Generic Boilers 10.8.20

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Site-Specific Customized to
your boilers and equipment
Boiler
General
Operations
Illustrations and Notes arranged by
Sedley Parkinson, Instructor
Sep 2020
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Table of Contents
Preface: System Design ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
1) Primitive Boilers ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
2) Fire Tube Boilers ........................................................................................................................................................... 8
i. Multi-Pass ........................................................................................................................................................... 8
ii. Dryback vs. Wetback .......................................................................................................................................... 9
iii. Tube Connections: Roll and Bead ..................................................................................................................... 11
iv. Stays ................................................................................................................................................................. 12
3) Water Tube Boilers ..................................................................................................................................................... 13
i. Types of water tube boilers .............................................................................................................................. 13
ii. Tube Connections: Roll and Flare ..................................................................................................................... 18
iii. Downcomer ...................................................................................................................................................... 19
iv. Superheater ...................................................................................................................................................... 20
v. Steam Scrubber: Baffles/Dry Pipe ..................................................................................................................... 21
vi. Mud Drum continuous heater .......................................................................................................................... 21
4) Cast Iron Sectional Boilers .......................................................................................................................................... 23
5) Co-Generation ............................................................................................................................................................ 24
a. Electricity ........................................................................................................................................................... 24
b. Turbo Generator ............................................................................................................................................... 26
c. Steam Turbine .................................................................................................................................................. 27
d. Condenser ......................................................................................................................................................... 28
e. Non-Condensing Turbines ................................................................................................................................. 29
f. Combined Cycle ................................................................................................................................................ 30
6) Closed Loop Water Circulation ................................................................................................................................... 31
Aquastat ................................................................................................................................................................ 31
Air Removal ........................................................................................................................................................... 32
Water Expansion Control ...................................................................................................................................... 33
Exterior Circulation Pumps .................................................................................................................................... 34
Closed Loop Corrosion Control ............................................................................................................................. 34
PEX tubing ............................................................................................................................................................. 35
Antifreeze .............................................................................................................................................................. 36
Noncondensing vs Condensing Boiler ................................................................................................................... 39
A) Start Up, Operation and Shutdown .................................................................................................................................. 40
1) Ideal Gas Law: PV=nRT ............................................................................................................................................... 40
i. Heat Pump ........................................................................................................................................................ 42
ii. Dehumidifier ..................................................................................................................................................... 43
iii. Air Compressor ................................................................................................................................................. 44
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2) Temperature vs Heat Content .................................................................................................................................... 45
3) Pressure ...................................................................................................................................................................... 46
i. Vapor Pressure .................................................................................................................................................. 47
ii. Water Phase Expansion ..................................................................................................................................... 51
4) Pressure vs Temperature Chart .................................................................................................................................. 53
i. Sublimation/Deposition .................................................................................................................................... 53
ii. Freezing/Melting .............................................................................................................................................. 55
iii. Boiling/Condensing ........................................................................................................................................... 56
iv. Gauge vs Absolute ............................................................................................................................................ 57
5) Steam Table ............................................................................................................................................................... 58
6) Temperature vs Enthalpy (Btus/Pound)..................................................................................................................... 59
7) Boiler Operational Controllers ................................................................................................................................... 61
B) Fuel: Primary and Backup ................................................................................................................................................. 62
1) Fuel Types ................................................................................................................................................................... 62
i. Natural Gas ....................................................................................................................................................... 62
ii. Liquid Fuels ....................................................................................................................................................... 64
2) Combustion ................................................................................................................................................................ 65
i. Combustion Air ................................................................................................................................................. 66
ii. Spark ................................................................................................................................................................. 68
iii. Flame ................................................................................................................................................................ 69
iv. Air/Fuel Ratio (AFR) .......................................................................................................................................... 71
3. Burners ...................................................................................................................................................................... 73
i. Natural gas ....................................................................................................................................................... 73
ii. Oil Burners ....................................................................................................................................................... 76
iii . Duel Fuel Burners ............................................................................................................................................ 77
C) Plant Equipment Operations ............................................................................................................................................ 77
1) Steam Traps ................................................................................................................................................................ 78
i. Thermodynamic ............................................................................................................................................... 79
ii. Mechanical ...................................................................................................................................................... 80
iii. Thermostatic .................................................................................................................................................... 84
iv. Universal Mount Steam Traps ......................................................................................................................... 86
v. Automatic Pump Trap (APT) = Condensate Pump ........................................................................................... 87
vi. PRV .................................................................................................................................................................. 88
vii. Steam Trap Troubleshooting .......................................................................................................................... 90
2) Desuperheater ............................................................................................................................................................ 91
3) Heat Exchangers ......................................................................................................................................................... 92
i. Shell and Tube .................................................................................................................................................. 92
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High Capacity Instantaneous Steam Fired Water Heater ...................................................................................... 93
ii. Plate and Frame ................................................................................................................................................ 95
iii. HVAC Mixing Boxes ........................................................................................................................................... 96
4) Pumps ......................................................................................................................................................................... 97
i. Reciprocating .................................................................................................................................................... 97
ii. Rotary ............................................................................................................................................................... 98
iii. Centrifugal ........................................................................................................................................................ 99
iv. Multi Stage Pumps .......................................................................................................................................... 101
v. Motor Vibration Monitoring ........................................................................................................................... 102
5) Valves ....................................................................................................................................................................... 103
i. Types .............................................................................................................................................................. 103
ii. Backflow Prevention ....................................................................................................................................... 104
iii. Actuators ........................................................................................................................................................ 105
iv. Water Hammer: Valve Induced ...................................................................................................................... 108
6) Electricity .................................................................................................................................................................. 110
i. Flow ................................................................................................................................................................. 110
ii. VFD: Affinity Law ............................................................................................................................................. 111
D) Hot Piping Systems ......................................................................................................................................................... 113
1) Pipes ......................................................................................................................................................................... 113
i. Manufacture Style .......................................................................................................................................... 113
ii. Composition ................................................................................................................................................... 115
iii. Sizing ............................................................................................................................................................... 116
2) Water Hammer: Steam Driven ................................................................................................................................. 117
i. Water Slug ...................................................................................................................................................... 117
ii. Vacuum Induced ............................................................................................................................................. 117
iii. Inline Steam Separators .................................................................................................................................. 118
3) Condensate/Surge Tank ........................................................................................................................................... 119
5) Feed Water Pumps ................................................................................................................................................... 121
E) Water Quality .................................................................................................................................................................. 122
1) Boiler Water Chemistry ............................................................................................................................................ 122
i. pH .................................................................................................................................................................... 122
ii. Conductivity..................................................................................................................................................... 125
2) Make Up Water ........................................................................................................................................................ 128
i. Water Softener .............................................................................................................................................. 129
ii. Reverse Osmosis (RO).................................................................................................................................... 131
iii. Filtration ........................................................................................................................................................ 133
3) Feed Water: DA Tank ............................................................................................................................................... 137
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i. Temperature Control ...................................................................................................................................... 137
ii. Dissolved Air Removal .................................................................................................................................... 138
4) Boiler Water ............................................................................................................................................................. 140
i. Caustic Embrittlement .................................................................................................................................... 140
ii. Scale Control: Residual Hardness ................................................................................................................... 141
iii. Residual Oxygen Pitting Control: Oxygen Scavengers ..................................................................................... 142
iv. Surface blowdown .......................................................................................................................................... 143
v. Sludge and Settlement Control: Bottom Blowdown ....................................................................................... 144
vi. Water Column Blowdown............................................................................................................................... 146
5) Condensate: Carbonic Acid ...................................................................................................................................... 147
6) Combination Chemical Treatment ........................................................................................................................... 149
7) Chemical Feed Pumps ............................................................................................................................................... 150
G) System Documentation / Plant Performance ................................................................................................................ 151
1) Pressure Gauges ....................................................................................................................................................... 151
i. Bourdon Tube ................................................................................................................................................. 151
ii. Pressurestat .................................................................................................................................................... 152
iii. Pig Tale / Syphon Loop ................................................................................................................................... 152
2) Flow Meters .............................................................................................................................................................. 153
i. Differential Pressure ....................................................................................................................................... 153
ii. Ultrasonic ....................................................................................................................................................... 155
iii. Coriolis Oscillation .......................................................................................................................................... 155
iv. Positive Displacement .................................................................................................................................... 156
3) Energy Measurement ............................................................................................................................................... 157
4) Emissions (Air Pollution) ........................................................................................................................................... 158
i. Boiler Mact .................................................................................................................................................... 158
ii. Acid Rain ........................................................................................................................................................ 159
iii. NO x, HC and CO Control ................................................................................................................................. 160
iv. CO ₂ (Green House Gasses) ............................................................................................................................. 165
H) Emergency Generator .................................................................................................................................................... 166
1) Arc Flash ................................................................................................................................................................... 166
2) Generator System Components ............................................................................................................................... 167
I) Routine Equipment Maintenance .................................................................................................................................... 169
1) EMP (Equipment Maintenance Plans) ...................................................................................................................... 169
2) Lock Out / Tag Out .................................................................................................................................................... 170
J) Inspection Preparation .................................................................................................................................................... 171
1) Internal vs. Operational ............................................................................................................................................ 171
2) Refractory ................................................................................................................................................................. 172
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3) Seal Ropes ................................................................................................................................................................ 173
K) Safety Systems ................................................................................................................................................................ 174
1) Emergency Stop Button ............................................................................................................................................ 174
2) Earthquake Shutoff .................................................................................................................................................. 174
3) Pop-Off Valve............................................................................................................................................................ 175
4) OS&Y ......................................................................................................................................................................... 175
5) Safety Limit Controls ................................................................................................................................................ 176
a. Boiler Failure Examples ................................................................................................................................... 176
b. Fuel Line Limit Controllers ............................................................................................................................... 177
c. Air Flow Proving Switches ................................................................................................................................ 178
d. Fuel Line Train Parts ........................................................................................................................................ 179
e. Flame Scanner ................................................................................................................................................. 183
f. Water Column .................................................................................................................................................. 187
g. Carbon Monoxide ............................................................................................................................................ 189
L) Facilitating and monitoring receipt of fuels .................................................................................................................... 190
M) Efficiency........................................................................................................................................................................ 191
1) Causes of Inefficiency ............................................................................................................................................... 191
2) Effects of Inefficiency ............................................................................................................................................... 196
3) Economizer ............................................................................................................................................................... 197
4) LEED Program ........................................................................................................................................................... 198
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Preface: System Design
1) Primitive Boilers
Hero’s Engine
around 50 AD
Alexandria,
Roman Empire
Cugnot’s
Steam Car
around 1769
Paris, France
Newcomen
Steam Engine
around 1770
London, England
Single, steam driven piston
Primitive boilers were generally, large
spheres with a fire underneath.
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2) Fire Tube Boilers
i. Multi-Pass
Multi-Pass Boilers
1 Pass
CW
Electrical combustion air
blowers spurred the
advancement of the use of
tubes in a boiler.
1 and 2 pass boilers have no
baffles
2 Pass
3 Pass
Baffles control direction
of flue gases
4 Pass
Multi-pass Vertical Firetube
Passes: 1 2 3 4
Stack & Burner: O S O S
O = Opposite End
S = Same End
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ii. Dryback vs. Wetback
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ICB: InterCooled Back boiler
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iii. Tube Connections: Roll and Bead
Fire tubes are often referred to as “flue tubes”.
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iv. Stays
Stays are often installed in high
pressure fire tube boilers to help
offset stress difference on the
flat plates in the open steam
section.
diagonal stays
Some fire tube boilers have a dry
pipe which helps prevent water
droplets from escaping into steam
lines.
When corrosion or cracks in
the staybolt reach the drilled
telltale hole, steam is
released, alerting the
operator. (Typical in some
types of locomotive steam
engines)
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3) Water Tube Boilers
i. Types of water tube boilers
Babcock & Wilcox
Boiler, 1867
To greatly increase
heating surface area,
water was sent
through tubes in the
refractory.
Stirling Boiler,
1898
Bottom tubes often became plugged with
sediment. The invention of the mud drum,
along with blowdown lines overcame this issue.
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Flex Tube Bryan ®
Flex Tube
Closed Loop
(Hot Water) Flex
Tube Boiler
The unique flexible bent tube design prevents
all possible damage from thermal shock and
related problems. Bryan Flexible Tubes are
easily removable and replaceable, allowing
for quick and simple boiler maintenance.
Steam Generating
Flex Tube Boiler
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Circular Coil
Circular Coil
Boiler
Clayton ® Steam Generator
with integrated superheater
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Panel
Welllons ®
Panel Boiler
Modulated HRSG (Heat Recovery Steam Generator)
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O, D, A Type
“O” Type
“A” Type
“D” Type
Back
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ii. Tube Connections: Roll and Flare
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iii. Downcomer
spelling!
Mud drum
Downcomer tubes bring water that didn’t
turn to steam back to the bottom drum.
No pump is needed: water has less mass in
the tubes where the water is boiling (steam
bubbles) creating a natural circulation
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iv. Superheater
The superheater relief
valve is set to pop before
boiler relief valve.
Steam Superheater
Steam temperature is increased by passing though
fire chamber 2 nd time (pressure stays the same).
1. The additional energy in the steam
allows more work to be done.
2. With the steam above the saturation
point (boiling point), any water droplets
that may have escaped the boiler
(priming), are automatically flashed into
steam, this protects critical parts such as
turbine blades from physical damage.
The Bleeder is used to maintain a flow of steam
through the super heater during light-off and shut
down when the boiler main steam stops are shut.
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v. Steam Scrubber: Baffles/Dry Pipe
vi. Mud Drum continuous heater
Simple interior port for water level columns
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Steam Scrubber and outlet
Downcomer tubes
Surface Blowdown
(skimmer)
Purple line for soot
blower (not used)
Feed water
Chemical Injection
(from bypass feeder)
Steam is sent through mud drum on
boilers that are “waiting” (standby) for
a faster startup when boiler is needed
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4) Cast Iron Sectional Boilers
To increase capacity, add sections
Multiple stacks indicate CIS
boilers, making flue gas flow
over sections more uniform.
CIS boilers operate at

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5) Co-Generation
a. Electricity
Tesla vs. Edison
Direct Current:
One Way Flow
Using Tesla’s new AC technology, Westinghouse
entered the low bid well under Edison to produce
electricity for the 1893 World’s Fair held in NY City.
They used water driven turbines on the Niagara Falls.
In an effort to discredit AC electricity and its inventor,
Nikoli Tesla (who once worked for Edison), Thomas
Edison publically electrocuted a series of animals
including Topsy the elephant in 1903.
Alternating Current: Switches Back and
Forth from Positive to Negative
Single Phase AC
Hertz = rotations per second
Three Phase AC
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The Grid
the Grid
Base Load Power Plants run
continuously while Intermediate and
Peak Plants meet local load demands
Transmission
Energy Losses
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b. Turbo Generator
Stator:
Stationary
Wire Windings
Turbo
Generator
Rotor:
DC induced magnetic fields
When the rotor’s magnetic field passes by the
stator’s wire windings, electrons are repeatedly
pushed then pulled through the metal, creating
an alternating electric current (AC).
Same working principle as your car’s alternator
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c. Steam Turbine
Rotors
(rotating)
Stators
(stationary)
Lower pressure steam for facility use can be taken from various locations in turbine shell via extraction ports.
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d. Condenser
Condenser
Condensers are located after the
turbines to cool used steam.
The faster steam is cooled the faster it shrinks,
creating a vacuum, “pulling” on the turbines.
Inside Condenser
Cooling Towers Serve the Condenser
hot moist air ↑
heat exchange packing
cool air→
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e. Non-Condensing Turbines
Non-Condensing (Back Pressure) Turbines
No Condenser or Cooling Towers.
Steam is used in process or
heating (no energy loss through
cooling tower).
In the backpressure turbine configuration, the turbine does
not consume steam. Instead, it simply reduces the pressure
and energy content of steam that is subsequently exhausted
into the process header.
In essence, the turbo generator serves the same steam
function as a pressure-reducing valve (PRV)—it reduces
steam pressure—but uses the pressure drop to produce
highly valued electricity in addition to the low-pressure
steam.
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f. Combined Cycle
CCPP: Dual Shaft
CCPP: Single Shaft
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6) Closed Loop Water Circulation
Aquastat sets hot water
Aquastat boiler temperature ranges
Closed Loop (water only boilers)
Probe with coils are
generally for air
temperature.
STRAP-ON SURFACE
TEMPERATURE PROBE
Temperature probe bulb
fits into thermowell.
Low Limit:
Turns on the burner
view from inside vessel
Differential:
Normal operating range
above low limit (turns off burner)
Triple Aquastat
High Limit:
Safety Cutoff
Manual reset indicates this is a high
temperature limit safety cutoff
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Air Removal
Air Removal
Closed Loop Continued
Air Vent
Air Scoop
Open
Air under pressure
is blown out
Closing
Water replaces air
Closed
Poppet floats and
seals top
Air Separator
Manual Radiator
Air Bleed Valves
Auto Radiator Air
Bleed Valves
Air escapes from the radiator through the valve until water
enters and expands the hygroscopic washers.
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Water Expansion
Control
Water Expansion Control
Closed Loop Continued
Expansion tanks located at
the highest point in the
closed loop do not need air
separators. They usually
have a sight glass and should
be at least 1/3 rd empty.
Expansion
Joints
To extend the life of the
diaphragm/bladder
compression tank, it is
usually placed on the cold
end of the loop.
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Exterior Circulation Pumps Pumps
Closed Loop Continued
CW
While a steam boiler’s pressure
forces the circulation of the steam,
a closed loop system needs pumps
to circulate the water.
Closed Corrosion Loop Control
Corrosion in electric closed loop boiler
SPEC: Molybdates (“Moly”), Nitrites, or
Silicates are added as a corrosion inhibitor to
closed loop systems via bypass feeders or
direct injection pumps.
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PEX tubing
Closed Loop Continued
CW
PEX: No corrosion
An aluminum layer or EVOH barrier (Ethylene-Vinyl
Alcohol copolymer) prevents oxygen penetration.
(3 layers)
(5 layers)
PEX Al PEX
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Antifreeze
Closed Loop Continued
Prevents freezing in Closed Loops
during shut downs.
PG
C₃H₈O₂
Composition
EG
C2H6O2
Food Grade
(You can drink it)
Safety
Toxic
(Follow proper use and
disposal guidelines)
Nitrites are added to
prevent corrosion.
Cost (as of 2014)
Inhibitor = Nitrites
= corrosion prevention
Because of safety, food-processing closed loop
boilers generally are charged with Propylene
Glycol.
Use
Because of cost, nonfood-processing closed loop
boilers generally are charged with Ethylene Glycol.
Automobile engine antifreeze usually
contain antifoams, coagulants, dyes and
other additives which may or may not
effect a boiler’s proper operation.
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Measurement
Refractometer:
Chemical concentration effects
refraction angle.
Float Type
Antifreeze testers
Since non-food grade (cheaper) antifreeze is generally
used in automobile engines, these type of testers
indicate freeze point of Ethylene Glycol.
Glycol Mixing Tanks
1. Allows water to raise to room temperature before entering system, removing dissolved air.
2. A convenient way to make sure your percentage is correct.
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Concentration vs Freeze Point
Glycols 70%
Freeze point starts
to go back up!
50/50 Blend: Typical Use Recommendation
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Condensing Boiler
Noncondensing vs Condensing Boiler
More efficient use of flue gas
Closed Loop Continued
A condensing boiler
Non-Condensing
Boiler with separate
condensing chamber
Acidic condensate flows
across neutralizing
marble type chips
preventing possible
damage to sewer lines
Notice PVC drain line
for acidic condensate
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A) Start Up, Operation and Shutdown
1) Ideal Gas Law: PV=nRT
When Temperature↑ and Volume stays the same, then Pressure↑
= BOILER
When Pressure↑ and Volume stays the same, then Temperature↑ = AIR COMPRESSOR
The INTERCOOLER uses water or
outside air to cool compressed
air in-between stages.
2 nd Stage
1 st Stage
When Pressure↓ and Volume stays the same, then Temperature↓ = Propane Tank
P↓ × V c = T↓ : Refrigeration
ICE !
Hot
(Restricting Orifice)
Cold
Various types of expansion valves
Air Conditioning
* Simplified for training purposes. Actual:
P a g e 40

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If
↓
then
↑ ↓ ↑
If
↑
↑ ↑
then
↓ ↑ ↓
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i. Heat Pump
Around 37°F many heat pumps reach what is
called the balance point where the heat pump
needs to run constantly to maintain a
comfortable indoor temperature. Efficiency
drops as you approach this point.
Reversing Valve
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ii. Dehumidifier
DEHUMIDIFIER
AIR OUTLET,
NEAR SAME
TEMPERATURE
AS INLET
Dehumidification Kiln: Room
Temperature Wood Drying
HVAC Dehumidification Air Handler
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iii. Air Compressor
Atomizing and
Control Air
Point of use PRV
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Temperature
CW
2) Temperature vs Heat Content
: through nonmoving or solid parts
: through moving substances, such
as water, steam, or air
: through energy waves, even
travels through a vacuum (such as the sun
transfers heat to Earth through space)
Latent heat of
liquefaction
Latent heat of
vaporization
vaporizing →
BTUs
Latent Heat:
BTUs
← condensing
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Temperature
CW
@ 0 psig = 1 Atm = sea level
Saturated Steam = steam at the boiling pt.
Superheated
(above the
boiling pt.)
32°F 212°F
0°C 100°C
970.3 BTUs to boil 1 # of H 2O
Water at 32°F
contains 0 BTUs
(beginning point for
BTU measurement)
-144BTU 0BTU 180BTU 1150.3BTU
Heat Content
1 BTU = heat needed to change 1 lb. of water 1°F
To change 1 lb of:
Ice 1º F, add 0.5 Btu
Steam 1º F, add 0.45 Btu
1 BTU also is about equal
to heat given off by one
match stick burning
How many BTUs does one pound of steam contain at 212°F at Sea Level?
32 ºF water to 212 ºF water takes 180BTU/lb. 180
212 ºF water to 212 ºF steam takes 970.3BTU/lb. +970.3
1150.3 BTUs
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3) Pressure
i. Vapor Pressure
Absolute Zero = Perfect Vacuum
Vapor Pressure
0
Vacuum
Maximum water
content in air =
saturation point
Evaporation or
Vaporization
Vaporization >
Condensation
Vaporization =
Condensation
Equilibrium
Pressure changes with Temperature (molecules
move around more when heated)
Saturation Point
(Equilibrium) changes with
Temperature and Pressure
and becomes the
Saturation Curve
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Saturation Curve
Saturation Curve
Saturation Curve
1000gH20 / Kg Air
all air is water vapor
Equilibrium = Saturation Curve = Dew Point
Water vapor in air
400g
300g
200g
100g
0 K= -273°C= -460°F
No water vapor in air
No molecular movement
Absolute zero temperature
temperature increase →
373 K=100°C=212°F
All water vaporized
(@0psig)
0g
Water droplets, suspended in the air,
form as humid air temperature drops
past the saturation curve.
←temperature drop
H 2O falls out as dew and frost,
OR rain and snow.
f
r
o
s
t
d
e
w
Freeze Point
P a g e 48

Air Moisture Content →
CW
Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic Process
Moist air rises over mountains: lower air pressure,
vapor condenses on dust particles forming
suspended droplets or ice crystals (clouds).
Descending clouds increase in
air pressure, clouds evaporate
back into vapor = Rain Shadow.
Rain/Snow →
Temperature Increase →
Same principle applies
to large air masses
P a g e 49

Extreme
Precipitation
CW
A combination of the adiabatic process and
the inability of cold air to hold moisture, the
Dry Valleys of Antarctica is said not to have
any measurable precipitation for over
2,000,000 years.
The Brahmaputra Mountains in Eastern
India reports the highest average rainfall of
467 inches per year.
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ii. Water Phase Expansion
Water to Vapor Expansion
Water to Vapor
When Temperature ↑ and Pressure stays the same, then Volume must ↑
v = 0.01672 ft 3
Now imagine a 500 gallon boiler rupturing and instantly filling the building with 111,700 ft 3
(100 hot air balloons) of flash steam
Denver: 500 gallon boiler explosion
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Water
to Ice Expansion
to Ice
Expansion
Slightly
negative
Freezing: +10%
Melting: - 9%
CW
Slightly
positive
Slightly
positive
Water to Ice Volume Expands about 10%
Which is about the same as:
10 ft 3 water making 11 ft 3 of ice
Hexagonal shape
60°
…, and Ice Floats (less
dense)
60°
…, and breaks lines
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Sea Level
Pressure
4) Phases Pressure vs Temperature of Water Chart
Pressure vs. Temperature
CW
Freeze Point
Curve
Evaporation
Curve
14.7 psia
= 0 psig
= 1 atm
= 1 bar
Solid
As Pressure increases, H 2O favors
the state that takes up less space,
NOTICE: the slight backwards freeze
Sea Level
curve and the forward boiling curve.
Vapor
Triple
Point
(not to scale)
Absolute Zero
(Theoretical)
Temperature
32°F
0°C
212°F
100°C
Solid
Vapor
Where Freeze Point Curve, Evaporation Curve and Sublimation Curves Meet
= 0.09psia and 32.02°F
Triple
Point
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i. Sublimation/Deposition
Home Unit
Freeze Dryer
Sublimation
= Freeze Dryers
Low temperature and pressure
Vacuum
Chamber
2. About 90% of the food’s
moisture is drawn off by
sublimating the ice at
temperature as low as -60º F
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ii. Freezing/Melting
Newly formed water
from the higher
pressure on the ice
directly underneath the
blades acts as a
lubricant.
Regelation: with pressure
gone, liquid returns to sold.
Lake Mille Lacs, MN
On rare occasions, regelation can
occur when the water at the bank
of a heavily ice covered, deep lake
is exposed to lower psi and the
water in the lake is at or below
freezing. Water will “flash” into
ice and move forward until
backpressure stops the reaction.
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iii. Boiling/Condensing
Vapor Cone: condensation by extreme high pressure
High altitude vapor cones are
actually suspended ice crystal
cones…. Deposition !
As a result of the sudden expansion of the nuclear explosion, high psi
increase condenses vapor into suspended water droplets. This water then
evaporates back to invisible vapor as the high-pressure shock wave passes.
P a g e 56

CW
iv. Gauge vs Absolute
psig
(gauge)
psia
(absolute)
H 2O
boiling pt
Perfect Vacuum -14.7 0 °F
Near Vacuum -14.5 0.2 53°
Mt. Everest -5.6 9.1 157°
Milwaukee, WI -0.3 14.4 210.9°
Sea Level 0 14.7 212°
Dead Sea 0.8 15.5 215°
Example: a boiler psi 100 114.7 337°
Sea Level =
1 atmosphere
= 14.7 psia
= 0 psig
Space = a vacuum
psia = 0
psig = -14.7
Mt. Everest = 29,029 ft
Dead Sea = -1378 ft
Milwaukee = 617 ft
The boiling point changes about 1˚
for each 550 ft change in elevation
High altitude cooking instructions: 3500 to 6500 ft
Increase simmer time to 19 min (with lower boiling
temperature, it takes longer to cook food.)
Vacuum
pump
Vacuum
jar
P a g e 57

Psig
Inches of Hg (Vacuum)
CW
5) Steam Table
Gauge
Pressure
Psia
Boiling
Point
ºF
Btu content of
1 lb. of water
at B.P.
Btu needed to
turn 1 lb. of water
at B.P. into steam
Btu content
of saturated
steam
Volume
of water
ft 3 /lb at B.P.
Volume
of steam
ft 3 /lb at B.P.
29.7 0.09 32.02 0 1075.8 1075.8 0.01602 3306
29.5 0.2 53 21 1063.8 1085.0 0.01603 1526
27.9 1.0 102 70 1036.3 1106.0 0.01614 334
19.7 5.0 162 130 1001.0 1131.0 0.01641 73.5
9.6 10.0 193 161 982.1 1143.3 0.01659 38.4
7.5 11.0 198 166 979.3 1145.0 0.01665 35.1
5.5 12.0 202 170 976.6 1146.6 0.01667 32.4
3.5 13.0 206 174 974.2 1148.1 0.01667 30.1
1.4 14.0 210 178 971.9 1149.5 0.01670 28.0
0 14.7 212 180 970.3 1150.3 0.01672 26.8
1 15.7 216 184 967 1152 0.01675 24.8
2 16.7 219 187 965 1153 0.01677 23.4
5 19.7 227 196 960 1156 0.01683 20.1
10 24.7 240 208 952 1160 0.01692 16.3
15 29.7 250 219 945 1164 0.01700 13.8
20 34.7 259 228 939 1167 0.01708 11.9
25 39.7 267 236 933 1170 0.01714 10.5
30 44.7 274 243 928 1172 0.01721 9.4
40 54.7 287 256 919 1176 0.01732 7.8
50 64.7 298 267 911 1179 0.01743 6.7
60 74.7 307 277 904 1182 0.01752 5.8
70 84.7 316 286 898 1184 0.01761 5.2
80 94.7 324 295 891 1186 0.01769 4.7
90 104.7 331 302 886 1188 0.01777 4.2
100 114.7 337 309 880 1189 0.01785 3.9
110 124.7 344 316 875 1191 0.01792 3.6
120 134.7 350 322 870 1192 0.01799 3.3
130 144.7 355 328 866 1193 0.01806 3.1
140 154.7 360 333 861 1195 0.01812 2.9
150 164.7 366 339 857 1196 0.01818 2.7
200 214.7 388 362 837 1199 0.01847 2.1
250 264.7 406 382 820 1202 0.01873 1.7
etc.↓ 300 417 394 809 1203 0.01890 1.54
400 446 424 781 1205 0.01934 1.16
450 456 437 767 1205 0.01955 1.03
500 467 449 755 1204 0.01975 0.93
600 486 472 732 1203 0.02013 0.77
900 532 527 669 1195 0.02123 0.50
1200 567 572 612 1183 0.02232 0.36
1500 596 612 556 1167 0.02346 0.28
2000 636 672 463 1135 0.02565 0.19
2500 668 731 361 1191 0.02860 0.13
2700 680 756 312 1068 0.03027 0.11
3206.2 705 903 0 903 0.05053 0.05053
Sea Level
Supercritical Water refers to conditions
above 3206.2 psia and 705 °F where steam
and water reach a new phase.
P a g e 58

Temperature ˚C →
Temperature vs Enthalpy
6) Temperature vs Enthalpy (Btus/Pound)
CW
Rankine Scale
Enthalpy = Btus/Pound
Super Critical Vapor
(= BTUs/˚F →)
P a g e 59

˚F →
Water
Rankine Cycle: Steam Turbine
CW
William Rankine
Superheater
High Pressure Turbine
Boiler
Intermediate and Low
Pressure Turbines
Economizer
Feed Water Pump
Water and Steam
Condenser
Reheater
Superheated Steam
Enthalpy = BTU/˚F →
P a g e 60

CW
7) Boiler Operational Controllers
ON/OFF Controls
Operating Limit Control
MAIN = minimum desired psi, burner turns on
below this point. DIFF. = MAIN + selected psi
at which the burner turns off.
High PSI Shutoff
Safety Switches always
have a reset button.
Must be set at < Pop Off
valve popping psi.
Firing Rate Controller
Maintains psi in boiler
MAIN = minimum psi at
witch burner will go to Hi
Fire DIFF. IS ADDATIVE =
The value over the set point
is where you are at low fire.
If not properly coordinated
with Operating Limit Control
the boiler could trip on
pressure before getting
down to low fire (Short
Cycling).
Boiler turndown ratio is the ratio between full
boiler output (High Fire) and the boiler output
when operating at minimum output (Low Fire).
Limit Switches
Typical boiler turndown is 4:1. That is, a 400-horsepower boiler with a 4:1
turndown burner is able to modulate down to 100 horsepower before cycling off.
P a g e 61

CW
B) Fuel: Primary and Backup
1) Fuel Types
i. Natural Gas
Natural Gas
Typical composition of NG
(Methane = 87%)
1011 btu/ft 3
2516 btu/ft 3
3225 btu/ft 3
6239 btu/ft 3
P a g e 62

CW
(Hydraulic Fracturing)
Downward trend? →
Methane gas from welltap
water, purportedly
due to fracking.
Exploitation vs. proper extraction should always be a
concern when dealing with any natural resource.
P a g e 63

CW
ii. Liquid Fuels
No. 1 Fuel Oil
No. 2 Fuel Oil
No. 6 Fuel Oil
Viscosity = resistance to flow.
When oil is heated, its viscosity decreases.
P a g e 64

CW
2) Combustion
Combustion Air
Spark
CH 4
Take any of these away, no flame.
P a g e 65

CW
i. Combustion Air
Atmospheric Draft
Natural Draft Burners = Pipe Burners = Atmospheric Burners
= No Air Blower
Air Shutter
Forced Draft →
Forced Draft
Blower and burner: combined unit
Blower and burner: separate units
Fan Motor
VFD
P a g e 66

Air in
CW
M
Modulation Motors directly link
incoming air flow with incoming fuel supply. (mod motor)
Mod Motor limit switches
Red Mod Motors on fuel
and air
Linkage controls
internal air opening
P a g e 67

CW
ii. Spark
Ignition Transformer
Spark Ignition Transformer
Primary 120V in
Secondary 6000V out
Spark temperature approaches 60,000˚F
Spark Plug
and pilot line
P a g e 68

Convection
CW
iii. Flame
Diffusion Flame
All combustion air comes
from outside of the flame.
With too little air inside the
flame envelope, the gas
mixture will not burn
completely. The unburned
carbon particles become
heated to glowing, making
the flame luminous.
Hottest part
(non-luminous)
CO2
1400˚C
H2O
If the outer zone is disrupted, complete
combustion is also disrupted and soot
deposits form (unburned carbon)
Outer Zone: Complete combustion of soot
particles and any remaining wax vapor
Unburned carbon particles (soot)
glow from the heat energy.
1200˚C
O 2
1000˚C
800˚C
Partial Combustion: Fuel Rich = not enough
oxygen, soot particles form
Outer Zone: Complete
combustion of wax vapor
O2
600˚C
Conduction
O2
Dark Zone: Pyrolysis of
wax to combustible vapor
= Straight-chain Wax
= 14,200 btu/ft 3
Diffusion flame
in microgravity
(Space Station)
No updraft of
air flow
P a g e 69

CW
Premix Flame
Diffusion Flame:
no Oxidizer
Acetylene = C 2H 2 =
Combustion air is mixed with
fuel before the flame.
Roaring Flame=Reducing Flame:
Air hole open, venturi effect
sucks in air.
Hottest point
for cutting
Roaring Premix Flame
Diffusion Flame=
Oxidizing Flame:
Air hole closed
Unburned carbon
particles (soot)
incandesces
(glows) from the
heat energy.
Indication of
incomplete
combustion.
1540˚C
Convection
CO2 H2O
Outer Cone = Flame Envelope
Combustion Completion
Hottest part of flame
1560˚C
1450˚C
O2
Inner Cone: Air
and unburned fuel
350˚C
Inner Cone border:
Initial fuel burn
O2
O2
O2
P a g e 70

CW
A stoichiometric Air to Fuel Ratio (AFR) has the correct amount of air
and fuel to produce a chemically complete combustion event.
iv. Air/Fuel Ratio (AFR)
Mod motor for incoming
combustion air
UEL = Upper Explosive Limit
LEL = Lower Explosive Limit
Soot buildup
Increased CO
Decreased CO2
Stack Temperature drop
RICH flame
LEAN flame
Increased O2
Decreased CO2
Stack Temperature drop
Turbulent Flame
Laminar Flame
To increase heat output, fuel velocity is
increased. If sufficient combustion air is not
provided, the flame will extinguish itself.
The increase of both fuel and air velocity
creates a turbulent flame.
Composition
of Air
P a g e 71

CW
Swirler and Nozzle
The diffuser, or swirl vanes, slows incoming air,
increasing pressure, increasing available O 2
molecules available for combustion (basically,
the swirl action “forces” more air into the
combustion zone = Turbulent Flame).
The nozzle increases velocity of fuel,
reducing fuel pressure. Spreading
fuel molecules farther apart
improves air/fuel combustion ratio.
Smaller oil burner
nozzles usually include
a filter
Fuel oil compressor:
increases fuel pressure
Proper combination of swirler diffusion and nozzle
spray should maximize combustion efficiency
P a g e 72

CW
3. Burners
i. Natural gas
Staged Burners
Staged Air Burner
Radiant Tube burner
Staged Fuel Burner
P a g e 73

Burners
Premix Burner
Premix Mesh Burners
CW
Metal Fiber
premix burner
Perforated Plate
burner
Ceramic Mesh
Premix
Condensing, closed loop
boilers with premix burners
P a g e 74

CW
Turbine Jet Burner
Natural Gas Turbine Jet “PreMix” Burner
Incoming
Filtered Air
Rooftop
lubricating oil
cooler
Exhaust to Stack or
Waste Heat
Water Tube Boiler
P a g e 75

CW
ii. Oil Burners
Oil Burners
Steam or Compressed Air
Atomizing Air compressor
For heavier oils, steam is preferred as it
also preheats the oil reducing its
viscosity and is also easily available at
high pressure.
However, compressed air gives better
fuel/air mixing
Mixing of fuel and steam/air can take
place inside the burner or completely
outside (premix or nozzle mix)
Steam
injection
line for
oil burner
Propane is used for pilot light
during oil burning
PRV
Safety NC Solenoid
on incoming pilot
propane
P a g e 76

CW
iii . Duel Fuel Burners
Dual Fuel Burners
Interruptible Rate = lower natural gas cost, but must
use alternate fuel source at request of supplier. Stiff
penalties if unable to comply when asked.
Firm Rate = normal charge for natural gas
Interchangeable Fuel Oil
Lance and insertion port
Lance Insertion verification
switch (fuel oil cannot flow
unless switch is activated)
Air and Oil connections
Some boilers have the ability of switching fuels when
needed. Hospitals are required to have an
emergency fuel source. Separate burner guns for oil
and natural gas are switched out as needed.
More convenient dual fuel burner assemblies
simplify the process: simply turn a button.
P a g e 77

CW
C) Plant Equipment Operations
1) Steam Traps
Thermodynamic
Steam velocity (flash steam)
operates valve.
Traps that have fewer moving
parts generally last longer
Mechanical
Density difference between
condensate and steam operates valve.
Uses float type of apparatus. Because
unit uses water filled chamber, it is
more difficult to thaw out if it freezes.
Thermostatic
Condensate temperature
change operates valve
P a g e 78

i. Thermodynamic
CW
Thermodisc
When condensate is present, disc is pushed up,
when only steam is present, disc is pushed down
Universal Mount Steam Traps
have only one opening for both
inlet steam and outlet
condensate.
Impulse
During high load, piston is
propelled up enabling
additional condensate to
escape through opening “E”.
P a g e 79

CW
ii. Mechanical
Mechanical
Fixed Orifice
Advantage: No moving parts to
possibly fail.
Disadvantage: Only works
within a set parameter range,
depending on size of orifice.
Not designed for modulating
steam demand.
With attached “Y”
strainer
P a g e 80

CW
Mechanical continued
Inverted Bucket
Water in trap is
always above top of
bucket
Valve closes as steam
fills rising bucket
Vent for non-condensable
gases
Steam shrinks as it condenses and bucket
sinks as it then fills with condensate, thus
opening the valve.
Plug bolt for
trap cleaning
With built
in Y strainer
Hermetically sealed
(you can’t open it)
Built-in isolation valves
P a g e 81

CW
Inverted Bucket vertical flow
High Pressure
Applications
Hermetically sealed
(you can’t open it)
Universal Mount Steam Traps have only one
opening for both inlet steam and outlet condensate.
Connect
P a g e 82

CW
Mechanical continued
Float & Thermostatic (F&T)
Attached Float
Thermostatic vent valve closes when hot
and opens when cold, expelling air (nonsteam
= non-condensables) on startup
and preventing a vacuum on shut down.
External vent valve
Universal Mount Steam Traps have only one
opening for both inlet steam and outlet condensate.
Connect
Universal Mount
Free Float Trap
Free Float (ball not attached)
Thermostatic vent valve opens when cold.
P a g e 83

CW
iii. Thermostatic
Thermostatic
Bi-Metallic
Cold:
Contracted
Hot:
Expanded
Hermetically sealed bimetallic
(you can’t open it)
Universal Mount
Steam Traps have only
one opening for both
inlet steam and outlet
condensate.
Balanced Pressure
At higher temperatures (when steam is
present), alcohol in disc flashes to vapor,
pushing ball down and closing the valve.
Universal Mount
Balanced Pressure Trap
P a g e 84

CW
Thermostatic continued
Spring Expansion
Alcohol Filled Bellows
Metallic Spring:
a.k.a. Radiator trap
Liquid expansion metallic bellows: Hollow
spring is filled with alcohol which flashes to
vapor at a specific temperature, expands the
spring and closes the trap.
Straight Flow →
Hermetically sealed
(you can’t open it)
P a g e 85

CW
iv. Universal Mount Steam Traps
Universal Mounts enable easy removal
for steam trap cleaning or replacement
Universal Mount with isolation valves built in
P a g e 86

CW
v. Automatic Pump Trap (APT) = Condensate Pump
Non-electric Pump Traps have 4 openings.
1) Incoming live steam (when float rises, motive steam enters and pushes out condensate),
2) steam vent out (steam exhaust),
3) incoming condensate with check valve, and
4) outgoing condensate with check valve.
P a g e 87

CW
vi. PRV
Ice forming after PRV on ammonia line
P↓ × V c = T↓ (Ideal Gas Law)
Manual-Bolt
adjust
Auto-Thermostatic
adjust
Hollow Capillary
Tubes
Auto-Pressurestatic adjust
Steam Pressure/Temperature Reducers
operate on the exact same principles as
Chiller/AC TXVs
Compressed air
PRV
Internally Equalized
Externally Equalized
P a g e 88

CW
PRV: 1/3 rd 2/3 rd Split
Load is typically split 1/3 - 2/3. Small valve is sized for 1/3 of load
and is lead valve set for desired delivery pressure. Large valve is
lag valve set 2 - 3 psi lower than delivery pressure of small valve.
On low flow demand, only the small valve only will be open. As
flow increases passed the capacity of the smaller valve, delivery
pressure drops, and the large valve opens.
P a g e 89

Steam Trap Trouble Shooting
vii. Steam Trap Troubleshooting
CW
Mechanic’s Stethoscope
Each type of steam trap has its own fingerprint
signature sound when functioning properly.
Electronic
stethoscope
Screwdriver to Ear method!
Flow
Infrared
Pyrometer
A significant drop in temperature
indicates that a steam trap is
functioning properly.
Flow
For every 8 inches away, the meter reads a circle
of 1 inch diameter. The laser dot only acts as a
pointer and has nothing to do with IR light.
Thermal Imager (preferred)
P a g e 90

Desuperheater
2) CW
Keeping steam temperature constant and below 1000°F is important for minimizing thermal stresses on the superheater tubes and turbine.
Pretreated and
preheated boiler
feed water is
generally used as
desuperheater feed
water
Technically, a Desuperheater and Attemperator
are one in the same, that is, a unit that reduces the
temperature of super-heated steam. However, in
the power plant arena, attemperators generally
refer to the unit between stages in a superheater.
Venturi
Desuperheater
Variable Orifice Desuperheater
Atomizing Desuperheater
(steam and water sprayer)
Spring loaded
plunger (plug)
Steam
Flow
Spring loaded plunger
lifts up when high
pressure steam is
present, opening up the
cooling water inlet.
P a g e 91

3) Heat Exchangers
i. Shell and Tube
CW
Shell and Tube
U-Tube
= Two pass
Fixed Tube Sheet Heat Exchanger
Stationary Tube Sheets
Easy to clean (punch) tubes.
May incur expansion stress
during high and low loads.
U-shaped bundle is only attached on one side:
expands easily with temperature change.
Difficult to clean tubes.
Interior head is only attached to end tube
sheet, not to the shell, this permits free
expansion and contraction of tubes with little
stress. The straight tubes are easy to clean.
Domestic use hot water heaters
P a g e 92

CW
High Capacity Instantaneous
Steam Fired Water Heater
Condesated Return
Visual port flow sensor
P a g e 93

CW
Heat Stall
Heat Exchanger Stall
Heat exchanger stall: When no steam demand, reducer stops incoming steam, steam in exchanger cools and
shrinks making a vacuum. This vacuum “sucks” condensate back into the exchanger, filling it with water. When
steam demand is needed again, the reducer is opened again, hot steam hitting cold water: WATER HAMMER.
Symptoms:
Steam trap is cold.
Heat Exchanger becomes waterlogged (pooling of condensate).
Temperature is uneven in heat exchanger.
Water hammer (vacuum-implosion induced shock waves)
occurs as hot steam hits cold condensate, damaging tubes.
Water Hammer on heat
exchanger pipes.
Back pressure
prevents condensate
from escaping.
Cure: Check unit’s vacuum breaker,
consider using Automatic Pump Traps (APT)
P a g e 94

CW
ii. Plate and Frame
Plate and Frame
A unit this size, if dismantled for
cleaning, would fill a football field!
BPHE: Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger
Higher efficiency means
equivalent heat transfer can be
achieved with much smaller units
However, they cannot be
dismantled
Cross section:
No gaskets!
P a g e 95

CW
iii. HVAC Mixing Boxes Boxes (air handlers)
v. Mixing Boxes (HVAC) Mixing boxes
Steam driven air heaters
Safety PopOff
PRVs controlling steam
supply for Air Handler
Constant Air Volume: constant airflow
& variable temperature. Less efficient.
Variable Air Volume: variable airflow
(using modern VFDs) & constant
temperature. More efficient.
Many systems have computer interface
options for remote control.
P a g e 96

CW
4) Pumps
i. Reciprocating
Reciprocating Pumps
Triplex Plunger Pump
3 plungers make a more smooth flow
6 check valves
P a g e 97

CW
ii. Rotary
Rotary Pumps
Gear
Internal Gear
External Gear
Peristaltic
Vane
Screw
Progressive
Cavity
Single Screw
Back
Front
Double Screw
P a g e 98

CW
iii. Centrifugal
Series vs Parallel
Centrifugal Pumps
Impellers
P a g e 99

CW
Pressure differential driven centrifugal pump
P a g e 100

Multistage iv. Stage Pumps
4 Stage
CW
2 Stage
Also called a “can pump”
(like a tin can)
Vertical Multistage Pump
P a g e 101

CW
v. Motor Vibration Monitoring
All rotating machines, pumps included,
vibrate to some extent due to various
reasons, the most common of which are
typically the following:
Improper installation at site
Improper balancing of pump rotor
Excessively turbulent fluid flow
Pressure fluctuations
Cavitation or internal recirculation in
pumps
Normal pump wear after prolonged
operation.
Remote vibration monitoring
Inline vibration monitoring
P a g e 102

5) Valves
i. Types
Ball
CW
Gate
Butterfly
Globe
Pressure Regulators
are usually globe
valves
Diaphragm
Stem pushes down on
rubber gasket
Spring Check
Swing
Check
Lift
Check
P a g e 103

CW
ii. Backflow Prevention
Symbol
Backflow is the undesirable reversal of flow of a
liquid, gas or solid into the potable water supply.
Q.: How often does the backflow prevention assembly
need to be tested?
A.: On installation and at least once a year thereafter by
a licensed backflow tester.
P a g e 104

CW
iii. Actuators
Actuators remotely open and close valves
Motorized actuators close slowly,
avoiding water hammer
Instrument Air Compressor
and Dryer
P a g e 105

CW
Linear: pushes a shaft in or out
Rotary:
turns a shaft ¼ rotation to opened or closed
electric
pneumatic
Some rotary actuators use
external limit control boxes
Pneumatic actuator
and bypass
P a g e 106

A Solenoid: Electricity creates a temporary magnet pushing the permanent magnet up
(NC =normally closed) or down (NO=normally open).
CW
NC are typically used for natural gas and fuel oil lines for boilers
as that if there is a power outage, the fuel is instantly shut off.
Direct: moving piston plugs outlet
Indirect: moving piston opens orifice allowing
pressure change which moves spring plunger
Typically used in sprinkler
irrigation systems
P a g e 107

CW
iv. Water Hammer: Valve Induced
P a g e 108

CW
Cavitation:
Sudden implosion of low pressure steam bubbles back to
water causes miniature shock waves, damaging metal
surface.
Propeller Cavitation
Valve Cavitation:
sounds like gravel
moving through pipe
P a g e 109

6) Electricity
i. Flow
Parallel:
Amps increase, volts stay the same
Series:
Volts increase, amps stay the same
CW
Volts measure how hard the electricity is pushing (Electrical Force)
Amps measure current, or how much electricity is flowing [Ah = Amp-hours]
Watts measure how much electricity is going through the circuit (Power)
Ohms (Ω) measures Resistance
Note correlation
Pressure: psi → Volts
Flow: gpm → Amps
Hydraulic HP → Watts
P a g e 110

Variable Frequency Drive
ii. VFD: Affinity Law
CW
The Affinity Law
Law 1a) Air flow is directly proportional to fan speed.
Example: When fan speed doubles, air flow doubles.
1a) Fan Speed ↑ = Air Flow ↑
Law 1b) Torque increase is proportional to the square of the fan speed increase.
Example: When fan speed doubles, torque increases four times
When fan speed triples, torque increases nine times
1b) (Fan Speed ↑ ) 2 = Torque ↑
Law 1c) Power required is proportional to the cube of fan speed increase.
Example: When fan speed doubles, power required is six times
1c) (Fan Speed ↑ )
When fan speed triples, power required is 27 times
3 = Power ↑
Significant Energy Savings
Use only the fan speed your system is calling for.
A 100 HP fan running at half speed uses the
same energy as a 13 HP motor!
(½) 3 x 100HP = (1/8) x 100HP = 13HP
Equipment Savings
Single-speed motors start abruptly:
High starting torque
High starting current surges (up to 8 times)
Variable speed drives gradually ramp up the motor.
P a g e 111

CW
Energy: measuring the flow change
252 calories = 1 Btu
1 ft 3 of natural gas ≈ 1020 Btu
1 kilowatt·hr (kwh) of electricity = 3413 Btu
1 pound of Coal ≈ 9,200 Btu
1 pound of gasoline ≈ 14,300 Btu
1 pound of diesel or fuel oil ≈ 16,000 Btu
1 Therm = 100,000 Btu
1 Dekatherm (DTH) = 1,000,000 Btu
0.293 Watts = 1 Btu/hr
1 Bhp (Boiler horsepower) = 33,472 Btu/hr
1 Bhp = 34.5 lbs of steam per hr (@0psig)
The Tom Thumb is especially remembered as a
participant in an impromptu race with a horse-drawn car,
which the horse won after Tom Thumb suffered a
mechanical failure. However, the demonstration was
successful, and the railroad committed to the use of
steam locomotion. The boiler was pulling 40% more
weight than the horse, therefore Tom Thumb was
officially labelled a 1.4 horse power boiler. And BHP
designation was born.
Tom Thumb = 1.4 BHP
P a g e 112

CW
D) Hot Piping Systems
1) Pipes
i. Manufacture Style
Seamless
Welded Seam
Seamless (No Weld)
Solid steel bar forced over cone
shape ended cylinder
Welded Seam
Electrical Resistance Welding (ERW): Strong
electromagnetic current is “resisted” by the
steel and heat is created.
Inside excess weld trimmer
P a g e 113

CW
Ends
The PE (Plane End) pipes will generally be used for
smaller diameters pipe systems and in combination with
Slip On flanges and Socket Weld fittings and flanges.
Beveled End (BE) for butt welding
Threaded End (TE)
P a g e 114

CW
ii. Composition
Carbon Steel
Black Galvanized Steel Pipe
Stainless Steel
When bare steel is exposed to air, it quickly
forms an oxide layer (Fe 2O 3). This passivating
layer will not corrode further unless disrupted.
Galvanized Pipe
Metallic Zinc coated surface. Zinc (Zn) acts as a sacrificial anode and corrodes
first, leaving the structurally strong steel undamaged (…until all the zinc is gone).
Primary White Rust (ZnO)
Secondary Iron Rust
Stainless Steel Pipe
Very durable Dichromium Trioxide surface; 1 to 10 molecules thick.
Chromium
P a g e 115

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iii. Sizing
Flow increases exponentially with
diameter
NPS = Nominal Pipe Size: OD measured in
Inches
Area = πr 2 = π(½D) 2
DN = Diametre Nominel: OD measured in
Millimeters (Metric)
SCH or Schedule
= a Strength Reference Number
Is related to thickness
SCH 40: typically
SCH 80: typically
for steam < 165psi
for steam > 165psi
SCH 10 SCH 120
P a g e 116

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2) Water Hammer: Steam Driven
i. Water Slug
ii. Vacuum Induced
Water slug arrestor
Condensate/Vacuum Induced Water Hammer
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Inline Steam Separators
iii. Inline Steam Separators
Removing water from
steam is critical to
reduce damage from
water hammer, TDS
erosion, oxygen
corrosion and
condensate inline sludge
and scale buildup.
Drip Legs
P a g e 118

Condensate Surge/Holding Tank
3) Condensate/Surge Return/Receiving Tank Tank sends water from
steam system forward towards the deaerator
CW
Surge Tanks handle volume swings
in condensate return. The water is
then sent forward to the DA Tank.
Level controllers and alarms
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Steam 4) Steam Header = manifold where
branch lines can be attached
Muffler for
relief of excess
PSI, such as
during PopOff
tests (acts like
the muffler on
a car)
Steam trap on drip
leg at bottom
P a g e 120

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5) Feed Water Pumps
Feed Water Pumps
are located below water source
to avoid losing prime
Vertical Multistage
(multiple impellers)
Feed Water Pumps
Horizontal Centrifugal
Feed Water Pumps
DA tanks are often shared by multiple boilers
Expansion Control Device
When feed water regulator calls for water,
Feed water pump is turned on
OR
Feed water actuator is activated (for those systems which
have the feed water pump continuously running)
Feed water is cooler than boiler water. When large amounts of feed
water is introduced into the boiler, the boiler water stops boiling for a
moment until the water comes up to temperature. This drops the psi for
just a moment. This fluctuation is avoided by using VFD to adjust the flow
on feed line PRVs and keeping the feed water pumps on continuously.
To prevent possible stagnation and
temperature drop of feed water when
boiler demand is low, water is
sometimes kept in constant circulation
P a g e 121

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E) Water Quality
1) Boiler Water Chemistry
i. pH
pH
Water cooled
sample port
Bypass chemical “slug”
feeder for startup,
layup or other
specialized cases
Litmus paper
Chemical indicators
change color at
different pH ranges
A universal pH indicator contains several compounds that
exhibits smooth color changes over a broad pH range.
P a g e 122

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Hydrochloric Acid
(HCl)
H + OH -
10 0 = 1 = 100%
10 -14 = .00000000000001
Stomach Acid
(weak HCl)
10 -1 = .1 = 10%
10 -13 = .0000000000001
Vinegar
Lemon Juice
Soda Pop
Orange Juice
10 -2 = .01 = 1%
10 -3 = .001 = .1%
10 -12 = .000000000001
10 -11 = .00000000001
The concept of pH was
first introduced in 1909
by Danish chemist
Søren Sørensen
Tomato Juice
Acid Rain
10 -4 = .0001 = .01%
10 -10 = .0000000001
Eye Drops
Normal Rain
10 -5 = .00001
10 -9 = .000000001
Saliva
Urine
10 -6 = .000001
10 -8 = .00000001
Pure Water
10 -7 = .0000001 =
10 -7 = .0000001
Sea Water
Swimming Pools
10 -8 = .00000001
10 -6 = .000001
Baking Soda
10 -9 = .000000001
10 -5 = .00001
Great Salt Lake
10 -10 = .0000000001
10 -4 = .0001
Ammonia (NH4OH)
Soaps
10 -11 = .00000000001
10 -12 = .000000000001
10 -3 = .001
10 -2 = .01
At pH > 7, OH -
(hydroxide) becomes
the active ion.
Bleach
Oven Cleaner
10 -13 = .0000000000001
10 -1 = .1
OH -
Drain Cleaner
Caustic (NaOH)
10 -14 = .00000000000001
H +
10 0 = 1
HCl (acid) + NaOH (base) → H 2O (pH 7) + NaCl
(salt water)
P a g e 123

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pH Probe
Acids have more positive ions and conduct electricity
better. A pH probe measures the voltage (potential
difference) of a solution.
The glass bulb should be kept
moist, even when not in use,
non-hydrated bulbs give
erratic readings.
(Do not use RO, DI or Distilled water
for storage)
Liquid filled cap
pH probes must be periodically calibrated with at least
two reference buffer solutions (the reference buffers
you use depends on if your sample is acidic or basic).
P a g e 124

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Conductivity
ii. Conductivity
TDS
SALT
↓
Distilled water:
No electrical flow
Water with ionic
contaminants:
Electrical flow
Periodic calibration is important
to ensure your meter is accurate.
mho = non-metric
(archaic, but still used)
Electrical Resistance = ohm (Ω)
Electrical Conductivity = mho
1 mho = 1 Siemen (S)
0.000001 Siemen = 1 µS = 1 µmho
Opposites
(spelling too!)
S = metric unit
µ = micro
P a g e 125

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Conductivity vs. TDS
Total dissolved solids (TDS) is, technically,
anything dissolved in water (including
organics that do not conduct electricity).
If the general chemistry of the liquid being
measured is known, then a conversion factor can
be applied and is usually done internally by the
meter itself. Still, this new measurement is only an
approximation.
TDS is measured in parts per million (ppm) or mg/l (milligrams per liter).
To achieve true TDS readings:
True TDS measurement is very slow. For faster
numbers, we rely on general conductivity
conversion rules (but lose accuracy).
Accurately weigh a filtered sample
along with its container at room
temperature. Evaporate liquid to
dryness at 104˚C. Let cool to room
temperature then reweigh.
TDS = (preweight – postweight)/volume
P a g e 126

Estimated conversion table for boiler
water by Spirax Sarco
CW
Conductivity vs. Temperature
Conductivity increases with
temperature, meters are
internally auto-adjusting.
1) The Hydroxide ion in boiler water is
highly conductive compared to other ions.
2) Since the conversion calculation from Conductivity to TDS is
only an estimate (depending on what is actually in the water), high
pH may skew the conversion factor.
3) Therefore, it is common practice to neutralize any alkalinity
with an organic acid (such as non-conductive acetic acid) prior to
measuring conductivity.
4) This produces a more stable conductivity
measurement, thus a more reliable TDS estimate.
P a g e 127

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2) Make Up Water Up Water
The term “make up water” refers to raw water
without any treatment chemicals added, such
as from a well or from the city.
Chlorine in city water, when unchecked, can damage RO system membranes. On the other
hand, because of general treatment practices by municipal water sources, clarification,
filtration, chlorination help remove contaminants such as iron, silica, bacteria, etc. Part or
all of this process needs to be performed at your plant if your water is untreated.
P a g e 128

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i. Water Softener
From the Bronze Age into the Renaissance the
average masses of wheat and barley grains were
part of the legal definitions of units of mass.
Grain per gallon (gpg) is a unit of water hardness defined as 1
grain of calcium carbonate dissolved in 1 US gallon of water. It
translates into 1 part in about 58,000 parts of water or
1 grain = 17.1 ppm (parts per million)
P a g e 129

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Water Softener
Sodium (Na+) changes places with hardness: Calcium (Ca+ 2 ) and Magnesium (Mg+ 2 )
Dual Tanks: when one
is regenerating, the
other is in service.
Salt brine tank
Zeolite = Plastic Beads
Some of the softener salt will eventually
make it into the boiler, however, the
softener salt (NaCl) stays dissolved in the
water and does not fall out as scale.
Cation resin beads
attract positive ions:
Na+, Ca+ 2 , Mg+ 2
P a g e 130

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KCl vs. NaCl
The potassium (K) atom is larger than the sodium (Na) atom, that is, the center of the
atom is farther away from the place where the reaction takes place (the outer electrons).
To remove hardness from the resin beads, it requires 27% more potassium chloride than
sodium chloride. While some argue that potassium is friendlier to the environment, it can
easily be said that more waste is generated. Potassium chloride is also more expensive.
NaCl
KCl
Salt Bridge
Bridges may form and prevent
salt from dissolving in water.
P a g e 131

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ii. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Free Chlorine Removal
RO
Free chlorine is very destructive on RO membrane. Free chlorine is defined as the
concentration of residual chlorine in water present as dissolved gas (Cl 2),
hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and/or hypochlorite ion (OCl−). City water uses free
chlorine to kill bacteria in drinking water. If free chlorine is present in makeup
water, it is common practice to neutralize it with a sodium sulfite solution or filter
out the chlorine with carbon, or a combination of the two.
Carbon is processed using high temperature
steam and/or acids which ultimately increase
carbon pore size, increasing surface area.
Activated charcoal carbon filters are
most effective at removing chlorine,
sediment, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), taste and odor
from water. They are not effective
at removing minerals, salts, and
dissolved inorganic compounds.
Due to its high degree of micro porosity,
just one gram of activated carbon has a
surface area in excess of 32,000 ft 2 .
Free Chlorine can also be stabilized with Sulfite solutions
Sodium metabisulfite (Na 2S 2O 5) when dissolved in
water reduces free chlorine.
→ H 2SO 4 + 2HCl + Na 2SO 4
(Sulfites are also used as oxygen scavengers)
P a g e 132

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iii. Filtration
Suspended Solids
Filtration
psid (pounds per square inch differential)
shows when filters need servicing
A progressive filtration system down to 5 Microns
P a g e 133

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RO
Membrane Filtration
Two RO systems here
are used as “Lead/Lag”
[Grab your reader’s attention with a great
quote from the document or use this space
to emphasize a key point. To place this text
box anywhere on the page, just drag it.]
RO systems creat very clean water,
however a great deal of waste
water is also produced. This boiler
system uses the waste to cool off
blowdown thus saving city water.
No salt or other chemicals are needed, however,
the costs of replacement membranes, the
electricity needed to pump the water through the
membranes, and the excess higher concentration
waste water all need to be calculated in when
considering this form of water treatment.
P a g e 134

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Slime Buildup on RO Membrane
Fouling
With chlorine removed, membranes are a
great place for bacteria slime to grow
which can plug up the system.
Non-Oxidizing Biological Control Chemicals do not damage RO membranes. They
are typically much more expensive than the oxidizing type.
Scale Buildup on RO Membrane
Organic phosphates disrupt crystal
formation and extend the time
between membrane changeout.
(same chemical and process used in
cooling towers to prevent scale)
Normalized Permeate Flow (NPF) = the amount of permeate water that the RO is producing
P a g e 135

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Where RO water is strored, Carbonic acid
may form. A small amount of caustic helps
neutralize the water.
P a g e 136

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3) Feed Water: DA Tank
DeAerator
i. Temperature Control
Temperature stress is reduced by using steam to bring feed
water nearer to the temperature of the boiler water.
Steam and water mix
Sprayer plate
Receiving Tray
Anti-vortex
baffles
Sparge Tube:
Perforated feed line
Sparging
P a g e 137

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ii.
Deaerator
Dissolved Air Removal (continued)
The deaerator also removes dissolved O 2 (Oxygen Scavenger)
The more oxygen you can
economically remove, the
less chemical you need.
32º F 68º F 104º F 140º F 176º F
ppm O2 (dissolved Oxygen) 69 43 31 14

CW
Level Controllers
and alarms
Feedwater
and
Circulation
Pumps
Sulfite
injection quill
Steam Injection
Overflow
P a g e 139

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4) Boiler Water
i. Caustic Embrittlement
CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT:
When iron crystals are stretched, Fe↔Fe bonds
are weakened.
And if pH > 12.7, then OH - ↔Fe bonds more readily
and a crack forms until the stress is relieved.
Stretched
steel
Water Tube:
Caustic
Embrittlement
OH
← Stretch →
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe (iron)
Rolling tubes also stretches
the steel and can be a
possible location for caustic
embrittlement to take place
Rivets stretch the steel and are no
longer permitted on boilers.
Welds are now used.
SPEC: Boiler pH should be < 12.7
Boiler room, Titanic
P a g e 140

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For Residual Hardness that the softener (or demin plant) did not get:
ii. Scale Control: Residual Hardness
Molybdate(MoO 4
-3
) removes residual hardness and forms a soft sludge (easy to blowdown).
10Ca +2 + 6MoO 4
-3
+ 2OH - → 3Ca 3(MoO 4) 2·Ca(OH) 2
blowndown as soft sludge
OH Alkalinity is necessary in order for the above reaction to take place.
Moly or Phosphates (PO 4)
Plus Alkalinity (OH)
Polymers are added which attach to the
phosphate complex, making a chain which
becomes heavy and falls to the bottom
and then is blown down as sludge
Molybdate (Moly) and
Phosphate content is generally
determined with a colorimeter
P a g e 141

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iii. Residual Oxygen Pitting Control: Oxygen Scavengers
Sulfite “fights” the
Oxygen.
2SO3 + O2 → 2SO4
Sulfite is added to the deaerator to
absorb residual oxygen before it
can get to the boiler.
Sulfate is then blown
down as waste.
% Replacement Equivalent Chart
Sodium Sulfite: Na₂SO₃
Sodium Metabisulfite: Na 2S 2O 5
Sulfur Trioxide: SO₃
Sulfur Dioxide: SO₂
Sulfites add conductivity to boiler water. Higher psi boilers (>300psi) have tighter conductivity specifications
and favor scavengers that do not add to this conductivity thus helping to reduce the need for blowdowns.
High psi Boilers (>300psi)
Hydrazine
Works great, but is considered a carcinogen and is being
phased out.
N 2H 4 +O 2 → N 2 + H 2O
Diethyl hydroxylamine (DEHA)
C 4H 11NO +O 2 → C 4H 9NO + H 2O 2
Volatile, that is, it evaporates with the boiler water and
travels with the steam. Not only does this help with any
possibility of oxygen pitting in condensate lines, DEHA also
has been shown to help passivate metal in those lines.
P a g e 142

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iv. TDS Control: Surface blowdown
iv. Surface blowdown
b
Surface Blowdown :
High TDS can increase surface tension
of water creating bubbles with “super
skins”, increasing chances of priming
(boiler water escaping as droplets and
traveling with steam), carryover (solids
resulting from priming) and bouncing
(fast irregular fluctuations in boiler
water level).
Best TDS control, bubbles are popping on the
surface leaving their solids behind (highest TDS
concentration in boiler).
Surface (Continuous)
Blowdown Valve (Skimmer):
Motorized Actuator
TDS probe
General Recommendation for max TDS:
Two pass economic
4500 ppm
Packaged and 3-Pass 3000 - 3500
Low pressure water tube 2000 – 3000
Steam generators (Coil type boilers) 2000
Medium pressure water tube 1500
High Pressure water tube 1000
Consult your manufacturer for
exact specifications.
P a g e 143

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v. Sludge and Settlement Control: Bottom Blowdown
Bottom Blowdown:
Removes sludge and sediment.
Should be done daily, 3 second bursts.
If MAWP (Maximum Allowable
Working Pressure) >100 then 2
blowdown valves are needed
To protect boiler from
sudden, excessive
changes in pressure,
maximum blowdown
pipe size = 2½ in.
Two slow
opening valves
Fast valve should
be closest to boiler
Slow valve should be
secondary to boiler
Visual flow viewport
Most boilers are equipped with a series of two
blowdown valves. Always open the one closest to the
boiler first and close it last. Any cavitation damage
that may occur will happen on the valve that is easier
to replace. To replace the inner valve, the entire
system has to be shut down!
P a g e 144

Steam vented to atmosphere
CW
Blowdown Tank (blowdown separator)
To prevent damage to sewer lines
blowdown is cooled with city water in the
blowdown tank before entering sewer.
P a g e 145

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vi. Water Column Blowdown
Normal conditions inside
the water column
Inside the water column
170 psi = 374°F
Inside the ball float is the
same @ 374°F
Water flashing into steam brings the temperature
inside the water column toward 212°F
↓P • V c = ↓T
Visual port flow indicator
The float temperature drops toward
212°F, the air inside the ball also
drops, reducing interior ball pressure
↓P • V c = ↓T
Pressure inside the water
column returns to 170 psig
Alarm bypass
Without sufficient time to reheat,
the air in the ball is still at a lower
pressure, it collapses.
P a g e 146

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5) Condensate: Carbonic Acid
Carbonic Acid Corrosion
CO2 + 2H2O → H2(g) + H2CO3
Carbon dioxide, that we breathe out, is absorbed by water,
breaks down and forms Carbonic Acid
Rain is simply another form of condensate
and contains carbonic acid.
Dissolved tombstone from rain.
Due to Carbonic Acid,
untreated condensate can
reach down to pH 5.5
CARBONIC ACID disrupts
the protective magnetite
surface of steel.
Condensate
Sample Port
SPEC: When using neutralizing
amines, Condensate should be
pH > 8.3
P a g e 147

Most common amines
CW
pH controlling amines and are highly volatile.
They evaporate and travel along with boiler
steam neutralizing carbonic acid as the steam
condenses back into water.
Temperature and psi can affect when various
types of amines re-condense. These properties
are applied in condensate line distance.
Morpholine (short range)
Diethyl aminoethanol (DEAE) (medium range)
Cyclohexylamine (long range)
Injection quill: generally
directly into steam line
Filming Amines
Filming amines are not always soluble in
water, and therefore, should always be
injected directly into steam lines.
Neutralizing amines can be injected into feed
water, however, during blowdowns, product is
lost. Direct steam line injection is more common.
For food production facilities and live
steam applications, non-toxic filming
amines travel along with boiler steam
forming a thin protective waterproof
layer on the metal surface, repelling the
acidic condensate.
Inserting and monitoring corrosion coupons
directly into condensate lines can be helpful in
chemical distribution troubleshooting.
P a g e 148

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6) Combination Chemical Treatment
Because of chemical demand is less in
smaller boilers, it is simpler to inject
combination chemicals into boiler itself.
Only one pump and one chemical container
is required. However, It is more difficult to
control chemistry specifications.
Oxygen Scavenger
Scale Inhibitor
Steam Treatment
P a g e 149

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7) Chemical Feed Pumps
Peristaltic Pumps
Pinch process does not lose prime, but
tube needs to be replaced periodically
Diaphragm Pumps
Long lasting and durable, however,
these are a “pain” when they lose prime
a
Stroke:
How deep
Speed:
How often
Emergency bypass chemical pot feeder
Manual addition
bypass chemical
pot feeder
Chemical
injection
quill
P a g e 150

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G) System Documentation / Plant Performance
1) Pressure Gauges
i. Bourdon Tube
Bourdon Tube
Digital pressure
gauges do not
need a pig tail
and can
automatically log
measurements
into a computer.
Compound gauges measure both pressure
and vacuum. Note: inches of mercury
(a perfect vacuum = 30” Hg)
Which gauge is technically correct?
-30 or +30 ?
0 psia = -1 bar (metric) = -100 kPa (metric)
Vacuum gauge
1 atm = 100 kPa = 1013 mbars = 760 mmHg = 30 inHg = 14.7 psia = 0 psig
P a g e 151

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ii. Pressurestat sets steam psi range
iii. Pig Tale / Syphon Loop
(PRESSURETROL® = Honeywell® brand name)
Mercury
Switch
Snap
Switch
Trapped condensate in siphon
loops and pigtails form a
barrier which prevent live
steam temperature from
expanding the gauge and
giving false readings.
Oil filled protects from vibration
and corrosion damage
To avoid sideways tilting from
temperature flexing, and thus
erroneous on/off signals, mercury
gauges should be situated
perpendicular to the loop.
P a g e 152

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2) Flow Meters
i. Differential Pressure
Water slug arrestor on guage steam line
1. Differential Pressure Flow Meters
P a g e 153

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Venturi Flowmeter
Pitot Tube Flowmeter
Cone Flowmeter
Orifice Flowmeter
P a g e 154

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ii. Ultrasonic
2. Ultrasonic Doppler Flow Meters
iii. Coriolis Oscillation
3. Coriolis Oscillation Flow Meters
Tubes oscillate at different
rates, depending on liquid
flow. Electromagnetic
sensors read oscillation rate
and convert to flow reading.
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iv. Positive Displacement
4. Positive Displacement Flow Meters
Nutating Disc
Rotating Lobe
Turbine
Electromagnetic sensor
reads turbine rotation.
P a g e 156

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3) Energy Measurement
Energy: measuring the flow change
252 calories = 1 Btu
1 ft 3 of natural gas ≈ 1020 Btu
1 kilowatt·hr (kwh) of electricity = 3413 Btu
1 pound of Coal ≈ 9,200 Btu
1 pound of gasoline ≈ 14,300 Btu
1 pound of diesel or fuel oil ≈ 16,000 Btu
1 Therm = 100,000 Btu
1 Dekatherm (DTH) = 1,000,000 Btu
0.293 Watts = 1 Btu/hr
1 Bhp (Boiler horsepower) = 33,472 Btu/hr
1 Bhp = 34.5 lbs of steam per hr (@0psig)
The Tom Thumb is especially remembered as a
participant in an impromptu race with a horse-drawn car,
which the horse won after Tom Thumb suffered a
mechanical failure. However, the demonstration was
successful, and the railroad committed to the use of
steam locomotion. The boiler was pulling 40% more
weight than the horse, therefore Tom Thumb was
officially labelled a 1.4 horse power boiler. And BHP
designation was born.
Tom Thumb = 1.4 BHP
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4) Emissions (Air Pollution)
i. Boiler Mact
NO x, SO 2, CO, Hg, Hydrocarbons (HC = unburned fuel = H xC x =
VOCs = Volatile Organic Compounds) and particulates are major
contributors to smog. When breathed in, they combine with
water and irritates throat and lungs, aggravating conditions such
as asthma.
Some countries in the world have
comparatively little pollution control.
A few decades ago, the US faced similar
health and environmental threats.
EPA Boiler MACT
(Maximum Achievable Control Technology).
US federal EPA standards and incentives to reduce boiler emissions.
Mandatory restrictions, along
with simple social environmental
awareness (which drives
voluntary restrictions), has
dramatically improved air quality
across the country.
P a g e 158

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ii. Acid Rain
Acid Rain
Nitric Acid
Sulfuric Acid
pH 4 and less damage leaves and
needles, preventing a plant from
getting energy from the sun.
Fish are seriously affected
when pH drops under 4.0
Prior NOx levels
Current
From 1970 to 2015, aggregate national emissions of the six common pollutants alone dropped
an average of 70 percent while gross domestic product grew by 246 percent. This progress
reflects efforts by state, local and tribal governments; EPA; private sector companies;
environmental groups and others.
Prior
Current
P a g e 159

Stoichiometric flame →
Flame extinction →
CW
iii. NOx, HC and CO Control
NO x
NO forms alongside CO 2 in any
flame during combustion
In high temperature environments, N 2 and O 2 become
less stable, NO formation becomes more frequent.
NO then forms to more stable NO 2
NOx formation grows exponentially as
flame temperature increases
1) Reduce NOx by reducing peak flame temperature
Naturally occurring
NO x in any flame
Elevated flame temperature, along with more available
O 2, NO x emissions reaches maximum concentration
around 6% excess O 2 (around 35% Excess Air)
Lowest flame NO x at stoichiometric
flame and at flame extinction
More air, cooler flame (Less NOx) →
Near flame extinction
(too much air / not
enough fuel)
2) Reduce NO x by controlling excess O 2
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Pre-Combustion Control
Staged Combustion
Staged Combustion
Staged Air Burner: Insufficient air for full combustion in
primary zone limits flame temperature. Peak flame
temperature is reduced.
Staged Air Burner: Secondary (and sometimes tertiary) air is introduced later where lower
temperature complete combustion takes place. Lean Zone burning enables Carbon to
“take back” some of the Oxygen from the NO molecules, further reducing NO x.
4NO + CH 4 → 2H 2O + 2N 2 + CO 2
Lean Zone Burning
Some burners inject steam or even water
at the quench zone to help cool the flame.
Over fire air completes
combustion at a lower
temperature.
The fuel itself, if introduced in stages, can also
reduce flame temperature.
P a g e 161

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Premix Low NO x Burners
By mixing the exact proportion of air and fuel
ahead of the flame, premix ultra-low NO x
burners focus on minimum excess air to help
control emissions.
Nitrogen absorbent material is injected into
the flame along with the fuel and acts as a
catalyst to help prevent NO x formation.
P a g e 162

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FGR
Flue Gas Recirculation, recycles a portion of used, inert (low O2) combustion gases. Two results: 1) the burning of the flame
becomes “stretched out”, lowering peak flame temperature and 2) lower excess O2, reducing chance of NOx formation.
Exhaust recirculation at
inner flame burn zone
Exhaust recirculation at
outer flame burn zone
P a g e 163

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Flue Gas Recirculation, recycles a portion of used, inert (low O2) combustion gases from the stack to the burner.
Two results: 1) the burning of the flame becomes “stretched out”, lowering peak flame temperature and 2)
lower excess O2, reducing chance of NOx formation.
No FGR, higher peak
temperature flames
Less concentrated, lower
temperature burning points
in FGR, less NO x emissions
Flue gas shut off
valve closes during
purge cycle
EGR valves (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) on
automobile motors operate under the
same principle as FGR
P a g e 164

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iv. CO₂ (Green House Gasses)
Greenhouse Gasses (CO 2 ) causes:
Global Cooling (1970’s)
Global Warming (1990’s)
Climate Change (2010’s)
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H) Emergency Generator
1) Arc Flash
Arc Flash
NFPA 70E
The ATPV (Arc Thermal Proformance
Value) is measured in cal/cm 2 (calories
per square centimeter), and is defined
as the maximum incident heat energy
that a fabric can absorb and lessen the
injury to a 2nd degree burn.
P a g e 166

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2) Generator System Components
Turbo Generator
(alternator)
Auto open air louvres
and actuator
Antifreeze coolant
radiator and fan
Antifreeze coolant circulation control valve
Starter and 12 V
Batteries
connected in series
P a g e 167

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Pressurized
circulating fuel oil
Crank Case and
Fuel oil filters
Remote safety
alarm panel
P a g e 168

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I) Routine Equipment Maintenance
1) EMP (Equipment Maintenance Plans)
Equipment
Maintenance Plans
• A descriptive title for each maintenance task to be performed
• A frequency assigned for performing of each task
• Equipment condition required for performance of the task (i.e. running or shut down)
• Type of Work – Preventive Maintenance (PM), Predictive Maintenance (PdM), Corrective
Maintenance (CM), Situational Maintenance (SIT), etc.
• Procedure number – Unique identifier for the task, or file name if linked to another document
that gives the individual task instructions
• Estimated time to perform the task
• Special tools, materials and equipment required to perform the task
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2) Lock Out / Tag Out
Step 1: Provide detailed procedures for starting and stopping
equipment involved
Step 2: Notify affected employees
Step 3: Shut down equipment properly
Step 4: Disconnect all primary energy sources
Whether the primary energy sources include electricity, steam, water, gas, compressed air, or others.
Step 5: Address all secondary sources
While disconnecting the primary energy sources may remove much of the potential danger, it’s possible that there
sources of residual energy, such as trapped heat in a thermal system, fumes that may need to be vented, or even
tension in a spring assembly. Identify the process that will relieve any remaining pressure or other energy. Also consider
other hazards, such as moving equipment that must be secured before work begins.
Step 6: Verify the lockout
Once you’ve disconnected all primary and secondary sources of energy, attempt to start the equipment to verify that
the lockout has been successful. Assuming that the procedures have been successful, return all switches and other
equipment back to their “off” positions so the machine won’t start unexpectedly when the energy sources are
reconnected. Once you’ve verified the lockout, attach a lockout or tagout device to the equipment to ensure that it
cannot be started without removing the device.
Step 7: Keep it in force during shift changes
Equipment must remain in lockout/tagout condition across shift changes, so that workers arriving at the site are aware
that the equipment is out of service.
Step 8: Bring the equipment back on line
When work is done and all tools and other materials have been removed, the machine can be brought back into
operation.
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J) Inspection Preparation
1) Internal vs. Operational
While some states require yearly inspections by a licensed
boiler inspector (a state employee or an insurance
representative), some states have no requirements.
Internal (Boiler Off and Opened):
Drain boiler, open all plates and ports to include low water cutoff
float devices.
Have replacement gasket material on hand for reassembly.
Test pressure gauges for functionality.
Operational (Boiler Running):
Have on hand the boiler permit of operation, a copy of any repair or
alteration reports, any state required standard forms and the ASME data
report obtained from the boiler manufacturer during initial startup.
Line the boiler up to fire.
All burner management interlocks should be operational.
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2) Refractory
Fire box lining (brick and or ceramic)
that insulates and protects steel from
flame temperature.
Ceramic floor tiles
Extreme changes in firebox
temperature and age may
result in spalling (cracking)
of the refractory.
Through the
boiler’s view port
Asbestos fiber as an insulation
material has been replaced
with safer, modern ceramics.
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3) Seal Ropes
Fiberglass seal rope installed incorrectly on a
boiler door. It hung down into refractory and
melted. Parts of the liquefied rope traveled with
the flue gas and re-deposited as solid glass on the
cooler interior walls of the fire tubes.
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K) Safety Systems
1) Emergency Stop Button
NC Valves close if
manual safety
override is pushed.
2) Earthquake Shutoff
Normal
Weak Magnet
Tripped
Reset Screw
Leveling chain
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3) Pop-Off Valve
4) OS&Y
Safety Pop Off /
Pressure Relief Valves
Steam venting during
Relief Valve test
Only manufacture’s
rep.’s can work on
safety pop off valves.
Accumulation Test determines if safety
valve capacity is large enough to
protect boiler. All steam outlets are
shut and firing rate is increased to
maximum. Safety valve should relieve
all excess pressure.
Hydrostatic Test determines strength of parts or welds on
new and repaired boilers. Safety valves are gagged with a
clamp or removed and replaced with plugs. Boiler is not
fired. Water pressure is then pumped up 1½ times safety
valve setting. Check for leaks.
2 pop-offs are required for
boilers when heating surface
area > 500 ft 2
When checking safety valves manually, boiler psi
should be at least 75% of popping pressure.
75% of 210 psig = 158 psig
Steam line stop valves are typically OS&Y
(Outside Screw & Yoke a.k.a. Outside Stem and Yoke)
Drip legs relieve condensate on main
steam line if line is down.
Pop off openings inside steam drum
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5) Safety Limit Controls
a. Boiler Failure Examples
Most people who died from a boiler explosion
The Sultana’s boiler engineers had requested to
stop the ship to make repairs on leaking tubes.
Because of scheduling pressures, the request was
denied by the captain.
It is speculated that the excessive list (slanting) of the Sultana
due to overload, caused the water in the boiler to shift suddenly
when the ship made a turn, which burst the weak pipes.
Both the low water safety cutoff and the feed water
regulator were bypassed. Feed water valve was
manually operated. The operator had forgot to add
water when the boiler began to get low. He did add
water, but too late!
It is determined that the most probable
cause of this accident was the sudden
introduction of feed water to the boiler
that at the time of the explosion was
operating in a dry-fired state.
Today, the most common reasons for
boiler explosions are improper purge
cycle and low water cut-off failure.
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b. Fuel Line Limit Controllers
Any of these safety controls
will close fuel solenoids
Simpler/smaller natural gas only steam
boilers are required to have
1. High and Low Gas Pressure sensors
2. Low Water Cutoff
Which shuts off the Fuel line solenoids
Simpler/smaller natural gas only hot water
boilers are required to have
1. High and Low Gas Pressure sensors
2. High Water Temperature sensor
Which shuts off the Fuel line solenoids
Not all safety devices shut off the fuel,
some, like this High Steam Pressure
sensor, are only alarms.
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c. Air Flow Proving Switches
The goal of the purge cycle is for approximately
4 volumes of fresh air to be admitted into the
combustion chamber to drive out any
unwanted combustible gas or vapor.
Using positive pressure air flow from the
front of the boiler, condensate cannot
build up and view port is always clear.
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d. Fuel Line Train Parts
Incoming Gas Main
Manual emergency
shutoff valve
Primary NC
emergency shutoff
valve
Electronic volume correctors ‘calculate’
corrected volume of gas using pressure and
temperature. These devices have generally
gone by the wayside and are not used
anymore.
Secondary NC
emergency shutoff
valve
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Boiler Gas Train
Gas shutoff valves are NC valves
(Normally Closed). If the power goes
out they close. Note: Redundancy: the
chance of both valves failing is very slim.
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Fuel Oil Train
Hospitals are required to have an
alternate fuel supply. Typically, Fuel Oil
(Diesel) is used. Propane as an alternate
source simplifies the fuel train and safety
devices.
PRV
Oil strainer
Low oil pressure
safety switch
Fuel Oil flow meter
Flow Control
motorized
valve
2 Safety solenoid NC cut offs
(Redundancy for safety)
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Atomizing Air/Steam for FO
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e. Flame Scanner
Light
If flame is not detected, purge
cycle is initiated removing
unburned fuel, then relight is
automatically reattempted.
Soot build up
on fire eye
Fire eyes can “see” flame using any or all parts
of the light spectrum:
UV (ultraviolet), VIS (visible), IR (infrared)
UV
As metal is heated to high
temperatures, it also emits VIS and
IR light. Therefore, to avoid false
readings, hospitals and other
facilities with multi-fuel capability,
usually only use UV scanners.
UV-VIS-IR
IR
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K = Potassium, Ag = Silver, Cs = Cesium
Self-Checking Flame Scanner
• Every few seconds, oscillating shutter
interrupts ultraviolet radiation reaching the
UV sensor. Zero flame is confirmed and
self-check complete.
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Thermocouple
A small electric current is
created when heated.
Thermopile:
End bulb has multiple wire “twistings”,
produces larger electron flow.
Thermocouple:
Single twisted wire sensor
Temperature probe
Thermopile
Pilot
Copper capillary tube protects the
inner insulated single strand wire
and also conducts electricity back
to the head where voltage can be
measured (usually in millivolts).
Spark Igniter
Common in
atmospheric burners
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Flame Rod
Flame Rod =
Ionization Sensor
Flame Rectifier
Flame rectification
Flames conduct electricity.
No flame, no current.
Fuel is shut off.
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f. Water Column
Low Water Cutoff: Activated
when feed water regulator fails,
turns off boiler, preventing dry firing.
Always has a manual reset switch.
Feed Water Regulator
signals for more water.
Always has a sight glass
Notice cutoff is lower than the
feed water regulator
Float replaced
with electric
water sensor
Tricock valves:
Top should be steam,
bottom – water,
middle indicates water level
Water level
controllers
High water sensors are
usually only alarms and do
not shut off the boiler.
Red manual reset button
indicates this is the low
water cutoff.
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Magnetic Float
CW
= gauge glass
tubular
Thick wall vs. thin
flat
Small bi-colored metal plates
flip up or down depending on
location of built-in magnetic
float in water column.
electronic
Electric probes sends a
signal to the control
room.
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g. Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Monoxide &
Combustible Gases
Carbon monoxide absorbs an additional
oxygen atom from the sensor which then
sends a positive hydrogen atom to the
counter electrode producing a small current
(detection of CO)
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L) Facilitating and monitoring receipt of fuels
Operators must confirm fuel oil levels on a
regular basis.
Paper readout for tank
level verification
A 10 day fuel oil supply (based on average
daily fuel consumption in January) is
required as an onsite minimum
4 x tanks and valves
Pressure
Reduction Valve
Emergency NC supply
shutoff valve
Visual flow indicator port
Overpressure
Safety Valve
Check Valve
Dual interchangeable
filters
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M) Efficiency
1) Causes of Inefficiency
Causes
Improper air/fuel ratio, soot blower failure and/or poor cleaning scheduling.
No. 6 Fuel Oil
Natural Gas fired
Cast Iron Sectional
Soot actually protects the tube from flame
temperature. However, since the tube represents
the cooler section of the refractory and since soot
is very hydroscopic (water attracting), condensate
(H 2O is a combustion byproduct) may form in the
soot. This then absorbs Carbon dioxide from the
exhaust. CO 2 breaks down and forms carbonic
acid (pH 5.5) and fire side corrosion takes place.
Biomass water
tube failure
Scale Thickness (inches) 1/32 1/25 1/20 1/16 1/11 1/9
% Fuel Loss 7 9 11 13 15 16
Tube becomes insulated. Water unable to remove
heat. Steel temperature increases and softens.
There are only two ways to quickly remove scale
build up: acid flush and mechanical scrubbing.
Fire tube scale
Bulging boiler tubes
due to scale buildup
A broken baffle causes a sudden increase in stack temperature.
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Hole Size 20 psi 25 psi 100 psi 200 psi
.05 inch 20 MBtu/yr 25 MBtu/yr 100 MBtu/yr 150 MBtu/yr
.10 inch 100 MBtu/yr 200 MBtu/yr 500 MBtu/yr 800 MBtu/yr
Damaged tubes may leak. The escaping boiler
water will cool the fire and the stack
temperature drops. Note water stains on metal.
Serious Problems!
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Flue gas analyzer
O 2 Sensor
Ground level air
Very good
Burner is
off
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Calibration
Oxygen.
The difference in Oxygen
concentration between stack
gases and normal air creates an
electrical current across the ZrO2
(zirconia) layer on the platinum
(Pt) electrodes.
This Oxygen sensor is for
performance and tuning
purposes
Opacity meters measure visible
smoke in stack
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Why not?!
ROI = Return on Investment
Removable
Jackets
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CW
Effects (symptoms)
2) Effects of Inefficiency
Broken
Baffle
Unchecked Spalling
.
Soot
Gradual Increase
FD (forced draft) and/or
ID (induced draft) Fan Failure
Smoke
Water cannot carry
the heat away
Softener and/or RO unit failure
and/or improper chemical balance
Scale
(Soot does not damage tubes, soot actually
protects tubes from high flue gas temperature)
Inadequate boiler tune-up scheduling
Decrease
Regular, yearly boiler
tune-ups recalibrate
air/fuel mixture to help
maximize efficiency.
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3) Economizer
Vertical Stack Mounted
Economizers preheat feed
water using flue gas
Stand Alone Unit
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4) LEED Program
In the United States and in a number of
other countries around the world, LEED
certification is the recognized standard for
measuring building sustainability.
Four Certification Levels
pts possible)
The LEED green building rating system -- developed
and administered by the U.S. Green Building
Council, a Washington D.C.-based, nonprofit
coalition of building industry leaders -- is designed
to promote design and construction practices that
increase profitability while reducing the negative
environmental impacts of buildings and improving
occupant health and well-being.
Out of 110 possible points
LEED certification is helping to steer the HVAC industry towards higher efficient
boilers and chillers. In the long run, these systems pay for themselves.
☺
Out
In ☺
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µ
µmho .................................................................................... 125
A
Absolute Zero Psi ................................................................... 47
Absolute Zero Temperature ............................................. 48, 53
AC .......................................................................................... 24
AC Current .............................................................................. 24
Acid ............................................................................ 123, 147
Acid Rain .............................................................................. 158
Activated Carbon ................................................................. 132
Actuator ............................................................... 105, 143, 180
Adiabatic Process ................................................................... 49
Affinity Law .......................................................................... 111
AFR ................................................................................... 71, 72
Air Bleed Valve ....................................................................... 32
Air Composition ...................................................................... 71
Air Compressor ................................................................ 40, 44
Air Conditioner ....................................................................... 40
Air Differntial Switch ............................................................ 181
Air Preheater .............................................................. 197
Air Scoop ................................................................................ 32
Air Separator .......................................................................... 32
Air to Fuel Ratio ...................................................................... 71
Air Vent .................................................................................. 32
Air/Fuel Ratio ............................................................ 193
Alkaline .......................................................................... 123
Alkalinity ..................................................................... 130
Alternating Current .............................................................. 24
Alternator ............................................................................... 26
Amines ................................................................................. 148
Ammonia .............................................................................. 123
Amperes ............................................................................... 110
Amps ................................................................................... 110
Annunciator ......................................................................... 177
Antarctica ............................................................................... 50
Antifreeze......................................................................... 36, 37
APT ................................................................................... 87, 94
Aquastat ................................................................................ 31
Aquifer ................................................................................. 128
Arc Flash ............................................................................... 166
Asbestos ............................................................................... 172
Atmospheric Burner ....................................................... 66, 185
Attemperator ......................................................................... 91
Automatic Pump Trap ...................................................... 87, 94
B
Babcock & Wilcox .................................................................. 13
Back Siphonage ............................................................ 104
Backflow .......................................................................... 104
Bacteria ................................................................................ 132
Baffle ....................................................................................... 8
Balance Point ......................................................................... 42
Balanced Pressure Steam Trap .............................................. 84
Ball ....................................................................................... 103
Ball Valve .............................................................................. 144
Barometer ............................................................................ 151
Barometric Pressure ............................................................ 151
Base ................................................................................... 123
Base Load ............................................................................... 25
Bernoulli ...................................................................... 117, 153
Beveled End Pipes ................................................................. 114
BHP .............................................................................. 112, 157
Bi-metalic steam trap ....................................................... 80, 84
Black Steel Pipe .................................................................... 115
Blowdown .......................................................................... 143
Blowdown Separator .................................................. 144
Blowdown Tank ...................................................... 144, 145
Boiler Horsepower ....................................................... 112, 157
Boiler MACT ......................................................................... 158
Boiling Point ......................................................................... 23
Bottom Blowdown ......................................................... 144
Bourdon Tube ...................................................................... 151
BPHE ...................................................................................... 95
Braized Plate .......................................................................... 95
Bryan Boiler ........................................................................... 14
BTU content ........................................................................... 46
Burn Rate Control .................................................................. 61
Butterfly ............................................................................... 103
Bypass Feeder ........................................................................ 34
C
Calcium ............................................................................ 130
Calorie .......................................................................... 112, 157
Can Pump ....................................................................... 99, 121
Candy Bar ..................................................................... 112, 157
Carbon Dioxide .................................................................... 165
Carbon Monoxide ................................................................ 189
Carryover........................................................................ 143
Catalytic Sorbent Injection ................................................... 162
Caustic Embrittlement ........................................... 140
Cavitation ............................................................................. 109
CCPP .................................................................................... 30
Ceramic ................................................................................ 172
Ceramic Mesh Burner ............................................................ 74
Ceramic Seal Rope ............................................................... 173
Cesium Oxide ....................................................................... 184
Charcoal ............................................................................... 132
Chemical Feed Pump ........................................................... 150
Cherrapunjee ......................................................................... 50
Chlorine ............................................................................... 128
Chromium ............................................................................ 115
Circulation Pumps .................................................................. 34
Clayton Steam Generator ....................................................... 15
P a g e 199

Climate Change .................................................................... 165
Closed Loop Boilers ................................................................ 31
Coal ...................................................................... 112, 157, 193
Combined Cycle Power Plant ............................................ 30
Combustion Triangle .............................................................. 65
Complete Combustion ................................................ 193
Compound Guage ................................................................ 151
Compressed Air ...................................................................... 76
Compression Tank .............................................................. 33
Condensate .......................................................... 28, 147, 152
Condensate Neutralizing Tubes ............................................. 39
Condensate Pump .............................................................. 87
Condensate Receiver ........................................................... 119
Condensation ................................................................... 47, 53
Condenser .............................................................................. 28
Condensing Boiler .................................................................. 39
Conduction ............................................................................. 45
Conductivity ......................................................... 125, 126, 143
Cone Flowmeter ................................................................... 154
Continuous Blowdown ................................................ 143
Controllers ............................................................................ 31
Convection ....................................................................... 45, 70
Cooling Tower ...................................................................... 28
Copper.................................................................................. 166
Coriolis ................................................................................. 155
Cugnot's Steam Car .................................................................. 7
Cyclohexylamine .................................................................. 148
Cyclone Separator .................................................................. 23
D
D Type Boiler .......................................................................... 17
DC.......................................................................................... 24
DC Current ............................................................................. 24
Dead Sea ................................................................................ 57
DEAE ..................................................................................... 148
Deaerator ..................................................................... 137, 138
Decatherm ................................................................... 112, 157
DEHA .................................................................................... 142
Dehumidifier .......................................................................... 43
Deposition ........................................................................ 53, 56
Desuperheater ....................................................................... 91
Diametre Nominel ................................................................ 116
Diaphragm ........................................................................... 103
Diesel ..................................................................... 64, 112, 157
Diethyl Aminoethanol .......................................................... 148
Diethyl Hydroxylamine ......................................................... 142
Diffuser .................................................................................. 72
Diffusion Flame ....................................................................... 69
Direct Current....................................................................... 24
DN ........................................................................................ 116
CW
Doppler ................................................................................ 155
Downcomer ..................................................................... 19, 20
Drip Legs .............................................................................. 118
Dry Firing ..................................................................... 187
Dry Pipe ........................................................................... 20, 23
Dry Pipe Separator .................................................... 12
Dry Steam .............................................................................. 59
Dry Valleys ............................................................................. 50
Dryback boiler .......................................................................... 9
Dual Fuel Burners .................................................................. 76
E
Earth Quake Emergency Stop .............................................. 174
Economizer ..................................................................... 197
Edison, Thomas .................................................................. 24
Efficiency ............................................................. 191, 196
EGR ...................................................................................... 164
Electrical Resistance Welding ............................................... 113
Electromagnetic Sensor ....................................................... 155
Elephant ............................................................................... 110
Emergency Generator .......................................................... 167
Emergency Stop Button ....................................................... 174
Emissions ............................................................................. 158
Energy .......................................................................... 112, 157
Enthalpy ................................................................................. 59
EPA ....................................................................................... 158
ERW ..................................................................................... 113
Ethylene Glycol ................................................................ 36, 39
Evaporation ........................................................................... 53
EVOH ...................................................................................... 35
Excess Air ..................................................................... 193
Excess Oxygen ...................................................................... 160
Exhaust Gas Recirculation ................................................... 164
Expander .......................................................................... 11, 18
Expansion Joint ................................................................... 33
Expansion Tank .................................................................. 33
Expansion Valve ..................................................................... 40
Expansion, water to ice ....................................................... 123
F
F&T Steam Trap .................................................................. 83
Fan Speed ............................................................................ 111
Feed Water .................................................................. 137, 197
Feed Water Pump .......................................................... 99, 121
Feed Water Regulator ........................................... 99, 121, 187
FGR............................................................................... 163, 164
Fiberglass ............................................................................. 173
Filming Amines .................................................................... 148
Fire Eye ............................................................................ 24, 68
Fire Tube .......................................................................... 8, 12
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Firebox .................................................................................. 23
Firing Rate Control ................................................................. 61
Firm Rate ................................................................................ 76
Fixed Orifice Steam Trap ........................................................ 80
Flame Envelope ...................................................................... 70
Flame Extinction .................................................................. 160
Flame Rectifier ..................................................................... 186
Flame Rod ............................................................................ 186
Flame Scanners/Sensors ....................................................... 183
Flash Tank ..................................................................... 144
Flat Sight Glass ................................................................. 190
Flex Tube Boiler...................................................................... 14
Float and Thermostatic Steam Trap ................................. 83
Floating Head Heat Exchanger ............................................... 94
Flue Gas Analyzer ..................................................... 193
Flue Gas Recirculation .................................................. 163, 164
Food Grade Antifreeze ........................................................... 36
Foot Valve ............................................................................ 150
Forced Draft Burner ............................................................... 66
Fracking .................................................................................. 63
Free Chlorine ........................................................................ 132
Freeze Drying ......................................................................... 54
Freeze Point ........................................................................... 36
Freeze Point Curve ................................................................. 53
Fuel Oil ............................................................ 64, 112, 157
Fuel Oil Train ........................................................................ 181
G
Galvanized Pipe .................................................................... 115
Gas Train .............................................................................. 180
Gasoline ....................................................................... 112, 157
Gate...................................................................................... 103
Generator ............................................................................... 26
Global Warming ................................................................... 165
Globe .................................................................................... 103
Golden Gate Bridge ................................................................ 57
Grain of Hardness ................................................................ 129
Gravel ................................................................................... 109
Greenhouse Gas ................................................................... 165
Grid ........................................................................................ 25
Grundfos ................................................................................ 34
H
Hambuger Helper ................................................................... 57
Hardness .......................................................................... 130
Heat Content .......................................................................... 46
Heat Exchanger ................................................................... 95
Heat Exchanger Stall .............................................................. 94
Heat Gun ................................................................................ 90
Heat Pump ............................................................................. 42
CW
Heat Recovery Steam Generator ........................................... 16
Heros Engine ............................................................................ 7
Herz ........................................................................................ 24
Hexagonal ............................................................................ 123
Hexagonal Crystal .................................................................. 52
High Fire ................................................................................. 61
High PSI Steam Pressure Gauge ........................................... 177
Holding Tank ........................................................................ 119
HRSG ...................................................................................... 16
Hydrastep ............................................................................ 190
Hydraulic Fracturing .............................................................. 63
Hydraulic HP ........................................................................ 110
Hydrazine ............................................................................. 142
Hydrogen .......................................................................... 123
Hydrostatic Test ................................................................... 175
Hydroxide........................................................................ 123
Hygroscopic Washers ........................................................ 33
I
Ice Scates ............................................................................... 55
Ice Tsunami ............................................................................ 55
Ideal Gas Law ..................................................... 40, 51, 88, 146
Ignition Transformer .............................................................. 68
Impeller................................................................................ 109
Implosion ............................................................................. 117
Impulse Steam Trap ............................................................... 79
Incandence ............................................................................. 70
Infrared ................................................................................ 183
Inspection ............................................................................ 171
Insulation ............................................................................. 195
Intercooler ............................................................................. 40
Internal ................................................................................ 171
Interruptible Rate .................................................................. 76
Inverted Bucket Steam Trap .................................................. 81
Ionization Sensor ................................................................. 186
IR Lightr ................................................................................ 183
Iron Crystals .............................................................. 140
K
Keep Up Coil .......................................................................... 17
Kelvin ..................................................................................... 48
Kerosene ................................................................................ 64
Kilowatt ........................................................................ 112, 157
KWH ............................................................................. 112, 157
L
Lake Tahoe ............................................................................. 57
Laminar Flame........................................................................ 71
Lance ...................................................................................... 76
Latent Heat ............................................................................ 45
Lean Flame ..................................................................... 71, 160
P a g e 201

LEED Certification................................................................. 198
LEL .......................................................................................... 71
Let Down Station............................................................ 90, 118
Lift Check .............................................................................. 103
Linear Actuator .................................................................... 106
Liquid Expansion Trap ........................................................ 85
Liquifaction ............................................................................ 45
Litmus Paper ........................................................................ 122
LMI Pumps ........................................................................... 150
Low Fire .................................................................................. 61
Low Fire Hold Switch .............................................................. 61
Low Water Cutoff ....................................................... 187
Lower Explosive Limit ............................................................. 71
Lubricant ................................................................................ 55
M
MACT ................................................................................... 158
Magnesium ........................................................................ 130
Magnetic Float ..................................................................... 190
Make Up Water .................................................................... 128
Marble chips .......................................................................... 39
MAWP .................................................................................... 144
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure ............ 144
Mechanical Steam Traps ........................................................ 78
Membrane ................................................................... 134, 135
Mercury.......................................................................... 58, 151
Mercury Switch ............................................................ 31, 152
Methane ................................................................................ 62
Mixing Boxes .......................................................................... 96
Modulation Motor ............................................................... 164
Molybdates ............................................................................ 34
Morpholine .......................................................................... 148
Motor Vibrations.................................................................. 102
Mt Everest .............................................................................. 57
Mud Drum ........................................................................ 13, 20
Multistage Pump ............................................................ 99, 121
N
Natural Gas Composition ....................................................... 62
NC Valves ............................................................................. 180
Neutral Water .............................................................. 123
Neutralizing Amines ............................................................. 148
Newcomen Steam Engine ........................................................ 7
NFPA 70E .............................................................................. 166
Niagara Falls ........................................................................... 24
Nitogen Dioxide ................................................................... 160
Nitrates .................................................................................. 34
Nitric Oxide .......................................................................... 160
Nitrites ................................................................................... 36
Nitrogen Gas ........................................................................ 33
CW
Non-condensable ................................................................ 83
Non-Condensing Turbine ....................................................... 29
Normal Pipe Size .................................................................. 116
NOx .............................................................................. 158, 160
Nozzle .................................................................................... 72
NPS....................................................................................... 116
Nuclear Explosion .................................................................. 56
O
O Type Boiler ......................................................................... 17
Octane ................................................................................... 62
Ohms.................................................................................... 110
Oil Burners ............................................................................. 76
Oil Filter ............................................................................... 181
Operating Limit Control ......................................................... 61
Operational Inspection ........................................................ 171
Orifice Flowmeter ................................................................ 154
OS&Y .................................................................................... 175
Oscillation ............................................................................ 155
Outside Screw and Yoke ...................................................... 175
Over Fire Air ......................................................................... 161
Oxygen barrier ....................................................................... 35
Oxygen Scavenger................................................................ 138
P
Panel Boiler ............................................................................ 16
Paris, TN ............................................................................... 176
Parralel Connection ............................................................... 99
Parrallel pumps ...................................................................... 99
Peak Flame Temperature .................................................... 160
Peristaltic ............................................................................. 150
Peristaltic Feed Pump .......................................................... 150
PEX ......................................................................................... 35
pH Chart ............................................................................... 123
pH Paper .............................................................................. 122
pH Probe .............................................................................. 124
Phases of Water ............................................................... 46, 53
Phenolphthalein .................................................................. 122
Phosphate................................................................ 130, 141
Pig Tale................................................................................. 152
Pilot Light ............................................................................. 185
Pipes..................................................................................... 113
Pitot Tube ............................................................................ 154
Pitting .............................................................................. 35
Pitting Corrosion .................................................................. 138
Plain End Pipes ..................................................................... 114
Plate and Frame .................................................................. 95
Pneumatics .......................................................................... 105
Positive Displacement ......................................................... 150
Pot Feeder ............................................................................. 34
Potassium Chloride .............................................................. 137
P a g e 202

Potassium Oxide .................................................................. 184
Pour Point ....................................................................... 64
Premix Burner ........................................................................ 74
Premix Flame .......................................................................... 70
Pressure Reducing Valve .................................................. 88
Pressure Regulator ............................................................... 103
Pressure Stat ........................................................................ 152
Pressurestat ......................................................................... 31
Pressuretrol .......................................................................... 31
Pressuretroll ......................................................................... 152
Primary Air ............................................................................. 64
Priming ............................................................................. 143
Propane .................................................................................. 62
Propane Tank ......................................................................... 40
Propeller .............................................................................. 109
Propylene Glycol .............................................................. 36, 37
PRV ......................................................................................... 88
Psia ........................................................................... 57, 58, 151
Psig ........................................................................ 57, 58, 151
PxV=T ..................................................................................... 40
Pyrolysis .................................................................................. 69
Pyrometer .............................................................................. 90
Q
Quarter Turn Valve .............................................................. 106
Quench ................................................................................. 161
Quiet Pipes ........................................................................... 108
Quill ...................................................................................... 150
R
Radiation .......................................................................... 45, 70
Radiator Steam Trap .............................................................. 85
Radiators ........................................................................ 33, 85
Rain Shadow ........................................................................... 49
Rankine Scale ......................................................................... 59
Raw Water ........................................................................... 128
Reducing Flame ...................................................................... 70
Refractory .............................................................................. 20
Refrigeration .......................................................................... 40
Regelation .............................................................................. 55
Resin Beads ................................................................... 130
Resistance ............................................................................ 110
Restricting Orifice ................................................................ 88
Reverse Osmosis .................................................. 132, 134, 135
Reversing Valve ...................................................................... 42
Rich Flame ...................................................................... 71, 160
Rivets ............................................................................... 140
Roaring Flame ........................................................................ 70
ROI ....................................................................................... 195
Roll and Bead .............................................................. 140
CW
Roll and Flare .............................................................. 18, 140
Rope seal ............................................................................. 172
Rotary Actuator ................................................................... 106
Rotary Cup Burner ...................................................... 64
Rotor ...................................................................................... 26
S
Safety Inspection ................................................................. 171
Safety Pop Off ...................................................................... 175
Safety Solenoid .................................................................... 181
Salt Bridge ............................................................................ 137
Satiration Curve ..................................................................... 48
Saturated Steam .................................................................... 46
Saturated Water .................................................................... 59
Scale ................................................................. 130, 191, 196
SCH....................................................................................... 116
Schedule .............................................................................. 116
Sea Level .......................................................................... 46, 58
Seal Ropes ............................................................................ 173
Seamless Pipes ..................................................................... 113
Secondary Air ................................................................ 64
Self Checking Flame Scanner ............................................... 184
Sensible Heat ......................................................................... 45
Series Connection .................................................................. 99
Series Pumps ......................................................................... 99
Shell and Tube .................................................................... 95
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger ............................................. 94
Shutoff Cock......................................................................... 180
Shuttered Flame Scanner .................................................... 184
Siemen ................................................................................. 125
Sierra Nevada Range .............................................................. 49
Sight Glass ................................................................... 187
Silica ..................................................................................... 173
Silicates .................................................................................. 34
Silicone ................................................................................. 173
Silver Oxide .......................................................................... 184
Sine wave ............................................................................. 24
Single Phase ........................................................................ 24
Siphon Loop ......................................................................... 152
Slug ...................................................................................... 117
Snap Switch ................................................................. 31, 152
Sodium Chloride .................................................................. 137
Sodium Metabisulfite .......................................................... 142
Solar Salt .............................................................................. 137
Solenoid ............................................................................... 180
Soot ................................................................................ 71, 191
Soot Blower ................................................................... 191
Sørensen, Søren ......................................................... 123
Spalling ................................................................................ 172
Sparge Tube ......................................................................... 137
P a g e 203

Spark ...................................................................................... 68
Spark Ignitor ................................................................... 24, 185
Spark Plug .............................................................................. 68
Spring Check......................................................................... 103
Stack ......................................................................... 193, 197
Stack Temperature ......................................................... 71, 193
Staged Air Burner ................................................................... 73
Staged Combustion .............................................................. 161
Staged Fuel Burner ................................................................. 73
Stainless Steel ...................................................................... 115
Stall ........................................................................................ 94
Stator ..................................................................................... 26
Steam Drum ........................................................................... 23
Steam Generator .................................................................... 15
Steam Separators ................................................................. 118
Steam Table ........................................................................... 58
Step Down Transformer ......................................................... 25
Step Up Transformer.................................................. 24, 25, 68
Stethoscope ........................................................................... 90
Stirling Boiler .......................................................................... 13
Stoichiometric ........................................................................ 71
Stress ................................................................. 12, 137, 140
Stroke ................................................................................... 150
Sub Saturated Water.............................................................. 59
Sublimation ...................................................................... 53, 54
Sulfate .................................................................................. 138
Sulfite ................................................................... 132, 138, 142
Sultana ................................................................................. 176
Super Skins ................................................................... 143
Supercritical Steam ................................................................ 58
Superheated Steam ......................................................... 46, 59
Superheater ...................................................................... 15, 20
Surface Blowdown ..................................................... 143
Surface Tension.......................................................... 143
Surge Tank ........................................................................... 119
Swing Check ......................................................................... 103
Swirler .................................................................................... 72
T
TDS ............................................................................... 126, 143
Telltale Hole ................................................................ 12
Tesla, Nikola ........................................................................... 24
Therm ........................................................................... 112, 157
Thermal Imager ...................................................................... 90
Thermocouple .............................................................. 138, 185
Thermodisc ............................................................................ 79
Thermodynamic Steam Traps ................................................ 78
Thermopile ........................................................................... 185
Thermostatic Steam Traps ..................................................... 78
Thermowell ........................................................................... 31
CW
Threaded End Pipes .............................................................. 114
Three phase ......................................................................... 24
Tom Thumb ................................................................. 112, 157
Topsy the Elephant ................................................................ 24
Torque ................................................................................. 111
Total Dissolved Solids ......................................... 143
Transformer ........................................................................... 25
Transmission .......................................................................... 25
Tricock Valve .............................................................. 187
Triple Point ............................................................................ 53
TSP ....................................................................................... 141
Turbine ............................................................................ 27, 28
Turbo Generator .................................................................... 26
Turbulent Flame ..................................................................... 71
TXV ......................................................................................... 88
U
UEL ......................................................................................... 71
Ultra Low NOx ...................................................................... 162
Ultra Violet........................................................................... 184
Ultrasonic ............................................................................. 155
Ultraviolet ............................................................................ 183
Universal Mounts for Steam Traps ......................................... 86
Universal Test Paper ............................................................ 122
Upper Explosive Limit ............................................................. 71
UV light ................................................................................ 183
V
Vacuum .............................................................. 28, 47, 57, 94
Vacuum Chamber .................................................................. 54
Valves ................................................................................... 103
Vapor Cone ............................................................................ 56
Vapor Pressure ...................................................................... 46
Vaporization .................................................................... 45, 47
Variable Frequency Drive .................................................... 111
Vavle Induced Water Hammer ............................................ 108
Venturi ......................................................................... 153, 154
VFD ...................................................................................... 111
Vibrations ............................................................................ 102
VIS Light ............................................................................... 183
Viscosity.................................................................... 64, 76
Voltage ................................................................................... 24
Volts .................................................................................... 110
W
Water Column ............................................................ 146, 187
Water Column Blowdown ................................................... 146
Water Hammer ............................................................ 105, 108
Water Slug ........................................................................... 117
Water Softener .................................................... 130, 137
Water Tube ................................................................ 13, 17, 18
P a g e 204

Watts ................................................................................... 110
Wax ........................................................................................ 69
Welded Seam Pipes .............................................................. 113
Wellons Boilers ...................................................................... 16
Westinghouse ........................................................................ 24
Wet Steam ............................................................................. 59
CW
Wetback Boiler ........................................................................ 9
Z
Zeolite ............................................................................ 130
Zinc ...................................................................................... 115
P a g e 205