Comprehesive Boiler Manual Jan 2019

www.b-ct.net
BOILERS
Comprehensive Pictoral Analysis
Boiler Systems I and II
Training Course Manual
Illustrations and Notes arranged by
Sedley Parkinson, Instructor
B & CT Training LLC
www.b-ct.net
Jan 2019
P a g e 1

Table of Contents
Preface: Boiler Design ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
1) Primitive Boilers ........................................................................................................................................................... 8
2) Fire Tube ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9
i. Multi-Pass ........................................................................................................................................................... 9
ii. Dryback vs. Wetback ........................................................................................................................................ 10
iii. Tube Connections: Roll and Bead ..................................................................................................................... 12
iv. Stays ................................................................................................................................................................. 13
3) Water Tube ................................................................................................................................................................. 14
i. Types of water tube boilers .............................................................................................................................. 14
ii. Tube Connections: Roll and Flare ..................................................................................................................... 20
iii. Downcomer ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
iv. Superheater ...................................................................................................................................................... 22
v. Steam Scrubber: Baffles/Dry Pipe ..................................................................................................................... 23
vi. Mud Drum continuous heater .......................................................................................................................... 23
4) Water Cum Smoke Tube (Water and Fire Tube) ......................................................................................................... 25
5) Cast Iron Sectional ...................................................................................................................................................... 26
6) Closed Loop Boilers (Hot Water Circulation) .............................................................................................................. 27
Aquastat ................................................................................................................................................................ 27
Air Removal ........................................................................................................................................................... 28
Water Expansion Control ...................................................................................................................................... 29
Exterior Circulation Pumps .................................................................................................................................... 30
Closed Loop Corrosion Control ............................................................................................................................. 30
PEX tubing ............................................................................................................................................................. 31
Antifreeze .............................................................................................................................................................. 32
Condensing Boiler ................................................................................................................................................. 35
7) Co-Generation ............................................................................................................................................................ 37
a. Electricity ........................................................................................................................................................... 37
b. Turbo Generator ............................................................................................................................................... 38
c. Steam Turbine ................................................................................................................................................... 39
d. Condenser ......................................................................................................................................................... 40
e. Non-Condensing Turbines ................................................................................................................................. 41
f. Combined Cycle ................................................................................................................................................. 42
A) Boiler Start Up, Operation and Shutdown ........................................................................................................................ 43
1) Ideal Gas Law: PV=nRT ............................................................................................................................................... 43
i. Heat Pump ........................................................................................................................................................ 45
ii. Dehumidifier ..................................................................................................................................................... 46
P a g e 2

iii. Air Compressor ................................................................................................................................................. 46
2) Temperature vs Heat Content .................................................................................................................................... 48
3) Pressure ...................................................................................................................................................................... 49
i. Vapor Pressure .................................................................................................................................................. 50
ii. Water Phase Expansion ..................................................................................................................................... 54
4) Pressure vs Temperature Chart .................................................................................................................................. 56
i. Sublimation/Deposition .................................................................................................................................... 56
ii. Freezing/Melting .............................................................................................................................................. 58
iii. Boiling/Condensing ........................................................................................................................................... 59
iv. Gauge vs Absolute ............................................................................................................................................ 60
5) Steam Table ............................................................................................................................................................... 61
6) Temperature vs Enthalpy (Btus/Pound)..................................................................................................................... 62
7) Boiler Operational Controllers ................................................................................................................................... 64
i. PSI ...................................................................................................................................................................... 64
ii. Water Level ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
B) Fuel: Primary and Backup ................................................................................................................................................. 68
1) Fuel Types ................................................................................................................................................................... 68
i. Natural Gas ....................................................................................................................................................... 68
ii. Liquid Fuels ....................................................................................................................................................... 70
iii. Solid Fuels / BioMass ........................................................................................................................................ 71
iv. Electricity .......................................................................................................................................................... 75
2) Combustion ................................................................................................................................................................ 76
i. Combustion Air ................................................................................................................................................. 77
ii. Spark ................................................................................................................................................................. 79
iii. Flame ................................................................................................................................................................ 80
iv. Air/Fuel Ratio (AFR) .......................................................................................................................................... 82
3. Burners ...................................................................................................................................................................... 84
i. Natural Gas ....................................................................................................................................................... 84
ii. Oil ..................................................................................................................................................................... 87
iii. Duel Fuel: NG & Oil ........................................................................................................................................... 89
iv. Solid Fuel Burners ............................................................................................................................................. 90
v. Soot Blowers ..................................................................................................................................................... 94
C) Plant Equipment Operations ............................................................................................................................................ 96
1) Steam Traps ................................................................................................................................................................ 96
i. Thermodynamic ............................................................................................................................................... 97
ii. Mechanical ...................................................................................................................................................... 98
iii. Thermostatic .................................................................................................................................................. 102
P a g e 3

iv. Universal Mount Steam Traps ....................................................................................................................... 104
v. Automatic Pump Trap (APT) = Condensate Pump ......................................................................................... 105
vi. PRV ................................................................................................................................................................ 106
vii. Steam Trap Troubleshooting ........................................................................................................................ 108
2) Desuperheater .......................................................................................................................................................... 109
3) Heat Exchangers ....................................................................................................................................................... 110
i. Shell and Tube ................................................................................................................................................ 110
High Capacity Instantaneous Steam Fired Water Heater...................................................................................... 111
v. Steam Driven Hot Water Heaters ................................................................................................................... 112
ii. Plate and Frame .............................................................................................................................................. 115
iii. HVAC Mixing Boxes ......................................................................................................................................... 116
iv. Steam Radiators.............................................................................................................................................. 117
v. Jacketed Kettles .............................................................................................................................................. 118
vi. Autoclaves ...................................................................................................................................................... 119
vii. Heat Exchanger Stall ...................................................................................................................................... 120
4) Pumps ....................................................................................................................................................................... 121
i. Reciprocating .................................................................................................................................................. 121
ii. Rotary ............................................................................................................................................................. 122
iii. Centrifugal ...................................................................................................................................................... 123
iv. Multi Stage Pumps .......................................................................................................................................... 124
v. Motor Vibration Monitoring ........................................................................................................................... 125
vi. Expansion Control ........................................................................................................................................... 126
vii. Cavitation ....................................................................................................................................................... 126
5) Valves ....................................................................................................................................................................... 127
i. Types .............................................................................................................................................................. 127
ii. Backflow Prevention ....................................................................................................................................... 128
iii. Actuators ........................................................................................................................................................ 129
iv. Water Hammer: Valve Induced ...................................................................................................................... 132
6) Condensate Holding Tanks ....................................................................................................................................... 134
i. Surge Tank / Condensate Return Tank ........................................................................................................... 134
ii. Condensate Vacuum Pump ............................................................................................................................ 135
7) Electricity .................................................................................................................................................................. 136
i. Flow ................................................................................................................................................................. 136
ii. VFD: Affinity Law ............................................................................................................................................. 137
D) Piping Systems ................................................................................................................................................................ 139
1) Pipes ......................................................................................................................................................................... 139
i. Manufacture Style .......................................................................................................................................... 139
P a g e 4

ii. Composition ................................................................................................................................................... 141
iii. Sizing ............................................................................................................................................................... 142
iv. Poiseuille’s Law ............................................................................................................................................... 143
2) Water Hammer: Steam Driven ................................................................................................................................. 144
i. Water Slug ...................................................................................................................................................... 144
ii. Vacuum Induced ............................................................................................................................................. 144
iii. Inline Steam Separators .................................................................................................................................. 145
4) Steam Header ........................................................................................................................................................... 146
E) Water Quality .................................................................................................................................................................. 147
1) Water Chemistry ...................................................................................................................................................... 147
i. pH .................................................................................................................................................................... 147
ii. Conductivity..................................................................................................................................................... 150
2) Make Up Water ........................................................................................................................................................ 153
i. Water Softener .............................................................................................................................................. 154
ii. Reverse Osmosis (RO).................................................................................................................................... 157
iii. Filtration ........................................................................................................................................................ 159
3) Feed Water: DA Tank ............................................................................................................................................... 163
i. Temperature Control ...................................................................................................................................... 163
ii. Dissolved Air Removal .................................................................................................................................... 164
4) Boiler Water ............................................................................................................................................................. 167
i. Caustic Embrittlement .................................................................................................................................... 167
ii. Scale Control: Residual Hardness ................................................................................................................... 168
iii. Residual Oxygen Pitting Control: Oxygen Scavengers ..................................................................................... 169
iv. Surface blowdown .......................................................................................................................................... 170
v. Sludge and Settlement Control: Bottom Blowdown ....................................................................................... 171
vi. Water Column Blowdown............................................................................................................................... 173
5) Condensate: ............................................................................................................................................................. 174
i. Carbonic Acid .................................................................................................................................................. 174
ii. FAC – Flow Accelerated Corrosion .................................................................................................................. 176
iii. LDI – Liquid Droplet Impingement .................................................................................................................. 177
6) Combination Chemical Treatment ........................................................................................................................... 178
7) Chemical Feed Pumps ............................................................................................................................................... 179
G) System Documentation / Plant Performance ................................................................................................................ 181
1) Pressure Gauges ....................................................................................................................................................... 181
i. Bourdon Tube ................................................................................................................................................. 181
ii. Pressurestat .................................................................................................................................................... 182
iii. Pig Tale / Syphon Loop ................................................................................................................................... 182
P a g e 5

2) Flow Meters .............................................................................................................................................................. 183
i. Differential Pressure ....................................................................................................................................... 183
ii. Ultrasonic ....................................................................................................................................................... 185
iii. Coriolis Oscillation .......................................................................................................................................... 185
iv. Positive Displacement .................................................................................................................................... 186
3) Energy Measurement ............................................................................................................................................... 187
4) Air Pollution (Emissions)........................................................................................................................................... 188
Boiler Mact .......................................................................................................................................................... 188
Acid Rain ............................................................................................................................................................. 189
CO, HC and Ground Level Ozone ......................................................................................................................... 190
SO₂ Control .......................................................................................................................................................... 191
NO x, HC and CO Control ...................................................................................................................................... 193
Particulate Matter (PM) Control ......................................................................................................................... 206
Residual Exhaust Acid Absorber .......................................................................................................................... 208
New Technology .................................................................................................................................................. 209
CO ₂ (Green House Gasses)................................................................................................................................... 211
H) Emergency Generator .................................................................................................................................................... 212
1) Arc Flash ................................................................................................................................................................... 212
2) Generator System Components ............................................................................................................................... 213
I) Routine Equipment Maintenance .................................................................................................................................... 215
1) EMP (Equipment Maintenance Plans) ...................................................................................................................... 215
2) Lock Out / Tag Out .................................................................................................................................................... 216
3) Small Boiler Layup/Seasonal Shut Down ................................................................................................................... 217
i. Wet .................................................................................................................................................................. 217
ii. Dry ................................................................................................................................................................... 217
J) Inspection Preparation .................................................................................................................................................... 218
1) Internal vs. Operational ............................................................................................................................................ 218
2) Refractory ................................................................................................................................................................. 219
3) Seal Ropes ................................................................................................................................................................ 220
K) Safety Systems ................................................................................................................................................................ 221
1) Emergency Stop Button ............................................................................................................................................ 221
2) Earthquake Shutoff .................................................................................................................................................. 221
3) Pop-Off Valve............................................................................................................................................................ 222
4) OS&Y ......................................................................................................................................................................... 222
5) Hartford Loop ........................................................................................................................................................... 223
6) Safety Limit Controls ................................................................................................................................................ 224
a. Boiler Failure Examples ................................................................................................................................... 224
P a g e 6

. Fuel Line Limit Controllers ............................................................................................................................... 225
c. Air Flow Proving Switches ................................................................................................................................ 226
d. Fuel Line Train Parts ........................................................................................................................................ 228
f. Water Column .................................................................................................................................................. 238
g. Carbon Monoxide ............................................................................................................................................ 240
L) Facilitating and monitoring receipt of fuels .................................................................................................................... 241
M) Efficiency........................................................................................................................................................................ 243
1) LEED Program ........................................................................................................................................................... 243
2) Causes of Inefficiency ............................................................................................................................................... 244
3) Effects of Inefficiency ............................................................................................................................................... 249
4) Economizer ............................................................................................................................................................... 250
5) Combustion Air Preheater ........................................................................................................................................ 251
i. Recuperative/Regenerative ............................................................................................................................. 251
ii. Tubular ............................................................................................................................................................ 252
6) Blowdown Heat Recovery ........................................................................................................................................ 253
i. Surface/Continuous ......................................................................................................................................... 253
ii. Surface and/or Bottom .................................................................................................................................... 254
7) Flash Steam Recovery ............................................................................................................................................... 255
N) Reference Charts ............................................................................................................................................................ 256
1) Pipe Schedules .......................................................................................................................................................... 256
2) Metric Prefixes .......................................................................................................................................................... 256
3) Periodic Table ........................................................................................................................................................... 257
4) Blue Print/Schematic Symbols ................................................................................................................................. 258
i. Valve ............................................................................................................................................................... 258
ii. HVAC ............................................................................................................................................................... 258
iii. Electrical ......................................................................................................................................................... 258
5) Boiler Device Nomenclature .................................................................................................................................... 259
Section 107 of the Copyright Act provides the statutory framework for determining whether something is a fair use and identifies
certain types of uses—such as criticism, comments, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research.
P a g e 7

Preface: Boiler Design
1) Primitive Boilers
Hero’s Engine
around 50 AD
Alexandria,
Roman Empire
Cugnot’s
Steam Car
around 1769
Paris, France
Newcomen
Steam Engine
around 1770
London, England
Single, steam driven piston
Primitive boilers were generally, large
spheres with a fire underneath.
P a g e 8

2) Fire Tube
i. Multi-Pass
Multi-Pass Boilers
1 Pass
Electrical combustion air
blowers spurred the
advancement of the use of
tubes in a boiler.
1 and 2 pass boilers have no
baffles
2 Pass
3 Pass
Baffles control direction
of flue gases
4 Pass
Passes: 1 2 3 4
Stack & Burner: O S O S
O = Opposite End
S = Same End
Multi-pass Vertical Firetube
P a g e 9

ii. Dryback vs. Wetback
P a g e 10

ICB: InterCooled Back boiler
P a g e 11

iii. Tube Connections: Roll and Bead
Fire tubes are often referred to as “flue tubes”.
P a g e 12

iv. Stays
Stays are often installed in high
pressure fire tube boilers to help
offset stress difference on the
flat plates in the open steam
section.
diagonal stays
Some fire tube boilers have a dry
pipe which helps prevent water
droplets from escaping into steam
lines.
When corrosion or cracks in
the staybolt reach the drilled
telltale hole, steam is
released, alerting the
operator. (Typical in some
types of locomotive steam
engines)
P a g e 13

3) Water Tube
i. Types of water tube boilers
Babcock & Wilcox
Boiler, 1867
To greatly increase
heating surface area,
water was sent
through tubes in the
refractory.
Stirling Boiler,
1898
Bottom tubes often became plugged with
sediment. The invention of the mud drum,
along with blowdown lines overcame this issue.
P a g e 14

Flex Tube Bryan ®
Flex Tube
Closed Loop
(Hot Water) Flex
Tube Boiler
The unique flexible bent tube design prevents
all possible damage from thermal shock and
related problems. Bryan Flexible Tubes are
easily removable and replaceable, allowing
for quick and simple boiler maintenance.
Steam Generating
Flex Tube Boiler
P a g e 15

Copper Fin Tube
Copper Fin Water Tube:
Hot Water circulation only boiler
P a g e 16

Circular Coil
Circular Coil
Boiler
Clayton ® Steam Generator
with integrated superheater
P a g e 17

Panel
Welllons ®
Panel Boiler
Modulated HRSG (Heat Recovery Steam Generator)
P a g e 18

O, D, A Type
“O” Type
“A” Type
“D” Type
Back
P a g e 19

ii. Tube Connections: Roll and Flare
P a g e 20

iii. Downcomer
spelling!
Mud drum
Downcomer tubes bring water that didn’t
turn to steam back to the bottom drum.
No pump is needed: water has less mass in
the tubes where the water is boiling (steam
bubbles) creating a natural circulation
P a g e 21

iv. Superheater
The superheater relief
valve is set to pop before
boiler relief valve.
Steam Superheater
Steam temperature is increased by passing though
fire chamber 2 nd time (pressure stays the same).
1. The additional energy in the steam
allows more work to be done.
2. With the steam above the saturation
point (boiling point), any water droplets
that may have escaped the boiler
(priming), are automatically flashed into
steam, this protects critical parts such as
turbine blades from physical damage.
The Bleeder is used to maintain a flow of steam
through the super heater during light-off and shut
down when the boiler main steam stops are shut.
P a g e 22

v. Steam Scrubber: Baffles/Dry Pipe
vi. Mud Drum continuous heater
Simple interior port for water level columns
P a g e 23

Steam Scrubber and outlet
Downcomer tubes
Surface Blowdown
(skimmer)
Feed water
Chemical Injection
(from bypass feeder)
Steam is sent through mud drum on
boilers that are “waiting” (standby) for
a faster startup when boiler is needed
P a g e 24

4) Water Cum Smoke Tube (Water and Fire Tube)
Medium sized boiler with flexibility of fuels
Inside refractory
P a g e 25

5) Cast Iron Sectional
To increase capacity, add sections
Multiple stacks indicate CIS
boilers, making flue gas flow
over sections more uniform.
CIS boilers operate at

6) Closed Loop Boilers (Hot Water Circulation)
Aquastat sets hot water
Aquastat boiler temperature ranges
Closed Loop (water only boilers)
STRAP-ON SURFACE
TEMPERATURE PROBE
Temperature probe bulb
fits into thermowell.
Low Limit:
Turns on the burner
view from inside vessel
Differential:
Normal operating range
above low limit (turns off burner)
Triple Aquastat
High Limit:
Safety Cutoff
Manual reset indicates this is a high
temperature limit safety cutoff
P a g e 27

Air Removal
Air Removal
Closed Loop Continued
Air Vent
Air Scoop
Open
Air under pressure
is blown out
Closing
Water replaces air
Closed
Poppet floats and
seals top
Air Separator
Manual Radiator
Air Bleed Valves
Auto Radiator Air
Bleed Valves
Air escapes from the radiator through the valve until water
enters and expands the hygroscopic washers.
P a g e 28

Water Expansion
Control
Water Expansion Control
Closed Loop Continued
Expansion tanks located at
the highest point in the
closed loop do not need air
separators. They usually
have a sight glass and should
be at least 1/3 rd empty.
Expansion
Joints
To extend the life of the
diaphragm/bladder
compression tank, it is
usually placed on the cold
end of the loop.
P a g e 29

Exterior Circulation Pumps Pumps
Closed Loop Continued
While a steam boiler’s pressure
forces the circulation of the steam,
a closed loop system needs pumps
to circulate the water.
Closed Corrosion Loop Control
Corrosion in electric closed loop boiler
SPEC: Molybdates (“Moly”), Nitrites, or
Silicates are added as a corrosion inhibitor to
closed loop systems via bypass feeders or
direct injection pumps.
P a g e 30

PEX tubing
Closed Loop Continued
PEX: No corrosion
An aluminum layer or EVOH barrier (Ethylene-Vinyl
Alcohol copolymer) prevents oxygen penetration.
(3 layers)
(5 layers)
PEX Al PEX
P a g e 31

Antifreeze
Safety
Prevents freezing in Closed Loops
during shut downs.
Closed Loop Continued
PG
C₃H₈O₂
Composition
EG
C2H6O2
Food Grade
(You can drink it)
Safety
Toxic
(Follow proper use and
disposal guidelines)
Nitrites are added to
prevent corrosion.
Cost (as of 2014)
Inhibitor = Nitrites
= corrosion prevention
Because of safety, food-processing closed loop
boilers generally are charged with Propylene
Glycol.
Use
Because of cost, nonfood-processing closed loop
boilers generally are charged with Ethylene Glycol.
Automobile engine antifreeze usually
contain antifoams, coagulants, dyes and
other additives which may or may not
effect a boiler’s proper operation.
P a g e 32

Measurement
Refractometer:
Chemical concentration effects
refraction angle.
Float Type
Antifreeze testers
Since non-food grade (cheaper) antifreeze is generally
used in automobile engines, these type of testers
indicate freeze point of Ethylene Glycol.
Glycol Mixing Tanks
1. Allows water to raise to room temperature before entering system, removing dissolved air.
2. A convenient way to make sure your percentage is correct.
P a g e 33

Concentration vs Freeze Point
Glycols 70%
Freeze point starts
to go back up!
50/50 Blend: Typical Use Recommendation
P a g e 34

Condensing Boiler
Condensing Boiler
More efficient use of flue gas
Closed Loop Continued
A condensing boiler
Non-Condensing
Boiler with separate
condensing chamber
Acidic condensate flows
across neutralizing
marble type chips
preventing possible
damage to sewer lines
Notice PVC drain line
for acidic condensate
P a g e 35

Expansion joints
Pop Off
Y Strainers
Check valves
Circulation pumps
Neutralizing stones
Condensate filter
P a g e 36

7) Co-Generation
a. Electricity
Tesla vs. Edison
Direct Current:
One Way Flow
Using Tesla’s new AC technology, Westinghouse
entered the low bid well under Edison to produce
electricity for the 1893 World’s Fair held in NY City.
They used water driven turbines on the Niagara Falls.
In an effort to discredit AC electricity and its inventor,
Nikoli Tesla (who once worked for Edison), Thomas
Edison publically electrocuted a series of animals
including Topsy the elephant in 1903.
Alternating Current: Switches Back and
Forth from Positive to Negative
Single Phase AC
Hertz = rotations per second
Three Phase AC
P a g e 37

Turbo
Generator
b. Turbo Generator
Stator:
Stationary
Wire Windings
Rotor:
DC induced magnetic fields
When the rotor’s magnetic field passes by the
stator’s wire windings, electrons are repeatedly
pushed then pulled through the metal, creating
an alternating electric current (AC).
Same working principle as your car’s alternator
P a g e 38

c. Steam Turbine
Rotors
(rotating)
Stators
(stationary)
Lower pressure steam for facility use can be taken from various locations in turbine shell via extraction ports.
P a g e 39

d. Condenser
Condenser
Condensers are located after the
turbines to cool used steam.
The faster steam is cooled the faster it shrinks,
creating a vacuum, “pulling” on the turbines.
Inside Condenser
Cooling Towers Serve the Condenser
hot moist air ↑
heat exchange packing
cool air→
P a g e 40

e. Non-Condensing Turbines
Non-Condensing (Back Pressure) Turbines
No Condenser or Cooling Towers.
Steam is used in process or
heating (no energy loss through
cooling tower).
In the backpressure turbine configuration, the turbine does
not consume steam. Instead, it simply reduces the pressure
and energy content of steam that is subsequently exhausted
into the process header.
In essence, the turbo generator serves the same steam
function as a pressure-reducing valve (PRV)—it reduces
steam pressure—but uses the pressure drop to produce
highly valued electricity in addition to the low-pressure
steam.
P a g e 41

f. Combined Cycle
CCPP: Dual Shaft
CCPP: Single Shaft
P a g e 42

A) Boiler Start Up, Operation and Shutdown
1) Ideal Gas Law: PV=nRT
When Temperature↑ and Volume stays the same, then Pressure↑
= BOILER
When Pressure↑ and Volume stays the same, then Temperature↑ = AIR COMPRESSOR
The INTERCOOLER uses water or
outside air to cool compressed
air in-between stages.
2 nd Stage
1 st Stage
When Pressure↓ and Volume stays the same, then Temperature↓ = Propane Tank
P↓ × V c = T↓ : Refrigeration
ICE !
Hot
(Restricting Orifice)
Cold
Various types of expansion valves
Air Conditioning
* Simplified for training purposes. Actual:
P a g e 43

If
↓
then
↑ ↓ ↑
If
↑
↑
↑
then
↓ ↑ ↓
P a g e 44

i. Heat Pump
Around 37°F many heat pumps reach what is
called the balance point where the heat pump
needs to run constantly to maintain a
comfortable indoor temperature. Efficiency
drops as you approach this point.
Reversing Valve
P a g e 45

ii. Dehumidifier
DEHUMIDIFIER
AIR OUTLET,
NEAR SAME
TEMPERATURE
AS INLET
Dehumidification Kiln: Room
Temperature Wood Drying
HVAC Dehumidification Air Handler
P a g e 46

iii. Air Compressor
Atomizing and
Control Air
Holding tanks
Expansion control
Incoming air filters
Point of use
compressed air
filters
Inline
condensation
removal
P a g e 47

Temperature
2) Temperature vs Heat Content
: through nonmoving or solid parts
: through moving substances, such
as water, steam, or air
: through energy waves, even
travels through a vacuum (such as the sun
transfers heat to Earth through space)
Latent heat of
liquefaction
Latent heat of
vaporization
vaporizing →
BTUs
Latent Heat:
BTUs
← condensing
P a g e 48

Temperature
@ 0 psig = 1 Atm = sea level
Saturated Steam = steam at the boiling pt.
Superheated
(above the
boiling pt.)
32°F 212°F
0°C 100°C
970.3 BTUs to boil 1 # of H 2O
Water at 32°F
contains 0 BTUs
(beginning point for
BTU measurement)
-144BTU 0BTU 180BTU 1150.3BTU
Heat Content
1 BTU = heat needed to change 1 lb. of water 1°F
To change 1 lb of:
Ice 1º F, add 0.5 Btu
Steam 1º F, add 0.45 Btu
1 BTU also is about equal
to heat given off by one
match stick burning
How many BTUs does one pound of steam contain at 212°F at Sea Level?
32 ºF water to 212 ºF water takes 180BTU/lb. 180
212 ºF water to 212 ºF steam takes 970.3BTU/lb. +970.3
1150.3 BTUs
P a g e 49

3) Pressure
i. Vapor Pressure
Absolute Zero = Perfect Vacuum
Vapor Pressure
0
Vacuum
Maximum water
content in air =
saturation point
Evaporation or
Vaporization
Vaporization >
Condensation
Vaporization =
Condensation
Equilibrium
Pressure changes with Temperature (molecules
move around more when heated)
Saturation Point
(Equilibrium) changes with
Temperature and Pressure
and becomes the
Saturation Curve
P a g e 50

Saturation Curve
Saturation Curve
Saturation Curve
1000gH20 / Kg Air
all air is water vapor
Equilibrium = Saturation Curve = Dew Point
Water vapor in air
400g
300g
200g
100g
0 K= -273°C= -460°F
No water vapor in air
No molecular movement
Absolute zero temperature
temperature increase →
373 K=100°C=212°F
All water vaporized
(@0psig)
0g
Water droplets, suspended in the air,
form as humid air temperature drops
past the saturation curve.
←temperature drop
H 2O falls out as dew and frost,
OR rain and snow.
f
r
o
s
t
d
e
w
Freeze Point
P a g e 51

Air Moisture Content →
Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic Process
Moist air rises over mountains: lower air pressure,
vapor condenses on dust particles forming
suspended droplets or ice crystals (clouds).
Descending clouds increase in
air pressure, clouds evaporate
back into vapor = Rain Shadow.
Rain/Snow →
Temperature Increase →
Same principle applies
to large air masses
P a g e 52

Extreme
Precipitation
A combination of the adiabatic process and
the inability of cold air to hold moisture, the
Dry Valleys of Antarctica is said not to have
any measurable precipitation for over
2,000,000 years.
The Brahmaputra Mountains in Eastern
India reports the highest average rainfall of
467 inches per year.
P a g e 53

ii. Water Phase Expansion
Water to Vapor Expansion
Water to Vapor
When Temperature ↑ and Pressure stays the same, then Volume must ↑
v = 0.01672 ft 3
Now imagine a 500 gallon boiler rupturing and instantly filling the building with 111,700 ft 3
(100 hot air balloons) of flash steam
Denver: 500 gallon boiler explosion
P a g e 54

Water
to Ice Expansion
to Ice
Expansion
Slightly
negative
Slightly
positive
Ice’s seed molecule has six
equal sides. As more H2O
molcules attach to the seed
molecule, equal branches form
at 60˚ angles.
Electrical charge can
affect water flow
60°
Water to Ice Volume Expands about 10%
Which is about the same as:
10 ft 3 water making 11 ft 3 of ice
…, and Ice Floats (less dense)
60°
…, and breaks lines
P a g e 55

Sea Level
Pressure
4) Pressure vs Temperature Chart Phases of Water
Pressure vs. Temperature
Freeze Point
Curve
Evaporation
Curve
14.7 psia
= 0 psig
= 1 atm
= 1 bar
Solid
As Pressure increases, H 2O favors
the state that takes up less space,
NOTICE: the slight backwards freeze
Sea Level
curve and the forward boiling curve.
Vapor
Triple
Point
(not to scale)
Absolute Zero
(Theoretical)
Temperature
32°F
0°C
212°F
100°C
Solid
Vapor
Where Freeze Point Curve, Evaporation Curve and Sublimation Curves Meet
= 0.09psia and 32.02°F
Triple
Point
P a g e 56

i. Sublimation/Deposition
Home Unit
Freeze Dryer
Sublimation
= Freeze Dryers
Low temperature and pressure
Vacuum
Chamber
2. About 90% of the food’s
moisture is drawn off by
sublimating the ice at
temperature as low as -60º F
P a g e 57

ii. Freezing/Melting
Newly formed water
from the higher
pressure on the ice
directly underneath the
blades acts as a
lubricant.
Regelation: with pressure
gone, liquid returns to sold.
Lake Mille Lacs, MN
On rare occasions, regelation can
occur when the water at the bank
of a heavily ice covered, deep lake
is exposed to lower psi and the
water in the lake is at or below
freezing. Water will “flash” into
ice and move forward until
backpressure stops the reaction.
P a g e 58

iii. Boiling/Condensing
Vapor Cone: condensation by extreme high pressure
High altitude vapor cones are
actually suspended ice crystal
cones…. Deposition !
As a result of the sudden expansion of the nuclear explosion, high psi
increase condenses vapor into suspended water droplets. This water then
evaporates back to invisible vapor as the high-pressure shock wave passes.
P a g e 59

iv. Gauge vs Absolute
psig
(gauge)
psia
(absolute)
H 2O
boiling pt
Perfect Vacuum -14.7 0 °F
Near Vacuum -14.5 0.2 53°
Mt. Everest -5.6 9.1 157°
Pheonix, AZ -0.6 14.1 210.1°
Sea Level 0 14.7 212°
Dead Sea 0.8 15.5 215°
Example: a boiler psi 100 114.7 337°
Sea Level =
1 atmosphere
= 14.7 psia
= 0 psig
Space = a vacuum
psia = 0
psig = -14.7
Mt. Everest = 29,029 ft
Dead Sea = -1378 ft
Pheonix, AZ = 1086 ft
The boiling point changes about 1˚
for each 550 ft change in elevation
High altitude cooking instructions: 3500 to 6500 ft
Increase simmer time to 19 min (with lower boiling
temperature, it takes longer to cook food.)
Vacuum
pump
Vacuum
jar
P a g e 60

5) Steam Table
Gauge
Pressure
Inches of Hg (Vacuum)
Psig
Psia
Boiling
Point
ºF
Btu content of
1 lb. of water
at B.P.
Btu needed to
turn 1 lb. of water
at B.P. into steam
Btu content
of saturated
steam
Volume
of water
ft 3 /lb at B.P.
Volume
of steam
ft 3 /lb at B.P.
29.7 0.09 32.02 0 1075.8 1075.8 0.01602 3306
29.5 0.2 53 21 1063.8 1085.0 0.01603 1526
27.9 1.0 102 70 1036.3 1106.0 0.01614 334
19.7 5.0 162 130 1001.0 1131.0 0.01641 73.5
9.6 10.0 193 161 982.1 1143.3 0.01659 38.4
7.5 11.0 198 166 979.3 1145.0 0.01665 35.1
5.5 12.0 202 170 976.6 1146.6 0.01667 32.4
3.5 13.0 206 174 974.2 1148.1 0.01667 30.1
1.4 14.0 210 178 971.9 1149.5 0.01670 28.0
0 14.7 212 180 970.3 1150.3 0.01672 26.8
1 15.7 216 184 967 1152 0.01675 24.8
2 16.7 219 187 965 1153 0.01677 23.4
5 19.7 227 196 960 1156 0.01683 20.1
10 24.7 240 208 952 1160 0.01692 16.3
15 29.7 250 219 945 1164 0.01700 13.8
20 34.7 259 228 939 1167 0.01708 11.9
25 39.7 267 236 933 1170 0.01714 10.5
30 44.7 274 243 928 1172 0.01721 9.4
40 54.7 287 256 919 1176 0.01732 7.8
50 64.7 298 267 911 1179 0.01743 6.7
60 74.7 307 277 904 1182 0.01752 5.8
70 84.7 316 286 898 1184 0.01761 5.2
80 94.7 324 295 891 1186 0.01769 4.7
90 104.7 331 302 886 1188 0.01777 4.2
100 114.7 337 309 880 1189 0.01785 3.9
110 124.7 344 316 875 1191 0.01792 3.6
120 134.7 350 322 870 1192 0.01799 3.3
130 144.7 355 328 866 1193 0.01806 3.1
140 154.7 360 333 861 1195 0.01812 2.9
150 164.7 366 339 857 1196 0.01818 2.7
200 214.7 388 362 837 1199 0.01847 2.1
250 264.7 406 382 820 1202 0.01873 1.7
etc.↓ 300 417 394 809 1203 0.01890 1.54
400 446 424 781 1205 0.01934 1.16
450 456 437 767 1205 0.01955 1.03
500 467 449 755 1204 0.01975 0.93
600 486 472 732 1203 0.02013 0.77
900 532 527 669 1195 0.02123 0.50
1200 567 572 612 1183 0.02232 0.36
1500 596 612 556 1167 0.02346 0.28
2000 636 672 463 1135 0.02565 0.19
2500 668 731 361 1191 0.02860 0.13
2700 680 756 312 1068 0.03027 0.11
3206.2 705 903 0 903 0.05053 0.05053
Sea Level
Supercritical Water refers to conditions
above 3206.2 psia and 705 °F where steam
and water reach a new phase.
P a g e 61

Temperature ˚C →
Temperature vs Enthalpy
6) Temperature vs Enthalpy (Btus/Pound)
Rankine Scale
Enthalpy = Btus/Pound
Super Critical Vapor
(= BTUs/˚F →)
P a g e 62

˚F →
Water
Rankine Cycle: Steam Turbine
William Rankine
Superheater
High Pressure Turbine
Boiler
Intermediate and Low
Pressure Turbines
Economizer
Feed Water Pump
Water and Steam
Condenser
Reheater
Superheated Steam
Enthalpy = BTU/˚F →
P a g e 63

7) Boiler Operational Controllers
i. PSI
PSI Controls
High PSI Shutoff
Safety Switches always
have a reset button.
Must be set at < Pop Off
valve popping psi.
Burn Rate
Controls
Operating Limit Control
MAIN = minimum desired psi, burner turns on
below this point. DIFF. = MAIN + selected psi
at which the burner turns off.
Low Fire Hold Switch
Firing Rate Controller
Maintains psi in boiler
MAIN = minimum psi at witch burner will go to Hi Fire
DIFF. IS ADDATIVE = The value over the set point is where
you are at low fire.
If not properly coordinated with Operating Limit Control
the boiler could trip on pressure before getting down to
low fire (Short Cycling).
Keeps a specific pressure before allowing boiler to
come out of low fire. Helps prevent thermal shock
on cold boilers that are warming up. Will not go to
High Fire until ready.
Installing a low fire hold aquastat and wiring it
into the burner sequence will enable the burner to
operate on low fire until an established
temperature is reached before moving to high fire.
Boiler turndown ratio is the ratio between full boiler output (High Fire) and the boiler output when operating at
minimum output (Low Fire).
Typical boiler turndown is 4:1. That is, a 400-horsepower boiler with a 4:1
turndown burner is able to modulate down to 100 horsepower before cycling off.
P a g e 64

Digital psi sensor
Aux. operations limit switch
Manual Reset Switch = High
psi shut off = “High High”
Operations limit switch
P a g e 65

ii. Water Level
When feed water regulator calls for water,
Feed water pump is turned on
OR
Feed water actuator is activated (for those systems which
have the feed water pump continuously running)
Feed water is cooler than boiler water. When large amounts of feed
water is introduced into the boiler, the boiler water stops boiling for a
moment until the water comes up to temperature. This drops the psi for
just a moment. This fluctuation is avoided by using VFD to adjust the flow
on feed line PRVs and keeping the feed water pumps on continuously.
Feed water flow meter
To prevent possible stagnation and
temperature drop of feed water when
boiler demand is low, water is
sometimes kept in constant circulation
P a g e 66

Water level indicator using Differential Pressure (DP)
Wet Leg method used on boilers
(condensate quickly fills the leg)
Steam psi does not effect DP as
that it is exherted the same on
both sides of the diapragm
P a g e 67

B) Fuel: Primary and Backup
1) Fuel Types
i. Natural Gas
Natural Gas
Typical composition of NG
(Methane = 87%)
1011 btu/ft 3
2516 btu/ft 3
3225 btu/ft 3
6239 btu/ft 3
P a g e 68

(Hydraulic Fracturing)
Downward trend? →
Methane gas from welltap
water, purportedly
due to fracking.
Exploitation vs. proper extraction should always be a
concern when dealing with any natural resource.
P a g e 69

ii. Liquid Fuels
No. 1 Fuel Oil
No. 2 Fuel Oil
No. 6 Fuel Oil
Viscosity = resistance to flow.
When oil is heated, its viscosity decreases.
P a g e 70

iii. Solid Fuels / BioMass
Wood
Solid Fuels:
WOOD
Hogged Fuel
Wood chips or shavings usually along with sawdust,
residue and bark from sawmills is used as fuel for boilers,
landfill, animal feed, surfacing paths and running tracks.
The word for chopped (hacked) in Norwegian
is hogge (hogde past tense); chopped wood
has been hogde. Hogde fuel likely morphed
into hogged fuel.
Black Out:
If moisture is too great,
flame cannot burn.→
Saw Dust/Wood Pellet
Forced Draft Burners
P a g e 71

Syngas
Syngas (biogas) contains between
50% and 75% Methane (CH 4)
Syngas and charcoal
are burned: 500˚C to 1200˚C
Drying: 100˚C to 150˚C
Pyrolysis: Decomposition of organic
material to char and tar by heating
in low O2 environment
150˚C to 500˚C
Burning matchstick
CxHy : Volatile hydrocarbons (pyrolysis
gas = Syngas) is expelled (cracked)
from pyrolyzed biomaterial (tar) as
temperature increases.
500˚C to 1000˚C
Further burning reduces
all charcoal to ash
1200˚C
Unburned CH 4 (Methane) is expelled (craked) as temperature increases and
pyrolysis takes place. Leaving tar and eventually char and then, finally, ash behind.
Pyrolyzed test rabbit
Some biomass facilities are
equipped with Syngas separators.
P a g e 72

Solid Fuels:
Garbage
Municipal Waste
Woody slowly moving
forward in a solid waste,
biomass burner!
P a g e 73

Coal
Powder River Basin, WY,
mainly subbituminous coal
(with low sulfur content),
supplies fuel for about 40% of
all coal fired US Power Plants
Solid Fuels:
COAL
6,000 BTU/lb.
10,000 BTU/lb.
13,000 BTU/lb.
2014 US Electricity
Production by Source
(http://www.c2es.org/technolog
y/overview/electricity)
15,000 BTU/lb.
P a g e 74

iv. Electricity
Very small wall mount
electric steam boiler
P a g e 75

2) Combustion
Combustion Air
Spark
CH 4
Take any of these away, no flame.
P a g e 76

i. Combustion Air
Atmospheric Draft
Natural Draft Burners = Pipe Burners = Atmospheric Burners
= No Air Blower
Air Shutter
Forced Draft →
Forced Draft
Blower and burner: combined unit
Blower and burner: separate units
Fan Motor
VFD
P a g e 77

Air in
M
Modulation Motors directly link
incoming air flow with incoming fuel supply. (Mod Motor)
Mod motor for incoming air
Mod Motor limit switches
Linkage controls
internal air opening
P a g e 78

ii. Spark
Ignition Transformer
Spark Ignition Transformer
Primary 120V in
Secondary 6000V out
Spark temperature approaches 60,000˚F
Spark Plug
and pilot line
P a g e 79

Convection
iii. Flame
Diffusion Flame
All combustion air comes
from outside of the flame.
With too little air inside the
flame envelope, the gas
mixture will not burn
completely. The unburned
carbon particles become
heated to glowing, making
the flame luminous.
Hottest part
(non-luminous)
CO2
1400˚C
H2O
If the outer zone is disrupted, complete
combustion is also disrupted and soot
deposits form (unburned carbon)
Outer Zone: Complete combustion of soot
particles and any remaining wax vapor
Unburned carbon particles (soot)
glow from the heat energy.
1200˚C
O 2
1000˚C
800˚C
Partial Combustion: Fuel Rich = not enough
oxygen, soot particles form
Outer Zone: Complete
combustion of wax vapor
O2
600˚C
Conduction
O2
Dark Zone: Pyrolysis of
wax to combustible vapor
= Straight-chain Wax
= 14,200 btu/ft 3
Diffusion flame
in microgravity
(Space Station)
No updraft of
air flow
P a g e 80

Premix Flame
Diffusion Flame:
no Oxidizer
Acetylene = C 2H 2 =
Combustion air is mixed with
fuel before the flame.
Roaring Flame=Reducing Flame:
Air hole open, venturi effect
sucks in air.
Hottest point
for cutting
Roaring Premix Flame
Diffusion Flame=
Oxidizing Flame:
Air hole closed
Unburned carbon
particles (soot)
incandesces
(glows) from the
heat energy.
Indication of
incomplete
combustion.
1540˚C
Convection
CO2 H2O
Outer Cone = Flame Envelope
Combustion Completion
Hottest part of flame
1560˚C
1450˚C
O2
Inner Cone: Air
and unburned fuel
350˚C
Inner Cone border:
Initial fuel burn
O2
O2
O2
P a g e 81

A stoichiometric Air to Fuel Ratio (AFR) has the correct amount of air
and fuel to produce a chemically complete combustion event.
iv. Air/Fuel Ratio (AFR)
Mod motor for incoming
combustion air
UEL = Upper Explosive Limit
LEL = Lower Explosive Limit
Soot buildup
Increased CO
Decreased CO2
Stack Temperature drop
RICH flame
LEAN flame
Increased O2
Decreased CO2
Stack Temperature drop
Turbulent Flame
Laminar Flame
To increase heat output, fuel velocity is
increased. If sufficient combustion air is not
provided, the flame will extinguish itself.
The increase of both fuel and air velocity
creates a turbulent flame.
Composition
of Air
P a g e 82

Swirler and Nozzle
The diffuser, or swirl vanes, slows incoming air,
increasing pressure, increasing available O 2
molecules available for combustion (basically,
the swirl action “forces” more air into the
combustion zone = Turbulent Flame).
The nozzle increases velocity of fuel,
reducing fuel pressure. Spreading
fuel molecules farther apart
improves air/fuel combustion ratio.
Smaller oil burner
nozzles usually include
a filter
Fuel oil compressor:
increases fuel pressure
Proper combination of swirler diffusion and nozzle
spray should maximize combustion efficiency
P a g e 83

3. Burners
i. Natural Gas
Staged Burners
Staged Air Burner
Radiant Tube burner
Staged Fuel Burner
P a g e 84

Burners
Premix Burner
Premix Mesh Burners
Metal Fiber
premix burner
Perforated Plate
burner
Ceramic Mesh
Premix
Condensing, closed loop
boilers with premix burners
P a g e 85

Turbine Jet Burner
Natural Gas Turbine Jet “PreMix” Burner
Incoming
Filtered Air
Rooftop
lubricating oil
cooler
Exhaust to Stack or
Waste Heat
Water Tube Boiler
P a g e 86

ii. Oil
Oil Burners
Light Oil
Steam or Compressed Air
Atomizing Air compressor
For heavier oils, steam is preferred as it
also preheats the oil reducing its
viscosity and is also easily available at
high pressure.
However, compressed air gives better
fuel/air mixing
Mixing of fuel and steam/air can take
place inside the burner or completely
outside (premix or nozzle mix)
Steam
injection
line for
oil burner
Propane is used for pilot light
during oil burning
Propane PRV
P a g e 87

Heavy Oil: Mechanical Atomizing
Rotary Cup Burner: No. 6 Oil
Air Supply Fan
Rotating Cup Motor
P a g e 88

Dual iii. Duel Fuel: NG & and Oil Light Oil
Interruptible Rate = lower natural gas cost, but must
use alternate fuel source at request of supplier. Stiff
penalties if unable to comply when asked.
Firm Rate = normal charge for natural gas
Interchangeable Fuel Oil
Lance and insertion port
Lance Insertion
verification switch
(fuel oil cannot flow
unless switch is
activated)
Air and Oil connections
Some boilers have the ability of switching fuels when
needed. Hospitals are required to have an
emergency fuel source. Separate burner guns for oil
and natural gas are switched out as needed.
More convenient dual fuel burner assemblies
simplify the process: simply turn a button.
P a g e 89

iv. Solid Fuel Burners
Solid Fuel Burners
Forced Draft Saw Dust Burner
HRT Biomass Burners
(Horizontal Return Tubular)
P a g e 90

Grate
Bed
Bed
Step Grate
Chain Grate
Reciprocating Step Grate:
grates slowly move back and forth
pushing fuel down, step-wise.
Revolving Chain Grate
P a g e 91

Fluidized Bed
Fluidized Bed
Bubbling
Because of continual movement of the bed, there is a significant improvement of air contact with fuel. As
compared to other types of burners, fluidized beds can achieve complete combustion of solid fuels at a lower
overall temperature.
Lower temperature burning = lower NOx emissions.
BFB = Bubbling Fluidized Bed
A 20” layer of sand is
sprayed over the bed
Air is bubbled up
through the sand
Sand is preheated
to 750°F
Solid fuel instantly ignites
as it falls out of the chutes
Start-up burners are
turned off
Furnace raises to 1500°F as overfire
air completes combustion
P a g e 92

Circulating
CFB = Circulating Fluidized Bed
With a greater air flow, high temperature
sand travels with exhaust gasses. This
allows more time for heat transfer. Sand
returns to bed via separator.
With a more uniform temperature
throughout the entire furnace and higher air
flow to lift and suspend burning solids, CFBs
enable use of more diverse, larger mass
particles, and higher moisture content fuel
sources.
Since a more gradual heat transfer takes
place over a larger distance, excessive
flame temperature can be avoided, and
NO x emissions are significantly reduced.
P a g e 93

v. Soot Blowers
High Pressure Steam
The boiler’s own high pressure steam is
used in the soot blower removing soot
from water walls (water tube boilers).
Water wall with
cavity for soot
blower
Non retractable rotating
Retractable rotating
Fire Tube soot
blower
P a g e 94

Sonic Blast Soot Blower
Uses compressed air making
sound wave blast.
Retrofit replacing conventional soot blower
Sonic soot blowers can be retrofitted to any
location where soot may build up.
ESP
P a g e 95

C) Plant Equipment Operations
1) Steam Traps
Thermodynamic
Steam velocity (flash steam)
operates valve.
Traps that have fewer moving
parts generally last longer
Mechanical
Density difference between
condensate and steam operates valve.
Uses float type of apparatus. Because
unit uses water filled chamber, it is
more difficult to thaw out if it freezes.
Thermostatic
Condensate temperature
change operates valve
P a g e 96

i. Thermodynamic
Thermodisc
When condensate is present, disc is pushed up,
when only steam is present, disc is pushed down
Universal Mount Steam Traps
have only one opening for both
inlet steam and outlet
condensate.
Impulse
During high load, piston is
propelled up enabling
additional condensate to
escape through opening “E”.
P a g e 97

ii. Mechanical
Mechanical
Fixed Orifice
Advantage: No moving parts to
possibly fail.
Disadvantage: Only works
within a set parameter range,
depending on size of orifice.
Not designed for modulating
steam demand.
With attached “Y”
strainer
P a g e 98

Mechanical continued
Inverted Bucket
Water in trap is
always above top of
bucket
Valve closes as steam
fills rising bucket
Vent for non-condensable
gases
Steam shrinks as it condenses and bucket
sinks as it then fills with condensate, thus
opening the valve.
Plug bolt for
trap cleaning
With built
in Y strainer
Hermetically sealed
(you can’t open it)
Built-in isolation valves
P a g e 99

Inverted Bucket vertical flow
High Pressure
Applications
Hermetically sealed
(you can’t open it)
Universal Mount Steam Traps have only one
opening for both inlet steam and outlet condensate.
Connect
P a g e 100

Mechanical continued
Float & Thermostatic (F&T)
Attached Float
Thermostatic vent valve closes when hot
and opens when cold, expelling air (nonsteam
= non-condensables) on startup
and preventing a vacuum on shut down.
External vent valve
Universal Mount Steam Traps have only one
opening for both inlet steam and outlet condensate.
Connect
Universal Mount
Free Float Trap
Free Float (ball not attached)
Thermostatic vent valve opens when cold.
P a g e 101

iii. Thermostatic
Thermostatic
Bi-Metallic
Cold:
Contracted
Hot:
Expanded
Hermetically sealed bimetallic
(you can’t open it)
Universal Mount
Steam Traps have only
one opening for both
inlet steam and outlet
condensate.
Balanced Pressure
At higher temperatures (when steam is
present), alcohol in disc flashes to vapor,
pushing ball down and closing the valve.
Universal Mount
Balanced Pressure Trap
P a g e 102

Thermostatic continued
Spring Expansion
Alcohol Filled Bellows
Metallic Spring:
a.k.a. Radiator trap
Liquid expansion metallic bellows: Hollow
spring is filled with alcohol which flashes to
vapor at a specific temperature, expands the
spring and closes the trap.
Straight Flow →
Hermetically sealed
(you can’t open it)
P a g e 103

iv. Universal Mount Steam Traps
Universal Mounts enable easy removal
for steam trap cleaning or replacement
Universal Mount with isolation valves built in
P a g e 104

v. Automatic Pump Trap (APT) = Condensate Pump
Non-electric Pump Traps have 4 openings.
1) Incoming live steam (when float rises, motive steam enters and pushes out condensate),
2) steam vent out (steam exhaust),
3) incoming condensate with check valve, and
4) outgoing condensate with check valve.
P a g e 105

vi. PRV
Ice forming after PRV on ammonia line
P↓ × V c = T↓ (Ideal Gas Law)
Manual-Bolt
adjust
Auto-Thermostatic
adjust
Hollow Capillary
Tubes
Auto-Pressurestatic adjust
Steam Pressure/Temperature Reducers
operate on the exact same principles as
Chiller/AC TXVs
Compressed air
PRV
Internally Equalized
Externally Equalized
P a g e 106

PRV Let Down Station
P a g e 107

Steam Trap Trouble Shooting
vii. Steam Trap Troubleshooting
Mechanic’s Stethoscope
Each type of steam trap has its own fingerprint
signature sound when functioning properly.
Electronic
stethoscope
Screwdriver to Ear method!
Flow
Infrared
Pyrometer
A significant drop in temperature
indicates that a steam trap is
functioning properly.
Flow
For every 8 inches away, the meter reads a circle
of 1 inch diameter. The laser dot only acts as a
pointer and has nothing to do with IR light.
Thermal Imager (preferred)
P a g e 108

Desuperheater
2) Keeping steam temperature constant and below 1000°F is important for minimizing thermal stresses on the superheater tubes and turbine.
Pretreated and
preheated boiler
feed water is
generally used as
desuperheater feed
water
Technically, a Desuperheater and Attemperator
are one in the same, that is, a unit that reduces the
temperature of super-heated steam. However, in
the power plant arena, attemperators generally
refer to the unit between stages in a superheater.
Venturi
Desuperheater
Variable Orifice Desuperheater
Atomizing Desuperheater
(steam and water sprayer)
Spring loaded
plunger (plug)
Steam
Flow
Spring loaded plunger
lifts up when high
pressure steam is
present, opening up the
cooling water inlet.
P a g e 109

3) Heat Exchangers
i. Shell and Tube
Shell and Tube
U-Tube
= Two pass
Fixed Tube Sheet Heat Exchanger
Stationary Tube Sheets
Easy to clean (punch) tubes.
May incur expansion stress
during high and low loads.
U-shaped bundle is only attached on one side:
expands easily with temperature change.
Difficult to clean tubes.
Interior head is only attached to end tube
sheet, not to the shell, this permits free
expansion and contraction of tubes with little
stress. The straight tubes are easy to clean.
Domestic use hot water heaters
P a g e 110

High Capacity Instantaneous
Steam Fired Water Heater
Condesated Return
Visual port, flow sensor
P a g e 111

v. Steam Driven Hot Water Heaters
Steam driven domestic use hot water heaters
Temperature /
incoming steam
controller
Interior circulation
pump helps
maintain uniform
temperature
Hot water
expansion tank
Safety Popoff
Cold city water in
Condensate out
Vacuum
breaker
Emergency High
Temperature NC
solenoid cut out valve
P a g e 112

Motorized solenoid
incoming steam controller
Outgoing condensate
to F&T Trap
Safety Popoffs
Thermocouples
Expansion Tank
Check Valve
Circulation pumps
Air Separator
P a g e 113

Spiral Heat Exchangers
Spiral Heat Exchangers
Typically used for heating or cooling viscous liquids
Door gasket
Welded Stud
Spacers
Sample Coolers
P a g e 114

ii. Plate and Frame
Plate and Frame
A unit this size, if dismantled for
cleaning, would fill a football field!
BPHE: Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger
Higher efficiency means
equivalent heat transfer can be
achieved with much smaller units
However, they cannot be
dismantled
Cross section:
No gaskets!
P a g e 115

iii. HVAC Mixing Boxes Boxes (air handlers)
v. Mixing Boxes (HVAC) Mixing boxes
Steam driven air heaters
Safety PopOff
PRVs controlling steam
supply for Air Handler
Incoming steam via controlling solenoid
Outgoing condensate to inverted bucket trap
P a g e 116

iv. Steam Radiators
Adjustable
Thermostatic
One Pipe Steam Radiators
One pipe systems
require radiator
vent valves.
Internal spring
expands and closes
when hot.
Two Pipe Steam Radiators
Releases non-steam air
on start up and allows
air back in on shut
down preventing
damage from vacuum
(acts as a vacuum
breaker).
(Radiator vent valve not required)
P a g e 117

v. Jacketed Kettles
Steam creates uniform heat
throughout the vessel.
Breweries have high steam demand
P a g e 118

vi. Autoclaves
High temperature and pressure
steam sterilizer
Medical Waste
Ceramics
Vulcanizing
P a g e 119

vii. Heat Exchanger Stall
Heat Exchanger Stall
Heat Exchanger Stall
Heat exchanger stall: When no steam demand, reducer stops incoming steam, steam in exchanger cools and
shrinks making a vacuum. This vacuum “sucks” condensate back into the exchanger, filling it with water. When
steam demand is needed again, the reducer is opened again, hot steam hitting cold water: WATER HAMMER.
Symptoms:
Steam trap is cold.
Heat Exchanger becomes waterlogged (pooling of condensate).
Temperature is uneven in heat exchanger.
Water hammer (vacuum-implosion induced shock waves)
occurs as hot steam hits cold condensate, damaging tubes.
Water Hammer on heat
exchanger pipes.
Back pressure
prevents condensate
from escaping.
Cure: Check unit’s vacuum breaker,
consider using Automatic Pump Traps (APT)
P a g e 120

4) Pumps
i. Reciprocating
Reciprocating Pumps
Triplex Plunger Pump
3 plungers make a more smooth flow
6 check valves
P a g e 121

ii. Rotary
Rotary Pumps
Gear
Internal Gear
External Gear
Peristaltic
Vane
Screw
Progressive
Cavity
Single Screw
Back
Front
Double Screw
Loab
P a g e 122

iii. Centrifugal
Series vs Parallel
Centrifugal Pumps
Impellers
P a g e 123

Multistage iv. Stage Pumps
4 Stage
2 Stage
Also called a “can pump”
(like a tin can)
Vertical Multistage Pump
P a g e 124

v. Motor Vibration Monitoring
All rotating machines, pumps included,
vibrate to some extent due to various
reasons, the most common of which are
typically the following:
Improper installation at site
Improper balancing of pump rotor
Excessively turbulent fluid flow
Pressure fluctuations
Cavitation or internal recirculation in
pumps
Normal pump wear after prolonged
operation.
Remote vibration monitoring
Inline vibration monitoring
P a g e 125

vi. Expansion Control
vii. Cavitation
Feed Water Pumps
are located below water source
to avoid cavitation
P a g e 126

5) Valves
i. Types
Ball
Gate
Butterfly
Globe
Pressure Regulators
are usually globe
valves
Diaphragm
Stem pushes down on
rubber gasket
Spring Check
Swing
Check
Lift
Check
P a g e 127

ii. Backflow Prevention
Symbol
Backflow is the undesirable reversal of flow of a
liquid, gas or solid into the potable water supply.
Q.: How often does the backflow prevention assembly
need to be tested?
A.: On installation and at least once a year thereafter by
a licensed backflow tester.
P a g e 128

iii. Actuators
Actuators remotely open and close valves
Manual override
Motorized actuators close slowly,
avoiding water hammer
Instrument Air Compressor
and Dryer
P a g e 129

Linear: pushes a shaft in or out
Rotary:
turns a shaft ¼ rotation to opened or closed
pneumatic
electric
Some rotary actuators use
external limit control boxes
This actuator is
controlled by a PRV
P a g e 130

A Solenoid: Electricity creates a temporary magnet pushing the permanent magnet up
(NC =normally closed) or down (NO=normally open).
NC are typically used for natural gas and fuel oil lines for boilers
as that if there is a power outage, the fuel is instantly shut off.
Direct: moving piston plugs outlet
Indirect: moving piston opens orifice allowing
pressure change which moves spring plunger
Typically used in sprinkler
irrigation systems
P a g e 131

iv. Water Hammer: Valve Induced
P a g e 132

Cavitation:
Sudden implosion of low pressure steam bubbles back to
water causes miniature shock waves, damaging metal
surface.
Propeller Cavitation
Flashing: when
water drops in
pressure by passing
through a
restrictive orifice, it
boils. Damage
from flashing is
smooth.
Valve Cavitation:
sounds like gravel
moving through pipe
Cavitation is when
the bubbles violently
implode back to
liquid. Damage from
cavitation is rough
P a g e 133

6) Condensate Holding Tanks
i. Surge Tank / Condensate Return Tank
Surge Tanks handle volume swings
in condensate return. The water is
then sent forward to the DA Tank.
Condensate Return/Receiving Tank sends water from
steam system forward towards the deaerator
Level controllers and alarms
Incoming
Condensate
Overflow
Condensate
Pumps
P a g e 134

ii. Condensate Vacuum Pump
During mild weather when the boiler is on only
part-time, the vacuum pump’s main job is to
mechanically remove air from the system so we
don’t have to use steam pressure to push air out.
Condensate psi
(vacuum) controllers
During cold weather when the boiler is
always on, air removal is not much of a
concern so the vacuum pump’s job now is
pressure reduction; allowing the system to
operate with the lowest possible steam
pressure.
Emergency Vacuum
Breaker
Candensate level pump switches
P a g e 135

7) Electricity
i. Flow
Parallel:
Amps increase, volts stay the same
Series:
Volts increase, amps stay the same
Volts measure how hard the electricity is pushing (Electrical Force)
Amps measure current, or how much electricity is flowing [Ah = Amp-hours]
Watts measure how much electricity is going through the circuit (Power)
Ohms (Ω) measures Resistance
Note correlation
Pressure: psi → Volts
Flow: gpm → Amps
Hydraulic HP → Watts
P a g e 136

Variable Frequency Drive
ii. VFD: Affinity Law
The Affinity Law
Law 1a) Air flow is directly proportional to fan speed.
Example: When fan speed doubles, air flow doubles.
1a) Fan Speed ↑ = Air Flow ↑
Law 1b) Torque increase is proportional to the square of the fan speed increase.
Example: When fan speed doubles, torque increases four times
When fan speed triples, torque increases nine times 1b) (Fan Speed ↑ ) 2 = Torque ↑
Law 1c) Power required is proportional to the cube of fan speed increase.
Example: When fan speed doubles, power required is six times
1c) (Fan Speed ↑ )
When fan speed triples, power required is 27 times
3 = Power ↑
Significant Energy Savings
Use only the fan speed your system is calling for.
A 100 HP fan running at half speed uses the
same energy as a 13 HP motor!
(½) 3 x 100HP = (1/8) x 100HP = 13HP
Equipment Savings
Single-speed motors start abruptly:
High starting torque
High starting current surges (up to 8 times)
Variable speed drives gradually ramp up the motor.
P a g e 137

Energy: measuring the flow change
252 calories = 1 Btu
1 ft 3 of natural gas ≈ 1020 Btu
1 kilowatt·hr (kwh) of electricity = 3413 Btu
1 pound of Coal ≈ 9,200 Btu
1 pound of gasoline ≈ 14,300 Btu
1 pound of diesel or fuel oil ≈ 16,000 Btu
1 Therm = 100,000 Btu
1 Dekatherm (DTH) = 1,000,000 Btu
0.293 Watts = 1 Btu/hr
1 Bhp (Boiler horsepower) = 33,472 Btu/hr
1 Bhp = 34.5 lbs of steam per hr (@0psig)
The Tom Thumb is especially remembered as a
participant in an impromptu race with a horse-drawn car,
which the horse won after Tom Thumb suffered a
mechanical failure. However, the demonstration was
successful, and the railroad committed to the use of
steam locomotion. The boiler was pulling 40% more
weight than the horse, therefore Tom Thumb was
officially labelled a 1.4 horse power boiler. And BHP
designation was born.
Tom Thumb = 1.4 BHP
P a g e 138

D) Piping Systems
1) Pipes
i. Manufacture Style
Seamless
Welded Seam
Seamless (No Weld)
Solid steel bar forced over cone
shape ended cylinder
Welded Seam
Electrical Resistance Welding (ERW): Strong
electromagnetic current is “resisted” by the
steel and heat is created.
Inside excess weld trimmer
P a g e 139

Ends
The PE (Plane End) pipes will generally be used for
smaller diameters pipe systems and in combination with
Slip On flanges and Socket Weld fittings and flanges.
Beveled End (BE) for butt welding
Threaded End (TE)
P a g e 140

ii. Composition
Carbon Steel
Black Galvanized Steel Pipe
Stainless Steel
When bare steel is exposed to air, it quickly
forms an oxide layer (Fe 2O 3). This passivating
layer will not corrode further unless disrupted.
Galvanized Pipe
Metallic Zinc coated surface. Zinc (Zn) acts as a sacrificial anode and corrodes
first, leaving the structurally strong steel undamaged (…until all the zinc is gone).
Primary White Rust (ZnO)
Secondary Iron Rust
Stainless Steel Pipe
Very durable Dichromium Trioxide surface; 1 to 10 molecules thick.
Chromium
P a g e 141

iii. Sizing
Flow increases exponentially with
diameter
NPS = Nominal Pipe Size: OD measured in
Inches
Area = πr 2 = π(½D) 2
DN = Diametre Nominel: OD measured in
Millimeters (Metric)
SCH or Schedule
= a Strength Reference Number
Is related to thickness
SCH 40: typically
SCH 80: typically
for steam < 165psi
for steam > 165psi
SCH 10 SCH 120
P a g e 142

iv. Poiseuille’s Law
Poiseuille’s Law
Basically:
1) If you double the radius of the pipe,
you can increase the flow by 16 times
(r 4 = 2 4 = 16)
2) If flow remains constant and pipe is
extended, then, in order to maintain a
constant output pressure (P1), input
pressure (P2) must increase.
Note: Water is almost 8 times more viscous
thinner at freezing (32˚F) than at the boiling
point (212˚F).
P a g e 143

2) Water Hammer: Steam Driven
i. Water Slug
ii. Vacuum Induced
Water slug arrestor
Condensate/Vacuum Induced Water Hammer
P a g e 144

Inline Steam Separators
iii. Inline Steam Separators
Removing water from
steam is critical to
reduce damage from
water hammer, TDS
erosion, oxygen
corrosion and
condensate inline sludge
and scale buildup.
Drip Legs
P a g e 145

4) Steam Header
Steam Header = manifold where
branch lines can be attached
Muffler for relief of excess PSI,
such as during PopOff tests
(acts like the muffler on a car)
Steam trap on drip
leg at bottom
P a g e 146

E) Water Quality
1) Water Chemistry
i. pH
Water cooled
sample port
pH
Bypass chemical “slug”
feeder for startup,
layup or other
specialized cases
Litmus paper
Chemical indicators
change color at
different pH ranges
A universal pH indicator contains several compounds that
exhibits smooth color changes over a broad pH range.
P a g e 147

Hydrochloric Acid
(HCl)
H + OH -
10 0 = 1 = 100%
10 -14 = .00000000000001
Stomach Acid
(weak HCl)
10 -1 = .1 = 10%
10 -13 = .0000000000001
Vinegar
Lemon Juice
Soda Pop
Orange Juice
10 -2 = .01 = 1%
10 -3 = .001 = .1%
10 -12 = .000000000001
10 -11 = .00000000001
The concept of pH was
first introduced in 1909
by Danish chemist
Søren Sørensen
Tomato Juice
Acid Rain
10 -4 = .0001 = .01%
10 -10 = .0000000001
Eye Drops
Normal Rain
10 -5 = .00001
10 -9 = .000000001
Saliva
Urine
10 -6 = .000001
10 -8 = .00000001
Pure Water
10 -7 = .0000001 =
10 -7 = .0000001
Sea Water
Swimming Pools
10 -8 = .00000001
10 -6 = .000001
Baking Soda
10 -9 = .000000001
10 -5 = .00001
Great Salt Lake
10 -10 = .0000000001
10 -4 = .0001
Ammonia (NH4OH)
Soaps
10 -11 = .00000000001
10 -12 = .000000000001
10 -3 = .001
10 -2 = .01
At pH > 7, OH -
(hydroxide) becomes
the active ion.
Bleach
Oven Cleaner
10 -13 = .0000000000001
10 -1 = .1
OH -
Drain Cleaner
Caustic (NaOH)
10 -14 = .00000000000001
H +
10 0 = 1
HCl (acid) + NaOH (base) → H 2O (pH 7) + NaCl
(salt water)
P a g e 148

pH Probe
Acids have more positive ions and conduct electricity
better. A pH probe measures the voltage (potential
difference) of a solution.
The glass bulb should be kept
moist, even when not in use,
non-hydrated bulbs give
erratic readings.
(Do not use RO, DI or Distilled water
for storage)
Liquid filled cap
pH probes must be periodically calibrated with at least
two reference buffer solutions (the reference buffers
you use depends on if your sample is acidic or basic).
P a g e 149

Conductivity
ii. Conductivity
TDS
Water sample coolers
SALT
↓
Distilled water:
No electrical flow
Water with ionic
contaminants:
Electrical flow
Periodic calibration is important
to ensure your meter is accurate.
mho = non-metric
(archaic, but still used)
Electrical Resistance = ohm (Ω)
Electrical Conductivity = mho
1 mho = 1 Siemen (S)
0.000001 Siemen = 1 µS = 1 µmho
Opposites
(spelling too!)
S = metric unit
µ = micro
P a g e 150

Conductivity vs. TDS
Total dissolved solids (TDS) is, technically,
anything dissolved in water (including
organics that do not conduct electricity).
If the general chemistry of the liquid being
measured is known, then a conversion factor can
be applied and is usually done internally by the
meter itself. Still, this new measurement is only an
approximation.
TDS is measured in parts per million (ppm) or mg/l (milligrams per liter).
To achieve true TDS readings:
True TDS measurement is very slow. For faster
numbers, we rely on general conductivity
conversion rules (but lose accuracy).
Accurately weigh a filtered sample
along with its container at room
temperature. Evaporate liquid to
dryness at 104˚C. Let cool to room
temperature then reweigh.
TDS = (preweight – postweight)/volume
P a g e 151

Estimated conversion table for boiler
water by Spirax Sarco
Conductivity vs. Temperature
Conductivity increases with
temperature, meters are
internally auto-adjusting.
1) The Hydroxide ion in boiler water is
highly conductive compared to other ions.
2) Since the conversion calculation from Conductivity to TDS is
only an estimate (depending on what is actually in the water), high
pH may skew the conversion factor.
3) Therefore, it is common practice to neutralize any alkalinity
with an organic acid (such as non-conductive acetic acid) prior to
measuring conductivity.
4) This produces a more stable conductivity
measurement, thus a more reliable TDS estimate.
P a g e 152

2) Make Up Water Up Water
The term “make up water” refers to raw water
without any treatment chemicals added, such
as from a well or from the city.
Chlorine in city water, when unchecked, can damage RO system membranes. On the other
hand, because of general treatment practices by municipal water sources, clarification,
filtration, chlorination help remove contaminants such as iron, silica, bacteria, etc. Part or
all of this process needs to be performed at your plant if your water is untreated.
P a g e 153

i. Water Softener
From the Bronze Age into the Renaissance the
average masses of wheat and barley grains were
part of the legal definitions of units of mass.
Grain per gallon (gpg) is a unit of water hardness defined as 1
grain of calcium carbonate dissolved in 1 US gallon of water. It
translates into 1 part in about 58,000 parts of water or
1 grain = 17.1 ppm (parts per million)
P a g e 154

Water Softener
Sodium (Na+) changes places with hardness: Calcium (Ca+ 2 ) and Magnesium (Mg+ 2 )
Three Tanks: when one is
regenerating, the other is in
service, the third is held in
reserve. All used as “Lag Lead”
Air blown
supply salt
bin
Zeolite = Plastic Beads
Some of the softener salt will eventually
make it into the boiler, however, the
softener salt (NaCl) stays dissolved in the
water and does not fall out as scale.
Cation resin beads
attract positive ions:
Na+, Ca+ 2 , Mg+ 2
P a g e 155

Yo Yo type level meter: periodical lowering
of weight until tension stops. Level is
digitally conveyed to controller. Weight is
then brought back up.
Air flow line enables air to
be relieved during filling,
with bag capturing any salt
dust.
Salt Transfer line
with solenoid
P a g e 156

KCl vs. NaCl
The potassium (K) atom is larger than the sodium (Na) atom, that is, the center of the
atom is farther away from the place where the reaction takes place (the outer electrons).
To remove hardness from the resin beads, it requires 27% more potassium chloride than
sodium chloride. While some argue that potassium is friendlier to the environment, it can
easily be said that more waste is generated. Potassium chloride is also more expensive.
NaCl
KCl
Salt Bridge
Bridges may form and prevent
salt from dissolving in water.
P a g e 157

ii. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Free Chlorine Removal
RO
Free chlorine is very destructive on RO membrane. Free chlorine is defined as the
concentration of residual chlorine in water present as dissolved gas (Cl 2),
hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and/or hypochlorite ion (OCl−). City water uses free
chlorine to kill bacteria in drinking water. If free chlorine is present in makeup
water, it is common practice to neutralize it with a sodium sulfite solution or filter
out the chlorine with carbon, or a combination of the two.
Carbon is processed using high temperature
steam and/or acids which ultimately increase
carbon pore size, increasing surface area.
Activated charcoal carbon filters are
most effective at removing chlorine,
sediment, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), taste and odor
from water. They are not effective
at removing minerals, salts, and
dissolved inorganic compounds.
Due to its high degree of micro porosity,
just one gram of activated carbon has a
surface area in excess of 32,000 ft 2 .
Free Chlorine can also be stabilized with Sulfite solutions
Sodium metabisulfite (Na 2S 2O 5) when dissolved in
water reduces free chlorine.
→ H 2SO 4 + 2HCl + Na 2SO 4
(Sulfites are also used as oxygen scavengers)
P a g e 158

iii. Filtration
Suspended Solids
Filtration
psid (pounds per square inch differential)
shows when filters need servicing
A progressive filtration system down to 5 Microns
P a g e 159

RO
Membrane Filtration
Two RO systems here
are used as “Lead/Lag”
[Grab your reader’s attention with a great
quote from the document or use this space
to emphasize a key point. To place this text
box anywhere on the page, just drag it.]
RO systems creat very clean water,
however a great deal of waste
water is also produced. This boiler
system uses the waste to cool off
blowdown thus saving city water.
No salt or other chemicals are needed, however,
the costs of replacement membranes, the
electricity needed to pump the water through the
membranes, and the excess higher concentration
waste water all need to be calculated in when
considering this form of water treatment.
P a g e 160

Slime Buildup on RO Membrane
Fouling
With chlorine removed, membranes are a
great place for bacteria slime to grow
which can plug up the system.
Non-Oxidizing Biological Control Chemicals do not damage RO membranes. They
are typically much more expensive than the oxidizing type.
Scale Buildup on RO Membrane
Organic phosphates disrupt crystal
formation and extend the time
between membrane changeout.
(same chemical and process used in
cooling towers to prevent scale)
Normalized Permeate Flow (NPF) = the amount of permeate water that the RO is producing
P a g e 161

P a g e 162

3) Feed Water: DA Tank
DeAerator
i. Temperature Control
Temperature stress is reduced by using steam to bring feed
water nearer to the temperature of the boiler water.
Steam and water mix
Sprayer plate
Receiving Tray
Anti-vortex
baffles
Sparge Tube:
Perforated feed line
Sparging
P a g e 163

ii.
Deaerator
Dissolved Air Removal (continued)
The deaerator also removes dissolved O 2 (Oxygen Scavenger)
The more oxygen you can
economically remove, the
less chemical you need.
32º F 68º F 104º F 140º F 176º F
ppm O2 (dissolved Oxygen) 69 43 31 14

Page 3
Overflow Valve
controller, High
Water Alarm,
Makeup Water
Controller, Low
water alarm
High pressure PRV to low
pressure steam for DA Tank
Steam Injection
Water Injection
Sulfite
injection quill
P a g e 165

DA Tank PopOff
Page 4
Overflow Valve
Supply Steam
Emergency PopOff
Vacuum breaker
and bypass
Incoming remote
control
Feedwater
Pumps
Outgoing
remote control
Expansion Joint
Y strainers
P a g e 166

4) Boiler Water
i. Caustic Embrittlement
CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT:
When iron crystals are stretched, Fe↔Fe bonds
are weakened.
And if pH > 12.7, then OH - ↔Fe bonds more readily
and a crack forms until the stress is relieved.
Stretched
steel
Water Tube:
Caustic
Embrittlement
Rolling tubes also stretches
the steel and can be a
possible location for caustic
embrittlement to take place
Rivets stretch the steel and are no
longer permitted on boilers.
Welds are now used.
SPEC: Boiler pH should be < 12.7
Boiler room, Titanic
P a g e 167

For Residual Hardness that the softener (or demin plant) did not get:
ii. Scale Control: Residual Hardness
Molybdate(MoO 4
-3
) removes residual hardness and forms a soft sludge (easy to blowdown).
10Ca +2 + 6MoO 4
-3
+ 2OH - → 3Ca 3(MoO 4) 2·Ca(OH) 2
blowndown as soft sludge
OH Alkalinity is necessary in order for the above reaction to take place.
Phosphates (PO 4)
Plus
Alkalinity (OH)
Polymers are added which attach to the
phosphate complex, making a chain which
becomes heavy and falls to the bottom
and then is blown down as sludge
Molybdates (Moly) and
phosphates are generally
determined with a colorimeter
Scale Control chemicals are typically
injected into feed water line
P a g e 168

iii. Residual Oxygen Pitting Control: Oxygen Scavengers
Sulfite “fights” the
Oxygen.
Sulfite is added to the deaerator to
absorb residual oxygen before it
can get to the boiler.
2SO3 + O2 → 2SO4
Sulfate is then blown
down as waste.
DA tank chemical
injection quill
(interior)
% Replacement Equivalent Chart
Sodium Sulfite: Na₂SO₃
Sodium Metabisulfite: Na 2S 2O 5
Sulfur Trioxide: SO₃
Sulfur Dioxide: SO₂
Sulfites add conductivity to boiler water. Higher psi boilers (>300psi) have tighter conductivity specifications
and favor scavengers that do not add to this conductivity thus helping to reduce the need for blowdowns.
High psi Boilers (>300psi)
Hydrazine
Works great, but is considered a carcinogen and is being
phased out.
N 2H 4 +O 2 → N 2 + H 2O
Diethyl hydroxylamine (DEHA)
C 4H 11NO +O 2 → C 4H 9NO + H 2O 2
Volatile, that is, it evaporates with the boiler water and
travels with the steam. Not only does this help with any
possibility of oxygen pitting in condensate lines, DEHA also
has been shown to help passivate metal in those lines.
P a g e 169

iv. TDS Control: Surface blowdown
iv. Surface blowdown
b
Surface Blowdown :
High TDS can increase surface tension
of water creating bubbles with “super
skins”, increasing chances of priming
(boiler water escaping as droplets and
traveling with steam), carryover (solids
resulting from priming) and bouncing
(fast irregular fluctuations in boiler
water level).
Best TDS control, bubbles are popping on the
surface leaving their solids behind (highest TDS
concentration in boiler).
Surface (Continuous)
Blowdown Valve (Skimmer):
Motorized Actuator
TDS probe
General Recommendation for max TDS:
Two pass economic
4500 ppm
Packaged and 3-Pass 3000 - 3500
Low pressure water tube 2000 – 3000
Steam generators (Coil type boilers) 2000
Medium pressure water tube 1500
High Pressure water tube 1000
Consult your manufacturer for
exact specifications.
P a g e 170

v. Sludge and Settlement Control: Bottom Blowdown
Bottom Blowdown:
Removes sludge and sediment.
Should be done daily, 3 second bursts.
If MAWP (Maximum Allowable
Working Pressure) >100 then 2
blowdown valves are needed
To protect boiler from
sudden, excessive
changes in pressure,
maximum blowdown
pipe size = 2½ in.
Reversed order
Two slow
opening valves
Fast valve should
be closest to boiler
Slow valve should be
secondary to boiler
Visual flow viewport
Most boilers are equipped with a series of two
blowdown valves. Always open the one closest to the
boiler first and close it last. Any cavitation damage
that may occur will happen on the valve that is easier
to replace. To replace the inner valve, the entire
system has to be shut down!
P a g e 171

Steam vented to atmosphere
Blowdown Tank (blowdown separator)
To prevent damage to sewer lines
blowdown is cooled with city water in the
blowdown tank before entering sewer.
When a sump is used as
blowdown holding tank,
the water becomes
sufficiently cooled without
adding additional water.
P a g e 172

vi. Water Column Blowdown
Normal conditions inside
the water column
Inside the water column
170 psi = 374°F
Inside the ball float is the
same @ 374°F
Water flashing into steam brings the temperature
inside the water column toward 212°F
↓P • V c = ↓T
Visual port flow indicator
The float temperature drops toward
212°F, the air inside the ball also
drops, reducing interior ball pressure
↓P • V c = ↓T
Water column
blowdown reciever
Pressure inside the water
column returns to 170 psig
Alarm bypass
Without sufficient time to reheat,
the air in the ball is still at a lower
pressure, it collapses.
P a g e 173

Carbonic Acid Corrosion
5) Condensate:
i. Carbonic Acid
CO2 + 2H2O → H2(g) + H2CO3
Carbon dioxide, that we breathe out, is absorbed by water,
breaks down and forms Carbonic Acid
Rain is simply another form of condensate
and contains carbonic acid.
Dissolved tombstone from rain.
Due to Carbonic Acid,
untreated condensate can
reach down to pH 5.5
CARBONIC ACID disrupts
the protective magnetite
surface of steel.
Condensate
Sample Port
SPEC: When using neutralizing
amines, Condensate should be
pH > 8.3
P a g e 174

Most common amines
pH controlling amines and are highly volatile.
They evaporate and travel along with boiler
steam neutralizing carbonic acid as the steam
condenses back into water.
Temperature and psi can affect when various
types of amines re-condense. These properties
are applied in condensate line distance.
Morpholine (short range)
Diethyl aminoethanol (DEAE) (medium range)
Cyclohexylamine (long range)
Injection quill: generally
directly into steam line
Filming Amines
Filming amines are not always soluble in
water, and therefore, should always be
injected directly into steam lines.
Neutralizing amines can be injected into feed
water, however, during blowdowns, product is
lost. Direct steam line injection is more common.
For food production facilities and live
steam applications, non-toxic filming
amines travel along with boiler steam
forming a thin protective waterproof
layer on the metal surface, repelling the
acidic condensate.
Inserting and monitoring corrosion coupons
directly into condensate lines can be helpful in
chemical distribution troubleshooting.
P a g e 175

ii. – Flow Accelerated Corrosion
FAC: Flow Accelerated Corrosion
FAC is a concern in plants where low
oxygen content (as in condensate), high
velocity flow and high temperature
water (around 300˚F) exist.
Some power boilers reintroduce
oxygen into condensate to help
prevent FAC
Stainless steel’s chromium oxide surface virtually stops any FAC,
while Carbon steel’s oxide surface (Magnetite) is succeptable.
P a g e 176

LDI – Liquid Droplet Impingement
iii. LDI – Liquid Droplet Impingement
LDI = FAC on a small scale
As irregularities in the metal
surface increase from prior
impacts, corrosion accelerates.
Flow
Installation of periodic
drip legs helps reduce LDI
Power plants use
superheated steam
(zero chance of
water droplets in
steam) which helps
avoid LDI damage on
turbine blades
P a g e 177

6) Combination Chemical Treatment
Because of chemical demand is less in
smaller boilers, it is simpler to inject
combination chemicals into boiler itself.
Only one pump and one chemical container
is required. However, it is more difficult to
control chemistry specifications.
Oxygen Scavenger
Scale Inhibitor
Also: by injecting all chemicals into the DA
tank, some of the amines are lost in both
the DA vent and boiler blowdowns.
Steam Treatment
P a g e 178

7) Chemical Feed Pumps
Peristaltic Pumps
Pinch process does not lose prime, but
tube needs to be replaced periodically
Diaphragm Pumps
Long lasting and durable, however,
these are a “pain” when they lose prime
Speed:
How often
Stroke:
How deep
Chemical
injection
quill
Check
valve
P a g e 179

Four Function Valve (4FV):
Suction valve
Discharge valve
P a g e 180

G) System Documentation / Plant Performance
1) Pressure Gauges
i. Bourdon Tube
Bourdon Tube
Digital pressure
gauges do not
need a pig tail
and can
automatically log
measurements
into a computer.
Compound gauges measure both pressure
and vacuum. Note: inches of mercury
(a perfect vacuum = 30” Hg)
Which gauge is technically correct?
-30 or +30 ?
0 psia = -1 bar (metric) = -100 kPa (metric)
Vacuum gauge
1 atm = 100 kPa = 1013 mbars = 760 mmHg = 30 inHg = 14.7 psia = 0 psig
P a g e 181

ii. Pressurestat sets steam psi range
iii. Pig Tale / Syphon Loop
(PRESSURETROL® = Honeywell® brand name)
Mercury
Switch
Snap
Switch
Trapped condensate in siphon
loops and pigtails form a
barrier which prevent live
steam temperature from
expanding the gauge and
giving false readings.
Oil filled protects from vibration
and corrosion damage
To avoid sideways tilting from
temperature flexing, and thus
erroneous on/off signals, mercury
gauges should be situated
perpendicular to the loop.
P a g e 182

2) Flow Meters
i. Differential Pressure
Water slug arrestor on steam guage line
1. Differential Pressure Flow Meters
Venturi Suction Nozzle
P a g e 183

Venturi Flowmeter
Pitot Tube Flowmeter
Cone Flowmeter
Orifice Flowmeter
P a g e 184

ii. Ultrasonic
2. Ultrasonic Doppler Flow Meters
iii. Coriolis Oscillation
3. Coriolis Oscillation Flow Meters
Tubes oscillate at different
rates, depending on liquid
flow. Electromagnetic
sensors read oscillation rate
and convert to flow reading.
P a g e 185

iv. Positive Displacement
4. Positive Displacement Flow Meters
Nutating Disc
Rotating Lobe
Turbine
Electromagnetic sensor
reads turbine rotation.
P a g e 186

3) Energy Measurement
Energy: measuring the flow change
252 calories = 1 Btu
1 ft 3 of natural gas ≈ 1020 Btu
1 kilowatt·hr (kwh) of electricity = 3413 Btu
1 pound of Coal ≈ 9,200 Btu
1 pound of gasoline ≈ 14,300 Btu
1 pound of diesel or fuel oil ≈ 16,000 Btu
1 Therm = 100,000 Btu
1 Dekatherm (DTH) = 1,000,000 Btu
0.293 Watts = 1 Btu/hr
1 Bhp (Boiler horsepower) = 33,472 Btu/hr
1 Bhp = 34.5 lbs of steam per hr (@0psig)
The Tom Thumb is especially remembered as a
participant in an impromptu race with a horse-drawn car,
which the horse won after Tom Thumb suffered a
mechanical failure. However, the demonstration was
successful, and the railroad committed to the use of
steam locomotion. The boiler was pulling 40% more
weight than the horse, therefore Tom Thumb was
officially labelled a 1.4 horse power boiler. And BHP
designation was born.
Tom Thumb = 1.4 BHP
P a g e 187

4) Air Pollution (Emissions)
Boiler Mact
NO x, SO 2, CO, Hg, Hydrocarbons (HC = unburned fuel = H xC x =
VOCs = Volatile Organic Compounds) and particulates are major
contributors to smog. When breathed in, they combine with
water and irritates throat and lungs, aggravating conditions such
as asthma.
Some countries in the world have
comparatively little pollution control.
A few decades ago, the US faced similar
health and environmental threats.
EPA Boiler MACT
(Maximum Achievable Control Technology).
US federal EPA standards and incentives to reduce boiler emissions.
Mandatory restrictions, along
with simple social environmental
awareness (which drives
voluntary restrictions), has
dramatically improved air quality
across the country.
P a g e 188

Acid Rain
Acid Rain
Nitric Acid
Sulfuric Acid
pH 4 and less damage leaves and
needles, preventing a plant from
getting energy from the sun.
Fish are seriously affected
when pH drops under 4.0
Prior NOx levels
Current
From 1970 to 2015, aggregate national emissions of the six common pollutants alone dropped
an average of 70 percent while gross domestic product grew by 246 percent. This progress
reflects efforts by state, local and tribal governments; EPA; private sector companies;
environmental groups and others.
Prior
Current
P a g e 189

Ground Level
Ozone (O 3 )
CO, HC and Ground Level Ozone
+ Heat
Good Ozone: Nothing lives in the
Stratosphere, so upper atmosphere ozone
doesn’t harm anything. All UV-C and most
UV-B (95-99%) radiation does not pass
through the ozone layer, protecting life
from skin cancer and sun burn.
Unstable ozone (O3) quickly reverts back to more
stable O2 releasing heat (exothermic reaction)
Ozone
concentration
quickly dissipates
with no light
(+O2)
Bad, Ground Level Ozone:
Extended exposure irritates and
damages lung tissue.
Ozone also damages vegetation and ecosystems
by inhibiting the ability of plants to open the
microscopic pores on their leaves to breathe.
Open stomata
Closed stomata
Ozone burn damage
P a g e 190

SO₂ Control
Sulfur Dioxide Control
Limestone Forced Oxidation (LSFO) Scrubber
SO2 + CaCO3 (pulverized limestone sorbent) → CaSO3 (safe dry byproduct) + CO2 (gas to stack)
Pre-boiler limestone injection
Post-boiler limestone injection
Dry byproduct to
reuse or dispose
P a g e 191

Sulfur Dioxide Control (continued)
Wet Lime Spray Dryer (LSD) Scrubber
SO2 + Ca(OH)2 (hydrated limestone slurry sorbent sprayed into flue gas) → CaSO3 + H2O (Gypsum)
CaSO 3 + H 2O = Gypsum, main ingredient of drywall.
Can be a sellable byproduct.
P a g e 192

Stoichiometric flame →
Flame extinction →
NOx, HC and CO Control
NO x
NO forms alongside CO 2 in any
flame during combustion
In high temperature environments, N 2 and O 2 become
less stable, NO formation becomes more frequent.
NO then forms to more stable NO 2
NOx formation grows exponentially as
flame temperature increases
1) Reduce NOx by reducing peak flame temperature
Naturally occurring
NO x in any flame
Elevated flame temperature, along with more available
O 2, NO x emissions reaches maximum concentration
around 6% excess O 2 (around 35% Excess Air)
Lowest flame NO x at stoichiometric
flame and at flame extinction
More air, cooler flame (Less NOx) →
Near flame extinction
(too much air / not
enough fuel)
2) Reduce NO x by controlling excess O 2
P a g e 193

Pre-Combustion Control
Staged Combustion
Staged Combustion
Staged Air Burner: Insufficient air for full combustion in
primary zone limits flame temperature. Peak flame
temperature is reduced.
Staged Air Burner: Secondary (and sometimes tertiary) air is introduced later where lower
temperature complete combustion takes place. Lean Zone burning enables Carbon to
“take back” some of the Oxygen from the NO molecules, further reducing NO x.
4NO + CH 4 → 2H 2O + 2N 2 + CO 2
Lean Zone Burning
Some burners inject steam or even water
at the quench zone to help cool the flame.
Over fire air completes
combustion at a lower
temperature.
The fuel itself, if introduced in stages, can also
reduce flame temperature.
P a g e 194

Premix Low NO x Burners
By mixing the exact proportion of air and fuel
ahead of the flame, premix ultra-low NO x
burners focus on minimum excess air to help
control emissions.
Nitrogen absorbent material is injected into
the flame along with the fuel and acts as a
catalyst to help prevent NO x formation.
P a g e 195

FGR
Flue Gas Recirculation, recycles a portion of used, inert (low O2) combustion gases. Two results: 1) the burning of the flame
becomes “stretched out”, lowering peak flame temperature and 2) lower excess O2, reducing chance of NOx formation.
Exhaust recirculation at
inner flame burn zone
Exhaust recirculation at
outer flame burn zone
P a g e 196

Flue Gas Recirculation, recycles a portion of used, inert (low O2) combustion gases from the stack to the burner.
Two results: 1) the burning of the flame becomes “stretched out”, lowering peak flame temperature and 2)
lower excess O2, reducing chance of NOx formation.
No FGR, higher peak
temperature flames
Less concentrated, lower
temperature burning points
in FGR, less NO x emissions
A mod motor controls this
damper for incoming flue gas.
(Closes when boiler is off)
EGR valves (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) on
automobile motors operate under the
same principle as FGR
P a g e 197

Post Combustion Control
SNCR
6NO + 4NH 3 → 5N 2 + 6H 2O
4NO + 4NH 3 + O 2
→ 4N 2 + 6H 2O
6NO + 8NH 3 → 7N 2 + 12H 2O
2NO + 4NH 3 + O 2
→ 3N 2 + 6H 2O
NO + NO 2 + 2NH 3 →
2N 2 + 3H 2O
Preferred reaction temp.
> 1400˚F
AIG = ammonia injection grid
For chemical reaction to come to
completion, ammonia must be
injected in high temperature zone
before boiler.
P a g e 198

SCR
Ammonia Free 3 Way Catalytic Converter →
1) NOx 2) CO 3) HC
P a g e 199

DEF = water + urea
(which breaks down
into ammonia)
P a g e 200

SCR
Ammonia Injection Grid = AIG
The use of ammonia and catalytic beds
enables removal of NO x at a lower
temperature. Therefore, liquid
ammonia is injected after the boiler
tubes, saving energy loss.
P a g e 201

Diesel Engine Catalytic Converter
Excess ammonia that is released with flue gasses (ammonia slip)
is also considered an air pollutant.
The ASC bed changes NH3 and O2 to non-toxic N2O and N2 gas.
2NH 3 + 2O 2
→ N 2O+ 3H 2O
4NH 3 + 3O 2 → 2N 2 + 6H 2O
N 2O = Nitrous Oxide = Laughing Gas
Air Straightener
NO x Reducer and
CO Oxidizer Bed
Residual CO Oxidizer
Bed
Ammonia Slip
Catalyst = ASC Bed
P a g e 202

3 Way Dual Bed
3 Way Single Bed
Platinum & Rhodium
imbed in ceramic
Pt/
(Ceramic)
N will bond with the
Pt/Rh particles and
leave the O behind
N will more readily bond with
N leaving the Pt/Rh particle
and is expelled with exhaust
The remaining O binds with
Pt/Rh particles
The C in CO has a higher affinity for the O
than the Pt/Rh particle and forms CO 2. It
is then expelled with the exhaust.
P a g e 203

Incomplete Combustion Byproduct Control
Platinum and Palladium
Pd/Pt particles imbed in Al2O3 (Ceramic)
The O in O 2 has a higher attraction to the
Pl/Pd particle and separates out.
The C in CO has a higher affinity for the O
than the Pt/Pd particle and forms CO 2. It
is then expelled with the exhaust.
After the O becomes “free standing” by attaching to
Pt/Pd particles, the C in unburned fuel easily “absorbs”
these O atoms and becomes CO 2. This completes the
combustion cycle. The left over O and H atoms combine
to form H 20 (water vapor) and is expelled along with the
CO 2 as exhaust.
Other metals may also be combined and used as a catalyst such as:
Vanadium (V), Titanium (Ti) and Tungsten (W)
P a g e 204

(Particulate Matter) Control Electrostatic Precipitator =
Rectifier
Transformer
1) This diode only lets the positive
part of the flow through.
2) This diode only lets the
negative part of the flow
through.
When combined, alternating
current is converted to a
“choppy” type of DC current.
A capacitor, , is a like a rechargeable battery, it stores and then releases an electrical charge. It
is also like a balloon, when it receives a charge of air, it expands, as soon as the pressure starts to
drop, it will relieve some of its air until it gets the next charge.
The capacitor smooths out the choppy DC wave form.
The relatively smooth DC flow is used to negatively charge the
hanging electrodes in the ESP. The ionized dust particles in
the flue gasses have a slight positive charge and will
magnetically “stick” to the electrodes.
P a g e 205

Particulate Matter (PM) Control
ESP (Particulate Matter) Control
Electrostatic Precipitator = ESP
The weak magnetic bond of the particulate matter
is broken by a sudden rapping of the hanging
electrodes and the dust particles fall.
Location for
rapping motors
Suspended
Electrodes
Rapper
Rectifier transformer
Internal Rectifier
transformer
Fine ash particles can
be used as fertilizer.
P a g e 206

,
Bag House
(Particulate Matter) Control
Bag House Filtration
Pulsed Jet Bag House
Mechanical Shaker Bag House
P a g e 207

Water Scrubbing
(Particulate Matter) Control
Wet Scrubber Filtration
Residual Exhaust Acid Absorber
Scrubber
NO x and SO 2 are removed with scrubbers by rearranging the
atoms. However, a small fraction of the N and S molecules
are absorbed by the H 2O vapors in exhaust and is
transformed into HNO 3 and H 2SO 4, Nitric and Sulfuric Acid.
Wet scrubbers, when circulating alkaline
water (high pH) can also serve a second
function. Besides removing PM, they can
be used to neutralize acids in flue gasses.
P a g e 208

New Technology
New Technology Emissions Control
All in One Scrubber System
A Tri-Mer® system can be configured to be all-in-one:
PM, NOx, SO2, Acidic Gas, Hg, CO and certain HxCx.
P a g e 209

Flameless Combustion
In 1989, a surprising condition occurred during experiments in a furnace burner. At 1000˚C and preheated
combustion air at 650˚C, no flame could be seen and no UV signal could be detected. CO content was

CO₂ (Green House Gasses)
Greenhouse Gasses (CO 2 ) causes:
Global Cooling (1970’s)
Global Warming (1990’s)
Climate Change (2010’s)
P a g e 211

H) Emergency Generator
1) Arc Flash
Arc Flash
NFPA 70E
The ATPV (Arc Thermal Proformance
Value) is measured in cal/cm 2 (calories
per square centimeter), and is defined
as the maximum incident heat energy
that a fabric can absorb and lessen the
injury to a 2nd degree burn.
P a g e 212

2) Generator System Components
Turbo Generator
(alternator)
Auto open air louvres
and actuator
Antifreeze coolant
radiator and fan
Antifreeze coolant circulation control valve
Starter and 12 V
Batteries
connected in series
P a g e 213

Pressurized
circulating fuel oil
Crank Case and
Fuel oil filters
Remote safety
alarm panel
P a g e 214

I) Routine Equipment Maintenance
1) EMP (Equipment Maintenance Plans)
Equipment
Maintenance Plans
A descriptive title for each maintenance task to be performed
A frequency assigned for performing of each task
Equipment condition required for performance of the task (i.e. running or shut down)
Type of Work – Preventive Maintenance (PM), Predictive Maintenance (PdM), Corrective
Maintenance (CM), Situational Maintenance (SIT), etc.
Procedure number – Unique identifier for the task, or file name if linked to another document
that gives the individual task instructions
Estimated time to perform the task
Special tools, materials and equipment required to perform the task
P a g e 215

2) Lock Out / Tag Out
Step 1: Provide detailed procedures for starting and stopping equipment involved
Step 2: Notify affected employees
Step 3: Shut down equipment properly
Step 4: Disconnect all primary energy sources
Whether the primary energy sources include electricity, steam, water, gas, compressed air, or others.
Step 5: Address all secondary sources
While disconnecting the primary energy sources may remove much of the potential danger, it’s possible that there
sources of residual energy, such as trapped heat in a thermal system, fumes that may need to be vented, or even
tension in a spring assembly. Identify the process that will relieve any remaining pressure or other energy. Also consider
other hazards, such as moving equipment that must be secured before work begins.
Step 6: Verify the lockout
Once you’ve disconnected all primary and secondary sources of energy, attempt to start the equipment to verify that
the lockout has been successful. Assuming that the procedures have been successful, return all switches and other
equipment back to their “off” positions so the machine won’t start unexpectedly when the energy sources are
reconnected. Once you’ve verified the lockout, attach a lockout or tagout device to the equipment to ensure that it
cannot be started without removing the device.
Step 7: Keep it in force during shift changes
Equipment must remain in lockout/tagout condition across shift changes, so that workers arriving at the site are aware
that the equipment is out of service.
Step 8: Bring the equipment back on line
When work is done and all tools and other materials have been removed, the machine can be brought back into
operation.
P a g e 216

3) Small Boiler Layup/Seasonal Down
Seasonal Shutdown
i. Wet
WET ii. Dry LAYUP
Two to seven days before a wet layup, water chemistry should be
increased to the following levels:
• 200 to 400 PPM sulfite
Steel Boilers < 30 days and Cast-Iron Sectionals
• 600 to 800 ppm hydroxide alkalinity
• Scale/corrosion inhibitor in normal ranges for on-line operations
• Periodically check water level for leaks
DRY LAYUP
Steel Boilers > 30 days
days
• Drain and mechanically dry inside of boiler to prevent stagnant water corrosion (rust).
• A moisture absorbing material, such as quicklime (2 #s/30 ft³) or silica gel (5 #s/30 ft³ of
boiler volume) may be placed on trays inside the drums to absorb residual moisture from the
air.
• Use Humidity Cards to confirm internals are dry.
• Check Humidity Cards monthly during shutdown.
Dessicants can be reused by drying between
seasons. Simply warm dessicant to 200˚F for 1
hour to expel any moisture.
P a g e 217

J) Inspection Preparation
1) Internal vs. Operational
While some states require yearly inspections by a licensed
boiler inspector (a state employee or an insurance
representative), some states have no requirements.
Internal (Boiler Off and Opened):
Drain boiler, open all plates and ports to include low water cutoff
float devices.
Have replacement gasket material on hand for reassembly.
Test pressure gauges for functionality.
Operational (Boiler Running):
Have on hand the boiler permit of operation, a copy of any repair or
alteration reports, any state required standard forms and the ASME data
report obtained from the boiler manufacturer during initial startup.
Line the boiler up to fire.
All burner management interlocks should be operational.
P a g e 218

2) Refractory
Fire box lining (brick and or ceramic)
that insulates and protects steel from
flame temperature.
Ceramic floor tiles
Extreme changes in firebox
temperature and age may
result in spalling (cracking)
of the refractory.
Through the
boiler’s view port
Asbestos fiber as an insulation
material has been replaced
with safer, modern ceramics.
P a g e 219

3) Seal Ropes
Fiberglass seal rope installed incorrectly on a
boiler door. It hung down into refractory and
melted. Parts of the liquefied rope traveled with
the flue gas and re-deposited as solid glass on the
cooler interior walls of the fire tubes.
P a g e 220

K) Safety Systems
1) Emergency Stop Button
NC Valves close if
manual safety
override is pushed.
2) Earthquake Shutoff
Normal
Weak Magnet
Tripped
Reset Screw
Leveling chain
P a g e 221

3) Pop-Off Valve
4) OS&Y
Safety Pop Off /
Pressure Relief Valves
Steam venting during
Relief Valve test
Only manufacture’s
rep.’s can work on
safety pop off valves.
Accumulation Test determines if safety
valve capacity is large enough to
protect boiler. All steam outlets are
shut and firing rate is increased to
maximum. Safety valve should relieve
all excess pressure.
Hydrostatic Test determines strength of parts or welds on
new and repaired boilers. Safety valves are gagged with a
clamp or removed and replaced with plugs. Boiler is not
fired. Water pressure is then pumped up 1½ times safety
valve setting. Check for leaks.
2 pop-offs are required for
boilers when heating surface
area > 500 ft 2
When checking safety valves manually, boiler psi
should be at least 75% of popping pressure.
75% of 210 psig = 158 psig
Steam line stop valves are typically OS&Y
(Outside Screw & Yoke a.k.a. Outside Stem and Yoke)
Drip legs relieve condensate on main
steam line if line is down.
Pop off openings inside steam drum
P a g e 222

5) Hartford Loop
The Hartford Loop invented in 1919
by the boiler insurance company
made steam boilers safer as the
low water cutoff had not yet been
invented.
1895, Denver: Gumry Hotel, 22 deaths.
Cold water into a partially empty boiler.
Boilers in these systems are usually
located at or below ground level
for proper gravity flow of
condensate. No condensate tank
is needed.
The Hartford Loop prevents
water from draining
backwards into leaking
condensate lines (wet return)
Dry return is above
the water line and
wet return in below
the water line
Check valve in lieu
of Hartford Loop
P a g e 223

6) Safety Limit Controls
a. Boiler Failure Examples
Most people who died from a boiler explosion
The Sultana’s boiler engineers had requested to
stop the ship to make repairs on leaking tubes.
Because of scheduling pressures, the request was
denied by the captain.
It is speculated that the excessive list (slanting) of the Sultana
due to overload, caused the water in the boiler to shift suddenly
when the ship made a turn, which burst the weak pipes.
Both the low water safety cutoff and the feed water
regulator were bypassed. Feed water valve was
manually operated. The operator had forgot to add
water when the boiler began to get low. He did add
water, but too late!
It is determined that the most probable
cause of this accident was the sudden
introduction of feed water to the boiler
that at the time of the explosion was
operating in a dry-fired state.
Today, the most common reasons for
boiler explosions are improper purge
cycle and low water cut-off failure.
P a g e 224

. Fuel Line Limit Controllers
Any of these safety controls
will close fuel solenoids
Simpler/smaller natural gas only steam
boilers are required to have
1. High and Low Gas Pressure sensors
2. Low Water Cutoff
Which shuts off the Fuel line solenoids
Simpler/smaller natural gas only hot water
boilers are required to have
1. High and Low Gas Pressure sensors
2. High Water Temperature sensor
Which shuts off the Fuel line solenoids
Not all safety devices shut off the fuel,
some, like this High Steam Pressure
sensor, are only alarms.
P a g e 225

c. Air Flow Proving Switches
The goal of the purge cycle is for approximately
4 volumes of fresh air to be admitted into the
combustion chamber to drive out any
unwanted combustible gas or vapor.
P a g e 226

Using positive pressure air flow from the
front of the boiler, condensate cannot
build up and view port is always clear.
P a g e 227

d. Fuel Line Train Parts
Incoming Gas Main
Manual emergency
shutoff valve
Primary NC
emergency shutoff
valve
Some systems have electronic volume
correctors which take the incoming pulse
signal from a gas meter and also record the
local pressure and temperature to calculate
the standard (corrected volume) of gas that
has passed through the gas flow meter.
Secondary NC
emergency shutoff
valve
P a g e 228

Boiler Gas Train
PRVs
Strainers
Isolation Valves
Flow
Meter
Strainer
NG flow
control valves
Gas shutoff valves are NC valves
(Normally Closed). If the power goes
out they close. Note: Redundancy: the
chance of both valves failing is very slim.
NO solenoid gas
relief line
Low and High gas
pressure safety
cutoffs
Block and Bleed
P a g e 229

Boiler Gas Train
Example 2
Isolation Valves
Low and High gas
pressure safety
cutoffs
Block and Bleed
Flow meter
Mod Motor linking
air and fuel
P a g e 230

Pilot Line:
NG pilot line
extraction port
Pilot fuel, dual emergency
shutoff NC solenoids
(Block and Bleed)
NG Proving
switch
Pilot fuel, NO bleed
solenoid
Pilot PRV
Pilot fuel
Strainer
Three way pilot valve
for fuel selection
Propane supply
and PRV
Normal propane
operational psi
P a g e 231

Fuel Oil Train
Oil Strainer and PRV
Oil strainer and Kunkle safety valve
High and Low oil
pressure safety
switch
Fuel Oil flow meter
Flow Control
motorized
valve
This burner contains an internal
block and bleed system
2 Safety solenoid NC cut offs
(Redundancy for safety)
P a g e 232

Atomizing Air/Steam for Fuel Oil
Atomizing air
proving switches
Atomizing air NC
safety solenoid
P a g e 233

e. Flame Scanner
Light
If flame is not detected, purge
cycle is initiated removing
unburned fuel, then relight is
automatically reattempted.
Soot build up
on fire eye
Fire eyes can “see” flame using any or all parts
of the light spectrum:
UV (ultraviolet), VIS (visible), IR (infrared)
UV
As metal is heated to high
temperatures, it also emits VIS and
IR light. Therefore, to avoid false
readings, hospitals and other
facilities with multi-fuel capability,
usually only use UV scanners.
UV-VIS-IR
IR
P a g e 234

K = Potassium, Ag = Silver, Cs = Cesium
Self-Checking Flame Scanner
• Every few seconds, oscillating shutter
interrupts ultraviolet radiation reaching the
UV sensor. Zero flame is confirmed and
self-check complete.
P a g e 235

Thermocouple
A small electric current is
created when heated.
Thermopile:
End bulb has multiple wire “twistings”,
produces larger electron flow.
Thermocouple:
Single twisted wire sensor
Temperature probe
Thermopile
Pilot
Copper capillary tube protects the
inner insulated single strand wire
and also conducts electricity back
to the head where voltage can be
measured (usually in millivolts).
Spark Igniter
Common in
atmospheric burners
P a g e 236

Flame Rod
Flame Rod =
Ionization Sensor
Flame Rectifier
Flame rectification
Flames conduct electricity.
No flame, no current.
Fuel is shut off.
P a g e 237

f. Water Column
Low Water Cutoff: Activated
when feed water regulator fails,
turns off boiler, preventing dry firing.
Always has a manual reset switch.
Feed Water Regulator
signals for more water.
Always has a sight glass
Notice cutoff is lower than the
feed water regulator
Float replaced
with electric
water sensor
Tricock valves:
Top should be steam,
bottom – water,
middle indicates water level
Water level
controllers
High water sensors are
usually only alarms and do
not shut off the boiler.
Red manual reset button
indicates this is the low
water cutoff.
P a g e 238

Magnetic Float
= gauge glass
tubular
Thick wall vs. thin
flat
Small bi-colored metal plates
flip up or down depending on
location of built-in magnetic
float in water column.
electronic
Electric probes sends a
signal to the control
room.
P a g e 239

g. Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide absorbs an additional
oxygen atom from the sensor which then
sends a positive hydrogen atom to the
counter electrode producing a small current
(detection of CO)
P a g e 240

L) Facilitating and monitoring receipt of fuels
Operators must confirm fuel oil levels on a
regular basis.
Paper readout for tank
level verification
A 10 day fuel oil supply (based on average
daily fuel consumption in January) is
required as an onsite minimum
Red dye is added for tax
free off road use.
P a g e 241

Storage Tank manual
valves
Dual interchangeable
filters
Overpressure Safety
Kunkle Valve
Visual flow
indicator
port
Pressure
Reduction Valve
Check Valve
P a g e 242

M) Efficiency
1) LEED Program
In the United States and in a number of
other countries around the world, LEED
certification is the recognized standard for
measuring building sustainability.
Four Certification Levels
pts possible)
The LEED green building rating system -- developed
and administered by the U.S. Green Building
Council, a Washington D.C.-based, nonprofit
coalition of building industry leaders -- is designed
to promote design and construction practices that
increase profitability while reducing the negative
environmental impacts of buildings and improving
occupant health and well-being.
Out of 110 possible points
LEED certification is helping to steer the HVAC industry towards higher efficient
boilers and chillers. In the long run, these systems pay for themselves.
Out
In
P a g e 243

2) Causes of Inefficiency
Causes
Improper air/fuel ratio, soot blower failure and/or poor cleaning scheduling.
No. 6 Fuel Oil
Natural Gas fired
Cast Iron Sectional
Soot actually protects the tube from flame
temperature. However, since the tube represents
the cooler section of the refractory and since soot
is very hydroscopic (water attracting), condensate
(H 2O is a combustion byproduct) may form in the
soot. This then absorbs Carbon dioxide from the
exhaust. CO 2 breaks down and forms carbonic
acid (pH 5.5) and fire side corrosion takes place.
Biomass water
tube failure
Scale Thickness (inches) 1/32 1/25 1/20 1/16 1/11 1/9
% Fuel Loss 7 9 11 13 15 16
Tube becomes insulated. Water unable to remove
heat. Steel temperature increases and softens.
There are only two ways to quickly remove scale
build up: acid flush and mechanical scrubbing.
Fire tube scale
Bulging boiler tubes
due to scale buildup
A broken baffle causes a sudden increase in stack temperature.
P a g e 244

Hole Size 20 psi 25 psi 100 psi 200 psi
.05 inch 20 MBtu/yr 25 MBtu/yr 100 MBtu/yr 150 MBtu/yr
.10 inch 100 MBtu/yr 200 MBtu/yr 500 MBtu/yr 800 MBtu/yr
Damaged tubes may leak. The escaping boiler
water will cool the fire and the stack
temperature drops. Note water stains on metal.
Serious Problems!
P a g e 245

Flue gas analyzer
O 2 Sensor
Ground level air
Very good
Burner is
off
P a g e 246

The difference in Oxygen
concentration between stack
gases and normal air creates an
electrical current across the ZrO2
(zirconia) layer on the platinum
(Pt) electrodes.
Opacity meters measure visible
smoke in stack
P a g e 247

Why not?!
ROI = Return on Investment
Removable
Jackets
P a g e 248

Increase
Effects (symptoms)
3) Effects of Inefficiency
Broken
Baffle
Unchecked Spalling
.
Soot
Gradual Increase
FD (forced draft) and/or
ID (induced draft) Fan Failure
Smoke
Water cannot carry
the heat away
Softener and/or RO unit failure
and/or improper chemical balance
Scale
(Soot does not damage tubes, soot actually
protects tubes from high flue gas temperature)
Inadequate boiler tune-up scheduling
Decrease
Regular, yearly boiler
tune-ups recalibrate
air/fuel mixture to help
maximize efficiency.
P a g e 249

4) Economizer
Vertical Stack Mounted
Economizers preheat feed
water using flue gas
Stand Alone Unit
Motorized actuator
on stack closes when
boiler is off
P a g e 250

Combustion Air Pre-Heaters
5) Combustion Air Preheater
Dew point moisture corrosion becomes a serious concern on the cool
ends. Parts for air pre-heaters are usually made of special non-corrosive
metals with nonmetallic coatings such as ceramic or Teflon ® .
i. Recuperative/Regenerative
Recuperative/Regenerative Air Pre-Heaters
transfer flue stack heat through a slow
rotation (1 to 3 rpm) of heat absorbing
material
Corrugated metal media
P a g e 251

ii. Tubular
Tubular Air Pre-Heaters
transfer flue stack heat
through series of tubes or air
ducts. No moving parts, but
take up more space than
rotating plate preheaters.
P a g e 252

6) Blowdown Heat Recovery
i. Surface/Continuous Blowdown Heat Recovery
Blowdown heat recovery systems should be considered when
continuous (surface) blowdown > 1 gpm
Uses only shell and tube type
exchanger for heat extraction
3 boiler input
Caution: to prevent pitting corrosion, a chemical oxygen scavenger
should always be added where ever cold water is heated.
4 boiler input
P a g e 253

Surface and/or
ii. Surface and/or Bottom
Blowdown Heat Recovery
Flash Tank
When blowdown enters the flash tank, created steam is sent to
low pressure applications, (DA tank). Remaining hot blowdown
transfers heat to makeup water via heat exchanger. Now, cooled
off, it is sent down drain. Flash tanks can handle sludge and
sediment from bottom blowdowns.
Safety Pop Off
Water Level
Controller
Shell and Tube
Heat Exchanger
Plate and Frame
Heat Exchanger
P a g e 254

Usable low psi steam
7) Flash Steam Recovery
Flash steam is formed when high pressure
water changes to low pressure such as when
HPC (High Pressure Condensate) enters a DA
Tank.
Flash Recovery Vessels separate this low pressure
flash steam and adds it to the low pressure system.
1. There must be sufficient high pressure condensate
to release enough flash steam to make recovery
economically effective.
2. There must be a suitable low pressure application
for the recovered flash steam. Clearly, demand for
flash steam must be in step with its availability.
3. The application for the flash steam should be
reasonably close to the high pressure condensate
source. Piping for low pressure steam is relatively
large and can be costly to install in long runs.
P a g e 255

N) Reference Charts
1) Pipe Schedules
Metric Prefixes
2) Metric Prefixes
P a g e 256

3) Periodic Table
P a g e 257

4) Blue Print/Schematic Symbols
i. Valve
ii. HVAC
iii. Electrical
Plumbing & Valves
P a g e 258

5) Boiler Device Nomenclature
AFOSV
Automatic Fuel Oil Shutoff Valves
LFGPCS
Low Fuel Gas Pressure Cutoff Switch
ALWCO
Auxiliary Low Water Cutoff
LFOPCS
Low Fuel Oil Pressure Cutoff Switch
AMSOV
Atomizing Media Shut Off Valve
LFPS
Low-Fire Proving Switch
APFGSOV
Automatic Pilot Fuel Gas Shutoff Valves
LPFGPCS
Low Pilot Fuel Gas Pressure Cutoff Switch
APFGSVV
Automatic Pilot Fuel Gas Solenoid Vent Valve
LRVE
Liquid Relief Valve on Economizer
CAPI
Control Air Pressure Interlock
LRVOPS
Liquid Relief Valve on Oil Pump Set
CAPS
Combustion Air Pressure Switch
LWA
Low Water Alarm
DA
Deaerator
LWACT
Low Water Alarm on Condensate Tank
DAODS
Deaerator Overflow Drain System
LWADT
Low Water Alarm on Deaerator Tank
DASV
Deaerator Safety Valve
LWCO
Low Water Cutoff
FDDWOPS
Forced Draft Damper Wide-Open Pre-Purge Proving Switch
MFIT
Main Flame Ignition Timing
FDMIS
Forced Draft Motor Interlock Switches
MV
Manual Valve
FGRDI
Flue Gas Recirculation Damper Interlock
NRBSPLS
Non-Recycle Boiler Steam Pressure Limit Switch
AFGSOV
Automatic Fuel Gas Shutoff Valves and Solenoid Vent Valve
OADI
Outside Air Damper Interlock
AFGSVV
Automatic Fuel Gas Shutoff Solenoid Vent Valve
OBPS
Oil Burner Position Switch
FPI
Furnace Pressure Interlock
OSDI
Outlet Stack Damper Interlock Switch
FSMFO
Flame Scanner-for main flame out
PAPS
Purge Airflow Proving Switch
FSNSIS
Flame Scanner Not Sensing Igniter Spark
POC_AFOSV
Proof of Closure on Automatic Fuel Oil Shutoff Valves
HFGPCS
High Fuel Gas Pressure Cutoff Switch
POC-AFGSOV
Proof of Closure on Automatic Fuel Shutoff Valves
HFOPCS
High Fuel Oil Pressure Cutoff Switch
PPT
Pre-Purge and Post-Purge Timing
HWAB
High Water Alarm on Boiler
PRV
Pressure Reducing Valve
HWACT
High Water Alarm on Condensate Tank
RBSPLS
Recycle Boiler Steam Pressure Limit Switch
HWADT
High Water Alarm on Deaerator Tank
SVB
Steam Safety Valves on Boiler
IT
Igniter Timing
SVFPRV
Safety Valve Following
LAMDPS
Low Atomizing Media Differential Pressure Switch
PRV
Pressure Reducuction Valve
LAMPS
Low Atomizing Media Pressure Switch
TP
Test Port
LFGOLI
Low Flue Gas Oxygen Level Interlock
P a g e 259

µ
µmho .................................................................................... 150
4
4FV ....................................................................................... 180
A
Absolute Zero Psi ................................................................... 50
Absolute Zero Temperature ............................................. 51, 56
AC .......................................................................................... 37
AC Current .............................................................................. 37
Acid ............................................................................ 148, 174
Acid Rain .............................................................................. 188
Activated Carbon ................................................................. 158
Actuator ............................................................... 129, 170, 229
Adblue .................................................................................. 200
Adiabatic Process ................................................................... 52
Affinity Law .......................................................................... 137
AFR ................................................................................... 82, 83
Air Bleed Valve ....................................................................... 28
Air Composition ...................................................................... 82
Air Compressor ................................................................ 43, 47
Air Conditioner ....................................................................... 43
Air Differntial Switch ............................................................ 232
Air Preheater .............................................................. 250
Air Scoop ................................................................................ 28
Air Separator .......................................................................... 28
Air to Fuel Ratio ...................................................................... 82
Air Vent .................................................................................. 28
Air/Fuel Ratio ............................................................ 246
Alkaline .......................................................................... 148
Alkalinity ..................................................................... 155
Alternating Current .............................................................. 37
Alternator ............................................................................... 38
Amines ................................................................................. 175
Ammonia ...................................................... 148, 198, 200, 201
Ammonia NOx Scrubber .................................................. 201
Ammonia Slip Catalyst ......................................................... 202
Amperes ............................................................................... 136
Amps ................................................................................... 136
Annunciator ......................................................................... 225
Antarctica ............................................................................... 53
Anthracite .............................................................................. 74
Antifreeze......................................................................... 32, 33
Anti-Syphon ......................................................................... 180
APT ............................................................................... 105, 113
Aquastat ................................................................................ 27
Aquifer ................................................................................. 153
Arc Flash .............................................................................. 212
Asbestos............................................................................... 219
ASC ....................................................................................... 202
Atmospheric Burner ...................................................... 77, 236
Attemperator ....................................................................... 109
Autoclave ............................................................................. 119
Automatic Pump Trap .................................................. 105, 113
B
Babcock & Wilcox .................................................................. 14
Back Siphonage ............................................................ 128
Backflow .......................................................................... 128
Bacteria ................................................................................ 158
Baffle ....................................................................................... 9
Bag House ............................................................................ 207
Balance Point ......................................................................... 45
Balanced Pressure Steam Trap ............................................ 102
Ball ....................................................................................... 127
Ball Valve .............................................................................. 171
Barometer ............................................................................ 181
Barometric Pressure ............................................................ 181
Base ................................................................................... 148
Bernoulli ...................................................................... 144, 183
Beveled End Pipes ................................................................. 140
BHP .............................................................................. 138, 187
Bi-metalic steam trap ..................................................... 98, 102
Biomass .................................................................................. 90
Bituminous ............................................................................. 74
Black Out ................................................................................ 71
Black Steel Pipe .................................................................... 141
Blowdown .......................................................................... 170
Blowdown Heat Recovery.................................................... 253
Blowdown Separator .................................................. 171
Blowdown Tank ...................................................... 171, 172
Blue Def ............................................................................... 200
Boiler Horsepower ....................................................... 138, 187
Boiler MACT ......................................................................... 188
Boiling Point ......................................................................... 26
Bottom Blowdown ......................................................... 171
Bourdon Tube ...................................................................... 181
BPHE .................................................................................... 115
Braized Plate ........................................................................ 115
Bryan Boiler ........................................................................... 15
BTU content ........................................................................... 49
Burn Rate Control .................................................................. 64
Burners .............................................................................. 74
Butterfly ............................................................................... 127
P a g e 260

Bypass Feeder ........................................................................ 30
C
Calcium ............................................................................. 155
Calorie .......................................................................... 138, 187
Can Pump ....................................................................... 66, 123
Candy Bar ..................................................................... 138, 187
Capacitor .............................................................................. 205
Carbon Dioxide..................................................................... 211
Carbon Monoxide ................................................................ 240
Carryover ........................................................................ 170
Cast Iron Sectional ................................................................ 217
Catalytic Converter .............................................................. 198
Catalytic Sorbent Injection ................................................... 195
Caustic Embrittlement ........................................... 167
Cavitation ............................................................................. 133
CCPP .................................................................................... 42
Ceramic ........................................................................ 203, 219
Ceramic Mesh Burner ............................................................ 85
Ceramic Seal Rope ............................................................... 220
Ceramics ............................................................................... 119
Cesium Oxide ....................................................................... 235
Charcoal ............................................................................... 158
Chemical Feed Pump ........................................................... 179
Cherrapunjee ......................................................................... 53
Chlorine ................................................................................ 153
Chromium ............................................................................ 141
Circulation Pumps .................................................................. 30
Clayton Steam Generator ....................................................... 17
Climate Change .................................................................... 211
Closed Loop Boilers ................................................................ 27
Coal ............................................................... 74, 138, 187, 246
Combined Cycle Power Plant ............................................ 42
Combustion Triangle .............................................................. 76
Complete Combustion ................................................ 246
Compound Guage ................................................................ 181
Compressed Air ...................................................................... 87
Compression Tank .............................................................. 29
Condensate .......................................................... 40, 174, 182
Condensate Neutralizing Tubes ............................................. 35
Condensate Pump ............................................................ 105
Condensate Receiver ........................................................... 134
Condensation ................................................................... 50, 56
Condenser .............................................................................. 40
Condensing Boiler .................................................................. 35
Conduction ............................................................................. 48
Conductivity ......................................................... 150, 151, 170
Cone Flowmeter ................................................................... 184
Continuous Blowdown ................................................ 170
Controllers ............................................................................ 27
Convection ....................................................................... 48, 81
Cooling Tower ..................................................................... 40
Copper ................................................................................. 212
Coriolis ................................................................................. 185
Cugnot's Steam Car .................................................................. 8
Cyclohexylamine .................................................................. 175
D
D Type Boiler ......................................................................... 19
DC ......................................................................................... 37
DC Current ..................................................................... 37, 205
Dead Sea ................................................................................ 60
DEAE .................................................................................... 175
Deaerator ..................................................................... 163, 164
Decatherm ................................................................... 138, 187
DEF ....................................................................................... 200
DEHA .................................................................................... 169
Dehumidifier .......................................................................... 46
Deposition ....................................................................... 56, 59
Dessicant .............................................................................. 217
Desuperheater ..................................................................... 109
Diametre Nominel ............................................................... 142
Diaphragm ........................................................................... 127
Diesel ..................................................................... 70, 138, 187
Diesel Exhaust Fluid ............................................................. 200
Diethyl Aminoethanol .......................................................... 175
Diethyl Hydroxylamine ........................................................ 169
Diffuser .................................................................................. 83
Diffusion Flame ...................................................................... 80
Diode ................................................................................... 205
Direct Current ...................................................................... 37
DN ........................................................................................ 142
Doppler ................................................................................ 185
Downcomer ..................................................................... 21, 22
Drip Legs .............................................................................. 145
Dry Firing ..................................................................... 238
Dry Layup ............................................................................. 217
Dry Pipe ................................................................................. 22
Dry Pipe Separator .................................................... 13
Dry Steam .............................................................................. 62
Dry Valleys ............................................................................. 53
Dryback boiler ........................................................................ 10
Dual Fuel Burners .................................................................. 87
E
Earth Quake Emergency Stop .............................................. 221
Economizer ..................................................................... 250
Edison, Thomas .................................................................. 37
Efficiency ............................................................. 244, 249
EGR ...................................................................................... 197
Electrical Resistance Welding ............................................... 139
Electromagnetic Sensor ....................................................... 185
P a g e 261

Electrostatic Precipitator ..................................................... 205
Elephant ............................................................................... 136
Emergency Generator .......................................................... 213
Emergency Stop Button ....................................................... 221
Emissions ............................................................................. 188
Energy .......................................................................... 138, 187
Enthalpy ................................................................................. 62
EPA ................................................................................. 74, 188
ERW ...................................................................................... 139
ESP ............................................................................... 205, 206
Ethylene Glycol ...................................................................... 32
Evaporation ............................................................................ 56
EVOH ...................................................................................... 31
Excess Air ..................................................................... 246
Excess Oxygen ...................................................................... 193
Exhaust Gas Recirculation .................................................... 197
Expander .......................................................................... 12, 20
Expansion Joint ................................................................... 29
Expansion Tank ................................................................... 29
Expansion Valve ..................................................................... 43
Expansion, water to ice ........................................................ 148
F
F&T Steam Trap ................................................................ 101
Fan Speed ............................................................................. 137
Feed Water .................................................................. 163, 250
Feed Water Pump .......................................................... 66, 123
Feed Water Regulator ............................................ 66, 123, 238
FGR ............................................................................... 196, 197
Fiberglass ............................................................................. 220
Filming Amines ..................................................................... 175
Fin Tube Radiator ............................................................. 117
Fire Eye............................................................................. 37, 79
Fire Tube .......................................................................... 9, 13
Firebox .................................................................................. 26
Firing Rate Control ................................................................. 64
Firm Rate ................................................................................ 87
Fixed Orifice Steam Trap ........................................................ 98
Flame Envelope ...................................................................... 81
Flame Extinction .................................................................. 193
Flame Rectifier ..................................................................... 237
Flame Rod ............................................................................ 237
Flame Scanners/Sensors ....................................................... 234
Flamess Combustion ............................................................ 210
Flash Tank ..................................................................... 171
Flat Sight Glass ................................................................. 241
Flex Tube Boiler...................................................................... 15
Float and Thermostatic Steam Trap ............................... 101
Flue Gas Analyzer ..................................................... 246
Flue Gas Recirculation .................................................. 196, 197
Food Grade Antifreeze ........................................................... 32
Foot Valve ............................................................................ 179
Forced Draft Burner ............................................................... 77
Four Function Valve ............................................................. 180
Fracking ................................................................................. 69
Free Chlorine ....................................................................... 158
Freeze Drying ......................................................................... 57
Freeze Point ........................................................................... 32
Freeze Point Curve ................................................................. 56
Fuel Oil ............................................................ 70, 138, 187
Fuel Oil Train ........................................................................ 232
G
Galvanized Pipe ................................................................... 141
Gas Train .............................................................................. 229
Gasoline ....................................................................... 138, 187
Gate ..................................................................................... 127
Generator .............................................................................. 38
Global Warming ................................................................... 211
Globe ................................................................................... 127
Golden Gate Bridge ............................................................... 60
Grain of Hardness ................................................................ 154
Gravel .................................................................................. 133
Greenhouse Gas .................................................................. 211
Grundfos ................................................................................ 30
Gypsum ................................................................................ 192
H
Hambuger Helper .................................................................. 60
Hardness .......................................................................... 155
Hartford Loop ..................................................................... 117
Heat Content ......................................................................... 49
Heat Exchanger ................................................................ 115
Heat Exchanger Stall ............................................................ 113
Heat Gun .............................................................................. 108
Heat Pump ............................................................................. 45
Heat Recovery Steam Generator ........................................... 18
Heros Engine ............................................................................ 8
Herz ........................................................................................ 37
Hexagonal ............................................................................ 148
Hexagonal Crystal .................................................................. 55
High Fire ................................................................................. 64
High PSI Steam Pressure Gauge ........................................... 225
Hogged Fuel ........................................................................... 71
Holding Tank ........................................................................ 134
HRSG ...................................................................................... 18
HRT ........................................................................................ 90
Humidity Cards ..................................................................... 217
Hydrastep ............................................................................ 241
Hydraulic Fracturing .............................................................. 69
Hydraulic HP ........................................................................ 136
Hydrazine ............................................................................. 169
Hydrocarbons ...................................................................... 203
P a g e 262

Hydrogen .......................................................................... 148
Hydrostatic Test ................................................................... 222
Hydroxide ........................................................................ 148
Hygroscopic Washers ......................................................... 29
I
Ice Scates ............................................................................... 58
Ice Tsunami ............................................................................ 58
Ideal Gas Law ................................................... 43, 54, 106, 173
Ignition Transformer .............................................................. 79
Impeller ................................................................................ 133
Implosion ............................................................................. 144
Impulse Steam Trap ............................................................... 97
Incandence ............................................................................. 81
Infrared................................................................................. 234
Inspection ............................................................................ 218
Insulation ............................................................................. 248
Intercooler ............................................................................. 43
Internal ................................................................................. 218
Interruptible Rate .................................................................. 87
Inverted Bucket Steam Trap .................................................. 99
Ionization Sensor ................................................................. 237
IR Lightr ................................................................................ 234
Iron Crystals .............................................................. 167
J
Jacketed Kettle ..................................................................... 118
K
Keep Up Coil ........................................................................... 19
Kelvin...................................................................................... 51
Kerosene ................................................................................ 70
Kilowatt ........................................................................ 138, 187
KWH ............................................................................. 138, 187
L
Lake Tahoe ............................................................................. 60
Laminar Flame ........................................................................ 82
Lance ...................................................................................... 87
Latent Heat ............................................................................ 48
Laughing Gas ........................................................................ 202
Layup .................................................................................... 217
Lean Flame ..................................................................... 82, 193
LEED Certification................................................................. 243
LEL .......................................................................................... 82
Let Down Station.......................................................... 108, 145
Lift Check .............................................................................. 127
Lignite .................................................................................... 74
Limestone ............................................................................ 192
Linear Actuator .................................................................... 130
Liquid Expansion Trap ...................................................... 103
Liquifaction ............................................................................ 48
Litmus Paper ........................................................................ 147
LMI Pumps ........................................................................... 179
Low Fire ................................................................................. 64
Low Fire Hold Switch ............................................................. 64
Low Water Cutoff ...................................................... 117, 238
Lower Explosive Limit ............................................................. 82
LSD ....................................................................................... 192
Lubricant ................................................................................ 58
M
MACT ............................................................................. 74, 188
Magnesium........................................................................ 155
Magnetic Float ..................................................................... 241
Make Up Water ................................................................... 153
Marble chips .......................................................................... 35
MAWP ................................................................................... 171
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure ............ 171
Mechanical Steam Traps ........................................................ 96
Medical Waste ..................................................................... 119
Membrane ................................................................... 160, 161
Mercury ......................................................................... 61, 181
Mercury Switch ............................................................ 27, 182
Methane ................................................................................ 68
Mixing Boxes ........................................................................ 116
Modulation Motor ............................................................... 197
Molybdates ............................................................................ 30
Morpholine .......................................................................... 175
Motor Vibrations ................................................................. 125
Mt Everest ............................................................................. 60
Mud Drum ....................................................................... 14, 22
Multistage Pump ........................................................... 66, 123
N
Natural Gas Composition ....................................................... 68
NC Valves ............................................................................. 229
Neutral Water .............................................................. 148
Neutralizing Amines ............................................................. 175
Newcomen Steam Engine ........................................................ 8
NFPA 70E ............................................................................. 212
Niagara Falls........................................................................... 37
Nitogen Dioxide ................................................................... 193
Nitrates .................................................................................. 30
Nitric Oxide .......................................................................... 193
Nitrites ................................................................................... 32
Nitrogen Gas ........................................................................ 29
Nitrous Oxide ....................................................................... 202
Non-condensable .............................................................. 101
Non-Condensing Turbine ....................................................... 41
Normal Pipe Size .................................................................. 142
NOx .............................................................................. 188, 193
Nozzle .................................................................................... 83
P a g e 263

NPS ....................................................................................... 142
Nuclear Explosion .................................................................. 59
Nutating Disc ........................................................................ 186
O
O Type Boiler .......................................................................... 19
Oak ......................................................................................... 71
Octane .................................................................................... 68
Ohms .................................................................................... 136
Oil Burners ............................................................................. 87
Oil Filter ................................................................................ 232
One Pipe System .............................................................. 117
Operating Limit Control ......................................................... 64
Operational Inspection ........................................................ 218
Orifice Flowmeter ................................................................ 184
OS&Y .................................................................................... 222
Oscillation ............................................................................ 185
Outside Screw and Yoke ...................................................... 222
Over Fire Air ......................................................................... 194
Oxygen barrier ....................................................................... 31
Oxygen Scavenger ................................................................ 164
Ozone ................................................................................... 190
P
Paladium .............................................................................. 203
Panel Boiler ............................................................................ 18
Paris, TN ............................................................................... 224
Parralel Connection ............................................................. 123
Parrallel pumps .................................................................... 123
Peak Flame Temperature ..................................................... 193
Peat ........................................................................................ 74
Peristaltic ............................................................................. 179
Peristaltic Feed Pump .......................................................... 179
Pete ....................................................................................... 74
PEX ......................................................................................... 31
pH Chart ............................................................................... 148
pH Paper .............................................................................. 147
pH Probe .............................................................................. 149
Phases of Water ............................................................... 49, 56
Phenolphthalein ................................................................... 147
Phosphate ................................................................ 155, 168
Pig Tale ................................................................................. 182
Pilot Light ............................................................................. 236
Pipes ..................................................................................... 139
Pitot Tube ............................................................................. 184
Pitting ............................................................................... 31
Pitting Corrosion .................................................................. 164
Plain End Pipes ..................................................................... 140
Plate and Frame ................................................................ 115
Platinum ............................................................................... 203
Pneumatics........................................................................... 129
Positive Displacement .................................................. 179, 186
Pot Feeder ............................................................................. 30
Potassium Chloride .............................................................. 163
Potassium Oxide .................................................................. 235
Pour Point ....................................................................... 70
Powder River ......................................................................... 74
Power Outage ...................................................................... 131
Premix Burner ........................................................................ 85
Premix Flame ......................................................................... 81
Pressure Reducing Valve ................................................ 106
Pressure Regulator .............................................................. 127
Pressure Stat ........................................................................ 182
Pressurestat ......................................................................... 27
Pressuretrol .......................................................................... 27
Pressuretroll ........................................................................ 182
Primary Air ............................................................................. 70
Priming ............................................................................ 170
Propane ................................................................................. 68
Propane Tank ......................................................................... 43
Propeller .............................................................................. 133
Propylene Glycol .............................................................. 32, 33
PRV ...................................................................................... 106
Psia........................................................................... 60, 61, 181
Psig ....................................................................... 60, 61, 181
PxV=T ..................................................................................... 43
Pyrolysis ................................................................................. 80
Pyrometer ............................................................................ 108
Q
Quarter Turn Valve .............................................................. 130
Quench ................................................................................ 194
Quiet Pipes........................................................................... 132
Quill ..................................................................................... 179
R
Radiation .......................................................................... 48, 81
Radiator Steam Trap ............................................................ 103
Radiator Vent Valve .......................................................... 117
Radiators .............................................................. 29, 103, 117
Rain Shadow........................................................................... 52
Rankine Scale ......................................................................... 62
Rapper ................................................................................. 206
Raw Water ........................................................................... 153
Reciprocating Step Grate ....................................................... 91
Rectifier ............................................................................... 205
Reducing Flame ...................................................................... 81
Refractory ...................................................................... 22, 252
Refrigeration .......................................................................... 43
Regelation .............................................................................. 58
Resin Beads ................................................................... 155
Resistance ............................................................................ 136
Restricting Orifice .............................................................. 106
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Reverse Osmosis .................................................. 158, 160, 161
Reversing Valve ...................................................................... 45
Revolving Chain Grate ............................................................ 91
Rhodium ............................................................................... 203
Rich Flame ...................................................................... 82, 193
Rivets ............................................................................... 167
Roaring Flame ........................................................................ 81
ROI ....................................................................................... 248
Roll and Bead .............................................................. 167
Roll and Flare............................................................... 20, 167
Rope seal .............................................................................. 219
Rotary Actuator .................................................................... 130
Rotary Cup ............................................................................. 88
Rotary Cup Burner ....................................................... 70
Rotating Lobe ....................................................................... 186
Rotor ...................................................................................... 38
S
Safety Inspection.................................................................. 218
Safety Pop Off ...................................................................... 222
Safety Solenoid .................................................................... 232
Salt Bridge ............................................................................ 163
Satiration Curve ..................................................................... 51
Saturated Steam .................................................................... 49
Saturated Water .................................................................... 62
Saw Dust .......................................................................... 71, 90
Scale ................................................................. 155, 244, 249
SCH ....................................................................................... 142
Schedule ............................................................................... 142
SCR ....................................................................... 198, 201, 203
Sea Level .......................................................................... 49, 61
Seal Ropes ............................................................................ 220
Seamless Pipes ..................................................................... 139
Seasonal Shut Down ............................................................. 217
Secondary Air ................................................................ 70
Selective Catalytic Reduction ............................................... 198
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction ....................................... 198
Self Checking Flame Scanner ............................................... 235
Sensible Heat ......................................................................... 48
Series Connection ................................................................ 123
Series Pumps ........................................................................ 123
Shell and Tube................................................................... 115
Shutoff Cock ......................................................................... 229
Shuttered Flame Scanner ..................................................... 235
Siemen ................................................................................. 150
Sierra Nevada Range .............................................................. 52
Sight Glass ................................................................... 238
Silica ..................................................................................... 220
Silicates .................................................................................. 30
Silicone ................................................................................. 220
Silver Oxide .......................................................................... 235
Sine wave ............................................................................. 37
Single Phase ........................................................................ 37
Siphon Loop ......................................................................... 182
Slug ...................................................................................... 144
Snap Switch ................................................................. 27, 182
SNCR .................................................................................... 198
Sodium Chloride .................................................................. 163
Sodium Metabisulfite .......................................................... 169
Solar Salt .............................................................................. 163
Solenoid ....................................................................... 131, 229
Sonic Blast .............................................................................. 94
Soot ................................................................................ 82, 244
Soot Blower ................................................................... 94, 244
Sørensen, Søren ......................................................... 148
Spalling ................................................................................ 219
Sparge Tube ......................................................................... 163
Spark ...................................................................................... 79
Spark Ignitor .................................................................. 37, 236
Spark Plug .............................................................................. 79
Spring Check ........................................................................ 127
Stack ......................................................................... 246, 250
Stack Temperature ......................................................... 82, 246
Staged Air Burner................................................................... 84
Staged Combustion .............................................................. 194
Staged Fuel Burner ................................................................ 84
Stainless Steel ...................................................................... 141
Stall ...................................................................................... 113
Stator ..................................................................................... 38
Steam Generator .................................................................... 17
Steam Separators ................................................................ 145
Steam Table ........................................................................... 61
Step Up Transformer ....................................................... 37, 79
Sterilization .......................................................................... 119
Sterilzer ................................................................................ 119
Stethoscope ......................................................................... 108
Stirling Boiler ......................................................................... 14
Stoichiometric ........................................................................ 82
Stomata ............................................................................... 190
Stress ................................................................. 13, 163, 167
Stroke................................................................................... 179
Sub Saturated Water ............................................................. 62
Sub-bituminous ..................................................................... 74
Sublimation ...................................................................... 56, 57
Sulfate .................................................................................. 164
Sulfite ................................................................... 158, 164, 169
Sulfur Dioxide .............................................................. 191, 192
Sultana ................................................................................. 224
Super Skins ................................................................... 170
Supercritical Steam ................................................................ 61
Superheated Steam ......................................................... 49, 62
Superheater ...................................................................... 17, 22
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Surface Blowdown ..................................................... 170
Surface Tension.......................................................... 170
Surge Tank ........................................................................... 134
Swing Check ......................................................................... 127
Swirler .................................................................................... 83
T
TDS ............................................................................... 151, 170
Telltale Hole ................................................................ 13
Tesla, Nikola ........................................................................... 37
Therm ........................................................................... 138, 187
Thermal Imager .................................................................... 108
Thermocouple .............................................................. 164, 236
Thermodisc ............................................................................ 97
Thermodynamic Steam Traps ................................................ 96
Thermopile ........................................................................... 236
Thermostatic Steam Traps ..................................................... 96
Thermowell ........................................................................... 27
Threaded End Pipes .............................................................. 140
Three phase ......................................................................... 37
Tom Thumb .................................................................. 138, 187
Topsy the Elephant ................................................................ 37
Torque .................................................................................. 137
Total Dissolved Solids ......................................... 170
Tricock Valve .............................................................. 238
Triple Point ............................................................................. 56
TSP ....................................................................................... 168
Turbine ............................................................................. 39, 40
Turbine Flow Meter ............................................................. 186
Turbo Generator .................................................................... 38
Turbulent Flame ..................................................................... 82
Two Pipe System .............................................................. 117
TXV ....................................................................................... 106
U
UEL ......................................................................................... 82
Ultra Low NOx ...................................................................... 195
Ultra Violet ........................................................................... 235
Ultra Violet Light .................................................................. 190
Ultrasonic ............................................................................. 185
Ultraviolet............................................................................. 234
Universal Mounts for Steam Traps ....................................... 104
Universal Test Paper ............................................................ 147
Upper Explosive Limit ............................................................. 82
Urea ..................................................................................... 200
UV light ................................................................................ 234
V
Vacuum ............................................................ 40, 50, 60, 120
Vacuum Chamber .................................................................. 57
Valves ................................................................................... 127
Vapor Cone ............................................................................ 59
Vapor Pressure ...................................................................... 49
Vaporization .................................................................... 48, 50
Variable Frequency Drive .................................................... 137
Vavle Induced Water Hammer ............................................ 132
Venturi ......................................................................... 183, 184
VFD ...................................................................................... 137
Vibrations ............................................................................ 125
VIS Light ............................................................................... 234
Viscosity.................................................................... 70, 87
Voltage ................................................................................... 37
Volts .................................................................................... 136
Vulcanization ....................................................................... 119
Vulcanizing ........................................................................... 119
W
Water Column ............................................................ 173, 238
Water Column Blowdown ................................................... 173
Water Hammer ............................................................ 129, 132
Water Slug ........................................................................... 144
Water Softener .................................................... 155, 163
Water Tube ................................................................ 14, 19, 20
Watts ................................................................................... 136
Wax ........................................................................................ 80
Welded Seam Pipes.............................................................. 139
Wellons Boilers ...................................................................... 18
Westinghouse ........................................................................ 37
Wet Layup ............................................................................ 217
Wet Lime Spray Dryer .......................................................... 192
Wet Scrubber ....................................................................... 208
Wet Steam ............................................................................. 62
Wetback Boiler ...................................................................... 10
Wood Fuel ............................................................................. 71
Z
Zeolite ............................................................................ 155
Zinc ...................................................................................... 141
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