ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

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Outer Space and International Affairs 113 thus suggesting a kind of inevitability of space based weapons, both for missile defence as well as for protecting satellites. The US reluctance to support any new proposed treaty such as the one on Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS) is based on its assessment that at present only the US is capable of deploying space-based weapons and can retain its dominance of space through development and deployment of a new class of weapons for space defence and space control. The US plans reportedly include even the use of possible low-yield nuclear weapons for missile defence and space dominance, in the event where the existing kinetic kill systems fail to achieve the purpose. 8 While the space technology pursuits of the US provide indicative trends, various other nation-states have also been investing in space technologies for quite some years. The investments are indeed based on national goals, budgetary provisions and availability of technological expertise. Significant developments are taking place in various areas of non-military use of space technologies which are useful in exploring distant planets, human exploration of space, and earth, and space science experiments, remote sensing, weather forecasts and space transportation technologies. Progress by a few advanced countries in military use of space technologies is also very impressive and these serve as catalysts for the evolving RMA as well as for enhancing civilian application horizons. Space Technology in India India is one of the few nations in the world with indigenous satellite launch capabilities, as well as the technologies for development of modern high-tech satellites. For historical reasons, much of the Indian expertise and experience has been in the civilian domain, although almost all space technologies are of dual-use nature and can thus be prime candidates for defence and security objectives. India also has its own missile defence programme and significant R&D capabilities in energy beam technologies, that are very well suited for space defence applications. With the role of space technology rising in matters of security and defence, it is natural that these technologies will be closely guarded by those who have it. For example, in the nuclear or missile technology field, developing indigenous competence in such critical technologies will be vital to India’s security interests in outer space. A quick look at Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO’s) evolution and achievements shows a very promising indigenous capability and expertise that could easily be oriented to serve national security priorities at short notice
114 Role of Technology in International Affairs if required. However, space and defence activities in India have been kept under two distinct departments through a conscious policy of not inviting defence related technology embargoes for Indian space programmes. This international posture was to keep the opportunities for international cooperation unhindered by strategic considerations as far as possible. The two separate, independent streams approach has not only enabled ISRO to develop critical dual-use technologies useful in outer space without causing much apprehension among neighbouring countries, but also helped India to create an impressive strength in both defence and space sectors, through a natural process of sharing the national knowledge-base and human expertise. ISRO was established on August 15, 1969 and the Department of Space was set up in 1972. Starting with the launch of the first Indian satellite Aryabhata on April 19, 1975, ISRO quickly developed the indigenous satellite launch vehicle (SLV) by early 1980s and launched the Indian National Satellite (INSAT) series for communication and educational purposes. By early 1990s ISRO developed Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for earth observation capability and started with the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) to launch Indian satellites. By the turn of the century ISRO successfully launched even foreign country payloads. By then, the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix Corporation Ltd. was established to promote international space commerce and cooperation. The year 2001 marked the successful test of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) and the increasing participation of ISRO in international space activities. A good account of ISRO programmes can be found in a book from the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA), New Delhi, co-edited by Dr. Arvind Gupta, Dr. Ajey Lele and the author. 9 The first two IRS spacecraft, IRS-1A (March 1988) and IRS-1B (August1991) were launched by Russian Vostok boosters from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. The two identical IRS spacecraft hosted a trio of Linear Imaging Self-Scanning (LISS) remote sensing instruments working in multiple spectral bands. The Spacecraft Control Centre at Bangalore oversees all spacecraft operations and spacecraft data transmissions are effected via X-band and S- band antennas at the base of the spacecraft. ISRO and its commercial marketing arm, Antrix Corporation Ltd., successfully launched the much improved IRS-1D earth imaging satellite, weighing 1350 kg in September 1997. These satellites have established capabilities that can be compared to the best in the world.
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ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN INTERNATIONAL
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Acknowledgements As a defence techn
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PART I Role of Science and Technolo
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6 Climate Change and International
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PART III Technology and Foreign Pol
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