How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education

xviii LIST OF FEATURES www.mhhe.com/fraenkel7eFigure 11.19 An Illustration of Power Under anAssumed Population Value 235Figure 11.20 A Power Curve 236Figure 12.1 Combinations of Data and Approachesto Research 243Figure 12.2 A Difference That Doesn’t Make aDifference! 246Figure 12.3 Frequency Polygons of Gain Scores onTest of Ability to Explain: Inquiry and LectureGroups 247Figure 12.4 90 Percent Confidence Interval for aDifference of 1.2 Between Sample Means 247Figure 12.5 Scatterplots with a Pearson rof .50 249Figure 12.6 Scatterplot Illustrating the RelationshipBetween Initial Self-Esteem and Gain in MaritalSatisfaction Among Counseling Clients 251Figure 12.7 95 Percent Confidence Interval forr .42 251Figure 13.1 Example of a One-Shot Case StudyDesign 265Figure 13.2 Example of a One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design 265Figure 13.3 Example of a Static-Group ComparisonDesign 266Figure 13.4 Example of a Randomized Posttest-Only Control Group Design 267Figure 13.5 Example of a Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design 268Figure 13.6 Example of a Randomized SolomonFour-Group Design 269Figure 13.7 A Randomized Posttest-Only ControlGroup Design, Using Matched Subjects 270Figure 13.8 Results (Means) from a Study Using aCounterbalanced Design 272Figure 13.9 Possible Outcome Patterns in a Time-Series Design 273Figure 13.10 Using a Factorial Design to StudyEffects of Method and Class Size onAchievement 274Figure 13.11 Illustration of Interaction and NoInteraction in a 2 by 2 Factorial Design 274Figure 13.12 An Interaction Effect 275Figure 13.13 Example of a 4 by 2 FactorialDesign 275Figure 13.14 Guidelines for Handling InternalValidity in Comparison Group Studies 278Figure 14.1 Single-Subject Graph 300Figure 14.2 A-B Design 301Figure 14.3 A-B-A Design 302Figure 14.4 A-B-A-B Design 303Figure 14.5 B-A-B Design 304Figure 14.6 A-B-C-B Design 304Figure 14.7 Multiple-Baseline Design 305Figure 14.8 Multiple-Baseline Design 306Figure 14.9 Multiple-Baseline Design Appliedto Different Settings 307Figure 14.10 Variations in Baseline Stability 308Figure 14.11 Differences in Degree and Speedof Change 309Figure 14.12 Differences in Return to BaselineConditions 310Figure 15.1 Scatterplot Illustrating a Correlation of1.00 329Figure 15.2 Prediction Using a Scatterplot 330Figure 15.3 Multiple Correlation 332Figure 15.4 Discriminant Function Analysis 333Figure 15.5 Path Analysis Diagram 335Figure 15.6 Scatterplots for Combinations ofVariables 339Figure 15.7 Eliminating the Effects of Age ThroughPartial Correlation 340Figure 15.8 Scatterplots Illustrating How aFactor (C) May Not Be a Threat to InternalValidity 343Figure 15.9 Circle Diagrams IllustratingRelationships Among Variables 343Figure 16.1 Examples of the Basic Causal-Comparative Design 367Figure 16.2 A Subject Characteristics Threat 368Figure 16.3 Does a Threat to Internal ValidityExist? 371Figure 17.1 Example of an Ideal Versus an ActualTelephone Sample for a Specific Question 394Figure 17.2 Example of Several ContingencyQuestions in an Interview Schedule 399Figure 17.3 Sample Cover Letter for a MailSurvey 400