Understanding NRT- Reading 1- 2 of 2- Radiogaphic Testing A

Understandings 

NRT – Reading 1 

Part 2/2 

Radiographic Testing 

2 nd Pre-exam self study note for 

Neutron Radiographic Testing 

7 th April 2016 

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

NDT for Upstream 









Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang 

Fion Zhang at Xitang 

1 st April 2016


SME- Subject Matter Expert 

我们的大学 , 其实应该聘请这些能干的退休教授 . 

或许在职的砖头怕被排斥 . 

http://cn.bing.com/videos/search?q=Walter+Lewin&FORM=HDRSC3 

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCiEHVhv0SBMpP75JbzJShqw

BOK 

NR- Neutron Radiographic Testing 

Length: 4 hours Questions: 135 

1. Principles/ Theory 

• Nature of penetrating radiation 

• Interaction between penetrating radiation and matter 

• Neutron radiography imaging 

• Radiometry 

2. Equipment/Materials 

• Sources of neutrons 

• Radiation detectors 

• Nonimaging devices 


3. Techniques/Calibrations 

• Blocking and filtering 

• Multifilm technique 

• Enlargement and projection 

• Stereoradiography 

• Triangulation methods 

• Autoradiography 

• Flash Radiography 

• In-motion radiography 

• Fluoroscopy 

• Electron emission radiography 

• Microradiography 

• Laminography (tomography) 

• Control of diffraction effects 

• Panoramic exposures 

•Gaging 

• Real time imaging 

• Image analysis techniques 


4. Interpretation/Evaluation 

• Image-object relationships 

• Material considerations 

• Codes, standards, and specifications 

5. Procedures 

• Imaging considerations 

• Film processing 

• Viewing of radiographs 

• Judging radiographic quality 

6. Safety and Health 

• Exposure hazards 

• Methods of controlling radiation exposure 

• Operation and emergency procedures 


http://www.yumpu.com/zh/browse/user/charliechong 

http://issuu.com/charlieccchong 



http://greekhouseoffonts.com/

The Magical Book of Tank Inspection ICP 



闭门练功 



Industrial Radiography 


http://gafoorxspeed.com/industrial-radiography.html

Chapter 6: Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources 

Emitted gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. It is 

the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, with a very short 

wavelength of less than one-tenth of a nano-meter. Gamma rays are 

essentially very energetic x-rays emitted by excited nuclei. They often 

accompany alpha or beta particles, because a nucleus emitting those 

particles may be left in an excited (higher-energy) state. 

In medicine gamma-ray sources are used to treat cancer, for diagnostic 

purposes, and to sterilize equipment and supplies. In industry they are used 

in the inspection of castings and welds and in food processing to kill 

microorganisms and retard spoilage. 


Man made sources are produced by introducing an extra neutron to atoms of 

the source material. As the material rids itself of the neutron, energy is 

released in the form of gamma rays. 

Two of the more common industrial Gamma-ray sources are iridium-192 and 

cobalt-60. These isotopes emit radiation in two or three discreet wavelengths. 

■ Cobalt-60 will emit a 1.33 and a 1.17 MeV gamma ray, and 

■ iridium-192 will emit 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV gamma rays. 

Physical size of isotope materials will very from manufacturer, but generally 

an isotope is a pellet 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm. Depending on the activity (curies) 

desired a pellet or pellets are loaded into a stainless steel capsule and sealed 

by welding. New sources of cobalt will have an activity of 20 curies, and new 

sources of iridium will have an activity of 100 curies. 


Cobalt-60 



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt-60

Cobalt-60, 60 Co, is a synthetic radioactive isotope of cobalt with a half-life 

of 5.2714 years. It is produced artificially in nuclear reactors. Deliberate 

industrial production depends on neutron activation of bulk samples of the 

monoisotopic and mononuclidic cobalt isotope 59 Co. 

Measurable quantities are also produced as a by-product of typical nuclear 

power plant operation and may be detected externally when leaks occur. In 

the latter case (in the absence of added cobalt) the incidentally produced 

60 

Co is largely the result of multiple stages of neutron activation of iron 

isotopes in the reactor's steel structures via the creation of 59 Co precursor. 

The simplest case of the latter would result from the activation of 58 26 Fe. 

60 

27 Co decays by beta decay to the stable isotope nickel-60 ( 60 28Ni). The 

activated nickel nucleus emits two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 

1.33 MeV, hence the overall nuclear equation of the reaction is 

59 

27 Co + n → 60 27 Co → 60 28 Ni + e− + ṽ e + ɣ rays. 


Activity of Co-60 

Corresponding to its half-life the radioactive activity of one gram of 60 Co is 44 

TBq (about 1100 curies). The absorbed dose constant is related to the decay 

energy and time. For 60 Co it is equal to 0.35 mSv/(GBq h) at one meter from 

the source. This allows calculation of the equivalent dose, which depends on 

distance and activity. 

Example: a 60 Co source with an activity of 2.8 GBq, which is equivalent to 60 

µg of pure 60 Co, generates a dose of 1 mSv at one meter distance within one 

hour. The swallowing of 60 Co reduces the distance to a few millimeters, and 

the same dose is achieved within seconds. 

Test sources, such as those used for school experiments, have an activity of 

Decay of Co-60 

The decay scheme of 60 Co and 60m Co. 

The diagram shows a (simplified) decay scheme of 60 Co and 60m Co. The main 

β-decay transitions are shown. The probability for population of the middle 

energy level of 2.1 MeV by β-decay is 0.0022%, with a maximum energy of 

665.26 keV. Energy transfers between the three levels generate six different 

gamma-ray frequencies. 

In the diagram the two important ones are marked. Internal conversion 

energies are well below the main energy levels. 

60m 

Co is a nuclear isomer of 60Co with a half-life of 10.467 minutes. It decays 

by internal transition to 60 Co, emitting 58.6 keV gamma rays, or with a low 

probability (0.22%) by β-decay into 60 Ni. 


In the diagram the two important ones are marked. Internal conversion 

energies are well below the main energy levels. 


γ-Ray Spectrum of Cobalt-60 


A nuclear isomer is a metastable state of an atomic nucleus caused by 

the excitation of one or more of its nucleons (protons or neutrons). 

"Metastable" refers to the fact that these excited states have half-lives more 

than 100 to 1000 times the half-lives of the excited nuclear states that decay 

with a "prompt" half life (ordinarily on the order of 10−12 seconds). As a result, 

the term "metastable" is usually restricted to refer to isomers with half-lives of 

10−9 seconds or longer. Some sources recommend 5 × 10−9 s to 

distinguish the metastable half life from the normal "prompt" gamma emission 

half life 


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_isomer

Isomers 

Nuclei can have the same neutron-proton composition but not be identical; 

one nucleus can contain more energy than the other. Two nuclei that have 

the same composition but varying energy are known as isomers. An example 

of a pair of isomers is shown below. Technetium-99 can exist in two energy 

states; the higher of the two is a temporary state generally referred to as a 

metastable state. The symbol for a nuclide in the metastable state is obtained 

by adding the letter m to the mass number (Tc-99m). A nucleus in the 

metastable state will eventually give off its excess energy and change to the 

other isomer. Such isomeric transitions have an important role in nuclear 

medicine and are discussed in detail later. 


http://www.sprawls.org/ppmi2/MATTER/


http://www.sprawls.org/ppmi2/MATTER/

Half-lives (example: Gd) 



Isotope half-lives. Note that the darker more stable 

isotope region departs from the line of protons (Z) = 

neutrons (N), as the element number Z becomes 

larger

Advantages of gamma ray sources include portability and the ability to 

penetrate thick materials in a relativity short time. As can be noted above 

cobalt will produce energies comparable to a 1.25 MeV x-ray system. Iridium 

will produce energies comparable to a 460 kV x-ray system. Not requiring 

electrical sources the gamma radiography is well adapted for use in remote 

locations. 

■ Co-60 comparable to a 1.25 MeV x-ray system 

■ Ir-192 comparable to a 0.46 MeV x-ray system 

Disadvantages include shielding requirements and safety considerations. 

Depleted uranium is used as a shielding material for sources. The storage 

container (camera) for iridium sources will contain 45 pounds of shielding 

materials. Cobalt will require 500 pounds of shielding. Cobalt cameras are 

often fixed to a trailer and transported to and from inspection sites. Iridium is 

used whenever possible, and not all companies using source material will 

have a cobalt source. Source materials are constantly generating very 

penetrating radiation and in a short time considerable damage can be done to 

living tissue. Technicians must be trained in potential hazards to themselves 

and the public associated with use of gamma radiography. 


Because of safety issues source materials are regulated by Federal or State 

jurisdictions. The Nuclear Regulation Commission (NRC) has developed and 

enforces regulations for source material. The commission allows states to 

regulate materials if they follow guidelines of the commission. These states 

are identified as "Agreement States". In either case, obtaining and 

maintaining a license is a costly and well regulated process that protects 

workers and the public from the hazards of gamma radiation. 

Typically gamma radiography is used for inspection of castings and 

weldments. However, other techniques and applications are being developed. 

Profile radiography is one example. Profile radiography is used for corrosion 

under insulation. Exposures are made of a small section of the pipe wall. A 

cooperator block such as a Ricki T is used to calculate the blowout factor for 

the exposure in order to calculate the remaining wall thickness of the pipe. 

The exposure source is usually iridium-192, with cobalt-60 used for the pipes 

of heavier wall. 


Radio Isotope - Th232 Half life: 1.405E 10 Years 

Radio Isotope - Ir192 Half life: 73.830 Days 


Radio Isotope - Tm170 Half life: 128.6 Days 

Radio Isotope - Yb169 Half life: 32.026 Days 

Radio Isotope - Cs137 Half life: 30.07 Years 


Radio Isotope - Co60 Half life: 1925.1 Days 


Chapter 7: Radiographic Film 

X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion-gelatin containing 

a radiation sensitive silver halide and a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted base. 

The emulsion is different from those used in other types of photography films 

to account for the distinct characteristics of gamma rays and x-rays, but X-ray 

films are sensitive to light. 

Usually, the emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers about 

0.0005 inch thick (0.0127mm, 12.7μm) . Putting emulsion on both sides of the 

base doubles the amount of radiation-sensitive silver halide, and thus 

increases the film speed. The emulsion layers are thin enough so developing, 

fixing, and drying can be accomplished in a reasonable time. 

A few of the films used for radiography only have emulsion on one side which 

produces the greatest detail in the image. 


12.7μm sensitive silver halide 

blue-tinted base 

When x-rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains of the sensitive silver 

halide in the emulsion, a change takes place in the physical structure of the 

grains. This change is of such a nature that it cannot be detected by ordinary 

physical methods (latent image) . However, when the exposed film is treated 

with a chemical solution (developer), a reaction takes place, causing 

formation of black, metallic silver. It is this silver, suspended in the gelatin on 

both sides of the base, that creates an image 


Film Selection 

The selection of a film when radiographing any particular component depends 

on a number of different factors. Listed below are some of the factors that 

must be considered when selected a film and developing a radiographic 

technique. 

1. the composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in some 

cases, its weight and location. 

2. the type of radiation used, whether x-rays from an x-ray generator or 

gamma rays from a radioactive source. 

3. the kilovoltages available with the x-ray equipment or the intensity of the 

gamma radiation. 

4. the relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical 

results. 





Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique 

usually involves arriving at a balance between a number of opposing factors. 

For example, if high resolution and contrast sensitivity is of overall importance, 

a slower and hence finer grained film should be used in place of a faster film. 


Arithmetic of Exposure 

RELATIONS OF MILLIAMPERAGE (SOURCE STRENGTH), DISTANCE, 

AND TIME 

With a given kilovoltage of x-radiation or with the gamma radiation from a 

particular isotope, the three factors governing the exposure are the 

milliamperage (for x-rays) or source strength (for gamma rays), time, and 

source-film distance. The numerical relations among these three quantities 

are demonstrated below, using x-rays as an example. The same relations 

apply for gamma rays, provided the number of curies in the source is 

substituted wherever milliamperage appears in an equation. 

The necessary calculations for any changes in focus-film distance (D), 

milliamperage (M), or time (T) are matters of simple arithmetic and are 

illustrated in the following example. As noted earlier, kilovoltage changes 

cannot be calculated directly but must be obtained from the exposure chart of 

the equipment or the operator's logbook. 

All of the equations shown on these pages can be solved easily for any of the 

variables (mA, T, D), using one basic rule of mathematics: If one factor is 

moved across the equals sign (=), it moves from the numerator to the 

denominator or vice versa. 


We can now solve for any unknown by: 

1. Eliminating any factor that remains constant (has the same value and is in 

the same location on both sides of the equation). 

2. Simplifying the equation by moving the unknown value so that it is alone 

on one side of the equation in the numerator. 

3. Substituting the known values and solving the equation. 


Milliamperage-Distance Relation 

The milliamperage employed in any exposure technique should be in 

conformity with the manufacturer's rating of the x-ray tube. In most 

laboratories, however, a constant value of milliamperage is usually adopted 

for convenience. 

Rule: The milliamperage (M) required for a given exposure is directly 

proportional to the square of the focus-film distance (D). The equation is 

expressed as follows: 


Example: Suppose that with a given exposure time and kilovoltage, a 

properly exposed radiograph is obtained with 5mA (M1) at a distance of 

12 inches (D1), and that it is desired to increase the sharpness of detail in the 

image by increasing the focus-film distance to 24 inches (D2). The correct 

milliamperage (M2) to obtain the desired radiographic density at the 

increased distance (D2) may be computed from the proportion: 


When very low kilovoltages, say 20 kV or less, are used, the x-ray intensity 

decreases with distance more rapidly than calculations based on the inverse 

square law would indicate because of absorption of the x-rays by the air. Most 

industrial radiography, however, is done with radiation so penetrating that the 

air absorption need not be considered. These comments also apply to the 

time-distance relations discussed below. 


Time-Distance Relation 

Rule: The exposure time (T) required for a given exposure is directly 

proportional to the square of the focus-film distance (D). Thus: 

To solve for either a new Time (T2) Or a new Distance (D2), simply follow the 

steps shown in the example above. 


Tabular Solution of Milliamperage-Time and Distance Problems 

Problems of the types discussed above may also be solved by the use of a 

table similar to the one below. The factor between the new and the old 

exposure time, milliamperage, or milliamperage-minute (mA-min) value 

appears in the box at the intersection of the column for the new source-film 

distance and the row for the old source-film distance. 

Suppose, for example, a properly exposed radiograph has an exposure of 20 

mA-min with a source-film distance of 30 inches and you want to increase the 

source-film distance to 45 inches in order to decrease the geometric 

unsharpness in the radiograph. The factor appearing in the box at the 

intersection of the column for 45 inches (new source-film distance) and the 

row for 30 inches (old source-film distance) is 2.3. Multiply the old 

milliampere-minute value (20) by 2.3 to give the new value--46 mA-min. 


Note that some approximation is involved in the use of such a table, since the 

values in the boxes are rounded off to two significant figures. However, the 

errors involved are always less than 5 percent and, in general, are 

insignificant in actual practice. 

Further, a table like the one below obviously cannot include all source-film 

distances, because of limitations of space. However, in any one radiographic 

department, only a few source-film distances are used in the great bulk of the 

work, and a table of reasonable size can be constructed involving only these 

few distances. 


Milliamperage-Time and Distance Relations 


Milliamperage-Time Relation 

Rule: The milliamperage (M) required for a given exposure is inversely 

proportional to the time (T): 

Another way of expressing this is to say that for a given set of conditions 

(voltage, distance, etc), the product of milliamperage and time is constant for 

the same photographic effect. 

Thus, M1T1 = M2T2 = M3T3 = C, a constant. 

This is commonly referred to as the reciprocity law. (Important exceptions are 

discussed below.) 

To solve for either a new time (T2) or a new milliamperage (M2), simply follow 

the steps shown in the example in "Milliamperage-Distance Relation". 


THE RECIPROCITY LAW 

In the sections immediately preceding, it has been assumed that exact 

compensation for a decrease in the time of exposure can be made by 

increasing the milliamperage according to the relation M1T1 = M2T2. This 

may be written MT = C and is an example of the general photochemical law 

that the same effect is produced for IT = constant, where I is intensity of the 

radiation and T is the time of exposure. It is called the reciprocity law and is 

true for direct x-ray and lead screen exposures. For exposures to light, it is 

not quite accurate and, since some radiographic exposures are made with the 

light from fluorescent intensifying screens, the law cannot be strictly applied. 

Errors as the result of assuming the validity of the reciprocity law are usually 

so small that they are not noticeable in examples of the types given in the 

preceding sections. Departures may be apparent, however, if the intensity is 

changed by a factor of 4 or more. Since intensity may be changed by 

changing the source-film distance, failure of the reciprocity law may appear to 

be a violation of the inverse square law. 


Applications of the reciprocity law over a wide intensity range sometimes 

arise, and the relation between results and calculations may be misleading 

unless the possibility of failure of the reciprocity law is kept in mind. Failure of 

the reciprocity law means that the efficiency of a light-sensitive emulsion in 

utilizing the light energy depends on the light intensity. Under the usual 

conditions of industrial radiography, the number of milliampere-minutes 

required for a properly exposed radiograph made with fluorescent intensifying 

screens increases as the x-ray intensity decreases, because of reciprocity 

failure. 

If the milliamperage remains constant and the x-ray intensity is varied by 

changing the focus-film distance, the compensating changes shown in the 

table below should be made in the exposure time. 


Approximate Corrections for Reciprocity Law Failure 

1 

Column 2 shows the changes necessitated by the inverse square law only. 

Column 3 shows the combined effects of the inverse square law and failure of 

the reciprocity law. 


The table gives a rough estimate of the deviations from the rules given in the 

foregoing section that are necessitated by failure of the reciprocity law for 

exposures with fluorescent intensifying screens. It must be emphasized that 

the figures in column 3 are only approximate. The exact values of the factors 

vary widely with the intensity of the fluorescent light and with the density of 

the radiograph. 

When distance is held constant, the milliamperage may be increased or 

decreased by a factor of 2, and the new exposure time may be calculated by 

the method shown in "Time-Distance Relation", without introducing errors 

caused by failure of the reciprocity law, which are serious in practice. 


http://webstag.kodak.cz/US/en/business/aim/industrial/ndt/literature/radiography/07.shtml#ccurves

Film Packaging 

Radiographic film can be purchased in a number of different packaging 

options. The most basic form is as individual sheets in a box. In preparation 

for use, each sheet must be loaded into a cassette or film holder in the 

darkroom to protect it from exposure to light. The sheet are available in a 

variety of sizes and can be purchased with or without interleaving paper. 

Interleaved packages have a layer of paper that separates each piece of film. 

The interleaving paper is removed before the film is loaded into the film 

holder. Many users find the interleaving paper useful in separating the sheets 

of film and offer some protection against scratches and dirt during handling. 

Industrial x-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet is 

enclosed in a light-tight envelope. The film can be exposed from either side 

without removing it from the protective packaging. A rip strip makes it easy to 

remove the film in the darkroom for processing. This form of packaging has 

the advantage of eliminating the process of loading the film holders in the 

darkroom. The film is completely protected from finger marks and dirt until the 

time the film is removed from the envelope for processing. 


Packaged film is also available in rolls, which allows the radiographer to cut 

the film to any length. The ends of the packaging are sealed with electrical 

tape in the darkroom. In applications such as the radiography of 

circumferential welds and the examination of long joints on an aircraft 

fuselage, long lengths of film offer great economic advantage. The film is 

wrapped around the outside of a structure and the radiation source is 

positioned on axis inside allowing for examination of a large area with a single 

exposure. 

Envelope packaged film can be purchased with the film sandwiched between 

two lead oxide screens. The screens function to reduce scatter radiation at 

energy levels below 150kV and as intensification screens above 150 kV. 


Film Handling 

X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such 

as pressure, creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in 

semiflexible holders and external clamping devices are used, care should be 

taken to be sure pressure is uniform. If a film holder bears against a few high 

spots, such as on an un-ground weld, the pressure may be great enough to 

produce desensitized areas in the radiograph. This precaution is particularly 

important when using envelope-packed films. 

Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or contaminated with 

processing chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are 

always grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free. A supply of clean 

towels should be kept close at hand as an incentive to dry the hands often 

and well. Use of envelope-packed films avoids many of these problems until 

the envelope is opened for processing. 

Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film rapidly from cartons, 

exposure holders, or cassettes. Such care will help to eliminate circular or 

treelike black markings in the radiograph that sometimes result due to static 

electric discharges. 


Chapter 8: Image Considerations 

The most common detector used in industrial radiography is film. The high 

sensitivity to ionizing radiation provides excellent detail and sensitivity to 

density changes when producing images of industrial materials. Image quality 

is determined by a combination of variables: radiographic contrast and 

definition. Many variables affecting radiographic contrast and definition are 

summarized below and addressed in following sections. 

Radiographic Contrast 

Radiographic contrast describes the differences in photographic density in a 

radiograph. The contrast between different parts of the image is what forms 

the image and the greater the contrast, the more visible features become. 

Radiographic contrast has two main contributors: subject contrast and 

detector or film contrast. 


Subject contrast is determined by the following variables: 

- Absorption differences in the specimen 

- Wavelength of the primary radiation 

-Scatter or secondary radiation 

Film contrast is determined by the following: 

- Grain size or type of film 

- Chemistry of film processing chemicals 

- Concentrations of film processing chemicals 

- Time of development 

- Temperature of development 

- Degree of mechanical agitation (physical motion) 


Exposing the film to produce higher film densities will generally increase 

contrast. In other words, darker areas will increase in density faster than 

lighter areas because in any given period of time more x-rays are reaching 

the darker areas. Lead screens in the thickness range of 0.004 to 0.015 inch 

typically reduce scatter radiation at energy levels below 150, 000 volts. Above 

this point they will emit electrons to provide more exposure of the film to 

ionizing radiation thus increasing the density of the radiograph. Fluorescent 

screens produce visible light when exposed to radiation and this light further 

exposes the film. 


Definition 

Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one density 

to another. There are a number of geometric factors of the X-ray equipment 

and the radiographic setup that have an effect on definition. These geometric 

factors include: 

1. Focal spot size, which is the area of origin of the radiation. The focal spot size 

should be as close to a point source as possible to produce the most definition. 

2. Source to film distance, which is the distance from the source to the part. Definition 

increases as the source to film distance increase. 

3. Specimen to detector (film) distance, which is the distance between the specimen 

and the detector. For optimal definition, the specimen and detector should be as 

close together as possible. . 

4. Abrupt changes in specimen thickness may cause distortion on the radiograph. 

5. Movement of the specimen during the exposure will produce distortion on the 

radiograph. 

6. Film graininess, and screen mottling will decrease definition. The grain size of the 

film will affect the definition of the radiograph. Wavelength of the radiation will 

influence apparent graininess. As the wavelength shortens and penetration 

increases, the apparent graininess of the film will increase. Also, increased 

development of the film will increase the apparent graininess of the radiograph. 


Chapter 9: Film Processing 

Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of chemical 

concentration, temperature, time, and physical movement. Whether 

processing is done by hand or automatically by machine, excellent 

radiographs require the highest possible degree of consistency and quality 

control. 

Manual Processing & Darkrooms 

Manual processing begins with the darkroom. The darkroom should be 

located in a central location, adjacent to the reading room and a reasonable 

distance from the exposure area. For portability darkrooms are often mounted 

on pickups or trailers. 


Film should be located in a light, tight compartment, which is most often a 

metal bin that is used to store and protect the film. An area next to the film bin 

that is dry and free of dust and dirt should be used to load and unload the film. 

While another area, the wet side, will be used to process the film. Thus 

protecting the film from any water or chemicals that may be located on the 

surface of the wet side. 

Each of step in film processing must be excited properly to develop the image, 

wash out residual processing chemicals, and to provide adequate shelf life of 

the radiograph. The objective of processing is two fold. First to produce a 

radiograph adequate for viewing, and secondly to prepare the radiograph for 

archival storage. A radiograph may be retrieved after 5 or even 20 years in 

storage. 


Automatic Processor Evaluation 

The automatic processor is the essential piece of equipment in every x-ray 

department. The automatic processor will reduce film processing time when 

compared to manual development by a factor of four. To monitor the 

performance of a processor, apart from optimum temperature and mechanical 

checks, chemical and sensitometric checks should be performed for 

developer and fixer. Chemical checks involve measurement of pH values for 

developer and replenisher, fixer and replenisher, measurement of specific 

gravity and fixer silver levels. Ideally pH should be measured daily and it is 

important to record these measurements, as regular logging provides very 

useful information. The daily measurements of pH values for developer and 

fixer can then be plotted to observe the trend of variations in these values 

compared to normal pH operating levels to identify problems. 


Sensitometric checks may be carried out to evaluate if the performance of 

films in the automatic processors is being maximized. These checks involve 

measurement of basic fog level, speed and average gradient made at 1° C 

intervals of temperature. The range of temperature measurement depends on 

the type of chemistry in use, whether cold or hot developer. These three 

measurements: fog level, speed, and average gradient, should then be 

plotted against temperature and compared with the manufacturer's supplied 

figures. 


Chapter 10: Viewing Radiographs 

Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray or gamma radiation) are 

generally viewed on a light-box. However, it is becoming increasingly 

common to digitize radiographs and view them on a high resolution monitor. 

Proper viewing conditions are very important when interpreting a radiograph. 

The viewing conditions can enhance or degrade the subtle details of 

radiographs. 

Viewing Radiographs 

Before beginning the evaluation of a radiograph, the viewing equipment and 

area should be considered. The area should be clean and free of distracting 

materials. Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film markers should be close at 

hand. Thin cotton gloves should be available and worn to prevent fingerprints 

on the radiograph. Ambient light levels should be low. Ambient light levels of 

less than 2 fc are often recommended, but subdued lighting, rather than total 

darkness, is preferable in the viewing room. The brightness of the 

surroundings should be about the same as the area of interest in the 

radiograph. Room illumination must be arranged so that there are no 

reflections from the surface of the film under examination. 


Film viewers should be clean and in good working condition. There are four 

groups of film viewers. These include: strip viewers, area viewers, spot 

viewers, and a combination of spot and area viewers. Film viewers should 

provide a source of defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from 

viewers can cause distortion of the radiograph. A film having a measured 

density of 2.0 will allow only 1.0 percent of the incident light to pass. A film 

containing a density of 4.0 will allow only 0.01 percent of the incident light to 

pass. With such low levels of light passing through the radiograph the delivery 

of a good light source is important. 

The radiographic process should be performed in accordance with a written 

procedure or code, or as required by contractual documents. The required 

documents should be available in the viewing area and referenced as 

necessary when evaluating components. Radiographic film quality and 

acceptability, as required by the procedure, should first be determined. 


It should be verified that the radiograph was produced to the correct density 

on the required film type, and that it contains the correct identification 

information. It should also be verified that the proper image quality indicator 

was used and that the required sensitivity level was met. Next, the radiograph 

should be checked to ensure that it does not contain processing and handling 

artifacts that could mask discontinuities or other details of interest. The 

technician should develop a standard process for evaluating the radiographs 

so that details are not overlooked. 

Once a radiograph passes these initial checks it is ready for interpretation. 

Radiographic film interpretation is an acquired skill combining, visual acuity 

with knowledge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated 

discontinues. If the component is inspected while in service, an 

understanding of applied loads and history of the component is helpful. A 

process for viewing radiographs, left to right top to bottom etc., is helpful and 

will prevent overlooking an area on the radiograph. This process is often 

developed over time and individualized. One part of the interpretation process, 

sometimes overlooked, is rest. The mind as well as the eyes need to 

occasionally rest when interpreting radiographs. 


When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small 

light source and moving the radiograph over the small light source, or 

changing the intensity of the light source will help the radiographer identify 

relevant indications. Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate 

to help identify and evaluate indications. Viewing the actual component being 

inspected is very often helpful in developing an understanding of the details 

seen in a radiograph. 

Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time. 

By using the proper equipment and developing consistent evaluation 

processes, the interpreter will increase his or her probability of detecting 

defects. 


Chapter 11: Contrast and Definition 

The first subjective criteria for determining radiographic quality is radiographic 

contrast. Essentially, radiographic contrast is the degree of density difference 

between adjacent areas on a radiograph. 

It is entirely possible to radiograph a particular subject and, by varying factors, 

produce two radiographs possessing entirely different contrast levels. With an 

x-ray source of low kilovoltage, we see an illustration of extremely high 

radiographic contrast, that is, density difference between the two adjacent 

areas (A and B) is high. It is essential that sufficient contrast exist between 

the defect of interest and the surrounding area. There is no viewing technique 

that can extract information that does not already exist in the original 

radiograph. 

With an x-ray source of high kilovoltage, we see a sample of relatively low 

radiographic contrast, that is, the density difference between the two adjacent 

areas (A and B) is low. 


Radiographic Contrast 


Definition 

Besides radiographic contrast as a subjective criteria for determining 

radiographic quality, there exists one other, radiographic detail. Essentially, 

radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one density 

to another. For example, it is possible to radiograph a particular subject and, 

by varying certain factors, produce two radiographs which possess different 

degrees of definition. 

In the example to the left, a two-step step tablet with the transition from step 

to step represented by Line BC is quite sharp or abrupt. Translated into a 

radiograph, we see that the transition from the high density to the low density 

is abrupt. The Edge Line BC is still a vertical line quite similar to the step 

tablet itself. We can say that the detail portrayed in the radiograph is 

equivalent to physical change present in the step tablet. Hence, we can say 

that the imaging system produced a faithful visual reproduction of the step 

table. It produced essentially all of the information present in the step tablet 

on the radiograph. 


In the example on the right, the same two-step step tablet has been 

radiographed. However, here we note that, for some reason, the imaging 

system did not produce a faithful visual reproduction. The Edge Line BC on 

the step tablet is not vertical. This is evidenced by the gradual transition 

between the high and low density 


areas on the radiograph. The edge definition or detail is not present because 

of certain factors or conditions which exist in the imaging system. 

In review, it is entirely possible to have radiographs with the following 

qualities: 

■ Low contrast and poor detail 

■ High contrast and poor definition 

■ Low contrast and good definition 

■ High contrast and good definition 

One must bear in mind that radiographic contrast and definition are not 

dependent upon the same set of factors. If detail in a radiograph is originally 

lacking, then attempts to manipulate radiographic contrast will have no effect 

on the amount of detail present in that radiograph 


Chapter 12: Radiographic Density 

Film speed, gradient, and graininess are all responsible for the performance 

of the film during exposure and processing. As these combine with 

processing variables a final product or the radiograph is produced. In viewing 

the radiograph, requirements have been established for acceptable 

radiographs in industry. The density of a radiograph in industry will determine 

if further viewing is possible. 

Density considerations date back to early day radiography. Hurder and 

Drifield have been credited with developing much of the early information on 

the characteristic curve and density of a radiograph. Codes and standards will 

typically require densities of a radiograph to be maintained between 1.8 to 4.0 

H&D (Hurder and Drifield) for acceptable viewing. As density increases, 

contrast will also increase. 


This is true above 4.0 H&D, however as density reaches 4.0 H&D an 

extremely bright viewing light is necessary for evaluation. 

Density, technically should be stated "Transmitted Density" when associated 

with transparent-base film. This density is the log of the intensity of light 

incident on the film to the intensity of light transmitted through the film. A 

density reading of 2.0 H&D is the result of only 1 percent of the transmitted 

light reaching the sensor. At 4.0 H&D only 0.01% of transmitted light reaches 

the far side of the film. 


Chapter 13: Controlling Radiographic Quality 

One of the methods of controlling the quality of a radiograph is through the 

use of image quality indicators (IQI). IQIs provide a means of visually 

informing the film interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and definition of the 

radiograph. The IQI indicates that a specified amount of material thickness 

change will be detectable in the radiograph, and that the radiograph has a 

certain level of definition so that the density changes are not lost due to 

unsharpness. Without such a reference point, consistency and quality could 

not be maintained and defects could go undetected. 

Image quality indicators take many shapes and forms due to the various 

codes or standards that invoke their use. In the United States two IQI styles 

are prevalent; the placard, or hole-type and the wire IQI. IQIs comes in a 

variety of material types so that one with radiation absorption characteristics 

similar to the material being radiographed can be used. 



Hole-Type IQIs 

ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and 

material group classification of hole-type image quality indicators. E1025 

designates eight groups of shims based on their radiation absorption 

characteristics. A notching system is incorporated into the requirements 

allowing the radiographer to easily determine if the penetrameter is the 

correct material type for the product. The thickness in thousands of an inch is 

noted on each pentameter by a lead number 0.250 to 0.375 inch wide 

depending on the thickness of the shim. Military or Government standards 

require a similar penetrameter but use lead letters to indicate the material 

type rather than notching system as shown on the left in the image above. 

Image quality levels are typically designated using a two part expression such 

as 2-2T. The first term refers to the IQI thickness expressed as a percentage 

of the region of interest of the part being inspected. The second term in the 

expression refers to the diameter of the hole that must be revealed and it is 

expressed as a multiple of the IQI thickness. Therefore, a 2-2T call-out would 

mean that the shim thickness should be two percent of material thickness and 

that a hole that is twice the IQI thickness must be detectable on the 

radiograph. This presentation of a 2-2T IQI in the radiograph verifies 


that the radiographic technique is capable of showing a material loss of 2% in 

the area of interest.It should be noted that even if 2-2T sensitivity is indicated 

on a radiograph, a defect of the same diameter and material loss may not be 

visible. The holes in the penetrameter represent sharp boundaries, and a 

small thickness change. Discontinues within the part may contain gradual 

changes, and are often less visible. The penetrameter is used to indicate 

quality of the radiographic technique and not intended to be used as a 

measure of size of cavity that can be located on the radiograph. 


Wire Penetrameters 

ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using 

wire penetrameters (IQIs) to control image quality. Wire IQIs consist of a set 

of six wires arranged in order of increasing diameter and encapsulated 

between two sheets of clear plastic. E747 specifies four wire IQIs sets, which 

control the wire diameters. The set letter (A, B, C or D) is shown in the lower 

right corner of the IQI. The number in the lower left corner indicates the 

material group. The same image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 2-2T) 

used for hole-type IQIs are typically also used for wire IQIs. The wire sizes 

that correspond to various hole-type quality levels can be found in a table in 

E747 or can be calculated using the following formula. 

Where: 

F = 0.79 (constant form factor for wire) 

D = wire diameter (mm or inch) 

L = 7.6 mm or 0.3 inch (effective length of wire) 

T = Hole-type IQI thickness (mm or inch) 

H = Hole-type IQI hole diameter (mm or inch) 


Placement of IQIs 

IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part over a section with a 

material thickness equivalent to the region of interest. If this is not possible, 

the IQI may be placed on a block of similar material and thickness to the 

region of interest. When a block is used, the IQI should the same distance 

from the film as it would be if placed directly on the part in the region of 

interest. The IQI should also be placed slightly away from the edge of the part 

so that atleast three of its edges are visible in the radiograph. 


Chapter 14: Exposure Calculations 

Properly exposing a radiograph is often a trial and error process, as there are 

many variables that affect the final radiograph. In this section we make the 

assumptions of a generic (and fixed characteristic) x-ray source, fixed film 

type, and fixed quality of development. 

The applet below estimates the density of the radiograph based on material, 

thickness, geometry, energy (voltage), current, and, of course, time. The 

effect of the energy and the physical setup are shown by looking at the film 

density after exposure. It should be noted that the applet will differ 

considerably from industrial x-ray configurations, and is designed for 

demonstration of variables in an x-ray system. 


Chapter 15: Radiograph Interpretation - Welds 

In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer must also 

be skilled in radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes 

place in three basic steps which are (1) detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) 

evaluation. All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity. 

Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability 

of an individual to detect discontinuities in radiography is also affected by the 

lighting condition in the place of viewing, and the experience level for 

recognizing various features in the image. The following material was 

developed to help students develop an understanding of the types of defects 

found in weldments and how they appear in a radiograph. 

Discontinuities 

Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These 

interruptions may occur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" 

zones. Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the codes or 

specification used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as 

defects. 


General Welding Discontinuities 

The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding. 

Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with 

the base metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The 

arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten 

puddle to flow into base material without bonding. 


Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can 

take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or 

irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters or rows. Sometimes 

porosity is elongated and may have the appearance of having a tail This is 

the result of gas attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state 

and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material it will 

have a radiographic density more than the surrounding area. 


Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated 

with moisture. The moisture turns into gases when heated and becomes 

trapped in the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear just 

like regular porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close 

together. 


Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or 

between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical 

shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag 

inclusions. 


Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the 

weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld 

discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a 

crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with 

well-defined, straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center 

of the weldment. 


Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not 

properly fuse with the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually 

appears as a dark line or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam 

along the weld preparation or joining area. 


Internal concavity or suck back is condition where the weld metal has 

contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a 

radiograph it looks similar to lack of penetration but the line has irregular 

edges and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image. 


Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of 

the weld. In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset 

from the centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as 

LOP because it does not follow a ground edge. 


External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the 

crown of the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along 

the outside edge of the weld area. 


Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces 

being welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image is a 

noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in 

density is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight 

line is caused by failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area. 


Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of 

weld metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very 

easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, 

because the image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be more 

(darker) than the image density of the surrounding base material. 


Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added 

in excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The 

appearance on a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual 

inspection will easily determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that 

specified by the engineering requirements. 


Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a 

direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray 

beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. 

Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity. 


Discontinuities in TIG welds 

The following discontinuities are peculiar to the TIG welding process. These 

discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process including 

aluminum and stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean 

homogeneous weld which when radiographed is easily interpreted. 

Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material 

used in the electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding 

procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. 

Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than aluminum or steel; therefore, it 

shows as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph. 


Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded 

(especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding 

materials and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in 

the radiograph. 


Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW) 

The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds. 

Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or 

bottom surface of the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they 

appear as light, "wire like" indications. 

Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to 

penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld creating 

a thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are 

referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn through appears as dark spots, 

which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles). 


Chapter 16: Radiograph Interpretation - 

Castings 

The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of 

defects that adversely affect the strength of the product. Casting are a 

product form that often receive radiographic inspection since many of the 

defects produced by the casting process are volumetric in nature and, thus, 

relatively easy to detect with this method. These discontinuities of course, are 

related to casting process deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can 

lead to accurate accept-reject decisions as well as to suitable corrective 

measures. Since different types and sizes of defects have different effects of 

the performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able to 

identify the type and size of the defects. ASTM E155, Standard for 

Radiographs of castings has been produced to help the radiographer make a 

better assessment of the defects found components. The castings used to 

produce the standard radiographs have been destructively analyzed to 

confirm the size and type of discontinuities present. The following is a brief 

description of the most common discontinuity types included in existing 

reference radiograph documents (in graded types or as single illustrations). 


RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS FOR CASTINGS 

Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by accumulated gas or air which is 

trapped by the metal. These discontinuities are usually smooth-walled 

rounded cavities of a spherical, elongated or flattened shape. If the sprue is 

not high enough to provide the necessary heat transfer needed to force the 

gas or air out of the mold, the gas or air will be trapped as the molten metal 

begins to solidify. Blows can also be caused by sand that is too fine, too wet, 

or by sand that has a low permeability so that gas can't escape. Too high a 

moisture content in the sand makes it difficult to carry the excessive volumes 

of water vapor away from the casting. Another cause of blows can be 

attributed to using green ladles, rusty or damp chills and chaplets. 



Sand inclusions and dross are nonmetallic oxides, appearing on the 

radiograph as irregular, dark blotches. These come from disintegrated 

portions of mold or core walls and/or from oxides (formed in the melt) which 

have not been skimmed off prior to introduction of the metal into the mold 

gates. Careful control of the melt, proper holding time in the ladle and 

skimming of the melt during pouring will minimize or obviate this source of 

trouble. 


Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on the 

radiograph. Shrinkage assumes various forms but in all cases it occurs 

because molten metal shrinks as it solidifies, in all portions of the final casting. 

Shrinkage is avoided by making sure that the volume of the casting is 

adequately fed by risers which sacrificially retain the shrinkage. Shrinkage 

can be recognized in a number of characteristic by varying appearances on 

radiographs. There are at least four types: (1) cavity; (2) dendritic; (3) 

filamentary; and (4) sponge types. Some documents designate these types 

by numbers, without actual names, to avoid possible misunderstanding. 

Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with distinct jagged boundaries. It may 

be produced when metal solidifies between two original streams of melt, 

coming from opposite directions to join a common front; cavity shrinkage 

usually occurs at a time when the melt has almost reached solidification 

temperature and there is no source of supplementary liquid to feed possible 

cavities. 



Dendritic shrinkage is a distribution of very fine lines or small elongated 

cavities that may vary in density and are usually unconnected. 

Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as a continuous structure of 

connected lines or branches of variable length, width and density, or 

occasionally as a network. 


Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas of lacy texture with diffuse outlines, 

generally toward the mid-thickness of heavier casting sections. Sponge 

shrinkage may be dendritic or filamentary shrinkage; filamentary sponge 

shrinkage appears more blurred because it is projected through the relatively 

thick coating between the discontinuities and the film surface. 


Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly disposed discontinuities that 

occur after the melt has solidified. They generally appear singly and originate 

at casting surfaces. 

Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast metal as a result of 

two streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite. They may appear on a 

radiograph as cracks or seams with smooth or rounded edges. 


Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in a supposedly solid metallic matrix. 

They may be less or more dense than the matrix alloy and will appear on the 

radiograph, respectively, as darker or lighter indications. The latter type is 

more common in light metal castings. 


Core shift shows itself as a variation in section thickness, usually on 

radiographic views representing diametrically opposite portions of cylindrical 

casting portions. 


Hot tears are linearly disposed indications that represent fractures formed in 

a metal during solidification because of hindered contraction. The latter may 

occur due to overly hard (completely unyielding) mold or core walls. The 

effect of hot tears, as a stress concentration, is similar to that of an ordinary 

crack; how tears are usually systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as hot 

tears in larger runs of a casting type, they may call for explicit improvements 

in technique. 

Misruns appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable 

dimensions with a definite smooth outline. They are mostly random in 

occurrence and not readily eliminated by specific remedial actions in the 

process. 


Mottling is a radiographic indication that appears as an indistinct area of 

more or less dense images. The condition is a diffraction effect that occurs on 

relatively vague, thin-section radiographs, most often with austenitic stainless 

steel. Mottling is caused by interaction of the object's grain boundary material 

with low-energy X-rays (300 kV or lower). Inexperienced interpreters may 

incorrectly consider mottling as indications of unacceptable casting flaws. 

Even experienced interpreters often have to check the condition by reradiography 

from slightly different source-film angles. Shifts in mottling are 

then very pronounced, while true casting discontinuities change only slightly 

in appearance. 


Radiographic Indications for Casting Repair Welds 

Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from 

defective conditions or in joining to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons 

of casting repair that these descriptions of the more common weld defects are 

provided here. The terms appear as indication types in ASTM E390. For 

additional information, see the Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, 

Section 9 on the "Radiographic Control of Welds." 

Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld 

material and base metal. Radiographically, slag may appear in various 

shapes, from long narrow indications to short wide indications, and in various 

densities, from gray to very dark. 

Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voids in the weld metal, and is 

generally cylindrical or elliptical in shape. 

Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left 

unfilled by weld metal. It represents a stress concentration that often must be 

corrected, and appears as a dark indication at the toe of a weld. 


Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration 

through the thickness of the joint (or penetration which is less than specified). 

It is located at the center of a weld and is a wide, linear indication. 

Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in 

a weld joint with adjacent metal; either base or previously deposited weld 

metal. On a radiograph, this appears as a long, sharp linear indication, 

occurring at the centerline of the weld joint or at the fusion line. 

Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing 

ring, strip, fused root or adjacent base metal) resulting from complete melting 

of a localized region but without development of a void or open hole. On a 

radiograph, melt-through generally appears as a round or elliptical indication. 

Burn-through is a void or open hole into a backing ring, strip, fused root or 

adjacent base metal. 


Arc strike is an indication from a localized heat-affected zone or a change in 

surface contour of a finished weld or adjacent base metal. Arc strikes are 

caused by the heat generated when electrical energy passes between 

surfaces of the finished weld or base metal and the current source. 

Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are 

expelled during welding and which do not form part of the actual weld: weld 

spatter appears as many small, light cylindrical indications on a radiograph. 

Tungsten inclusion is usually denser than base-metal particles. Tungsten 

inclusions appear most linear, very light radiographic images; accept/reject 

decisions for this defect are generally based on the slag criteria. 

Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding, 

resulting in oxide formation on the surface, due to partial or complete lack of 

purge of the weld atmosphere. Also called sugaring. 


Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing 

ring or into the clearance between backing ring or strip and the base metal. It 

appears in radiographs as a sharply defined film density transition. 

Root undercut appears as an intermittent or continuous groove in the 

internal surface of the base metal, backing ring or strip along the edge of the 

weld root. 


Real-time Radiography 

Real-time radiography (RTR), or real-time radioscopy, is a nondestructive test 

(NDT) method whereby an image is produced electronically rather than on 

film so that very little lag time occurs between the item being exposed to 

radiation and the resulting image. In most instances, the electronic image that 

is viewed, results from the radiation passing through the object being 

inspected and interacting with a screen of material that fluoresces or gives off 

light when the interaction occurs. The fluorescent elements of the screen form 

the image much as the grains of silver form the image in film radiography. 

The image formed is a "positive image" since brighter areas on the image 

indicate where higher levels of transmitted radiation reached the screen. This 

image is the opposite of the negative image produced in film radiography. In 

other words, with RTR, the lighter, brighter areas represent thinner sections 

or less dense sections of the test object. 


Real-time radiography is a well-established method of NDT having 

applications in automotive, aerospace, pressure vessel, electronic, and 

munition industries, among others. The use of RTR is increasing due to a 

reduction in the cost of the equipment and resolution of issues such as the 

protecting and storing digital images. Since RTR is being used increasingly 

more, these educational materials were developed by the North Central 

Collaboration for NDT Education (NCCE) to introduce RTR to NDT technician 

students. 





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