports reserved for the remote control to send or receive some otherkind of signal, it can be done; or if he decides that he would like to add atranslation at the base of the robot, he can. It is meant to be a very flexible design.The design of the robot controller follows the main idea: giving young students anopportunity to learn robot programming, modular design and electronic design.The three parts of a robot – mechanical body, electronic brain, software soul –need to coexist for a robot to function properly.The perspectives for us are to develop the final project based on this one in orderto obtain our license degree in University POLITEHNICA from Bucharest. Wewant to create a fully integrated flexible mini-production system by using thisrobots linked with another one and FESTO translating modules.R E F E R E N C E S[1] 304 circuite electronice Tr. Liana Fâcă (Ed. Teora, București, România, 1998).[2] ISO 8373:1994/Cor 1:1996.[3] http://www.euron.org/resources/standards[4] Definition of a robot, http://www.dira.dk/pdf/robotdef.pdf[5] http://webbot.org.uk/iPoint/ipoint[6] http://www.societyofrobots.com/[7] Project planning – curs Management de proiect an II.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 15INFLUENCE OF VIBRATIONS AND DYNAMICCHARACTERIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODYGENERATED BY CARSBogdan Andrei BARBU 1 , Florin IORDACHE 1 ,Alexandru Daniel TUFAN 1 , Nicu Ciprian TANEA 1Rezumat. Vibrațiile influențează corpul uman în diferite moduri. Răspunsul la oexpunere a unei vibrații depinde în primul rând de frecvența, amplitudinea și durata ei.În această lucrare se studiază influența vibrațiilor generate de automobil asupra corpuluiuman, ținând cont atât de amplitudini cât, mai ales, de frecvențele acestor vibrații.Măsurarea acestor vibrații s-a făcut prin intermediul echipamentelor de ultima generațiecu achiziția semnalelor de tip tridimensional.Abstract. Vibrations influence the human body in many different ways. The response to avibration exposure is primarily dependent on the frequency, amplitude, and duration ofexposure. This paper studies the influence of vibrations generated by automobiles on thehuman body, taking into account both amplitude and especially the frequency of thesevibrations. Measurement of these vibrations was made through the acquisition of latestequipment by acquiring tridimensional signals.Keywords: vibrations, triaxial accelerometer, frequency, acceleration, car1. IntroductionThe human body is both physically and biologically a "system" of an extremelycomplex nature. When looked upon as a mechanical system it can be consideredto contain a number of linear as well as non-linear "elements", and the mechanicalproperties are quite different from person to person. Biologically the situation isby no means simpler, especially when psychological effects are included. Inconsidering the response of man to vibrations and shocks it is necessary, however,to take into account both mechanical and psychological effects.1.1 Measurement of human vibrationTechniques for measuring vibration exposure have for many years been lesscoordinated than desirable. The data presented sometimes lack proper descriptionof the instrumentation used to acquire it and of the important instrumentationcharacteristics. The descriptors used to characterize a signal are very important.1.2 The effects of vibration on the human bodyVibrations influence the human body in many different ways. The response to avibration exposure is primarily dependent on the frequency, amplitude, and1 Student, IMST Faculty, University ”Politehnica” of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Bogdan Andrei Barbu, Florin Iordache,16 Alexandru Daniel Tufan, Nicu Ciprian Taneaduration of exposure. Other factors may include the direction of vibration input,location and mass of different body segments, level of fatigue and the presence ofexternal support. The human response to vibration can be both mechanical andpsychological. From an exposure point of view, the low frequency range ofvibration is the most interesting. Exposure to vertical vibrations in the 5-10 Hzrange generally causes resonance in the thoracic-abdominal system, at 20-30 Hzin the head-neck-shoulder system, and at 60-90 Hz in the eyeball. Whenvibrations are attenuated in the amount of mechanical energy transmission due tovibrations is dependent on the body position and muscle contractions. In standingsubject, the first resonance occurs at the hip, shoulder, and head at about 5 Hz.With subjects sitting, resonance occurs at the shoulders and to some degree at thehead at 5 Hz. Furthermore, a significant resonance from shoulder to head occursat about 30 Hz as shown in Figure 1. Based on psychological studies, observationsindicated that the general state of consciousness is influenced by vibrations. Lowfrequency vibrations 1-2 Hz with moderate intensities induce sleep. Unspecificpsychological stress reactions have also been noted (Guignard, 1965: von Gierke,1964), as well as degraded visual and motor effects on functional performance.Some symptoms of vibration exposure at low frequencies are given in Table 1,along with the frequency ranges at which the symptoms are most predominant.Table 1. Symptoms due to whole-body vibration and the frequency range at which they usually occur(adapted from Rasmussen, 1982)Symptoms Frequency ( Hz )General feeling of discomfort 4-9Head symptoms 13-20Lower jaw symptoms 6-8Influence on speech 13-20"Lump in the throat" 12-16Chest pains 5-7Abdominal pains 4-10Urge to urinate 10-18Increased muscle tone 13-20Influence on breathing movements 4-8Muscle contractions 4-92. Vibration syndromeThe upper extremities of the human being can be considered a unique bodysegment. As with whole body vibration, the response to segmental vibrationdepends on frequency, amplitude, etc. Segmental vibration causes a symptomcomplex usually referred to as vibration syndrome. The symptom originates frominjuries to the blood vessels, nerves, bones, joints and muscles. Injuries can occurafter exposure times from months to decades, and are usually, at first, reversible.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Influence of Vibrations and Dynamic Characterizationof the Human Body Generated by Cars 17The most well-known of these symptoms is Reynaud’s Syndrome or TraumaticVasopastic Disease (TVD) (Taylor, 1974). In industry is called the white fingerdisease/syndrome. The syndrome can be described as a sudden block in the bloodcirculation to the fingers, which become white, pale, cold and sometimes painful.Tactile sensitivity is reduced, preventing precision work. TVD is caused by smoothmuscle constriction in the blood vessels of the fingers. Other vibration-inducedsymptoms come from the peripheral nerves and consist of paresthesias and tinglingsensations. A decreased nerve action-potential conduction velocity has been found,and a decrease in the ability to perform precise motor movement of the fingers.2.1 Transmission of Vibration in the Upper Extremity.Most hand held tools generates random vibration over a wide frequency range(typically 2 – 2000 Hz). Low frequency vibrations can be transmitted to the trunkand head. It may cause unspecific symptoms such as headache, vertigo, nausea, andpsychological stress reactions. Attenuation occurs with 3 dB/octave in thefrequency range of 20 – 100 Hz. The attenuation of the elbow and upper part of thearm increases by about 10 dB/octave between 100 & 630 Hz, and the wrist by about6 dB/octave.Fig. 1. Simplified mechanical system representing the human body standing on a verticallyvibrating platform.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Bogdan Andrei Barbu, Florin Iordache,18 Alexandru Daniel Tufan, Nicu Ciprian TaneaIwata (1972) found that the vibration at the wrist was two to three times higher at20 Hz that the input vibration; that is, resonance had occurred. The transmission ofvibrations in the upper extremity is linear when the vibration of hand-held toolincreases by 10 dB. The hand grip force is important to the transfer function. Whenincreased from 20 N to 40 N 912 dB), the hand vibration increases only by 3 to5 dB. It appears that the transmitted vibration is proportional to the cube root of thehand grip force (Pyykko et al., 1976).3. Experimental deviceFig. 2. Soundbook.Fig. 3. Laser Vibrometer.For the "LOW" range, the sensitivity should be around 200 V/m/s, and for the"HIGH" range, around 10 V/m/s. You have to choice LOW or HIGH rangedepending on the velocity of the target (Equations are in the user manual). Youhave to know that the two scales are the same on a large bandwidth. This choice ismade on the power supply AND on the Soundbook witch the choice of thetransducer. The low pass filter basically blocks all frequencies larger than itsvalue. This is used to "clean up" the data. The signal is an AC signal. The FMoutput is a 10.7 MHz frequency modulated signal that is available for customerswho want to implement their own demodulation strategies. However, if you wantthe velocity vs. time, the analog velocity output is the one to use. Soundbook is aportable system of acoustical and vibratory measure. It can be used as a part of anapplication of engineering in general. It is equipped with the software SAMURAIwhich allows the acquisition, the treatment and the exportation of different data.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Influence of Vibrations and Dynamic Characterizationof the Human Body Generated by Cars 19For the measurements that we made we used equipment provided by the OptimumLaboratory of the IMST faculty.The vibrations were measured using the triaxial accelerometer, the soundbooklaptop and the Samuray program. For the measurements we applied the triaxialaccelerometer on different key elements of the vehicle which helps transmittingthe vibrations from the car to the body.Measurements were realized at the rotational frequencies of 700-750 RPM, 1500RPM and 3000 RPM on Dacia Berlina 1310 – 1.4 gasoline, Dacia Logan – 1.4gasoline, Opel Astra Hatchback – 1.6 gasoline, Opel Astra Sedan – 1.4 gasolineand Mercedes C200 – 2.1 diesel.The main condition of the measurements is that the car rotational frequency toremain constant during the experiment. If the rotational frequency varies themeasurements results may be affected. Using the Samuray program we made theanalysis of the experimental results.Fig. 4. Measurement points.a. The triaxial accelerometer b. The triaxial accelerometer c. The triaxial accelerometerpositioned on the exterior positioned on the car’s trunk positioned on the car’selements of the carsteering wheel4. Experimental results and analysisFollowing the analysis of the experimental results, we introduced in MicrosoftExcel the obtained data where it has been processed and integrated into thediagrams below as being able to graphically highlight the vibrations generated byvehicles at the interior and exterior.From our measurements we discovered that vibration amplitudes increase alongwith increasing RPM. We also observed that Dacia 1310 has the highest vibrationlevel in the interior and Opel Sedan Classic has the highest vibration level at theexterior of the car.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Bogdan Andrei Barbu, Florin Iordache,20 Alexandru Daniel Tufan, Nicu Ciprian TaneaFig. 5. Global vibrations evolution.a. Table chart for vibrations measured b. Table chart for vibrations measuredin the interior of the vehicle.in the exterior of the vehicle.In the following pictures on the black background are represented the globalvibrations of four different vehicles and in the other three corners are representedthe FFTs (Fast Fourier Transform) on all three axes of the Cartesian system.Fig. 6. 750 rpm Opel Astra Hatchback. Fig. 7. 1500 rpm Mercedes C200.Different parts of the human body are affected by different frequencies ofvibration. In Fig. 6 we observe that the 25 Hz frequency at 750 rpm affects thehead, lower arms and legs. At the frequency of 1500 rpm in Fig. 7 the eyeball, thechest and the hands are affected at the frequency of 50 Hz. Frequencies between100 and 200 Hz affects the skull and the mandible.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Influence of Vibrations and Dynamic Characterizationof the Human Body Generated by Cars 21Fig. 8. 750 rpm Opel Astra Classic. Fig. 9. 700 rpm Dacia 1310.In Fig. 8 and 9 we measured vibrations between 12.5 and 62.5 Hz. We observefrom Fig. 8 that 37.5 Hz frequency affects the eyeball and from Fig. 9 that12.5 Hz frequency cause the symptoms of a lump in the throat and a urge tourinate and the 62.5 Hz frequency affects the eyeball, the chest and the hands.All the measurements were made in the interior of the cars.5. Concluding Remarks(1) The automotive industries strive to reduce vehicle vibration, in particular itstransmission to the seats. It has been shown that vibration increases discomfortand reduces operator performance.(2) Excellent massage systems should be able to enhance the comfort of truckmuscles, but not increasing discomfort (Seroussi et al., 1987 indicated thatvibration significantly increases truck muscular activities when compared to staticloading using EMG techniques.(3) Resonance frequency must be avoided; in particular, frequencies in the rangeof 5 Hz. It may not be easy to avoid these frequencies when a massage systembased on the concept of vibration is integrated to automobile seats. Combinedvibrations from various systems may generate undesirable resonance(4) In the future we need to discover more solutions for vibration damping;(5) We need to find methods to amortize vibrations out of range of 20-60 Hzbecause they are most frequently found and they also are most harmful;(6) We need to make a detailed analysis identified frequencies between 20-60 Hzin all car models measured. These common influences eyeball, chest, head, armsand legs.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Bogdan Andrei Barbu, Florin Iordache,22 Alexandru Daniel Tufan, Nicu Ciprian TaneaR E F E R E N C E S[1] G. Rasmussen, Human body vibration exposure and its measurement.[2] http://www.zainea.com/body.htm: Human body vibration exposure and its measurement.[3] http://www.multi-science.co.uk/effects_low-frequency.htm: The Effects of Low-FrequencyNoise and Vibration on People.[4] http://www.lmsintl.com/human-body-vibration-ISO2631-ISO5349: LMS Test. Xpress HumanBody Vibration.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 23PRODUCTS RECOVERY OPPORTUNITIES AT THE END OFTECHNOLOGICAL CYCLEAlina Bianca BONŢIU POP 1 ,Cătălin CUDALBU 2Rezumat. Pentru a evita retragerea costisitoare a utilajelor, ajunse la sfârşitul cicluluide exploatare, proiectanţii trebuie să stabilească procedurile de recuperare, refabricareşi reciclare, înainte de specificarea atributelor structurale ale acestora. Considerareaadecvată chiar din faza de proiectare, a reciclabilităţii utilajelor, întăreşte ecologiaindustrială prin utilizarea raţională a resurselor naturale şi a energiei precum şireducerea deşeurilor. Refabricarea echipamentelor tehnologice poate fi îmbunătăţităsemnificativ, prin concepţia şi proiectarea acestora în direcţia refabricării, având învedere principiile dezvoltării durabile.Abstract. In order to avoid costly retrieving of equipment on their end of life, the designersshould state the recovery, remanufacturing and recycling procedures, before specifyingtheir structural characteristics. Taking into account effectively the recycling capacity ofequipment even since the design stage, enhances both the industrial ecology by rational useof natural resources and energy and the waste reducing. The remanufacturing of thetechnological equipment may be significantly increased by their projecting and designtowards remanufacturing, looking for the principles of durable development.Keywords: remanufacturing, recycling, technological cycle, manufacturing cycle, economic cycle1. IntroductionIntelligent original equipment manufacturers can use the remanufacturing tocollect valuable information for projects, functions and after-sales activitiesimproving. These advantages are lost if their products remanufacturing business istaken by third parties.2. RemanufacturingThe remanufacturing practitioners give remanufactured products at least the samewarranty as similar new products, showing that their products have the samequality as those new.The technological equipment is considered remanufactured when, for itsrealization are necessary the following stages:1 Ph.D. Student, Eng.: Faculty of Engineering, North University of Baia Mare, Maramureş,România, bianca.bontiu@ubm.ro.2 Student, Faculty of Engineering, North University of Baia Mare, Maramureş, România,catalincudalbu@yahoo.com.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

24 Alina Bianca Bonţiu Pop, Cătălin Cudalbu‣ The basic components came from a used product;‣ The used equipment is disassembled into component parts;‣ The component parts are cleaned so that no corrosion traces remaining;‣ All defects have been corrected;‣ The remanufactured equipment is start-up in the working parameters byexecution technical documentation;‣ The technological equipment usability and performance are identical withthose of similar new equipment.Economically the remanufacturing activity usually occurs after the decline phaseand with the physical wear stage of technology equipment, but in certainsituations can faster occur.Technological equipment can be remanufactured before reaching the physicalwear stage, only if its owner decides to use the divestment application process(fig. 1).Fig. 1. Divestment definition.Divestments economic opportunity is the moment that the “today salvable value”it is superior to all future discounted cash flow lost, corresponding to all possibleremaining lifetime. Remanufacturing of divestments equipment is influenced byfactors such as:‣ External factors;‣ Endogenous factors.Significant accessions in technological equipment eco-efficiency can’t beachieved through incremental improvements of existing technologies. Rapid leapsCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Products recovery opportunities at the end of technological cycle 25in technological development are essential for materials reuse, recycling andremanufacturing promoting. The new materials research but also assemblies andsubassemblies simplifying, modularity and typing are several elements that aregiving remanufacturing a new motivation.Due to economic, social and ecological remanufacturing advantages morespecialized original equipment manufacturers are engaged in productsremanufacturing activities. Occur, so-called hybrid companies, manufacturer andremanufacturer of the same equipment type, which propelled the remanufacturingindustry in the national economies.There are a number of legal impediments that hinder the remanufacturing activity,which can be seen in Figure 2.3. Life CycleFig. 2. Remanufacturing barriers.Product life cycle similar to the biological life cycle includes the next stages: thearising phase, growth phase, mature phase and decline phase. Product life cyclecan be divided in:‣ Manufacturing cycle;‣ Operating cycle.Manufacturing and operating cycle of equipment consists of all manufacturer anduser activities. Operating cycle is very important because depending ontechnological equipment operation, their component parts may or may not showremanufacturing interest.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

26 Alina Bianca Bonţiu Pop, Cătălin CudalbuThe most important feature of the operating cycle is its duration. Length overall ofequipment operating cycle varies from one product to another. It depends on theanalysed product type and also on several factors; such as (see figure 3):Fig. 3. The influence factors of the operating cycleManufacturing cycle involves several stages, as can be seen in Figure 4.Fig. 4. Manufacturing cycle operation.Part of the operation life of technological equipment, generally is physical and/ormoral wear dependent and also on a number of economic issues. Product recoveryis the operating cycle next stage.After an operating cycle, or even before its completion, technological equipmentincludes the following processes, as the Figure 5 shows.In addition to manufacturing cycle and operating cycle can be specified also theproducts economic cycle.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Products recovery opportunities at the end of technological cycle 27Fig. 5. The technological equipment processes.The economic cycle is an aggregating concept of all steps associated with thedevelopment, production and disposal including: introduction, growth, maturityand product decay, stages analysed in terms of financial effort and profits.Fig. 6. Extended product life cycle.The product economic cycle can be considered, not just materialize on successivestages, from manufacturing and operating, but also on economics data reported tothe appropriate stages of the product manufacturing and operating cycle.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

28 Alina Bianca Bonţiu Pop, Cătălin CudalbuTherefore, the products traditional life cycle is a sequential one thatlinearly develops from raw material stage to its disuse/ disposal.Product recovery and recycling has changed this linear evolution in acyclic one with a product recycling degree (see figure 6).Conclusions1. The remanufacturing key points consisting of structural elements oftechnological equipment are precisely processed in manufacturing stagefor a reliable operation and with form and dimensions changes inprescribed parameters.2. Durability and reliability of those components are leading to a relativelysimple remanufacturing.3. Technological equipment manufacturers whose attribution is also thewaste equipment remanufacturing, must make an operated and deliveredequipment inventory to create a database which extracting someequipment particular information, before they reach the recycling centersof metallic materials.4. A database existence which incorporating all technological equipmentinformation is an opportunity for remanufacturing activity.5. Technological equipment remanufacturing which were not designed to beremanufactured, although this is currently only economic and ecologicalrequired interest, is important.6. Products design decisions can lead to structural variants which have anenvironment impact at every stage of materials the life cycle.R E F E R E N C E S[1] D. Darabă, Studii şi cercetări privind refabricarea echipamentelor tehnologice(Universitatea de Nord din Baia Mare, 2008).[2] D. Darabă, Remanufacturing- Challenger for engineering (The International Conference ofthe Carpathian Euro-Region Specialists in Industrial Systems, 7 th Edition, North University of BaiaMare, 2008, ISSN 1244-3264, pp. 135-138).[3] D. Darabă, Remanufacturing – Approaching ways (MicroCAD 2008 International ScientificConference. Machine and Construction Design, University of Miskolc, 2008).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 29RECYCLING AND REMANUFACTURING -TWO FORMS OFRECOVERY OF END LIFE PRODUCTSIonuţ Daniel COZMUŢA 1 ,Cristian Vasile PETRIC 2Rezumat. În mediul economic se constată că se confundă refabricarea cu recondiţionareasau chiar cu repararea unui echipament tehnologic. Din experienţa practicienilor rezultă cărefabricarea, recondiţionarea şi repararea necesită un conţinut de muncă diferită iarcalitatea produselor rezultate este diferită. Problemele care apar în cazul refabricăriiutilajelor, se datorează duratei de viaţă destul de lungi pe de o parte şi avansul tehnologic, pede altă parte, care aduce modificări semnificative în sistemele de comandă, control şimăsurare, dar şi în domeniul materialelor şi al sistemelor de acţionare. Ciclul de viaţătradiţional al produselor este unul secvenţial care se dezvoltă liniar de la faza de materieprimă şi până la scoaterea din uz evacuarea acestuia.Abstract. In the economic environment is found that we are always mixing up rebuilding,remanufacturing and the repair of technological equipment. Experience shows thatremanufacturing, refurbishing and repair requires a different work content and offersdifferent quality results. The problems that arise in the remanufacturing process of thesemachines occur because of the long life period on one hand and technological advance,on the other hand, bringing significant changes in command, control and measurementsystems, but also in materials and driving systems. The traditional life circle of theproducts is sequential that develops linear from raw material to elimination. The productrecovery and recycling changes his linear evolution into a cyclic one the embraces aspecific recycling degree of the product.Keywords: remanufacturing, recycling, products life circle, technological cycle.1. The products life circleThe products life circle refers to the medium life time of a product making ananalogy with Biology (the products are born, they develop, reach maturity andthen get old); his sales depend on the time period his in.The traditional life circle of the products is sequential that develops linear fromraw material to elimination. The product recovery and recycling changes his linearevolution into a cyclic one the embraces a specific recycling degree of theproduct.1 PhD Student, Eng.: Faculty of Engineering, North University of Baia Mare, Maramureş,România, e-mail: daniel.cozmuta@gmail.com.2 Student: Faculty of Engineering, North University of Baia Mare, Maramureş, România, e-mail:ptriccristian@yahoo.com.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

30 Ionuţ Daniel Cozmuţa, Cristian Vasile PetricTo avoid costly removal of equipment reached the end of operation, designersmust establish procedures for recovery - remanufacturing, recycling, beforespecifying their structural attributes. Recycling is the easiest strategy to avoid theuse of new materials but requiring an external source of energy to transform wasteinto new resources.2. Remanufacturing, Recycling2.1. RemanufacturingRemanufacturing is considered the most important form of recycling. Theessential difference between the two processes that occurs is that remanufacturingmaintains a certain measure of value added to raw materials while recyclingbreaks it, bringing the product to the raw material value. Throughremanufacturing we can for see two or more life times for technologicalequipment, with different functional cycles.In „The remanufacturing Industry. Hidden Giant” (1996), Professor Robert T.Lund, from the Boston University, presents the necessary requirements for aproduct to be remade:► in the remanufacturing process we can use those technological equipmentcomponents that don’t have the dissipate and grinding property► there is technology to return the product to form, original condition andoperation;► the original technological equipment was made in conformity with anexecution documentation, a norm and has Interchangeable componentsFor the outset of some strategies of equipment recovering, the designers have totake into account the following main characteristics of the technologicalequipment, in order to do the remanufacturing: Wear-out life; Design cycle ;Technological cycle;Replacement period;The causes of the outdating of the equipment;The operational complexity;The overall dimensions of the technological equipment;Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Recycling and Remanufacturing -Two Forms of Recovery of end Life Products 31The hazardous materials contained within the structure of thetechnological equipment;The cleanliness of the equipment;The number of material sorts;The number of modules.2.1. RecyclingRecycling can be defined as the process by which waste materials are collected,sorted, processed and returned to the economy as raw materials.NewmaterialProcessingAssemblySaleanduseUnusablewasteRepairReconditioningRemanufacturingRecyclingFig. 1. The sustainable approach mode – adapted [3].Recycling can be defined as the process by which waste materials are collected,sorted, processed and returned to the economy as raw materials.An important aspect is to evaluate the recycling.A uniform calculation is required in conjunction with European legislation.To define the recycling PRV has defined these five categories of recycling:1) Recyclable- clearly defined infrastructure and technology.; the componentis completely recyclable and the infrastructure clearly defined andfunctional;2) Potentially recyclable- invalid infrastructure, undefined or unorganizedcollection network;Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

32 Ionuţ Daniel Cozmuţa, Cristian Vasile Petric3) Potential recyclable, but requires the development of processes ormaterials. The technology was not yet sold;4) Potential energy recovery- Technology / capacity to produce energy witheconomic value;5) Unknown recycling potential and unknown recycling technology.The fundamental issues related to recycling are:Identify recyclable materials;Identify the opportunities for the reuse and recycling;Identification of markets for recovered materials.The recovery strategies for the used machines may include a combination ofprocesses of remanufacturing, recycling and dismissal.For recycling, the following three stages are usually considered:Separation of materials;Sorting;Reprocessing.Table 1. The influence of the wear-out life and of the technological cycle on the recoveryprocedure – adapted [3]Wear-out life Technological Cycle Recovery procedureShort Long RecyclingShort Short ReuseLong Short RemanufacturingLong Long RecyclingThe position of the products shown in the figure bellow may suggest importantinformation about the basis guidelines, for the designers of remanufacturing andrecycling as well as for the designers of new equipment.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Recycling and Remanufacturing -Two Forms of Recovery of end Life Products 33LongTechnologicalcycleParts of softmaterialsIHouseholdequipmenttechnologicalequipmentCarsDisposableproductsIIofficeequipmentIIIShort Use short term Use long termShortLongFig. 2. Strategies recovery of the amount of waste products [3].In Table 2 we have presented the guidelines to improve technology forremanufacturing and recycling process starting from the dates in Figure 2.Table 2. Guidelines for designing and developing technologies for remanufacturing and recyclingProductcategoryType IType IIType IIIType IVSuggestions for productsdesignersConstructive solutions to enablethe appropriate separation of thecomponents for recycling-Component modularization- Constructive Solutionsassembly / disassembly easyAdoption of technical solutionsto enable the addition ofaccessories to the basic product,which extend wear life and itsvalueConstructive solutions tofacilitate maintenance andmodernization of technologicalequipment in order to prolongservice life.Suggestions for designers of remanufacturingand recycling technologiesDesign separation technologies based onphysical properties of materials that can notbe sortedDesigning efficient cleaning technologies forreducing the cost of reworking productsTechnical solutions for removing accessoriesnon-destructive.Technical solutions for maintenance andupgrading equipment destructive technology.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

34 Ionuţ Daniel Cozmuţa, Cristian Vasile PetricConclusions:1. It was found that remanufacturing, using the largest amount of work and mostqualified develops the highest quality, followed by refurbishment and repair.2. Remanufacturing technology equipment can be significantly enhanced by thedesign concept and the redesign direction, considering the principles ofsustainable development.3. Advanced Recycling of materials contributes significantly to theimplementation of enhanced environmental management, which allows theenvironment and economy to coexist harmoniously.4. Remanufacturing occurs in case the product does not comply and can be alteredto get to the product stage.5. Recycling must become a permanent activity, including all phases from productconception to its removal from service, benefiting from feedback on resultsachieved throughout the chain of processes involved.R E F E R E N C E S[1] D. Daraba, Remanufacturing - industrial activity unknown, (In: Scientific Bulletin of"Management Technology, North University of Baia Mare, 2005, second year, number one,pp. 73-78).[2] D. Daraba, Studies and Researches Regarding the Remanufacturing of the Technological,(Thesis PhD, The North University of Baia Mare, 2008).[3] D. Daraba, Current perception of remanufacturing as industrial activity, (InternationalMultidisciplinary Conference, Baia Mare, 2007).[4] V.D. Guide, Remanufacturing Production Planning and Control: U.S. Industry BestPractices and Research issues (Second International Working Paper on Re-use, Eindhoven,1999).[5] W. Hanser and R. T. Lund, Remanufacturing (Technology Review, 2003).[6] R.T. Lund, The remanufacturing Industry - Hidden Giant (Boston University, 1996).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 35THE STUDY OF HEAVY METAL FROMENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES BY ATOMIC TECHNIQUESIon V. POPESCU 1 , Cristiana RADULESCU 2 , Claudia STIHI 3 ,Gabriela BUSUIOC 4 , Anca Irina GHEBOIANU 5 , Valerica Gh. CIMPOCA 6Rezumat. Prin tehnicile Spectrometriei de Absorbţie Atomică (AAS) si Spectrometriei RazelorX de Fluorescenţă cu Dispersie în Energie (EDXRF) am analizat conținutul de metale grele(Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Ti, Sr, Co, Bi) din opt specii de ciuperci sălbatice (Amanita vaginata,Amanita rubescens, Amanita phalloides, Armillariella mellea, Armillariella tabescens,Agaricus campestris, Hypholoma fasciculare, Hypholoma pudorinus) şi probe de sol substrat,colectate din zece site-uri forestiere ale judeţului Dâmboviţa, România. S-a determinat căelementele, în special metalele grele în sol erau caracteristice solurilor acide din terenurileforestiere româneşti care sunt influenţate de poluarea industrială. S-a studiat transferulmetalelor grele de la substraturi la ciuperci şi s-a calculat coeficientul de acumulare almetalelor grele analizate prin tehnicile AAS şi EDXRF. Valorile concentraţiilor metalelorgrele din probele de ciuperci analizate sunt uşor crescute faţă de cele raportate în literatură.Abstract. Using the Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) and Energy Dispersive X-rayspectrometry (EDXRF) techniques we analyzed the contents of heavy metals ( Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb,Ti, Sr, Co, Bi) from eight wild mushrooms and soil substrate samples (48 samples of eightfungal species and 32 underlying soil samples), collected from ten forest sites of DambovițaCounty Romania. It was determined that the elements, especially heavy metals, in soil werecharacteristic of the acidic soils of the Romanian forest lands and are influenced by industrialpollution. Analytical possibilities of AAS and EDXRF analytical techniques have beencompared and the heavy metal transfer from substrate to mushrooms has been studied. Thecoefficient of accumulation of essential and heavy metals has been calculated as well. Heavymetal contents of all analyzed mushrooms were generally higher than previously reported inliterature.Keywords: EDXRF, FAAS, essential element, heavy metal, wild mushroom, soil pollution1 Prof., Ph.D. Valahia University of Targoviște, Faculty of Sciences and Arts, MultidisciplinaryResearch Institute for Science and Technologies, 130082, Targoviște, Romania, full member ofAcademy of Romanian Scientists, ivpopes@yahoo.com.2 Associated Prof, PhD. Valahia University of Targoviște, Faculty of Sciences and Arts, SciencesDepartment, 130082, Targoviste, Romania, radulescucristiana@yahoo.com.3 Associated Prof, Ph.D. Valahia University of Targoviste, Faculty of Sciences and Arts, SciencesDepartment, 130082, Targoviste, Romania, cstihi@yahoo.com4 Associated Prof, PhD. Valahia University of Targoviste, Faculty of Environmental Engineeringand Biotehnologies, Environmental Engineering Department 130082, Targoviste, Romania,g1busuioc@yahoo.com5 Researcher, Ph.D. Valahia University of Targoviste, Multidisciplinary Research Institute forScience and Technologies, 130082 Targoviste, anca_b76@yahoo.com6 Prof., Ph.D. Valahia University of Targoviste, Faculty of Sciences and Arts, MultidisciplinaryResearch Institute for Science and Technologies, 130082, Targoviste, valcimpoca@yahoo.com.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Ion V. Popescu, Cristiana Radulescu, Claudia Stihi,36 Gabriela Busuioc, Anca Irina Gheboianu, Valerica Gh. Cimpoca1. IntroductionFor the assessment of heavy metals pollution levels and identification of theirsources, which are a prerequisite for studying effects of contaminants on theenvironment and human health, a multivariate data base containing as manypollutant elements should be generated. Therefore, multielement methods areusually used for such studies. The analysis of environmental samples for theirelemental content is governed by the sample type, the element of interest, thesensitivity, precision and accuracy needed and the availability of the technique.The choice of multielement methods available includes inductively coupledplasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICPAES), inductively coupled plasmamass spectrometry (ICPMS), X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), ion beamanalysis (IBA) [i.e. particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) and proton-inducedgamma-ray emission (PIGE)], nuclear activation analysis [neutron activationanalysis (NAA), prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA), chargedparticle activation analysis (CPAA)], and several other methods, which areseldom used on a routine basis. Some of these methods can be complemented bythe use of monoelement techniques such as anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV)or atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS).Heavy metal pollution is a problem associated with areas of intensive industrialactivity. The biomonitoring technique (using the biomonitors: mushrooms) wasemployed in this work to study the heavy metals from atmospheric deposition inDambovița County, Romania together with complementary atomic analyticaltechniques: Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) and Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF). These high sensitivity analysis methods were used todetermine the elemental composition of some samples of mushrooms used asbioindicators, collected from areas with different pollution industrial sources. Wehave studied the presence of elements such as Cd, Cr, Cu, Co, K, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb,Zn, Mg, Se, etc.Major sources of heavy metals pollutants in soils, in Dambovița County, includeatmospheric pollution from metallurgical industries, the combustion of fossilfuels, motor vehicles, urban and industrial wastes, chemicals, textile, paints andmany more. Most of the metals in soil are mainly the result of contamination byindustrial emissions.Many studies [1-10] revealed a high ability of mushrooms to accumulate commonpollutants present in the biosphere at trace levels, mainly heavy metals andradionuclides.Mushrooms are saprophytes and include members of Basidiomycota and somemembers of Ascomycota [1]. Mushrooms have been a food supplement in variouscultures and they are cultivated and eaten for their edibility and delicacy [2, 3].Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

The Study of Heavy Metal from Environmental Samples by Atomic Techniques 37They fall between the best vegetables and animal protein source. Mushrooms areconsidered as source of proteins, vitamins, fats, carbohydrates, amino acids, andminerals [4]. The energy value varies according to species, which is about equalto that of an apple. Many studies have been demonstrated the fact that somemushrooms species (Pleurotus species for examples) are useful in somecombination to cure headache, stomach aliments, colds, fever, asthma and highblood pressure [4]; other species are recommended to diabetic and anemicpersons, owing to their low carbohydrate and high folic acid content. Somemushrooms are reputed to possess anti-allergic, anti-cholesterol, anti-tumour andanti-cancer properties [5, 6].Compared to green plants, mushrooms can build up large concentrations of someheavy metals, particularly cadmium, mercury, copper and lead [7]. This suggeststhat mushrooms possess a very effective mechanism that enables them readily totake up heavy metals from soil [8]. In many studies [7-10] the concentrations ofheavy metals have been observed in the fruiting bodies of different mushroomscollected adjacent to heavy metal smelters, landfills of sewage sludge, emissionarea. Basidiomycetes are generally capable of accumulating heavy metals and thenbecome their source in food chain [11]. Moreover, a lot of mushrooms speciesaccumulate radioactive isotopes of cesium [1].Consumption of wild growing mushrooms has been preferred to eating ofcultivated fungus in Romania (e.g. Armillariella mellea, Amanita vaginata,Amanita rubescens). But, the knowledge of the nutritional value of wild growingmushrooms has been limited when compared with other vegetables. It seems thatmushrooms are still much more to offer, but is necessary to concentrate all studiesfor establishing a real metabolic features for one species in the view to promote itas hyperacculator or bioindicators for one metal species.Different heavy metals such as As, Cd, Ni, Hg, accumulated in high concentrationin mushrooms are toxic for the peoples; on the other hand many elements areessential for the human metabolism, such as Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cr, Se, but in lowconcentrations, because they are enzyme activators. These essential elementsbecome toxic in the measure of increasing their concentrations too much. It is wellknow that the content of heavy metals are related to species of mushrooms,collecting area of the sample, age of fruiting bodies and distance from any sourceof pollution.The aim of this work was to determine the heavy metal content of the fruitingbodies of four species eight wild mushrooms (Amanita vaginata, Amanitarubescens, Amanita phalloides, Armillariella mellea, Armillariella tabescens,Agaricus campestris, Hypholoma fasciculare, Hypholoma pudorinus) and soilsamples, collected from ten forest sites of Dambovița county, Romania.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Ion V. Popescu, Cristiana Radulescu, Claudia Stihi,38 Gabriela Busuioc, Anca Irina Gheboianu, Valerica Gh. CimpocaThe elements Zn, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Mg, P, Se, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Ti, Sr, Co and Biwere determined by Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (EDXRF)Spectrometry and Atomic Absorption (AA) Spectrometry.From the same collecting point were taken n = 6 samples from the young fruitingbodies of wild young mushrooms species and their substrate at different times ofthe day: morning, afternoon and mid-day. The pH between 4.5 and 6.2 of forestsites of studied mushrooms species have been determined according to ISO10390:2005.2. Materials and Methods2.1. MaterialsThe young mushrooms species, Amanita vaginata, Amanita rubescens, Amanitaphalloides, Armillariella mellea, Armillariella tabescens, Agaricus campestris,Hypholoma fasciculare, Hypholoma pudorinus (Table 1) were collected from tenforest sites of Dambovița county, Romania, in the same direction of wind.Usually, the mushrooms represent the fruiting body (carpophore, mycocarp),mostly above ground, of higher fungi.Collections of species were made at different times of the day: morning, afternoonand mid-day by uprooting its substratum with aid of the scalpel.A fruiting body of mushroom species is formed from spacious undergroundmycelia (hyphae) by the process of fructification.Mycelia of ectomycorrhizal species live in symbiosis with roots of a plant, mostlya tree.The fruiting body samples have been washed with deionised water, from dirt,then, with a plastic knife, have been chopped up in 1 mm portions; the sampleshave been dried at 60 between 10 and 24 hours (depends of the species), thengrinded until to fine powder and finally weighed (CEN Standard ‘Foodstuffs —Determination of trace elements —Performance criteria, general considerationsand sample preparation).Substrate and soil samples have been dried at 70 0 C in 24 hours. After drying thesolid samples have been grinded until to fine powder and weighed. Chemicalsused included nitric acid (65% Aldrich), hydrochloric acid (37% Fluka), hydrogenperoxide (30% Fluka), and potassium chloride (Aldrich). Distilled deionised waterhad a resistivity better than 17.5 MΩ cm.The solutions used for calibration of FAAS were prepared from standard solution(Merck) of elements studied.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

The Study of Heavy Metal from Environmental Samples by Atomic Techniques 392.2. Methods2.2.1. Energy Dispersive X-ray FluorescenceTwo grams of sample (n = 6) for each species collected and soil collected from forestarea, Dambovița County, Romania were pressed manually, without any chemicaltreatment, in a plastic vial with Mylar in the bottom and then were analyzed.The elemental content of samples was determined by Energy Dispersive X-RayFluorescence (EDXRF) [12-14] technique, using the ElvaX spectrometer having aX-ray tube with Rh anode, operated at 50 kV and 100µA. Samples were excitedfor 300 s and the characteristic X-rays were detected by a multichannelspectrometer based on a solid state Si-pin-diode X-ray detector with a 140 µm Bewindow and a energy resolution of 200eV at 5.9 KeV. ElvaX software was usedto interpret the EDXRF spectra. The accuracy and precision of the results wasevaluated by measuring a certified reference sample (NIST SRM 1571- Orchardleaves). Good agreements were achieved between certified values and dataobtained, with recoveries ranging from 98 to 104%.2.2.2. Atomic Absorption SpectrometryThe Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)[16], is the most widely utilizedmethod today for rapid and quantitative elemental analysis. The detection limit inAAS analysis method is up to 0.1 µg/kg under optimum test conditions. Amaterial sample, in a liquid solution, is atomized through rapid heat applicationand placed in the radiation path of several element-specific light source.Thesample atoms absorb ultraviolet or visible light and make transitions to higherelectronic energy levels. The analyte concentration is determined from the amountof light absorption. The atomic density determine the absorption rate and theLambert-Beer’s law give the value of absorbance from each element of the samplewhich is proportional with the concentration of that element. The Lambert-Beerlaw is difficult to applying directly in AAS due to variations in the atomizationefficiency from the sample matrix, and nonuniformity of concentration and pathlength of analyte atoms (in graphite furnace AA).The high sensitivity by AAS isobtained using the relative analysis method.Mushroom is a very specific sample for destruction. It contains plant oils andchitin in the cell membrane which is difficult to destroy. In this study driedsamples was digested in an acid solution using a Berghof MWS-2 microwavedigestion system. The Teflon digestion vessels used in this procedure wasreusable and the clean-up step was relatively easy and less time consuming. Driedfungus samples (500 mg) were introduced into the digestion vessels; then 3 mLnitric acid and 5 mL hydrogen peroxide were added. After digestion time (40 min)the vessels were cooled to room temperature (about 30 min.). The clear solutionCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Ion V. Popescu, Cristiana Radulescu, Claudia Stihi,40 Gabriela Busuioc, Anca Irina Gheboianu, Valerica Gh. Cimpocavolume was made up to 50 mL for each sample using deionised water. CertifiedStandard Reference Material SRM 1577c (Bovine Liver) from the NationalInstitute of Standards and Technologies was used to verify the methods.Dried solid substrates (500 mg) were introduced into the digestion vessels andthen 3 mL nitric acid and 9 mL hydrochloric acid (aqua regia) were added. Forsoil, EPA 3051A program was chosen. After digestion time (30 min) the vesselswere cooled to room temperature and then the each solution volume was made upto 50 mL for each sample using deionised water. Certified Standard ReferenceMaterial SRM for soil GBW 07406 and IAEA-375 was used, too.The elemental content of samples of mushrooms and their substrate wasdetermined by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry, by using an AVANTA GBCflame spectrometer and hollow cathode lamps. Prepared samples are analyzed byan AAS, an instrument of choice for metals analysis that provides a goodsensitivity and requires less sample volume.Due to the specificity of this spectrometer, the results obtained are accurate andseldom require confirmation. In atomic absorption spectroscopy a liquid sample isaspirated and mixed as an aerosol with combustible gasses [15, 16].All samples concentrations were reported as mg/kg dry weight of material. Themeasured levels for mushrooms were compared with the admitted levelsaccording to the (EC) No 1881/2006 - setting maximum levels for certaincontaminants in foodstuffs [17], (EC) No 333/2007 - laying down the methods ofsampling and analysis for the official control of the levels of lead, cadmium,mercury, inorganic tin, 3-MCPD and benzo(a)pyrene in foodstuffs [18] and forsoil, according to the Romanian legislation (MAPPM Ord. 756/Nov.1997).3. Results and DiscussionThe determination of heavy metal concentration in the fruiting bodies ofmushrooms is essential in dietary intake studies, because mushrooms form a nonnegligiblepart of the diet in many countries, especially for certain populationgroups.The minerals can be accumulated in mushrooms, and this accumulation isgenerally species metabolism-dependent and also strongly affected by thechemical composition of the substrate from which mushrooms get their nutrients.Mushrooms are regarded as healthy foods, when are young especially, with highercontent of protein and carbohydrate than vegetables. They are also rich inminerals, dietary fibers and vitamins.The level of metals of the fruiting body of wild mushrooms and their substrate hasbeen presented in Table1 and 2 and Figure 1 and 2. The concentration of essentialCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

The Study of Heavy Metal from Environmental Samples by Atomic Techniques 41elements, K and Mg has been determined on a dry weight basis only by EDXRFspectrometry.The elements Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn and Se were determined by FAA spectrometry. Feand Zn are determined by both analytical methods. Some metals wereconcentrated in considerably higher levels in the fruiting body than the soil.Table 1: Mean concentration of essential elements in fruiting body of mushrooms and theirsubstrate (mg/kg d.w)Mushroom species and Zn * Cu * Fe * K** Mn * Mg** Se *substrateAmanita vaginata 112.1 7.11 101.6 53087 0.7 133.6 1.53(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 74.9 11.4 789.2 3736.9 1.37 109.0 2.95Amanita rubescens 115.2 12.9 308.9 16654 0.82 289.3 1.48(n = 6)Soil (n=6) 79.5 15.7 856.8 2310.0 2.57 147.8 2.93Amanita phalloides 137.4 10.2 421.9 40892.7 0.89 128.2 1.12(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 83.2 20.7 746.4 2380.4 2.71 95.4 2.34Armillariella mellea 124.0 10.43 543.8 35294.6 3.06 148.2 2.08(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 93.5 32.8 1092.1 4301.3 8.67 102.3 6.34Armillariella tabescens 108.7 12.5 240 48248 2.52 113.6 1.89(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 76.8 24.7 772.1 4789.3 8.02 101.7 4.02Agaricus campestris 135.7 10.3 391.9 49983 1.90 134.1 1.03(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 98.7 22.7 832.1 5305.6 5.67 102.0 2.06Hypholoma fasciculare 86.4 9.67 229.5 59406 2.98 162.2 1.16(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 110.6 20.2 761.3 3421.0 6.07 160.6 4.56Hypholoma pudorinus 55.8 10.51 313.7 43253 4.21 157.8 1.98(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 101.2 14.3 621.3 6430.2 8.92 134.5 3.24RDS % 2.5-6.4 4.8-11.21.1-3.7 2.8-7.5 1.3-4.51.8-5.33.2-4.6Table 2. Mean concentration of heavy metals in fruiting body of mushrooms and their substrate(mg/kg d.w)Mushroom species and Cd * Cr * Ni * Sr * Pb * Co * Ti * Bi *substrateAmanita vaginata 0.03 0.18 1.12 0.03 1.93 0.02 nd nd(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 0.28 1.19 2.48 0.64 8.03 0.16 0.07 0.02Amanita rubescens(n = 6)0.08 0.55 0.97 0.2 0.68 0.01 nd ndCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

mg/kg d.w.Ion V. Popescu, Cristiana Radulescu, Claudia Stihi,42 Gabriela Busuioc, Anca Irina Gheboianu, Valerica Gh. CimpocaSoil (n = 6) 0.42 1.32 2.09 0.83 4.96 0.52 0.03 0.03Amanita phalloides 0.3 0.52 0.64 0.04 3.03 0.01 0.07 nd(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 0.65 1.83 1.94 0.34 5.73 0.21 0.4 ndArmillariella mellea 0.11 1.1 1.02 nd 2.36 nd nd nd(n = 6)Soil (n=6) 0.24 3.4 7.45 0.04 4.43 0.76 0.16 ndArmillariella tabescens 0.05 0.07 1.19 nd 1.78 nd nd nd(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 0.73 1.62 3.02 nd 3.61 0.11 nd ndAgaricus campestris 0.06 0.03 1.06 nd 1.32 0.04 0.06 nd(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 0.91 0.93 2.69 nd 4.02 0.63 0.53 ndHypholoma fasciculare 0.35 0.06 1.12 nd 0.95 0.04 0.03 nd(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 1.04 0.82 3.06 nd 2.47 0.4 0.29 ndHypholoma pudorinus 0.04 0.08 1.54 0.01 0.09 0.02 0.05 nd(n = 6)Soil (n = 6) 0.10 0.57 3.23 0.48 1.03 0.13 0.53 ndRDS %1.5- 2.2- 1.3- 1.1- 1.9- 2.1- 1.4- 1.7-7.1 8.4 10.1 5.1 11.2 6.3 4.3 10.3 *AA spectrometry concentrations ** EDXRF technique60504030Amanita vaginataAmanita rubescensAmanita phalloidesArmillariella melleaArmillariella tabescensAgaricus campestrisHypholoma fasciculareHypholoma pudorinus20100Zn/10 Cu Fe/10 Mn Mg/10 SeFig 1. Mean concentration of essential elements in fruiting body of wild mushrooms.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

mg/kg d.wThe Study of Heavy Metal from Environmental Samples by Atomic Techniques 433,532,521,5Amanita vaginataAmanita rubescensAmanita phalloidesArmillariella melleaArmillariella tabescensAgaricus campestrisHypholoma fasciculareHypholoma pudorinus10,50Cd Cr Ni Pb Co TiFig. 2. Mean concentration of heavy metals in fruiting body of wild mushrooms.These toxic and non-toxic young mushroom species accumulated in higherquantities calcium magnesium and zinc, only in two cases (Hypholomafasciculare and Hypholoma pudorinus) absorbed zinc in smaller concentrationcomparatively with substrate samples level (Table 1 and Figure 1). Concerningcopper and iron these mushrooms species have been absorbed in appreciablequantities. The level of the iron is very high in toxic mushrooms species asAmanita phalloides, Hypholoma pudorinus, Agricus campestris and Armillariellamellea comparative with the similar content from soil and this high level dependsby pH of the forest soil (pH 4.98, 5.20, 5.62 and 5.25) and the location of the sites(altitude, type of soil, nature of vegetation). These values of pH lead to asignificant adsorption of zinc by the six mushrooms species, according with theresults presented in Table 2.The amount of the manganese and copper was higher in Hypholoma fasciculareand Hypholoma pudorinus, 2.98 and 4.21 mg/kg d.w., respectively 9.67 and 10.51mg/kg d.w., comparative with the content of the same metals in other studiedmushrooms.The content of selenium was higher in Armillariella mellea, Armillariellatabescens, 2.08 mg/kg d.w.and 1.89 mg/kg d.w., respectively.The content of heavy metals Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Co and Ti, in the fruiting body oftoxic mushrooms are higher comparative with the similar heavy metals level innon-toxic species (Table 2 and Figure 2).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Ion V. Popescu, Cristiana Radulescu, Claudia Stihi,44 Gabriela Busuioc, Anca Irina Gheboianu, Valerica Gh. CimpocaThe mean concentration of heavy metal (Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Ti, Sr, Co, Bi) was higherat mushrooms which were collected on forest sites near urban settlements inDambovița County, as well. The highest cadmium content was observed in toxicspecies Hypholoma fasciculare (0.35 mg/kg d.w.) and Amanita phalloides (0.30mg/kg d.w.); the higher chromium level was obtained in Armillariella mellea(1.10 mg/kg d.w.) and nickel was founded in high concentration in Hypholomapudorinus (1.54 mg/kg d.w.).The amount of lead was higher in Amanita vaginata, Amanita phalloides,Armillariella mellea, Armillariella tabescens, Agricus campestris and smaller inAmanita rubescens, Hypholoma fasciculare and Hypholoma pudorinus. Lowestlevel of heavy metals is founded in Hypholoma pudorinus because the mountainforest soil, with pH 5.20, was low in heavy metals as well. This forest sites are inan area without industrial and traffic pollution.All the wild toxic species, Amanita phalloides, Hypholoma pudorinus,Hypholoma fasciculare and Agricus campestris accumulated Co and Ti from soilin low concentrations. The Co and Ti level in non-toxic species, as Amanitavaginata, Amanita rubescens, Armillariella mellea and Armillariella tabescens,could not determine by FAA spectrometry. In this case, to determine the level ofCo and Ti in non-toxic mushrooms the Solid Sampling Graphite Furnace AtomicAbsorption Spectrometry (SS-GFAAS) can be applied.The bismuth amount in some mushrooms species and their substrate can bedetermined by Solid Sampling Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry(SS-GFAAS) as well.The studied mushrooms are very good bioaccumulators of zinc, calcium,magnesium, selenium and cupper; the smaller affinity for titanium, strontium andbismuth was observed at all studied wild mushrooms (Table 2).In the soil samples collected at forest sites near industrial urban (pH weakly acid)it was observable a higher amount in iron, zinc, lead, manganese and chromium.The results of this study showed the fact those wild toxic mushrooms species aremetal bioaccumulators. Heavy metal contents of all analyzed mushrooms weregenerally higher than previously reported in literature. For example, a highestaccumulation of Fe, Cu, Mg and Zn from substrate was observed for all theanalyzed mushrooms samples. Furthermore, a high accumulation of Pb, Cd and Crwas observed in mushrooms growing Amanita and Armillariella species bycompared with Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006[17] setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs: section 3 –Metals Vegetables, excluding brassica vegetables, leaf vegetables, fresh herbs andfungi.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

ConclusionsThe Study of Heavy Metal from Environmental Samples by Atomic Techniques 45Generally, the studied mushrooms contained minerals required in the human diet,such as Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cr and Se and also the mainly toxic elements, such as Cd,Ni and Pb. The level of toxic elements was lower than that of minerals.The weakly acid pH value of soil influenced the accumulation of zinc insidestudied mushrooms species.The concentrations obtained for heavy metals in non-toxic species seems to beacceptable for human consumption and nourishment value.Analytical possibilities of EDXRF and AAS analytical methods were comparedand the heavy metal transfer from substrate to mushrooms was studied.The results of this study showed the fact those wild toxic mushrooms species aremetal bioaccumulators. Heavy metal contents of all analysed mushrooms weregenerally higher than previously reported in literature.In Romania is the first study which following to identifier the mushroom specieswhich accumulated heavy metals from forest sites near polluted cities inDambovița County.AcknowledgmentThe researches were performed in the frame of the Project PN-II-ID-PCE-2008-72 172.R E F E R E N C E S[1] KALAC P., SVOBODA L., A review of trace element concentrations in ediblemushrooms, Food Chem., 69, 273-281 (2005).[2] ANTONIJEVIC M.M., MARIC M., Determination of the Content of Heavy Metals inPyrite Contaminated Soil and Plants, Sensors, 8, 5857-5865 (2008).[3] YILMAZ F., ISILIGLU M., MERDIVAN M., Heavy metals levels in some macrofungi,Turk J. Bot. 27, 45-56 (2003).[4] KALAC P., BURDA J., STASKOVA I., Concentration of lead, cadmium, mercury andcopper in mushroom in the vicinity of a lead smelter, Sci. Total Environ., 105, 109-119,(1991).[5] ITA B.N., ESSIEN J.P., EBONG G.A., Heavy metal levels in fruiting bodies of edible andnon-edible mushrooms from the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, J. Agric. & Soc. Scien., 84-87(2006).[6] SESLI E., TUZEN M., Levels of trace elements in fruiting bodies of macrofungi growingin the East Black Sea region of Turkey, Food Chem., 65, 43-46 (1999).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Ion V. Popescu, Cristiana Radulescu, Claudia Stihi,46 Gabriela Busuioc, Anca Irina Gheboianu, Valerica Gh. Cimpoca[7] TURKEKUL I., ELMASTAS M., TUZEN M., Determination of iron, copper, manganese,zinc, lead and cadmium in mushrooms samples from Tokat, Food Chem. Turkey, 84, 389-392(2004).[8] SVOBODA L., KALAC P., Contamination of two edible Agaricus spp. mushroomsgrowing in a town with cadmium, lead, and mercury, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 71,123-130 (2003).[9] SVOBODA L., HAVLICKOVA B., KALAC P., Contents of cadmium, mercury and lead inedible mushrooms growing in a historical silver-mining area, Food Chem., 96, 580-585(2006).[10] KALAC P., SVOBODA L., Contents of detrimental metals mercury, cadmium and leadin wild growing edible mushrooms: a review, Energy Education Science and Technology,13(1), 31-38 (2004).[11] COURTECUISSE R., Collins guide to the mushrooms of Britain and Europe,HarperCollins Publishers, London, 1999.[12] WAGNER R.E., (ed), Guide to Environmental Analytical Methods, 4th edition, GeniumPublishing Corporation, Schenectady, NY, 1998.[13] WINEFORDNER J.D., Chemical analysis. X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry, JOHNWiley and Sons, INC. USA, 1999[14] ARAI T., Analytical precision and accuracy in X-ray fluorescence analysis, Rigaku J.,21, 26-38, (2004).[15] L’VOV B. V., Fifty years of atomic absorption spectrometry, Journal of AnalyticalChemistry, 60, 382 (2005).[16] SPERLING M. B., WELZ B., Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH,1999.[17] COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 settingmaximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs, Official Journal of the EuropeanUnion, L 364/5, 2006.[18] COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 333/2007 of 28 March 2007 laying downthe methods of sampling and analysis for the official control of the levels of lead, cadmium,mercury, inorganic tin, 3-MCPD and benzo(a)pyrene in foodstuffs, Official Journal of theEuropean Union, L 88/29, 2007.[19] CITAC/EURACHEM Guide, Guide to Quality in Analytical Chemistry, Edition 2002.[20] EURACHEM / CITAC Guide, Traceability in Chemical Measurement, A guide toachieving comparable results in chemical measurement, (S L R Ellison, B King, M Rösslein,M Salit, A Williams eds.), 2003.[21] V. G. Soloviev, Theory of Atomic Nuclei (Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol,1992) pp. 123-125.[22] Rare isotope accelerator. Argonne web p., www.anl.gov/ria.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 47ANALYTICAL EVALUATION OF CRACK PROPAGATIONFOR BULB HYDRAULIC TURBINES SHAFTSMircea O. POPOVICU 1 , Ilare BORDEASU 2 , Liviu MARSAVINA 3Rezumat. Centralele hidroelectrice utilizează energia regenerabilă a cursurilor de apă.Turbinele hidraulice Bulb funcţionând la căderi reduse reprezintă surse excelente deenergii alternative. Arborii turbinelor Bulb sunt piese masive, de formă cilindrică realizatedin oţel slab aliat. Lucrarea analizează fisurile de oboseală ce au apărut în zona deracordare dintre arbore şi flanşa turbinei. Starea de tensiune din această zonă a fostanalizată cu programele ANSIS şi AFGROW. Ca rezultat final, a fost stabilit numărulorelor de funcţionare până la străpungerea completă a peretelui arborelui.Abstract. The Hydroelectric Power Plants uses the regenerating energy of rivers. Thehydraulic Bulb turbines running with low heads are excellent alternative energy sources.The shafts of these units present themselves as massive pieces, with cylindrical shape,manufactured from low-alloyed steels. The paper analyses the fatigue cracks occurring atsome turbines in the neighbourhood of the connection zone between the shaft and theturbine runner flange. To obtain the tension state in this zone ANSIS and AFGROWcomputing programs were used. The number of running hours until the piercing of theshaft wall is established as a useful result.Keywords: bulb turbines, horizontal shafts, fatigue cracks, crack propagation1. IntroductionThe horizontal shafts are more exposed to fatigue cracks than the vertical ones asa result of the variable stresses occurring at each turn. From constructive reasons,the great majority of the Power Stations have the hydro aggregates verticallyoriented and the fatigue fracture is an unusual event. The exception are the stationendowed with Bulb turbines, Pelton turbines with a reduced number of injectionnozzles as well as the aggregates with small and very small output. For the Peltonturbine case, the shaft is permanently wetted because of jets in the turbine chamber.In this situation, at variable stresses, the Wöhler curve does not present an asymptotictendency limit, so after a certain number of running hours, the fatigue fractureoccurs. This phenomenon is known as corrosive fatigue. Many years ago, throughoral reports, I have heard about an extremely interesting breakdown of the horizontal1 Prof., PhD, Eng., Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Chair Hydraulic Machinery, Timișoara“Politehnica” University, Timișoara, Romania, full member of the Romanian Academy - (e-mail:mpopoviciu @gmail.ro).2 Prof., PhD, Eng., Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Chair Hydraulic Machinery, Timișoara“Politehnica” University, Timișoara, Romania.3 Prof., PhD, Eng., Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Chair Strength of Materials, Timișoara“Politehnica” University, Timișoara, Romania.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

48 Mircea O. Popoviciu, Ilare Bordeasu, Liviu Marsavinashaft of a Pelton turbine. The runner was overhang disposed and the shaft wasworking in small corrosion conditions (permanent dense fog but also droplets oreven small water jets washed continuously the shaft). When the fluctuating stresseshave great values, a tendency of multiple crack inceptions appear. For the shaft indiscussion, in the same cross section there were simultaneously, without beingobserved, three fatigue cracks disposed approximately at 120° (see Figure 1). Afterthe extension of these cracks, the shaft was fractured and the aggregate sufferedsevere damages.Fig. 1. Pelton turbine shaft fatigue fracture.While for Bulb turbines, the shaft is placed into a case, well sealed off and heatedby the electric generator, it is considered that the fluctuating stresses take place inthe absence of corrosion, the material has “fatigue limit” and fatigue failure hasvery reduced probabilities. Our observations show that this opinion is not inconformity with the facts and for bulb turbines it appear simultaneously bothcorrosion and variable stresses and the material do not have a fatigue limit, failurebeing possible.2. Turbine parameters, geometry and shaft manufacturing procedureDuring the year 2008 we examined some turbines shafts, with the service andconstructive parameters presented in Tables 1 and 2. For some aggregates, therewere effected refurbishing works (HA3- 2006 + 2007; HA4-2005 and HA5-2008).During the refurbishing operations, the shaft was completely replaced. Next, wepresent the principal differences between the initial shafts and those refurbished.Those consist exclusively into a new manufacturing procedure.Table 1. Bulb turbine parametersParameter Symbol ValueNet Head H 7,8 mWater discharge Q 475 m 3 /sEffective power P 32,5 MWTurbine and Generator rotation sped n T 62,5 rpmRunner diameter D 1 7,5 mPosition of the runner weight against the shaft flange1650 mmNumber of blades Z 4eight of rotating subsystem (without oil) G rotor 99,6 ToPosition of the runner weight against the shaft flange1650 mmCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Analytical Evaluation of Crack Propagation for Bulb Hydraulic Turbines Shafts 49Initial shaft (Russian license). The shaft is constituted from three parts assembledthrough welding. The two half-finished parts placed near the electric generator aremanufactured through forging. The half-finished flange for coupling is manufacturedthrough casting. The machine working at final dimensions is done after weldingfollowed by heat treatment and cheek-out. After that, the connecting zones betweenthe flange and the main cylindrical part (zones where occurred cracks during theoperation) were bring-up to the final shape through rough turning (Ra = 20 m).Table 2. Data regarding shaft geometryDataShaft lengthShaft diameterFlange diameterShaft weightValue7572 mm1200 mm1700/2298 mm51.170 kgTable 4. Running hours for the refurbished turbines(hours)HA3 HA4 HA5Total R 143.647 136.397 157.2792008 16.257 22.915 7.417Total R - total running hours till the refurbishingTable 3. Running hours for not refurbished turbines (hours/state)HA1 HA2 HA6 HA7 HA8 HA9 HA10177.560 178.594 158.336 165.563 165.804 108.109 93.908F F F N N F NN –Not controlled, F – cracksRefurbished shaft. The half-finished shaft is manufactured entirely by forging.The employed material, the final dimensions and the machine working operationsare identical with those for the initial shaft.3. Shaft material and corrosion resistanceIn Tables 5 and 6 there are presented characteristics of the employed material.From the chemical composition (Table 5) it results, that the material is lightmanganese alloyed steel. The low proportion of chromium and nickel (especiallychromium) is inadequate to confer a good resistance to corrosion, inclusive intercrystalline corrosion. Taking into account the influence of manganese on thecrystalline grains, we appreciate that the principal alloying element determines arough structure of the flange material, especially for casted pieces (great and nonuniformdimension of the grains). Therefore, the corrosion resistance of the materialis relatively low.Table 5. Shaft material mechanical characteristics Table 6. Shaft material chemical compositionCharacteristic ValueChemical Element ProportionR p0,2 255.05 N/mm 2 Mn 1…1,3 %R m 470,88 N/mm 2C0,16…0,22%Si0,60…0.80%Cr, Ni, Cu < 0,3%S, P

50 Mircea O. Popoviciu, Ilare Bordeasu, Liviu MarsavinaFig. 2. Spot corrosion(HA 1).Fig. 3. Corrosion disposed on circumference(HA 8).4. Cracks detected on turbines shaftsThe verbal label „metal fatigue” describe the process of initiation and propagationof cracks because of repetitive loadings, when the value of each individual stressesis insufficient high to produce material failure. The aspects of pieces with endurancefailure have the following characteristic features:- the absence of macroscopic plastic deformations or dimensional deformations(rupture constriction, etc.);- macroscopic, the rupture surface present two distinct zones, one with relativelysmooth aspect (even burnished) characteristic for the slow speed propagationof the crack and the other having the characteristic aspect of the fragile break(coarse surface);- the smoothed zone may present some unevenness, growing progressively fromthe crack inception place (the most polished zone is placed in the immediatevicinity of the crack inception); those unevenness are disposed in concentricarcs, similar the surface of a shell valve and are named “stopping lines”.After numerous turbine examinations, we reached to the conclusion that from thepoint of view cracks aspect, the division in three categories is useful:- cracks with great depth and extension (see Figure 4);- multiple but rarely small extension cracks, disposed in parallel planes;- multiple and abundant small extensions cracks, disposed in parallel planes(see Figure 5).The most dangerous are the great extension cracks. Figure 4 gives a typical example.Approximately in the same cross section, and at the same time, appeared a fewdistinct fracture lines.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Analytical Evaluation of Crack Propagation for Bulb Hydraulic Turbines Shafts 51Fig. 4. Great extensions cracks.Fig. 5. Numerous small extension cracks.In Figure 4, there are three such fissures. In time, all the fracture lines grow onboth circumference and depth. The two fissures on the right side of the figureprogressed very much in the depth (the thick line of the penetrated liquid) beforeestablishing a small connecting way between them and the fracture line in the leftside of the figure. Because the great depth of the fracture lines the repair work isdifficult, expensive and does not give sufficient assurance. From case to case, theshaft replacement is advisable. The manner of forming and evolution of thosecracks is proper to the pieces having structural faults (chromium carbides, greatand heterogeneous crystalline grains) and incorrectly machined (too great roughness).From the loading point of view the variable stress amplitudes is great relatively tothe mean stresses. In the continuation, only the great and deep fracture lines willbe treated.5. Crack analysesTable 7 gives information of the fissures obtained by the UCMR specialists duringthe non-destructive control of the turbine shafts (two of them are presented inFigures 4 and 5). Analysing the data from Table 7, we reach to the followingconclusions:- for HA1, HA2 and HA9 the fracture length is approximately 4…5 times greaterthan the depth, while for HA 6 this value varies in great limits from a fissureto other;- from the obtained ratio 2c/d, we appreciate that the crack must have an ellipticshape.For the following computations, it is compulsory to work with a unique value forthe rate d/c. The measurements undertook until now for HA1, HA2 and HA9 showvalues between 0.4 and 0.5 for the rate in discussion. For a depth of 7 mm at HA6were obtained various lengths “c” between 5 and 30 mm, giving a mean of 17.5and the ratio 0.4, close the other values. It is possible that in the critical zone theCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

d/c 52 Mircea O. Popoviciu, Ilare Bordeasu, Liviu Marsavinaratio between the crack depth and length to have modifications from one zone toanother as result of composition and structure unevenness. A graphic representationof the disposable data is given in Figure 6 and is difficult to explain. In the future,the beneficiary must demand, in this direction, information that is more detailed.Table 7. Results of non-destructive controlHA1 HA2 HA6 HA9Running duration, N [hours] 167105 168626 148396 101199Crack depth, d [mm] 16.8 5 7 12Crack length, 2c [mm] 80 20 10 - 60 602c/d 4,76 4 1,43-8,57 5d/c 0.42 0.5 1.4-0.233 0.4HA - hydro aggregateIn the following computation we adopted an elliptical fissure having the semi axesratio of a/b= 0.5. The maximum possible depth of the fracture line is of maximum300 mm. Even if a crack attain this depth there will not exist dramatic damages (theshaft will not break apart), but the incident will lead to massive oil leakage (for theoil commanding the blade servomotor) and in this situation the turbine must bestopped and the shaft changed.0,90,80,70,60,50,40,3HA2HA6HA9HA12,5 5 7,5 10 12,5 15 17,5d Fig. 6. Dependence of measured d/c against d.2 22 2 2X yUsing the circle equations X Y R and the ellipse one 1, for2 2b aarbitrary chosen abscissa we obtain the ordinate values for the circles R and r:2 22 2Y R X , Y r X(1)as well as the ordinate for the ellipses:a 2 2y b X(2)bThe Y- ordinates of the ellipse which realize the crack „d” in relation to the originO(XY) are:Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Y d Notations:Analytical Evaluation of Crack Propagation for Bulb Hydraulic Turbines Shafts 53a 2 2Y R a d b X(3)br (D i = 2 r) – radius/diameter of the inner circle of the shaft (300/600 mm);R (D e = 2 R) – radius/diameter of the outer circle of the shaft in the analysedcross section (600/1200 mm);a – ellipse minor semi-axis;b – ellipse major semi-axis;d – depth of the fissure;c – length of the fissure measured on the circle periphery;X – abscissa;Y – ordinate measured from the origin O;y – ordinate measured from the origin O 1 ;α – angle between the radius of point (X 1 , Y 1 ) and the ordinate.1100Notaţii9001000800900aKd800O1700600500400300200cbR-y1Y1OO1=A700600500400300200YC1YC2d=103050100150200250d=300100r0O0 100 200 300 400 500 600XX 110000 100 200 300 400 500 600X Fig. 7. NotationsFig. 8. Intersection shaft/cracksTo determine the crack semi-length “c” is needed the angle α (in circular measure)made by the radius, which goes through the crack end and the ordinate axis (seeFigure 7). The equations are:Xtg and c R (4)YCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

d/c 54 Mircea O. Popoviciu, Ilare Bordeasu, Liviu MarsavinaIn Figure 8 is presented the ellipses family with the same value a/b = 0.5 for differentdepths “d”, for a quarter of the shaft. The lines representing the external andinternal circles of the shaft were notated with YC1 and YC2. With the obtainedTable 8. Determination of the half crack lengthd 50 100 150 200 250 300X 195 275 332 377 415 445Y 566 533 500 467 433 399tg alfa 0,344523 0,515947 0,664 0,807281 0,95843 1,115288atg alfa 0,331795 0,476324 0,586154 0,679165 0,764175 0,839847c 199 286 352 407 459 504d/c 0,2512 0,3499 0,4265 0,4908 0,5453 0,5953data were computed the semi-cracks length (Table 8). The variation of the ratio d/cagainst d is shown in Figure 9 together with the equation and the square value ofthe correlation coefficient. For the determination of the values d/c for small crackdepth (around the measured values) was used the regression equation (given inFigure 9). The comparison between the measured crack length and those obtainedthrough computation is given in Table 9. From the comparison a these values itresults that taking the ratio a/b = 0.5 for the ellipse semi-axis offer covering results,0,70,60,50,40,30,20,10,0d/c = -4E-06d 2 + 0,0028d + 0,1031R 2 = 0,99460 50 100 150 200 250 300d Fig. 9. Variation of d/c for the considered ellipses family.while the computed values give greater length of the cracks than those appearingin the reality. The refinement of the computation is possible only through obtainingfrom the non-destructive controls data that are more precise.Table 9. Comparison of the cracks lengthd 5 7 12 16,8d/c 0,117 0,123 0,136 0,149c (computed) 42,735 57,141 88,155 112,743c (real) 10 30 30 40Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Analytical Evaluation of Crack Propagation for Bulb Hydraulic Turbines Shafts 556. Estimation of the mean stress state in the turbine shaftThe geometric modelling of the shaft was done with the help of the programINVENTOR, imported in the FEM program ANSYS v11. The model contains177,344 tetrahedral elements connected in 290,848 knots. In the neighbourhood ofthe connection zone between the flange and main shaft it was used a refined mesh.In the ANSYS program, there were successively determined: total deformation,displacements along the axis x, y, z, the nominal stresses after the same axis, thetangential stress τ max and the equivalent von Mises stress.Fig. 11. Normal stress σ z distribution.The obtained results indicate the presence of the stress concentration at the connectionbetween the flange and the main shaft body. The maximum equivalent stress beingof 105.98 MPa is smaller than the admitted stress of 150 MPa. We consider thatfrom the point of view of “Material strength” the design was correct. The coefficientof stress concentration in the connection zone flange-shaft, determined for theequivalent stress is:ech,max105,98kt 3,17 33,38ech,nom(5)Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

56 Mircea O. Popoviciu, Ilare Bordeasu, Liviu Marsavina7. Fatigue computationsa. Estimation of the crack initiation time through fatigueThe fatigue computation was done for the z stress component, produced throughthe superposition of the bending and tension. The characteristics of the loadingcycle in the connection zone, resulted from the strength computations [1], using theASNYS program are: σ max = 88.86 MPa, σ min = - 6.52 MPa and R = σ min /σ max = -0.07.Fig. 12. Cycles number until crack initiation.After using the fatigue module (FATIGUE TOOL) of the ANSYS v.11 program[2] resulted a minimum duration, until the fissures initiation, of N i = 3.013910 8cycles, equalling 80370 running hours.b. Number of cycles estimation for the propagation of a crack for variablestresses with constant amplitudeIt must be underlined, that the final break zone is characterized through high velocitiesof the crack propagation. The service life, expressed through the number of cyclesneeded for the extension of a fissure, can be obtained from:Nfacrda dN N f NNd Nr da(6)d f ( K, R)The relation (6) was used to calculate the number of cycles N r needed for theextension of a fissure from the detectable length a d corresponding to N d cycles tothe critical length a cr which is reached after N f cycles. The computation can beCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Analytical Evaluation of Crack Propagation for Bulb Hydraulic Turbines Shafts 57done graphically, analytically or numerically. The analytical method is suited fora limited number of situations in which the intensity factor can be correlated withthe crack length and the geometrical factors remain unchanged in the integral limits.In present, there are specialized programs for computing automatically the lifeduration. One of these programs is AFGROW developed by Hartner at WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE for estimating the durability of attack aircraftscomponents. For the fracture line propagation it was considered a piece having ringcross- section with an elliptical crack disposed on circle, Figure 8. For such geometry,Raju and Newman (1984) proposed for the stress intensity factor a solution, underthe form [3]:dKI t Hb F d, c, Di , De, (7)Qwhere:- σ t represent the tension stress applied to the shaft;- σ b is the bending stress;- H and F are functions depending on the crack geometry (the crack depth andlength), the thickness of the shaft wall and the frontal position of the fissure whileQ is obtained from (8):1.65d dQ 11,1464 for 1c cThe simulation was done with AFGROW [4]. The initial crack depth d = 1 mmand crack length c = 2 mm are reached after 80370 hours in conformity with thestudy of fissure initiation. For the study of crack propagation, it was taken intoconsideration a composite loading bending plus tension, with the condition that thestatic load is superposed over bending resulting a pulsating cycle with σ max = 88,9MPa, σ min = - 6,5 MPa , R = - 0,07; the loading amplitude remaining constant. Thematerial constants are those of the American steel AISI 1020 comprised in thedata base of the AFGROW program (C= 1.447x10 -12 , n = 3.6, m = 1; the breakingtenacity corresponding for the plane state of tension K C =110 MPa m 1/2 , respectivefor the plane state of deformation K IC 77 MPa m 1/2 , yield strength σ C = 262 MPa,elastic modulus E = 206843 MPa, the Poisson’s number ν = 0.3, the limit value ofthe intensity factor variation under which the fissure does not propagate ΔK=1,5MPa m 1/2 ).The number of hours for the fracture line propagation was added to the initiationnumber of hours. With the previous conditions, the crack increase until d = 16mm, 2c = 64 mm is obtained after 153,243 hours. It is important to know that afteronly 159,737 service hours the crack pierces completely the shaft wall (the curved= 300 in Figure 8 is reached).(8)Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

58 Mircea O. Popoviciu, Ilare Bordeasu, Liviu MarsavinaConclusions1. The Bulb turbines shaft work in condition of corrosive fatigue. The atmosphereloaded with fog and water vapors is due to minor deficiencies of the sealingdevices as well as to the water.2. The crack results from fatigue phenomenon induced by the variable loads.3. The evolution of crack propagation was obtained using the Fracture Mechanicsconcepts, in the linear elastic domain, in the case of bending plus tension witha pulsating cycle.4. Using the fatigue module ANSYS v.11, we obtained a minimum duration untilthe initiation of fissures in the connection zone of N i = 3.0136 10 8 cycles,equivalent with 80,370 service hours.5. The simulation for crack increase until d = 16 mm (depth) and 2 c = 64 mm(length) lead to a service duration of approximately 153.243 hours andapproximately 159737 hours until the piercing of the shaft wall, which impliesthe shaft replacement.6. The obtained results are of deep interest for establishing the inspection periodsfor the Bulb units in the Power Station Iron Gates II.R E F E R E N C E S[1] Forman R. G., Hearney V. E., Engle R. M., J. of Basic Eng., Trans. ASME, Vol. 89, 1967.[2] Bordeaşu, I., Popoviciu, M.O., Novac, D.M., Machine Design, Monograph University ofNovi Sad, 2009, pp. 191-196.[3] Raju I. S., Newman J. C., Proc. of 17 th National Symposium on Fracture Mechanics, Albany,NY, 1984.[4] Hartner J. A., AFGROW users guide and technical manual, Ohio, 2008.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 59GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE IMPACTOF THE VIDRARU LAKE HYDRO FACILITIESON THE ENVIRONMENTRemus PRAVALIE 1Rezumat. În articol, după prezentarea parametrilor morfometrici, a condiţiilor fizicogeograficeiniţiale ale bazinului hidrografic în care este situat lacul de acumulare Vidrarude pe Argeş, se analizează succint impactul acestuia asupra mediului riveran şi regional.Abstract. After presenting the morphometric parameters and the initial physicalgeographicalconditions of the drainage basin where the Vidraru Reservoir is located, onthe bank of the Argeş River, this article briefly analyses the impact of the basin on theriverine and regional environment.Keywords: Vidraru Reservoir, impact, environment, analysis1. General ConsiderationsThe first studies on the region where the Vidraru Reservoir is located, i.e. FăgăraşMountains, were conducted by the French geographer, Emmanuel de Martonne, inthe 19 th century, when he made his first remarks on the Southern Carpathians (or theTransylvanian Alps, as he called them) and, consequently, on the Făgăraş Mountains.Later on, after 1950, remarkable studies on the Făgăraş Mountains have beenpublished by Gh. Niculescu (in 1959 and 1961), E. Nedelcu (in 1959, 1962, and1966), M. Florea (in 1998), etc. Studies on glacial lakes, reservoirs and the VidraruReservoir have been conducted by P. Gâştescu (in 1971, 1996 and 2003), I. Pişota(in 1972), I. Ujvari (in 1972), and Al. Nedelea (in 2006).The Vidraru Reservoir is located in the Southern Carpathians, in FăgăraşMountains. A major surface of the Reservoir is located in the Loviştea Basin, in agraben, in the east side. The lake dam has the following geographical coordinates:45 o 22' N and 24 o 37' E (fig. 1.).The lake covers an area of 870 ha, and has a total water volume of about473 million m³, and a normal level of retention volume of 469 million m³ [12],and the dam has a height of 166 meters.The dam construction began in 1960 and was completed in 1966. At that time (in1967), the Vidraru Dam was, by height, the fifth arch dam in Europe and the ninth inthe world [9]. The dam is a double-arched concrete construction with a length of 307meters, and a base width of 25 meters and a crown width of 6 meters.1 Student, III, Faculty of Geography, University of Bucharest, Romania, pravalie_remus@yahoo.com.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

60 Remus PravalieFig. 1. Vidraru dam lake location (Source: Cadastral Map For RomanianWaters, 1992; Spatial data sets www geo-spatial.org).Along with the dam, the hydroelectric power plant in Cetăţuia or Corbeni-Argeşwas built as the first underground hydroelectric power plant in Romania located toa depth of 104 meters below the Argeş riverbed. It has a total usable power of220 MW.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

General Considerations Regardingthe Impact of the Vidraru Lake Hydro Facilities on the Environment 61The water passing through the hydroelectric turbines flows into the Oesti Lake,downstream from it [2].The Vidraru Lake, together with the lakes on the bank of the Dâmboviţa River(e.g. Pecineagu, Sătic), is part of the Bucharest water supply system [11].2. Physical-geographical characteristicsIn terms of lithology, the Vidraru Dam is built mostly on crystalline rocks, namelygneiss (the Cozia gneisses), paragneiss, and hard rocks, that are resistant andwater-repellent.By its geographical position, the terrain of the drainage basin of the Vidraru Lakeis characteristic of the high mountain area (Moldoveanu Peak, 8,346 ft., andNegoiu Peak, 6,713 ft.), with a crystalline structure affected by the quaternaryglaciation that left glacial cirques at the top source of those two tributaries, Capraand Buda, harbouring the homonymous glacial lakes [6].The lake basin is mostly based on Loviştea Depression, in its eastern extension,where the heights are below 4,921 ft. (Lăcşor Peak, 4,829 ft., Haţeganu Peak,4,396 ft.), and the lower part is located on the southern alignment of the FăgăraşMassif (Ghiţu Peak, 5,321 ft., in the east, and Frunţi Peak, 5,032 ft., in the west)[10] (fig. 2.).The climate is influenced and determined by the movement of air masses, altitudeand configuration of the terrain, but also by the existence of the Vidraru Lake thatdetermines a topoclimate characterized by moderate temperatures, high humidityand a local air circulation in the form of local mountain – valley winds.The average annual temperature is 6.0 o C, the lowest value being recorded inJanuary (-2.4 o C), and the highest in July (16.1 o C).Thus, the winter months (December, January and February) show temperaturesbelow 0 o C. The average annual depth of precipitation is 770 mm.The average annual wind speed is 0.9 m/s, the highest one being in March(1.2 m/s) and the lowest one in December (0.6 m/s). The number of days withsnow cover is 101, with a maximum in January (27 days), followed by February(24 days), March (17 days) and fewer days in April, November and December,and the largest thickness is recorded in January and February, i.e. 15 to 20 cm[13].The lake-related hydrographic network is represented by two main tributaries:Buda (22.6 km) and Capra (20 km) that interflow in the upper part of the lakewith the top source in the homonymous glacial lakes [8].Other tributaries of the lake are Cumpăna, Valea lui Stan, Oticul, Valea cu Peşti.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

62 Remus PravalieThe vegetation is representedby levels: the alpine level(the pastures), the subalpinelevel (the scrubs), theboreal level (spruceforests), and the nemorallevel (deciduous-beech andbeech forests mixed withconiferous forests).Although some of the forestvegetation out of the lakedrainage basin has beenreduced, especially on thecontiguous slopes, becauseof the many holidayconstructions, it still has aprotective role against thescour and filling process.3. The Impact of the Lake on the EnvironmentFig. 2. 3D geographic and hydrographic map forVidraru dam lake (Source: Nedelea, 2006).The emergence of the Vidraru Lake and Dam led to changes to all environmentalcomponents, from terrain to soil and biogeographical changes.As concerns the terrain, by the emergence of the lake, the first slope processeshave been the lacustrine abrasion processes due to water level variationsdepending on the timing of the turbine flow rate. Also, in the upper part of thelake, one can detect the processes of filling/alluviation and the formation ofsubmerged mini-deltas [3, 4, 5].Because of the emergence of the lake, a lacustrine topoclimate appeared and ischaracterized by changes in the rainfall regime, diurnal and seasonal with thermalinversions. Also, another consequence due to topoclimate is the frequentformation of fog layers at certain times of the year.Changes in the hydrography can be seen mainly by abstraction/adductionnecessary to supplement the tributary flow. The main abstractions were takenfrom the following rivers: Râul Doamnei, Cernat, Vâlsan, Topolog; thereby thewater drainage basin expands from 286 km² to 716 km² and the average tributaryflow from 19.7 m 3 /s to 22.3 m 3 /s [1].Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

General Considerations Regardingthe Impact of the Vidraru Lake Hydro Facilities on the Environment 63Also, by building the dam, changes have taken place concerning the local baselevel; the dam represents a human-determined threshold, resulting in a newupstream and downstream local base level, plus the modification of scour/fillingprocesses [2]. Adjacent valleys were turned into bays by being flooded (e.g.Cumpăna, Valea Călugăriţei, Valea cu Peşti, etc).The original water balance also changes; after the lake emerged, new elementshave been introduced to both inputs (adductions) and outputs (increasedevaporation at the lake surface; the presence of the turbine flow rate) (fig. 3.).Fig. 3. Water balance changes after Vidraru dam lake’s construction.Another impact on the environment is the clearance of the standing stock offorests that was made due to the construction of the dam and the TransfagarasanRoad that led to the emergence of adverse effects, such as water flowing, surfaceerosion, streaming, appearance of avalanche couloirs, landslides in the drainagebasin and within the extent of the lake (reactivation of the processes of the surfaceand linear erosion, especially on steep banks, resulting in gullies, ravines,torrential bodies) [7].Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

64 Remus PravalieExcept for these direct changes, the vegetation has also suffered indirect changes.Thus, due to the great volume of excavations and heavy vehicles driving on thosetwo roads bordering the lake, changes occurred in the soil profile, landsubsidence, and also a slowdown in the growth processes of forest species.The fauna has also changed because the downstream-upstream migration of fishspecies (trout) was blocked. Another cause is the endangered biodiversity. Thesculpin-perch (Romanichthys valsanicola), a relict fish that grows into the VâlsanRiver is an example of this.Because of the Vâlsan River capture in the Vidraru hydro facilities and because ofthe reduced flow, this fish is now considered an endangered species and isprotected in a section of the Vâlsan River within the range of a spa area, namedBrădet.The construction of the Vidraru hydropower system also provided many benefits,such as fewer numbers of floods.An example is the flood in the summer of 1941, when a part of the Corbenivillage, located at the entrance of the Argeş Gorges, was destroyed.Another benefit of the Vidraru hydro facilities was related to the restoration of theagrarian areas, based on the downstream hydro facilities, of about 10,000 ha outof the Argeş Basin, and the creation of the possibility of developing newindustries in Curtea de Argeş, and especially, in Piteşti.Energy industry development and the emergence of a major water reservoir usedin case of drought are other important benefits that the Vidraru hydro facilitiesoffer.Landscape changes that have occurred by building the hydroelectric power plant,the existence of some historical monuments of great importance in the region,such as the Poienari Citadel, the appearance of the Vidraru Lake and theconstruction of the Transfagarasan Road that runs over the crown of the damattract many tourists every year.The development of tourism also triggered the appearance of guesthouses, whichhave a negative impact on the environment in the sense that some of them lackseptic tanks; therefore the surrounding water is polluted with human waste.It is necessary to carefully monitor the quality of the water in this sector,especially since the Vidraru Lake is part of the Bucharest water supply system.All of these changes that have an impact on the environment as a consequence ofthe appearance of the Vidraru Reservoir can be described by grouping them intothree categories, namely: physical-geographical changes, biological changes, andsocio-economic changes (fig. 4.)Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

General Considerations Regardingthe Impact of the Vidraru Lake Hydro Facilities on the Environment 65Fig. 4. Main environment changes caused by Vidraru dam lake’s establishment(after P. Gastescu, 2003).3. ConclusionsBesides its relevance related to energy and water supply, and tourist attraction, theVidraru hydropower system, one of the most important in Romania, has hadseveral negative consequences on the environment. The Vidraru Lake represents amodel/example for identifying and assessing the impact on the riverineenvironment, but also on the related hydrographic system.At the same time, the geological, geomorphological, climatic, hydrological,biogeographical and soil-related features that were analysed shape the overallphysical-geographical image of the Vidraru hydro facilities. The results that wereobtained also promote an overall image of the relevant area and help identify theenvironmental features in the context of water resources facilities, defining theVidraru Dam.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

66 Remus PravalieR E F E R E N C E S[1] Bocioacă, M. (1970), Lacul Vidraru-studiu hidrologic preliminar, Physical LimnologyNational Colloquium Paper, Institute of Geography, Bucharest.[2] Dinoiu, Nicolae (2004), Lacul de acumulare Vidraru şi rolul său în gestionarea apeiBucureştiului, Dissertation Paper.[3] Gâştescu, P. (1971), Lacurile din România. Limnologie regională, Romanian AcademyPublishing House.[4] Gâştescu, P., Driga, B. (1996), Lacul de baraj antropic-un ecosistem lacustru aparte,Geographical Magazine, vol. II-III, Institute of Geography, Bucharest.[5] Gâştescu, P., Driga, B., Sandu, Maria (2003), Lacurile de baraj antropic - între necesitateşi modificări ale mediului, in volume Risks and Disasters, vol. II, editor V. Sorocovschi,Publishing House of Science Books, Cluj-Napoca.[6] Nedelcu. E., (1966), Observații geomorfologice in regiunea lacului de acumulare dinbazinul Argeșului superior, SCGGG (Studies and Research of Geography, Geology andGeophysics), Geography Series, t XIII, no. 1.[7] Nedelea, Al., (2006), Valea Argeșului in sectorul montan. Studiu geomorfologic,Bucharest University Publishing House.[8] Pişota, I. (1972), Lacurile glaciare din Carpaţii Meridionali, Romanian AcademyPublishing House.[9] Pop, Grigore (1996), România-Geografie hidroenergetică, Cluj University PublishingHouse, Cluj Napoca.[10] Posea, Gr and Badea, L. (1984), România - unităţile de relief (Regionareageomorfologică), Map, Scale 1:750.000, Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House,Bucharest.[11] Stănescu, Viorel Al., (1995), Hidrologie urbană, Educational Publishing House,Bucharest.[12] *** (1992), Atlasul cadastrului apelor din România, Partea I, II, Ministry ofEnvironment, Aquaproject SA, Bucharest.[13] *** (1997), Cumpăna Weather Station, The National Meteorological Administration.[14] *** www.geo-spatial.org.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 67INTELLIGENT NETWORKS, SMART GRIDS CONCEPT,CRUCIAL TECHNOLOGIESFOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENTConstantin RADU 1Rezumat. În acest articol este prezentat conceptul de smart grids, tehnologie deosebit deimportantă pentru o dezvoltare durabilă. In contextul globalizarii, lumea intreagatraieste intr-un mediu de securitate tot mai complex, cu schimbari rapide, unele evidente,altele mai putin evidente, cu implicatii pe termen scurt, mediu sau lung, la nivelinternational, national, local si pana la fiecare cetatean. Toate tarile, in cadrul uneieconomii mondiale globalizata se confrunta cu probleme energetice in conditiileschimbarilor climatice care s-au acutizat in secolul al XX-lea.Abstract. In this article is presented the concept of smart grids, a very importanttechnology for sustainable development. In the context of globalization of the world lives inan increasingly complex security environment, with rapid changes, some obvious, othersless obvious implications in the short, medium or long term, international, national, localand up to every citizen. All countries in the globalized world economy is facing energyproblems in terms of climate change have intensified in the twentieth century.Keywords: intelligent networks, EU Directive, smart grids, concept, technology1. IntroductionIn terms of primary energy consumption structure in the world, according toforecasts made by the International Energy Agency (IEA) in 2030, up about 29%is covered by coal, gas and oil 6%, 9% of energy produced in power plants 66%nuclear and renewable energy sources (RES) including: wind, solar, biomass,geothermal, fuel cells, hydro and cogeneration plant. In the European Union (EU)promotes the achievement of Strategic Technology Plan (PTS), an energy policythat will lead to increased energy efficiency, accelerate renewable energyproduction, development of Smart Grid technologies in order to achieve energysecurity, competitiveness and sustainable development. Considering climatechange European Commission (EC) proposed:- emissions of greenhouse gases by 20% by 2020 compared to 1990 years;- increasing share of renewable energy from about 11% in 2010 to 20% in 2020;- reduce global primary energy consumption by 20% in 2020-the introduction ofnew technologies and increase energy efficiency.In order to achieve the EU Directive, a very important role will be implementingthe intelligent networks.1 Engineer, Technical Director NOVA INDUSTRIAL.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

68 Constantin Radu2. DefinitionsSince there is a single coordinator in the world, there is no single definitionappropriated by professionals worldwide. Most accept that the world scientific world"Networks / Network Intelligence" comes from the English words Smart Grids / Grid.The term began to be widely used from 2003 to 2005 in the U.S. and Europe.Whatever the definition used, an intelligent network includes an interactivesystem for monitoring and controlling real-time production chain - final energyconsumption, using a computer network and bidirectional communications andintroduces the latest technologies (superconductivity, RES integration, useautomation expert systems, diagnosis and management of energy facilities, the useof intelligent electronic devices for the load curve flattening and tariff choice).Currently, Network Intelligence is defined as a set of management control systemsand electrical networks, sensors and means of communication and information,which incorporates elements of both traditional and next generation. It combineselements of software and hardware designed to dramatically improve the way it isrun / operated system including the electric current at low voltage to the highestand allow real time interaction between entities interested in the final productionconsumptionchain.3. Expectations of the intelligent networkIn accordance with the laws and regulations issued since 2003 in the U.S.intelligence network must meet mainly the following:- the self and to be able to prevent damage;- to motivate consumers to participate interactively in the network (two-waycommunication between consumers and energy entities);- to withstand the physical and cyber attacks;- reduce the number of interruptions to supply electricity and observing all qualityparameters imposed by standards and regulations;- to allow their gradual integration into existing networks / classical- to bring such advantages as the electricity market and to develop medium andlong term electricity price to decline;- to allow connection to all types of RES (including virtual manufacturing plants);- to ensure an efficient operation by:a) integration of next generation communications to enable real-timecontrol network;b) connecting the synchronicity of all types of generators using varioustypes of sensors and synchronic phase / angle;c) introducing performance components to reduce losses in electricnetworks (superconductivity introduction, the use of composite conductors, toCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Intelligent Networks, Smart Grids Concept,Crucial Technologies for Sustainable Development 69promote flexibility of wireless networks and the AC to DC energy storagetechnology development, diversification of supply solutions to electric cars);d) control and reduced maintenance costs (in case of disruption solutionsfor automated, accurate and rapid diagnosis, monitoring on-line extension of themain elements of the network components);e) measuring electricity smart meters with two-way communicationpossibilities;f) better decisions (operation and management);g) the standardization of automation, protection and communicationnetworks, including communications protocols.With Network Intelligence view that can be compared to an "Internet of power"may have some vulnerabilities. To ensure security and prevent information fromintelligent networks has designated the Department of Commerce NationalInstitute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to develop security guidelines forSmart Grid.It addresses security requirements at all levels, the risk assessment, evaluatingprivacy issues and makes recommendations to protect the network (total system)against all threats, especially those covering the informational. The NIST designensuring network security intelligence will certainly contribute to nationalsecurity and sustainable development.I note that in 2009 the U.S. has spent about $ 3.4 billion for Intelligent Networks.In the EU strategy document was developed to implement intelligent networkscalled "European Technology Platform (ETP), which was completed in 2006. Inthe intelligent network concept PTE will consider solving the followingobjectives:- facilitating the connection of all types regardless of their size generators(wind, solar, biomass, geothermal, micro hydro, fuel cells);- allowing consumers of all categories play an active role in the energy systemoptimization local / regional / national and European;- providing information to consumers to choose energy provider with thelowest price;- reducing environmental impact;- improve current levels of reliability, quality and reliability in electricitysupply;- maintaining and improving existing services (reducing maintenance costs,prevent downtime, reduce repair time, including the prevention of theft and cyberattacks);- promoting energy penetration in all EU member states of the EU energymarket taking into account competitiveness.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

70 Constantin RaduIntelligent Network concept is considered as an evolution of existing electricadvanced networks will be modernized to meet not only current needs but futureelectricity using smart technology to control production-consumption chain in realtime and interactive.By implementing the concept of "Smart Grid" The EU believes that sustainabledevelopment will be achieved and will achieve climate change objectivessummarized in the EU Directive.In the EU-up effort in 2050 should be financially 1500 euro / European citizen toachieve the Intelligent Network.In our country up there, in September 2010 at the Government developed astrategy document to deal with intelligent networks.However Romania as EU member country must meet the objectives establishedby EU Directive 28/2009 which stipulates that by 2020 RES - I have a 24% shareof total consumption in Romania.The main measures for achieving the 24% are as follows:- continuation of funding to support projects that lead to increased productionof energy from RES both through structural funds and public funds;- development of certification systems for manufacturers of small boilers andstoves, biomass, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal systems and geothermal heatpumps and shallow;- environment fund to continue funding the program to replace or supplementconventional heating systems and electricity production projects SER (includingcogeneration);- identification of two in two years of possible congestion in transmission anddistribution networks due to the emergence of such networks and financing RES;- increasing the capacity of the distribution networks of medium and lowvoltage by applying the Smart Grid technologies;- promoting the use of local renewable sources for electricity and heat to finalconsumers by providing incentives.According to the "Energy Strategy of Romania for the period 2007-2020'' themost important objectives to be achieved are:- security of energy supply;- sustainable development;- competitiveness.Total estimated value of the investments necessary to achieve the objectives of theStrategy 2007-2020 is about EUR 35 billion.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Intelligent Networks, Smart Grids Concept,Crucial Technologies for Sustainable Development 714. Example of conceptual model / framework for smart gridNext it will present the conceptual model / framework developed by NIST topromote the Smart Grid (figure 1).Fig. 1. Conceptual Model SMART GRID.Looking at figure 1 you can see that shows the flow of energy andcommunications linking each of the seven domains and how the interrelationshipsbetween them. In each area will detail the elements of various entities connectedby communication networks that allow two-way communication in real time.In figure 2 highlight electricity producers and their interdependence with other fields.Fig. 2. Energy Producers.Figure 3 shows the transport network with interdependent areas: dispatch centers,power producers, energy distributors, energy market and infrastructure elements ofhigh and medium voltage networks (power stations equipped with automation andCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

72 Constantin Raduonline monitoring, control equipment, measurement, static and dynamic stability ofthe system, intelligent electronic devices, sensors and communication networks withspecific protocols and can open real-time bidirectional communication).Fig. 3. Transport Network.In figure 4 is presented the distribution that includes devices and smart metersthrough which it manages and controls the flow of energy using two-waycommunication (wireless or the actual power lines or fiber optic networks). SERdistribution networks allow distributed connection locally.Fig. 4. Distribution Network.In figure 5 are presented consumers and interdependence with other fields,highlighting the existence of bidirectional communication between the customer andthe electricity entity and the active role of consumers in the flattening of consumption.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Intelligent Networks, Smart Grids Concept,Crucial Technologies for Sustainable Development 73As a feature of the Intelligent Network is the fact that some consumers may becomesuppliers of electricity in the system (buildings equipped with solar cells).Fig. 5. Types of consumers.Figure 6 details the center network management and interaction with other areaswere seen in the bidirectional nature of communication through which it managesand controls the flow of electricity for intelligent electronic devices: monitoring,control, reporting and supervision in order to take more correct operationaldecisions at all levels and types of electrical networks processed in IntelligentNetworks.Fig. 6. Centre Dispatcher.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

74 Constantin RaduFigure 7 details the power market is presenting the interrelationships with otherareas in open and competitive market conditions not only for energy but also forservices. Note the bidirectional communication between the players in the energymarket and services and other entities.Fig. 7. Energy Market.In Figure 8 are presented service providers: energy management, construction,installation, maintenance, intervention in case of power outages, scheduling andenergy demands of the valuation system.Fig. 8. Service Providers.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Intelligent Networks, Smart Grids Concept,Crucial Technologies for Sustainable Development 75Network Intelligence interoperable and interactive character will allow electricitycompanies to supply electricity to the system as economically and efficiently andwill enable all categories of consumers to purchase electricity at lower prices in2010 compared to the medium and long term.Achieving this type of network will help reduce greenhouse gas emissions andsustainable development provided the primary energy reserves of fossil fuels aredeclining.5. Recommendations on intelligent networks for RomaniaAlthough we are placing economic crisis, given the advantages of implementing asmart grid, would be made following:- develop a Government Decision to establish the strategy of intelligentnetworks given the great number of entities that must work together;- promoting the Directive 2005/89/EC on RES priority by having the facilitiesto investors in this area so that the SER to represent 38% of domesticconsumption in 2020;- funding research and development of smart technologies in electricity grids,telecommunications networks and information technology;- awareness of domestic and industrial consumers to actively intervene inflattening the load curve;- assimilation and application priority and IEC Standards Network sites thatdeal with intelligence;- simultaneously with the modernization of power plants chain: production,transport, distribution and end user to introduce intelligent devices, sensors,automation, on-line monitoring and intelligent application that allows real-timecommunication between units and all types of electrical networks consumers;- creating conditions for connection to electric power production of local orregional distributed;- develop technologies that improve energy efficiency financing by attractingEuropean structural funds, through restructuring and privatization, the Romanianlegislation following Directive 2006/32/EC;- installation of smart meters in households and household appliances insmart devices providing bidirectional communication between consumer andsupplier of electricity;- facilitating access to energy market in Romania and the EU through mutualrecognition of the participants in the electricity market;- stimulate the manufacture of smart devices, software, hardware and openand secure communication protocols for Intelligent Network;- Recovery of installed optical fiber networks up to the present as one of theways of communication that will be used to achieve intelligent networks.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

76 Constantin Radu6. Embodiment in Romania on the concept of smart gridBy analyzing the U.S. and European Network model, on achieving IntelligentNetworks is found that an important implementation of Smart Grid infrastructureas part of electrical installations, the power station. To contribute to this conceptin Romania NOVA INDUSTRIAL has developed a comprehensive system foronline monitoring an electric voltage and regardless of its complexity. In this pilotproject are monitored all primary equipment: switches, disconnectors, measuringtransformers and surge arresters. Further details on pilot plants to achieve this willbe the subject of another Report.For a successful transition to the implementation of specific technologies,intelligent networks today and in future all stakeholders must get involved:governments, regulators, universities, manufacturing entities in the chain-endconsumer, electrical equipment manufacturers, intelligent electronic devicemanufacturers, technology providers and computer telecommunications. Localcoordination, for regional, national and European level is essential for realizingobjectives stipulated in the European Technology Platform for IntelligentNetwork implementation.By implementing successful Smart Grid concept, this will provide electricity notonly cheaper, but also cleaner, and sustainable development.R E F E R E N C E S[1] Romania's Energy Strategy for 2007-2020;[2] National Institute of Standards and Technology for the U.S. - Conceptual Model of SmartGrid;[3] National Electric Manufacturers Association-USA-standardization of classification levels ofintelligence and performance in the electricity supply chain;[4] International Electrotechnical Committee - Standards for Smart Grid graph;[5] European Commission - European Technology Platform for Smart Grid;[6] U.S. Department of Energy-Smart Grid Research and Development, 2010-2014.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 77TWO-DIMENSIONAL MODELLING OF ACCIDENTALFLOOD WAVES PROPAGATIONLorand Catalin STOENESCU 1Rezumat. Studiul prezentat în acest articol descrie o metodologie modernă de modelarea propagării inundaţiei accidentale în cazul cedării unui baraj; această metodologie seaplică în România pentru prima oară într-un proiect pilot „Scenarii de cedare abarajului Poiana Uzului”. Programele de calcul folosite realizează o modelarebidimensională (2D) a propagării undelor de viitură, luând în considerare şi atenuareainundaţiei pe o direcţie normală la direcţia principală de curgere; atenuarea inundaţieieste foarte importantă în cazul cursurilor sinusoidale sau cu aşezări urbane foarteapropiate de albia râului. În cazul barajului de la Poiana Uzului, au fost simulate 2scenarii cu ajutorul Prof. dr. ing. Dan Stematiu, dar cu şanse foarte mici de producere.Rezultatele au fost prezentate animat cu suprafeţe inundate în paşi succesivi.Abstract. The study presented in this article describes a modern modeling methodologyof the propagation of accidental flood waves in case a dam break; this methodology isapplied in Romania for the first time for the pilot project „Breaking scenarios of PoianaUzului dam”. The calculation programs used help us obtain a bidimensional calculation(2D) of the propagation of flood waves, taking into consideration the diminishing of theflood wave on a normal direction to the main direction; this diminishing of the flood waveis important in the case of sinuous courses of water or with urban settlements very closeto the minor river bed. In the case of Poiana Uzului dam, 2 scenarios were simulated withthe help of Ph.D. Eng. Dan Stematiu, plausible scenarios but with very little chances ofactually producing. The results were presented as animations with flooded surfaces atcertain time steps successively.Keywords: breaking scenario, accidental flood wave, digital terrain model, bidimensionalhydrodynamic calculation, flooded area1. IntroductionThe theme of the current study is the achievement of several real scenarios ofbreaking of Poiana Uzului Dam (see fig. 1). A 2D model representing the majorriver bed downstream the dam was created, stretching on 26 Km. The problem issolved by making a bidimensional hydraulic calculation by using theHYDRO_AS-2D program. This program is capable of reproducing the conditionsof the flow in a nonpermanent mode, flow mode that is registered after a dambrakes.The results of such calculations can be used at the interpretation of the flood waveand at the realization of the risk maps in case that Poiana Uzului dam breaks.1 Ph.D. Eng., Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest, Hydrotechnical Department,Romania catalin_l_81@yahoo.com).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

78 Lorand Catalin StoenescuUz-km 4.0Uz-km 0.0Trotus-km 76.0Uz-km 8.0Uz-km 10.8Trotus-km 75.0BarajulPoiana UzuluiTrotus-km 72.0Trotus-km 68.0Trotus-km 62.0Fig. 1. Layout of investigated area.2. Limits and characteristics of the investigated areaThe investigated area is represented by the upstream part of Uz River, in betweenPoiana Uzului dam and the junction with Trotus River, and of the upstream part ofTrotus River, from the junction with Uz River up to the outside border of TarguOcna town.Poiana Uzului dam is situated at km 10.8 of Uz river and Targu Ocna town islocated at km 62.0 on Trotus river (15 km upstream of the junction with Uz river),meaning that a 26 km sector was modeled.The slope of Uz River between the dam and the junction is of about 1.1%, whileTrotus slope on the analyzed sector is of about 0.5%.Consequently, it is only natural that the breaking of the dam produces a very highflood wave due to the steep slopes.The river beds of the 2 sectors are formed mainly of grovel and River stones.At the time of the visit, the water width was of about 15-20 m on Uz (fig. 2) andof 30-80 m on Trotus (fig. 3).As one can observe in the photos, both rivers undergo a strong tendency to alterthe course of the minor bed during the flooding. There are many areas with bankerosion, thus puts in danger the outskirts. At the site visit, nowhere on theinvestigated places exist protections or smaller dams.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Two-dimensional Modelling of Accidental Flood Wave Propagation 79Fig. 2. Uz river (km 10.0) on site visit day.Fig. 3. Trotus river (km 72.0) on site visit day.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

80 Lorand Catalin Stoenescu3. Basic dataFor the creation of the model and for the calculation of the flood discharge speed,the following basic data was used:- lake volume curve;- situation plans and longitudinal profiles of the Poiana Uzului dam;- information about the length of the two rivers;- topographical data resulted from the field measurements (10000 pointsconsisting of approx. 80 transverse sections and a weight plan on a 200-800 malong minor bed);- 1:25000 maps;- photos made during the site visit.4. Breaking scenariosPoiana Uzului dam is a buttress type dam, 300 m long at the base and 500 m at thecornice. The maximum height of the dam is of 82 m. The dam is made up of33 plots, out of which 3 are down-comers and the others are normal plots. Bottomoutlet is done through a metallic pipe with a 1.5 m in diameter at the base of eachdown-comer plot.The maximum water volume of the lake is of approx. 90.000.000 m 3 . The twobreaking scenarios were materialized with the help of Ph.D. Eng. Dan Stematiufrom the Hydrotechnic Structures Faculty inside UTCB and is based on hisknowledge on the existing problems in 2 particular areas of the dam, knowledgeacquired during the design period and while analyzing the behaviour of theconstruction. A potentially fragile area is around plot 9, and another one at thebottom outlet pipe on plot 19.An important issue is that the scenarios described here-under, present a very lowrisk and that the analyzed areas do not endanger the safety of the dam.Scenario IThe first scenario is graphically presented in fig. 4 and 5. It is structured in 4stages:STAGE 1: In a first stage there is a leak along the bindings of plot 9 and its 75 melement starts sliding; the more it slides the more the discharge flows at thecontact with plots 8 and 10 (stages 2 and 3). In stage 4 (fig. 4) plot 9 hascompletely fallen. The opening created by the fall of the plot has a width ofapprox. 15 m, and the discharge reaches the value of 12000 m 3 /s (fig. 6).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Two-dimensional Modelling of Accidental Flood Wave Propagation 81STAGE 2: Due to erosion on both sides, plot 8, with a height of 65 m becomesunstable and leans towards plot 10, sliding downstream in the same time; due toall this, water discharges also in between plots 8 and 7. At the end of stage 2, plot8 has fallen and the opening is 30 m wide, the discharge reaching 18000 m 3 /s.STAGE 3: Due to side erosions, plot 7, with a height of 55 m becomes unstableand leans towards plot 10, sliding downstream in the same time (stage 6). At theend of this stage, plot 7 slides completely and collapses. At that point, the openingmeasures 45 m in width and the water discharge reaches the maximum value of22500 m 3 /s.STAGE 4: In this last stage, the lake empties through the 45 m wide opening. Dueto the decrease in the water volume, the discharge diminishes during a period of110 minutes until it reaches the value of the normal discharge (see fig. 6). As youcan observe in figure 5, the hydrograph of the breaking has a very fast growth andthe emptying of the lake is completed in 148 minutes from the accident.Fig. 4. Scenario 1 – Stage 1 and 2.Fig. 5. Scenario 1 – Stage 3 and 4.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

82 Lorand Catalin StoenescuScenario IIFig. 6. Scenario 1 – Discharge hydrograph.The second scenario is graphically presented in fig. 7 and 8. The resultedhydrographs are presented in fig. 9. This scenario is also structured in 4 stages:STAGE 1: In a first stage there is a breaking in the bottom outflow pipe insideplot 19 and the filling material in between the plots is washed away. Themaximum discharge has a small value still, and is estimated at around 100 m 3 /s.STAGE 2: In the second stage, plot 19, with a height of 80 m starts sliding and thewater begins to leak through the bindings with plots 18 and 20. At the end of thisstage, plot 19 slides completely and collapses. The opening measures approx. 15 min width, and the water discharge reaches a value of 12000 m 3 /s (fig. 9).Fig. 7. Scenario 2 – Stage 1 and 2.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Two-dimensional Modelling of Accidental Flood Wave Propagation 83STAGE 3: The bottom outflow pipe inside plot 20 is damaged and, in a similarway as that of stage 2, plot 20, with a height of 80 m, will be destabilized. Due tothe loss of the stabilizing filling, plot 20 becomes unstable, leans towards plot 18and starts sliding. The water also flows through the bindings of plot 20 and 21. Atthe end of stage 3, plot 20 hours collapsed and the opening measures now 30 m inwidth. The discharge now reached the maximum value of 21700 m 3 /s.STAGE 4: During the last stage, the lake empties through the 30 m wide and 80 mtall opening. Due to the decrease in the water volume, the discharge diminishesduring an 80 minute period, until the value of the discharge reaches its normalvalue (see fig. 9). Similar to scenario 1, the hydrograph of the breaking in scenario 2has a very fast growth time and the emptying of the lake ends 155 min after theaccident (see fig. 9). The two hydrographs for scenario 1 and 2 will constitute theboundary conditions for the 2D calculation.Fig. 8. Scenario 1 – Stage 1 and 2.Fig. 9. Scenario 2 – Discharge hydrograph.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

84 Lorand Catalin Stoenescu5. The calculation method for the propagation of the accidental flood waveThe propagation of the flood wave and the extension of the flooded areas weredetermined through a two-dimensional hydrodinamical calculation, withHYDRO_AS-2D computer program. The modeling of the discharge hydraulicconditions is based on the numeric solution of the bidimensional equation ofmedium water depth with Galerkin type volume elements. In this case, thedischarge speed is approximated with respect to the water depth. In order tosimulate such flow, a rectangular and triangular elements model was created,having a series of pre-established initial and boundary conditions. The calculationis controlled by the pre-established time step and by the total calculation duration.The general modeling and calculation procedure is presented here-under.5.1. Programs used for modeling and calculationsModel creation and flow calculation were realized with the help of two computerprograms:- Surface Water Modelling System (SMS) from BOSS International INC, USAand- HYDRO_AS-2D created by Dr. Nujic, Rosenheim, Germany.So, SMS is a pre- and post-processing program with which one can create anetwork of elements constitutes the digital terrain model and there are defined theboundary conditions, the control structures of the discharge (such as weirs andbridges) and control points of the discharge. With the help of SMS computerprogram, a linear unstructured network was modeled by using triangular andrectangular elements. This means that the model can be perfectly adjusted afterthe contour surface. The data regarding the relief, the inner part of the blowers ofthe bridges and the control points of the discharge are connected to the elements’knots and the roughness is attached to each element.5.2. Pre-processing (creation of the model)For the creation of the digital model of the land, topographical data were used tosum up approx. 10000 marking points, representing approx. 80 transverse sectionsand multiple points on a weight plan with a width of 200-800 m along the minorriver bed of the analyzed sector. The model was then created on the basis of thesemeasurements and on the basis of the photographs and information gathered onthe site visit. (fig. 10, 11 and 12).The standard values of the roughness’s from the minor and major river bed wereestablished on the basis of the information gathered during the site visit and of theexisting maps. The roughness from the major river bed were estimated on theCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Two-dimensional Modelling of Accidental Flood Wave Propagation 85basis of the experience in the realization of more than 50 such projects in 2Dmodeling. A Strickler coefficient (opposite of Manning coefficient) equal to 5(n=0.20) was established for the inhabited areas. The vegetation, such as bushesand the wooded areas have a value of Kst = 5...15 according to the density of thevegetation. The roughness of the minor river bed were settled at Kst = 25 (fig. 13).The bridges were introduced by defining the inferior level and by thedisconnection of piers and abutments from the model (fig. 14). Considering thatthe level of water will be higher than that of the bridges, the discharge flowingover the bridge is calculated by applying the Poleni equation for flow over theweir.Fig. 10. Creating the discretisation network of the minor river bed by multiplying the crosssections.Fig. 11. Creating the rectangular elements of the minor river bed.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

86 Lorand Catalin StoenescuFig. 12. Creating the discretisation network of the major river bed bymultiplying the points on the areas with fragmented relief.Fig. 13. Land uses for the analyzed sector.Fig. 14. Boundary conditions for defining a bridge.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Two-dimensional Modelling of Accidental Flood Wave Propagation 87Implementation of the initial and boundary conditions. Model calibration.The initial conditions refer to the overall calculation time and to the time step,parameters considered to be the global parameters of the model. In the case ofPoiana Uzului pilot project, the overall calculation time was Tt = 40000 s, and thetime step t = 300 s. The boundary conditions are implemented at the inlet andoutlet of the model and they are necessary for solving the equations system duringthe calculation.For the two scenarios an „inflow hydrograph” was introduced at the inlet of themodel (fig. 15), and downstream, at the outlet of the model, an „energetic slope”was defined (fig. 16). Due to the non-existence of a similar incident in the historyof the area, the calibration of the model could not follow a real event. Thecalibration might have helped to obtain an accurate adjustment of the roughnesscoefficients. Due to the lack of such data, the calibration of the model was notpossible. As mentioned before, the value of the roughness in the minor and majorriver bed was approximated on the basis of informations gathered during sitevisits and existing maps.Fig. 15. The inflow hydrograph at the inlet of the model.Fig. 16. The outflow condition at model exit.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

88 Lorand Catalin Stoenescu5.3. Numerical calculationThe numerical calculations were done with HYDRO_AS-2D computer program(Prof.PhD. Marinko Nujic, Germany).The program uses a equations system derived from the basis Barre de SaintVenant equations for non-permanent water flow in open channels. In 1999Prof. Ph.D. Marinko Nujic write a compact form of those equations that can easilybe utilized by the program:wherewithH = h + z – water level above the reference level;u, v – velocity in x and y directions;S f – contains the terms for roughness;Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Two-dimensional Modelling of Accidental Flood Wave Propagation 89S bx , S by – bed slope on x and y directions, n – Manning coefficient, g – gravity andD – hydraulic diameter = 4r.The results are written in a number of folders and presents: water level, watervelocity and discharge for each point of the mesh. With these values, otherparameters can be calculated: Froude number, shear stress etc.5.4. Post-processingAfter numerical calculation, the results can be imported in SMS. Thus, theflooded surface can be presented and the water depth can be determined. Layerswith these parameters at each time step can be exported in GIS programs, this waythe structural or non-structural decisions can be easily made.For Poiana Uzului dam brake scenarios, flood wave propagation times weredetermined. Tabels 1 and 2 contains this parameters for four localitiesdownstream the dam. Figures 17, 18, 19 and 20 shows the propagation wave atcertain time steps for scenario 1.Table 1. Propagation times if scenario 1 takes place.Localitatea Distanţa faţă de baraj Timpul de propagareSălătruc 2 km 10 minDărmăneşti 6 km 30 minDofteana 11 km 70 minTârgu Ocna 25 km 105 minTable 2. Propagation times if scenario 2 takes place.Localitatea Distanţa faţă de baraj Timpul de propagareSălătruc 2 km 40 minDărmăneşti 6 km 50 minDofteana 11 km 100 minTârgu Ocna 25 km 130 minCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

90 Lorand Catalin StoenescuFig. 17. Flood wave at 30 min after dam breaks.Fig. 18. Flood wave at 75 min after dam breaks.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Two-dimensional Modelling of Accidental Flood Wave Propagation 91Fig. 19. Flood wave at 120 min after dam breaks.Fig. 20. Flood wave at 240 min after dam breaks.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

92 Lorand Catalin StoenescuConclusionsTo know the propagation times in case of a breaking accident at Poiana Uzuluidam, two breaking scenarios were modelled. In such case a hydrodynamictwo-dimensional calculation was necessary and it was done withSMS/HYDRO_AS-2D computer programs on the base of topographical surveys.The two scenarios were elaborated with the help of Prof. Ph.D. eng Dan Stematiufrom UTCB, the result being entered in the model as breaking hydrographs.After calculations have been done, it can be observed that water depth reachesabout 18 m and velocity takes values from 0 m/s to 9 m/s. Such an event couldmodify river bed morphology through significant erosions and deposits of alluvialmaterial. The force of such event could destroy all the bridges and otherconstructions existing in the river bed.Propagation times are very short, especially for localities that are near the dam(ex. Salatruc). Even for Targu Ocna city, located at 25 km downstream the dam,propagation times are insufficient to take measures to evacuate people in case ofan accident at the dam simultaneously with alarm system failure.R E F E R E N C E S[1] Surface Water Modeling System Users Manual (USACE, SUA, 2006).[2] Nujic M., HYDRO_AS-2D Users Manual (Germany, 2006).[3] Mateescu C., Hydraulics (Didactic and Pedagogic Editure, Bucharest, Romania, 1963).[4] Rosu C., Cretu G., Accidental Floods (H.G.A. Ed., Bucuresti, Romania, 1998).[5] Chiriac V., Filotti A., Manoliu I.A., Prevention and Control of Flooods (Ceres Ed.,Bucharest, Romania, 1980).[6] RMD Consult GmbH, Dam brake scenarios (Munchen, Germany, 2007).[7] Chanson H., Aoki S., Dam break wave with energy dissipation: two case studies (2002).[8] Stoenescu L.C., 2 nd Research PhD. Report: Hydraulic Calculation of flood waves in case ofdam breaking scenarios. Case Study: Poiana Uzului Dam (Bucrahest, Romania, 2007).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 93PROJECT INDICATORS ESSENTIAL FACTORIN THE DESIGN OF THE PROJECT PROPOSALSOF THE STRUCTURAL FUNDSAndrei SZUDER 1Rezumat. Sunt analizate principalele greşeli în redactarea propunerilor de proiecte dinFondurile Structurale şi se prezintă soluţii de remediere a acestora. Este evidentiataimportanta indicatorilor in diferitele faze ale ciclului de proiect si se face o prezentare,cu exemple, a acestora si a modului lor de utilizare. Sunt prezentate principalele aspectepractice privind alegerea indicatorilor de proiect şi se trag concluzii legate de utilizareaindicatorilor în redactarea proiectelor.Abstract. The main mistakes in drafting project proposals from the Structural Funds areanalyzed and solutions are presented to remedy them. Importance of indicators in variousstages of project design cycle is shown and a presentation of the utilization, withexamples, of key indicators of project is made. Practical aspects of the main indicators ofproject selection and drawing conclusions about the use of indicators in the drafting ofprojects are presented.Keywords: Structural Funds, Evaluation, Project indicators, Project1. IntroductionMany of the project proposals for Structural Funds which have passed the stage ofchecking the eligibility does not obtain a favorable technical assessment. Thereasons are diverse and mainly are based on a number of misconceptions:Ignorance of basic concepts of Structural Funds. The design of a projectproposal is reduced to the completion of the application data fields and not todemonstrate the project's contribution to the operational objectives of theprogram.SF project proposal must persuade all the evaluators, the promoter has understoodand demonstrated that implementation of the project will contribute primarily tothe program objectives and social development of the region to which it belongsand not for other purposes. EU cohesion policy goal is to provide financialassistance to the regions having a per capita income, below 75 percent of the EUaverage in order to overcome structural weaknesses to reduce economicdisparities, social and territorial cohesion and to enable them to strengthen thecompetitiveness and increase the employment rate.1 Prof., Ph.D., Faculty IMST, TCM Chair, University ”Politehnica” of Bucharest, Romania.szuder@ctanm.pub.roCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

94 Andrei SzuderCloning of the approved projects. Copying a project (method used by someconsulting firms) that has already been approved in another call for proposals orin another program, or replacing only the recipient identification data withoutmany changes, is a guarantee of success.Collaboration between consultant and customer is essential in developing aproject proposal. Projects without consultation and collaboration of the twoparties are leading in most cases, to projects lack without real support which cannot be achieved. There are many examples of this type.Cloning of an approved project in which was provided to purchase a particulartype of equipment, the beneficiary having already some components of theequipment.Selection for funding a cloned project led the new beneficiary is in a position tohave approval to acquire a production line incomplete and inoperable.Important is the idea of the project. If your proposal falls within the programmepriorities, is relevant and valuable in itself, it is important to pay attention only tocertain sections of the application form such as financial plan and activities planand less to items considered irrelevant to the project, such as, for example, in thePOSDRU projects:target group,outcomes and indicators,background and project justification,project management,sustainability,equality,and other horizontal objectives.The main criteria underlying the assessment of Structural Funds are relevance,effectiveness, efficiency, sustainability and impact of the project, Fig.1.The assessment of each project proposal is made pursuant a detailed selectiongrid. For each selection criteria separately, the evaluator should made commentsbased on strengths and weaknesses identified in the sections of the projectproposal, and to motivate score granted to each criteria.Often, some of the criteria are treated lightly or general data is entered, no directin connection with the proposed project, leading to a severe depunctation by theevaluators.Successful project proposals, which passed the evaluation stage with high scorescompared to their competitors, were always proposals based not only on a goodidea but they treated equally all custom fields in the application form [1, 2].Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Project Indicators –Essential Factors in the Design of the Project Proposals of the Structural Funds 95Fig. 1. Evaluation criteria for project proposals.Overestimated the performance. In the project proposal, in order to meet therating scale, the promoter may introduce unrealistic major achievementsindicators, only to pass the evaluation phase of the project proposals and theproject to be selected.It is a rule that when the project pass the selection phase and is selected, theproject proposal is a legal document attached to the FS funding contract andabsolutely everything was set to achieve has to be achieved and this will beclosely monitored during the project and at its end. Failure to overestimateindicators will be detected at mid term evaluation of the project.2. Project IndicatorsIn the guides and the handbooks the indicators are mainly treated in terms ofevaluation and monitoring of operational programs by specialized agencies andless in terms of project design.We shall try to present the project indicators in terms of their use in formulatingproject proposals and evaluation and monitoring them during project cycle of lifedevelopment.Indicators of a project should be the starting point in drafting successful projectproposals.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

96 Andrei SzuderSpecification of the project indicators will be helpful to consider the feasibility ofthe project and provide the monitoring and evaluation of the project with valuabletools. We have always to correlate the indicators with the objectives, activities,target group and project resources.An indicator can be defined as an objective measurement to be performed, aresource used, the effect obtained as a quality indicator. An indicator containsquantified information to help stakeholders assess a project proposal and projectmanagement to communicate, negotiate or make decisions.A good indicator should provide a simple information that can be use andunderstand both who establish the indicator as one who uses it. Indicators describethe operational and measurable terms (quantity, quality, time) of the projectobjectives. The indicators assess the feasibility of the objectives and results andprovide the basis for monitoring and evaluation system design.Each indicator must be specific (to measure exactly what he proposes to measure),measured (to be and to be quantified), achievable, relevant. One of the essentialconditions to be met by the indicators is that information resulting from the use of thesame indicators should be the same, whether collected by different individuals [3-5].3. System indicators and project cycleThe indicators should be used at the beginning of the project cycle in the projectinitiation phase to help identify areas where Structural Funds can providefinancial assistance grant, to analyze the regional context, to diagnose the socialand economic problems and to assess the project needs to respond. At this stage,indicators often play a decisive role to determine whether the proposed project isrelevant and can be successful implemented.Choice and validation of the project intervention strategy is the second stage ofthe project cycle. At this stage, the beneficiary must precisely define and quantifythe objectives and results. The indicators depend on measuring outcomes and arevery useful for clarifying the objectives.In the implementation phase, the project is monitored and evaluated. At this stage,the indicators are essential to allow the circulation of information in a simple andcondensed way, both for the internal management of the project as well asbetween the project and the implementing agency.Typically, at this stage, the indicators used to monitor, for example, as the programbaseline is respected, how budgets are spent, the proportion of target group reached,the rate of satisfaction of beneficiaries, the number of jobs created, etc. Projectcycle ends with an ex post or impact phase, which aims primarily to report onprogram outcomes and on the extent to which objectives have been met.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Project Indicators –Essential Factors in the Design of the Project Proposals of the Structural Funds 97The use of indicators is recommended at this stage, since it allows communicationof simple information that is readily understood by a wide audience, for example,cost per job created or placement rate of assisted persons without jobs4. Types of indicatorsIndicators of a project can be classified according to several criteria:Phases of project implementation and performance: Indicators ofresources, output, outcome and impactProject evaluation criteria: relevance, effectiveness, efficiency andperformance indicatorsKey indicatorsKey indicators are used to compare similar measures and public policies. They aresimple indicators, easily measured and monitored for longer periods of time. Keyindicators reflect priorities and provide information on direct and indirectconsequences of a particular policy.In Romania there are two main types of basic indicators: administrative indicatorsand performance indicators [6]Administrative indicators:The administrative indicators present government action its management andcapacity planning to meet deadlines, ability to use available resources to achieveprogrammes goals.Performance indicatorsPerformance indicators are formulated to assess the real impact of public policy inthe project at the economic, political, social, environmental level. For example, toevaluate the success of a tourism project, the project indicators include: number ofclients at hotels, number of days spent in tourist facilities, etc.Performance indicators measure the relationship between objectives and results ina monitoring and evaluation system based on results and impact, whileadministrative indicators measure the resources and the administrative activitiesof the funding authorities. Performance indicators are useful both when assessingthe project results - the effects of the project and when assessing its impact - longterm effects of the project and how the goals were achieved in the application.Most used performance indicators are:Indicators of resources and activities (inputs).Resources and activity indicators (input) - measure resources allocated to eachproject. The role of such indicators is to provide information about resourcesCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

98 Andrei Szuder(human, financial, material, organizational or regulatory) mobilized during theproject.Monitoring of indicators of resources is necessary to have a fair picture of thesituation the resources in each phase of the project. Examples of resourcesindicators are: number of people necessary to implement the project, the amountof material resources allocated to achieve the results.Resources are the joint responsibility of funding authorities, which allocate, andbeneficiary who implement them.Output indicators,Output indicators are indicators of efficiency of the project and represent the wayto measure goods and services produced within the project in relation to resourcesused, Fig.1. Output indicators represent the product of the project activities andare correlated with them. Outputs are normally the responsibility of projectmanager who should report regularly on their achievement through the monitoringproject system.Output indicators can be measured in physical (number of students whose trainingwas paid by the project, number of unemployed retrained, kilometers of roadsconstructed) or monetary units.Outcome indicatorsOutcome indicators are result indicators is show how to measure the effectivenessand impact of the project, direct and immediate benefits and advantages for theproject target group and are related to the project objectives. Fig1.These indicators can provide information about changes in behavior, ability orperformance of direct beneficiaries. They can be physical (time reduction toproduce goods and transport times) or may be economic / financial (decrease ofthe production costs and transport).Outcome indicators are generally quantified during monitoring and provideinformation on changes that occur for the direct beneficiaries, such as number ofnew skills acquired through training courses organized under the project activitiesor usability share of newly developed production capacity.In the strategic plans of the ministries they are indicators for policy results [6].Impact indicators (impact)Impact indicators present the indirect and long-term consequences of the projectand represent the consequences of the project beyond the direct and immediateinteraction with the beneficiaries of the project [4].There are two types of impact indicators.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Project Indicators –Essential Factors in the Design of the Project Proposals of the Structural Funds 99• Specific impact indicators relating to the impact that occurs after amedium period and which is directly related to the project activities,examples of indicators: sustainable jobs created by the acquisition oftechnological equipment, the number of graduates of training courses whowere employed.• General impact indicators are referring to a long-term effect. Examplesof indicators: placement rate of graduates of training courses after twoyears of their graduation or the traffic on a road built through a project ofthe SF one year after it is opened.Due to the time after which the impact effects occur, impact indicators can bechecked, only in time and especially during the evaluations. One way ofdetermining the impact is to make an impact study at a certain period after the endof the project.5. Indicators selectionPurpose of the indicators. One of the most common problems is the purpose of theindicators is not clearly defined, in which case the selection or the imposition ofindicators can lead to inappropriate indicators, to the purpose for which they wereintended. It is possible to choose among several indicators for a particular purpose,each with advantages and disadvantages. It is not enough, for example, to state thatis necessary "to improve the quality indicator, but rather should be defined thequality issues to be improved, and only then, to design the best indicators useful toprepare and support effective decision making to improve quality.Indicators, end in it. A dangerous trend is that the indicators to become an end initself rather than a tool of the project. Performance indicators and quality can leadto expensive data collection process which does not contain relevant information.This is, for example, the case when value indicators undergone important changesover time.Small number of indicators. Selection of a small number of indicators can leadto undesirable effects such as those that target group to choose to work on theproject only in those activities for which there are indicators. A known example isthe trainees who focus in particular on the results of the examination usuallyrepresented by indicators in the project, rather than on learning and acquiringknowledge and skills. Another example relates to the potential impact ofperformance indicators on the relationship between a qualification program for theunemployed and the unemployment rate. Although high unemployment ratescould involve efforts to adapt the program qualifications, an easier way toincrease the "performance" of the project is to refuse admission to courses forpeople with the highest risk (elderly, long-term unemployed, disabled, women,etc.) to fill a job after graduation rate.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

100 Andrei SzuderComprehensive set of indicators. Another type of problem can occur whentrying to create a comprehensive set of indicators which are supposed to cover allkey aspects of a project. This may not be possible in all cases for reasons of costor because of certain factors that are not directly measurable. Sometimes it tries toevaluate complex projects through a limited number of indicators. This may betrue for quality improvement, since quality characteristics tend to be correlatedwith each other [7].Level set of indicators is incorrect. Another design problem can be indicatorsthat were not set to an appropriate level. Level may be too high, which impliesthat some useful information are highlighted (for example, when students areappreciated for all the curricula and not on every subject it will not be possible toshow the remarkable results in certain subjects, but only an average performancewhich can be irrelevant for the project). If the level of indicators is too low itcould be created an impression of high quality diversity or of quick change trend,while in fact, the differences can be largely attributed to statistical or seasonalfluctuations.Data manipulation. It should be recalled that statistical indicators can "hide"information, if designed in a special way. By creating certain types of indicators,some organizations may present project achievements in a positive way, and somevery important and serious problems may go unnoticed. Indicators designers musttake responsibility in order to justify the choice of indicators and the type ofinformation that indicators can present or disclose.Economic indicators. For reasons of cost effectiveness, indicators are often builton existing data collection systems. The projects funded by the Structural Funds,tend to use indicators in relation to expenditure. These indicators focus onefficiency and performance rather than effectiveness and quality.Specific indicators and general indicators. Sometimes, the indicators can noteasily be compared with each other (in time or for different organizations). Fromthe quality management perspective, the most appropriate indicators are thoserelated to specific problems and adapted to the organization's mission. As theindicator is more specific, it will allow valid comparisons with the organization.Conversely, if the primary purpose is the comparison between organizations,broad indicators at the system level are needed.Another external factor on the usefulness of quality indicators in educationprojects and training is that the project beneficiary may not be very clear what hewants or needs. Therefore, designing training programs may be based partly onfalse assumptions and outcome indicators may be irrelevant because there is nocontrol over the project training needs analysis.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

ConclusionsProject Indicators –Essential Factors in the Design of the Project Proposals of the Structural Funds 101A first conclusion is that designing a successful project proposal is not simple andrepetitive task. It should first take account of how the project proposal evaluationit’s made, with the personalized and equal treatment to all fields of theapplication.The projects must show proper use of indicators and those to show change theproject brings. The indicators are intended only to indicate, and not to provide"proof" or detailed explanations about change. Avoid the temptation to make themeasurement of change in a major exercise with a burdensome workload of theproject. Change must be the leading issue of the project not its measurement bydifferent-indicators.Indicators aim is to support planning, management and reporting of the project.Indicators enabling project track record and can help to produce results byproviding benchmarks for monitoring, decision making, stakeholder consultationand project evaluation. Using indicators is an integral part of good management.An indicator that provides relevant data on progress is very useful. It's useful tohave approximate information about important issues than to have accurateinformation about what is not important in a project.Desire to increase project performance, especially through good management, hasincreased the number of the indicators utilized. These indicators focus on resultsand effects achieved, unlike the older forms of management based on resourceallocation and monitoring the results.In Romania, the administrative culture in many places remained reluctant to theperformance management and development projects based on the result.Monitoring and evaluation of programs co-financed by the European Union is afactor encouraging performance management projects in terms of results andimpact.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

102 Andrei SzuderR E F E R E N C E S[1] Andrei Szuder- Managementul Proiectelor - Ghid pentru proiectarea şi managementulproiectelor europene de cooperare – Editura BREN. Bucuresti, Romania, 2001[2] Andrei Szuder- Cooperarea Universitatea-Întreprindere în perspectiva aderării Românieila Uniunea Europeană - Editura BREN. Bucuresti, Romania ,2002[3] Evalsed-The Evaluation Guide - http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/evaluation/evalsed/index_en.htm-[4] UNDP- Handbook on Monitoring and Evaluation for Results. (Evaluation Office UnitedNations Development Programme One United Nations Plaza New York, NY 10017, USA)[5] European Communities-Evaluation Methods for the European Union’s External AssistanceMethodological Basis for Evaluation, Volume I, (.European Communities. Brussels. 2006).[6] Secretariatul General al Guvernului SSG – Ghid de Monitorizare şi evaluare(Variantă înlucru).- http://www.sgg.ro/.[7] Grupul de Economie Aplicată -GEA, Manual de Evaluare a Competivităţii Regionale(British Embassy, Bucuresti, Romania, 2007).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 2, Number 1/2011 103CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURES PROTECTIONA ROMANIAN PERSPECTIVE(PART 1)Liviu MURESAN 1 , Septimiu CACEU 2Rezumat. În fiecare stat membru al Comunității Europene există un număr deinfrastructuri critice a căror perturbare sau distrugere ar influența semnificativmenținerea funcțiilor societale vitale, a sănătății, siguranței, securității, bunăstăriisociale sau economice a persoanelor, ar avea un impact semnificativ la nivel local,regional și național, ca urmare a incapacității statului de a menține respectivele funcții,având totodată și efecte transfrontaliere similare. Acestea ar putea include efectetransfrontaliere intersectoriale ce rezultă din relațiile de interdependență dintreinfrastructurile interconectate. Programul European privind Protecția InfrastructurilorCritice (EPCIP) lansat la 12 Decembrie 2006, definește sectoarele și serviciile criticeaferente, promovând protecția acestora printr-o abordare care să acopere toate riscurile.Directiva CE 114/2008, care constituie un prim pas în cadrul unei abordări pas cu pas îndirecția identificării și a desemnării ICE și a evaluării necesității de îmbunătățire aprotecției acestora, se concentrează asupra sectorului energetic și a sectoruluitransporturilor, stabilind procedura pentru identificarea și desemnarea infrastructurilorcritice europene ("ICE"). Romania, ca stat membru al EU este obligată să ia măsurilenecesare pentru a se conforma Directivei CE 114/2008, până la 12 ianuarie 2011, datăcând va informa Comisia cu referire la armonizarea legislativă, măsurile stabilite,precum și tabelele de concordanță menționate în această directivă europeană.Abstract. In each EU Member States there are a certain number of critical infrastructures,the disruption or destruction of which is essential for the maintenance of vital societalfunctions, health, safety, security, economic or social well-being of people, and the disruptionor destruction of which would have a significant impact at community, regional or MemberState level as a result of the failure to maintain those functions and at the same time withsignificant cross-border impacts. This may include transboundary cross-sector effectsresulting from interdependencies between interconnected infrastructures. The EuropeanProgram for Critical Infrastructure Protection (EPCIP) launched on 12 December 2006 hasdefined a list of European critical infrastructures and promoted their protection taking inconsideration all hazard approach concept. The Directive EC 2008/114 constitutes a first stepin a step-by-step approach to identify and designate ECIs and assess the need to improve theirprotection, concentrate on energy and transport sectors, establishing the procedure for theidentification and designation of European critical infrastructures ("ECIs"). Romania, as EUMember State, shall take the necessary measures to comply with this Directive by 12 January2011, date when shall inform the Commission with legislative harmonization aspects andcommunicate the text of those measures and their correlation with this Directive.Keywords: critical infrastructures, protection, concept, energy, directive, European program1 Ph.D., Executive President, EURISC Foundation, Romania, muresan@eurisc.org.2 Ph.D., Eng., Project Director, Research Coordinator, EURISC Foundation, Romania,septimiu@eurisc.org.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

104 Liviu Muresan, Septimiu Caceu1. The Critical Infrastructure ConceptInfrastructures are essential for economic prosperity, national security and thequality of life in any country. Securing the functioning of this infrastructure is thus ameasure by which the society aims to secure its present and develop its future.Infrastructures can be grouped into three large categories, depending on theirlocation, role and importance for the stability and functioning of the society, aswell as for the safety and security of systems:ordinary infrastructures;special infrastructures;critical infrastructures.Ordinary infrastructures represent a structure, a frame, which enables thedeveloping and functioning of the system. These infrastructures do not presentspecial qualities beside those which justify their existence and presence within theframe of systems and processes.A country, for example, will always have roads, railways, towns, schools, librariesetc. As time goes by, some of these may become special, or even critical,depending on the new role they may have, on the dynamic of their importance andother criteria. For example, towns which have airports, powerful communicationcentres, nuclear plants, rail way knots etc. can be part of special infrastructuresand, under circumstances, even part of the critical ones.The special infrastructures play a particular role in the functioning of systems andprocesses, ensuring those with enhanced efficiency, quality, comfort,performance. Generally, the special infrastructures are performanceinfrastructures. Some of those, especially the ones which through extension ortransformation (modernisation) can have an important role in the stability andsecurity of systems, can also be critical infrastructures.Critical infrastructures are generally those on which depend the stability, safety andsecurity of systems and processes. They can be part of the special infrastructurecategory. However, it is not mandatory that all infrastructures which are or canbecome at some point critical, be part of the category of special infrastructures.Depending on the situation, other elements can also intervene and even some ofthe ordinary infrastructures – as for example country roads, irrigation systems etc.– become critical infrastructures. This leads to the conclusion that there is aflexibility criterion in the identification and evaluation of such structures.The European Programme for Critical Infrastructure Protection proposed in 2006this definition: "Critical infrastructures consist of those physical and informationtechnology facilities, networks, services and assets which, if disrupted or destroyed,Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Critical Infrastructures ProtectionA Romanian Perspective (Part 1) 105would have a serious impact on the health, safety, security or economic well-beingof citizens or the effective functioning of governments in the member states.Infrastructures are accounted to be critical due to:Singularity within the frame of infrastructures of a system or process; Vital importance as a material or virtual (net-like) support in the functioningof systems and the unfolding of processes (economic, social, political, military,informational, etc.); Important, non-replaceable role, which they play in the stability, reliability,safety, functionality and, especially in the security of systems; Increased vulnerability to direct threats, as well as to threats targeting thesystems these infrastructures are part of; Special sensitivity in case of variation of the conditions and, especially incase of sudden changes of the situation.The importance of critical infrastructures result also from the fact that they can bedefined as being those industrial capabilities, services and facilities which, in caseof interruption of their normal functioning, can affect human life, and, moreover,can harm or destroy human life. The protection of life and of the lifestyle ofpeople envisages especially the preservation of the continuous functioning ofthese services and facilities.The on-going increase of the complexity of processes and systems has led,inevitably, to the increase in the interdependence among the various categories ofcritical infrastructures. The existing global infrastructures are thus more and moredependent on high technology systems for the distribution of information, such asthe Internet, without having a central administrative control and without acommon security policy relative to the spreading of new types of threats.In the same time, these infrastructures are more and more interdependent anddependent on each other in order to function properly. So, malfunction of one elementcan lead to disturbances in other critical infrastructures elements (cascade effect).These modern infrastructures are based on the ability of interconnecting systemsand networks and of offering global coverage for the transmission of information.The protection of systems and networks for the transmission of informationrequires new concepts and instruments for the behaviour analysis of these systemsand of their impact on the infrastructures they are serving.Identifying, optimizing and securing critical infrastructure is an undisputedconcern, both for the managers of systems and processes, as well as for thoseaiming to attack, destabilize or destroy the systems and processes envisaged.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

106 Liviu Muresan, Septimiu CaceuCritical infrastructures are not and do not become critical only because of attacks,but also due to other causes, human, as well as technical, some of them difficult tobe identified and analysed. Generally speaking, especially after the terroristattacks of the 11th September 2001 on the World Trade Centre and Pentagon, it isconsidered that infrastructures are or can become critical due to terrorist attacks orother threats, especially asymmetrical ones.This is only one aspect or criterion for the identification of critical infrastructures.However, there are also other criteria, which depend both on the stability andfunctioning of systems and processes, as well as on the interconnectivity of thosewith the exterior environment. In this context, the analysis of the criticalinfrastructures issues has to take into account all dimensions and implications ofthe systems’ and processes’ stability and functionality, as well as the causalinterlinking that can generates or influence their dynamic.The criteria used for such analysis is variable, even if their area of coverage couldbe the same. The predominant criteria for analysis, mentioned in the specializedliterature are the following: Physical criterion, regarding the positioning within other infrastructures(size, spread, endurance, reliability etc.); Functional criterion, regarding the infrastructure’s role (what exactly doesit “do“); Security criterion (what is its role for the overall safety and security of thesystem); Flexibility criterion (reflecting the dynamic and flexibility in defininginfrastructures as critical; some of the ordinary infrastructures become undercertain circumstances critical ones and vice-versa); Unpredictability criterion, (considering that some of the ordinaryinfrastructures can become suddenly critical infrastructures).Critical infrastructures have at least three components of critical phases: Internal component, defined through the increase (either direct or induced)of infrastructure vulnerabilities with an important role in the functioning andsecurity of the system; External component, referring to the exterior stability and functioning inrelationship to the systems the infrastructure is integrated in or associated to; Interface component, defined through the multitude of neighbouringinfrastructures, which do not belong to the system as such, but influence itsstability, functioning and security.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Critical Infrastructures ProtectionA Romanian Perspective (Part 1) 1072. The geopolitics of critical infrastructuresBesides to the classic civil protection concept, to forms of “physical protection” ofcitizens, and protection against imminent threats, new vulnerabilities haveevolved in the modern, increasingly globalized societies.Terrorist attacks on air, rail, underground, road means of transport or on keyinformation systems have had an impact on government-level debates and onpolitical and military decision-making, as well as on the documents and decisionsissued after 11 September 2001.Critical infrastructure protection can be approached from three angles:a) Many of the currently operational critical infrastructure systems are theconsequence of the Cold War both in the west and in the east (especially thecommunist system inheritance).b) The prospect of new types of vulnerabilities, the preservation of key criticalinfrastructures operational, and the need for modernization require considerablefinancial support. Critical infrastructures in the spatial dimension had not sufferedmajor events until the Tamil Tigers attacked a satellite. A three-week waves ofmassive cyber-attacks on the small Baltic country of Estonia, the first knownincidence of such an assault on a state, was causing alarm across the EuropeanUnion and NATO alliance, both structures examining the offensive, itsimplications and further required measures. Since the beginning of 2008, thesubmarine dimension has suffered several optical fibre cable cut-offs, thusaffecting the Internet information transfer across the continents, with damages thathas not been well quantified yet. The attacks on those cables highlighted theenormous amount of Internet traffic that uses the undersea cable system, whichcarries many times more traffic than the satellite system doesc) The possible start of a new Cold War, involving issues of energy securityand information security, will have effects that can hardly be estimated at present.Both the United States and Russia have therefore taken due action, but the “play”has grown more complex due to the experience and importance of new actorscoming from Asia region.Following these new dimensions of risk and vulnerabilities we can speak aboutcritical infrastructure geopolitics mainly in the sector of energy security, but newsectors, from critical infrastructures of water supply and food supply securitycould be added in the following years..Given the circumstances, new developments may occur, each calling for acomplex assessment of certain systems, or systems of systems, as well as forspecific measures.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

108 Liviu Muresan, Septimiu CaceuFirstly, there is a need for developing the ability to forecast and interpretspecific events that are going to take place or have already started. Naturalhazards, man-made disasters, technical accidents, the intervention of an externalcriminal hand, of an “internal enemy”, or a possible terrorist attack are rather hardto identify and determine in the early stage of a major event.Secondly, increasingly complex systems, the interdependence existing amongvarious categories of critical infrastructures call for expert interdisciplinarytraining that includes both international experience and concrete aspects derivingfrom “lessons learned” from previous events.Within this context, the top management of public and private enterprises mustprovide more time and resources (financial, human, and material) to the peopleresponsible for the smooth functioning of the critical infrastructures existing on theirpremises, as well as of those connected to national and transnational networks.At the same time, specific “security culture” action is needed to ensure a flow ofcorrect, complete, and timely information not only for own employees, but alsofor the public opinion, and especially for the local communities where theinstitutions operate.Thirdly, given the security environment dynamics, it is necessary to be awareof the new threats to date, and of the respective vulnerabilities for criticalinfrastructures. New vulnerabilities can thus appear for any critical infrastructure,but also for the “nodal points” where they are interconnected with local, national,and international networks.Fourthly, based on objective prioritization, authorities should build a list ofcritical infrastructures, which require protection measures. Due to objectivereasons, limited budgets, lack of qualified personnel, lack of specific protectiontechnology, and lack of time to find solutions in complex situations, authoritiescannot take extensive measures for the protection of all of critical infrastructuresat the same level.A choice among ordinary infrastructures and specific infrastructures can be madestarting from the “history of events” reported at national level, internationalexperience, specific classified information and alerts received from specialservices, et al.In the fifth place, the decision of taking protection measures in a specific caseis accounted for not only by technological considerations, but also by political,social, economic, and cultural implications. Smooth functioning or, conversely,malfunction in some critical infrastructures that directly affect the quality of lifeand the functioning of modern society (electricity, water supply, heating,transportation, health care, waste disposal, et al.), having a direct impact onCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Critical Infrastructures ProtectionA Romanian Perspective (Part 1) 109citizens, can bear a high political cost. Therefore, political decision-makers willcarefully monitor the reactions if such situations occur, particularly of those“charged with electoral potential”.In the sixth place, the authorities and the leadership of both the public andprivate sector fail to employ staff and provide all the resources in time, when itcomes to highly specialized critical infrastructures such as the ones in theinformation systems sector. The training and the stability of highly qualifiedinformation specialists are challenges of all sectors with workforce mobility in acompetition environment.In this sector, specialists are “headhunted” by institutions in the national securitysector, by the IT sector, by finance and banking institutions, by the national andmultinational private sector or by international organisations.The outsourcing of IT services to overseas companies can provide well-paid jobswith delocalization at distances of hundreds or thousands of kilometres.In the seventh place, the central and local authorities must be aware of theneed for the continuous assessment of the state of infrastructures, particularly ofcritical ones, and to set specific standards and clear responsibilities for theirprotection. Suitable legislation is needed to set responsibilities for the authorities,key institutions, to integrate their activities into a comprehensive civil protectionconcept, to train the personnel having special responsibilities, to integrate all intoa coherent, flexible system, et al.In the eighth place, the public-private partnership is mandatory for criticalinfrastructures, considering that the majority percentage is owned by the privatesector in this domain.Legislation must provide acknowledgement and regulations with respect tomutual rights and responsibilities. There is a need for a continuous dialogue oncritical infrastructure issues between the authorities and the private sector. Thedialogue must start during periods of normal conditions so that cooperation couldfunction smoothly right from the beginning of an emergency or critical situation.In this respect, authorities must identify incentives for a functional partnership,and at the same times apply sanctions when the usage of specific infrastructures isobstructed.A special case is that of foreign companies or institutions operating on thenational territory, either independent firms or multinationals.In the ninth place, the responsibility for providing information regarding thelocation, physical state, and legal nature of key critical infrastructures rest with thenational and local authorities. Even though critical infrastructure protectionCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

110 Liviu Muresan, Septimiu Caceunecessarily requires restrictive information circulation, the national database mustbe designed and managed according to the national legislation, as well as theregulations and obligations that are incumbent on Romania as an EU and NATOmember.Lastly, but at the same time first, critical infrastructures and the need for theirprotection are key issues that must be included in strategies of national security,energy security, information security, food supply security, health security,transportation security, et al.A coherent national strategy of critical infrastructures, integrated into thenetwork of the above-mentioned strategies, is a determining factor for a nation’sresilience capability.Recent international security evolutions have shown a period of relatively highinstability, probably followed by a period of instability “stabilization”.In this context, we consider that several issues such as critical infrastructures, theirprotection and resilience could contribute to security and stability. If we comparea critical infrastructure system with an articulate concrete block (used for riverbank stabilization), several articulate concrete blocks can be seen as a system ofsystems that could break the current “instability waves”.Given the latest critical sectors evolutions and the increasing level ofglobalization, we could consider a new concept of successful critical infrastructuregovernance, with good prospects of national, European and internationalimplementation.3. Critical Infrastructure Protection – the Approach at European andEuro-Atlantic LevelAs natural disasters increase in amplitude and frequency, and as the terroristphenomenon has an unprecedented scope, critical infrastructures require enhancedprotection from threats and risks.Because of that, governments worldwide show special concern for ensuring thesecurity of the population and of the state authority.In this sense, a first phase of the approach was to evaluate the vulnerabilities andthe impact on society in case of infrastructure and services dysfunction.In the last years, numerous states took robust actions in view of establishing acommon language and way of action for the protection of objectives considered tobe critical infrastructures.The European states have generally included in the critical objectives category:telecommunications, water and energy sources, the distribution networks, theCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Critical Infrastructures ProtectionA Romanian Perspective (Part 1) 111production and distribution of food, the health institutions, the transport systems,the financial and banking systems, the defence and public order institutions (army,gendarmerie and police).In this sense, a critical infrastructure represents a material good or a complexobjective which is vital for the overall functioning of the economy and society andis usually interconnected to other infrastructures.The protection of a critical infrastructure results from the complex of measurestaken for the prevention and mitigation of the risks related to the stopping ordestruction of an infrastructure – which would through the interruption of itsfunctioning affect other economic processes, would make victims or would have amajor impact on the good governance and the morale of the population.National and international security depends to a very large extent on the criticalinfrastructures of society. But those are more and more vulnerable in the face ofthe more and more sophisticated means used for attacking them. The specializedliterature encompasses a wide range of topics related to the protection of criticalinfrastructures.In the analysis of this topic, two axioms are accepted: it is practically impossible to ensure 100% protection of a criticalinfrastructure;there are no unique or universal solutions for solving this problem.There are several different ways suggested for approaching the protection ofcritical infrastructures: the protection of critical informational infrastructures, which takes intoaccount only the security of IT connections and of the protection solutionsthereof, the physical protection competencies of the other infrastructures beingdissipated among different state and private organisations; All stakeholders should promote measures in order to ensure theuninterrupted functioning of the IT nets and of the physical elements of criticalinfrastructures. In many European states, the physical protection represents acomponent of the national civil protection system. Closer cooperation between the public and private sectors should bepromoted to ensure the highest possible protection of the critical infrastructures,taking in consideration a new model of approach, generically called “all hazardsapproach” (taking all risks into account); All parts involved should establish a minimum mandatory system for theprotection of the governing system and certain, vital state organisms. Analysts areCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

112 Liviu Muresan, Septimiu Caceulately paying enhanced attention to organized cybernetic attacks, capable ofdestabilizing the national infrastructure, the economy or even all components ofthe national security. The technical complexity required for such an attack israther high and partly explains why no such attacks have been recorded so far.There were cases where attackers exploited some vulnerability and demonstratedthat they have even bigger destructive capabilities.In peace time, interested persons or organisations can initiate sabotage actions onthe state institutions, scientific research centres, private companies and otherstrategic objectives. In a scenario of confrontations, there is the possibility ofpreparing the ground for attacking within the cyber space, through mapping theinformation systems of the state, identifying the main targets and placing hiddenentry points or other means of access within the national infrastructure.During times of crises or war, adversaries can try to intimidate or block nationalpolitical leaders’ freedom of action, by attacking the critical infrastructures andthe basic functions of the economy or by eroding public trust in the governing orinformational systems. Cyber-attacks on the information networks of any countrycan have serious consequences, such as the interruption of the functioning of keycomponents, causing losses of material and intellectual property or even of humanlives.4. European Critical InfrastructuresThe actions mentioned earlier lead to the fact that a process was started atEuropean Commission level, for the developing of normative proposals in thefield of Critical Infrastructure Protection. These projects were finalised andpresented to the European Parliament, some of them started in 2005 and the restof the documents in December 2006.The documents are currently being debated and the European Parliament willendorse the legislation, norms and recommendations, which shall define thecritical infrastructures of European interest and regulate the measures for theirprotection in the context in which each Member state will be required to defineand develop specific internal measures, taking especially into consideration thestructures defined as vital at European level.Up to the present moment, several counties - Austria, France, Germany, GreatBritain, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and Spain have created specificorganisms, have developed methodologies, and have allocated substantial fundsfor the protection of the infrastructures they defined as critical.The European Council, at its June 2004 meeting, has required the EuropeanCommission and the High Representative to develop a global strategy regardingthe consolidation of critical infrastructures and their protection.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Critical Infrastructures ProtectionA Romanian Perspective (Part 1) 113Especially after the dramatic events of 11 th September 2001 in the Unites Statesand 11th of March 2004 in Madrid, but also on 7th July 2005 in London, the risksassociated to terrorist attacks on European infrastructures rose. The consequencesof such attacks are considered to be variable.It is being estimated that a cyber-attack would make few or no human victims asdirect consequence, but could lead to the interruption of the functioning of the vitalinfrastructures. For example, a cyber-attack against the transmission networkswould lead to the interruption of telephonic conversations, data transmissions,television and radio. Until the damage will be recovered, serious consequences canoccur as a result the chain-like propagation of unpredictable events due to the socialimpact caused especially through the psychological effect on the population and themajor effects on the governing act on local and state level.There is however also another perspective regarding the attacks on the criticalinfrastructures. An attack on the command-and-control systems of chemicalinstallations or of the transport and distribution networks for electrical energy, gasand oil products could cause many victims and significant material damage. Evenmore, due to the interdependence of interconnected systems, the effects couldmultiply and unfold in a chain reaction.An attack on the electricity networks could have very big effects, both in terms ofthe functioning of industrial installations, computer networks, banking sector,communication networks etc. but - where there are no own electric energy sources- also on the vital medical equipment used for the patients undergoing surgery orunder monitored control.Long lasting electricity interruptions in large areas in North America and Europepointed once again that infrastructures in the field of energy are especially criticaland vulnerable.According to definition mentioned by “The Council Directive 2008/114/EC of 8December 2008 on the identification and designation of European criticalinfrastructures and the assessment of the need to improve their protection”,Critical Infrastructures are: “an asset, system or part thereof located in MemberStates which is essential for the maintenance of vital societal functions, health,safety, security, economic or social well-being of people, and the disruption ordestruction of which would have a significant impact in a Member State as aresult of the failure to maintain those functions.”The same document, define "European critical infrastructure" or "ECI" as criticalinfrastructure located in Member States the disruption or destruction of whichwould have a significant impact on at least two Member States. The significanceof the impact shall be assessed in terms of cross-cutting criteria. This includeseffects resulting from cross-sector dependencies on other types of infrastructure.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

114 Liviu Muresan, Septimiu CaceuAccording to the documents of the European Commission, critical infrastructuresinclude: Installations and networks in the energy sector (especially the installationsfor producing electricity, oil and gas, installations for storage and refineries,transport and distribution systems); Communication and information (telecommunications, radio transmissionsystems, programs, the information materials and networks, including the Internetetc.);Finance (the banking sector, the stock market and the investments); Health care sector (hospitals, care equipments for patients and bloodbanks, pharmaceutics laboratories and products, emergency services, searchingand saving services); Food sector (security, production means, distribution and agro-alimentaryindustry);Water supply (reserves, storage, treatment and distribution systems); Transport (airports, ports, rail ways, mass transit networks, traffic controlsystems); Production, storage and transport of dangerous substances (chemical,biological, radiological and nuclear materials); Administration (basic services, installations, information networks, assets,important places, national monuments). Those infrastructures belong to the publicor private sector. This is why, in the conception of the European Commission, thepublic authority has to take the responsibility for consolidating and protectingthese infrastructures.To this, modern communication networks are added, including the Internet, thecomputer networks and the radio navigation through satellite.Due to interconnections and inter-conditioning, an attack on one criticalinfrastructure can have an effect, as “domino effect” on other criticalinfrastructures, amplifying, sometimes dramatically, the consequences.This interdependence brings about a significant rising of the vulnerabilities of theentire system and of all critical infrastructures. Therefore, it is highly possible,that paradoxically, in parallel to the process of European integration, the numberof critical infrastructures rises. This is yet another very important conclusion forthe analysis of critical infrastructures, with all their vulnerabilities and the threatsthey are facing continuous proliferation.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Critical Infrastructures ProtectionA Romanian Perspective (Part 1) 115However, the critical infrastructures know a certain dynamic, some can becomecritical, others, protected adequately, can exit this category.The European Commission suggests three essential criteria for the identificationof potentially critical infrastructures: Extent or surface. The deterioration of the critical infrastructure isevaluated depending on the geographical region which would sufferconsequences; the international, national, regional/ territorial or local dimension; The degree of seriousness. The incidence or degradation can be null,minimal, moderate or high. The main criteria for the evaluation of the degree ofseriousness: economic incidence, incidence on the public, incidence on theenvironment, dependence, political incidence; Effect in time. This criterion shows the moment in which the degrading ofthe infrastructure can have a major incidence or a serious effect – immediately,after 24-48 hours, in a week or within a longer period of time.It is the duty of every state that it identifies through the governmental structuresthe critical infrastructures on its territory. However, the European states are notalone, isolated, but in extremely tightly knit, complex relationships. The absoluteindependence concept has disappeared a long time ago. Europe becomes more andmore interdependent and responsible for everything which is going on, not only ininternational relations, but also on the territory of each state.This is why the process of identifying, analysing, evaluating and securing(protecting) critical infrastructures cannot be fragmented, and, even less, isolated.If a single state does not comply with its obligations to identify, the criticalinfrastructures on its territory, and to take the necessary measures for themitigation of their vulnerabilities, for countering the threats and ensuring thenecessary protection and security standards, the effects will be felt, one way oranother, by all the other states. In other words, the responsibility for identifying,evaluating, protecting and securing critical infrastructures becomes in the contextof increased interdependency and the proliferation of threats, a vital aspect for thegood functioning of human society. This is another important conclusion for themanagement of critical infrastructure security.The international dimension of this responsibility resides in the following reality: Most of critical infrastructures, or those that can become critical,outreaches the geographical area of one state; The increase of the vulnerabilities of critical infrastructures of one statedetermines, one way or another, the raising of vulnerabilities of all infrastructuresin the area and/or network;Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

116 Liviu Muresan, Septimiu Caceu The network configuration and philosophy accentuate theinterdependence, and equally raise the vulnerabilities of all-participatingstructures, but also the capacity and force of resistance to perturbations andthreats.Obviously, it is not possible to protect all critical infrastructures completely andalways. However, the prerequisites need to be created for their efficientmanagement: evaluation of the threats they face, the system and processvulnerabilities to risks and threats, the international cooperation and theestablishment of a system for their efficient identification, monitoring, evaluationand securing.In this context, the management of security is defined by the EuropeanCommission as a ”deliberate process which envisages the evaluation of risk andthe implementation of the actions aimed at bringing the risk at a determined andacceptable level, at an acceptable cost”.This requires: Identifying the risk associated to the system and process vulnerabilities ofthe critical infrastructures, the dangers and threats these face;Analysing and evaluating the risk;Controlling the dynamics of the risk;Maintaining it within set limits.Due to the complexity of the earlier mentioned aspects, the Programme of theEuropean Commission envisages only the transnational critical infrastructures, theprotection of the national ones remaining the responsibility of the Member Statesof the EU within a common framework.In this sense, there are already numerous directives and regulations, which imposemeans and procedures for the informing on accidents, establishing interventionplans in cooperation with the civil protection, the administration, the emergencyservices etc. There are for example action and reaction programmes in civil andmilitary emergencies, such as nuclear, industrial, chemical, environmental, oilrelatedaccidents, natural disasters, etc.The European Commission keeps strict evidence thereof, informs and reportsevery year the situation regarding the evaluation of risks, the development ofprotection techniques - that is the horizontal harmonization, coordination andcooperation. This communication of the European Commission, which involvesall the analyses and sectors measures, constitutes the basis of a EuropeanProgram for Critical Infrastructure Protection (EPCIP) and aims to findsolutions for their security.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Critical Infrastructures ProtectionA Romanian Perspective (Part 1) 117The 'European Programme for Critical Infrastructure Protection' (EPCIP) refers tothe doctrine or specific programs created as a result of the EuropeanCommission’s directive EU COM(2006) 786 which designates European criticalinfrastructure that, in case of fault, incident or attack, could impact both thecountry where it is hosted and at least one other European Member State.The objectives of the program are: Identifying, through the governments of the Member States, all the criticalinfrastructures of each state, and adding them to a central inventory, according tothe priorities established through EPCIP; The collaboration of enterprises and companies in the respective sectorsalong with the governments for the dissemination of and reducing the risk ofincidents susceptible of creating extended or durable disturbances to criticalinfrastructure; The common approach to the issue of critical infrastructure security,thanks to the collaboration of private and public actors.The European Program has targeted, among others, the reunion of every structurespecialized into protecting critical infrastructure of the Member States in anetwork. This could lead to the development of an early warning network ofcritical situations Critical Infrastructure Warning Information Network –CIWIN.The network has been operational since 2005. The main function of this networkis encouraging information exchange regarding threats and commonvulnerabilities, accomplishing an exchange of measures and appropriate strategieswhich enable reduction of risks and protection of critical infrastructures.R E F E R E N C E S[1] COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THEEUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: Prevention, preparedness and response in terrorist attacks, Brussels20.10.2004, COM(2004) 698 final;[2] COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THEEUROPEAN PARLIAMENT on the Prevention of the Fight against Terrorist Financing, Brussels,20.10.200, COM (700) final;[3] COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THEEUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: Preparedness and consequence management in the fight againstterrorism, Brussels, 20.10.2004, COM(2004) 701 final;Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

118 Liviu Muresan, Septimiu Caceu[4] COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL AND THEEUROPEAN PARLIAMENT: Critical Infrastructure Protection in the fight against terrorism,Brussels, 20.10.2004, COM(2004) 702 final;[5] GREEN PAPER ON A EUROPEAN PROGRAMME FOR CRITICALINFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION (presented by the Commission), Brussels, 17.11.2005,COM(2005) 576 final;[6] COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 2008/114/EC of 8 December 2008 on the identification anddesignation of European critical infrastructures and the assessment of the need to improve theirprotection;[7] COUNCIL OF THE EU - PROPOSAL for a COUNCIL DECISION on a CriticalInfrastructure Warning Information Network (CIWIN), 07 January 2009;[8] COUNCIL OF THE EU – PROPOSAL for a DECISION OF THE EUROPEANPARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on Community guidelines for the development of thetrans-European transport network;[9] COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENTon Critical Information Infrastructure Protection, COM(2009) 149 final, Brussels, 30.03.2009;[10] REGULATION (EC) NO 460/2004 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THECOUNCIL of 10 March 2004 establishing the European Network and Information SecurityAgency;[11] CRITICAL ELECTRICITY INFRASTRUCTURE: Current Experience in Europe, Prof. Dr.Eng. Adrian Gheorghe, Dr. Eng. Dan Vamanu, CNIP06 Special Issue of International Journal ofCritical Infrastructure, 2006;[12] RISK AND VULNERABILITY GAMES. THE ANTI-SATELLITE WEAPONRY(ASAT), Prof. Dr. Eng. Adrian Gheorghe, Dr. Eng. Dan Vamanu, Int. J. Critical Infrastructures,Vol. 3, Nos. 3/4, 2007;[13] CRITICAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE PROTECTION – organizational andlegal aspects, Myriam Dunn, Isabelle Wigert, Adrian Gheorghe, CNIP06 Special Issue ofInternational Journal of Critical Infrastructure, 2006;[14] LEARNING FROM THE PAST – Electric Power Blackouts and Near Misses in Europe,Markus Schläpfer, Hans Glavitsch, CNIP06 Special Issue of International Journal of CriticalInfrastructure, 2006;[15] NON-BINDING GUIDELINES for application of the Council Directive 2008/114/EC of 8December 2008 on the identification and designation of European critical infrastructures and theassessment of the need to improve their protection, EU Commission, Joint Research Centre, Ispra,Italy, EUR 236665 EN- 2009;[16] CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURES AT RISK: A EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE, Prof. Dr.Eng. Adrian Gheorghe, Old Dominion University, VA, US and Dr. Eng. Marcelo Masera, ECJoint Research Centre, Ispra, Italy.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Annals of the Academy of Romanian ScientistsSeries on Engineering SciencesISSN 2066-8570 Volume 3, Number 1/2011 119DISTURBANCES IN THE POWER SUPPLY NETWORK OFBUCHAREST SUBWAY SYSTEM (PART 1)Alexandru Ionuț CHIUȚĂ 1 , Liviu Mihai SIMA 2 ,Nicoleta Doriana SECĂREANU 3Rezumat. În prezentul studiu este descrisă problema distorsiunilor apărute în rețeauaprincipală de alimentare a metroului București (sub pământ) cauza și acțiunile, la fel șimăsurile luate pentru limitarea distorsiunilor produse. Toate acestea sunt reflectate înmăsurătorile făcute utilizând osciloscopul Fluke instalat la punctul de dispecer, urmând afi procesate.Abstract. In the present study it is exposed the problem of disturbances in the mainpower supply of Bucharest Subway (underground) system, the cause and their action, aswell as the measures taken to limit the disturbances produced. All this is reflected in themeasurements made using oscilloscope Fluke installed at the dispatch point, following tobe then processed.Keywords: power supply system, electromagnetic compatibility, disturbance, influence, disruptivevoltages1. IntroductionFor the Bucharest Subway, the problems with the disturbances in the main powersupply system exist. These problems were revealed once with the measurementsmade using oscilloscope Fluke installed at the dispatch point.1.1. Subway substations connection to electric power networkSubway substations connection to the electric power network is made by:a) High level short circuit currents due to strong loop network;b) All transformers of 110 kV / MV (medium voltage) of power stations have theneutral connected to earth on 110 kV - so in the City of Bucharest is ahomopolar current circulation with damaging effect on the reinforced concretebuildings;c) On the side of medium voltage in the power network and consumers connectedto the medium voltage (20 kV - for example, Bucharest Subway Line II)capacitive neutral displacement occurs, with the effect on telecommunicationsystems and closed circuit television;1 Ph.D. (ABD), Eng., University ”Politehnica” of Bucharest, (inchiuta@gmail.com).2 Ph.D. (ABD), Eng., Academy of Romanian Scientists, (liviusima@gmail.com).3 Eng., S.C. Metroul S.A., Bucharest, 050027, Romania, (secareanu.nicoleta.doriana@gmail.com).Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

120 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana Secăreanud) As in the power stations 110 kV / MV (for example IMGB), the short-circuitpowers vary from power substation to power substation and within the samepower substation from busbars to busbars, at National Power Dispatch wemade short circuit calculation, in real terms, for the entire electric powernetwork of the electrical company in the spring time. These results are neededto determine the interaction between electrical substations of the Subwaysystem and electric power network. This interaction depends on the powerlevel installed in the electrical company’s power substations and short-circuitspower at the point of connection;e) Through the Subway system tunnel, the harmonic currents close and penetratethrough transformers - power rectifier substations of Subway. They overlapwith the currents through cable casings which connect the Subway system andthe electrical company. In this way, a parasite movement occurs betweenSubway’s power substations and the electrical company’s power substations. Inthe electrical company power substations, power transformers are installed thatsupply the Subway system. They differ in number, power and short circuitvoltage. The power transformers with different characteristics are connected inparallel for a short period, causing a loop current circulation among the powersubstations of the Subway system and the electrical company.1.2. Features of subway traina) Trains of the Subway system, depending on how they were constructed andmaintained, have characteristics that differ from train to train;b) Depending on how the subway train is driven (according to the driver mentalstate) the current shock varies, as well as the shock duration and voltage shocks- on the DC (direct current) side As a result, the energy consumption varies;c) If the DC motors are not properly maintained and do not have anti-parasiticcapacitors, the ignition phenomenon at the collector occurs. This causes stresson the train wagons and electromagnetic disturbances;d) Depending on the sensor cleaning mode and the third metal track, sparks occurduring the start.1.3. Features of runwaya) Due to poor insulation of the runway along the tunnel in some areas, variablepotentials type "hopping" occur;b) Size and change of their variation were highlighted by measuring and recordingthe voltage drop on a portion of 500 m along the tunnel “U” shape – during thetime when this portion was covered by a train in start-up;Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 121c) As a new technical solution by recording with a Fluke oscilloscope installed atDispatcher, the induced disturbances were observed in a telecommunicationscable (e.g. closed loop circuit television). The cable was shorted to the groundby 75 Ω impedance equal to the characteristic impedance in the Subwaysystem power substations. Following the trains position in the tunnel, it wasfound that areas with damaged insulation or careless construction of therunway can be highlighted;d) There are areas where stray currents appear between the runway rails, e.g. levelof 800 - 1200 A. That causes the phenomenon of “pinching”. This is due tocareless construction of the runway.1.4. Features of Transformer - Rectifier Unita) In the point of connection in the MV power network (20 kV) of the BucharestSubway system, whose feeds are made by very long cables, due to cablecapacity, the resonant phenomena occur (oscillations of order of kHz), becauseof switching phenomena;b) Because the electrical company’s power network is over compensated (highlycapacitive), placing capacitor batteries cause resonance (oscillation). Theresonant frequency of oscillation depends on the ratio between the reactivepower of capacitors and stray capacity over power short circuit. Also,according to this ratio the harmonic spectrum depends;c) Because the degree of loading (current shock produced by the Subway systemtrains) varies rapidly and has duration of tens of seconds, the resonantfrequency varies, as well as the degree of compensation, the degree ofdeformation of voltage at the point of connection and the voltage curve. Theelectric current registered on feeders depends on the relative power of therectifier, the angle control, the network impedance, the inductance branch inparallel and the cable resistance;d) For highlighting these phenomena, there were recorded voltage and currentharmonics 3 rd , 5 th , 7 th , 9 th , 11 th , 13 th ... 31 st on the IMGB power substations’busbars;e) These features vary from substation to substation and reveal any constructiondeviations (hidden defects of the equipment) and interaction among the metallicframe - rectifier - power transformers – the electrical company power network.When the measurements finished and conclusions drawn, the designer of theSubway system has decided to replace the universal rectifiers with thyristors;f) These harmonics penetrate the close loop television equipment: monitors,coupling transformers, connecting cables, cameras;Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

122 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana Secăreanug) Because of the rapid changes in the current when the subway train starts, itcauses the magnetic field variation and voltage dips, the electric fieldharmonics at dispatcher were recorded and power electric laboratory, as well.It was found a similarity between the form of variation sizes and recordedones;h) During the start-up process, the voltage, current, active power, distorting powerand apparent power were recorded simultaneously to see the influence ofswitching phenomena;i) All such records have imposed the need for a data bank on industrial equipmentapplications - giving real-time behaviour. It appears the need to improve therunway insulation - which was carried out carelessly - and, as well,determination by an effective method of behaviour of electric powerinstallations in a new section put into service:- features of voltage - current in the subway train;- voltage harmonics;- variable potential along the tunnel;- graph recording of disturbances submitted to telecommunication cables.1.5. Behavior of switching equipmenta) Following the short-circuit test near and far in the IMGB substation, it wasfound that the high- speed circuit breakers behave normally and switching overvoltages do not occur. Not exceed 18 kA < 30 kA – present value of guaranteedshort-circuit;b) After the short-circuit test near and far (stations Piata Sudului, AparatoriiPatriei) it was found that the high-speed breakers behave normally, but shortcircuitcurrents of 29 kA appear, as well as switching over voltage of1260 V > 850 V;c) From the test of disconnecting and connecting the rectifier on DC and AC sidewhen there is no train or train to start - it is found that the switching equipmentbehaves normally;d) Recording DC voltage shows the presence of harmonic of 300 Hz produced bythe hex phase rectifier.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 1231.6. Behaviour of Closed Circuit TV (CCTV) equipmenta) Electromagnetic disturbances of frequencies between 50 Hz-50 MHz penetrateall equipment of the subway system;b) The strongest penetration is observed through the CCTV cable (double shieldedcable) - because along the tunnel there are variable potentials and the cables donot meet the terms of the level of insulation - since it takes over as the variationof variable potentials along the tunnel;c) In the CCTV cable, insulation breakthrough occurs, changes in insulationresistance and electrical resistance, as well;d) Inductive coupling of screen with wire inside creates low impedance for thereturn current through the screen (the disruptive route);e) Connecting the screen to earth (tunnel - with variable potentials) forces thedisruptive current returns from the central wire through the screen.1.7. Preliminary ConclusionsUsing Fluke devices, in the work we have established new measurementmethodologies, we checked them and realized measurement result analysis. Theyled to the following conclusions:- Have established the precise conditions of operation of upgraded tractionrectifier RSTM - 0825M;- Have set the effect of electric traction substations of the electrical company’spower system. To define solutions for admission to the technical norms, therewere determined the short-circuit currents and characteristics of the electricalcompany’s 110 kV / MV power network;- Have defined technical solutions to framing into technical regulations foroperation under deforming system and load shock throughout the SubwayLine II;- Have established the causes and nature of disturbances that occur in the closedcircuit television system at the central dispatch of the Unirii 1 station. Todiminishing that, the runway insulation needs to be improved, subway frameoptimized and properly maintained as well.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

124 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana Secăreanu2. General electromagnetic compatibility2.1. DefinitionsELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY is the condition in which the level ofimmunity to disturbances of any device on the system is higher than the level ofdisturbances to which the device is subjected in the system. Concept ofelectromagnetic compatibility refers to the system in which the device is used (TVmonitor, TV room, TV cable), a device having the ability to be compatible in onesystem but not necessarily in another.COMPATIBILITY LEVEL is the level of disturbance, less than or equal to theimmunity of any undisturbed device in the system but equal to or greater than thedisturbance level generated by the system disrupters.NOMINAL COMPATIBILITY LEVEL is the estimated one under nominalconditions, with acceptable variations, e.g.: frequency, voltage and load.CRITICAL LEVEL OF COMPATIBILITY is the level of the best advantageousconditions. It should be considered in emergency or rare events, in which case theprotection and safety measures should be taken and enforced to prevent: humancasualties, scraping, interruption of work and damage to equipment.ELECTRIC IMMUNITY LEVEL of a device is defined as the maximum amountof disturbance that can be applied to, without losing its performance. The degreesof severity are:- functional immunity level;- failure immunity level;- damage immunity level.COMPATIBILITY MARGIN is defined as:- difference in decibels between the level of immunity to disturbance of thedevice or system and level of disturbance to which it is subjected. Compatibility isthe case of system or subsystem in which the margin in dB is positive;- ratio between the level of immunity to disturbance of the device or systemand level of disturbance to which it is subjected. Compatibility is the case ofsystem or subsystem in which the ratio is bigger than 1.INTERFERENCE lies in the effects due to disturbances, incompatible withachieving the performances required.SUSCEPTIBILITY is the capacity of a device, apparatus or system with thatresponds to the unwanted energy of disturbances.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 1252.2. DisturbancesDisturbances may be manifested in the two forms:- common mode interference or longitudinal interference, which consists inthe appearance of a harmful energy relative to a common reference, usuallyweight, for both routes of signal or feeding;- simple mode interference or normal or serial interference.Harmful effects can be created by running resistance or mechanical movementsthat produces changes in capacity or by vibration of a current path in the magneticfield or by combined phenomena of electrical corrosion.Line scanning of TVs, if not treated against disturbances, emits interference on15,625 Hz and its harmonics.2.3. InfluencesIn case of electrical installations of subway we have the voltage between 1 - 20kV, on neighbouring wire telecommunication lines (CCTV cable), we have thefollowing influences:a) ELECTRIC INFLUENCE - effect of electric component of power line electricfield (LE);b) MAGNETIC INFLUENCE - effect of magnetic component of power lineelectric field;c) RESISTIV COUPLING - effect of current passage through the ground ofelectrical installations.Following the measurements and their processing it is determined the allowablelimits and calculation conditions, as well as it is indicated the specific measures toreduce the effects of influences - for the protection of people, facilities andbroadcasting against hazardous and harmful effects of these influences.The works of protection against dangerous influences will be executed beforeputting into operation of the installations that make them necessary.3. Closed circuit television (CCTV)3.1. IntroductionEquipment of closed circuit television (CCTV) of Line II, sections 1 and 2. This isbased on a draft prepared by the projection department of subway. It is usedCCTV equipment on higher standards.Based on the project, the CCTV installation consists in fig. 1. We have:Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

126 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana Secăreanu- signal generator (any of the cameras placed in stations IMGB Depot – PiataUnirii 2);- transmission line (coaxial cable between stations and 7 cable corrections,placed by one in stations IMGB – Piata Unirii 2);- output to the transmission line (at each station one Automatic VideoDistributor, switching of coaxial line was done by remote control relays).MTV4TDN hallPlatform 1CV1Platform1CV2Platform 2CV3Platform 2CV4Vestibule1CV5Vestibule2CV6EscalatorCV7MTV3 MTV2 MTV1HanddispenserA>VendingmachinesCentraldispatch3.2. PerformanceLevel of performance is as follows:Fig. 1. Closed Circuit Television (CCTV).- CCTV installations in stations have a level of quality to the limit ofacceptability for the image reproduced on local monitors;- signal transmitted on the coaxial line from inter stations is highly disturbed anddistorted on reception;- image obtained after the first cable correction is strongly influenced bydisturbance and has frequent non synchronization;- image obtained after the second cable correction is totally out ofsynchronization and contains hardly detectable content.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 1273.3. Primary findingsCCTV installation on analysis indicates that the high density of electricalequipment, power supply configuration and underground tunnel signalizationof the subway system produce significant interference and electromagneticinteractions. These cause adverse effect in functioning of the CCTVinstallation.3.4. Disturbances3.4.1. Sources of disturbancesAfter measurements, data were obtained on disturbances in the areas of disposingthe CCTV equipment. Electrical influences can be classified as follows:a) electromagnetic influences;b) electrochemical influences.Electromagnetic influences can be:a1) low frequency electromagnetic influences (f 10 kHz).Low frequency electromagnetic influences may have several causes, such as:a1.1) current variation caused by the start of subway train (change in magneticfield);a1.2) voltage variation caused by the start of subway train (change in electricfield);a1.3) ohmic connections of the current paths due to treatment of neutralSubway system Line I and in the electrical company’s power supply thatfeeds the Subway power substations. Capacitive unbalance and neutraldisplacement influence the CCTV lines.It was found that the frequency spectrum of disturbances is correlated with thesystem power supply frequency and operating frequency, as well. Disturbanceintensity in the CCTV installations depends on the position of the subway in theunderground tunnel and the motors operating mode on the train wagons (electricarc on collector, current shocks and voltage variations).3.4.2. Ways of disturbance penetrationRegarding the penetration of disturbances in the CCTV facility, it was found bymeasurements; the disturbances penetrate through both coaxial signal line and theequipment (by electromagnetic influences). On the disturbance that penetrates thecoaxial line, the measurements highlight a significant increase (over 10 times) thelevel of disturbance on the Subway Line II in relation to Subway Line I. TheCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

128 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana Secăreanuperturbation (distortion) introduced in the signal line, measured between IMGBDepot and Unirii 2 stations, and is correlated with the "hopping" potential levels.They are variable along the tunnel and approximately equal to the average of thelatter. From measurements it was found that the disturbances level that penetratesthe coaxial line is favoured by low insulation resistance of the coaxial cablebetween stations. This parameter shows large fluctuations over time. For example,the insulation resistance between the signal cable exterior armature to the groundbelt between Piata Sudului and Constantin Brancoveanu stations varies between400kΩ/1kV and 100MΩ/1kV. The minimum acceptable insulation resistance isconsidered to be at least 10MΩ/1kV (15MΩ/1kV).Under these conditions the following situations are possible:- CCTV signal cable has the screen interrupted or portions without screen (cablequality);- CCTV cable grounding is not done properly.Measurements made show that the "hopping" potentials on the tunnel andelectromagnetic influences make impossible the idea of changing the arrangementof the tunnel coaxial lines to ensure a minimum acceptable of the insulationresistance.Penetration of the disturbance in the CCTV installation takes place from electricpower feeding and earth contact, as well. Assessment of the perturbation level inthe feeding power network was done by measuring on all 20 kV busbars andgeneral distribution panels (GDPs) in all stations of the entire Subway Line II.Also, measurements were made at TGDs in the Unirii 1 station: dispatch area, onthe camera and monitors.Grounding belt of CCTV installations in stations is heavily perturbed.Comparison of the segments of earth belt between stations shows, in terms ofgrounding of the disturbances, a critical sizing (for CCTV installations) and / oran untidy construction and / or inappropriate execution of grounding of theelectrical equipment in Subway Line II and the CCTV system respectively.Interaction between the CCTV cable and grounding belt is so strong that, evenwith decoupling, disturbances are still very high.3.4.3. Susceptibility to disturbances of CCTV chainRegarding the susceptibility to disturbances of the CCTV chain and possibility ofincreasing immunity to disturbances, it was found that CCTV equipment is notqualified for operation under conditions of disturbances.From this point of view, the standards of industry products mention, in the chapterof "environmental conditions", that the equipment is designed for operation inenvironments free from strong electromagnetic fields and disturbances.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 129It is not defined a level of immunity to disturbances introduced by electric supply,ground contact and parasitic coupling.Products are aligned with the standards of radio interference in that suchdisturbances produced by equipment (and placed in the power supply or radiatedfrom the field) do not exceed the level required by STAS, so do not disturb radioreception.For example, isolation transformers which supply the CCTV installation onsections 1 and 2 of Subway Line II are inappropriate in terms of perturbation.That requires their replacement or duplication of isolation transformers.It was found that the disturbance acquired by a corrector, is (5… 20)% higher thanthe disturbance taken by the integrated corrector in similar conditions.3.4.4. Blocking TechniquesRegarding the possibility of applying techniques of "blocking of perturbedelement to the operation of disruptors", we see that the operation of installation(continuous viewing of the image on the monitor) does not allow blocking imagesignal during the occurrence of disturbances caused by the start of the subwaywagons.Solutions of type of “resynchronization of perturbation" proves laborious, as wellas they require testing and modifications. They would not fall in the attempt tooperationally resolve the electromagnetic compatibility in the CCTV installationof Subway Line II.Table 1. Measurements made by the team of specialists on Subway Line INr.1.1.11.1.2Signal(station/interstation)DepotIndustriilor[B6A]CorridorentrancekmvaultElectrochemicalpotential[mV]Lateralresistance(CR-PT)[Ω km]- - +59 3,16- - +96 3,16Runway Humidity Noteconcretetraverseconcretetraversesemi-dry -waterinfiltration-1.1.3Tunnelentrance- 1 +106 3,16concretetraversewaterinfiltration-1.1.4 [B3A] - 105 +173 3,411.1.5 [B5A] - 305 +85 2,351.1.6 - - 415 +123 3,16concretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraversewaterinfiltration-semi-dry -semi-dry -Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

130 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana Secăreanu1.1.7 [X] - 503 +142 2,701.1.8 [XP1] - 615 +81 2,351.1.9 [XP2] - 750 +159 1,781.1.10 Industriilor - - +85 2,01.1.11 [B1] - 190 +126 2,351.1.12 [B3] 6,564 455 +212 6,241.1.13 [B5] - 675 +206 5,271.1.14 Pacii-[X] - 880 +228 1,641.1.15 Pacii-[X] - - +146 0,291.1.16 [B1] - 267 +308 2,351.1.17 [B3] - 645 +265 7,171.1.18 [B5] - 1015 +251 6,821.1.19 [B7] - 1395 +247 5,271.1.20 [B9] - 1772 +305 2,351.1.211.1.22ArmataPoporului-[X]ArmataPoporului-[X1]- 1970 +143 2,13- - +45 2,351.1.23 [B1] - 1380 +300 2,01.1.24 [B3] - 1010 +267 2,01.1.25 [B5] - 635 +282 1,641.1.26 [B7] - 270 +149 1,521.1.271.1.28Politehnica-[X]Politehnica-[X1]- 52 +150 0,88- 800 -39 0,361.1.29 [B1] - 590 +42 2.131.1.30 [B3] - 280 +83 3,161.1.31 - - 145 +130 3,61concretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraversewoodtraversedry -dry -waterinfiltration-dry -waterinfiltration-dry -dry -dry -dry -semi-dry -semi-dry -wet -wet -waterinfiltrationwaterinfiltration--dry -wet -wet -wet -wet -wet -wet -wet -wet -wet -Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 1311.1.32Ventilationunit switch- - -289 2,131.1.33 [B5] - - -66 2,01.1.34 [B7] - - +3 2,01.1.35Eroilor-[XM]- - -72 1,521.1.36 Eroilor-[X1] - - -40 2,131.1.37 [B1] 2,949 - -60 2,01.1.38 [B3] 3,170 - -60 3,411.1.39 [B5] - - -60 4,671.1.40 Izvor-[X] 3,705 - -150 6,241.1.41 Izvor-[X1] 3,900 - -90 6,271.1.42 [B1] 4,300 - -120 6,241.1.43 [B3] 4,482 - -138 7,171.1.44 [B5] 4,803 - +20 3,411.1.451.1.46Piaţa Unirii-[X]Piaţa Unirii-[X1]4,97 - -30 4,675,272 - -40 1,641.1.47 [B1] 5,451 - - 3,881.1.48 - 5,638 - -48 4,671.1.49[B3]-ventilationunit5,762 - -70 6,501.1.50 [B5] - - -15 6,241.1.51 [B7] 6,379 - - 5,931.1.521.1.53TimpuriNoi-[X]TimpuriNoi-[X1]6,540 - -20 -6,866 - -75 3,411.1.54 [B5] 7,540 - +30 -1.1.55 [B7] - - +10 6,24woodtraverseconcretetraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraversewoodtraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraversewaterinfiltration-dry -drydrydrydrydrydrydrydrydrydrydrydrywaterinfiltrationdrydrydrydrydrydrydrydrysemi-drycorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridorcorridor1.1.56MihaiBravu-[X]8,010 - +85 2,35concretetraversedrycorridorCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

132 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana Secăreanu1.1.57MihaiBravu-[X1]-gate AC- - -180 0,261.1.58 [B1] - - +20 -1.1.59 [B3] - 218 +4 -1.1.60 [B5] - 540 +20 -1.1.61 [B7] - 838 -10 -1.1.62 Dristor-[X] - 20 -166 0,351.1.63 Dristor-[X1] - 180 +9 -1.1.64 [B1] - 193 -50 -1.1.65 [B3] - 494 +50 -1.1.66 [B5] - 692 +10 -1.1.67 [B7] -1.1.681.1.69NicolaeGrigorescu-[X]NicolaeGrigorescu-[X1]--105613901535+27 --43 --50 4,151.1.70 [B5] - 600 -180 5,581.1.71Titan[X]/AC- - +190/-90 2,511.1.72 Titan-[X1] - - -90 3,161.1.73 [B1] - 194 -110 2,351.1.74 [B3] - 485 -190 2,351.1.75 [B5] - 763 +74 3,411.1.761.1.77CostinGeorgian-[X]CostinGeorgian-[X1]1.1.78 [B1] -- 961 -94 1,52- - +10 1,411010+100 3,161.1.79 [B3] - 750 +115 3,61woodtraversewoodtraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraversedrycorridordry -dry -dry -dry -- oil spotsdry -dry -dry -wateryspotsmessycorrosionon trackshoe- -wet -dry -dry -dry -wet -wet -dry -wet -dry -dry -dry -dry -Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 1331.1.80 [B5] - 490 -190 2,351.1.81 [B7] - 270 -80 1,301.1.821.1.83Republica-[X]Republica-[X1]- 70 +110 9,35- - -90 2,70concretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraverseconcretetraversedry -waterinfiltration-semi-dry -dry -4. Disruptive Voltages on Power Supply4.1. Admissible limitsDisruptive voltages on the AC supply terminals of the wire telecommunicationsshall not exceed the limits:Table 2. Disruptive voltages on the DC terminals and the transmission lines terminalsFrequency [MHz]Permissible limits [dB]0,15...0,50 660,50...5,00 605,00...30,00 66Disruptive voltages on the DC terminals and the transmission lines terminalsshould not exceed the limits above, plus 30 dB.Disturbing field must not exceed 46 dB (0 dB = 1 µV / m) in the frequency rangeof 30 ... 300 MHz at measuring distance of 3 m.4.2. DisturbancesAn electric converter (rectifier - inverter) disturbs other systems via the commoncable for connection to the grounding bar.Let’s be a CCTV system coupled on the same grounding route, with a length of 10m, to an electric converter that switches currents of 20A in about 4 µs.It follows a galvanic coupling disturbing voltage on the grounding wire:(grounding connection inductance is about 1μH per cm length).IU L andT U 100VIf it switches 50A in 0.5 µs, with fast commuting elements. Disturbances causedby the electric converter in the electric network overlap disturbances by groundingconnection.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

134 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana SecăreanuOn switching currents of hundreds or thousands of amperes, the presence ofparasitic and distributed inductances and capacitances create resonance andreflections phenomena. In this situation, surges of order of kilovolt can develop.Capacitive coupling is its own disturbances by voltages, disruptive sources havinglow impedance.Inductive coupling is its own disturbances by currents, acts as a power sourceconnected in series with the input of disrupted circuit.Disturbances may occur in an infinite number of forms, as frequency spectrum.Harmonic voltages depend on the load impedance, disturbance source impedanceand impedance of power supply.Devices with non-linear behaviour generate disruptive voltages of differentfrequencies (harmonics are generated of applied voltage and produce highfrequencies that may disturb).If simultaneously at least two voltages of different frequencies apply to a nonlineardevice, inter-modulation distortion components appear, including nonharmoniccomponents, because the combination of harmonic components.So, you may experience disruptive voltages from the sums and differences ofinput voltage harmonic frequencies.4.3. Parameters of disruptive voltagesKey parameters of a disruptive voltage are:- peak-voltage; d - front-velocity, proportional to "richness" of harmonic spectrum ; dt - disturbance „energy” dt (on the reference impedance);- time interval of peak level or length of time that the level of disturbanceexceeds the reference limits.Proper functioning of electrical equipment, in terms of disturbances in thenetwork, implies not to be affected by:- voltage interruption not exceeding 10 ms, except electric power circuits;- voltage drop not exceeding 0.5 s and 15% of nominal supply voltage;- voltage peaks not exceeding 1.5 ms, with values below 200% of nominal lineto line root square voltage.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 135Industrial electrical disturbances have a very broad spectrum. The spectralrichness exceeds 50 MHz with a given energy concentration around100 kHz ... 150 kHz, and in the low frequencies, as well.At low frequencies, up to 5 ... 10 kHz, the disruptive levels are determined by theharmonic frequency of 50 Hz and combinations thereof.In the industry there are large peak voltages of several kilovolts.For disturbances including over 30 ... 35 kHz frequencies, the parasites can beconsidered like impulses.Disruptive voltage distribution function on a network can be assessed by therelationship: F UU1 ewhere U U MU0U M = disturbance amplitude in impulsesU 0 = threshold device for measuring disturbancesLong-term disturbances are characterized by area (V s ) described by:s U parazitparazitwhere:parazit = disturbance time lenghCapacitive coupling is one of the main routes of penetration of disturbances in theSubway CCTV system.4.4. Minimizing of parasitic voltagesParasitic voltage in CCTV system (disturbed) can be minimized if it is reduced:- pulsation, by reducing the perturbing spectrum, equivalent to mitigate waveabrupt fronts;- input resistance of the receiver by:- reduction of the value of input impedance to the limit accepted by theoperational diagram and consumers;- reduction selectively of the input impedance with the frequency byfiltration.- disruptive voltage generator by:1. separation and sorting routes;2. reduction of the level of disturbing element.- value of parasite coupling capacity.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

136 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana SecăreanuCapacitive coupling is shown by the disrupted voltage (CCTV system).Upr jCkRipUwhere: Ck= coupling capacityRip= input impedance of disturbed elementIn fig. 2, the disruptive coupling is presented function of the coupling impedanceZC and disturbed route impedance ZNZCZN= coupling impedance= characteristic impedance of the route subject to disturbance4.5. Comments1. - coupling impedance ZC is higher;- CCTV cable characteristic impedance N2. - 1 m of coaxial cable provides [75 pF/m];- 1 cm of grounding route determines [1nH];Z is: 75 4Z .NZ C- mutual inductance between two wires of 100 mm long, spaced at 2 mm,is about 20 nH.Fig. 2. Disruptive coupling functionof the coupling impedance and disturbed route impedance.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 1374.6. Disruptive voltages on CCTV transmission cableDisruptive measurement results:U4.6.1. CCTV cable (perturbed route): Dispatcher Unirii station -IMGB DepotPR= disruptive voltage on CCTV cable (receptor)UP= disruptive voltageUPRZNZ ZNCUU 60 mV (statistic)UPRp 75 1 60 ZN U 120 mV (rare)UPRp 75 1 120 ZN U 30 mVPRU 40 mVPRU 70 mVPRU 200 mV (on decoupling)PRZ C =75UP UPRZNFig. 3. CCTV cable (disturbed route): Dispatch Unirii station – IMGB Depot.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

138 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana Secăreanu4.6.2. CCTV cable (perturbed route): Dispatcher Unirii station –IMGB 1U 40 mV : (Train on starting in Tineretului – Eroii Revolutiei)PRU 50 mV : (Tain on starting in Eroii Revolutiei – Brancoveanu)PRU 60 mV : (Train on starting in Brancoveanu – Eroii Revolutiei)PRU 40 mV : (Train on starting in Brancoveanu – Piata Sudului)PRU 55 mV : (Train on starting in Piata Sudului – Aparatorii Patriei)PRU 30 mV : (Train on starting in Aparatorii Patriei – IMGB 1)PRU 30 mV : (Train on starting in IMGB 1 – Aparatorii Patriei)PRU 50 mV : (Train on starting in Aparatorii Patriei – Piata Sudului)PR4.6.3. CCTV cable (perturbed route): Dispatcher Unirii station –Piaţa SuduluiU 20 mV : (Basic level with no train on starting)PRU 30 mV : (Train on starting in IMGB – Aparatorii Patriei)PRU 20 mV : (Train on starting in Aparatorii Patriei – Piata Sudului)PRU 30...40 mV : (Train on starting in Piata Sudului – Aparatorii Patriei)PRU 25 mV : (Train on starting in Tineretului)PRU 25 mV : (Train on starting in Piata Sudului)PRU 30 mV : (Train on starting in IMGB – Piata Sudului)PRU 35...40 mV : (Train on starting in Tineretului – Unirii)PR4.6.4. CCTV cable (perturbed route): Dispatcher Unirii station –BrancoveanuU 20 mV : (Train on starting in Eroii Revolutiei – Unirii)PRU 20 mV : (Train on starting in Brancoveanu – Unirii)PRU 20 mV : (Train on starting in Unirii – IMGB)PRU 30 mV : (Train on starting in Unirii – Depot)PRU 30 mV : (Train on starting in Tineretului – Unirii)PRCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 1395. Capacitive unbalance, neutral displacement, influence of CCTV –Subway system5.1. Influence of systemElectric (power) cable lines (ECL), regardless of the treatment of neutral,influence CCTV cables because of the electromagnetic field.Influences depend on the nominal voltage of electric cable lines (20 kV),distances of ECL and CCTV cables.Electromagnetic influences depend on the current value of grounding, treatment ofneutral and homopolar current component (e.g. Harmonics of order 3k = 3, 6, 9,12, ...).Unbalance exists even at normal operating regime on the non-transposed lines.Unbalance current is much smaller than the single-phase short circuit if ECL hasthe neutral grounded.Influences on telecommunications lines have two aspects: the risk of accident anddisturbances.In term of risk of accident – the measures that are expected to avoid the inductionof hazardous voltages in case of short-circuits, are usually sufficient for lowercurrents.In terms of disturbance - the effects of short - circuit currents, that takes very littletime, are not normally taken into account, but only in special cases.For disturbances, the asymmetry currents are important under normal operatingregime or grounding currents regime, when the ECL operates longer undergrounding currents regime.5.2. Neutral displacementAny movement of the neutral results in the appearance of a homopolar voltage.This voltage V is due to existence of a transversal admittance:Y , Y , Y different on the three phases:ABCVVVABC V U V U V UThese admittances are determined by the capacities of phases from the ground.For a fully transposed line, for which capacities from the ground are equal, then:ABCCopyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

140 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana SecăreanuUNUAYAUBYBUCY VY Y Yand if the neutral circuit has Y admittance:UAYAUBYBU VY Y Yand so, there is no neutral displacement, then V = 0.5.3. Capacitive unbalanceAABBCCUTo determine the currents passing through capacities from the ground andreturning through the ground (if the homopolar circuit admittance is infinite), theequivalent circuit can be determined either in the form of a voltage equivalentequal to the neutral displacement voltage in series with the capacitive admittanceseither as an injected current.Equation (5.2) can be written in the form:IN UNC YYA Y B Y C U Y KKYCCKkA,B,CFrom this relationship, the capacitive unbalance current I in the normal regime isdetermined, calculating U, I. This has the same value like the current determinedby neutral displacement voltage, applied to the admittance equal to the sum of thecapacitive admittances.In a three-phase power line, the capacities between conductors and betweenconductors and earth cause a capacitive consumption.~IRR RCFig. 4. Equivalent circuits for determining the capacitive currents returning through the earth.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 141Average values of capacitances C and C 0 are:C = 2,3·10 -9 F/kmC 0 = 4·10 -9 F/kmThese capacities are combined in a balanced regime into a service capacity ofvalue:C S = C + 3C 0C S = 10,9·10 -9 F/kmSymmetrical capacitive current (average value) in the normal regime, with line toline voltage U is:U[kV]I CS 3910 [A/(kV 100 km)]UI 3[kV] 314 10.9 109[A/(kV 100 km)]=0.2 [A/(kV 100 km)]For Subway Line II, U = 20 kV:U kVI CS 4A /100 km=3= 20·0,2 [A/100km] = 4 [A/100km] = 4000 [mA/100km] = 40 [mA/km]In case of grounding of a phase, a returning path is created for the capacitivecurrents passing through C.The neutral displacement in this case has the value of the phase voltage V = U andget the grounding current:06 I 3U j C 3UkV 314 410 0,22 A/(kV 100 km)PI 21 mA/kmPFor a soil resistivity of 10 4 Ωcm, the value of mutual inductance between the linesof force (homopolar circuit) and telecommunications line (CCTV), consideringthe return through the earth, is about 0.25 Ω/km.On a parallelism of 10 km and a phase short - circuit current of 1 kA, the voltageinduced in the telecommunication line is 1010000.25 = 2500 V/kA.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

142 Alexandru Ionuț Chiuță, Liviu Mihai Sima, Nicoleta Doriana SecăreanuRRRCCCC0 C0 C0Fig. 5. Capacities of a three phase power line.Note: This study it was realised when the stations had another name. In thepresent, some stations have another name only. For concordance, it was kept thename of the station from the date when the study it was realised.R E F E R E N C E S[1] Chiuţă, A., Marthe, E., Aspecte de compatibilitate electromagnetică (EMC) - Proiect dediplomă postuniversitară în domeniul ingineriei electrice, 2002;[2] Chiuţă, A.I., Marthe, E., Communication par reseau electrique. Aspects de compatibilitéélectromagnétique, SICEM 2002, Bucureşti, România, 27 septembrie 2002;[3] Chiuţă, A. I., Popescu, M.O., Low Voltage Power Line Communication. FuturePerspectives, ATEE 2002, Bucureşti, România, 29 noiembrie 2002;[4] Chiuţă, A.I., Popescu, M.O., Consideraţii privind analiza şi modelarea reţelei electrice dejoasă tensiune la frecvenţele din gama 1-30 MHz, SICEM 2003, Bucureşti, România, 26septembrie 2003;[5] Chiuţă, A.I, Popescu, M.O., Consideraţii privind modelarea caracteristicilor de transferale reţelei electrice de joasă tensiune, SICEM 2004, Băile Herculane, România, 15octombrie 2004;[6] Chiuţă, A. I., Popescu, M.O., Modele de circuit pentru reţeaua de joasă tensiune utilizatepentru transmisia de semnale, SNET 2004, Bucureşti, România, 22 octombrie 2004;[7] Chiuţă, A. I., Popescu, M.O., Consideraţii privind simularea caracteristicilor de transferale reţelei de distribuţie a energiei electrice, SNET 2005, Bucureşti, România, 13 mai2005;Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected

Disturbances in The Power Supply Network of Bucharest Subway System 143[8] Chiuţă, A. I., Popescu, M.O., Caracteristicile frecvenţiale ale reţelelor electrice utilizate casuport de transmisie de semnal / Studiul caracteristicii de frecvenţă pentru reţele electricede joasă tensiune folosite pentru transmiterea de date, SICEM 2006, Bucureşti, România, 9noiembrie 2006, pp.160-190, ISBN 978-973-718-634-8;[9] Chiuţă, A. I., Popescu, M.O., Evaluarea atenuării de semnal în cladirea AOSR în scopulutilizării unui sistem PLC, Simpozionul Internaţional de Compatibilitate Electromagnetică,Bucuresti 16-17 noiembrie 2007;[10] Chiuţă, A.I., Popescu, M.O., Verificarea imunităţii unui sistem PLC "in situ", SICEM 2007(Al VI-lea Simpozion Interdisciplinar de Compatibilitate ElectroMagnetică), 16-17noiembrie 2007, Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureşti;[11] Chiuţă, A. I., Gross, I., Secăreanu, N.D., Roncea, M.A., Comunicaţii prin reţeaua electrică,Editura Electra, Bucureşti, 2008, ISBN 978-606-507-013-4;[12] Chiuţă Alexandru, Secăreanu Nicoleta Doriana, Theoretical postulation of PLC channelmodel, Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, vol. 2, nr. 1, 2009, University ofOradea Publisher, ISSN 1844-6035, pp. 129-134;[13] A. I. Chiuţă, M.O. Popescu, Transmission des données en utilisant le réseau électrique –analyse d'un modèle à quadripols, SIELMEN 2009, Iaşi, 8-9 octombrie 2009;[14] A. I. Chiuţă, N. D. Secăreanu, M.A. Roncea, Perturbaţii în reţeaua de alimentare asistemului de metrou, Masa rotundă "Infrastructura critică", CIEM 2009, Bucuresti, 13noiembrie 2009;[15] A. I. Chiuţă, M. O. Popescu, Strategii de recepţionare pentru comunicaţii prin reţeauaelectrică de joasă tensiune, SICEM 2009, Editura Printech București, ISSN 2067-3728;[16] A. I. Chiuţă, M. O. Popescu, Transmission des données en utilisant le réseau électrique debasse tension, Buletinul Ştiinţific al UPB, 2010;[17] Iacobescu, Gh., Iordănescu, I., Tudose, M., Reţele şi sisteme electrice, Editura Didactică şiPedagogică, Bucureşti, 1979;[18] Bercovici, M., Arie, A. Arie, Poeată, Al., Reţele electrice. Calcul Electric, Editura Tehnică,Bucureşti, 1974;[19] Carcelle, X., Les reseaux CPL, Eyrolles, ISBN: 2-212-11930-5;[20] Arzberger, M., Dostert, K., Zimmermann, M., Fundamental Properties of the Low VoltagePower Distribution Grid, International Symposium on Power-Line Communications and itsApplications, Essen, Germania, 1997.Copyright © Editura Academiei Oamenilor de Știință din România, 2011Watermark Protected