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MANAGING THE LEARNING PROCESS 33to Ion-structure continuum in relation to a given task. In a high-structure task, studentsare placed in reactive roles and accorded relatively little choice. In a low-structure context,students haw many options antl maximum autonomy. EIomww-, ~ vc do not equate highstructurewith non-communicative and Ion-structure with communicativc tasks. In ccrtaincommunicative tasks, learners have relatively little freedom of maneuver. Howcvcr, ~ vc dobelieve an association exists bctwecn lolv-structure antl CLT and that the incorporation ofcommunicativc tasks Lvith Ion-structure implications into the classroom increases thtcomplexityof the decision-making process for the teacher.We \vould argue that the kinds of managerial issues that arise and the sorts of decisionsthat teachers arc required to make will be largely driven by the degrcc of structure implied.This concept is illustrated inTablc 2.5, which provides exemplary questions relating to highandloM--structure contexts as these apply to key elemcnts at the levels of curriculumplanning, implemcntation, and evaluation.This schema will be referred to constantly in thepages that follow, as it is one of the key organizational framcworks underpinning the workas a whole. It allows us to deal coherently with the following key managerial questions antlto demonstrate that the answers \.rill vary according to the tlcgrec of structuring called forby the instructional goals guiding the intcraction at that particular time.What aspects of tcachcr talk (direct instruction, feedback, instructions, antl questioningstrategies) facilitate or impair cffcctive learning?What issues nccd to bc taken into consideration in lesson planning and preparation?How can the tcacher most effectively cxploit resources in the classroom?What stratcgics cxist for setting up diffcrcnt modes of classroom interaction, fromteacher-fronted through small group, pair and individual Lvork?What arc the implications of affective attitudes (e.g., motivation, attitude and aptitude)for the effective managcmcnt of learning?What tools, tcchniques, and strategies cxist for the ongoing monitoring and evaluationof classroom interaction and acquisition?(All of these questions can be explored through thc investigative procedures suggestedin Nunan 1990, 1992).The curriculum in outlineImplicit in the foregoing discussion is thc fact that classroom dccision-making antl the effectivemanagement of thc learning process cannot be made without rcfcrcncc to the larger contextwithin which instruction takcs place. The context and cnvironmcnt of the learning proincluding the curriculum plans that should tlri\ e the pedagogical action, arc criticall!important hcrc. In other \vortls, classroom dccisions cannot be made \vithout rcfcrcncc tostructures operating outsidc of the classroom, at the level of the curriculum.Language curriculum development has been greatly influenced by changing vithe naturc of teaching and learning.’l’hesc changing viclvs are reflected in the objectives andcontent of language programs, as well as acti\ities, materials, and tcachcr/lcarner roles.The influence of these diffcrcnt viovs was made clear in the Table 2.4, which contrastedtraditionalism nith CLT.As hve can sec from Table 2.5, communicative language teaching has had a majorinfluence on languagc curriculum dcvclopment. First, curriculum tlcvclopmcnt has hccomcmuch morc complcx. Whereas txvcnty or thirty years ago, thc point of tlcparturc forcurriculum development trntlrd to be restricted to the identification of the Icarncr’s currrntlcvcl of proficiency, \z ith thc dcvelopmcnt of communicativc language tcaching and thcinsight that curricula should reflect learners’ communicative ncetls antl learning prcfcrcnccs,
Table 2. J Curriculum decision-making in high-structure and lo\\ -structure contextsCurricular elements High-structure contexts Lowstructiire contexts.It the planning ctageCourse dc5ignWhat docs the institution tell nic to teach?What arc the managerial decisions entailed in thcteacher’s manual?Ho\v do I tlesign/adapt my o\vn content/goalsltasks?Nectls analysisHo\v can I identify the learning prcfci-cnccs of mystudents?Ho\\ can I in\ol\c my learners in identifying andarticulating thcir o\vn needs?CollegialHo~v can I coopcratc \\-ith collcagucs in Courseplanning?Ho\\ can 1 get the most out of staff meetings?Holy can staff meetings contributc to cffccti\ cplanning?What opportunitics exist hi- team teaching?ResourcesHOM do I manage ujc of act text?Hmv do I niotlifq/adapt the text?Ho\v do I crcatc my olvn resources?Holy do I design split information tasks that \vi11 becffcctirc in mv context?At the implementation rtagcTalk/interactionWhat arc cffectiw strategies for direct instruction?Hoiv do I give feedback on high-structure tasks?What questioning strategies facilitate learnercontributions to low-structure tasks?How do I give feedback in lo\\--structurc tasks?What types of teacher questions maximize studentoutput?
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PART TWOPolitical and institutional
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88 RONALD CARTERto persuade teacher
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90 RONALD CARTERIt is no semantic a
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92 RONALD CARTER‘Control’ 15 al
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94 RONALD CARTERcorresponds to a re
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1 of96 RONALD CARTER6.the workplace
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98 RONALD CARTERBibliographyCarter,
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100 GARY M. JONESTcihle 8. ICompuls
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102 GARY M. JONESpupils have an ins
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104 GARY M. JONESregard to short-te
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106 GARY M. JONESRevised syllabusAs
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Chapter 9Kimberley BrownWORLD ENGLI
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theoretic indigenization would invo
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112 KIMBERLEY BROWNidentifiable. To
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114 KIMBERLEY BROWNTable 9. IJourna
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116 KIMBERLEY BROWN5678Professional
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Chapter 10Numa MarkeeTHE DIFFUSION
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120 NUMA MARKEE“What”Innovation
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122 NUMA MARKEE“When”While some
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124 NUMA MARI
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~ 198611~ 1989.126 NUMA MARKEEESP.
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in128 ZAKIA SARWARPeople lcarn even
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130 ZAKIA SARWARVoluntary learningT
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132 ZAI
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signifying134 ZAI
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136 ZAI
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138 WILLIAM SAVAGE AND GRAEME STORE
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150 DEFENG LIis that Bachman takes
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152 DEFENG LImagazines, English nch
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154 DEFENG LIDificu1tie.s caused by
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156 DEFENG LIthink that \\as a good
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158 DEFENG LID@culties caused ty th
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160 DEFENG LICLT’s inadcquatc acc
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THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH IN SOUTH
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THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH IN SOUTH
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PART THREEPlanning and implementing
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170 ADRIAN HOLLIDAYsocially constru
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172 ADRIAN HOLLIDAYAmlirosc-Yeoh re
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174 ADRIAN HOLLIDAYscenarios in a p
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176 ADRIAN HOLLIDAYOne teacher reco
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Chapter 15Kathleen GravesA FRAMEWOR
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particularly,teachers180 KATHLEEN G
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182 I
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184 KATHLEEN GRAVESimmigrants in an
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186 I
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188 Icyond the constraints of the t
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190 KATHLEEN GRAVESconducted within
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192 KATHLEEN GRAVESnecessary. Teach
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545.194 KATHLEEN GRAVEShut . . .”
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198 DAVID NUNANDespite the difficul
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200 DAVID NUNANTable 16.2 ’l’hc
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202 DAVID NUNANsuch as unhersity-ba
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204 DAVID NUNAN1 ’l’hrough thc
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206 DAVID NUNAN............Children
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Chapter 17Susan FeezCURRICULUM EVOL
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210 SUSAN FEEZ2.1 .-! The challenge
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212 SUSAN FEEZstretches of meaningf
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214 SUSAN FEEZAt the same time they
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in216 SUSAN FEEZThe writers of the
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218 SUSAN FEEZ12Can untlcrtakc the
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220 SUSAN FEEZ3.2.3 Spec!fic object
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222 SUSAN FEEZagainst the explicit
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224 SUSAN FEEZPhase 2: Modelling an
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226 SUSAN FEEZa methodology for pro
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228 SUSAN FEEZPainter, C. (1 985) L
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230 DAVID R. HALLTheoryThe need to
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thethe232 DAVID R. HALLway in which
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234 DAVID R. HALLA communicative ap
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236 DAVID R. HALLA genre-based appr
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238 DAVID R. HALL“word”and grad
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Chapter 19Simon SergeantCALL INNOVA
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242 SIMON SERGEANTattention.Technoc
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244 SIMON SERGEANTStor) boardGapmas
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246 SIMON SERGEANT\vhich produce as
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248 SIMON SERGEANTAppendix: value-a
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PART FOUREvaluating curriculum chan
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254 PAULINE REA-DICKINS AND KEVIN G
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262 PAULINE REA-DICKINS AND I
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264 DAVID R. CARLESS2 Review of sel
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of266 DAVID R. CARLESSaged 6-7 year
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268 DAVID R. CARLESSTable 21. IExce
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270 DAVID R. CARLESSteachers. The f
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272 DAVID R. CARLESSIn other \vortl
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274 DAVID R. CARLESSClark, J., Scar
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276 JOAN LESII
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278 JOAN LESIKINThe participant rol
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280 JOAN LESIKINthe ratio of 40: 10
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282 JOAN LESII
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Indexabilities 16accountahilitj 2 5
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286 INDEXexpantling 145-6Expanding
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288 INDEXparticipant roles 277 8, 2
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