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Table of Contents1.Web-Enhanced Learning In Medical Clerkship…………Carl Froilan D. Leochico, PTRP, and John Anthony A. Domantay,MD, FPSP, PhD …2912. Pathology Of Gout In Growing Layers Attributed To High Calcium AndProtein Diet……Ibrahim M. Eldaghaye, Mohamed A. Hamid, Sayed R. El-Attarand Abdoalwahab M. Kammon ...2973 Contribution Of Smoke-Belching Vehicles To The Green House GasesConcentration In The City Of Dipolog………….Bernard G. Gilaga and Rowell B. Pallega4. Estimation Of Greenhouse Gas (Ghg) Emission Level From Waste AndGarbage Disposed In The Coastal Barangays Of Dapitan City: ImplicationsTo Their Waste Management Practices………….S. Campiseño and R. Laranjo...303…3095. Induced Forces In Polymer Blends Versus Temperature………….S. El Fassi, M. Benhamou, H. Ridouane, M. El Yaznasni …3156. Lifestyles Of City Barangay Residents Associated To Climate Change………….Daylinda Luz R. Laput and Jay D. Telen…3347. Estimating The Health And Economic Vulnerabilities Of The IndigenousPeople (Ip) In Zamboanga Del Norte To The Effects Of Climate Change………..W. Nabua, N. Bureros and J. Aquino …3458. Harmful Algal Bloom Occurrence In Murcielagos Bay Amidst ClimateChange………….J. Aquino, B. Flores and M. Naguit…3589. Hydrobiological Assessment Of Liboran River, Dapitan City…………….S. Campiseño, E. Campiseño, M.R. Naguit & B. Flores …36610. Direct And Indirect Economic Impact Of Climate Change On TheProvincial Tourism, Agriculture And Commercial Sectors Of ZamboangaDel Norte…………………… W. D. Carreon and J.S. R. Campiseño …377

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010AbstractWEB-ENHANCED LEARNING INMEDICAL CLERKSHIPCarl Froilan D. Leochico, PTRP, and John Anthony A. Domantay, MD, FPSP, PhDIntroduction: With the advent of modern technology, different schools, including medicalschools in the Philippines, are shifting towards the use of technological advancements as partof their academic curricula. Before significant steps can be initiated towards the design andimplementation of an e-learning medical website, it is imperative to assess the readiness andacceptance of various stakeholders regarding the innovative concept. Methods: A crosssectionalstudy design was used. Questionnaires were administered to fourth year medicalstudents of SLU-COM, various medical educators in affiliated training hospitals, and theCollege Dean. Data analyses (t-test, f-test, chi-square test) were done using MS Office Excel2003, with level of significance set at 0.05. Results: Instrument was reliable with a Cronbach’scoefficient alpha of 0.85. Only 53 clinical clerks were obtained as respondents. Majority ofthem were females (70%) and had an average household monthly income (53%), but all had anaccess to computer (100%). An average of 47 clerks (89%) answered “yes” (implying access)to all items in the Resources part. There was no significant difference in the access toresources among the fifteen different items (x 2 = 5.418). Out of 4, respondents had thefollowing means: skill of 3.47, accepted teaching-learning techniques of 3.12, and preferredmedical website contents of 3.30. Generally, significant differences were found between malesand females in all aspects, except for resources. Conclusion: The clinical clerks were veryready for e-learning based on high level of resources and skills, and showed moderate level ofacceptance for e-learning as a teaching-learning approachKeywords: e-learning, web-enhance learningIntroductionIn preparation of its students for entry into actual practice of the field, the medicalschool provides a suitable environment, where one can develop a strong, working foundationof current medical knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The training a medical student undergoes islong and tedious before he can be awarded the prestigious title of “Doctor of Medicine(M.D.).” After earning a bachelor’s degree in arts or sciences that takes about four to fiveyears, depending on the pre-medical course, the physician-to-be takes his first step in themedical school, which entails another three years of intensive classroom-based lectures, andone year of rigorous hospital- and community-based training (clerkship). Followinggraduation, he continues his medical education as a post-graduate intern as a prerequisite intaking the Physician Licensure Examinations, the benchmark of the beginning of his medicalcareer. He wants to be trained with the most effective and latest instructional strategies so thathe can pave his way towards his goal of becoming a competent and holistic doctor, competitivelocally and globally. It is in this light that medicine students should be given the utmostassistance to guide them in their journey.Medical schools across the world have taken advantage of educational technology, suchas custom-designed course websites. In 2000, a group of European medical universities291

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010collaborated in designing a pilot project, entitled “Tuning educational structures in Europe,”which intended to adopt Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) and Managed LearningEnvironment (MLE) as teaching-learning strategies to cater to the students of the currentgeneration (WHO-WFME, 2005).Furthermore, in Southeast Asia, there are currently 261 recognized medical schools thatprovide education parallel to developed countries by using the latest technology on their way togrowth, change, and development. Indeed, universities and other institutions of highereducation are increasingly turning to e-learning, as a vehicle for quality assurance. Fortunately,after grueling efforts and critical decisions, all accredited medical schools said that they “havebenefited from quality assurance measures and standards, and in consequence producedphysicians of better quality” (WHO-WFME, 2005).E-learning, also known as evolving, enhanced, or extended learning, which is the use ofmulti-channeled technology in learning opportunities (Logan, n.d.), has long penetrated theculture of the Philippines, particularly in the field of education. Now in a climate of borderlessteaching and learning, many schools have taken on the challenge of integrating e-learning intotheir curricula in response to “continual developments in information and communicationtechnology, a shift in learner expectation, changing demographics of learners, and rapiddevelopment of subject knowledge…” (Engelbrecht, 2003). For instance, through UST’sBlackboard Learning System, called “e-leap,” and SLU’s Learning Management System,called “mySLU,” universities are gradually bringing e-learning into the mainstream of theireducational programs.However, “there is no point in using new technology unless it generates moreproductive learning experiences for students” (McKeachie, 1999). Moreover,in order to avoid waste of efforts, time, and money, it is imperative to highlight “theimportance of mental readiness, right attitude, and appropriate training on computingknowledge and skills of students before implementing the integration of technology in anyeducational system” (Bahari and Hamed, 2009). Moreover, teachers know very well thatmotivation and interest are integral factors that influence the way information is used andcritically evaluated by the students. Hence, the preferred design of the course, comfort withonline technologies, skills, and motivation of the learner are all essential in creating asuccessful online learning environment (Song et al., 2004; Santhanam and Leach, 2000).The aim of the study, therefore, was to determine the level of readiness for, and level ofacceptance of web-enhanced learning among clinical clerks and their medical educators.Specifically, the present study wants to answer the following questions:1. What is the level of readiness for e-learning based on access to resources amongthe following respondent groups, namely: (a) clerks, (b) senior resident physicians, trainingofficers, and department heads, and (c) Dean of SLU College of Medicine (SLU-COM)?2. Are there significant differences in the level of readiness for e-learning based onaccess to resources among the respondent groups in terms of the following: (a) gender, (b)socio-economic status, (c) respondent groups, (d) computer ownership, and (e) field ofspecialization (only for medical educators)?3. What is the level of readiness for e-learning based on the presence of technicalskills among the aforementioned respondent groups?4. Are there significant differences in the level of readiness for e-learning based onthe presence of technical skills among the respondent groups in terms of the following: (a)gender, (b) socio-economic status, (c) respondent groups, (d) computer ownership, and (e) fieldof specialization (only for medical educators)?292

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 20105. What is the level of acceptance of e-learning based on preferred teachinglearningtechniques among the respondent groups?6. Are there significant differences in the level of acceptance of e-learning basedon preferred teaching-learning techniques among the respondent groups in terms of thefollowing: (a) gender, (b) socio-economic status, (c) respondent groups, (d) computerownership, and (e) field of specialization (only for medical educators)?7. What are the most preferred contents of a customized e-learning medicalwebsite according to the different respondent groups?8. Are there significant differences in the preferred customized e-learning medicalwebsite contents among the respondent groups in terms of the following: (a) gender, (b) socioeconomicstatus, (c) respondent groups, (d) computer ownership, and (e) field of specialization(only for medical educators)?MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted on all regular fourth year medical studentsenrolled in SLU-COM during the school year 2009 to 2010, as well as their medical educators(senior resident physicians, training officers, and department heads of affiliated hospitals, andthe College Dean).The questionnaire, entitled “E-learning Readiness and Acceptance Evaluation,” wasformulated through various readings on related literature. It consisted of two major parts. Thefirst part was meant to obtain demographic data. The second part consisted of three Constructs,namely, Resources, Skills, and Preferences.The face and content validity of the research instrument was established after scrutinyand critique by the Dean of the College of Medicine. A pre-test was conducted to establishreliability of the questionnaire using Cronbach’s coefficient alpha. Data analyses were doneusing Microsoft Office Excel 2003. The level of significance was set at 0.05.Treatment of DataWith a variety of data types per Construct, different evaluation schemes were designed,as modified from related studies.Construct 1: Resources. In order to establish the level of access to technology of thegeneral population, the total count of “yes” per item on resources was obtained, and summedup. Thereafter, the level of readiness was evaluated using the grouped frequency distribution:Total Score Level of Readiness 12 – 15 Very Ready8 – 11 Moderately Ready4 – 7 Slightly Ready0 – 3 Not ReadyChi-square test was done to determine the relationship among different Resources items, andamong variables (e.g., gender, and income) in terms of over-all access to resources.Construct 2: Skills. General computer technical skills were assessed based on thefollowing levels, patterned after a study done by Mercado (2009): 4 – Very Good Skills, 3 –Good Skills, 2 – Poor Skills, and 1 – No Skills. Each level of skills reflected a correspondinglevel of readiness.Construct 3: Preferences. The preferred teaching-learning techniques and perceivedpossible contents of a customized e-learning medical website were obtained. The levels ofpreference were described in the following manner: 4 – Very Much Preferred, 3 – Preferred, 2– Slightly Preferred, and 1 – Not Preferred. The levels of acceptance of e-learning werereflected solely by their corresponding levels of teaching-learning technique preferences.293

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Preferences for various contents of an e-learning medical website only determined thepredilection of the respondents, and were not used to determine the level of acceptance of e-learning approach in particular.The arithmetic weighted means for all Constructs were computed for qualitativeinterpretation, as reflected in Table 1.Significant Differences among Variables. The levels of readiness and acceptance, andthe preferences for possible website contents varied according to socio-economic status,respondent groups, and field of specialization, which were treated using one-way analysis ofvariance (ANOVA). Meanwhile, significant differences in gender and computer ownershipwere analyzed using t-test for independent samples, except in the Resources construct, whereinx 2 was obtained.Results and DiscussionA pre-test, which involved irregular clinical clerks (10), was done to establishinstrument reliability, which yielded a Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of 0.85, which wasdeemed reliable since it was greater than 0.70. For the actual study, among the targetrespondents, only the clinical clerks were able to return accomplished questionnaires. Othertarget respondent groups (medical educators) were not able to return any questionnaire owingto their busy schedule and varied priorities; such was one of the limitations of the study.The demographic characteristics of the study population were summarized in Table 2.Since the respondents were all clerks, the variables field of specialization and respondent groupwere not anymore considered as confounding variables. Having average household monthlyincome, the respondents generally were at least in the middle class of the society; hence, allstudents had an easy access to computers, whether personal (owned) or shared, especiallywhen the need arises in school or hospital.Level of E-learning Readiness in terms of Resources. It was established using chisquare(one-way) that there were no significant differences in the access to resources among allitems in the Resources Construct (computed x 2 5.418 > critical value 23.685), as presented inTable 3A. After counting all “yes” per Resource question, and summing them up for a total of15 items, an average of 13.15 was obtained and given an equivalent level of readiness as “veryready” according to the established grouped frequency distribution (please refer to Methods).Therefore, it was justified to follow the grouped frequency distribution method to establish thelevel of readiness since all items did not vary significantly as to the presence of access amongrespondents. This means that the resources asked in the Resources construct were homogenous,implying each item was generalizable or indeed related to all other items in the Construct.Nonetheless, it was discovered that while majority had adequate materials (e.g., fast processor,functioning hardware, and up-to-date software) needed for an e-learning environment, there arestill 13 (~25%) out of 53 students who usually get disconnected when accessing the internet,which must be probed further and addressed in the future (Tables 3B and 3C).There were no found significant differences between gender and the access to resources(Table 3B). Similarly, an above average, average, or below average household monthly incomedid not vary in terms of access to resources (Table 3C), implying that their access to resourceswas neither restricted nor furthered by their economic status; all had equal footing. Hence, asan over-all implication, an environmental scanning of resources was accomplished by thepresent study, wherein the survey revealed that the clerks had general access to generalcomputer hardware and software, and the internet, which are all prerequisites in considering e-learning as a teaching-learning method. Therefore, based solely on access to resources, theywere very ready for an e-learning environment.294

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Level of E-learning Readiness in terms of Skills. Table 4A showed that the clerksgenerally had very good skills (VGS) in terms of general computer technical proficiency, withan equivalent level of readiness of “very ready” (Table 1). The clerks were highly skilled inoperating the software and hardware of the computer, and in generally finding their wayaround the World Wide Web. However, skills have yet to be developed in applying coursematerials, and in managing their time to accommodate e-learning into their schedule (Table4A).Significant differences were found between males and females in terms of skills.Generally, males were more skilled than females (Table 4B), owing to the technical andmanual inclination more favored by and suited for males than females, who were less “tech-y.”However, there were no significant differences among the three levels of household monthlyincome (Table 4C), implying that skills were not dependent on their economic status.Level of E-learning Acceptance in terms of Preference for Modern Teaching-LearningTechniques. The clinical clerks preferred only to a moderate degree the modern teachinglearningtechniques as part of clerkship, as reflected by a mean of 3.12 out of 4 (Table 5A).Hence, they have only moderately accepted e-learning as a future innovation in the curriculum(Table 1). Further studies should be done to assess the reasons behind such occurrence.Nevertheless, highest mean preference was found in applying common internet applications toassist in the learning process; thus respondents generally favored the use of technology as partof their school life. However, the results showed that a majority still favored traditionalmethods (e.g., listening to a lecture) over modern ones (e.g., surfing the net to understand andretain information), which must further be expanded and explained in the future.Similar to skills, significant differences were found between genders, but not amongincome levels. Males had higher preference for modern techniques of learning than females,who were less “gadget-y” and “tech-y” (Table 5B). This predisposition was definitely notaffected by economic status (Table 5C).Preference for Various Medical Website Contents. In general, the respondents assertedvery high preference for the website contents listed on the questionnaire. They found relativelygreater preferences for having download/ upload options, and online reviewers and exams thanhaving videoconferences and online advertisements (Table 6A). These preferences weresignificantly varied between genders possibly for the similar aforementioned reasons, but werenot affected by varied economic status (Tables 6B and 6C).Conclusion and RecommendationsIn the present world of modern technology, various electronic innovations haveenormously increased one’s ability to progress in his field or profession. Relevantly, theseadvancements have also established their place in contemporary educational practice. Theycontinue to become an integral part of the teaching and learning process, and serve as “enginesof change” in classrooms and schools (Norton, 2003). Change towards human and societaldevelopment is an essential purpose of integrating technology into the educational system. Theuse of these modern tools, such as e-learning, must indeed serve as man’s instrument forattaining a higher quality of education.In anticipation of an e-learning initiative in SLU College of Medicine, the present studyestablished that the clinical clerks were very ready for such endeavor, as reflected by their highlevel of access to computer and internet-related resources, and high level of technical skills.However, the research has not probed into reasons behind the moderate acceptance of clerkstowards e-learning as a teaching-learning technique. In the occasion that planning for e-learning has begun, the various contents that the clerks had very much preferred in this study295

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010could be considered in designing and customizing a medical website suited for the futureclerks of the College.Lastly, in the light of the limitations of the study (e.g., time constraints, lack ofquestionnaire returns, and lack of other respondent groups), it was highly recommended thatsimilar researches be done to involve a large population so conclusions can be generalizableand more valid, such that medical educators could also be surveyed and considered. Moreover,learning styles and multiple intelligences could be added as confounding variables. It couldalso be interesting to correlate the state of access to resources and the respondents’ level ofskills. All these could be most helpful during the significant first steps towards integrating ane-learning environment to improve the clerkship curriculum and academic performance ofstudents in Saint Louis University - College of Medicine.ReferencesBahari, P., and Hamed, S. (2009). Using web-based resources in learning: Factors that affectdegree students’ readiness. Retrieved April 24, 2010 from:http://www.scribd.com/doc/13407731/Using-Webbased-Resources-in-Learning-Factors-That-Affect-Degree-Students-ReadinessDomantay, J. A. (2002). Towards quality medical education: diagnosis of a medical school.(Doctoral dissertation, Saint Louis University).Engelbrecht, E. (2003). A look at e-learning models: Investigating their value for developingan e-learning strategy. Retrieved April 26, 2010 from:http://www.unisa.ac.za/contents/faculties/service_dept/bld/progression/docs/engelbrecht.pdfLogan, R. (n.d.) E-learning and knowledge management. Retrieved May 2, 2010 from:http://www.managersforum.com/eLearning/McKeachie, W. J. (1999). Teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college anduniversity teachers (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.Mercado, C. A. (2009). Readiness-based strategies of an e-learning environment at the SaintLouis University Graduate Program. (Doctoral dissertation proposal, Saint Louis University).Norton, P., and Wiburg, K.M. (2003). Teaching with technology: designing opportunities tolearn, 2nd ed. Belmont, California: Wadsworth/ Thomson Learning.Song, L., Singleton, E. S., Hill, J. H., and Koh, M. H. (2004). Improving online learning:Student perceptions of useful and challenging characteristics. Retrieved April 24, 2010 from:http://www.scribd.com/doc/13407731/Using-Webbased-Resources-in-Learning-Factors-That-Affect-Degree-Students-ReadinessWHO-WFME Task Force on Accreditation. (2005). Accreditation of medical educationinstitutions: report of a technical meeting, Schaeffergården, Copenhagen, Denmark, 4-6October 2004. Retrieved April 28, 2010, from World Health Organization website:www.who.int/hrh/documents/WFME_report.pdf296

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010PATHOLOGY OF GOUT IN GROWING LAYERSATTRIBUTED TO HIGH CALCIUMAND PROTEIN DIETIbrahim M. Eldaghayes 1* , Mohamed A. Hamid 2 , Sayed R. El-Attar 3and Abdoalwahab M. Kammon 21 Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, 2 Department of Poultry and Fish Diseases,3 Department of Pathology and Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Al-FatehUniversity, P.O.Box 13662, Tripoli, Libya.AbstractAn outbreak of gout was investigated in a growing layers farm of 45000 birds locatedin Tripoli, Libya. Mortality was commenced at 39 days-old reaching to a total of 489 birdswithin 10 days. Post mortem was conducted and kidney tissue samples were fixed in 10%neutral formalin prior to processing. Feed samples were sent to the Animal NutritionDepartment for analysis which revealed 23.47% crude protein and 3.5% calcium. Gross lesionscomprised of deposition of chalky white material covering the pericardium and enlargedkidneys with necrotic foci, hemorrhage and nephrosis. Most of birds showed swollen ureter ofone or both sides. Histopathologically, severe damage of tubules characterized by moderate tosevere tubular dilation and necrosis and central bluish gouty deposition surrounded byradiations of needle like urate crystals followed by granulomatous reaction of lymphocytes,macrophages and fibroblasts. The collecting renal tubules, urinephric ducts and ureters werealso filled by gouty deposits with epithelial hyperplastic changes and chronic inflammatorycellular reaction in their walls. The interstitial tissue showed edema, congestion, hemorrhageand lymphomononuclear cell infiltration. This gout outbreak in growing layers is attributed tohigh concentration of crude protein and calcium in diet.Keywords: Gout, Layers, Calcium, ProteinIntroductionGout is one of the important disorders associated with kidney damage in birds. The causes of gout aremany as kidney damage occurs due to multi-etiological factors which can broadly categorized asnutritional and metabolic causes, infectious causes and other causes like mycotoxins. Higher levels ofdietary proteins cause excess uric acid production (Li et al., 1998). Dietary protein plays an importantrole in the development and progression of kidney injury. An increase in dietary protein can cause anincrease in kidney size and glomerular filtrate rate (GFR), with subsequent glomerular injury,accumulation of mesangial deposits, and, eventually, glomerulosclerosis (Khan and Alden 2001). Birdsare uricotelic and lack uricase; the enzyme which converts uric acid to less harmful substances.Impairment of kidney function results in excessive accumulation of uric acid in tissues. Uric acid itselfis not toxic but precipitated crystals can cause severe mechanical damage to tissues like kidneys, heart,lungs, intestine (visceral gout) and also in the joints (articular gout). Visceral and articular gouts havebeen reported in pheasants, Japanese quail, ducks, aviary birds and chickens (Fitz-Coy et al., 1988;Nayak et al., 1988; Rao et al., 1993). Experimentally, the combined effects of high dietary calcium andprotein concentrations on the induction of visceral gout in growing birds of a layer strain was297

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010investigated (Guo et al., 2005) and a typical visceral gout was induced by the high calcium and proteindiet.The present paper describes pathological investigation into an outbreak of gout in growinglayer chickens.Materials and MethodsMortality was recorded in growing layers farm of 45000 birds located in Tripoli, Libya.Mortality associated with gout was commenced at 39 days-old reaching to a total of 489 birdswithin 10 days. Dead chickens were brought to the Department of Poultry and Fish Diseases,Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Tripoli, Libya for diagnosis. Post mortem was conducted andtissue pieces from affected kidneys were fixed in 10% neutral formalin prior to processing.After overnight washing in running water and dehydration in ascending grades of alcohol, thetissues were embedded in paraffin and 5 µ thick sections were cut and stained withhaematoxylin and eosin (H&E) as per the method of Luna (1968). Feed samples were sent tothe Animal Nutrition Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Tripoli, Libya for analysis.Results and DiscussionThe total mortality of approximately 1.1% (489 out of 45000) within 10 days observedin present outbreak was almost similar to the general incidence of 2-15% in layers associatedwith gout (Sonmez 1992). Mortality of 18.77% was reported in Kashmir favorella poultry overa period of 6 months which was attributed to 16.39% crude protein in poultry feed (Mir et al.,2005). In another report, 181 of 300 broilers died over a 29 day period due to high protein diet(Nayak et al., 1988).In present study, the gross and histopathological changes were suggestive of visceralgout due to high protein feed which was confirmed by 23.47% crude protein in feed and highcalcium 3.5% (Table 1). Gross lesions comprised of deposition of chalky white materials onpericardial sac and enlargement of kidneys with necrotic foci and hemorrhage (Figure 1). Mostof birds showed swelling of ureter of one or both sides (Figure 2). Histopathologically, severedamage of tubules characterized by moderate to severe tubular dilation and necrosis andcentral bluish gouty depositions (Figure 3) surrounded by radiations of needle like uratecrystals (Figure 4) followed by granulomatous reaction of lymphocytes, macrophages andfibroblasts with haemorrhages (Figure 5). The collecting renal tubules, urinephric ducts andureters were also filled by gouty deposits with epithelial hyperplastic changes and chronicinflammatory cellular reaction in their walls (Figure 6). The interstitial tissue showed edema,congestion, hemorrhage and lymphomononuclear cell infiltration (Figure 7). Glomerularchanges included thickening of Bowman’s capsule and proliferative glomerulonephritis(Figure 8).These lesions were in consistence with the earlier study by Nayak et al. (1988) whoreported white chalky masses in the liver, kidney, visceral organs and joints. Histologicalchanges of kidney comprised of cell infiltration, destruction of both glomeruli and tubules withurate crystal deposits. The remainder of the kidney parenchyma was degenerative, necrotic andhaemorrhagic. Mubaraka and Sharkawy (1999) described microscopic changes of gout inducedin laying pullets by sodium bicarbonate toxicity which revealed significant urate depositsassociated with tubular necrosis.In addition to kidney, other visceral organs are commonly affected by gout. Mir et al.(2005) reported an outbreak of gout attributed to disproportionate Ca : P ratio (3.5 : 1) and16.39% crude protein. Grossly, dry platery patches of white chalky urate deposits wereobserved on the breast muscles, neck and on serosal surfaces of pericardium, peritoneum,mesentery, proventriculus, gizzard, testes, ovaries, over the abdomen and chest wall. The298

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010urates were observed on kidneys, in the pericardial sac and over the pericardium, on liver,spleen, lungs and air sacs. Nephropathy, observed consistently, was characterized by unilateralenlargement of kidneys, most prominently of the cranial lobe, which bulged out of the bonydepression. The kidney lobes of the contralateral side were atrophied, especially the caudallobes. Occasionally, the cranial lobes of both the kidneys were enlarged. Ureters of either sidewere found to be distended with retained semifluid to semisolid chalky white urates, givingcord-like appearance to ureters. Histopathological examination revealed urate deposits in thekidneys, liver, spleen, lungs and joints resulting in severe damage. Kidney parenchyma wasatrophied and revealed degenerative and necrotic changes associated with haemorrhagesinvolving glomeruli, cortical and medullary tubules, collecting ducts and medullary tracts.Glomerular changes included atrophy, distortion and segmentation. The tubules showeddegeneration and desquamation. Uric acid deposits replacing parenchyma was surrounded byinflammatory cells including heterophils initially, followed by lymphocytes, macrophages andgiant cells along with fibroplasias. Collecting ducts and medullary tracts also revealed presenceof urate crystals and numerous heterophils.In a recent study, Al-Hamadani and Mohammed (2009) reported lesions of kidney in layers thatmay be caused by multiple agents. These lesions were variable from visceral gout that characterizedgrossly by precipitation of urate salts to enlargement of kidney with congestion and hemorrhage orpaleness. Histological examination of kidney showed swelling and degeneration of epithelial cell ofrenal tubules (Nephrosis) that caused stenosis of blood vessels and infiltration of mononuclearinflammatory cells, in addition to desquamation of epithelial cell of renal tubules with dilation of somerenal tubules and hemorrhage in the interstitial tissue of kidney. Other cases showed necrosis of renaltubules epithelium, necrosis of glomerular renal tuft and dilation of bowman's space. There wereprecipitation of urate salts in the lumen of renal tubules and these cases observed mostly in peak ofproduction.Although most of poultry feed producers are following the requirements suggested by NRC(1994), these requirements have been considered low nowadays due to continued increase in growthrate of birds and the demand for increasing the daily recommended intake of vitamin requirements forthe consumers (Lesson 2007). But re-evaluation of dietary protein and vitamin specifications has to beworked out taking into consideration the difference in requirements between poultry breeds.It is concluded that growing layers are susceptible to high protein and calcium diets. The studystressed the need to evaluate the concentrations of all feed components in poultry feed.Table 1. Result of feed sample analyses*Fiber % Fat % Protein % Calcium % Ash % Moisture %4.43 2.82 23.47 3.5 6.58 10.23*Average of different feed samples taken from the same feed source of the affected farm.299

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Figure legendFig. 1. Deposition of chalky white materials on pericardial sac (arrow) and enlargement of kidneys withnecrotic foci (arrow)Fig. 2. Swelling of ureter of one side (arrow) and enlargement of kidneysFig. 3. Section of kidney showing severe damage of tubules characterized by moderate to severe tubulardilation and necrosis and central bluish gouty depositions (arrows). H&E ×40Fig. 4. Section of kidney showing interstitial radiations of needle like urate crystals (arrow). H&E ×40Fig. 5. Section of kidney showing granulomatous reaction of lymphocytes, macrophages and fibroblastswith haemorrhages. H&E ×40Fig. 6. Section of kidney showing accumulation of gouty deposits in the collecting renal tubules,urinephric ducts and ureters with epithelial hyperplastic changes and chronic inflammatory cellularreaction their walls (arrow). H&E ×20.Fig. 7. Section of kidney showing edema, congestion, hemorrhage and lymphomononuclear cellinfiltration in the interstitial tissue. H&E ×20Fig. 8. Section of kidney showing thickening of Bowman’s capsule and proliferativeglomerulonephritis (arrow). H&E ×20300

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E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010ReferencesAl-Hamadani, A.H. and M.H. Mohammed, 2009. The relationship between the lesions ofkidneys and the different production stages in layers. Iraqi Veterinary Journal, 23(1): 211-217.Fitz-Coy, S.H., S.A. Edgar and F.J. Hoerr, 1988. An outbreak of urolithiasis in single combWhite Leghorn pullets. Avian Diseases, 32: 563-566.Guo, X., K. Huang and J. Tang, 2005. Clinicopathology of gout in growing layersby high calcium and high protein diets. British Poultry Science, 46(5): 641-646.inducedKhan, K.M. and C.L. Alden, 2001. Kidney. In: Hashek W M, Rousseaux C G and Wallig M A(ed) 2001. Handbook of Toxicologic Pathology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. pp 255-336.Lesson S., 2007. Vitamin requirements: is there basis for re-evaluation dietary specifications?World Poultry Science Journal, 63: 255-266.Li, X.M., M.X. Deng, Q.Y. Li, R.Y. Jia and J. Wang, 1998. Experimental study on the clinicalpathology of urate deposition in chickens. Chinese Journal of Veterinary Science, 18: 49-51.Luna, L.G., 1968. In Manual of histological staining methods of Armed Forces Institute ofPathology, 3 rd edn. Mc Graw Hill book Co. New YorkMir M.S., M.M. Darzi, A.A. Khan, N.A. Ganaie, S. Gupta, N. Nashiruddullah and S.A. Kamil,2005. Investigationof an outbreak of gout in Kashmir favorella poultry. Indian Journal ofVeterinary Pathology, 29(1): 35-37.Mubaraka, M. and A.A. Sharkawy, 1999. Toxopathology of gout induced in laying pullets bysodium bicarbonate toxicity. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 7(4): 227-236.National Research Council, 1994. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry. 8 th ed. Natl. Acad. Sci.,Washington.Nayak, N.C., T. Chakrabarti and A. Chakrabarti, 1988. An outbreak of gout in poultry in WestBengal. Indian Veterinary Journal, 65: 1080-1081.Rao, B.T., H.J. Das and R.D. Sharma, 1993. An outbreak of gout in East Godavari district,Andhra Pradesh. Poultry Advisor, 26: 43-45.Sonmez, G., 1992. Organ distribution and interrelationship of lesions in laying hens with goutand urolithiasis. Veteriner-Fakultesi-Dergisi, -Uludog -Universitesi, 11: 81-92.302

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010CONTRIBUTION OF SMOKE-BELCHING VEHICLESTO THE GREEN HOUSE GASES CONCENTRATIONIN THE CITY OF DIPOLOGBernard G. Gilaga 1 and Rowell B. Pallega 21 College of Criminology, JRMSU-Dipolog Campus, Dipolog City, ZDN2 College of Criminology, JRMSU- Main Campus, Dapitan City, ZDNAbstractAmong 212 nations in the world, the Philippines is ranked 48 th in terms of carbonemission in the transportation sector. The study sought to determine and estimate the amountof gaseous pollutants emitted by the vehicles in Dipolog City in relation to the overall gaseouspollutants of the Philippines. Results revealed an annual gaseous pollutant contribution of1,072929.597%V for carbon monoxide and 501,282,073.1 ppm for hydrocarbon emissionwhich, together, roughly explain 6% of the country’s overall GHG (Green house gases) outputper year. Considering that there are 122 cities in the Philippines, the 6% GHG contribution ofDipolog City is considered well beyond the normal threshold. The study also identified someof the factors leading to this inordinate amount of GHG output of the city, such as, but notlimited to: (a) strict implementation of the standards for vehicle emission levels prior torenewal of registration, and (b) strict monitoring and implementation of the anti-smokebelching law or the Clean Air Act (RA 8749).Keywords: emission, hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, RA 8749, greenhouse gasesIntroductionThe Philippines is ranked 48th among the 212 carbon emitter nations from thetransportation sector with an average of 68,328 metric tons of carbon emission annually. Onthe verge of escalating environmental crises brought by the GHG, countries worldwide throughinternational agreements such as, the UN Convention and the Kyoto Protocol, agreed to reduceGHG emissions all over the world. The Philippines is one of the countries which believes thatall countries can, and must, cooperate to address climate change through mitigation byadapting these agreements. In response to the call to mitigate the effects of climate change,RA 8749, known as the Philippine Air Act was passed in 1999. The law requires emissiontesting for all cars registered annually. The law aimed to ensure substantial improvement in airquality for the health safety and welfare of the public and pursue a policy of balancingdevelopment and environmental protection. It also sets a maximum limits for all majorpollutants found in auto exhausts as follows: For light duty vehicles, the CO emission is 2.72303

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010g/km, 0.97g/km for HC & NO and o.14 g/km for PM for compression-ignition engines only.For heavy duty vehicles the exhaust emission limit are 4.5 g/k/Wh for CO, 1.1 g/k/Wh for HC,for NO x is 8 g/k/Wh and .36 g/k/Wh for PM is allowed. And in the case of 85 kW or lessengines, the limit value for particular emissions is increased by multiplying the quoted limit bya coefficient of 1.7. (RA 8749, 1999).The law further provides that the fuel evaporatedemission for spark-ignition engines shall not exceed 2.0 gm hydrocarbons per test and it shallnot allow any emission of gases from crankcase ventilation system into the atmosphere.Dipolog City is a growing city in the south with a population of 131,016, growing at arate of 2.4% per annum. Vehicular traffic is becoming congested due to the increasing numbersof motor vehicles attendant to the needs of a fast growing urban city. Consequently, the city’sair quality over the years had been observed to deteriorate. There is now an urgent need toascertain just how much the city’s vehicular traffic has contributed to air pollution and,subsequently ascertain compliance to the provisions of RA 8749.This work aimed to determine the average amount of gaseous pollutants emitted by thetransportation sector in Dipolog City which can guide policymakers and environmentalists intheir efforts to minimize emission of hazardous gases from motor vehicles.Research Method and DesignSecond information such as volume of traffic in the three entry points in Dipolog Cityand types of motor vehicle were gathered from the department of Public Works and Highwayswhile emission test results were obtained from the Land Transportation Office. Date gatheredwere summarized as to the average volume of motor vehicles per day and motor vehicles werecategorized according to utilization and fuel used. Gasoline emission test results only includehydrocarbons (HC) in ppm and carbon monoxide (CO) in percent by volume (%/v) while fordiesel emission test was in terms of opacity. Opacity is the degree to which smoke blocks light.It is expressed as the absorption coefficient “k” (1/k). Average amount of HC, CO and opacityper vehicle type was calculated and used to estimate the average emission per day and per year.Motor Vehicles were classified as follows; motor tricycles (motorcycles and tricycles);passenger Car (multicab and other light public motor vehicles weighing › 1500kg.); passengerutility (public motor vehicles with the average weight ‹1500kg.), goods utility vehicles (thosevehicles that transport goods); small bus, large bus; rigid trucks 2 axles; rigid trucks 3+axles;truck semi-trailer 3 & 4 axles; truck semi trailers 5+ axels; and truck trailers 4 axels.ResultsTraffic Volume. As revealed in Table 1, motor-tricycles has the largest volume(1323.55 +144.94 motor-tricycles per day), followed by the passenger car(660.12+33.41passenger car/day) and public utility (254.86+30.77 public utility/day). Motortricycles,passenger cars, passenger utility and goods utility are known to use gasoline,although there were also passenger cars, passenger utility and goods utility which used diesel.304

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Table 1. Daily average number of motor vehicles running around Dipolog City.Types of Motor vehicle Daily Average of Motor Vehicle SDMotor-Tricycle 1323.547619 144.9392Passenger Car 660.1190476 33.40793Passenger Utility 254.8571429 30.76997Goods Utility 194.9761905 23.2282Small Bus 54.14285714 3.641871Large Bus 33.07142857 2.443542Rigid Trucks 2 axles 173.1428571 23.38792Rigid Trucks 3+ axles 34.64285714 11.53835Truck Semi-Trailer 3&4 axles 2.857142857 1`.064706Truck Semi-Trailer 5+ axles 0.119047619 0.125988Truck Trailers 4 axles 0 0Truck Trailers 5+ axles 0.023809524 0.062994Total 2731.5 242.7633Greenhouse Gases Emission of Gasoline and Diesel Powered Vehicles. Based on theemission test results (Table 2), the motor-tricycle (n= 45) which is a gasoline fueled vehiclehas the highest hydrocarbon emission, HC (844+707.61) and carbon monoxide (1.33+0.796).This is followed by passenger car (HC=262+139.5; CO=0.941+0.726), passenger utility car(HC =167.33+120.12, CO =0.391+0.484) and good utility car (HC=209.2+140.25 CO=0.656+0.688).For the diesel powered vehicles, opacity was the only parameter available. It refers tothe degree to which smoke blocks light. It is expressed as the absorption coefficient “k” (1/m).Nowadays, opacity is the basis for measuring the amount of smoke coming from a dieselpoweredvehicle. It should be noted that an engine that smokes is emitting numerous toxiccompounds, particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen and sulfur that can adversely affectpublic health and the environment. As shown in Table 2, a passenger car has an opacitycoefficient, 1.201+0.462 k.305

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Table 2 Average amount of green house gases emitted per vehicle type.Motor Vehicle TypeHC CO Opacity(ppm) % kA. GasolineMotor-Tricycle 844+707.61 1.33+0.796 -Passenger car (n=15) 262+139.5 0.941+0.726 -Passenger Utility 167.33+120.12 0.391+0.484 -Goods Utility 209.2+140.25 0.656+0.688 -B.DieselPassenger car - - 1.201+0.462Passenger Utility - - 0.68+0.376Goods Utility - - 1.093+0.368Small Bus - - -Large Bus - - -Rigid Trucks 2 axles - - 1.114+0.47Rigid Trucks 3+ axles - - 0.812+0.486Using the emission data obtained, the daily average amount of hydrocarbon, carbon monoxideand other greenhouse gases emitted per vehicle type were calculated. As shown in table 3, themotor-tricycle consistently has the greatest amount of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxideemission per day. With regard to the opacity measure, all diesel vehicles had values below thestandard k = 2.5. Table 3 also presents the daily average and annual amount of CO and HCemitted by the motor vehicle in Dipolog City. The type of motor vehicle that contributes moreCO and HC is the Motor-Tricycle with the daily average gas contribution of 1760.318333 %Vand 1117074.19ppm, followed by the Public Cars and Public Utility. The total daily amount ofCO of the gasoline fueled vehicles in Dipolog City is 2939.533143% and the total HC is1373375.543 ppm.Table 3. Average annual amount of CO and HC emitted by the motor vehiclesTypesofMotorVehicleAverageof COAverageof HCAverageDailyVehicleTotalDailyAmount ofCOTotal DailyAmount ofHCEstimatedTotalAnnualAmount ofCOEstimatedTotalAnnualAmount ofHCMT 1.33 844 1323.55 1.76X10 10 1117074.19 6.42X10 12 407732079.5PC 1.201 262 660.12 1.24X10 10 172951.1905 4.54X10 12 63127184.52PU 0.68 167 254.86 5.8X10 9 42561.14286 1.88X10 12 15534817.14GU 1.093 209.2 194.98 8.68X10 9 40789.01905 3.17X10 12 14887991.95TOTAL 4.4X10 10 1373375.543 1.60X10 13 501282073.1306

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010DiscussionThe preponderance of motorized tricycles in the city of Dipolog contributes largely tothe GHG noted. However, for a city of this size, motorized tricycles should have been limitedto small arterial roads with limited distance and should be banned from plying along main cityroads (RA 8749). A reduction in the number of motorized tricycles in the City of Dipolog cancontribute significantly to a reduced GHG emission for the city 1.76/4.6 =40% reduction.A comparison with the estimated value of carbon monoxide contributed or emitted bythe motor vehicle in Dipolog City (1.60x10 13 ppb per year) showed that it is greater than themonthly tropospheric carbon monoxide reading by the NASA Terra Satellite (April 2010). Itshould be noted that the estimate was based on the actual results of car emission test, hence thegreater values. Moreover, CO when released to the atmosphere is eventually oxidized tocarbon dioxide through natural processes and concentration is both short-lived in theatmosphere and spatially variable which explain the great difference between the annual CO inconcentration (actual emission test result) and tropospheric CO concentration. However, thisestimate can be grossly understated.Older vehicles tend to be less efficient than the newer ones. We conjecture that thiscould be one reason for the inordinate amount of gaseous pollutants noted in the city.However, when we tested for statistical significance of the difference between the COemissions of older and newer vehicles we found a minimal mean difference of 0.8026 resultingin a t-value of t=0.716 (p>.05). What this implies is that as per records, no statistical evidenceexists to show that older vehicles are less efficient than newer ones. However, this is certainlycontrary to scientific results, and so, we deduce that this is probably due to a serious underreporting of the carbon emissions for older vehicles (either intentionally or nonintentionally).The City of Dipolog should be contributing less than 1% of the country’s GHG outputannually, but our results indicated that it is in fact contributing 600 times more (6%). Ofcourse, Metro Manila contributes 20% GHG but this can be easily explained by the shownvolume of traffic in this area. In Dipolog we established that the CO emissions are mainlyattributed to the motorized tricycles plying the city roads.Policy ImplicationsAnalysis of the fuel-burning emissions of vehicles in the City of Dipolog show that,under grossly understated data, the city contributes at least 6% of the country’s total emission.This can be considered high (and even higher if data were correctly stated by the testingcenters).These results have far-reaching implications on the implementation of RA 8749 or theClean Air Act of 1997:The mechanism of implementation of RA 8749, particularly at the Emission TestingCenters to be reviewed and zealously guarded. In particular there are implications to theaccreditation process adopted by the LTO for these testing centers.Since it has been established that older vehicles tend to be quite inefficient in terms ofcomplete combustion, there is a need to define which vehicles should be allowed to register in307

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010the Philippines in mores advanced countries, for instance, vehicles that are more than five (5)years old are automatically phased out (Japan, Land Transport Ministry, 2005).Importation policies for vehicle surpluses should similarly be reviewed in particular,tax penalties for buying surplus vehicles can be set higher in order to discourage localconsumers from patronizing the products.ConclusionThe City of Dipolog contributes a significant portion to the country’s annual COemission, and inordinately so (>6%). Such a huge annual CO emission can be attributed to themain factors that obtain in the city: (a.) presence of fuel inefficient motorized tricycles whichconstitute the bulk of public transport in the city, and (b.) huge number of older vehicle typeswhich are also inefficient in burning fuel. Serious under reporting of the CO emissions of oldervehicle types lead to the conclusion that the implementation of RA 8749 or the Clean Air Actleaves much to be desired in the city.References;D. Katherine, et. al (2007). Organic & Biochem. 5 th Ed. Mc. Graw Hill.N. Y.Department of Transportation and Communication Land Transportation Office. DipologDistrict Office. Upper Turno,Dipolog CityIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2006). Volume 2 Energy. National GreenhouseGas InventoriesKuzma, Jan W & Bohnenblust S. (2003). Basic Statistics for the Health Science 5 th ed. MCGraw-Phil Int’l Ed. SingaporeMorris H., et. al. (2005). General Organic & Biochemistry 8 th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Neilk Weaver (2002). Gasoline Toxicology. Implications for Human Health. The AmericanPetroleum Institute. Washington, DC.Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 and Republic Act 8749Japan Land Transport Ministry (2005)308

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010ESTIMATION OF GREENHOUSE GAS (GHG)EMISSION LEVEL FROM WASTE AND GARBAGEDISPOSED IN THE COASTAL BARANGAYS OFDAPITAN CITY: IMPLICATIONS TO THEIR WASTEMANAGEMENT PRACTICESAbstractS. Campiseño and R. LaranjoJose Rizal Memorial State University – Main Campus, Dapitan CityJose Rizal Memorial State University – Main Campus, Dapitan CityWastes and garbage disposed of by the coastal barangays of Dapitan City wereanalyzed as to volume, composition and manner of disposal in order to estimate theapproximate level of daily greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions using an international conversionfactor by the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) conversion manual. The wastemanagement practices of the barangays were likewise determined since these determine to alarge extent the volume of GHG emitted through household wastes. Results revealed thatroughly 43.8 kilo-tons of CO2, 2.52 kilo-tons of methane and .515 kilo-tons of nitreous oxideper year are derived from the household wastes alone owing to their poor waste managementpractices. If open burning and other improper waste disposal practices were strictly prohibitedand violators apprehended, the greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced by as much as 50%of their current levels.Keywords: biomass conversion factor, greenhouse gas, waste managementIntroductionMuch of the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere can be attributed tothe activities of man: from the mundane household wastes to the wastes generated by largeindustrial plants. The manner in which these wastes are disposed of also determine the amountof harmful gases, notably carbon dioxide and methane, that these wastes give off. Opendumping and burning are two(2) of the more seriously damaging manner of waste disposal thatgreatly contribute to rise in global temperature (IPCC, 2009).The lack of environmentally friendly, sustainable and affordable waste managementhas led to open dumping and open burning of solid wastes in many parts of the world. Opendumping encourages scavenging for recyclable materials that pose real health hazards to thecommunity. On the other hand, open burning results in particulate matters or black carbon inthe higher altitudes of the earth , where ice is common, resulting in greater absorption of thesun’s energy thus trapping heat in the earth’s atmosphere. Global warming results from theexcess heat trapped in these areas causing ice to melt and consequently, producing variouskinds of aberrant weather patterns.309

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010In Dapitan City, solid wastes are regularly collected by a garbage truck and dumped inan open landfill in a remote barangay of the City. However, many residences and severalcommercial establishments still practice open dumping and open burning (right in theirbackyards). Around 10% of homes have neither toilet facilities nor sewage treatment. Somehave concentrations of septic tanks or cesspools that leak large amounts of wastes into theshallow waters of Liboran and Dapitan Rivers. Both rivers drain into Dapitan Bay where liquidand solid wastes from residences, fishponds and agricultural lands are spilled. The Pulauanwharf poses yet another source of wastes from both the inhabitants and the casual travellersand tourists.The present study attempts to determine the volume of solid and liquid wastes producedby residents of coastal barangays in Dapitan City on a daily basis and assess their wastemanagement practices. An analytic procedure of factor conversion (from waste biomass to oneof the harmful GHG) is adopted from the IPCC (2006) conversion manual in order todetermine how much GHG is actually produced by the residents sans good waste managementprograms. Ultimately, it is hoped that once the residents realize the magnitude of harm that anun-managed waste disposal system can result on the earth’s climate, they will voluntarilyfollow the waste disposal ordinance of the City of Dapitan.Research Method and DesignThe study followed the descriptive-analytical procedure in obtaining and analyzing theinformation necessary to achieve the purported objectives:Research Locale. The study was conducted in Dapitan Bay particularly on thenorthwestern stretch of nine(9) barangays: Bucana, Sicayab, Canlucani, Poblacion, Polo, SanPedro, San Vicente, Taguilon, and Tag-ulo (map shown). It is noted that there are existinglocal ordinances for waste management in these nine barangays.Waste Identification and Analysis. The nine (9) barangays have a total of 880households of which 275 households were randomly chosen (roughly 31% of the total numberof households). The waste disposal practices of the households chosen for the study are shownin Table 1:Table 1: Waste Management Practices of Sample HouseholdsWaste Disposal Practice Number PercentageLittering 50 18.18Open Dumping 60 21.82Open Burning 70 25.45Composting 10 0.01Landfilling/Collection 50 18.18Recycling/Re using/Segregation 25 9.09Selling 20 7.27Total 275 100%310

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010These information will be important when we apply the IPCC-approved conversionfactors for biomass to GHG outputs. Meanwhile, it is important to note that only 18.18% of thehouseholds actually follow the Ordinance for Waste Management (Collection and Landfilling)with waste segregation policy (9.09%) for a total of 27.27% law-abiding households in thestudy (less than one third of the households follow the law on waste management).IPCC-Approved Conversion Factors.The IPCC approved in 2006 the following conversion factors for converting wastebiomass to approximate greenhouse gas output:Table 2: Biomass Conversion Factors for Household WastesSource Description CO2Outputg/kgWood/Paper/Yard Combustion 950Trimmings/Textiles Non-Combustion 570Biodegradables/Common Combustion 900TrashNon-Combustion 540Plastics/Styrofoams/ Combustion 200RubberNon-Combustion 0Aluminum/Steel/Tin/ Combustion NACopper/Cans/Bottles Non-Combustion NABatteries/Old Machines Combustion NANon-Combustion NASource: Canadian National Inventory Report, 2006 as Approved by IPCCMethaneg/kg.05.08.10.175000NANANANANitreous Oxideg/kg.02.03.08.131000NANANANAThe wastes generated by the households were identified by volume and by type dailyfor seven days. The average of each type of waste material was then obtained. The volume ofwaste (by type) was then converted into the corresponding GHG using the conversion factorsabove. A typical example is illustrated below for clarity:Type of waste: Wood/Paper/Yard Trimmings/TextilesMean Volume Per Day : 38 kgsEquivalent GHG Output by Burning (Combustion):CO2 = 36100 gms (36.1 kg), Methane = .76 gm, Nitreous Oxide = .76 gm(Using Conversion Factors Above)Contingency Analysis. The GHG outputs were then further analyzed by looking intothe typical waste disposal practice of each barangay and their corresponding GHG outputs(low/high) in order to assess how the GHG outputs relate with the corresponding wastedisposal practices of the barangays. That is, we wanted to know the extent to which the wastedisposal practice influenced the harmful gas emissions of the barangays. The analysis was donethrough a simple chi-square test.311

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010ResultsTable 3 shows the mean volume of wastes produced by the barangays over a seven-dayobservation period classified by type and by disposal method. Note that there were someuncertainties noted as to the responses of the key informants with respect to the waste disposalpractices. The researchers triangulated the responses by asking at least two other members ofthe households (independently of the main informant). If two of the three informants agreed onthe manner in which their garbage are disposed, then that particular waste disposal practice isnoted in the table below. The two other members of the household interviewed were those whowere less likely to lie (i.e. no motive to lie).Table 3: Volume of Wastes by Type of WastesSource Description MeanVolumePer DayWood/Paper/YardTrimmings/TextilesBiodegradables/Common TrashCombustionNon-CombustionCombustionNon-Combustion20185083StandardError ofthe Mean3.502.005.252.50RemarksUncertainties inresponses maybe present-Plastics/Styrofoams/RubberCombustionNon-Combustion5331.254.50-Aluminum/Steel/Tin/Copper/Cans/BottlesCombustionNon-Combustion03806.70 -Batteries/Old Machines Combustion 10 2.50 -Non-CombustionTable 4 shows the net GHG output based on the average daily output of each type ofwaste and each type of waste disposal (combustion and non-combustion):Table 4: Total GHG Ouput Per Type of Waste/GarbageWaste CO 2GramsMethaneGramsNitreousoxideGramsWood/Paper/Yard Trimmings/Textiles 29260 2.44 0.94Biodegradables/Common Trash 89820 19.11 14.79Plastics/Styrofoams/Rubber 1000 2500 500Aluminum/Steel/Tin/Copper/Cans/Bottles 0 0 0Batteries/Old Machines 0 0 0TOTAL 120080 2521.55 515.73312

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010DiscussionsThe average daily GHG emissions from the barangays show an output of about 120 kgof CO2, 2.52 kg of methane and 0.515 kg of nitreous oxide per day. Over a regular one-yearperiod these translate to : 43.80 kilo-tons of CO2, 0.92 kilo-ton of methane and 0.20 kilo-ton ofnitreous oxide just for the nine barangays of Dapitan City. We can extrapolate on the figures ifwe consider the entire city and its designated landfill area. The figures could easily inflate by afactor of 10 i.e. roughly 438 kilo-tons of CO2, 25.2 kilo-tons of methane and 5.15 kilo-tons ofnitreous oxide. With the growing population of the City (estimated at roughly 2.6% perannum), the corresponding volume of garbage and wastes will double within the next 15 yearsand, hence, so will the emission of harmful GH gases into the atmosphere.However, much of this volume of GH gases can be attributed to the poor wastemanagement practices of the households in the barangays. For instance, if open burning isstrictly prohibited, the average daily GH emissions can be reduced by as much as 25% andwith other mitigating practices such as closed composting and waste segregation, the GHemissions can be further reduced to 50% of its current levels. Stricter implementation ofordinances and laws governing waste management and disposal needs to be observed if thesituation is to be arrested within the next few years.One possible reason for the rather loose implementation and adherence of people toproper waste management ordinances is their lack of understanding and appreciation of theselaws. For instance, the harmful gases emitted from either natural process or by burning thewastes are not seen as harmful by the ordinary citizen. In fact, in the old belief and tradition,burning of such wastes is considered a good practice for driving away mosquitoes. Drivingaway harmful mosquitoes for them is a far more urgent matter than lessening the release ofharmful greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The issue really boils down to satisfying apresent need (protecting ones health) versus mitigating a slow, gradual and largely unnoticedclimate change. For this reason, an effective educational intervention program will have to becrafted simultaneously focusing on (a.) addressing their health concerns such as driving awaymosquitoes and bugs, and (b.) the harmful effects of greenhouse gases to the ozone layer. Ifthese issues are clarified and well-understood by the citizens of the City, then compliance tothe waste management ordinances will be greatly enhanced.The greenhouse gas contribution of open dumping of iron, steel, old machines andbatteries could not be quantified in the present study since no conversion factors are availablein the literature. However, we suspect that these waste materials deteriorate over time throughnatural processes and also give off a significant amount of harmful greenhouse gases in theatmosphere knowing that iron and other such metals react with free oxygen and nitrogen in theatmosphere. This, of course, will be a matter for the chemists and environmentalists to dealwith in future studies. We nonetheless wish to stress the urgency of such a quantificationprocedure since more and more of this type of waste products are being produced at thehousehold level e.g. discarded cellular phones, radio batteries, and others.Finally, more than 95% of the greenhouse gas emissions from the household wastes iscarbon dioxide (CO2). This gas is naturally needed by plants for their photosynthetic processeswith oxygen as a by-product. Thus, if more plants and trees were planted in the backyards ofthese households, then the amount of CO2 directly released to the atmosphere could be furtherreduced. Perhaps, this can be implemented as part of the waste management protocols that willbe crafted by the City Officials.313

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010In the end, reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from household wastes boils downto the design and strict implementation of a city waste management program.ConclusionsHousehold wastes and garbage when improperly disposed of contribute a significantamount of harmful greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. The amount of GHG can be drasticallyreduced (by at least 50%) if proper waste management programs are implemented by the City.Likewise, since we found that over 95% of the greenhouse gas emissions from the householdwastes and garbage is carbon dioxide (CO2), planting of trees in the backyards of thesehouseholds can help in drastically reducing the free CO2 directly released to the atmosphere bytheir current practices. Proper implementation of waste management programs also implies thatthe citizens be properly educated about the value of good waste disposal practices as theserelate to the mitigation efforts to combat climate change and also, to safeguard the health of thepeople in the community.AcknowledgmentThe authors wish to thank Dr. Roberto N. Padua for the expert advice on thequantification aspect of this study and an anonymous referee for the helpful suggestions toimprove this paper.ReferencesCicin-Sain, Biliana, et al. (2002). “A Guide to Oceans, Coasts and Islands at the World Summiton Sustainable Development”Congress of the Philippines, Republic Act no. 9003: Ecological Solid Waste Management Actof 2000. Manila: January 26, 2001.Jaques A. 1992. Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Estimates for 1990. EnvironmentalProtection, Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada. December. EPS 5/AP/4.Ramos, R.P. (2003). “Waste Management in Developing Countries: A Case Study of the Toxicand Hazardous Waste in the Philippines “ (Paper Presented and Published in theEnvironmental Research Event (EERE) Conference, Mowlaei, Rose and Lamborn (eds.).SGA Energy (2000). Emission Factors and Uncertainties for CH 4 and N 2 O from FuelCombustion. Unpublished report prepared by SGA Energy Limited for the Greenhouse GasDivision, Environment Canada. August.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998). Guidance for Landfilling Wastes inEconomically Developing Countries. Office of Research and Development, Washington D.C.,EPA-600/R-98-040.United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. Compilation of Air Pollutant EmissionFactors. Vol. I, Stationary Point and Area Sources, AP 42, 5th Edition,National Inventory Report (1990-2007): Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks in Canada.Emission ratio for N 2 O is 0.017% CO 2 . Section A3.4 in Annex 3.314

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010INDUCED FORCES IN POLYMER BLENDSVERSUS TEMPERATURES. El Fassi, M. Benhamou, H. Ridouane, M. El YaznasniPolymer Physics and Critical Phenomena LaboratorySciences Faculty Ben M’sik, P.O. Box 7955, Casablanca, MoroccoAbstractWe re-examine the computation of the induced force experienced by colloidal particlesimmersed in a binary mixture, made of two chemically incompatible polymers of highmolecular-weight.Such a force originates from the strong fluctuations of composition near thecritical temperatureT c, and the fact that one polymer of the mixture prefers to be attracted bycolloids (critical adsorption). More precisely, we aim at a quantitative investigation of thetemperature effect on the force expression, when one is far fromT c. To achieve calculations,we use the standard4ϕ -theory, where the field ϕ represents the composition fluctuation(order parameter). Combining this theory with the standard cumulant method, we first findthat the effective pair-potential is the sum of two contributions, which are directly proportionalto the bulk two-point correlation functions constructed with fields ϕ and2ϕ , respectively.Second, taking advantage of the exactly known (mean-field) correlation functions, wedemonstrate that the expected force can be expressed in term of the modified Bessel functionsK 1 (z) and K 2 (z). Third, we show that the reduced induced force, D F(r) / kB T , is auniversal two-factor scaling function of the dimensionless variablesr / D andξ/ D, where r isthe inter particle-distance, ξ is the thermal correlation length of the free polymer mixture andD is the scale-distanceD = d0N , where d0is the particles diameter and N thepolymerization degree of chains. The essential conclusion is that, for high or low temperatures,the induced force becomes less important than that at the critical one.Keywords: Polymer blends, Colloids, Phase separation, Induced force, Temperature effects.IntroductionThe induced force generated by fluctuations of some physical entity is one of the mostfundamental discoveries of the last century. Already in 1948, Casimir predicted the attraction315

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010between two parallel perfectly conducting plates at zero temperature [1]. This attractionoriginates from the vacuum quantum fluctuations of the electromagnetic field confinedbetween these plates. From an experimental point of view, the electromagnetic induced forcehas been measured between metal surfaces in a series of recent experiments [2-5].The same effect also appears in other areas of physics. Indeed, in their short theoreticalnote, Fisher and de Gennes [6] pointed out that a similar effect can be present in the context ofStatistical Mechanics and Condensed Matter Physics. More precisely, this effect is inherent tothose critical systems, such as a fluid near the liquid-gas critical point, a binary liquid (or apolymer mixture) near the demixing temperature, a liquid 4 He near the λ -transition or liquidcrystals.For these systems, the critical fluctuations of the order parameter play an analoguerole than the vacuum quantum fluctuations, and then give rise to long-ranged forces betweenthe confining walls.Theoretically, the induced forces related to critical systems confined between twoparallel walls or in the presence of immersed colloidal particles, have been the subject of agreat deal of attention [6-23]. Very recently, one has also investigated the Casimir effect incritical polymer blends or ternary polymer solutions [24-28].Experimentally, several works have been devoted to the confined critical systems [29-37]. For instance, one has studied, in some experiments [29-33], the behaviour of silica beadsof diameter of the order of 0.1m immersed in binary liquid mixtures of lutidine and water.The experiments revealed that, in the vicinity of the consolute point of the free binary liquid,one assists to a reversible flocculation of colloids in the water-rich side. In fact, thisaggregation is due to a preferential adsorption of lutidine on the surface of colloids.In this paper, we consider a low density assembly of spherical colloids, which areimmersed in a mixture of two polymers A and B of different chemical nature, at a temperaturenot necessary close to the critical oneT c . We suppose that, nearT c , the colloids adsorbpreferentially the polymer chains A as in liquid mixtures of small molecules case. As aconsequence, this preferential adsorption leads to a reversible aggregation of particles in thenon-preferred B-rich phase. This flocculation results from a long-range induced force we areinterested in. Naturally, the latter depends on the interparticle-distance, the temperature and thebulk and surface universality classes. We restrict ourselves here to the surface universalityclass that corresponds to the situation of high chemical potential exchange on the surface of the316

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010interacting colloids. This special class is attributed to the so-called normal transition [38,39].More precisely, the purpose is the determination of the variation of the induced force betweencolloids upon distance, when one is far from the critical temperature. The computation of thisforce at the critical point has been the subject of some previous work [27]. Thus, we areinterested in how temperature can affect the value of the expected force. Manifestly, the latteris increasingly weak as one goes far fromT c . As a matter of fact, this is due to a considerablereduction of the critical fluctuations of the order parameter away from the critical point.To achieve the determination of the spatial variation of the induced force, use is madeof a field-theoretical approach based on the standard4ϕ -theory [40,41], where the fieldϕ accounts for the composition fluctuation (order parameter). With the help of the standardcumulant method [40,41], we first compute the resulting pair-potential from which we extractthe induced force. Exact calculations reveal that the force can be expressed in term of themodified Bessel function K ν (z)[42]. In addition, when it is correctly reduced and itsvariables are suitably rescaled, the force expression shows a universal character, independentlyon the chemical nature of the two polymers and colloids.This paper is organized as follows. In the second section, we present the field modelenabling us to compute the induced force. The determination of the latter is the aim of the thirdsection. Finally, we draw some concluding remarks in the last section.Field ModelWe start with M spherical colloidal particles immersed in a binary mixture made of twochemically incompatible polymers A and B. For simplicity, these particles are assumed to beidentical from a physical and geometrical point of view. We will denote by R their commonradius. We suppose that, near the consolute temperatureTcof the host mixture, these particleshave tendency to attract rather the polymer A. This is the so-called critical adsorption[6,38,39,43-53], where each colloid is clothed by a layer made of monomers A. As result, theparticles located in the non-preferred B-rich phase aggregate. Therefore, these experience along-range attractive force, which is responsible for their aggregation.The flocculation phenomenon can be studied through the introduction of an orderparameter or composition fluctuation. The latter is nothing else but the difference ofcompositions and of the two polymers, that is .The order parameter317

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010is a scalar field depending on the position vectormixture in the presence of colloids.The Hamiltonian governing the system is given byof the representative point of theWhere T is the absolute temperature and the Boltzmann's constant. The first term in theright-hand side of the above equality accounts for the (reduced) bulk Hamiltonian of the hostmixture [54]where d is the space dimensionality andrepresents the distance from thecritical point. Here, denotes the Flory interaction parameter [54,55], which is inverselyproportional to temperature, and is its critical value. There, is thecoupling constant, where N is the common polymerization degree of chains, andisa constant (a being the monomer size). The first two terms in the right-hand side of formula(1a) are just the expansion to fourth order of the standard Flory-Huggins (FH) free energy[54,55] around the critical composition, or equivalently around . There,are the values of field on the surfaces of colloids. The quantity accounts forthe elementary surface on colloid i, c stands for the surface coupling constant [38,39,56],which measures the interaction strength between polymer mixture and surfaces of colloids, andfor the (reduced) surface chemical potentials difference of the two polymers[6]. In fact, and play the role of the local magnetization and surface magnetic field in thecontext of magnetic materials in the presence of surfaces [38,39,56].It is easy to see that the order parameter satisfies the boundary conditions318

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010where the notation means the normal derivative of field on the surface of colloid i.For small enough particles, the Hamiltonian governing the system reduces toThis total Hamiltonian then describes a critical binary polymer mixture in the presence of Mcolloids (boundaries). Therefore, the interactions between polymer mixture and colloidsdepend only on two surface microscopic parameters . We emphasize that the quadraticsurface term, in Eq. (2), tends to increase the temperature parameter t appearing in the bulkHamiltonian, relation (1a). This means that such a term reduces the chemical interactions in thehost system. The surface linear term that breaks the symmetry is introduced in orderto take into account the preference of colloidal particles for one polymer of the mixture. Thecritical adsorption emerges in the limit , at fixed [ 38,39].Furthermore, it was shown [27] that the scale-invariance leads to some relationsbetween the surface microscopic parameters and the amplitudes of composition profilesand bulk two-point correlation functions of the free mixture, constructed with the fieldcomposite operator. More precisely, it was found [27] thator theand represent the amplitudes of the mean-values of fields and relative to onesphere of radius R that is immersed in a polymer blend [27], that is319

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Here, r denotes the distance from the centre of the sphere. In these relations, and are thescaling dimensions of fields and(5)With the space dimension d, and and are the standard critical exponents of Ising-likemagnetic systems [40,41]. Using an adequate special conformal transformation, it was found[18,19] that the profiles relative to the one-sphere problem may be related to those in a halfspacebywhere z is the perpendicular distance, and and are those amplitudes appearing in Eqs.(4a) and (4b). This means that, for the determination of the value of these amplitudes, it will besufficient to consider a polymer mixture occupying a semi-infinite space limited by a planesurface. On the other hand, and are the amplitudes, at small-distances compared to thebulk correlation length ξ, of the (connected) two-point correlation functions,(The subscripts b is for bulk and c for connected).We recall that, as demonstrated by de Gennes [54,57], the polymer mixtures can becorrectly described using mean-field theory. This is true only for those polymer mixtures ofhigh-molecular-weight. Indeed, the critical region around the critical point, where a non-320

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010classical behaviour is expected, is very narrow (of the order of, so-that the mean-fieldtheory can be applied. Therefore, close to, one observes trivial critical exponents, and inparticular,. The critical behaviour of a free binary polymer mixture emerges inthe limit (4 being the critical dimension of the system), and then, and. By a simple map between the sphere and a semi-infinite space, we obtainFor the remaining amplitudes, we simply sketch the resultsTo derive the second relation in Eq. (9), we have used the Wick theorem [40,41].Combining relations (3), (8) and (9), we find the desired expressionsThese relations show the explicit dependence of the surface microscopic parameters uponcolloids geometry, via their radius R, and chains characteristics, through the monomer size aand the polymerization degree N.We finish this section by the following useful remark. When one is concerned withphenomena occurring at low temperature , the field must be naturally written aswhere the new field is the fluctuation of the order parameter around its bulk value321

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010which is the minimum of the standard FH free energy. Now, insert the decomposition (11) inthe total Hamiltonian, relations (1a) and (2), and expand it to second order around , togetWith the new bulk Hamiltonianwhich is quadratic in the field . The parameters and areExplicitly, we havewhere c and µ are those surface parameters defined in Eq. (10). The signs (+) and (-) are forhigh and low temperatures, respectively.The following step consists in the computation of the induced force away from thecritical point. To this end, use will be made of the new Hamiltonian, relations (12) and (13).322

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Induced ForcesAs we said in the beginning, the critical fluctuations of the order parameter give rise to aninduced force, which is attractive and of long-range. The determination of the distance decayof such a force will be achieved through the knowledge of the pair-potential, denoted, .Here, r is the center-to-center distance of two interacting particles. Formally, and takingadvantage of the standard cumulant method [40,41], we show that the p-bodyinteractionenergy,, is directly proportional to the connected p-point correlation function,which is constructed with the field operatorNotice that for p = 1, the one-body potentialspatial translation symmetry. For p = 2, we get the pair-potentialis space-independent due to theExplicitly, we havewhereandare the connected two-point correlation functions of fields ψand, respectively. These functions are constructed with the Boltzmann323

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010weight , where is the bulk Hamiltonian, relation (12).We note that the second equality in relation (15c) results from the Wick theorem [40,41].Remark the absence of the crossed coefficientin relation (15a). Indeed, this coefficient multiplies the correlation function, which is zero, since the bulk Hamiltonian is quadratic in the field ψ. On theother hand, the correlation functioncan be computed exactly. Then, the result, in the mean-field limit , writes [59]where is the modified Bessel function [42]. Here, is that amplitude appearing in Eq.(9), andis the bulk correlation length, with amplitudes (above ) and(below ). With these considerations, we find that, near , the pair-potential writesNow, the first derivative of this potential with respect to the distance r gives the expectedinduced force,We have used some recursion formulae satisfied by the modified Bessel function [42].formBefore discussion, let us first rewrite the above expression on the following scalingwith the universal scaling functions324

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010and amplitudesRemark that these amplitudes are pure numbers. There,is the step-function. Wehave used the notation , where is the particle diameter. Then, thelength D may be viewed as a renormalized particle size.Now, let us discuss the derived expression for the induced force.Firstly, we emphasize that we have ignored higher order cumulants describing threebodyinteractions and more. In this sense, formula (18) is exact only when one is concernedwith two-body interactions. Also, in the bulk Hamiltonian, we have ignored nonquadratictermsas and , which must contribute when one performs loopexpansion[41,42],in field theory language. These terms are discarded here, since the meanfieldtheory we consider is just the zeroth order approximation of the loop expansion.Secondly, we note that, in thelimit, that is when one is exactly at the consolutepoint, we recover the previous results of Ref. [27]. Indeed, in this limit, wehave .Thirdly, the contribution of the surface chemical potentials difference dominates. Thismeans that the direct interactions between the mixture and particles play only a minor role.Fourthly, the dependence of the force on the particle size is trivial and appears throughthe renormalized diameter D.Fifthly, the decreasing character of the Bessel function indicates that, as it should be,the force below the consolute point is more important than above, when one is at the samedistance from . Notice thatSixthly, for all temperatures around the consolute oneand at fixed inter particledistancer, the force is less important than at. This is due to the fact that the two scalingfunctions and are bounded from above by 1, that is and ,325

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010for all. Therefore, the temperature has as effect to reduce the induced force, when onegoes away from the critical point.Seventhly, formula (19) tells us that the reduced force,, is a two-factor scalingfunction of the renormalized distance and the ratio . In addition, it is a universalfunction of these variables, independently on the chemical structure of polymers and colloids.Eighthly, at fixed distance r and very close to the critical pointforce obeys an exponential decay, that is, the inducedWe have used the standard mathematical formula [42]: . The above expression tells us that thetemperature has as effect to ”screen” the induced force at . The correlation lengththen plays the role of the standard Debye screening length [60], but the computed inducedforce is much smaller than the screened Coulombian one.Finally, we give an order of magnitude of the induced force. We consider thehydrogenated polyolefin-deuterated polyolefin mixture incorporating silicon particles ofdiameter, for which the polymerization degree and critical temperature werefound to be [61] : , . We take as values for the inter particle distanceand correlation length : , . For these values, we find that the magnitudeof the force is :. This force must be compared to that relative tothe considered polymer mixture confined to two parallel plates separated by the same distance. The magnitude of the latter is . Thus, the forcebetween parallel plates is two times more important than that between a pair of colloids. Also,the same force must be compared to the electromagnetic one, which is of the order ofdyne (for ).326

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010In Fig.1, we report the reduced induced forces,, versus the dimension lessdistance , for two temperatures and . In Fig.2, we superpose tworeduced induced forces relative to two temperatures and away from , asfunctions of the dimensionless distance. These curves reflect the above deductions.ConclusionsWe recall that the purpose of the present paper was the determination of the spatial variation ofthe induced force between colloidal particles immersed in a binary polymer mixture, attemperatures far from the critical one. The colloidal aggregation is due to a preferentialattraction of one polymer by the particles.All calculations were done in the framework of the standard -theory, where the fieldis simply the composition fluctuation (order parameter). Applying this theory and using thecumulant method, we first showed that the resulting pair-potential is the sum of twocontributions, which are proportional to bulk two-point correlation functions constructed withfields and , respectively. Second, for polymer mixtures of high molecular weight, these(mean-field) correlation functions are known exactly, and we found that the expected force canbe expressed in term of the modified Bessel function .When it is adequately reduced, the force becomes a universal two-factor scalingfunction of the dimensionless variables and , where r is the inter particle-distance,is the correlation length andis the renormalized diameter.We emphasize that the force expression we obtained can be extended to two particles ofdifferent radii and . For this case, we state that the new expression would be similar tothat relative to a mono disperse colloidal system, by making the following change of therenormalized diameter : .We note that the above calculations make sense only for relatively high separations,that is for, with ∆ the surface-to-surface distance between two spheres of the same327

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010radius R. When(very small-distances), however, the colloids can be viewed as twoparallel plates. For this case, the induced force decays rather as [25, 26].Finally, the main conclusion is that, in any case, the temperature has tendency to reducethe value of the expected force (at fixed inter particle-distance) as one moves outside thecritical region.Further works in relation with the subject are in progress.AcknowledgmentsWe are much indebted to Professors M. Daoud for fruitful discussions and to S. Dietrich,E.Eisenriegler and M. Krech for useful correspondences.ReferencesH.B.G.Casimir, Proc.Kon.Ned.Akad.Wetenschap B51, 793 (1948).S.K.Lamoreaux, Phys.Rev.Lett.78, 5 (1997).U.Mohideen and A. Roy, Phys.Rev.Lett.81, 4549 (1998).T.Ederth, Phys.Rev. A 62, 62104 (2000).G.Bressi et al., Phys.Rev.Lett.88, 41804 (2002).M.E.Fisher and P.-G.deGennes,C.R.Acad.Sci. (Paris) SérieB 287, 207 (1978);also, P.-G.deGennes, C.R.Acad.Sci. (Paris) II292, 701 (1981).M.Krech, TheCasimir Effect in Critical Systems, World Scientific, Singapore, (1994).M.Krech and S. Dietrich, Phys.Rev. A 46, 1886 (1992).M.Krech, Phys.Rev.E56, 1642 (1997).H.W.J.Blöte, J.L.Cardy, and M.P. Nightingale, Phys.Rev.Lett.56, 742 (1986).I. Affleck,Phys.Rev.Lett. 56, 746 (1986).J.L.Cardy,Nucl.Phys. B275, 200 (1986).T.W.Burkhardt and T.Xue, Phys.Rev.Lett. 66, 895 (1991); Nucl.Phys. B 345, 653(1991).T.W.Burkhardt and E.Eisenriegler,Nucl.Phys. B424, 487 (1994).K.Symanzik,Nucl.Phys. B190, 1 (1981).M.Krech and S. Dietrich, Phys.Rev.Lett. 66, 345 (1991); 67, 1055 (1991).E.Eisenriegler and M.Stapper,Phys.Rev. B 50, 10009 (1994).328

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010T.W.Burkhardt and E.Eisenriegler, Phys.Rev.Lett. 74, 3189 (1995).E.Eisenriegler and U.Ritschel, Phys.Rev. B51, 13717 (1995).K.K. Mon, Phys.Rev.Lett. 54, 2671 (1985); M.Krech, D.P.Landau, Phys.Rev. E,53, 4414(1996).E.Eisenriegler, A.Hanke, and S. Dietrich, Phys.Rev. E54, 1134 (1996).R.R.Netz, Phys.Rev.Lett. 76, 3646 (1996).F.Schlesener, A.Hanke, and S.Dietrich, J.Stat.Phys.110, 981 (2003), and referencestherein.A.SaoutElhak et al., J.Chem.Phys.111, 8174(1999).R.Cherrabi et al.,Phys.Rev. E 62, 6795(2000).E.-K.Hachem, M.Benhamou, and M.Daoud, J.Chem.Phys. 116, 8168 (2002).H.Ridouane, E.-K.Hachem, and M.Benhamou, J.Chem.Phys.118, 10780 (2003).H.Ridouane, E.-K.Hachem, and M.Benhamou, Cond.Matter Phys. 7, 63 (2004).D.Beysens and D.Estève, Phys.Rev.Lett.54, 2123 (1985).V.Gurfein, D.Beysens, and F. Perrot, Phys.Rev. A 40, 2543 (1989).M.L.Broide, Y.Garrabos, and D.Beysens, Phys.Rev. E47, 3768 (1993).T. Narayanan et al., Phys.Rev. E 48, 1989 (1993).For a review, see D.Beysens et al.,J.Phys.Chem.98, 382 (1994).P.D.Gallagher, M.L.Kurnaz, and J.V. Maher,Phys.Rev. A 46, 7750 (1992).M.L.Kurnaz and J.V. Maher, Phys.Rev. E 51, 5916 (1995).H. Grüll and D.Woermann, J.Phys.Chem. 101, 814 (1997).A list of very recent experimental works can be found in : G.A.Williams, Physica C404, 415(2004).H.W.Diehl, in : Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena, edited by C.DombandJ.L.Lebowitz, Vol. 10, Academic Press, London, (1986).S.Dietrich, in : Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena, edited by C.Domb andJ.L.Lebowitz, Vol. 12, Academic Press, London, (1988).C.Itzykson and J.-M.Drouffe,Statistical Field Theory : 1 and 2, Cambridge UniversityPress,(1989).J.Zinn-Justin, Quantum Field Theory and Critical Phenomena, Clarendon Press,Oxford,(1989).I.S.Gradshteyn and I.M.Ryzik, Table of Integrals, Series and Products, Academic Press, NewYork, (1980).329

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010D.Beysens and S.Leibler, J.Phys.Lett. (Paris) 43, L-133 (1982).C. Franck and S.E.Schnatterly,Phys.Rev.Lett. 48, 763 (1982).M.Schlossman, X.-L.Wu, and C.Franck, Phys.Rev. B 31, 1478 (1985).J.A.Dixo et al.,Phys.Rev. B 31, 1509 (1985).An extensive list of very recent experiments using some new techniques can be found in:A.Hanke et al., Phys.Rev. E, 60, 5163 (1999).S. Blümel and G.H.Findenegg,Phys.Rev.Lett. 54, 447 (1985).E.Brézin and S.Leibler, Phys.Rev. B 27, 594 (1983); S.Leibler, PhD Thesis, Université ParisXI, (1984).J.Rudnik and D.Jasnow, Phys.Rev.Lett. 48, 1595 (1982).S.Leibler and L.Peliti, J.Phys. C 15, L-403 (1982).L.Peliti and S.Leibler, J.Phys. C 16, L-2635 (1983).Critical adsorption on curved objects, such as single spherical and rod-like colloidal particles,has been investigated in : A.Hanke and S. Dietrich, Phys.Rev. E,59, 5081(1999); A.Hanke,Phys.Rev.Lett.48, 2180 (2000).P.-G.deGennes, Scaling Concepts in Polymer Physics, Cornell University Press, Ithaca,NewYork, (1979).P.J. Flory, Principles of Polymer Chemistry, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, (1953).K.Binder, in : Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena, Vol. 8, edited by C.DombandJ.L.Lebowitz, Academic Press, London, (1983).P.-G.de Gennes, J.Phys.Lett. (Paris)38, L-441 (1977); J.-F.Joanny,J.Phys.A,11, L-177 (1978);K. Binder,J.Chem.Phys. 79, 6387 (1983).The bare surface parameters c and µ are usually assumed to be temperature independent.See Appendix B of Ref. [27].P.Debye and E. Hückel, Z. Phys.24, 185 (1923).M.Wendlandt et al.,J.Polymer Science : Part B38, 831 (2000).330

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010FIGURE CAPTIONSFig. 1:Reduced induced force, , upon the renormalized distance , fortwo temperatures (dashed curve) and (solid curve).Fig. 2: Reduced induced force, , upon the renormalized distance , fortwo temperatures (dashed line) and (solid line).331

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010FIGURES LISTDF/kB T c0 T=1,001 x Tc-1-2T=Tc-3-4-50,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06r/DFigure 1332

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010DF/kB T c0T=1,2 x Tc-1-2T=1,1 x Tc-3-4-50,006 0,008 0,010 0,012 0,014r/DFigure 2333

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010LIFESTYLES OF CITY BARANGAY RESIDENTSASSOCIATED TO CLIMATE CHANGEDaylinda Luz R. Laput and Jay D. TelenResearch Director, Jose Rizal Memorial State University, Dipolog Campus, Dipolog CityDean, Student Affairs and Services, Jose Rizal Memorial State University, Main Campus,Dapitan CityAbstractThis study determines the lifestyles associated to climate change among the residents inthe city barangays of Dipolog and Dapitan. Results revealed that the study is dominated withstudents and young professionals with ages 11 to 29 years old whose behaviors and practicesin the workplace, at home and workplace combined, in social and economic interactions, andin the home seemed to have mitigated and aggravated the impact on climate change. Lifestylesof respondents in the workplace ranked highest. It was also found out that there was nodifference on the lifestyles at home, in the workplace, in social and economic interactions, inthe home and workplace combined between professionals and non-professionals in Dipologand Dapitan cities. It concludes that practices of office workers and homemakers prove to haveincreased or aggravated the effect of climate change yet they have compelling reasons to bevalue-focused in some ways like being organized, health conscious and comfortable. Itrecommends that lifestyles of residents in highly urbanized areas have to be subjected to somebehavior modifications. Private and joint adaptations have to be enforced to reduce themagnitude of harm brought about by environmental changes. And the government needs toinitiate policies on joint adaptation, to carefully design efficient responses which treat arisingproblems associated to climate change.Keywords: climate change, mitigating, aggravating lifestylesIntroductionClimate change has indeed remained a dynamic and alarming issue in almost allconventions of men, since it demands an increasing sense of urgency. Many have now felt andexperienced the impact of climate change to the environment, public health, the globaleconomy, global security, and the civil society.Convincingly, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2001)enumerated some of the occurrences that indicate climate change and these include thespreading of disease, plant and animal range shifts and population changes, coral reefbleaching, downpours, heavy snowfalls and flooding, droughts and fires. According to them,these are only a few of the increasing body of observations which give a collective picture of awarming world and other changes in the climate system.334

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010The excerpts of McCosker (2009) from a summary of the 2009 Copenhagen Accord onGlobal Climate Change and an examination of Australia's position on the environment,explicitly expressed that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of our time. Ourstrong political will must be emphasized to urgently combat climate change in accordance withthe principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities.John Holdren (2007), President of the American Association for the Advancement ofScience, further added that we basically have three choices - mitigation, adaptation, andsuffering. We are going to do some of each. The question is what the mix is going to be. Themore mitigation we do, the less adaptation will be required, and the less suffering there willbe.This phenomenon could be attributed to the behaviors, practices and lifestyles of thepeople who have dwelt and continually exploited the natural resources and have constantlydone activities that pose threats to the environment. Only men could find ways to mitigate orperhaps totally solve these threatening environmental conditions. Thus, this paper anchored onsome theories that would somehow help elucidate some concepts on people’s behaviors andpractices and the consequences that they may bring to their personal lives, to the lives of othersand to the environment as a whole. One of which is the Social Cognitive Theory of Banduraand Mischel (1999) cited by Pervin & John (2001) that emphasizes the social origins ofbehavior and the importance of cognitive thought processes in all aspects of humanfunctioning-motivation, emotion, and action. The theory suggests that behavior can beexplained in terms of an interaction between the person and the environment. People areinfluenced by environmental forces, but they also choose how to behave. The person is bothresponsive to situations and actively constructs and influences situations. People selectsituations as well as being shaped by them; they influence the behavior of others as well asbeing shaped by the behavior of others. According to social cognitive theory, behavior issituation-specific and people have distinctive patterns of behaving in situations.The theory further proposes that behavior change is affected by environmentalinfluences, personal factors, and attributes of the behavior itself. Each may affect or be affectedby either of the other two. A central tenet of social cognitive theory is the concept of selfefficacy.A person must believe in his or her capability to perform the behavior (i.e., the personmust possess self-efficacy) and must perceive an incentive to do so (i.e., the person's positiveexpectations from performing the behavior must outweigh the negative expectations).Additionally, a person must value the outcomes or consequences that he or she believes willoccur as a result of performing a specific behavior or action.This is also supported with the theory of reasoned action which states that individualperformance of a given behavior is primarily determined by a person's intention to perform thatbehavior. This intention is determined by two major factors: the person's attitude toward thebehavior (i.e., beliefs about the outcomes of the behavior and the value of these outcomes) andthe influence of the person's social environment or subjective norm (i.e., beliefs about whatother people think the person should do, as well as the person's motivation to comply with theopinions of others). The theory of planned behavior adds to the theory of reasoned action theconcept of perceived control over the opportunities, resources, and skills necessary to performa behavior. The concept of perceived behavioral control is similar to the concept of selfefficacy-- person's perception of his or her ability to perform the behavior. Perceivedbehavioral control over opportunities, resources, and skills necessary to perform a behavior isbelieved to be a critical aspect of behavior change processes.335

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010The Field Theory of Lewin (1947) cited by Smith (2001) also believed that for changeto take place, the total situation has to be taken into account. If only part of the situation isconsidered, a misrepresented picture is likely to develop. His theory further asserted thatbehavior was determined by totality of an individual’s situation. In his field theory, a field isdefined as the totality of coexisting facts which are conceived of as mutually interdependent.Individuals were seen to behave differently according to the way in which tensions betweenperceptions of the self and of the environment were worked through. The whole psychologicalfield, or life space, within which people acted had to be viewed, in order to understandbehavior. Within this individuals and groups could be seen in topological terms (using maplikerepresentations). Individuals participate in a series of life spaces (such as the family, work,school and church), and these were constructed under the influence of various force vectors.However, behavior modifications are possible through a therapy program as stressed byNewton (1996). He defined behavior modification therapy as something that seeks toextinguish or inhibit abnormal or maladaptive behavior by reinforcing desired behavior andextinguishing undesired behavior. The goal of a program of behavior modification is to changeand adjust behavior that is inappropriate or undesirable in some way. With this program, theindividual would be aware of his undesirable behavior and with this awareness comes thegreater goal of understanding the cause and effect of the behaviors, thus helping to affectchange.It is for this reason that the researchers believed that the lifestyle changing behaviorsand practices of the city barangay residents could be significantly associated to climate changeand hypothesized that there is no difference on the lifestyles at home, in the workplace, insocial and economic interactions, in the home and workplace combined between professionalsand non-professionals, hence, this study.Objectives of the StudyThe study aimed to determine the lifestyle changing behaviors and practices of citybarangay residents that mitigate or amplify the impact of climate change in their workplaces,social and economic interactions, and in their homes. It also profiled the respondents’ age andprofession to draw the demarcation line in those behaviors and practices they commonlyadapted in the specifically given scenarios. And most importantly, this study was purposelydone to frame out sound recommendations relating to behavior modification adaptive possiblyto mitigating climate change.Research MethodThis study employed the descriptive method of research. The questionnaire, in checklistform was made by the researchers to rank common behaviors and practices in mitigating orincreasing climate change. Respondents included students and professionals in varying agesparticularly residing in the urbanized areas of Dipolog and Dapitan cities. In treating the surveydata, frequency and percentage ranking were utilized, while in determining the difference inlifestyles in the home, workplace, social and economic interactions and home and workplacecombined between professional and non-professional city residents, Friedman’s two-wayAnalysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used.336

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Results and DiscussionTable 1 shows the respondents’ age. It revealed that 310 or 62% aged 11 to 29 yearsold; 113 or 22.5%, 30 to 49 years old; and 46 or 9.2%, 50 to 69 years old. This implies thatthose with behaviors and practices which mitigate or increase the impact on climate changewere people belonging to the young generation. It means that the young individuals are directlyresponsible in effecting lifestyle change to adapt with the change in climate.Table 1 Respondents’ AgeAge Bracket Frequency Percentage Rank70 years old and above 12 2.4% 550 to 69 years old 46 9.2% 330 to 49 years old 113 22.6% 211 to 29 years old 310 62% 110 years old and below 19 3.8% 4TOTAL 500 100%Table 2 presents the respondents’ profession. It showed that 257 or 51.4% studentsranked highest; followed by 206 or 41.2% professionals. Only 37 or 7.4 percent consisted ofthe retirees. It implies that lifestyles to mitigate climate change are concentrated amongstudents and young professionals. This means that most of those who are formally educated areadept on lifestyles associated to climate change.Table 2 Respondents’ ProfessionProfession Frequency Percentage RankStudents 257 51.4% 1Professionals 206 41.2% 2Retirees 37 7.4% 3TOTAL 500 100%Table 3 Behaviors and Practices Associating to the Impact on Climate Change at HomeLIFESTYLES ASSOCIATED TO CLIMATECHANGEA. Home F Ave. Rank Rank of Ranks1. Wears cotton clothing 272 1.79 2.52. Cleans bathroom and CR 289 2.06 93. Teaches children to live simply 220 2.02 84. Provides children valuable memories, quality time 204 2.23 10together5. Makes home a place any members of the familywant to come back220 1.97 5337

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 20106. Sleeps late at night 331 1.94 47. Prefers to drink cold water 285 1.76 18. Washes dishes in running water from faucet 176 2.00 69. Hands on with children 100 2.01 710. Brushes teeth with faucet open 178 1.79 2.5Table 3 presents the behaviors and practices associating to the impact on climatechange at home. Results revealed that respondents’ preference to drink cold water ranked first;wearing cotton clothing and brushing teeth with faucet open, followed and equaled in rank;sleeping late at night, was next. This implies that respondents manifested more aggravatinglifestyles at home which means that they contributed much to the increase in the impact ofclimate change.This coincides with the report of Rosenzweig (2008) linking humans to climate changeand she revealed that observed global-scale impacts are very likely because of human-causedwarming. According to her, humans are influencing climate through increasing greenhouse gasemissions. The warming is causing impacts on physical and biological systems that are nowattributable at the global scale.Table 4 Behaviors and Practices Associating to the Impact on Climate Change atWorkplaceLIFESTYLES ASSOCIATED TO CLIMATECHANGEB. Workplace F Ave. Rank Rank of Ranks1. Downloads files 117 1.97 82. Sends reports and files through e-mail 82 1.98 93. Keeps planner, book, wallet, kit, mosquito 144 1.51 1repellant, Eucalyptus roll-on, nail cutter, nail file,napkin, medicines such as paracetamol, antacid, etc.in the handbag4. Leaves computer in a switch on mode 75 1.56 35. Listens to MP3 while working in the office 77 1.90 66. Multitasks oneself like texting, blogging,104 1.91 7chumming, tweeting, engaging in long teletalks,internet gaming while at work7. Sidetasks self on computer games such as spider 68 2.30 10solitaire, pinball, Zuma, backgammon, minesweep,etc.8. Leaves air-conditioned unit on while taking noon 47 1.53 2break9. Dines out every mealtime while at work 43 1.61 510. Leaves ringing office telephones unanswered 32 1.59 4Table 4 shows behaviors and practices associating to the impact on climate change atworkplace. Findings revealed that keeping planner, book, wallet, kit, mosquito repellant,338

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Eucalyptus roll-on, nail cutter, nail file, napkin, medicines such as paracetamol, antacid, etc. inthe handbag, leaving air conditioning unit on while taking noon breaks, and leaving thecomputer in a switch on mode were rated by the respondents on the first, second and third rankrespectively. This implies that respondents still have more lifestyles which heighten the effectsof climate change than those that mitigate, but they have other compelling reasons to be valuefocusedat times when they are at work such as that behavior of being well-organized. Despitethose compelling reasons, the United Nations Environment Programme-World MeteorologicalOrganization (1997) confirmed in their report that human activities are contributing to climatechange, and that there has been a discernible human influence on global climate and that theseactivities will have an increasing influence on future climate.Table 5 Behaviors and Practices Associating to the Impact on Climate Change in Socialand Economic InteractionsLIFESTYLES ASSOCIATED TO CLIMATE CHANGEC. Social and Economic Interactions F Ave. Rank Rank of Ranks1. Prefers to commute from home to work and vice versa 204 1.50 12. Emails to friends and family 194 2.13 83. Sends text messages through SMS 186 1.82 44. Uploads photos and other files on social networks 171 2.18 95. Engages in bodily and mental exercises such as yoga,painting, cooking, baking, swimming, other sports andmartial arts6. Listens to radio and watches TV broadcast andinfomercials.182 1.98 6344 1.62 27. Leaves the other person enjoy the freedom to decide 204 1.92 58. Spends time at the beach breathing fresh air, dipping feet in 159 2.28 10the water, or bathing at the sea9. Rides on PUVs even to short distance destinations 110 1.63 310. Prefers calling than texting 125 2.09 7Table 5 presents behaviors and practices associating to the impact on climate change insocial and economic interactions. Results showed that respondents rated commuting fromhome to work and vice-versa first; listening to radio and watching TV broadcast andcommercials, second; and riding on PUVs even to short distance destinations, third. Thisimplies that respondents were much behavior-focused as evidenced by their choices orpreferences in keeping with work efficiency and their growing concern for public information.This means that in order to cope with the intense effects of climate change nowadays, peoplelearn to adjust their lifestyles by either sacrificing their own comfort on transfer and movementto places or managing their inclinations to fit in to work and social demands.339

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Table 6 Behaviors and Practices Associating to the Impact on Climate Change at Homeand WorkplaceLIFESTYLES ASSOCIATED TO CLIMATE CHANGED. Home and Workplace F Ave. Rank Rank of1. Applies facial creams, body moisturizers, sunblock andother extra skin and hair care protect and energyboosting, skin revitalizing products2. Goes vegetarian by eating only fish or no fish at all diet,avoiding junk foods and softdrinks3. Takes dietary food supplements such as wheatgrass,vitaplus, fernslim, vitalC, fernC, bioslim and otherweight reducing substances4. Sticks to daily routines from the moment of waking upto bedtime such as fixing the bed, taking meals on time,etc. to freshening up at nightRanks155 1.96 5164 1.79 2121 2.09 7263 1.82 45. Maintains regular meeting with family members and 196 1.98 6workmates.6. Leaves the room or hall with its lights on 133 1.65 17. Charges cellular phones beyond the required charging time 203 1.81 3Table 6 shows behaviors and practices associating to the impact on climate change inthe home and workplace. Findings revealed practices such as leaving the room or hall with itslights on, going vegetarian by eating only fish or no fish at all, avoiding junk foods and softdrinks, and charging cellular phones beyond the required charging time were the first threehighest ranking lifestyles at home and work combined. This implies that respondents haveworsened the effect on climate change as they apparently have wasted on energy at the sametime they are trying to mitigate it through attitudes concerning much more on health andnutrition. This means that staying fit and healthy would sometimes appear to have preoccupiedthe respondents however they also obviously have alarming tendencies on power misuse,which eventually would bring about a devastating impact to climate change. Disclosing thestatements from (http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/climate/causes.htm), all of us in ourdaily lives contribute our bit to this change in the climate. Electricity is the main source ofpower in urban areas. All our gadgets run on electricity generated mainly from thermal powerplants. These thermal power plants are run on fossil fuels (mostly coal) and are responsible forthe emission of huge amounts of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Cars, buses, and trucksare the principal ways by which goods and people are transported in most of our cities. Theseare run mainly on petrol or diesel, both fossil fuels. We generate large quantities of waste in340

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010the form of plastics that remain in the environment for many years and cause damage. We usea huge quantity of paper in our work at schools and in offices which would mean that largeareas of forest have to be cut down.Table 7 Average Ranks Showing the Difference in Lifestyles between Professionals andNon-ProfessionalsLIFESTYLES ASSOCIATED TO CLIMATE CHANGEA. HomeProfessionalsAve. RankRank ofRanksNon-ProfessionalsAve. Rank1. Wears cotton clothing 1.67 2.5 1.89 3.52. Cleans bathroom and CR 1.94 8 2.13 8Rank ofRanks3. Teaches children to live simply 1.86 5 1.94 54. Provides children valuable memories, quality 2.31 10 2.16 9time together5. Makes home a place any members of the family 1.85 4 1.84 2want to come back6. Sleeps late at night 1.89 6.5 1.96 77. Prefers to drink cold water 1.89 6.5 1.67 18. Washes dishes in running water from faucet 2.16 9 1.89 69. Hands on with children 1.67 2.5 2.38 1010. Brushes teeth with faucet open 1.62 1 1.89 3.5B. WorkplaceProfessionals Non-ProfessionalsAve. RankRank ofRanksAve. Rank11. Downloads files 2.22 9 1.91 712. Sends reports and files through e-mail 2.12 8 1.79 3Rank ofRanks13. Keeps planner, book, wallet, kit, mosquito 1.44 2 1.81 4repellant, Eucalyptus roll-on, nail cutter, nail file,napkin, medicines such as paracetamol, antacid,etc. in the handbag14. Leaves computer in a switch on mode 1.54 3 1.61 215. Listens to MP3 while working in the office 1.84 4 2.00 816. Multitasks oneself like texting, blogging, 1.89 5 1.89 6chumming, tweeting, engaging in long teletalks,internet gaming while at work17. Sidetasks self on computer games such as spider 2.26 10 2.24 9solitaire, pinball, Zuma, backgammon,minesweep, etc.18. Leaves air-conditioned unit on while taking noon 1.38 1 2.60 10break19. Dines out every mealtime while at work 2.00 7 1.11 120. Leaves ringing office telephones unanswered 1.94 6 1.86 5C. Social and Economic Interactions Professionals Non-ProfessionalsAve. RankRank ofRanksAve. RankRank of341

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Ranks21. Prefers to commute from home to work and vice 1.50 1 1.49 2versa22. Emails to friends and family 2.09 7 2.21 1023. Sends text messages through SMS 1.95 6 2.03 624. Uploads photos and other files on social networks 2.21 9 1.19 125. Engages in bodily and mental exercises such as 1.86 4 2.20 9yoga, painting, cooking, baking, swimming, othersports and martial arts26. Listens to radio and watches TV broadcast and 1.81 3 1.57 3infomercials.27. Leaves the other person enjoy the freedom to 1.90 5 1.92 5decide28. Spends time at the beach breathing fresh air, 2.33 10 2.10 8dipping feet in the water, or bathing at the sea29. Rides on PUVs even to short distance destinations 1.61 2 1.76 430. Prefers calling than texting 2.11 8 2.08 7D. Home and WorkplaceProfessionals Non-Professionals31. Applies facial creams, body moisturizers,sunblock and other extra skin and hair careprotect and energy boosting, skin revitalizingproducts32. Goes vegetarian by eating only fish or no fish atall diet, avoiding junk foods and softdrinks33. Takes dietary food supplements such aswheatgrass, vitaplus, fernslim, vitalC, fernC,bioslim and other weight reducing substances34. Sticks to daily routines from the moment ofwaking up to bedtime such as fixing the bed,taking meals on time, etc. to freshening up atnight35. Maintains regular meeting with family membersand workmates.Ave. RankRank ofRanksAve. RankRank ofRanks1.75 2 2.31 71.84 4 1.89 42.09 6.5 2.11 61.76 3 1.00 12.09 6.5 1.78 236. Leaves the room or hall with its lights on 1.60 1 1.93 537. Charges cellular phones beyond the required charging 1.86 5 1.79 3timeTable 7 presents the average ranks showing the lifestyles of professionals and nonprofessionals.It showed that among professionals, lifestyles such as brushing their teeth withfaucet open; leaving office air-conditioning units on while taking noon breaks; commutingfrom home to work and vice versa; and leaving the room or hall with its lights on, ranked first;while the non-professionals’ lifestyles revealed that they prefer to drink cold water; dine outevery mealtime while at work; upload photos and other files on social networks; and stick todaily routines from the moment they wake up to bedtime such as fixing the bed, taking mealson time, etc. to freshening up at night, topped in their rank of ranks. This implies that thoughboth groups varied their lifestyles, the professionals did less mitigation, while the non-342

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010professional group had done more adaptations to climate change. This could be corroboratedclosely to Mendelsohn’s (2000) finding that individuals and firms likely engage in substantialprivate adaptation with respect to climate change. Recreation and energy were among thosesectors which build interest in possible adaptation measures. He suggested sound actions suchas joint adaptation, but on the other hand offered his reservation due to its shared benefitnature. It will cause individuals to underprovide joint adaptation in areas such as water controland ecological management which are largely evident in the present study.Table 8 Test of Significant Difference on the Lifestyles Between Professionals and Non-ProfessionalsLIFESTYLESPROFESSIONALS NON-Computed ValueX r2PROFESSIONALSTabular ValueDf .05(1)Action Takena. Home 0.40 3.84 Accept HOb. Workplace 0.10 3.84 Accept HOc. Social and Economic Interactions 0.0 3.84 Accept HOd. Home and Workplace 0.1428 3.84 Accept HOTable 8 shows test of significant difference on the lifestyles between professionals andnon-professionals. Result revealed that their lifestyles in the four areas do not significantlydiffer having their respective computed values as: 0.40, in the home; 0.10, workplace; 0.0,social and economic interactions; and 0.1428, home and workplace, with tabular value of 3.84at .05(1) degrees of freedom, which lead to accepting the null hypothesis. This implies thatthough the professional and non-professional groups vary in their lifestyles but whencategorized as practices specifically at home, in the workplace and in social and economicinteractions, these practices do not necessarily differ. This means that embedding behaviorssuch as leaving lights on and leaving water freely flowing from faucets have been acclimatizedeven in different environments resulting to having no significant difference at all in thepeople’s lifestyles. But in this present study, respondents showed great efforts to observe someforms of personal alterations to environmental changes showing not only mitigating but alsoadaptation behaviors such as taking the bus or any public utility vehicles instead of drivingtheir own cars for working professionals; while those not engaged in a profession were tryingto maintain daily routines from the struck of dawn to the wee hours of night.Based on the adaptation, mitigation and suffering choices of Holdren (2007), thispresent study uniquely achieved a popular mix; that the more different lifestyles the individualpractice, the more he mitigates, adapts or aggravates the impact of climate change. Alterationsof behavior at some point, only if given importance, will mitigate potential harm brought aboutby climate change.Conclusion and RecommendationThe practices of office workers and homemakers prove to have increased or aggravatedthe effect of climate change yet they have compelling reasons to be value-focused in someways like being organized, health conscious and comfortable, thus lifestyles of residents in343

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010highly urbanized areas particularly those office employees have to be subjected to somebehavior modifications to address climate change mitigation.This study recommends that lifestyles of residents in highly urbanized areasparticularly those office employees have to be subjected to some behavior modifications toaddress climate change mitigation. Private or individual and joint adaptations especially in thekey market sectors of the society should be enforced so that the magnitude of harm from theimpact of climate change will be reduced and the size of benefits will increase not only in areasof recreation and energy, but most importantly in the direct impact areas of farming, forestryand ecological management. This environmental concern necessitates government initiatives –the government needs to start thinking about joint adaptation, to carefully design efficientresponses which treat arising problems associated to climate change.ReferencesCauses of Climate Change, Retrieved fromhttp://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/climate/causes.htmCommon Questions about Climate Change, Are Human Activities Contributing to ClimateChange? Published in 1997 by the United Nations Environment Programme – WorldMeteorological Organization, Retrieved from http://www.gcrio.org/ipcc/qa/03.htmlGlobal Warming: Early warning signs (1999). IPCC, 2001. Retrieved on March 29, 2010from http://www.climatehotmap.orgHoldren, J. (2007). How Climate Change will affect our lifestyles. Retrieved fromhttp://www.suffolkcoastal.gov.uk/your district/greenissues/affects/default.htmMcCosker, L.K. (2009). A Summary of the 2009 Copenhagen Accord on Global ClimateChange and an Examination of Australia’s Position on the Environment.Retrieved December 21, 2009, fromhttp://www.associatedcontent.com/article/2514917/summary of the Copenhagen2009 global.htmlMendelsohn, R. (2000). Efficient Adaptation to Climate Change. Climactic Change, Vol. 45,Nos. 3-4: Accessed on 29 October 2010 fromhttp://www.springerlink.com/content/k153513042t34400/Mental Health Glossary, C.J. Newton, MA, Learning Specialist (July 1996).Pervin, Lawrence A. & John, Oliver P. (2001). Personality: theory and research. 8 th ed.Philippines: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Rosenzweig, C. (2008). Humans Linked to Climate Change: NASA Study Links EarthImpacts to Human-Caused Climate Change. Published as a NASA news release inMay, 2008 from http://geology.com/nasa/human-linked-climate-change.shtmlSmith, M. K. (2001). Kurt Lewin: Groups, experiential learning and action research. Theencyclopedia of informal education.344

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010ESTIMATING THE HEALTH AND ECONOMICVULNERABILITIES OF THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE(IP) IN ZAMBOANGA DEL NORTETO THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGEW. Nabua, N. Bureros and J. AquinoJose Rizal Memorial State University – Katipunan Campus, Katipunan, Zamboanga del NorteJose Rizal Memorial State University – Main Campus, Dapitan CityJose Rizal Memorial State University – Katipunan Campus, Katipunan, Zamboanga del NorteAbstractAn analytical framework for estimating the health and economic vulnerabilities of theindigenous people of Zamboanga del Norte to the effects of climate change is proposed andvalidated in this paper. Vulnerability, as used in this research, refers to the extent of risk andexposure of the IPs to the physical manifestations of climate change considering their copingmechanisms. Applying such a framework to the Subanen and Kalibogan tribes in Zamboangadel Norte, results show that : (a.) the indigenous people of Zamboanga del Norte were veryvulnerable in terms of their economic and livelihood sources consisting mainly of traditionalfarming and fishing, and (b.) the indigenous people were likewise found to be highlyvulnerable in terms of their health in the event of aberrant weather conditions. The IP’s loweducational attainment coupled with unstable, albeit, subsistence level income make theirability to cope with the effects of climate change minimal and insufficient to surmount theadverse effects of extreme weather conditions. Results further show that the analyticalframework for estimating vulnerabilities tend to underestimate the true vulnerability valuesbecause of the absence of more information that can be used to enhance these estimates.Keywords: vulnerability, climate change, indigenous peopleIntroductionClimate change are events associated with the increase in global temperature, changes inprecipitation pattern, occurrence of extreme events and increase in sea level (PCARRD, 2009).Modern science has determined that this phenomenon is caused by carbon emissions broughtabout by contemporary human activities. Molles (2005) reported that humans have exploitedtropical rainforest for many years through a mixture of hunting and gathering and shiftingagriculture. The country’s contribution to the global greenhouse gas emissions as a cause ofclimate change may be insignificant as compared with those of the more developed nations butbecause of the archipelagic topography of the Philippines, it is highly vulnerable to thedamaging direct and indirect impact of climate change. The Asian Development Bank, forinstance, estimated that the mean cost of climate change for the Philippines is about 6.7% ofcombined gross domestic product each year by 2100. In fact, some parts of the country are345

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010already feeling the adverse effects of climate change to the food, water and energy supply aswell as to their health conditions.Eakin (2008) defined vulnerability as a susceptibility of populations, resources andplaces to harm associated with the global environment changes or climate change. It isbelieved that the disadvantage groups of people are more vulnerable to the great risks of theclimate change than the more advantaged one. In the Philippines, the Indigenous Peopleusually belong to the former group who may be susceptible to the environment changes. Theyusually live in the rural environs and are mostly doing traditional agriculture. According toMacchi, et al (2000), people who live in marginal lands whose livelihoods are highlydependent on natural resources are among the most vulnerable to climate change. This issupported by the study of Gunter, Rahman and Rahman (2008) who stressed that theindigenous people’s individual capability to adapt climate change is determined by manyfactors such as poverty, landlessness and illiteracy.Vulnerability is an often used term in relation to the potential of groups of people to beadversely affected by climate change. However, to date, we find no uniformity in terms of howthis phenomenon is actually measured. Eakin (2008), Macchi et al. (2000) and Gunter et al.(2008) are but a few examples of researchers who measured the vulnerability in different ways,usually, by inferring from the current situations of the people in relation to the degree to whichthey are exposed to the manifestation of climate change. The need to establish, scientifically, acommon understanding of the term “vulnerability” is urgent since only when such isaccomplished can strategies be formulated to reduce people’s vulnerability to climate change.This study attempted to determine the vulnerability to the IPs in Zamboanga del Norte toclimate change in terms of its health and economic impact to them using a scientificallyderived index of vulnerability.Materials and MethodsThe descriptive method of research was used in this study. The study was conducted inMutya, Dapitan, Katipunan, Sindangan, Siayan, Salug and Gutalac, Zamboanga delo Nortewhere there are a number of Subanen, and Muslim residents. There were 160 Subanen and 40Muslim respondents of this study. In – depth narratives, structured interviews, and theresearchers’ observation document the health and livelihood practices of the respondents.The quantitative framework for the computation of vulnerability is as follows:V = (R + E – C) / 2; where R stands for risk, E stands for exposure, C stands forcoping.Risk is defined as the “expected loss” should an event occur. It is computed as theproduct of the probability that an event will occur and the value of the random variable inquestion:R = Expected (loss) = P (event happens) x P (no individual is affected) + P (event doesnot happen) x P (effects are noted) = P (1-p E ) + (1-p) (p E )Note the similarity of the risk formula with the “variance” of a binomial randomvariable. However, while the variance of a binomial random variable is maximized with avalue of 0.25, the formula above is maximized when its value is 1 (i.e. 100% risky)346

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Exposure, on the other hand, is an estimate of how much (in terms of percentage) inthe population is actually going to be affected by the event. In the formulation above, this issimple p E .Coping refers to the percentage of the population able to resist the effect of an eventdue to their peculiar characteristics. If the desirable characteristics (those which enable thepopulation to resist the effects of an event e.g. education, financial stability etc.) havepercentages p 1 , p 2 ,…,pn, then:ResultsC = p 1 p 2 ..p n .Profile of the Respondents. Table 1 shows the profile of the respondent that wouldsituate them in relation to their ability to adopt to climate change on extreme weathercondition.For all practical purposes, the respondents are mainly belonging to the Subanen tribesince they constitute 80% of the bulk of respondent. The socio – demographic characteristicsof these respondents that imagine on their ability to cope with the effects of climate changeinclude: (a) their level of education which, as data would show, is mainly elementary level ornone at all (63%), (b) their livelihood or source of income which is vary traditional farming(82%), (c) their income averaging P 3,000 per month which could be as low as P500 to as highas P12,000 per month, and (d) their age with a mean of 41 (relatively young) and a standarddeviation of 9.5 years.Table 1. Profile of the RespondentA. Tribe Number Percentage• Subanen16080%• Kalibogan4020%Total 200 100%B. Gender Number Percentage• Male10854%• Female9246%Total 200 100%C. Education Number Percentage• Elementary11859%• High School5628%• College Graduate189%• No Schooling84%Total 200 100%347

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010D. Religion Number Percentage• Roman Catholic13266%• Islamic4020%• Paatan (Indigenous)189%• Protestant105%Total 200 100%E. Livelihood / IncomeNumberPercentageSource• Farming16482%• Fisherman126%• OFW Remittance2010%• Other (Driver/ Brgy.42%Official)Total 200 100%F. Others• Age• Income• Mean: 41• Median: P 3,100• SD: 9.5 years• SD: P 1,900Healthy Vulnerability Estimation. Table 2 shows the leading causes of morbidity forthese IP’s. While the leading cause of morbidity in all the areas is headache/ fever, this cause isnon – informative since headache / fever are asymptomatic of other more serious diseases e.g.dengue fever, typhoid fever. The available data, however, did not indicate the diseasesassociated with the fever / headache symptoms. We assume (although a debatable point) thatall these cases referred to in the health centers with fever/ headache suffer from one of thediseases with flu-like symptoms.Table 2. Leading causes of morbidityDiseasesPlaces (Estimated Average Number of Cases per month) - 2009Sigayan Buenasuerte Miatan Mande Munoz Cocob MucasHead ache/fever 20 25 20 15 25 20 15hypertension 2 2 3 4 2 2 4Diarrhea 10 12 10 10 15 14 10Upper RespiratoryTract Infection (URTI) 5 6 6 4 7 6 15/TB/ARI/BronchitisAbdominal Pain/Peptic 7 8 7 6 6 6 9UlcerSource: Health Centers (Estimated average value)Risk. Auxiliary data from the PAG – ASA (2010) revealed that, in the last five years,massive flooding (unusual amount of rainfall) and periods of drought (high temperature348

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010coupled with low rainfall) occurred in the Subanen areas at least twice (2) so that estimates ofthe probability of climate change can be computed as figures over the last five years.The National Census and Statistics Office (NCSO-9., 2010) also provided informationin the population of Subanen as 2,100 as of 2009. Thus:It follows that an estimate of health risk due to the effects of climate for this sector is:RiskExposure. The computation for the estimate of exposure rate is simply:Exposure = P h = .1610 or 16.10%Coping. In order to estimate the coping mechanisms (in percentage) of the Subanen, weexamine the socio – demographic pursued characteristic that impact directly on their health andhealth case such as: (a) education, (b) age, and (c) financial stability.Hence, Health Vulnerability Index = 43.22% + 16.10% - 1.30% = 29%349

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010The health vulnerability index (HVI) shows that more than one fourth (29%) IP’s(Subanens) will be vulnerable to the effect of climate change (droughts, severe heat, floods,excessive rainfall) in terms of their health.DiscussionsThe health risks (expected health loss) are amplified by the recent higher incidence(40%) of their flooding or drought which are just two of the possibly several climatologicalabenetions brought about by climate change in the province. Under normal conditions, amorbidity prevalence rate (MPR) is estimated at only 16.10% but this figure dramaticallyincrease to 51.02% (or 51%) with the recent spate of either heavy rainfall or lack of it.Although we have not imputed into the health risk computations made, the health riskfigure used even go higher when the sanitation practices, health care practice and other ritualsof the tribe are factored in. To provide an insight into just how much the health risk figures caninflate with these further considerations, we conducted a interviews and en situ visits to theplaces mentioned in this paper.Health Care practicesWhen they were asked about their practices whenever the members of their family getsick, the Subanen usually prescribed with their own based on their intuition. They used herbalmedicines for this purpose. If ever the sickness is not healed, they consulted the “Balyan” thequack doctor. Simultaneously, they asked for medicines from the Botika sa Barangay. If everthe sickness becomes complicated, this is the time where they consult a doctor. Since theKalibogan are mostly residing in lowland areas, they are very accessible to the health centers.They used to consult the health center if the diseases are common only. If ever complicated,they went directly to the hospital.Sanitation PracticesGarbage Disposal. More the one half or fifty two percent of the respondents threwgarbage at the back of their houses, twenty four percent burned the garbage, sixteen usedcompost pit and eight percent thrown to the river or to the sea.350

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Food preparation and preservation. Since almost all of the respondents have norefrigerators, they only used salt, sunlight and concentrated vinegar in the preservation offoods. They usually prepared salted fish (tinabal) and dried fish (bulad). Most of the time, theycooked the fish with concentrated vinegar (paksiw) and the meat (adobo). This is thetraditional way of food preservation practiced during the absence of electricity.Garbage disposed at the back of the houseAccessibility to Health Facilities and Health PersonnelComport rooms. Among the 160 Subanen respondents, sixty one of them used a simpleclosed pit comport room; twenty six percent had water sealed and thirteen percent had none. Itwas noted that the simple closed pit comport rooms are unsanitary since they are not well –constructed. Some were provided with toilet bowls by the Department of Health as part of itssanitary program. In other municipalities, the residents were asked to pay P50 for the bowl todefray expense. But only very few had availed of it. They said they cannot afford to pay thebowl even at P50.00.To motivate the Subanen to construct a comport room and to maintain the cleanlinessof their surrounding, the Department of Health through its Midwives with the cooperation ofthe local government, gave rewards to the households that maintained cleanliness. When therewere unannounced inspections, the health workers were surprised because of very cleancomport rooms. It turned out that these were for inspection only. Most of them still defecate inthe open field usually at the back of their houses. According to a midwife of Sigayan, Dapitan“Almost all the time, she reprimanded these people especially the children to use the comportrooms but they can hardly understand”. Most of the respondents said, they can hardly use thecomfort rooms because they are far from the source of water. Majority of the thirteen percentwho have no comfort rooms were residing at the hilly areas and far from the poblacionbarangays.351

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010The presence of the health workers in every barangay has contributed a lot tot heawareness of the IP’s in terms of sanitation. Compared to their situations a couple of decadesago, almost all of the IP’s knew already the importance of sanitation. Although some of themhave poor houses but they are not as untidy as long years ago. This could be due to a seriousintervention of the Department of health.However, their access to water facilities plays a very important role in their personaland community hygiene. Since, some of them are far from the source of water; the sanitation athome is greatly affected. In fact, during the immersion, most of the family members especiallychildren had not taken a bath. They were affected with the long drought where the spring as thesource of water was dried. The river became a substitute for drinking water. This situationmade them more susceptible to diseases as an indirect impact of the mentioned phenomenon.The kalibugan respondents on the other hand had different sanitation practices. Morethan 30% of them defecated along the river or the sea. Their culture of spitting anywhere madethem susceptible to respiratory tract diseases which would eventually weaken their immunesystem. With this, any change in the climate could directly affect them so t hat, at least, thiscould not be identified as a potential source of health problems for the tribe.Water supplyOut of seven barangays under study, four of them have already access to waterfacilities. The barangays have already faucets but are not yet connected to the individualhouses. But still many of the respondents are not accessible to this facility because they areresiding in the remote part of the barangay. This year’s EL Nino phenomenon had devastatingimpacts to the IPs.Poor access to water results to poor sanitation and hygiene. The distance to potablewater among the respondents results in tremendous human and economic costs. Inadequatewater supply could discourage everyone to practice proper personal hygiene which would thenresult to their susceptibility to diseases. Although, the diseases present in the barangay arenormal and have not yet been an outbreak but still the people are considered vulnerable toclimate condition. The productive activities of poor rural people, such as schooling andfarming, are affected by the time and energy spent fetching water. In fact, in 2002, 21% of thepeople living in developing countries did not have sustained access to an improved watersource and 51% did not have access to improved sanitation (Frankson, 2009). That is why, theWorld Health Organization in its Vision 2030 study concluded that climate change is widelyperceived as a threat than opportunity. Thus, “systematic assessments of the climate changeresilience of all utilities and of rural water and sanitation programmes are needed” (WHO2009).352

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Water system as project of the Local Government UnitDifferent sources of water in a barangayEducations and financial stability are two main factors that greatly improve the IP’schance of coping with sudden and unexpected weather observations. However, both factorsappear to be very low for the Subanens whose model education is elementary or even, withouteducation at all and whose mean income per month is way below the poverty threshold. Here,government intervention is extremely necessary viz. provide free access to adult literacyeducation programs for the IP’s with particular attention to health and science, and livelihoodeducation programs.Economic Vulnerability Estimates for the IP’sEconomic Risk Estimates. The weather / climate parameters are the same as beforewith p = 0.40 and (1 - p) = 0.60. Since the main source of livelihood is agriculture and fishing,we estimate to preparation of individuals engaged in these two activities:353

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Hence, Economic Risk = P(1 - P E ) + (1 - P)(P E ) = (0.40)(.12) + (.60)(.88) 57.60%Economic Exposure. The exposure estimate is simply P E = 0.88 or 88%.Coping. The index of economic ability to cope will be the product of the followingfactors:(a) percentage of individual with income higher than P 6,000 or the poverty threshold(P h ) and (b) the percentage of individual with secondary or higher education (P 1 ) and therefore,potentially economically productive:P 1 = Percentage of Subanen Families with income greater than equal to P 6,00= 0.05 or 5%P 1 = Percentage of Subanen with secondary or higher education= .28 + .09 = .37 or 37%Hence, Economic Vulnerability = 57.60% + .88% - 37% = 75.6%As expected, the IP’s have a very high economic vulnerability index of 75.6%, that is,more than three quantities of the IP’s are in danger of losing their means of livelihood (andhence, income) should severe weather disturbance prevent.DiscussionsThe high economic vulnerability index found for this particular group of IP’s can beattributed mainly to the fact that almost all the families depend on traditional farming andfishing for their livelihood source. Traditional farming, as a rule, is highly dependent on theclimatological conditions in the province. Too little rain (during drought) has the potential togreatly reduce farm yields; too much rain, on the other, can wreck havoc on the crops plantedby the farmers.Corollarily, there is a need to buttress the coping mechanisms for this group in theevent of aberrant weather disturbances e.g. find alternative attainment of must at to IP’s hinderthe search for such alternatives.Agriculture was the major occupational choice of Subanen almost one hundred percentof the respondents depending on it for their livelihood. The major agricultural crops grownwere corn and root crops. In other areas where the Hi – Green program of the Department ofAgriculture is active, the respondents produced vegetables such as eggplants, cabbage, andampalaya. (The Hi – Green is a joint program of the Provincial Government and theDepartment of Agriculture which encourages farmers to plant vegetables using organicfertilizer).354

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010The kaingin system of farming in the Municipality of SiayanRegarding the sufficiency of production, seventy percent of the respondents weresuffering food deficiency for a couple of months due to a long drought or EL Nino. Besides,their geographical location is a factor of a minimum production. In the municipality of Siayan,the terrain is hilly and the soil is not fertile. Only few areas can be planted with corn in whichthe farmers are compelled to apply commercial fertilizer to increase production. Some of themcomplained that they cannot leave their land unfertilized with inorganic fertilizer or else theproduction will sacrifice. The application of fertilizer is not also a guarantee of high productiondue to poor soil condition.The Subanen’s traditional farming practices (the slash and burn farming) aggravatedthe situation of decreasing production and income. They believe that continuous adopting the“kaingin” system of farming may harm the environment. But they cannot avoid it because theyare very much dependent in this type of livelihood. In fact, during the immersion, theresearchers documented few cases of kaingin.When the respondents were asked about the effects of the climate change to theirlivelihood, the following are their answers:If there is a long drought, everybody isaffected because their livelihood is a climatesensitive one. The respondents said that theirharvest cannot suffice to support them. Ineffect, root crops become their staple food.However, few of them still have experiencedshortage even in root crops. This situationprompted them to eat a wild and poisonousroot crop called “Kubong”. Another solutionfor the food storage is to work as a farmlabourer in other farms. The P100 a day isalready a big help to the family.”Kubong – an alternative food during famineThe long rainy season (La Nina) on the other hand affect the livelihood of the IPsparticularly Subanen farmers. Since agricultural products are perishable, continuous rain canrotten the produce which eventually decreases their quality. Their sidline as farm labourer of355

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010other farms is also affected. The farming activity is usually stopped when it is raining. As ameans of survival, the root crops serve as alternate to cereals as staple food.This phenomenon has also an indirect impact tot he fishermen whose long hours infishing under the rain could weaken the immune system in their bodies and would eventuallysusceptible to lung – related diseases.Majority of the Kalibogan respondents on the other hand are not so vulnerable toclimate change in terms of livelihood because most of them are not dependent on naturalresources as a source of living. They have allotments from their family members workingabroad as a source of income. Although, few of them claimed to be farmers but not all the timethey till the land they own. They have tenants to do the dirty jobs. Only the fishermen weremore vulnerable to climate change because of their exposure to the sea night and day.Both the El Nino and La Nina as climate cjange induced hazards could havedevastating impacts to the Subanen lives and livelihood. The El Nino phenomenon affected somuch to the famers because they cannot plant some cash crops like corn and vegetablesbecause upland farming is too much dependent on the rainfall in which any change in airtemperature can result to a change in climate conditions resulting in the shift in Agriculturepattern (Lama and Devkok, 2009). This pointed out that the Subanen group of IPs are morevulnerable to climate change than the Kalibogan. Heltberg, Siegel and Jorgensen (2008)stressed that the most vulnerable households are those with assets and livelihood exposed andsensitive to climate risk and who have weak management capacity. The poorer household arethe most at risk. Besides Rai (2008) found out that the Indigenous People are oftendisproportionally adversely affected because they are amongst the poorest people globally andare heavily depended on and resources for basic needs and livelihood. This confirmed thestudy of National Adaptation Program for Action (NAPA) of Sudan who identified theAgriculture, water resources and health as the sectors most vulnerable to climate change(ZAkieldeen, 2009).on the other hand, the La Nina is associated with continuous rain. Ingeneral, floods damage standing agricultural crops and may also carry away the top soilmaking the land barren. Floods damage all immovable properties that get submerged in floodwaters. Any other properties which cannot removed to safer places during floods are alsodamaged.References:Gunter, B. G., A. Rahman and A. F. Rahman (2008). How Vulnerable are Bangladesh’sIndigenous People to Climate Change? Bangladesh Development Research Working PaperSeries. Http://www.bangladeshstudies.orgLama, S. And B. Devkota (2009). Vulnerability of Mountain Communities to Climate Changeand their Adaptation Strategies. Journal of Agriculture and Environment. Volume 10.Linachan, E. N. (2009). Indigenous peoples of Ifugao: responding to climate change. Earth andEnvironmental Science. IOP Publishing Ltd. Manila.Macchi, et al, (2008).Indigenous and Traditional Peoples and Climate Change. IUCN.356

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Molles, M.C. Jr. 2005. Ecology: Concepts and Applications, 3 rdCompanies, Inc.edition. Mc Graw HillPCCARD, 2009. Philippines S&T Agenda on Climate Change. www.PCCARD.GOV.PHRai, N. 2008. Indigenous People and Climate Change: High Vulnerability and UniqueChallenges. Social Dimensions of Climate Exchange Workshop. World Bank, WashingtonD.C.Rawlins, S. C., A. Chen, J.M. Rawlins, D. Chades and G. Legal. 2007. A Knowledge, Attitudeand Practices Study of the Issued of climate change/variability impacts and public health inTrinidad, Tobago. St. Kitts and Nevis. West Indian Medical Journal. Vol. 56, No.2 West IndianMedical Journal. ISSN 0043 – 3144;Zakieldeen. S.A. (2009). Adaptation to Climate Change: A Vulnerability Assessment forSudan. Gatekeeper. Iied357

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOM OCCURRENCE INMURCIELAGOS BAYAMIDST CLIMATE CHANGEJ. Aquino, B. Flores and M. NaguitJose Rizal Memorial State University – Katipunan Campus, Katipunan, Zamboanga del NorteJose Rizal Memorial State University – Main Campus, Dapitan CityJose Rizal Memorial State University – Katipunan Campus, Katipunan, Zamboanga del NorteAbstractThe phytoplankton species abundance in Murceilagos Bay was investigated for the firsttime at the onset of an outbreak on September, 2009. Monthly monitoring on Pyrodiniumbahamense var. compressum densities and physic-chemical parameters were conducted at 12sampling stations in Murceilagos Bay. Generally, densities of Pyrodinium bahamense var.compressum were decreasing. Nutrient analyses showed traces of phosphates and nitrates.Keywords: Phytoplankton, Hydrobiological surveys, Density, ENSO, Cove, Toxic Algal BloomIntroductionPractically every coastal country worldwide is affected by harmful algal blooms (HABs,commonly called “red tides”). This phenomenon includes blooms of toxic, microscopic algaethat lead to illness and death in humans, fish, seabirds, marine mammals, and other oceaniclife. There are also non-toxic HABs that cause damage to ecosystems, fisheries resources, andrecreational facilities. The term “HAB” also applies to non-toxic macroalgae (seaweeds),which can cause major ecological impacts such as the displacement of indigenous species,habitat alteration and oxygen depletion in bottom waters.Several decades ago, relatively few countries were affected by HABs, but now mostcoastal countries are threatened, in many cases over large geographic areas and by more thanone harmful or toxic species (Anderson, 1989; Hallegraeff 1993). The causes behind thisexpansion are deliberated, with possible explanations ranging from natural mechanisms ofspecies dispersal and enhancement (e.g., climate change) to a host of human-relatedphenomena such as pollution-related nutrient enrichment, climatic shifts, or transport ofalgal species via ship ballast water (Anderson, 1989; Smayda, 1989; Hallegraeff, 1993).Whatever the reasons, coastal regions throughout the world are now subject to anunprecedented variety and frequency of HAB events.According to Anderson (1989), Smayda (1990) and Hallegraeff (1993), in recent years,a dramatic expansion in the areas affected by PSP toxins has occurred throughout the world.A similar pattern applies to many of the other HAB types. Disagreement only arises withrespect to the reasons for this expansion.Many have implicated that pollution or other humanactivities are involved, and this is indeed a factor in some areas, however, many of the “new”or expanded HAB problems have occurred in waters where pollution is not an obvious factor.The organisms responsible for HABs have been on earth for thousands or even millions of358

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010years, during which time they had ample opportunities to disperse, assisted by changingclimate, movement of tectonic plates, and other global changes.In the Philippines, algal blooms have been reported since 1908. The first recordedoccurrence of blooms of Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum, a toxin-producingdinoflagellate was in 1983 in central Philippines, (Estudillo and Gonzales, 1984). Apparently,harmful algal blooms in the country, particularly Pyrodinium have expanded both in time andspace (Bajarias and Relox, 1996; Corrales and Gomez,1990). Blooms of Pyrodinium spreadto around 22 coastal areas of the country. Paralytic shellfish poisoning due to Pyrodinium hasincreased in severity during the last two decades. The country has experienced more than 40outbreaks of harmful algal blooms with subsequent shellfish poisoning episodes between 1983and 2002. However, most of the blooms have not been documented. Narrative of local folks ofwater discoloration in the remote coastal areas of the country abound, however, have not beenvalidated and documented due to the archipelagic nature of the country with more than 7,100islands and the lack of resources to monitor all the coastal waters.HAB incidence in the country have been correlated to flash flooding and unpredictablestorm events as a result of climate change which alter the phytoplankton communitycomposition (Andersen, 2000). During heavy rainfall, flashfloods occur in which dissolvedphosphate and nitrate flows to the bay through creeks. An example is typhoon “Bebeng“ thathit the Philippines in _ which triggered the HAB growth due to effluents of industrial andagricultural wastes and helped in spreading the Pyrodinium bloom along the 70 km stretch ofWestern Samar Coastline from Villareal to Gandara Island (Estudillo and Gonzales, 1984;Furio, 2004). Moreover, Usup, et al. (2000) observed that algal blooms usually occurred inearly Southwest Monsoon while highest densities in the sediment during the NortheastMonsoon suggesting that there is a strong relationship between P. bahamense blooms and localweather events. The bloom of Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum has also beencorrelated with higher surface temperatures and salinities (Abuso et.al., 2000). Bajarias andRelox (1996) and Furio (2004) coined the blooms of toxic Pyrodinium to follow the sequenceof intense warm temperature and heavy rainfall like blooms in Manila Bay that occurred at theonset of the rainy season after a long dry period. As more research studies are considered inthis view, it is evident that these meteorological events may modify the physical and chemicalproperties of the water column leading to the blooms of P. bahamense especially now that theclimate is changing from the normal occurrence.Recently, Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning had been declared in the municipality of Rizal,Zamboanga del Norte and nearby barangay of Sapang Dalaga, Misamis Occidental after tenpersons landed in the hospital consuming boiled oyster (scientific name) locally known as“Tagnipis”, with two died due to respiratory failure. The oyster was revealed to have beencollected from Murcielagos Bay. Following the event, phytoplankton analysis of the seawaterrevealed a very high count of Pyrodinium bahamense indicating a bloom of the species, thefirst time ever recorded in Zamboanga del Norte.Murcielagos Bay is located in the northeastern side of Zamboanga del Norte (Figure 1).It is approximately 52 square kilometers with total water area of 7854.78 ha (78.5 sq.km) and312.04 ha of islands. It has three major marine ecosystems, sea grass (2674.96 ha), mangroves(785.48 ha) and (27 ha) of marine sanctuary. Inventory of surface water sources showed thatthe coastal area has 25 river systems draining into Murcielagos Bay of which the main359

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010tributary is the Dioyo river of Sapang Dalaga. Three fourths of the bay is shallow and itsshoreline is dominated by a muddy substrate lined with patches of mangroves around its base.Depth of the water ranges from 0.5-30m in the shallow sea and 120m in deep water portion.The Bay has been identified as a rich fishing ground and believed to be one of the mostdiversified bays in Mindanao (Microsoft Encarta, 2007). Majority of the inhabitants in thecoastal barangays engaged in fishing and collecting shells as their means of livelihood.Historical trends of the Bay show that in 1940’s to 1970’s, it is rich in fishery resources.Diverse commercial fish were abundant as well as shells, crabs, squids, octopus and prawns.Shellfish have been part of every household dish as the primary source of protein to local folksand people of Zamboanga del Norte.Nowadays, mounting evidence links climate change to HAB. Recent studies showedthat dinoflagellate blooms will increase due to increased temperature and salinity stratificationresulting from climate change. This paper evaluates the present condition of Murcielagos Bayspecifically, the costal areas of Sibutad and Rizal, Zamboanga del Norte to determine whattriggered the harmful algal bloom.MethodologySampling. Plankton analyses were collected by suspended vertical tow plankton net of20 µm mesh size at a depth of 1m. Plankton identification and counting were done at JRMSUlab using electric compound microscope with a sedgewick-rafter counting chamber.The cell density was calculated using the following formula:N.V 1D (cells/L) = -------------V SWhere: N = Number of cells in 1mL sample (average of two trials)V 1 = Total volume of the plankton sample (mL)V S = Volume of the sea water filtered by plankton net within hauling depth (mL)Physico-chemical parameters were also monitored during each survey. Temperaturereadings from predetermined depths were obtained using thermometer. Secondary data on airtemperature and rainfall were also obtained from PAGASA office for comparison. Salinity anddissolved oxygen were also measured using the handheld refractometer and DO meterrespectively. Water samples for phosphate and nitrate analyses were also collected and broughtto Silliman University, Dumaguete City.360

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Figure 1. The Murcielagos Bay. Inset is the map of Zamboanga del Norte.ResultsA bloom of Pyrodinium bahamense occurred in Murcielagos Bay on September 2009particularly in Barangay Damasing which resulted to a paralytic shellfish poisoning of eightpersons who have eaten an oyster species locally known as Tagnipis which were collectedfrom the Bay (BFAR Shellfish Bulletin, May 2010). Based on the report of the Bureau ofFisheries and Aquatic Resources, “Tagnipis” oyster had the highest toxin level of 2746ug/100g shellfish meat (Appendix A). Hence, BFAR declared that shellfish from MurcielagosBay was unfit for human consumption up to this writing (BFAR Shellfish Bulletin, May,2010).This paper presents the concentration (cell densities) of Pyrodinium bahamense fromOctober 2009 which was after the outbreak till May 2010. As shown in Figure 2, Damasingarea had the highest cell density in October, 2009 at 11,000 cells/L, followed by Nangkaarea. The cells were forming chains numbering from 2-22 cells per chain. However, densitiesdropped to as low as 1-5 cells/L from November 2009 till May 2010, except for Sawang inNovember and Calubi and Nangca in May 2010.Figure 2. Densities of Pyrodinium bahamense var.compressum from October 2009to April 2010.Figures 3 and 4 present the average temperature and salinity during the HAB event.The water temperature ranged from 30°C to 32°C while the salinity ranged from 30 ppt to 35ppt. Phosphates and nitrates were

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Figure 3. The Temperature (˚C) values of Murcielagos Bay obtained from September 2009 –May 2010. Legend: Sa-Sawang, Ka-Kanim, Si-Sinipay, Ca-Calubi, La-Lalab, Li-Libay, Pa-Panganoran, Na-Nasipang, Se-Sebaka, Ma-Mabunao, Na-Nangka, Da-Damasing.Discussion and ConclusionSince the outbreak in September 23, 2009, densities of vegetative P. bahamensecontinued to be highest in October, 2009 and dropped beginning November 2009.Meteorological data on temperature and rainfall in Zamboanga del Norte from 2007 to 2009(Figures 5a & 5b) revealed a decreasing trend in air temperature. There was a significantdropped of 1.22 ºC in the average annual temperature in 2009 (Figure 5, error bars).Figure 4. The Salinity (ppt) Values of Murcielagos Bay obtained from September 2009 – May2010. Legend: Sa-Sawang, Ka-Kanim, Si-Sinipay, Ca-Calubi, La-Lalab, Li-Libay, Pa-Panganoran, Na-Nasipang, Se-Sebaka, Ma-Mabunao, Na-Nangka, Da-Damasing.362

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Table 1. Phosphate and nitrate content in selected sampling stations as of April 2010.Tot weight ofNO3-N/L (mg)Rainfall was higher in 2008 compared in 2007 and 2009. Generally, rainfall wasminimal from January to September 2009 with August as the lowest. As observed, the month(August 2009) prior to the outbreak had a very minimal rainfall followed by an increasedrainfall brought about by typhoon Ondoy. This conforms to the observation of Bajarias andRelox (1996) and Furio (2004) wherein blooms of toxic Pyrodinium follow the sequence ofintense warm temperature and heavy rainfall like blooms in Manila Bay that occurred at theonset of the rainy season after a long dry period.a) Monthly temperature and rainfallTot weight of PO4-P/L (mg)Damasing 0.127 0.01Sebaca 0.012

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Figure 5. Monthly (a) and mean annual (b) rainfall and air surface temperature takenfrom 2007- January 2010 (PAGASA).Moreover, it should be noted that September and October were also the southwestmonsoon months (June to October). This implies that the outbreak of Pyrodinium bahamensevar.compressum in Rizal, Zamboanga del Norte in late September 2009 could also beattributed to the local weather events. Usup, et al. (2000) observed that algal blooms usuallyoccurred in early Southwest Monsoon while highest densities in the sediment during theNortheast Monsoon suggesting that there is a strong relationship between P. bahamenseblooms. Hence, the combined effects of typhoon and local weather events as influencedindirectly by the global changing climate affected the physico-chemical conditions of thecoastal waters of Rizal and Sibutad, Zamboanga del Norte triggered the harmful algal bloomof Pyrodinium bahamense var.compressum.ReferencesAbuso, Zenaida V. , Leah Mora T. Cabella and Luisa C. Tuazon. 2001.Red Tide Monitoring inMaqueda and Villareal Bays Samar, Central Philippines ASEAN Marine EnvironmentalProceedings of the Fourth ASEAN-CANADA Technical Conference On Marine Science.Andersen, D. M. 2000.Monitoring and Management Strategies For Harmful Algal Blooms InCoastal Waters Asia Pacific Economic Program, Singapore and IntergovernmentalOceanographic Commission Technical Series No. 59.Bajarias, Fe Farida A. 2001. Distribution of Marine Dinoflagellates in the Philippines ASEANMarine Environmental Proceedings of the Fourth ASEAN-CANADA Technical Conference onMarine Science.Borja, Valeriano M. and Elsa F. Furio. 2004. Collection of Samples for Paralytic ShellfishPoisoning Monitoring Practical Guide On Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Monitoring in thePhilippines.Deauna, Melecio C. and Salvacion Lindio Dorado. 1999. Environmental Science for PhilippineSchools Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.DENR Administrative Order 2008 – XX. Water Quality Guidelines and General EffluentStandards.Fulgueras, Virgilio P. Elsa F. Furio and Valeriano M.Borja. 2004. Biological And EcologicalNature of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Causative Dinoflagellates Practical Guide on ParalyticShellfish Poisoning Monitoring in the Philippines Revised Edition.364

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Furio, Elsa F. and Cielito L. Gonzales. 2004. Toxic Red Tide and Paralytic Shellfish PoisoningProfiles In the Philippines Practical Guide On Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Monitoring In ThePhilippines Revised Edition,.Microsoft Encarta. 2007 Murcielagos Bay, Philippines. New York: Microsoft Incorporated.Microsoft Encarta. 2009. Climate Change, Philippines. New York: Microsoft Incorporated.Michael, David & Amit, Pandya. 2010 Coastal Zones and Climate Change. OceanographicCommission Technical Series.Montojo,Ulyses, Norvida L. Cruz , Mirriam A. Formeloza and Dennis N. Candia. 2004Chemical and Pharmacological Properties Of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins Practical Guide OnParalytic Shellfish Poisoning Monitoring In The Philippines Revised Edition.Odum, Eugene P. Fundamentals of Ecology. Saunders International Student Edition.Relox, Jun R. Jr. 2004Plankton Analysis Practical Guide On Paralytic Shellfish PoisoningMonitoring In the Philippines Revised Edition.Relox, Juan R.,Jr. and F. Farida A. Bajarias. Harmful algal blooms (habs) in the Philippines.Usup, Gires and Rhodora V. Azanza. 2000.Physiology and Bloom Dynamics of the TropicalDinoflagellate, Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum www. Wikipedia.org. com/Bivalves365

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010HYDROBIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OFLIBORAN RIVER, DAPITAN CITYAbstractS. Campiseño, E. Campiseño, M.R. Naguit & B. FloresJose Rizal Memorial state College – Main Campus, Dapitan CityJose Rizal Memorial state College – Main Campus, Dapitan CityJose Rizal Memorial state College – Katipunan Campus, Katipunan, ZDNJose Rizal Memorial state College – Main Campus, Dapitan CityThe water quality of Liboran River was examined to determine its present condition toserve as future reference or gauge of any effect brought about by climate change. Data onplankton composition, total coliform, phosphates, total suspended solids, as well as physicochemicalparameters such as dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature and salinity were collected.Based on the results of the three surveys, the river does not qualify for a Class SA coastalwater suitable for fishery production.Keywords:coliform, Liboran River, phosphates, pH, DOIntroductionRivers are lotic or running water environment that are usually habitats to an amazingdiversity of species with abundant specialized niches (Brown, 1995). They are also sources ofwater for drinking, cleaning, bathing, washing clothes, preparing and cooking food, gardeningand even for irrigating farmlands. Moreover, they serve as source of livelihood like fishingand in some areas, quarrying.Liboran River is partly enclosing the city proper of Dapitan City (Fig 1). It has twooutlets to Dapitan Bay which completes the encirclement of the city proper: Bagting and Polo.The river has a length of 7.7 km and an area of 62.6 ha. Its depth varies from 1 m to 2.7 m. Italso receives at least six tributaries. Its greatest contributor (65.53 m 3 /sec) is Dapitan River atthe south end (SUAKCREM, 2000). The river banks are line with naturally growing andplanted mangrove trees. Milkfish grow out ponds are found on either side of the river. Fishpens and talaba cultures are evident in the river itself. Human settlements are also found alongthe river bank, particularly in Tambak and to the north and southeast of Bagting Bridge.Like any other ecosystems, rivers are also threatened by the effects of climate change.A global analysis of the potential effect of climate change on river basins indicates that manyrivers impacted by dams or extensive development will require significant managementinterventions to protect ecosystems and people. Hence, this study is helpful in understandingclimate change impacts on river system specifically the effects brought about by droughts and366

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010typhoons due to the El Niňo and La Niňa phenomena. The trend towards the “shallowing”process and the flooding of rivers due to climate variability can significantly alter theconditions of river systems in terms of biodiversity composition and physical condition.Extreme drought causes rivers to dry out and this would mean the extinction of some speciesthat are not resistant or adaptable to the absence of water (Juranilla-Sanchez et al., 2007). Flashflooding after heavy rains or during typhoons causes the river to swell or overflow anddestroys the river banks and the plants that grow there. Floods also erode the soil thatsubsequently contribute to the siltation process downstream.Research Method and DesignSeven stations were established as sampling sites along the Liboran River and weresampled in June 2006 and May 2010. Physico-chemical parameters such as pH, temperature,dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity, total suspended solids, phosphates and nitrates weremeasured, as well biological parameters such as total coliform, Escherichia coli and planktoncomposition.Determination of Dissolved Oxygen (DO), pH, Salinity and Temperature. In situmeasurements of dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature and salinity were conducted a portableDO meter, pH meter, thermometer and refractometer, respectively in three replications.Phosphates (PO 4 -P mg/L) Analysis. Water samples in three replicates (350 ml each)were taken from the three sampling sites and were placed in a glass bottle. (Sampling bottleswere soaked with muriatic acid and washed with a phosphate free detergent before use).Samples were then placed in a styropore box with ice and were brought to Silliman UniversityMarine Laboratory for analysis.Stocks solutions of Sulphuric Acid, Ascorbic Acid, and Mixed Reagent were firstprepared. Sulphuric Acid was prepared through adding 125 ml concentrated H 2 SO 4 to waterand was diluted to 500 ml, stored in a plastic bottle. Ascorbic Acid on the other hand, wasprepared through dissolving 5.0g ascorbic acid in an amber glass bottle with 25 ml water, andadded with 25 ml sulphuric acid solution and stored in the refrigerator. Mixed Reagent wasprepared through dissolving 6.25 g (NH 4 ) 6Mo 7 0 24 .4H 2 O in 62.5 ml water. Then 0.25gpotassium antimony tartrate (with or without 1/2H 2 O) was dissolved in 10.0 ml water. Themolybdate solution was then added to 175 ml of dilute sulphuric acid with the tartrate, andwas stored in a glass bottle. Then the following were added to a test tube or scintillation vial:10 ml filtered sample, 0.2 ml ascorbic acid reagent, and 0.2 ml mixed reagent. Absorbance at880 nm was measured between 5 and 30 minutes. The concentration of PO 4 -P in mg/L is givenby the formula of Spotte as quoted by Argente (2009):C u =C s V s A sV u AsWhere: C u = the concentration of the unknown in mg PO 4 -P/LC s = the concentration of the standard in mg PO 4 -P /LA u = the absorbance of the unknownA s = the absorbance of standard367

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010V u = volume of the unknown pipetted in litersV s = volume of the standard pipetted in litersTotal Suspended Solids (TSS). One liter water samples in three replications werecollected in each of the sampling station. In the laboratory, water samples were filtered usingan Improvised Filtration Apparatus and pre-weighed Whatman GFC 47 mm filters. The filterswere pre-stabilized to constant dry weight, labeled and weighed before filtration. Afterfiltration, each filter with residue was air-dried for 24 hours, oven dried at 100 0 C to constantdry weight, and weighed again. Total Suspended Solids (TSS mg/L) were calculated using theformula below (Argente 2009):TSS = (W f+r – W f ) / V wWhere W f is the pre-stabilized weight of the filter in milligrams (mg), W f+r is thestabilized weight of the filter and residue in milligrams (mg), and V w is the volume of thewater in liter (L).Nitrate AnalysisColiform Bacteria Contamination. Water samples (100 mL each) were collected usingsterile sampling bottle and processed using membrane filtration method for coliform analysis.Coliform was cultured in endobroth medium at 35 C for 24 – 48 hours. The resultingcolonies were counted indicated by the characteristic green-gold metallic sheen for Escherichiacoli and light to dark pink color for Salmonella. The most probable number (MPN) ofcolonies per 100 ml of seawater was determined using the formula:No. of coloniesMPN/100 mL = --------------------------------------------- x 100Volume of water sample in mLAn ocular inspection was also conducted to determine the number of householdswithout toilets.Plankton Composition. Replicated vertical tows were done in each sampling site. Astandard plankton net with 80 um mesh size was suspended at 1 m below the surface of thewater column between 10:00 am and 2:00 pm. Samples were preserved in 4% bufferedformalin with Rose Bengal stain. Counting and identification of species were done under acompound microscope.Population densities were calculated using the following formula (Newell & Newell,1963):No. of organism in 1 m sample x total volume of sampleD = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Total volume of water sampled368

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Species diversity was determined using the Shannon index of diversity and speciesrichness.ResultsColiform Contamination. Water samples from all seven stations in both samplingswere positive for total coliform (Table 1). In 2006, Stations 5 (Banonong) and 2 (Linabo) hadthe highest counts of Salmonella sp, with counts of 7.75 colonies x 10 3 100 ml -1 (±0.250) and7.1667 colonies x 10 3 100 ml -1 (± 0.347 ), respectively. The former station recorded evenhigher count (TNTC, too numerous to count) in the 2010 sampling, along with station 4(Ambogoc). Linabo recorded the second highest followed by Cawa-cawa and Polo. Esherichiacoli colonies were also too numerous to count in both stations on the same sampling period. Inthe 2006 sampling, the fecal coliform was highest in Ambogoc( 2.0 colonies x 10 3 100 ml -1 ±0.304) followed by Linabo (1.917 colonies x 10 3 100 ml -1 ± 0.344). These values were smallercompared to the counts obtained in November 1999 (Table 1) except for the TNTC readingsfor Salmonella sp. in Ambogoc and Banonong during the last sampling. Salmonella countsduring the 2010 sampling was significantly higher compared to the 2006 sampling but wascomparable to the 1999 sampling of SUAKCREM [F(2,17)= 4.156, p=0.034].Plankton Community. The plankton community in Liboran River were categorizedinto diatoms dinoflagellates and zooplankton (Fig. 3). As shown, the latter comprised 50% and46% of the total community in 2006 and 2010, respectively. The diatoms made up the 29%in both sampling periods while the dinoflagellates comprised the 21% (2006) and 25%(2010). Species composition and estimated population densities of plankton in Liboran Riverare presented in Tables 2 and 3.In 2006, the diatoms were composed of fifty-seven species with five dominant genera:Coscinodiscus, Navicula, Gyrosigma, Chaetoceros and Amphiprora. The blue-green alga,Oscillatoria was also abundant Table 2. A total of fourteen species of dinoflagellates wereidentified belonging to 11 genera. Three of these genera, Dinophysis, Ceratium andPeridinium are known to cause red tides. The first two genera dominated the dinoflagellatecommunity. Dinophysis has also toxin-producing species. Zooplankton was made up of 21species typically dominated by crustaceans particularly, the copepods. In 2010, there wereonly 44 species of diatoms, 14 dinoflagellates and 11 zooplankton species identified. Withregard to the diversity of the plankton community, richness and Shannon diversity indices were2.54 ±0.340 and 1.12 ±0.069, respectively in 2010 and 2.84 ±0.34 and 1.20 ± 0.10 in 2006.Table 1. Comparison of mean total coliform, Escherichia coli and Salmonellatyphymurium counts (colonies 100 ml -1 )with the study conducted bySUAKCREM in 1999.StationsSUAKCREM, 1999Colonies 100This studycolonies 100 ml -1 Colonies 100 -120102006Salmonella E. coli Salmonella E.coli Salmonella E. colisp.spsp369

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 20101 Bagting 13000±57.98700±9.196917+0.2502 Linabo 29100 4700 7167±77.78 ±45.96 +0.3473 Tambak 12800 1400 3833±181.02 ±10.6 +0.4414 Ambogoc TNTC TNTC 6417+0.5995 Banonong TNTC TNTC 7750+0.2506 Maria Uray 18900 670 917±95.46 ±22.63 +0.2507 Polo 22000 970 1917±17.68 ±137.2 +0.0088 Cawa-cawa 26200±77.071417+0.2501917+0.344 33000 12700833+0.1672000+0.3041000+0.000 37500 1030083+0.083 22500 0250+0.160 33000 2200440±62.22 30000 2100Physico-chemical Parameters. In 2006, phosphate concentrations ranged from 0.125-0.205 mg /L while in 2010, it ranged 0.04-0.13 mg /L (Figure 4). Total suspended solids werefrom 0.02-0.04 mg/L in 2006 and from 0.04-0.249 mg/L in 2010, both, primarily composed ofsediments. These values were lower compared to the values obtained from other similar studiesconducted in Bais Bay in Negros Oriental (22.75 – 76.74 mg/L) (Dawa, 2007) and LingayenGulf (5.8 – 71.6 mg/L) (San Diego & Ranches, 2003).Other hydrological parameters measured are presented in Table 3. As revealed, themean dissolved oxygen of Liboran River in the latest survey was comparable to the readingsobtained in 2006 (4.63 mg/L ±0.919 and 4.76 mg/L ±0.37, respectively) [t(12)=0.364,p=0.722]. Mean salinity on the other hand, was 28.12 ppt ±6.69, which was quite lowercompared to the 2006 reading, 32.62 ppt ±2.20 but not significant [t (12)=1.42, p=0.180]. Inaddition, pH levels were almost the same in both sampling periods (2006=7.92 ±0.053; 2010=7.8 ±0.215) [t(12)=1.42, p=0.180]. Lastly, the average water temperature was significantlylower (30.75 °C ±0.92) in 2010 than in 2006 (31.77 °C ±0.204) [t(12)=2.8, p=0.014].Figure 3 . Plankton distribution at Liboran River in two samplingsusing vertical tow.370

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010DiscussionThere was a decrease in the total coliform in 2006 from 31,746 colonies/100 mL in1999 to 6,059 colonies/100 mL. The decrease could be attributed to the removal of abandonedoyster culture structures, fish traps and other obstructions within the river which increased theflow of water in and out of the river. An alarming increase was observed in the recent survey.Ambogoc and Banonong consistently have higher total coliform counts in all three suveys.Both total and fecal coliform counts exceed the standard limit for Class SA coastal and marinewaters but were below for class SB (DENR standard No. 34 s. 1999). In the recent survey, itwas observed that the river’s opening has been reduced at the portion where a bridge was beingconstructed. The bridge’s design requires the filling up both sides of the river bank with soiland shorter and stouter concrete support structures that even the smallest banca cannot passthrough it. It should be noted that the movement of water in the river is tidal. The onlymeans for the inner portions of the river to flush out and receive fresh supply of water is tidalcurrents.The plankton community is fairly the same in terms of diversity, although there was adecrease in the zooplankton and dinoflagellates composition by 4 %.The phosphate values obtained in both samplings (2006= 0.17 mg/L ±0.025; 2010=0.08 mg/L ±0.045) were way above the ASEAN phosphate concentration criteria values forcoastal (0.015 mg/L) and estuarine (0.045 mg/L) waters. These high values is probably causedby water from adjacent fishponds (fertilizer and fishmeal) as well as from rice fields thatempty into the different creek tributaries of Liboran River and local residents (soap used forwashing and bathing).Table 2. Species composition of plankton in Liboran River.PhytoplanktonSpecies2010 20061 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7DiatomAchnanthes √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Acterionellopsis√Actinocyclus √ √ √ √ √Actinoptychus√Amphipleura pellucida√Amphiprora hyperborean √ √ √Amphora √ √Amphora ovalis √ √ √Asterionella sp√√Asterionella japonica√Bacillaria √ √ √Biddulphia √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Caloneis siloula var inflata √Campylodiscus √ √ √ √ √ √Centropages hamatus√Chaetoceros √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Chlorobotrys√Closteriopsis√371

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Closterium √ √ √Closterium acutum√Cocconeis √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Coscinodiscus √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Cosmarium√Cylindrotheca √ √C. closterrium √ √ √ √Cymatopleura√Cymbella √ √ √ √ √ √ √Diatoma √ √ √ √ √ √ √Diatoma vulgare√DictyosteliumDiplosalis √ √ √Eunotia √ √Entomoneis√Epithemia√Fragilaria √ √ √ √Giardia flacida√Guinardia √ √ √Guinardia√Gyrosigma √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Halosphaera√Hyalodiscus √ √Hyalotheca√Lauderia borealis √ √ √ √2010 2006Leptocylindricus minimus√Melosira √ √ √ √ √ √ √M. dubia √M. nummuloides √ √Merismopedia √ √Navicula √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √N. circumsecta √Nitzschia √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √N. seriata √Odontella √ √ √Paralia sulcata√Parasterope muelleri √ √Pinnularia √ √ √ √ √ √ √Pleurosigma √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Pseudonitzschia√Pseudocalanus elongatus√Rhizosolenia √ √ √ √ √ √ √R. fragilissima √Rufusiela√Skeletonema √ √ √ √ √ √Skeletonema costatum√Stauronesi√Surirella √ √ √ √ √ √Synedra √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √S. ulna var contracta √ √Tabellaria fenestrate √ √Temora longicornis√Thalassionema √ √Thalassiothrix √ √Terspsinoe musica √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Tetrastum√Ulothrix √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Dinoflagellates372

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Alexandrium fundyense √ √ √ √ √ √Alexandrium tamarense √ √ √Ceratium furca √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Ceratium fusus √ √Ceratim tripos √ √ √ √Ceratulina pelagi√Cochlodinium√Coolia√Cosmarium √ √Cossmarium pyramidatum var.convexum √ √Cosmarium prarr√Diploneis puella √ √ √Dinophysis √ √ √ √Gymnodenium√Gonyaulax √ √ √ √Fibrosa japonica√Klebsormidium√Lithodesmium intricatum√Noctiluca √ √ √ √Peridium √ √ √ √ √ √Protocentrum √ √ √ √P. mexicanum √P. micans √P. reticulum √Protoceratium reticulatum √ZooplanktonTintinid √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Rotifera √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Foraminefera √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Orbulina √ √ √ √ √Globigerina √ √ √Nauplii √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Calanoid √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Cyclopoid √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Harpaticoid √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Daphnia √ √ √Amphipoda√Zoea larva (crab) √ √Nematode √ √ √Polychaete larvae √ √Gastropod larvae √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Bivalve larvae √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √Chaetognath √ √For dissolved oxygen (DO), values were about 0.24-0.27 mg/L below the tolerablelimit (5 mg/L) but slightly higher to the marine water quality criteria for the ASEAN region (4mg/L). Readings were quite low when compared to the previous study conducted bySUAKCREM (2000). DO readings were generally high during high tides when influx of freshseawater gets into the inner portion of the river.Moreover, there was a significant decrease in the temperature between the two surveys(2006 = 31.77 °C ±0.204; 2010 = 30.75 °C ±0.92) [t(13)= 2.83, p=0.014]. Trends in annualmean temperature anomalies for the globe revealed a relatively rapid and steady warmingthrough the early 1940s, followed by another period of relatively stable temperatures throughthe mid-1970s.373

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010From this point onward, another rapid rise similar to that in the earlier part of thecentury is observed. The year 2009 was the sixth warmest in the global record (0.43°C abovethe 1961-1990 reference period mean), exceeded by 1998, 2005, 2003, 2002, and 2004. Theperiod 2001-2009 (0.43°C above 1961-90 mean) is 0.19°C warmer than the 1991-2000 decade(0.24°C above 1961-90 mean).Shannon index RichnessStation 2010 2006 2010 2006Bagting 1.04 1.18 2.40 3.15Linabo 1.10 1.33 2.88 2.86Tambak 1.13 1.19 3.09 2.91Ambogoc 1.00 1.05 1.52 2.17Banonong 1.14 1.15 2.45 2.80Maria Uray 1.17 1.33 3.03 3.22Polo 1.22 1.17 2.70 2.83Cawa-cawa 1.12 2.22The 1990s were the warmest complete decade in the series. The warmest year of theentire series has been 1998, with a temperature of 0.55°C above the 1961-90 mean. Fourteen ofthe fifteen warmest years in the series have now occurred in the past fourteen years (1995-2009).Table 3. Diversity Indices of plankton at Liboran River in two samplings.2006 2010374

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Figure 4. Mean phosphate concentration (mg PO 4 /L + SE) of the different stationsestablished in Liboran River.Figure 5. Mean total suspended solids (TSS) (mg/L) of the different stations.Relating the trends in the number of total coliform and plankton composition between2006 and 2010 to temperature, Pearson product moment analysis revealed no significantcorrelation, hence, the trends could not be related to climate change. The high coliform countin Liboran River could only be attributed to the reduction of the water movement in the river.Mitigating measures should be done at this point for Liboran River to be suitable for Talabaculture and other aquaculture activities. Based on the results of the three surveys, the river doesnot qualify for a Class SA coastal water suitable for fishery production.Table 4. The average values of the physico-chemical parameters in Liboran River.DO Temperature Salinity pHStation 2006 2010 2006 2010 2006 2010 2006 2010(mg/L) (°C) (ppt)Bagting 4.7 4.65 31.6 30.9 34.8 30 8.0 7.95SD + 0.1 0.49 0.2 1.7 0.4 0.00 0.0 0.21Linabo 4.6 4.95 31.9 30.6 35.0 35 8.0 7.9SD + 0.0 1.48 0.2 0.1 0.0 8.49 0.0 0.28TAMBAK 4.7 5 31.7 30.3 34.0 29.5 8.0 7.85SD + 0.0 0.28 0.1 1.0 0.0 7.78 0.0 0.21AMBOGOC 5.6 3 32.0 32.7 30.8 16 7.9 7.4SD + 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.00 0.0 0.00BANONONG 4.4 4 31.7 31.2 30.0 25 7.9 7.65SD + 0.0 0.42 0.0 0.2 0.0 7.07 0.0 0.07MA. URAY 4.7 4.15 32.1 30.9 31.3 22 7.9 7.65SD + 0.1 0.78 0.1 1.6 0.4 2.83 0.0 0.21375

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010POLO 4.8 6.05 31.6 29.6 32.5 35 8.0 8.05SD + 0.1 2.19 0.0 0.8 0.0 0.00 0.0 0.07Cawa-cawa 5.25 30.0 32.5 7.95SD + 0.78 1.4 3.54 0.21ReferencesAlcala, E. and J. Maypa. 2000. preliminary water quality assessment of Liboran River,Dapitan City. In: A.C. Alcala, A report on Liboran River, Dapitan City submitted to MayorCedrick O. Ruiz, Dapitan City.Chandran, A. and A.A.M.Hatta. 2001. Survival of Escherichia coli in a tropical estuary.Journal of Environmental Sciences, Mahatma Ghandi University, Kerala, India 41-45 pp.DENR. 1990. Department of Environmental and Natural Resources Administrative Order No.34 Series 1990. 78-80.English, S.C., wilkinsn and V. Baker (eds.). 1994. Survey manual for Tropical MarineResources. Australian institute of Marine Science, TownsvilleGrasshoff, K., M. Ehrhardt and K. Kremling. 1983. methods of seawater Analysis. Weinheim:Verlag Chemie, pp.125-131.Johnston, R.1976.Marine Pollution. Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland,marine Lab, Aburdeen Scotland.Lodon: Academic Press inc. London Ltd. 13-33 pp.McPherson, C.A., P.M. Chapman, G.A.Vigers and K.S. Ong.1999. ASEAN Marine WaterQuality Criteria: Contextual Framework, Principles, Methodology and Criteria for 18Parameters. ASEAN marine Environmental Quality Criteria –working group (AMEQC-WG),ASEAN-Canada Cooperative Programme onMarine Science-Phase II). EVS Environmentconsultants, North Vancouver and Departmentof Fisheries, Malaysia. Pp. 568376

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010DIRECT AND INDIRECT ECONOMIC IMPACT OFCLIMATE CHANGE ON THE PROVINCIALTOURISM, AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCIALSECTORS OF ZAMBOANGA DEL NORTEW. D. Carreon and J.S. R. CampiseñoJose Rizal Memorial State University, Dapitan CityJose Rizal Memorial State University, Dapitan CityAbstractThis study is an attempt to look into the direct and indirect economic impact of climatechange to three (3) business sectors: tourism, commercial and agricultural, of Zamboanga delNorte by canonical path analysis. Results revealed that temperature and rainfall variations ledto a decline in agricultural productivity (-1.90%) but spurred greater economic activities in thecommercial (47.0%) and tourism sectors (17.12%). The traditional farming method commonlyused in the province accounts for the adverse sensitivity of this sector to climate change. Thisstudy recommends that the agricultural sector looks into possibilities of using modern farmingsystems in order to counter the negative consequences brought about by climate change.Keywords: direct and indirect economic impact, climate change, business sectorsIntroductionThe center for Integrative Researches of Maryland in 2008, explained that differentsectors and systems are expected to be affected in different ways by the impact of continuedclimate change in such a way that economic gains from agricultural produce will be alteredsince growing conditions of agricultural products are lost as temperatures continue to rise.Droughts, water shortages as well as excess precipitations and spread of pests and diseasesaffecting the agricultural resources create a negative impact on agricultural production.Similarly, transportation networks, infrastructure, water and electricity (energy) supplysystems will be disrupted. The balance between the supply of and demand for energy will betilted as the demand for energy continues to rise beyond the available supply. For instance, inan economy which is largely dependent on hydropower, such as the island of Mindanao, longperiods of dry season lead to low water pressure which eventually translate to shortages in thesupply of electricity. Of course, when power supply is affected, the whole economic systembecomes disturbed, produces less and results in a drop in productivity. This phenomenon wasrecently observed during the El Nino effect which lasted from October, 2009 to June, 2010 ora period of over eight months with abnormally low rainfall throughout the country.377

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Climate change as manifested by very long dry season or very heavy rainfall alsomakes people vulnerable to various kinds of health problems, particularly to vector bornediseases. For instance, Chowell et al. (2006) discovered that the incubation period for denguefor persons bitten by mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) is significantly shortened (from 12 days downto 5 days) at temperatures beyond 31 0 C. Not only that, a significant increase in the number ofmosquitoes is observed in the rainy season perhaps because of an increase in the number ofbreeding sites. When these two information are combined, we obtain a grim picture forcountries with tropical climates (temperatures ranging from 31 o C to 34 o C) and experiencingthe La Nina effect. This year alone, the statistics for the number of people diagnosed with oneof the dengue serotypes (January to June,2010) in the Philippines already surpassed the numberinfected in 2009. A health outbreak such as this eventually finds expression in a significantlyreduced per capita economic productivity.The business sector which determines the economic growth and development of theProvince of Zamboanga del Norte will likely experience these negative effects of climatechange brought about by the combined effects of a dwindling supply of energy, frequent watershortages, rise in transportation costs and health issues in the various communities. Althoughwe have confined our analysis to the province of Zamboanga del Norte, we suspect that thesame phenomenon can be observed elsewhere in the country.Climate change, on the other hand, can ironically, also bring about positive impact onthe business and industry. A study conducted in 2008 on Climate Change Challenge –Implications for the Tourism Industry, stressed that climate change provides opportunity togenerate both tangible and sustainable solutions. An example is on the supply of water. Whilewater supply becomes more and more scarce in almost every region of the country, it alsocreates business opportunities for those capitalists who can eventually do business withpurified drinking water, which implies greater productivity for the commercial sector.Opportunities such as this abound and simply reflects man’s flexibility to adapt to climatechange.This study, therefore, aims to look into the direct and indirect economic impact ofclimate change on the business sector of the province. In particular, it examines the direct andindirect effects of rainfall and temperature fluctuations over a 12-month period on three (3)economic sectors: tourism, agriculture and commercial sectors through a path analysis. Theintervening factors which contribute to the observed productivity of these sectors, namely,health and energy supply, were used as intervening nodes in the path analysis performed.Research Method and DesignThe data were taken from different sources which cover a twelve (12) month periodcommencing April 2009 to March 2010. To ascertain the average precipitations and rise intemperature, data were obtained from the Philippines Atmospheric survey of the Department ofScience and Technology. The data on energy level and public health were taken from sourcesto include the Zamboanga del Norte Electric Cooperative, DOTC and the hospitals inZamboanga del Norte. On the other hand, the data on the business sector were from theDepartment of Trade and Industry, the BIR and the Department of Agriculture. Statistical378

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010methods were employed in order to determine the direct and indirect impact of climate changeto the business industries.The data that came from different sources were statistically treated using simple pathcanonical correlation technique. The indirect impact were treated individually from the data onclimate change to the main impact on the energy sector and public health to the business sectornamely agricultural, commercial establishments and industrial production. The total impactwas ascertained by getting the sum of the indirect and direct impact.ResultsFigure 1 shows the rainfall and temperature data on the twelve – month period.The graph shows that the highest rainfall was in January 2010 which reached up to alevel of 17 while the lowest falls on February 2010. On the other hand, the highest temperaturewas in December 2009 while the lowest was on February 2010.379

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Figure 2 show the energy supply over the same period.It could be seen from the graph that the highest supply of energy was on December2009 with 12 month kilowatts and the lowest was in February where there is only about 8million kilowatt supply of energy.Shown in figure 3 are the data on respiratory cases recorded in the Province onZamboanga del Norte.It could be seen that the highest number of cases occurred in July of 2009 while thelowest was in June in the same year. However, the number of cases on health related issueswere fluctuating from month to month. This could be due to the fact that climate change mayhave brought about different cases at different levels depending on the vulnerability of peoplewho are prone to climate change related illnesses.380

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Figure 4 shows the commercial product cost during the last 12 months.The highest cost of commercial products was seen in December and November in theyear 2009. It could be noticed that the cost of commercial products were fluctuating dependingon the season since commercial products are generally seasonal. Commercial products aregenerally seasonal. In most cases, large amount of sales could only be achieved duringChristmas seasons, valentines, class openings and class closing times. Thus, it could also beseen on the data that commercial products are seen to be its peak during these times.Figure 5 shows the agricultural products cost as recorded in the Department ofAgriculture bases on Quarterly reports published the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS).381

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010The data showed that the highest agricultural produce was in April of 2009 and theseagricultural products cost kept on decreasing every month due to invest more on the constancyof high temperature which brought about hesitation of agricultural producers to invest more onagricultural production because of the imbedded risk on it.Figure 6 is the graph showing the tourism inflow in the last 12 months. The data weretaken from the Department of Tourism Region IX.As shown on the table, the highest number of tourists the province was in September2009 which reaches up to ore than 8000 in one month. This is due to the regional and nationalconversations that are held within the province which brought about inflow in local andinternational tourists visiting the province. While it is true that tourist inflow could be seasonal,but organizations may establish activities that would bring about tourists within the provinceon cities within the province of Zamboanga del Norte.Figure 7 on the next page shows the results of the path canonical analysis performed onthese variables.382

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E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010Path AnalysisTable 1 shows both the direct and indirect impacts of climatological variables on theTourism Industry in the province over the period.Table 1. Impact of Climatological Variables to TourismVariables Direct Impact Indirect Impact + Indirect Impact = Indirect ImpactVia Energy Via Health To TourismTemperature 0.404 0.034 + -0.036 = -0.002Rainfall 0.0508 0.136 + -0.026 = 0.110Total: 0.0912 0.080Grand Impact = = 0.912 + 0.080 = 17.12 %Table 2 shows the direct and indirect impacts of climatological variables on theAgriculture IndustryTable 2. Impact of Climatological Variables to Agriculture IndustryVariables Direct Impact Indirect Impact + Indirect Impact = Indirect ImpactVia Energy Via Health To AgricultureTemperature -0.125 0.023 + -0.010 = -0.013Rainfall 0.038 0.061 + -0.006 = 0.055Total: -0.087 0.068Grand Impact = -0.087 + 0.068 = -1.9 %Table 3 shows the direct and indirect impacts of climatological variables on theCommercial Sector.Table 3. Impact of Climatological Variables to Commercial SectorVariables Direct Impact Indirect Impact + Indirect Impact = Indirect ImpactVia Energy Via Health To CommerceTemperature 0.312 0.009 + -0.048 = -0.039Rainfall 0.207 0.024 + -0.034 = 0.010Total: 0.519 -0.049Grand Impact = 0.519 + -.049= -1.9 %384

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010DiscussionsMonthly average records of both temperature and rainfall over the twelve – monthperiod were not very erratic except for isolated cases in the months of February and March,2010. In January 2010, a high rainfall volume was noted followed by sudden drops in themonths of February and March, 2010. Of the two (temperature or rainfall), the rainfall dataappears to be a better gauge for climatological changes for short period of time because of therelatively higher variances noted.Likewise, data on energy supply appeared to be stable until the months of March, 2010and April, 2010 (not shown) where sudden drops in energy supply were noted. Unfortunately,it was erratic and these months were not covered by the present study.Meanwhile, the data obtained for health showed erratic movement with the months ofAugust and September, 2010 showing high incidence of diseases. Such a data characteristic(relatively high variance) is ideal for determining the compatibility (or incompatibility) ofdiseases noted with the climatological indicators (rainfall and temperature)Extremes in temperature and rainfall adversely affected the agricultural sector whichregistered a negative direct impact index of (-8.70%). In particular, just two months of hightemperatures (March, 2010 and April, 2010) already made a pronounced drop in the farmers’yield and harvest of agricultural crops. Considering the indirect impact of climatologicalconditions (through the energy supply and health status), however, temperature and rainfallwere noted to have negligible positive impact of 6.8%. Over all, extremes in temperature andrainfall translates into a drop in farm productivity by about -1.905%.On the other hand, changes in both temperature an rainfall had positive direct impact(51.9%) on the commercial sector although these jointly had negative negligible indirectimpact (energy + health) on the sector (-4.9%). As a whole, these two climatologicalparameters precipitated a general increase in commercial productivity by a little less than 50%(47%). The net positive impact of a variable temperature and rainfall patterns on thecommercial sector can be explained by the corresponding higher demand for consumerproducts that are needed during rainy season or during long stretches of drought e.g. bottledwater, soft drinks, beverages and others. Thus, while the agricultural sector suffers a set – back(negative impact index) on its productivity due to aberrant weather patterns, the samephenomenon surprisingly spurs more economic activity in the commercial sector.Finally, the tourism industry, as a general rule, is also positively impacted by theobserved climatological parameters (rainfall and temperature). A net positive tourism growthof 17.12% was calculated. However, high temperatures tended to damper the tourism industry(-0.20%) but such negative impact is easily absorbed by the overall robustness of the industryto climate change.ConclusionsThe most easily affected economic sector by changes in climatic pattern is theagricultural sector which is easily and adversely affected by either long stretches of drought or385

E-International Scientific Research JournalISSN: 2094-1749 Volume: 2 Issue: 4, 2010heavy rainfall in the province. The farming method adopted by most farmers in the province istraditional and is so much dependent on nature.However, mild to moderate fluctuations in both temperature and rainfall patterns tendedto benefit the commercial sector most followed by the tourism sector. The huge demand forconsumer commercial products during long summer periods or long rainy seasons boost thisparticular economic sector in the province of Zamboanga del Norte. Similarly, the tourismindustry in the province is found to be relatively robust with respect to fluctuations intemperature and rainfall. In particular, tourists appear to prefer the tourism destinations in theprovince e.g. beach resorts and waterfalls during a long summer period. Tourists also accountfor stimulating the growth of the commercial sector in the province.ReferencesCohen, R., Ortez, K. and Pinkstaff, C. (2009) Making Every Drop Work: Increasing WaterEfficiency in California’s Commercial, Industrial, and Institutional (CII) Sector, NaturalResources Defence Council,.Gleick, P.H., Haasz, D., Henges-Jeck, C., Srinivasan, V., Wolff, G., Cushing, K.K. and Mann,A. (2003) Waste Not, Want Not: The Potential for Urban Water Conservation in California,The Pacific Institute, Oakland, California, USA.Global Reporting Initiative (undated) ‘Water protocol’, http://www.globalreporting.org/guidelines/protocols/WaterProtocol030501.pdf, accessed 16 October 2009.Mitchell, D., Beecher, J., Chesnutt, T. and Pekelney, D. (2008) Transforming Water: WaterEfficiency Stimulus and Long-Term Investment, Alliance for Water Efficiency, Chicago, USA.Parra, Natalia, et.al., 2008. Economic Impacts of Climate Change on Kansas, University ofMaryland Center of Integrative Environmental Research, Maryland, USA.Save Water (undated) ‘Saving Water in Business’, http://www.savewater.com.au/how-to-savewater/in-business,accessed 16 October 2009.UN Global Compact - CEO Water Mandate at http://www.pacinst.org/topics/globalization_and_environment/ceo_water_mandate/ceo_water_mandate.pdfaccessed16October 2009UNEP FI’s (undated) ‘Research on Water Issues and Business Risks and Opportunities’,http://www.unepfi.org/publications/water/, accessed 16 October 2009Victorian Government (2007) ‘What is business doing to save water?’,http://www.ourwater.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/2502/Water_Industry_brochure.pdf, accessed 16 October 2009.World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2005) Collaborative actions forsustainable water management, Geneva.386