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particularly,teachers180 KATHLEEN GRAVESmay have to work with a conccption of nccds dctc.rmincd by their institution or other partyand conduct their assessment accordinglv.When does one conduct a nccds assessment? Ikpcnding on one’s context, needsasscssmcnt can lie conducted in stagc 1, the planning stagc; in stagc 2, thc teaching stage;and also in stage 3, the rcplanning stagc, if one determines that the assessment must bemodified in some \.ray. Teachers \vho have contact with their students prior to teaching thecoursc can undertake a precourse nectls assessment. In many cases, however, a formalprccoursc ncctls asscssincnt is neither necessary nor appropriatc. Some teachers arc ableto make fairly accurate assumptions ahout their students’ nccds with respect to the courscon the basis of prior cxpcricncc \vith the coursc or with thosc particular studcnts. In manycases, precourse asscssmcnt is simply not fmdilc lx~ausc~ the tcachcr docs not have contactwith the students until the first day of class.Another important factor in tlcciding \vhcn to assess needs is the teacher’s view of thepurpw of nccds amcnt can also IK a teaching tool because it canhelp students bccomc more aware and more purlioseful in their learning. Many teacherssee it as an ongoing part of teaching, on the one hand, because it may take time to establishthe kind of rapport with students that allo\vs fbr a clcar understanding of needs and, on theother, because they view it as a teaching tool that enables thcm to \vork in partnership miththcir students to determine ncctls antl ensure that the course mccts thosc nccds. lcachcrswho use nccds assessment as an ongoing part of their classes develop activities that helpstudents clarify and focus their needs. Such activities can include mindmapping (crcating\vortl maps liascd on, for cxxamplc, the \vortl rvritrng) antl student-generated questionnaircs(Grant and Shank 1993). [. . .]How docs onc conduct a ncctls ssmcnt? Teachers use a variety of methods.Questionnaires are a common needs a mcnt tool. They can bc written in English or,when appropriate and feasililc, in thc native languagc of thc students. One of the challengesin tlcsigning a questionnaire is choosing qucstions that will t)c interpreted correctly and willprovide the information sought, especially if one is seeking subjective data. Interviews withstudents antl others (such as employers or professors) arc another common way of findingout students’ needs. Other means include observation of or, in some cases, participation inthe situations in kvhich students will use English. Teachers may obtain samples of writtenmaterials, such as manuals or tcxtlmoks, that students will have to use. Stern (1992) cautionsagainst gathcring so much data that one cannot analyze and put it to use.Tests and intcrviclvs that mcasurc proficiency arc also a part of needs assessmentbecause they help dctcrmine what students already know and where they are lacking. Manyinstitutions administer proficiency tests for placement purposes. Teachers ma? also designin-class activities for the first days of class that mcasurc stutlcnts’ proficiency in reading,xvriting, speaking, or listening.Hutchinson antl Waters (1987: 54) make a distinction hctivccn target needs (“whatthe learner needs to do in the target situation”) antl /earnin