Boiler and CT & Chiller Chemistry CW 10.22.20

CW
Boiler,
Cooling Tower
& Chiller
Chemistry
(AND Physics)
Illustrations and Notes arranged by
Sedley Parkinson, Instructor
Oct. 2020
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Table of Contents
A) Steam Boilers ...................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1. Caustic Embrittlement .................................................................................................................................................. 5
i. pH ........................................................................................................................................................................ 5
ii. Stress Cracking .................................................................................................................................................. 10
2. TDS Control ................................................................................................................................................................. 11
i. Conductivity ...................................................................................................................................................... 11
ii. Dry Pipe ............................................................................................................................................................ 14
iii. Blowdown ......................................................................................................................................................... 16
3. Scale Control ............................................................................................................................................................... 20
i. Water Softener ................................................................................................................................................ 21
ii. Demineralizers ................................................................................................................................................. 24
iii. Chelates (Phosphates/Molybdates) ................................................................................................................. 26
iv. Reverse Osmosis (RO) ...................................................................................................................................... 27
v. Filtration .......................................................................................................................................................... 28
vi. Scale Removal .................................................................................................................................................. 33
4. Oxygen Pitting ............................................................................................................................................................ 34
i. Deaeration ......................................................................................................................................................... 34
ii. Oxygen Scavengers ............................................................................................................................................ 36
5. Carbonic Acid in Condensate ...................................................................................................................................... 37
6. Erosion Corrosion ....................................................................................................................................................... 40
i. FAC – Flow Accelerated Corrosion .................................................................................................................... 40
ii. LDI – Liquid Droplet Impingement ..................................................................................................................... 41
7. Combination Chemical Treatment ............................................................................................................................. 42
8. Chemical Feed Pumps................................................................................................................................................. 43
9. Sample Coolers ........................................................................................................................................................... 45
B) Non-Steam Boilers ............................................................................................................................................................ 46
1. Air Removal ................................................................................................................................................................ 46
2. Corrosion Inhibitors .................................................................................................................................................... 47
2. PEX tubing ................................................................................................................................................................... 48
3. Antifreeze ................................................................................................................................................................... 49
4. Condensing Boiler: Carbonic Acid............................................................................................................................... 52
5. Expansion Control ....................................................................................................................................................... 53
C) Water Cooling Systems .................................................................................................................................................... 54
1. Scale Prevention ......................................................................................................................................................... 54
Scale Removal ....................................................................................................................................................... 56
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2. Corrosion .................................................................................................................................................................... 57
a. Galvanic Corrosion ............................................................................................................................................ 57
b. Rust ................................................................................................................................................................... 58
c. MIC .................................................................................................................................................................... 60
d. Eddie Current Testing ..................................................................................................................................... 62
3. Biological Growth ...................................................................................................................................................... 63
a. Algae, Yeast, Molds ...................................................................................................................................... 63
b. Legionella ..................................................................................................................................................... 64
4. Biological Control ........................................................................................................................................................ 66
5. Regridgerants ............................................................................................................................................................. 70
D) Fuel ................................................................................................................................................................................... 73
1) Types .......................................................................................................................................................................... 73
i. Natural Gas ....................................................................................................................................................... 73
ii. Liquid Fuels ....................................................................................................................................................... 73
iii. Solid Fuels / BioMass ........................................................................................................................................ 77
iv. Electricity .......................................................................................................................................................... 81
2) Combustion ................................................................................................................................................................ 82
i. Combustion Air ................................................................................................................................................. 83
ii. Spark ................................................................................................................................................................. 85
iii. Flame ................................................................................................................................................................ 86
iv. Air/Fuel Ratio (AFR) .......................................................................................................................................... 88
3) Burners ...................................................................................................................................................................... 90
i. Natural Gas ....................................................................................................................................................... 90
ii. Oil ..................................................................................................................................................................... 93
4) Air Pollution (Emissions)............................................................................................................................................. 95
i. Boiler Mact ....................................................................................................................................................... 95
ii. Acid Rain ........................................................................................................................................................... 96
iii. CO, HC and Ground Level Ozone ...................................................................................................................... 97
iv. NO x, HC and CO Control .................................................................................................................................... 98
v. CO ₂ (Green House Gasses) .............................................................................................................................. 103
E) Physics ............................................................................................................................................................................ 104
1. Ideal Gas Law: PV=nRT ............................................................................................................................................. 104
i. Heat Pump ...................................................................................................................................................... 106
iii. Air Compressor ............................................................................................................................................... 107
2) Temperature vs Heat Content .................................................................................................................................. 108
3) Pressure .................................................................................................................................................................... 109
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i. Vapor Pressure ............................................................................................................................................... 110
ii. Pressure vs Temperature Chart ...................................................................................................................... 115
iii. Gauge vs Absolute .......................................................................................................................................... 119
iv. Water Hammer: Valve Induced ...................................................................................................................... 120
v. Water Phase Expansion .................................................................................................................................. 122
4) Steam Table ............................................................................................................................................................. 123
5) Temperature vs Enthalpy (Btus/Pound)................................................................................................................... 124
6) Flow .......................................................................................................................................................................... 126
i. Electricity ........................................................................................................................................................ 126
ii. Poiseuille’s Law ............................................................................................................................................... 129
iii. Water Hammer ............................................................................................................................................... 130
iv. Inline Steam Separators .................................................................................................................................. 131
v. Flow Change - Energy ..................................................................................................................................... 132
vi. Piping .............................................................................................................................................................. 133
F) Boiler Layup/Seasonal Shut Down .................................................................................................................................. 134
G) Carbon Monoxide ........................................................................................................................................................... 135
H) Efficiency ........................................................................................................................................................................ 136
1) Causes ....................................................................................................................................................................... 136
2) Effects ....................................................................................................................................................................... 140
I) Appendix: Periodic Table ................................................................................................................................................. 141
Section 107 of the Copyright Act provides the statutory framework for determining whether something is a fair use and identifies
certain types of uses—such as criticism, comments, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research.
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A) Steam Boilers
1. Caustic Embrittlement
i. pH
pH
Bypass chemical “slug”
feeder for startup,
layup or other
specialized cases
Litmus paper
Chemical indicators
change color at
different pH ranges
A universal pH indicator contains several compounds that
exhibits smooth color changes over a broad pH range.
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Hydrochloric Acid
(HCl)
H + OH -
10 0 = 1 = 100%
10 -14 = .00000000000001
Stomach Acid
(weak HCl)
10 -1 = .1 = 10%
10 -13 = .0000000000001
Vinegar
Lemon Juice
Soda Pop
Orange Juice
10 -2 = .01 = 1%
10 -3 = .001 = .1%
10 -12 = .000000000001
10 -11 = .00000000001
The concept of pH was
first introduced in 1909
by Danish chemist
Søren Sørensen
Tomato Juice
Acid Rain
10 -4 = .0001 = .01%
10 -10 = .0000000001
Eye Drops
Normal Rain
10 -5 = .00001
10 -9 = .000000001
Saliva
Urine
10 -6 = .000001
10 -8 = .00000001
Pure Water
10 -7 = .0000001 =
10 -7 = .0000001
Sea Water
Swimming Pools
10 -8 = .00000001
10 -6 = .000001
Baking Soda
10 -9 = .000000001
10 -5 = .00001
Great Salt Lake
10 -10 = .0000000001
10 -4 = .0001
Ammonia (NH4OH)
Soaps
10 -11 = .00000000001
10 -12 = .000000000001
10 -3 = .001
10 -2 = .01
At pH > 7, OH -
(hydroxide) becomes
the active ion.
Bleach
Oven Cleaner
10 -13 = .0000000000001
10 -1 = .1
OH -
Drain Cleaner
Caustic (NaOH)
10 -14 = .00000000000001
H +
10 0 = 1
HCl (acid) + NaOH (base) → H 2O (pH 7) + NaCl
(salt water)
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pH Probe
Acids have more positive ions and conduct electricity
better. A pH probe measures the voltage (potential
difference) of a solution.
The glass bulb should be kept
moist, even when not in use,
non-hydrated bulbs give
erratic readings.
(Do not use RO, DI or Distilled water
for storage)
Liquid filled cap
pH probes must be periodically calibrated with at least
two reference buffer solutions (the reference buffers
you use depends on if your sample is acidic or basic).
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Roll and Bead
Fire tubes are often referred to as “flue tubes”.
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Roll and Flare
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ii. Stress Cracking
CAUSTIC EMBRITTLEMENT:
When iron crystals are stretched, Fe↔Fe bonds
are weakened.
And if pH > 12.7, then OH - ↔Fe bonds more readily
and a crack forms until the stress is relieved.
Stretched
steel
Water Tube:
Caustic
Embrittlement
Rolling tubes also stretches
the steel and can be a
possible location for caustic
embrittlement to take place
Rivets stretch the steel and are no
longer permitted on boilers.
Welds are now used.
SPEC: Boiler pH should be < 12.7
Boiler room, Titanic
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Conductivity
2. TDS Control
i. Conductivity
TDS
Water sample coolers
SALT
↓
Distilled water:
No electrical flow
Water with ionic
contaminants:
Electrical flow
Periodic calibration is important
to ensure your meter is accurate.
mho = non-metric
(archaic, but still used)
Electrical Resistance = ohm (Ω)
Electrical Conductivity = mho
1 mho = 1 Siemen (S)
0.000001 Siemen = 1 µS = 1 µmho
Opposites
(spelling too!)
S = metric unit
µ = micro
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Conductivity vs. TDS
Total dissolved solids (TDS) is, technically,
anything dissolved in water (including
organics that do not conduct electricity).
If the general chemistry of the liquid being
measured is known, then a conversion factor can
be applied and is usually done internally by the
meter itself. Still, this new measurement is only an
approximation.
TDS is measured in parts per million (ppm) or mg/l (milligrams per liter).
To achieve true TDS readings:
True TDS measurement is very slow. For faster
numbers, we rely on general conductivity
conversion rules (but lose accuracy).
Accurately weigh a filtered sample
along with its container at room
temperature. Evaporate liquid to
dryness at 104˚C. Let cool to room
temperature then reweigh.
TDS = (preweight – postweight)/volume
P a g e 12

Estimated conversion table for boiler
water by Spirax Sarco
CW
Conductivity vs. Temperature
Conductivity increases with
temperature, meters are
internally auto-adjusting.
1) The Hydroxide ion in boiler water is
highly conductive compared to other ions.
2) Since the conversion calculation from Conductivity to TDS is
only an estimate (depending on what is actually in the water), high
pH may skew the conversion factor.
3) Therefore, it is common practice to neutralize any alkalinity
with an organic acid (such as non-conductive acetic acid) prior to
measuring conductivity.
4) This produces a more stable conductivity
measurement, thus a more reliable TDS estimate.
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ii. Dry Pipe
Simple interior port for water level columns
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Steam Scrubber and outlet
Downcomer tubes
Surface Blowdown
(skimmer)
Feed water
Chemical Injection
(from bypass feeder)
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TDS Control: Surface blowdown
iii. Blowdown
b
Surface Blowdown :
High TDS can increase surface tension
of water creating bubbles with “super
skins”, increasing chances of priming
(boiler water escaping as droplets and
traveling with steam), carryover (solids
resulting from priming) and bouncing
(fast irregular fluctuations in boiler
water level).
Best TDS control, bubbles are popping on the
surface leaving their solids behind (highest TDS
concentration in boiler).
Surface (Continuous)
Blowdown Valve (Skimmer):
Motorized Actuator
TDS probe
General Recommendation for max TDS:
Two pass economic
4500 ppm
Packaged and 3-Pass 3000 - 3500
Low pressure water tube 2000 – 3000
Steam generators (Coil type boilers) 2000
Medium pressure water tube 1500
High Pressure water tube 1000
Consult your manufacturer for
exact specifications.
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iv. Bottom Blowdown
Bottom Blowdown:
Removes sludge and sediment.
Should be done daily, 3 second bursts.
If MAWP (Maximum Allowable
Working Pressure) >100 then 2
blowdown valves are needed
To protect boiler from
sudden, excessive
changes in pressure,
maximum blowdown
pipe size = 2½ in.
Reversed order
Two slow
opening valves
Fast valve should
be closest to boiler
Slow valve should be
secondary to boiler
Visual flow viewport
Most boilers are equipped with a series of two
blowdown valves. Always open the one closest to the
boiler first and close it last. Any cavitation damage
that may occur will happen on the valve that is easier
to replace. To replace the inner valve, the entire
system has to be shut down!
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Steam vented to atmosphere
CW
Blowdown Tank (blowdown separator)
To prevent damage to sewer lines
blowdown is cooled with city water in the
blowdown tank before entering sewer.
When a sump is used as
blowdown holding tank,
the water becomes
sufficiently cooled without
adding additional water.
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Water Column Blowdown
Normal conditions inside
the water column
Inside the water column
170 psi = 374°F
Inside the ball float is the
same @ 374°F
Water flashing into steam brings the temperature
inside the water column toward 212°F
↓P • V c = ↓T
Visual port flow indicator
The float temperature drops toward
212°F, the air inside the ball also
drops, reducing interior ball pressure
↓P • V c = ↓T
Water column
blowdown reciever
Pressure inside the water
column returns to 170 psig
Alarm bypass
Without sufficient time to reheat,
the air in the ball is still at a lower
pressure, it collapses.
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3. Scale Control
Make Up Water
The term “make up water” refers to raw water
without any treatment chemicals added, such
as from a well or from the city.
Chlorine in city water, when unchecked, can damage RO system membranes. On the other
hand, because of general treatment practices by municipal water sources, clarification,
filtration, chlorination help remove contaminants such as iron, silica, bacteria, etc. Part or
all of this process needs to be performed at your plant if your water is untreated.
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i. Water Softener
From the Bronze Age into the Renaissance the
average masses of wheat and barley grains were
part of the legal definitions of units of mass.
Grain per gallon (gpg) is a unit of water hardness defined as 1
grain of calcium carbonate dissolved in 1 US gallon of water. It
translates into 1 part in about 58,000 parts of water or
1 grain = 17.1 ppm (parts per million)
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Water Softener
Sodium (Na+) changes places with hardness: Calcium (Ca+ 2 ) and Magnesium (Mg+ 2 )
Cationic resin beads
attract positive ions:
Na+, Ca+ 2 , Mg+ 2
Zeolite = Plastic Resin Beads. If spilled
on the floor, they act as small marbles
and can make the floor very “slippery”
Some softener salt eventually enters the boiler,
however, the softener salt (NaCl) stays dissolved
in the water and does not fall out as scale.
An air-bown, salt
supply bin, and
delivery truck
Three Tanks: when one is regenerating,
the other is in service, the third is held in
reserve. All used as “Lag Lead”. More
typical systems only use two tanks.
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KCl vs. NaCl
The potassium (K) atom is larger than the sodium (Na) atom, that is, the center of the
atom is farther away from the place where the reaction takes place (the outer electrons).
To remove hardness from the resin beads, it requires 27% more potassium chloride than
sodium chloride. While some argue that potassium is friendlier to the environment, it can
easily be said that more waste is generated. Potassium chloride is also more expensive.
NaCl
KCl
Salt Bridge
Bridges may form and prevent
salt from dissolving in water.
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ii. Demineralizers
Dual Bed
CW
Cations have a positive charge. This bed
does the same thing as a water softener
by removing Ca++, Mg++, etc.
Anions have a negative charge. This bed
removes HCO 3−, CO 32 −, Cl−, SO 42 −, etc.
By removing the carbonates (HCO 3−, CO 32 −) from the water,
less carbonic acid will form in the condensate, thus reducing
the need for amine neutralizers in the condensate lines.
Instead of exchanging ions with Na+ (salt)
as in a water softener, the undesired
cations are removed with an acid...
…while undesired
anions are removed
with a caustic.
“Demin” plants also
remove NaCl while
softeners cannot.
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Demineralizer (Continued)
Mixed Bed
Caustic
Acid
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For Residual Hardness that the softener (or demin plant) did not get:
iii. Chelates (Phosphates/Molybdates)
Phosphates (PO 4
-3
) or Molybdates (MoO 4
-2
) removes residual hardness and forms a soft sludge (easy to blowdown).
10Ca +2 + 6(PO 4 -3 ) + 2OH - → 3Ca 3(PO 4 -3 ) 2·Ca(OH) 2
Blown down as soft sludge
OH Alkalinity is necessary in order for the above reaction to take place.
Phosphates (PO 4
-3
) or Molybdates (MoO 4
-2
)
Molybdates
Plus
Alkalinity (OH)
Polymers are added which attach to the
phosphate complex, making a chain which
becomes heavy and falls to the bottom
and then is blown down as sludge
Molybdates (Moly) and
phosphates are generally
determined with a colorimeter
Scale Control chemicals are typically
injected into feed water line
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iv. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
Free Chlorine Removal
RO
Free chlorine is very destructive on RO membrane. Free chlorine is defined as the
concentration of residual chlorine in water present as dissolved gas (Cl 2),
hypochlorous acid (HOCl), and/or hypochlorite ion (OCl−). City water uses free
chlorine to kill bacteria in drinking water. If free chlorine is present in makeup
water, it is common practice to neutralize it with a sodium sulfite solution or filter
out the chlorine with carbon, or a combination of the two.
Carbon is processed using high temperature
steam and/or acids which ultimately increase
carbon pore size, increasing surface area.
Activated charcoal carbon filters are
most effective at removing chlorine,
sediment, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), taste and odor
from water. They are not effective
at removing minerals, salts, and
dissolved inorganic compounds.
Due to its high degree of micro porosity,
just one gram of activated carbon has a
surface area in excess of 32,000 ft 2 .
Free Chlorine can also be stabilized with Sulfite solutions
Sodium metabisulfite (Na 2S 2O 5) when dissolved in
water reduces free chlorine.
→ H 2SO 4 + 2HCl + Na 2SO 4
(Sulfites are also used as oxygen scavengers)
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v. Filtration
Suspended Solids
Filtration
psid (pounds per square inch differential)
shows when filters need servicing
A progressive filtration system down to 5 Microns
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RO
Membrane Filtration
Two RO systems here
are used as “Lead/Lag”
RO systems creat very clean water,
however a great deal of waste
water is also produced. This boiler
system uses the waste to cool off
blowdown thus saving city water.
No salt or other chemicals are needed, however,
the costs of replacement membranes, the
electricity needed to pump the water through the
membranes, and the excess higher concentration
waste water all need to be calculated in when
considering this form of water treatment.
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Slime Buildup on RO Membrane
Fouling
With chlorine removed, membranes are a
great place for bacteria slime to grow
which can plug up the system.
Non-Oxidizing Biological Control Chemicals do not damage RO membranes. They
are typically much more expensive than the oxidizing type.
Scale Buildup on RO Membrane
Organic phosphates disrupt crystal
formation and extend the time
between membrane changeout.
(same chemical and process used in
cooling towers to prevent scale)
Normalized Permeate Flow (NPF) = the amount of permeate water that the RO is producing
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Water naturally absorbs Carbon Dioxide. This
CO2 breaks down and forms Carbonic Acid.
When water is stored for an extended period
of time and in large enough quantities, it may
be advantageous to increase the pH.
A small amount of caustic (Sodium Hydroxide = NaOH)
may be added to offset this acid.
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Magnets
Some studies have shown that magnets do
work to some degree, but only within about a
10-foot distance from the unit. Note: magnets
do not remove scale, they merely temporarily
realign ionic molecules.
There is a lack of peer-reviewed laboratory data,
mechanistic explanations and documented field studies.
However, there is this a large supply of erroneous and
contradictory conclusions about their efficacy based on
applications with uncontrolled variables. Magnetic water
treatment is regarded as unproven and unscientific.
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vi. Scale Removal
Mechanical Scrubbing
Chemical Cleaning
CIP = Cleaning in Place
Depending on what you are trying to remove, Caustic cleaners are generally
good on organic fouling and Acid cleaners are generally good on scale.
Caustic Cleaners: Keep the overall cleaning solution
which comes in contact with metal surfaces below
pH 12.7 (helps avoid caustic embrittlement)
Acid Cleaners: Must contain an inhibitor such as
Nitrites to help prevent damage to metal surfaces.
If Iron or Silica is present in feed water, a
very strong complex of scale may form.
It becomes very difficult to remove, no
matter what chemicals you use.
Waste water must be neutralized in accordance with
local ordinances before flushing into sewer.
Typically pH 5 to pH 12.5 meets guidelines.
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4. Oxygen Pitting
i. Deaeration
DeAerator
Temperature stress is reduced by using steam to bring feed
water nearer to the temperature of the boiler water.
Steam and water mix
Sprayer plate
Receiving Tray
Anti-vortex
baffles
Sparge Tube:
Perforated feed line
Sparging
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The deaerator also removes dissolved O 2 (Oxygen Scavenger)
The more oxygen you can
economically remove, the
less chemical you need.
32º F 68º F 104º F 140º F 176º F
ppm O2 (dissolved Oxygen) 69 43 31 14

CW
ii. Oxygen Scavengers
Sulfite is added to the deaerator to
absorb residual oxygen before it
can get to the boiler.
DA tank chemical
injection quill
(interior)
Sulfite “fights” the
Oxygen.
2SO3 + O2 → 2SO4
Sulfate is then blown
down as waste.
% Replacement Equivalent Chart
Sodium Sulfite: Na₂SO₃
Sodium (Meta)bisulfite: Na 2S 2O 5
Sulfur Trioxide: SO₃
Sulfur Dioxide: SO₂
Sulfites add conductivity to boiler water. Higher psi boilers (>300psi) have tighter conductivity specifications
and favor scavengers that do not add to this conductivity. Organic oxygen scavengers (Hydrazine and DEHA)
High psi do Boilers not add conductivity (>300psi) to water and thus helps to reduce the need for blowdowns.
Hydrazine
N 2H 4 +O 2 → N 2 + H 2O
Works great, but is considered a carcinogen and is being
phased out.
Diethyl hydroxylamine (DEHA)
C 4H 11NO +O 2 → C 4H 9NO + H 2O 2
Volatile, that is, it evaporates with the boiler water and
travels with the steam. Not only does this help with any
possibility of oxygen pitting in condensate lines, DEHA also
has been shown to help passivate metal (prevents carbonic
acid corrosion).
Organic Oxygen Scavengers are typically only used in high PSI
applications where TDS limits are a greater challenge.
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5. Carbonic
Acid in Condensate
Acid Corrosion
CO2 + 2H2O → H2(g) + H2CO3
Carbon dioxide, that we breathe out, is absorbed by water,
breaks down and forms Carbonic Acid
Rain is simply another form of condensate
and contains carbonic acid.
Dissolved tombstone from rain.
Due to Carbonic Acid,
untreated condensate can
reach down to pH 5.5
CARBONIC ACID disrupts
the protective magnetite
surface of steel.
Condensate
Sample Port
SPEC: When using neutralizing
amines, Condensate should be
pH > 8.3
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Most common amines
CW
pH controlling amines and are highly volatile.
They evaporate and travel along with boiler
steam neutralizing carbonic acid as the steam
condenses back into water.
Temperature and psi can affect when various
types of amines re-condense. These properties
are applied in condensate line distance.
Morpholine (short range)
Diethyl aminoethanol (DEAE) (medium range)
Cyclohexylamine (long range)
Injection quill: generally
directly into steam line
Neutralizing amines can be injected into feed
water, however, during blowdowns, product is
lost. Direct steam line injection is more common.
Filming Amines
Filming amines are not always soluble in
water, and therefore, should always be
injected directly into steam lines.
For food production facilities and live
steam applications, non-toxic filming
amines travel along with boiler steam
forming a thin protective waterproof
layer on the metal surface, repelling the
acidic condensate.
Inserting and monitoring corrosion coupons
directly into condensate lines can be helpful in
chemical distribution troubleshooting.
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Steam Trap Trouble Shooting
Steam Trap Troubleshooting
CW
Mechanic’s Stethoscope
Each type of steam trap has its own fingerprint
signature sound when functioning properly.
Electronic
stethoscope
Screwdriver to Ear method!
Flow
Infrared
Pyrometer
A significant drop in temperature
indicates that a steam trap is
functioning properly.
For every 8 inches away, the meter reads a circle
of 1 inch diameter. The laser dot only acts as a
pointer and has nothing to do with IR light.
Thermal Imager (preferred)
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CW
6. Erosion Corrosion
i. – Flow Accelerated Corrosion
FAC: Flow Accelerated Corrosion
FAC is a concern in plants where low
oxygen content (as in condensate), high
velocity flow and high temperature
water (around 300˚F) exist.
Some power boilers reintroduce
oxygen into condensate to help
prevent FAC
Stainless steel’s chromium oxide surface virtually stops any FAC,
while Carbon steel’s oxide surface (Magnetite) is succeptable.
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LDI – Liquid Droplet Impingement
ii. LDI – Liquid Droplet Impingement
LDI = FAC on a small scale
As irregularities in the metal
surface increase from prior
impacts, corrosion accelerates.
CW
Flow
Installation of periodic
drip legs helps reduce LDI
Power plants use
superheated steam
(zero chance of
water droplets in
steam) which helps
avoid LDI damage on
turbine blades
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CW
7. Combination Chemical Treatment
Because of chemical demand is less in
smaller boilers, it is simpler to inject
combination chemicals into boiler itself.
Only one pump and one chemical container
is required. However, it is more difficult to
control chemistry specifications.
Oxygen Scavenger
Scale Inhibitor
Also: by injecting all chemicals into the DA
tank, some of the amines are lost in both
the DA vent and boiler blowdowns.
Steam Treatment
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CW
8. Chemical Feed Pumps
Peristaltic Pumps
Pinch process does not lose prime, but
tube needs to be replaced periodically
Diaphragm Pumps
Long lasting and durable, however,
these are a “pain” when they lose prime
Speed:
How often
Stroke:
How deep
Chemical
injection
quill
Check
valve
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Four Function Valve (4FV):
Suction valve
Discharge valve
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9. Sample Coolers
Sample Coolers
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B) Non-Steam Boilers
1. Air Removal
Air Removal
Closed Loop
Air Vent
Air Scoop
Open
Air under pressure
is blown out
Closing
Water replaces air
Closed
Poppet floats and
seals top
Air Separator
Manual Radiator
Air Bleed Valves
Auto Radiator Air
Bleed Valves
Air escapes from the radiator through the valve until water
enters and expands the hygroscopic washers.
P a g e 46

CW
2. Corrosion Inhibitors
Closed Loop Continued
Closed Loop Corrosion Control
Corrosion Control
Corrosion in electric closed loop boiler
SPEC: Molybdates (“Moly”), Nitrites, or
Silicates are added as a corrosion inhibitor to
closed loop systems via bypass feeders or
direct injection pumps.
P a g e 47

2. PEX tubing
CW
Closed Loop Continued
PEX: No corrosion
An aluminum layer or EVOH barrier (Ethylene-Vinyl
Alcohol copolymer) prevents oxygen penetration.
(3 layers)
(5 layers)
PEX Al PEX
P a g e 48

CW
Antifreeze
3. Antifreeze
Closed Loop Continued
Prevents freezing in Closed Loops
during shut downs.
PG
C₃H₈O₂
Composition
EG
C2H6O2
Food Grade
(You can drink it)
Safety
Toxic
(Follow proper use and
disposal guidelines)
Nitrites are added to
prevent corrosion.
Cost (as of 2014)
Inhibitor = Nitrites
= corrosion prevention
Because of safety, food-processing closed loop
boilers generally are charged with Propylene
Glycol.
Use
Because of cost, nonfood-processing closed loop
boilers generally are charged with Ethylene Glycol.
Automobile engine antifreeze usually
contain antifoams, coagulants, dyes and
other additives which may or may not
effect a boiler’s proper operation.
P a g e 49

CW
Measurement
Refractometer:
Chemical concentration effects
refraction angle.
Float Type
Antifreeze testers
Since non-food grade (cheaper) antifreeze is generally
used in automobile engines, these type of testers
indicate freeze point of Ethylene Glycol.
Glycol Mixing Tanks
1. Allows water to raise to room temperature before entering system, removing dissolved air.
2. A convenient way to make sure your percentage is correct.
P a g e 50

CW
Concentration vs Freeze Point
Glycols 70%
Freeze point starts
to go back up!
50/50 Blend: Typical Use Recommendation
P a g e 51

4. Condensing Boiler: Carbonic Acid
Condensing Boiler
More efficient use of flue gas
Closed Loop Continued
A condensing boiler
CW
Non-Condensing
Boiler with separate
condensing chamber
Acidic condensate flows
across neutralizing
marble type chips
preventing possible
damage to sewer lines
Notice PVC drain line
for acidic condensate
P a g e 52

CW
Expansion Control
5. Expansion Control
Closed Loop Continued
Expansion tanks located at
the highest point in the
closed loop do not need air
separators. They usually
have a sight glass and should
be at least 1/3 rd empty.
Expansion
Joints
To extend the life of the
diaphragm/bladder
compression tank, it is
usually placed on the cold
end of the loop.
P a g e 53

Hardness →
CW
C) Water Cooling Systems
1.
SCALE
Scale Prevention
CONTROL #1
Bleed Off
Stay under the saturation point. Keep the cycles
of concentration in check by using bleedoff
controls.
Scale
forms
Saturation
maximum
Supersaturated
Conductivity
set point.
1 cycle
= raw water
2 cycles
= twice as concentrated
due to evaporation
3 cycles
= three times
4 cycles
Electric Motor Actuator slowly opens
(helps prevent water hammer)
Signals actuator to bleed off
system until conductivity drops
Inline probe measures
how well electricity flows
between electrodes in
water then converts
reading to Conductivity.
Electromagnetic
Solenoid
P a g e 54

Hardness→
OH¯ Concentration→
SCALE CONTROL #2
Phosphates and pH
CW
Use scale control chemicals.
Polymers/HEDP keep crystals in suspension.
Phosphonates disrupt formation of crystal lattices.
Nalco solid chemical dissolver/dispenser
New maximum
Proper use of chemicals
raises the saturation line,
enabling higher cycles and
water conservation.
Supersaturated
New conductivity
set point.
Old saturation
maximum
From 2.5
to 3.4 cycles
1 cycle 2 cycles
3 cycles
4 cycles
SCALE CONTROL #3
IF pH is high, add acid.
High concentration of
OH¯ ions (high pH)
lowers the solubility of
calcium carbonate, it
precipitates out and scale
forms.
Scale
forms
7 pH → 9 10 11 12 13 14
P a g e 55

CW
Scale Removal
Pressure Spray & Vacuum
CaCO 3 + 2HCl (acid) CaCl 2 + H 2 O + CO 2 (gas)
Dilute HCl
Scale Chips
Acid
(Inhibited with Nitrites)
Municipalities generally do not accept pH

Cathode
CW
2. Corrosion
Galvanic
a. Galvanic Corrosion
Corrosion
mild steel vs stainless steel
brass vs steel
Metal
Oxides↓
Cathode
(zero corrosion)
Anode
e -
Cathode
(zero corrosion)
Metal
Oxides→
Anode
e -
Anode
Tubercles
←(zero corrosion)
Cathodic ←
→Anodic
Plastic/Nylon
sleeves/gaskets
More anodic→ corrodes first
←Further apart, stronger galvanic effect→
Coated bolts/screws
Dielectric Union
P a g e 57

CW
b. Rust
Dissolved oxygen “steels” (oxidizes) electrons
from Iron. A weak but significant electrical
current forms creating Anode (+) and
Cathode (-) areas.
O 2 + 4e¯+ 2H 2O → 4OH¯
Fe +2
Anode
2e¯
Cathode
Fe +2 ions are released into the water along with
the newly formed OH¯ ions.
Fe +2
Fe
Anode
Cathode
Fe +2 combines with 2OH¯ and precipitates out as rust.
Fe +2 + 2OH¯ → Fe(OH) 2
rust
rust
Cathode
Fe
Fe
Cathode
Anode
Iron Rust
White Rust = Zinc rust on
galvanized metal
(selective leeching).
P a g e 58

H + Concentration→
CW
.
Acidic waters have high H + ion concentrations which react with electrons at
the cathode releasing hydrogen gas: 2H + + 2e¯ → H 2 (g).
Corrosion is accelerated.
0 ← pH 3 5 7
Group VII
Halogens
Like Oxygen, the halides Bromine, Chlorine and Iodine are
also “looking” for electrons which are readily available at the
cathode. At high levels, these oxidizing biocides have a
tendency to cause corrosion.
Oxidizing
Biocides
Road Salt (NaCl) Corrosion
P a g e 59

CW
c. MIC
MIC
Microbiologically Induced Corrosion
Biofilm = Slime
Under the slime is an
area where Anerobic
bacteria thrive.
Cathode
←e¯
M +
Anode
e¯→ Cathode
Anaerobic bacteria “eat” metal by means
of reduction reaction.
Its waste is food for the aerobic bacteria in the
slime. These colonies form tubercles.
Aerobic = breaths 0xygen
Anaerobic = does not breath O2
Tubercle grows,
penetrating completely
through metal.
←e¯
↑
M +
e¯→
Upon removing Tubercles,
shiny, raw metal is exposed.
P a g e 60

CW
MIC Prevention and control
Water Treatment Biocides + Non-penetrable, Non-metallic Coatings
Fouling prevention and control
Manually “punching ” tubes
Automatically punching tubes
P a g e 61

CW
d. Eddie Current Testing
Cracks, corrosion, or other imperfections
create out of specification signals.
P a g e 62

CW
3. Biological Growth
a. Algae, Yeast, Molds Unchecked mold and algae growth restricts air
flow plugs lines and ultimately reduces efficiency.
P a g e 63

CW
Bacteria b. Legionella
History
The first recognized outbreak occurred at the Bellevue Stratford during an American
Legion conference in 1976 in Philadelphia. As many as 221 people were given
medical treatment, and 34 died from extreme pneumonia symptoms. The U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention mounted an unprecedented investigation
and, by September, the focus had shifted from outside causes, such as a disease
carrier, to the hotel itself. After 5 months of research, the Legionellosis bacterium
was finally identified; it was in the cooling tower. Normally, the bacterium dies
when the water droplets in the mist spray leaving the cooling tower dries up in the air.
However, at the Stratford, the mist spray from the cooling tower exhaust fans was
being sucked back in by the building’s fresh air intake!
Major Legionella Outbreaks
Non-communicable
(cannot be transferred
between humans)
Year Location Cases Died Bacteria Source
1976 Philadelphia 221 34 Cooling Tower
1985 Stafford, UK 175 28 Cooling Tower
1999 Bovenkarspel, Netherlands 200 32 Humidifier & Whirlpool
2000 Melbourne, Australia 125 4 Cooling Tower
2001 Murcia, Spain 449 6 Cooling Tower
2002 Barrow, UK 172 7 Cooling Tower
2003 Pas-de-Calais, France 86 18 Cooling Tower
2005 Fredrikstad, Norway 56 10 Air Scrubber
2011 Playboy Mansion, Los Angeles 123 0 Hot Tub
Due to early
intervention
Legionella are more
difficult to kill in areas
with high slime build up.
Between 1995 and 2005, over 32,000
worldwide cases of Legionnaires'
disease and more than 600 outbreaks
were reported to the European Working
Group for Legionella Infections (EWGLI).
P a g e 64

CW
Infected lung
Water test
Urine test
P a g e 65

CW
4. Biological Control
BIOCIDES
Oxidizing antimicrobials kill by “stealing” electrons from critical atoms
disrupting internal functions or damaging cell walls.
Nonoxidizing kill by replacing critical molecules with “poison” molecules.
Oxidizing
Biocides
Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine “steel” (oxidize)
electrons from molecules of living cells and
they die or fail to reproduce.
Note: No. 53 Iodine (I)
is also a medicinal
disinfectant.
Hypochlorite Ion
Hypochlorous Acid
Chlorine Gas/ Tablets /Bleach + H 2 O → OCl ¯ + HOCl + OH¯
Ions attack
cell walls.
Acids attack
internal cell
functions.
Bromine Tablets + H 2 O →
OBr ¯ + HOBr + OH¯
Chlorine
Hypobromite Ion
Hypobromous Acid
Bromine
Oxidizing Biocides
Ozone (O3)
Nalco OxySlugger dispenser
1) 1) Generated on site and does not
require storage.
2)
2)You cannot over-dose as unused
P a g e 66

P a g e 67
CW

Oxidizing Biocides
Sodium Hypochlorite =
NaClO
CW
Bleach: Inexpensive but decomposes
with heat and light.
Solution: On site bleach generator. MIOX ®
Salt (NaCl) + Electricity (via electrolysis) = Bleach
P a g e 68

CW
Nonoxidizing
Biocides
Surface Acting
Quaternary ammonium
compounds (quats) are
cationic surface-active
molecules. They damage
the cell walls of bacteria,
fungi, and algae. The cell
“bleeds” and dies.
Metabolism (internal) Acting
Many antimicrobials interfere with energy metabolism inside the cell. The cell gets “sick”
and cannot reproduce. The following are examples of these types of biocides:
organotins
bis(trichloromethyl) sulfone
methylenebis(thiocyanate) (MBT)
Beta-bromo-Beta-nitrostyrene (BNS)
dodecylguanidine salts
bromonitropropanediol (BNPD)
P a g e 69

CW
Refrigerants
5. Regridgerants
It is suspected that a variety of biological
consequences such as increases in sunburn, skin
cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of
certain plankton in the ocean may result from the
increased UV-B exposure due to ozone depletion.
Image of the largest Antarctic
ozone hole recorded (September
2006), over the Southern pole.
1920’s Sulfur Dioxide . . . . . . . Corrosive, Toxic
Methyl Formate . . . . . Flammable, Toxic
Ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . Toxic
1930’s Chlorofluorocarbons Ozone Depletion
CFC’s
1960’s Hydrochloroflourocarbons Ozone Depletion
HCFC’s
1990’s Hydrofluorocarbons Safe
HFC’s
CFCs: Banned in US and Canada HCFCs: Being phased out HFCs: OK
P a g e 70

CW
Refrigerants (continued)
>>>>CFC refrigerants
CARBON, FLORINE, CHLORINE.
Banned from use or production within all
countries covered by the Montreal
Protocol.
>>>>HCFC refrigerants
HYDROGEN, CARBON, FLORINE, CHLORINE.
Being phased out.
>>>>HFC refrigerants
HYDROGEN, FLORINE, CARBON.
HFC’s contain no chlorine:
NO OZONE DEPLETION.
It is estimated that the Ozone layer will
revert back to its original level by 2050!
P a g e 71

CW
ANHYDROUS
= Contains no water
Being Phased Out
Acceptable
Natural Refrigerants:
R717 Ammonia NH 3 BP -28°F
R290 Propane C 3H 8 BP -44°F
R600a Iso-butane C 4H 10 BP 11°F
R600 Butane C 4H 10 BP 31°F
R744 Carbon Dioxide CO 2 BP -109°F
Azeotrope
- A mixture made up of two or more refrigerants
with similar boiling points that act as a single fluid.
The components of azeotropic mixtures will not
separate under normal operating conditions and
can be charged as a vapor or liquid.
Zeotrope
- A mixture made up of two or more refrigerants
with different boiling points which creates a
boiling point “glide”. Therefore: Zeotropic
mixtures should be charged in the liquid state.
P a g e 72

CW
D) Fuel
1) Types
i. Natural Gas
Natural Gas
Typical composition of NG
(Methane = 87%)
1011 btu/ft 3
2516 btu/ft 3
3225 btu/ft 3
6239 btu/ft 3
P a g e 73

CW
ii. Liquid Fuels
No. 1 Fuel Oil
No. 2 Fuel Oil
No. 6 Fuel Oil
Viscosity = resistance to flow.
When oil is heated, its viscosity decreases.
P a g e 74

CW
Operators must confirm fuel oil levels on a
regular basis.
Paper readout for tank
level verification
A 10 day fuel oil supply (based on average
daily fuel consumption in January) is
required as an onsite minimum
Red dye is added for tax
free off road use.
P a g e 75

CW
Above ground tanks are more susseptible to
temperature swings, any moisture in air space
above the fuel runs a higher risk of forming
condensate on the cooler side tank walls.
Below ground tanks are more
sussecptible to exterior surface corrosion
If water contaminates Diesel, bacteria can start to grow.
Bacterial waste products (bacterial poop) is acidic and can
cause MIC (Microbiologiaclly Induced Corrosion). This fouling
can also plug filters and increase exhaust soot.
MIC
Water content test
P a g e 76

CW
iii. Solid Fuels / BioMass
Wood
Solid Fuels:
WOOD
Hogged Fuel
[Grab your reader’s attention with a great
quote from the document or use this space
to emphasize a key point. To place this text
box anywhere on the page, just drag it.]
Wood chips or shavings usually along with sawdust,
residue and bark from sawmills is used as fuel for boilers,
landfill, animal feed, surfacing paths and running tracks.
The word for chopped (hacked) in Norwegian
is hogge (hogde past tense); chopped wood
has been hogde. Hogde fuel likely morphed
into hogged fuel.
Saw Dust/Wood Pellet
Forced Draft Burners
Moisture meter fails if
water is frozen in fuel
Black Out:
If moisture is too great,
flame cannot burn.→
P a g e 77

CW
Syngas
Syngas (biogas) contains between
50% and 75% Methane (CH 4)
Syngas and charcoal
are burned: 500˚C to 1200˚C
Drying: 100˚C to 150˚C
Pyrolysis: Decomposition of organic
material to char and tar by heating
in low O2 environment
150˚C to 500˚C
Burning matchstick
CxHy : Volatile hydrocarbons (pyrolysis
gas = Syngas) is expelled (cracked)
from pyrolyzed biomaterial (tar) as
temperature increases.
500˚C to 1000˚C
Further burning reduces
all charcoal to ash
1200˚C
Unburned CH 4 (Methane) is expelled (craked) as temperature increases and
pyrolysis takes place. Leaving tar and eventually char and then, finally, ash behind.
Pyrolyzed test rabbit
Some biomass facilities are
equipped with Syngas separators.
P a g e 78

CW
Solid Fuels:
Garbage
Municipal Waste
Woody slowly moving
forward in a solid waste,
biomass burner!
P a g e 79

CW
Coal
Powder River Basin, WY,
mainly subbituminous coal
(with low sulfur content),
supplies fuel for about 40% of
all coal fired US Power Plants
Solid Fuels:
COAL
6,000 BTU/lb.
10,000 BTU/lb.
13,000 BTU/lb.
2014 US Electricity
Production by Source
(http://www.c2es.org/technolog
y/overview/electricity)
15,000 BTU/lb.
P a g e 80

CW
iv. Electricity
Very small wall mount
electric steam boiler
P a g e 81

CW
2) Combustion
Combustion Air
Spark
CH 4
Take any of these away, no flame.
P a g e 82

CW
i. Combustion Air
Atmospheric Draft
Natural Draft Burners = Pipe Burners = Atmospheric Burners
= No Air Blower
Air Shutter
Forced Draft →
Forced Draft
Blower and burner: combined unit
Blower and burner: separate units
Fan Motor
VFD
P a g e 83

Air in
CW
M
Modulation Motors directly link
incoming air flow with incoming fuel supply. (Mod Motor)
Mod motor for incoming air
Mod Motor limit switches
Linkage controls
internal air opening
P a g e 84

CW
ii. Spark
Ignition Transformer
Spark Ignition Transformer
Primary 120V in
Secondary 6000V out
Spark temperature approaches 60,000˚F
Spark Plug
and pilot line
P a g e 85

Convection
CW
iii. Flame
Diffusion Flame
All combustion air comes
from outside of the flame.
With too little air inside the
flame envelope, the gas
mixture will not burn
completely. The unburned
carbon particles become
heated to glowing, making
the flame luminous.
Hottest part
(non-luminous)
CO2
1400˚C
H2O
If the outer zone is disrupted, complete
combustion is also disrupted and soot
deposits form (unburned carbon)
Outer Zone: Complete combustion of soot
particles and any remaining wax vapor
Unburned carbon particles (soot)
glow from the heat energy.
1200˚C
O 2
1000˚C
800˚C
Partial Combustion: Fuel Rich = not enough
oxygen, soot particles form
Outer Zone: Complete
combustion of wax vapor
O2
600˚C
Conduction
O2
Dark Zone: Pyrolysis of
wax to combustible vapor
= Straight-chain Wax
= 14,200 btu/ft 3
Diffusion flame
in microgravity
(Space Station)
No updraft of
air flow
P a g e 86

CW
Premix Flame
Diffusion Flame:
no Oxidizer
Acetylene = C 2H 2 =
Combustion air is mixed with
fuel before the flame.
Roaring Flame=Reducing Flame:
Air hole open, venturi effect
sucks in air.
Hottest point
for cutting
Roaring Premix Flame
Diffusion Flame=
Oxidizing Flame:
Air hole closed
Unburned carbon
particles (soot)
incandesces
(glows) from the
heat energy.
Indication of
incomplete
combustion.
1540˚C
Convection
CO2 H2O
Outer Cone = Flame Envelope
Combustion Completion
Hottest part of flame
1560˚C
1450˚C
O2
Inner Cone: Air
and unburned fuel
350˚C
Inner Cone border:
Initial fuel burn
O2
O2
O2
P a g e 87

CW
A stoichiometric Air to Fuel Ratio (AFR) has the correct amount of air
and fuel to produce a chemically complete combustion event.
iv. Air/Fuel Ratio (AFR)
Mod motor for incoming
combustion air
UEL = Upper Explosive Limit
LEL = Lower Explosive Limit
Soot buildup
Increased CO
Decreased CO2
Stack Temperature drop
RICH flame
LEAN flame
Increased O2
Decreased CO2
Stack Temperature drop
Turbulent Flame
Laminar Flame
To increase heat output, fuel velocity is
increased. If sufficient combustion air is not
provided, the flame will extinguish itself.
The increase of both fuel and air velocity
creates a turbulent flame.
Composition
of Air
P a g e 88

CW
Swirler and Nozzle
The diffuser, or swirl vanes, slows incoming air,
increasing pressure, increasing available O 2
molecules available for combustion (basically,
the swirl action “forces” more air into the
combustion zone = Turbulent Flame).
The nozzle increases velocity of fuel,
reducing fuel pressure. Spreading
fuel molecules farther apart
improves air/fuel combustion ratio.
Smaller oil burner
nozzles usually include
a filter
Fuel oil compressor:
increases fuel pressure
Proper combination of swirler diffusion and nozzle
spray should maximize combustion efficiency
P a g e 89

CW
3) Burners
i. Natural Gas
Staged Burners
Staged Air Burner
Radiant Tube burner
Staged Fuel Burner
P a g e 90

Burners
Premix Burner
Premix Mesh Burners
CW
Metal Fiber
premix burner
Perforated Plate
burner
Ceramic Mesh
Premix
Condensing, closed loop
boilers with premix burners
P a g e 91

CW
Turbine Jet Burner
Natural Gas Turbine Jet “PreMix” Burner
Incoming
Filtered Air
Rooftop
lubricating oil
cooler
Exhaust to Stack or
Waste Heat
Water Tube Boiler
P a g e 92

CW
ii. Oil
Oil Burners
Light Oil
Steam or Compressed Air
Atomizing Air compressor
For atomizing heavier oils, steam is
preferred as it also preheats the oil
reducing its viscosity and is also easily
available at high pressure.
However, compressed air gives better
fuel/air mixing
Mixing of fuel and steam/air can take
place inside the burner or completely
outside (premix or nozzle mix)
Steam
injection
line for
oil burner
Propane is used for pilot light
during oil burning
Propane PRV
P a g e 93

CW
Heavy Oil: Mechanical Atomizing
Rotary Cup Burner: No. 6
Oil
Air Supply Fan
Rotating Cup Motor
P a g e 94

CW
4) Air Pollution (Emissions)
i. Boiler Mact
NO x, SO 2, CO, Hg, Hydrocarbons (HC = unburned fuel = H xC x =
VOCs = Volatile Organic Compounds) and particulates are major
contributors to smog. When breathed in, they combine with
water and irritates throat and lungs, aggravating conditions such
as asthma.
Some countries in the world have
comparatively little pollution control.
A few decades ago, the US faced similar
health and environmental threats.
EPA Boiler MACT
(Maximum Achievable Control Technology).
US federal EPA standards and incentives to reduce boiler emissions.
Mandatory restrictions, along
with simple social environmental
awareness (which drives
voluntary restrictions), has
dramatically improved air quality
across the country.
P a g e 95

CW
ii. Acid Rain
Acid Rain
Nitric Acid
Sulfuric Acid
pH 4 and less damage leaves and
needles, preventing a plant from
getting energy from the sun.
Fish are seriously affected
when pH drops under 4.0
Prior NOx levels
Current
From 1970 to 2015, aggregate national emissions of the six common pollutants alone dropped
an average of 70 percent while gross domestic product grew by 246 percent. This progress
reflects efforts by state, local and tribal governments; EPA; private sector companies;
environmental groups and others.
Prior
Current
P a g e 96

CW
Ground Level
Ozone (O 3 )
iii. CO, HC and Ground Level Ozone
+ Heat
Good Ozone: Nothing lives in the
Stratosphere, so upper atmosphere ozone
doesn’t harm anything. All UV-C and most
UV-B (95-99%) radiation does not pass
through the ozone layer, protecting life
from skin cancer and sun burn.
Unstable ozone (O3) quickly reverts back to more
stable O2 releasing heat (exothermic reaction)
Ozone
concentration
quickly dissipates
with no light
(+O2)
Bad, Ground Level Ozone:
Extended exposure irritates and
damages lung tissue.
Ozone also damages vegetation and ecosystems
by inhibiting the ability of plants to open the
microscopic pores on their leaves to breathe.
Open stomata
Closed stomata
Ozone burn damage
P a g e 97

Stoichiometric flame →
Flame extinction →
CW
iv. NOx, HC and CO Control
NO x
NO forms alongside CO 2 in any
flame during combustion
In high temperature environments, N 2 and O 2 become
less stable, NO formation becomes more frequent.
NO then forms to more stable NO 2
NOx formation grows exponentially as
flame temperature increases
1) Reduce NOx by reducing peak flame temperature
Naturally occurring
NO x in any flame
Elevated flame temperature, along with more available
O 2, NO x emissions reaches maximum concentration
around 6% excess O 2 (around 35% Excess Air)
Lowest flame NO x at stoichiometric
flame and at flame extinction
More air, cooler flame (Less NOx) →
Near flame extinction
(too much air / not
enough fuel)
2) Reduce NO x by controlling excess O 2
P a g e 98

CW
Pre-Combustion Control
Staged Combustion
Staged Combustion
Staged Air Burner: Insufficient air for full combustion in
primary zone limits flame temperature. Peak flame
temperature is reduced.
Staged Air Burner: Secondary (and sometimes tertiary) air is introduced later where lower
temperature complete combustion takes place. Lean Zone burning enables Carbon to
“take back” some of the Oxygen from the NO molecules, further reducing NO x.
4NO + CH 4 → 2H 2O + 2N 2 + CO 2
Lean Zone Burning
Some burners inject steam or even water
at the quench zone to help cool the flame.
Over fire air completes
combustion at a lower
temperature.
The fuel itself, if introduced in stages, can also
reduce flame temperature.
P a g e 99

CW
Premix Low NO x Burners
By mixing the exact proportion of air and fuel
ahead of the flame, premix ultra-low NO x
burners focus on minimum excess air to help
control emissions.
To help keep the fine mesh holes from
plugging, it is very common to have a filter
for incoming air
P a g e 100

CW
FGR
Flue Gas Recirculation, recycles a portion of used, inert (low O2) combustion gases. Two results: 1) the burning of the flame
becomes “stretched out”, lowering peak flame temperature and 2) lower excess O2, reducing chance of NOx formation.
Exhaust recirculation at
inner flame burn zone
Exhaust recirculation at
outer flame burn zone
P a g e 101

CW
Flue Gas Recirculation, recycles a portion of used, inert (low O2) combustion gases from the stack to the burner.
Two results: 1) the burning of the flame becomes “stretched out”, lowering peak flame temperature and 2)
lower excess O2, reducing chance of NOx formation.
No FGR, higher peak
temperature flames
Less concentrated, lower
temperature burning points
in FGR, less NO x emissions
A mod motor controls this
damper for incoming flue gas.
(Closes when boiler is off)
EGR valves (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) on
automobile motors operate under the
same principle as FGR
P a g e 102

v. CO₂ (Green House Gasses)
Greenhouse Gasses (CO 2 ) causes:
Global Cooling (1970’s)
Global Warming (1990’s)
Climate Change (2010’s)
CW
P a g e 103

CW
E) Physics
1. Ideal Gas Law: PV=nRT
When Temperature↑ and Volume stays the same, then Pressure↑
= BOILER
When Pressure↑ and Volume stays the same, then Temperature↑ = AIR COMPRESSOR
The INTERCOOLER uses water or
outside air to cool compressed
air in-between stages.
2 nd Stage
1 st Stage
When Pressure↓ and Volume stays the same, then Temperature↓ = Propane Tank
P↓ × V c = T↓ : Refrigeration
ICE !
Hot
(Restricting Orifice)
Cold
Various types of expansion valves
Air Conditioning
* Simplified for training purposes. Actual:
P a g e 104

CW
If
↓
then
↑ ↓ ↑
If
↑
↑ ↑
then
↓ ↑ ↓
P a g e 105

CW
i. Heat Pump
Around 37°F many heat pumps reach what is
called the balance point where the heat pump
needs to run constantly to maintain a
comfortable indoor temperature. Efficiency
drops as you approach this point.
Reversing Valve
P a g e 106

CW
iii. Air Compressor
Atomizing and
Control Air
Holding tanks
Expansion control
Incoming air filters
Point of use
compressed air
filters
Inline
condensation
removal
P a g e 107

Temperature
CW
2) Temperature vs Heat Content
: through nonmoving or solid parts
: through moving substances, such
as water, steam, or air
: through energy waves, even
travels through a vacuum (such as the sun
transfers heat to Earth through space)
Latent heat of
liquefaction
Latent heat of
vaporization
vaporizing →
BTUs
Latent Heat:
BTUs
← condensing
P a g e 108

Temperature
CW
@ 0 psig = 1 Atm = sea level
Saturated Steam = steam at the boiling pt.
Superheated
(above the
boiling pt.)
32°F 212°F
0°C 100°C
970.3 BTUs to boil 1 # of H 2O
Water at 32°F
contains 0 BTUs
(beginning point for
BTU measurement)
-144BTU 0BTU 180BTU 1150.3BTU
Heat Content
1 BTU = heat needed to change 1 lb. of water 1°F
To change 1 lb of:
Ice 1º F, add 0.5 Btu
Steam 1º F, add 0.45 Btu
1 BTU also is about equal
to heat given off by one
match stick burning
How many BTUs does one pound of steam contain at 212°F at Sea Level?
32 ºF water to 212 ºF water takes 180BTU/lb. 180
212 ºF water to 212 ºF steam takes 970.3BTU/lb. +970.3
1150.3 BTUs
P a g e 109

CW
3) Pressure
i. Vapor Pressure
Absolute Zero = Perfect Vacuum
Vapor Pressure
0
Vacuum
Maximum water
content in air =
saturation point
Evaporation or
Vaporization
Vaporization >
Condensation
Vaporization =
Condensation
Equilibrium
Pressure changes with Temperature (molecules
move around more when heated)
Saturation Point
(Equilibrium) changes with
Temperature and Pressure
and becomes the
Saturation Curve
P a g e 110

CW
Saturation Curve
Saturation Curve
Saturation Curve
1000gH20 / Kg Air
all air is water vapor
Equilibrium = Saturation Curve = Dew Point
Water vapor in air
400g
300g
200g
100g
0 K= -273°C= -460°F
No water vapor in air
No molecular movement
Absolute zero temperature
temperature increase →
373 K=100°C=212°F
All water vaporized
(@0psig)
0g
Water droplets, suspended in the air,
form as humid air temperature drops
past the saturation curve.
←temperature drop
H 2O falls out as dew and frost,
OR rain and snow.
f
r
o
s
t
d
e
w
Freeze Point
P a g e 111

Air Moisture Content →
CW
Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic Process
Moist air rises over mountains: lower air pressure,
vapor condenses on dust particles forming
suspended droplets or ice crystals (clouds).
Descending clouds increase in
air pressure, clouds evaporate
back into vapor = Rain Shadow.
Rain/Snow →
Temperature Increase →
Same principle applies
to large air masses
P a g e 112

Extreme
Precipitation
CW
A combination of the adiabatic process and
the inability of cold air to hold moisture, the
Dry Valleys of Antarctica is said not to have
any measurable precipitation for over
2,000,000 years.
The Brahmaputra Mountains in Eastern
India reports the highest average rainfall of
467 inches per year.
P a g e 113

Water
to Ice Expansion
to Ice
Expansion
CW
Slightly
negative
Slightly
positive
Ice’s seed molecule has six
equal sides. As more H2O
molcules attach to the seed
molecule, equal branches form
at 60˚ angles.
Electrical charge can
affect water flow
60°
Water to Ice Volume Expands about 10%
Which is about the same as:
10 ft 3 water making 11 ft 3 of ice
…, and Ice Floats (less dense)
60°
…, and breaks lines
P a g e 114

Sea Level
Pressure
ii. Pressure vs Temperature Chart
Phases of Water
Pressure vs. Temperature
CW
Freeze Point
Curve
Evaporation
Curve
14.7 psia
= 0 psig
= 1 atm
= 1 bar
Solid
As Pressure increases, H 2O favors
the state that takes up less space,
NOTICE: the slight backwards freeze
Sea Level
curve and the forward boiling curve.
Vapor
Triple
Point
(not to scale)
Absolute Zero
(Theoretical)
Temperature
32°F
0°C
212°F
100°C
Solid
Vapor
Where Freeze Point Curve, Evaporation Curve and Sublimation Curves Meet
= 0.09psia and 32.02°F
Triple
Point
P a g e 115

CW
i. Sublimation/Deposition
Home Unit
Freeze Dryer
Sublimation
= Freeze Dryers
Low temperature and pressure
Vacuum
Chamber
2. About 90% of the food’s
moisture is drawn off by
sublimating the ice at
temperature as low as -60º F
P a g e 116

CW
Freezing/Melting
Newly formed water
from the higher
pressure on the ice
directly underneath the
blades acts as a
lubricant.
Regelation: with pressure
gone, liquid returns to sold.
Lake Mille Lacs, MN
On rare occasions, regelation can
occur when the water at the bank
of a heavily ice covered, deep lake
is exposed to lower psi and the
water in the lake is at or below
freezing. Water will “flash” into
ice and move forward until
backpressure stops the reaction.
P a g e 117

CW
Boiling/Condensing
Vapor Cone: condensation by extreme high pressure
High altitude vapor cones are
actually suspended ice crystal
cones…. Deposition !
As a result of the sudden expansion of the nuclear explosion, high psi
increase condenses vapor into suspended water droplets. This water then
evaporates back to invisible vapor as the high-pressure shock wave passes.
P a g e 118

CW
iii. Gauge vs Absolute
psig
(gauge)
psia
(absolute)
H 2O
boiling pt
Perfect Vacuum -14.7 0 °F
Near Vacuum -14.5 0.2 53°
Mt. Everest -5.6 9.1 157°
Pheonix, AZ -0.6 14.1 210.1°
Sea Level 0 14.7 212°
Dead Sea 0.8 15.5 215°
Example: a boiler psi 100 114.7 337°
Sea Level =
1 atmosphere
= 14.7 psia
= 0 psig
Space = a vacuum
psia = 0
psig = -14.7
Mt. Everest = 29,029 ft
Dead Sea = -1378 ft
Pheonix, AZ = 1086 ft
The boiling point changes about 1˚
for each 550 ft change in elevation
High altitude cooking instructions: 3500 to 6500 ft
Increase simmer time to 19 min (with lower boiling
temperature, it takes longer to cook food.)
Vacuum
pump
Vacuum
jar
P a g e 119

CW
iv. Water Hammer: Valve Induced
P a g e 120

CW
Cavitation:
Sudden implosion of low pressure steam bubbles back to
water causes miniature shock waves, damaging metal
surface.
Propeller Cavitation
Flashing: when
water drops in
pressure by passing
through a
restrictive orifice, it
boils. Damage
from flashing is
smooth.
Valve Cavitation:
sounds like gravel
moving through pipe
Cavitation is when
the bubbles violently
implode back to
liquid. Damage from
cavitation is rough
P a g e 121

CW
v. Water Phase Expansion
Water to Vapor Expansion
Water to Vapor
When Temperature ↑ and Pressure stays the same, then Volume must ↑
v = 0.01672 ft 3
Now imagine a 500 gallon boiler rupturing and instantly filling the building with 111,700 ft 3
(100 hot air balloons) of flash steam
Denver: 500 gallon boiler explosion
P a g e 122

Psig
Inches of Hg (Vacuum)
CW
4) Steam Table
Gauge
Pressure
Psia
Boiling
Point
ºF
Btu content of
1 lb. of water
at B.P.
Btu needed to
turn 1 lb. of water
at B.P. into steam
Btu content
of saturated
steam
Volume
of water
ft 3 /lb at B.P.
Volume
of steam
ft 3 /lb at B.P.
29.7 0.09 32.02 0 1075.8 1075.8 0.01602 3306
29.5 0.2 53 21 1063.8 1085.0 0.01603 1526
27.9 1.0 102 70 1036.3 1106.0 0.01614 334
19.7 5.0 162 130 1001.0 1131.0 0.01641 73.5
9.6 10.0 193 161 982.1 1143.3 0.01659 38.4
7.5 11.0 198 166 979.3 1145.0 0.01665 35.1
5.5 12.0 202 170 976.6 1146.6 0.01667 32.4
3.5 13.0 206 174 974.2 1148.1 0.01667 30.1
1.4 14.0 210 178 971.9 1149.5 0.01670 28.0
0 14.7 212 180 970.3 1150.3 0.01672 26.8
1 15.7 216 184 967 1152 0.01675 24.8
2 16.7 219 187 965 1153 0.01677 23.4
5 19.7 227 196 960 1156 0.01683 20.1
10 24.7 240 208 952 1160 0.01692 16.3
15 29.7 250 219 945 1164 0.01700 13.8
20 34.7 259 228 939 1167 0.01708 11.9
25 39.7 267 236 933 1170 0.01714 10.5
30 44.7 274 243 928 1172 0.01721 9.4
40 54.7 287 256 919 1176 0.01732 7.8
50 64.7 298 267 911 1179 0.01743 6.7
60 74.7 307 277 904 1182 0.01752 5.8
70 84.7 316 286 898 1184 0.01761 5.2
80 94.7 324 295 891 1186 0.01769 4.7
90 104.7 331 302 886 1188 0.01777 4.2
100 114.7 337 309 880 1189 0.01785 3.9
110 124.7 344 316 875 1191 0.01792 3.6
120 134.7 350 322 870 1192 0.01799 3.3
130 144.7 355 328 866 1193 0.01806 3.1
140 154.7 360 333 861 1195 0.01812 2.9
150 164.7 366 339 857 1196 0.01818 2.7
200 214.7 388 362 837 1199 0.01847 2.1
250 264.7 406 382 820 1202 0.01873 1.7
etc.↓ 300 417 394 809 1203 0.01890 1.54
400 446 424 781 1205 0.01934 1.16
450 456 437 767 1205 0.01955 1.03
500 467 449 755 1204 0.01975 0.93
600 486 472 732 1203 0.02013 0.77
900 532 527 669 1195 0.02123 0.50
1200 567 572 612 1183 0.02232 0.36
1500 596 612 556 1167 0.02346 0.28
2000 636 672 463 1135 0.02565 0.19
2500 668 731 361 1191 0.02860 0.13
2700 680 756 312 1068 0.03027 0.11
3206.2 705 903 0 903 0.05053 0.05053
Sea Level
Supercritical Water refers to conditions
above 3206.2 psia and 705 °F where steam
and water reach a new phase.
P a g e 123

Temperature ˚C →
Temperature vs Enthalpy
5) Temperature vs Enthalpy (Btus/Pound)
CW
Rankine Scale
Enthalpy = Btus/Pound
Super Critical Vapor
(= BTUs/˚F →)
P a g e 124

˚F →
Water
Rankine Cycle: Steam Turbine
CW
William Rankine
Superheater
High Pressure Turbine
Boiler
Intermediate and Low
Pressure Turbines
Economizer
Feed Water Pump
Water and Steam
Condenser
Reheater
Superheated Steam
Enthalpy = BTU/˚F →
P a g e 125

6) Flow
i. Electricity
Parallel:
Amps increase, volts stay the same
Series:
Volts increase, amps stay the same
CW
Volts measure how hard the electricity is pushing (Electrical Force)
Amps measure current, or how much electricity is flowing [Ah = Amp-hours]
Watts measure how much electricity is going through the circuit (Power)
Ohms (Ω) measures Resistance
Note correlation
Pressure: psi → Volts
Flow: gpm → Amps
Hydraulic HP → Watts
P a g e 126

Variable Frequency Drive
VFD: Affinity Law
CW
The Affinity Law
Law 1a) Air flow is directly proportional to fan speed.
Example: When fan speed doubles, air flow doubles.
1a) Fan Speed ↑ = Air Flow ↑
Law 1b) Torque increase is proportional to the square of the fan speed increase.
Example: When fan speed doubles, torque increases four times
When fan speed triples, torque increases nine times 1b) (Fan Speed ↑ ) 2 = Torque ↑
Law 1c) Power required is proportional to the cube of fan speed increase.
Example: When fan speed doubles, power required is six times
1c) (Fan Speed ↑ ) 3 = Power ↑
When fan speed triples, power required is 27 times
Significant Energy Savings
Use only the fan speed your system is calling for.
A 100 HP fan running at half speed uses the
same energy as a 13 HP motor!
(½) 3 x 100HP = (1/8) x 100HP = 13HP
Equipment Savings
Single-speed motors start abruptly:
High starting torque
High starting current surges (up to 8 times)
Variable speed drives gradually ramp up the motor.
P a g e 127

CW
Energy: measuring the flow change
252 calories = 1 Btu
1 ft 3 of natural gas ≈ 1020 Btu
1 kilowatt·hr (kwh) of electricity = 3413 Btu
1 pound of Coal ≈ 9,200 Btu
1 pound of gasoline ≈ 14,300 Btu
1 pound of diesel or fuel oil ≈ 16,000 Btu
1 Therm = 100,000 Btu
1 Dekatherm (DTH) = 1,000,000 Btu
0.293 Watts = 1 Btu/hr
1 Bhp (Boiler horsepower) = 33,472 Btu/hr
1 Bhp = 34.5 lbs of steam per hr (@0psig)
The Tom Thumb is especially remembered as a
participant in an impromptu race with a horse-drawn car,
which the horse won after Tom Thumb suffered a
mechanical failure. However, the demonstration was
successful, and the railroad committed to the use of
steam locomotion. The boiler was pulling 40% more
weight than the horse, therefore Tom Thumb was
officially labelled a 1.4 horse power boiler. And BHP
designation was born.
Tom Thumb = 1.4 BHP
P a g e 128

CW
ii. Poiseuille’s Law
Poiseuille’s Law
Basically:
1) If you double the radius of the pipe,
you can increase the flow by 16 times
(r 4 = 2 4 = 16)
2) If flow remains constant and pipe is
extended, then, in order to maintain a
constant output pressure (P1), input
pressure (P2) must increase.
Note: Water is almost 8 times more viscous
thinner at freezing (32˚F) than at the boiling
point (212˚F).
P a g e 129

CW
iii. Water Hammer
Water slug arrestor
Condensate/Vacuum Induced Water Hammer
P a g e 130

CW
Inline Steam Separators
iv. Inline Steam Separators
Removing water from
steam is critical to
reduce damage from
water hammer, TDS
erosion, oxygen
corrosion and
condensate inline sludge
and scale buildup.
Drip Legs
P a g e 131

CW
v. Flow Change - Energy
Energy: measuring the flow change
252 calories = 1 Btu
1 ft 3 of natural gas ≈ 1020 Btu
1 kilowatt·hr (kwh) of electricity = 3413 Btu
1 pound of Coal ≈ 9,200 Btu
1 pound of gasoline ≈ 14,300 Btu
1 pound of diesel or fuel oil ≈ 16,000 Btu
1 Therm = 100,000 Btu
1 Dekatherm (DTH) = 1,000,000 Btu
0.293 Watts = 1 Btu/hr
1 Bhp (Boiler horsepower) = 33,472 Btu/hr
1 Bhp = 34.5 lbs of steam per hr (@0psig)
The Tom Thumb is especially remembered as a
participant in an impromptu race with a horse-drawn car,
which the horse won after Tom Thumb suffered a
mechanical failure. However, the demonstration was
successful, and the railroad committed to the use of
steam locomotion. The boiler was pulling 40% more
weight than the horse, therefore Tom Thumb was
officially labelled a 1.4 horse power boiler. And BHP
designation was born.
Tom Thumb = 1.4 BHP
P a g e 132

CW
vi. Piping
Carbon Steel
Black Galvanized Steel Pipe
Stainless Steel
When bare steel is exposed to air, it quickly
forms an oxide layer (Fe 2O 3). This passivating
layer will not corrode further unless disrupted.
Iron Rust
Galvanized Pipe
Metallic Zinc coated surface. Zinc (Zn) acts as a sacrificial anode and corrodes
first, leaving the structurally strong steel undamaged (…until all the zinc is gone).
Primary White Rust (ZnO)
Secondary Iron Rust
Stainless Steel Pipe
Very durable Dichromium Trioxide surface; 1 to 10 molecules thick.
Chromium
P a g e 133

CW
Temporary/Seasonal
F) Boiler Layup/Seasonal Shut Down
Shutdown
WET LAYUP
Steel Boilers < 30 days and Cast-Iron Sectionals
Two to seven days before a wet layup, water chemistry should be
increased to the following levels:
• 200 to 400 PPM sulfite
• 600 to 800 ppm hydroxide alkalinity
• Scale/corrosion inhibitor in normal ranges for on-line operations
• Periodically check water level for leaks
DRY LAYUP
Steel Boilers > 30 days
days
• Drain and mechanically dry inside of boiler to prevent stagnant water corrosion (rust).
• A moisture absorbing material, such as quicklime (2 #s/30 ft³) or silica gel (5 #s/30 ft³ of
boiler volume) may be placed on trays inside the drums to absorb residual moisture from the
air.
• Use Humidity Cards to confirm internals are dry.
• Check Humidity Cards monthly during shutdown.
Dessicants can be reused by drying between uses.
Simply warm dessicant to 200˚F for 1 hour to
expel any moisture.
P a g e 134

CW
G) Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide absorbs an additional
oxygen atom from the sensor which then
sends a positive hydrogen atom to the
counter electrode producing a small current
(detection of CO)
P a g e 135

CW
H) Efficiency
1) Causes
Causes
Improper air/fuel ratio, soot blower failure and/or poor cleaning scheduling.
No. 6 Fuel Oil
Natural Gas fired
Cast Iron Sectional
Soot actually protects the tube from flame
temperature. However, since the tube represents
the cooler section of the refractory and since soot
is very hydroscopic (water attracting), condensate
(H 2O is a combustion byproduct) may form in the
soot. This then absorbs Carbon dioxide from the
exhaust. CO 2 breaks down and forms carbonic
acid (pH 5.5) and fire side corrosion takes place.
Biomass water
tube failure
Scale Thickness (inches) 1/32 1/25 1/20 1/16 1/11 1/9
% Fuel Loss 7 9 11 13 15 16
Tube becomes insulated. Water unable to remove
heat. Steel temperature increases and softens.
There are only two ways to quickly remove scale
build up: acid flush and mechanical scrubbing.
Fire tube scale
Bulging boiler tubes
due to scale buildup
A broken baffle causes a sudden increase in stack temperature.
P a g e 136

CW
Hole Size 20 psi 25 psi 100 psi 200 psi
.05 inch 20 MBtu/yr 25 MBtu/yr 100 MBtu/yr 150 MBtu/yr
.10 inch 100 MBtu/yr 200 MBtu/yr 500 MBtu/yr 800 MBtu/yr
Damaged tubes may leak. The escaping boiler
water will cool the fire and the stack
temperature drops. Note water stains on metal.
Serious Problems!
P a g e 137

CW
Flue gas analyzer
O 2 Sensor
Ground level air
Very good
Burner is
off
P a g e 138

CW
The difference in Oxygen
concentration between stack
gases and normal air creates an
electrical current across the ZrO2
(zirconia) layer on the platinum
(Pt) electrodes.
Opacity meters measure visible
smoke in stack
P a g e 139

Increase
CW
Effects (symptoms)
2) Effects
Broken
Baffle
Unchecked Spalling
.
Soot
Gradual Increase
FD (forced draft) and/or
ID (induced draft) Fan Failure
Smoke
Water cannot carry
the heat away
Softener and/or RO unit failure
and/or improper chemical balance
Scale
(Soot does not damage tubes, soot actually
protects tubes from high flue gas temperature)
Inadequate boiler tune-up scheduling
Decrease
Regular, yearly boiler
tune-ups recalibrate
air/fuel mixture to help
maximize efficiency.
P a g e 140

CW
I) Appendix: Periodic Table
P a g e 141

CW
µ
µmho ...................................................................................... 11
4
4FV ......................................................................................... 44
A
Absolute Zero Psi ................................................................. 110
Absolute Zero Temperature ......................................... 111, 115
Acid .................................................................................. 6, 37
Acid Rain ................................................................................ 95
Activated Carbon ................................................................... 27
Actuator ...................................................................... 16, 54
Adiabatic Process ................................................................. 112
Aerobic .................................................................................. 60
Affinity Law .......................................................................... 127
AFR ................................................................................... 88, 89
Air Bleed Valve ....................................................................... 46
Air Composition ...................................................................... 88
Air Compressor ............................................................ 104, 107
Air Conditioner ..................................................................... 104
Air Scoop ................................................................................ 46
Air Separator .......................................................................... 46
Air to Fuel Ratio ...................................................................... 88
Air Vent .................................................................................. 46
Air/Fuel Ratio ............................................................ 138
Algae ...................................................................................... 63
Alkaline .............................................................................. 6
Alkalinity ....................................................................... 22
American Legion ................................................................... 64
Amines ................................................................................... 38
Ammonia .................................................................................. 6
Amperes ............................................................................... 126
Amps ................................................................................... 126
Anerobic ................................................................................ 60
Anions .................................................................................... 24
Anode ............................................................................... 57, 58
Antarctica ............................................................................. 113
Anthracite .............................................................................. 80
Antifreeze......................................................................... 49, 50
Anti-Syphon ........................................................................... 44
Aquifer ................................................................................... 20
Atmospheric Burner ............................................................... 83
Azeotrope .............................................................................. 72
B
Bacteria ............................................................................ 27, 60
Balance Point ....................................................................... 106
Ball Valve ............................................................................... 17
Base ....................................................................................... 6
Bellevue Stratford Hotel ........................................................ 64
Bernoulli .............................................................................. 130
BHP .............................................................................. 128, 132
Biocide ................................................................................... 66
Bituminous ............................................................................. 80
Black Out ................................................................................ 77
Black Steel Pipe .................................................................... 133
Bleach .............................................................................. 66, 68
Blowdown ............................................................................ 16
Blowdown Separator .................................................... 17
Blowdown Tank .......................................................... 17, 18
Boiler Horsepower ....................................................... 128, 132
Boiler MACT ........................................................................... 95
Bottom Blowdown ........................................................... 17
Bromine ........................................................................... 59, 66
BTU content ......................................................................... 109
Burners .............................................................................. 80
C
CaCO3 .................................................................................... 54
Calcium .............................................................................. 22
Calcium Carbonate ................................................................ 54
Calcium Sulfate ...................................................................... 54
Calorie .......................................................................... 128, 132
Candy Bar ..................................................................... 128, 132
Carbon Dioxide .................................................................... 103
Carbon Monoxide ................................................................ 135
Carryover.......................................................................... 16
Cast Iron Sectional ............................................................... 134
Catalytic Sorbent Injection .................................................. 100
Cathode ...................................................................... 57, 58, 59
Cations ................................................................................... 24
Caustic Embrittlement ............................................. 10
Cavitation ............................................................................. 121
Ceramic Mesh Burner ............................................................ 91
CFCs ................................................................................. 70, 72
Charcoal ................................................................................. 27
Chemical Feed Pump ............................................................. 43
Cherrapunjee ....................................................................... 113
Chlorine ............................................................... 20, 59, 66, 71
Chromium ............................................................................ 133
Climate Change .................................................................... 103
Coal ............................................................... 80, 128, 132, 138
Combustion Triangle .............................................................. 82
Complete Combustion ................................................ 138
P a g e 142

CW
Compressed Air ...................................................................... 93
Compression Tank .................................................................. 53
Condensate .......................................................................... 37
Condensate Neutralizing Tubes ............................................. 52
Condensation ............................................................... 110, 115
Condensing Boiler .................................................................. 52
Conduction ........................................................................... 108
Conductivity ............................................................... 11, 12, 16
Continuous Blowdown .................................................. 16
Convection ...................................................................... 87, 108
Cyclohexylamine .................................................................... 38
D
Dead Sea .............................................................................. 119
DEAE ....................................................................................... 38
Deaerator ......................................................................... 34, 35
Decatherm ................................................................... 128, 132
DEHA ...................................................................................... 36
Demineralizer ................................................................... 24, 25
Deposition .................................................................... 115, 118
Dessicant .............................................................................. 134
Dielectric Union ..................................................................... 57
Diesel ..................................................................... 74, 128, 132
Diethyl Aminoethanol ............................................................ 38
Diethyl Hydroxylamine ........................................................... 36
Diffuser .................................................................................. 89
Diffusion Flame ....................................................................... 86
Drip Legs .............................................................................. 131
Dry Layup ............................................................................. 134
Dry Steam............................................................................. 124
Dry Valleys ........................................................................... 113
Dual Fuel Burners ................................................................... 93
E
Eddie Current ......................................................................... 62
Efficiency ............................................................. 136, 140
EGR ....................................................................................... 102
Electrodes .............................................................................. 54
Electrolysis ............................................................................. 68
Electromagnet ........................................................................ 54
Elephant ............................................................................... 126
Emissions ............................................................................... 95
Energy .......................................................................... 128, 132
Enthalpy ............................................................................... 124
EPA ................................................................................... 80, 95
Ethylene Glycol ...................................................................... 49
Evaporation .......................................................................... 115
EVOH ...................................................................................... 48
Excess Air ..................................................................... 138
Excess Oxygen ........................................................................ 98
Exhaust Gas Recirculation .................................................... 102
Expander .............................................................................. 8, 9
Expansion Joint ...................................................................... 53
Expansion Tank ...................................................................... 53
Expansion Valve ................................................................... 104
Expansion, water to ice ........................................................... 6
F
Fan Speed ............................................................................ 127
Feed Water ............................................................................ 34
FGR .............................................................................. 101, 102
Filming Amines ...................................................................... 38
Fire Eye .................................................................................. 85
Firm Rate ............................................................................... 93
Flame Envelope ...................................................................... 87
Flame Extinction .................................................................... 98
Flash Tank ....................................................................... 17
Flat Sight Glass ................................................................... 75
Flue Gas Analyzer .................................................... 138
Flue Gas Recirculation ................................................. 101, 102
Food Grade Antifreeze........................................................... 49
Foot Valve .............................................................................. 43
Forced Draft Burner ............................................................... 83
Four Function Valve ............................................................... 44
Free Chlorine ......................................................................... 27
Freeze Drying ....................................................................... 116
Freeze Point ........................................................................... 49
Freeze Point Curve ............................................................... 115
Fuel Oil ............................................................ 74, 128, 132
G
Galvanic corrosion ................................................................. 57
Galvanized Pipe ................................................................... 133
Gasoline ....................................................................... 128, 132
Glide ....................................................................................... 72
Global Warming ................................................................... 103
Golden Gate Bridge ............................................................. 119
Grain of Hardness .................................................................. 21
Gravel .................................................................................. 121
Greenhouse Gas .................................................................. 103
H
Halides ................................................................................... 59
Hambuger Helper ................................................................ 119
Hardness ............................................................................ 22
HCFCs ............................................................................... 70, 72
Heat Content ....................................................................... 109
Heat Gun ................................................................................ 39
Heat Pump ........................................................................... 106
HEDP ..................................................................................... 55
Hexagonal ................................................................................ 6
Hexagonal Crystal ................................................................ 114
HFCs ................................................................................. 70, 72
Hogged Fuel ........................................................................... 77
Humidity Cards .................................................................... 134
Hydrastep .............................................................................. 75
Hydraulic HP ........................................................................ 126
Hydrazine ............................................................................... 36
P a g e 143

CW
Hydrofluorocarbons ............................................................... 70
Hydrogen .............................................................................. 6
Hydroxide ............................................................................ 6
Hypobromous Acid ................................................................ 66
Hypochlorous Acid ................................................................ 66
I
Ice Scates ............................................................................. 117
Ice Tsunami .......................................................................... 117
Ideal Gas Law ...................................................... 19, 104, 122
Ignition Transformer .............................................................. 85
Impeller ................................................................................ 121
Implosion ............................................................................. 130
Incandence ............................................................................. 87
Induction Coil ......................................................................... 62
Intercooler ........................................................................... 104
Interruptible Rate .................................................................. 93
Iodine ..................................................................................... 66
Iron Crystals ................................................................ 10
K
Kelvin.................................................................................... 111
Kerosene ................................................................................ 74
Kilowatt ........................................................................ 128, 132
KWH ............................................................................. 128, 132
L
Lake Tahoe ........................................................................... 119
Laminar Flame ........................................................................ 88
Lance ...................................................................................... 93
Latent Heat .......................................................................... 108
Layup .................................................................................... 134
Lean Flame ....................................................................... 88, 98
Legionella ........................................................................ 64, 65
LEL .......................................................................................... 88
Let Down Station............................................................ 39, 131
Lignite .................................................................................... 80
Liquifaction .......................................................................... 108
Litmus Paper ............................................................................ 5
LMI Pumps ............................................................................. 43
Lower Explosive Limit ............................................................. 88
Lubricant .............................................................................. 117
M
MACT ............................................................................... 80, 95
Magnesium .......................................................................... 22
Magnetic Float ....................................................................... 75
Magnetic Softener ................................................................. 32
Make Up Water ...................................................................... 20
Marble chips .......................................................................... 52
MAWP ...................................................................................... 17
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure .............. 17
Membrane ....................................................................... 29, 30
Mercury................................................................................ 123
Metabolism ............................................................................ 69
Methane ................................................................................ 74
MIC ................................................................................. 60, 61
Modulation Motor ............................................................... 102
Mold ...................................................................................... 63
Mono Lake............................................................................. 55
Morpholine ............................................................................ 38
Mt Everest ........................................................................... 119
Myox ...................................................................................... 68
N
Natural Gas Composition ....................................................... 74
Neutral Water .................................................................. 6
Neutralizing Amines ............................................................... 38
Nitogen Dioxide ..................................................................... 98
Nitric Oxide ............................................................................ 98
Nitrites ................................................................................... 49
Nitrogen Gas .......................................................................... 53
Non-metallic Coating ............................................................. 61
NOx .................................................................................. 95, 98
Nozzle .................................................................................... 89
Nuclear Explosion ................................................................ 118
O
Oak ......................................................................................... 77
Octane ................................................................................... 74
Ohms.................................................................................... 126
Oil Burners ............................................................................. 93
ORP ....................................................................................... 67
Over Fire Air ........................................................................... 99
Oxides .................................................................................... 57
Oxidizing ............................................................................... 66
Oxygen barrier ....................................................................... 48
Ozone ............................................................................... 67, 97
Ozone Layer ........................................................................... 70
P
Peak Flame Temperature ...................................................... 98
Peat ........................................................................................ 80
Peristaltic ............................................................................... 43
Peristaltic Feed Pump ............................................................ 43
Pete ....................................................................................... 80
PEX ......................................................................................... 48
pH Chart ................................................................................... 6
pH Paper .................................................................................. 5
pH Probe .................................................................................. 7
Phases of Water ........................................................... 109, 115
Phenolphthalein ...................................................................... 5
Philadelphia ........................................................................... 64
Phosphate.................................................................... 22, 26
Phosphates ............................................................................. 55
Pickup Coil ............................................................................. 62
Pitting .............................................................................. 48
Pitting Corrosion .................................................................... 35
P a g e 144

CW
Positive Displacement ............................................................ 43
Potassium Chloride ................................................................ 34
Pour Point ....................................................................... 74
Powder River .......................................................................... 80
Premix Burner ........................................................................ 91
Premix Flame .......................................................................... 87
Primary Air ............................................................................. 74
Priming ............................................................................... 16
Propane .................................................................................. 74
Propane Tank ....................................................................... 104
Propeller .............................................................................. 121
Propylene Glycol .............................................................. 49, 50
Psia ............................................................................... 119, 123
Psig ............................................................................ 119, 123
Punching Tubes ...................................................................... 61
PxV=T ................................................................................... 104
Pyrolysis .................................................................................. 86
Pyrometer .............................................................................. 39
Q
Quaternary ammonia .............................................................. 69
Quench ................................................................................... 99
Quiet Pipes ........................................................................... 120
Quill ........................................................................................ 43
R
Radiation ........................................................................ 87, 108
Radiators ................................................................................ 53
Rain Shadow ......................................................................... 112
Rankine Scale ....................................................................... 124
Raw Water ............................................................................. 20
Reducing Flame ...................................................................... 87
Refrigeration ........................................................................ 104
Regelation ............................................................................ 117
Resin Beads ..................................................................... 22
Resistance ............................................................................ 126
Reverse Osmosis ........................................................ 27, 29, 30
Reversing Valve .................................................................... 106
Rich Flame ........................................................................ 88, 98
Rivets ................................................................................. 10
Roaring Flame ........................................................................ 87
Roll and Bead ................................................................ 10
Roll and Flare................................................................... 9, 10
Rotary Cup ............................................................................. 94
Rotary Cup Burner ....................................................... 74
Rust .................................................................................. 58, 59
S
Salt Bridge .............................................................................. 34
Satiration Curve ................................................................... 111
Saturated Steam .................................................................. 109
Saturated Water .................................................................. 124
Saturation Point ..................................................................... 54
Saw Dust ................................................................................ 77
Scale ............................................................. 22, 55, 136, 140
Sea Level ...................................................................... 109, 123
Seasonal Shut Down ............................................................ 134
Secondary Air ................................................................ 74
Sensible Heat ....................................................................... 108
Siemen ................................................................................... 11
Sierra Nevada Range ............................................................ 112
Silica ....................................................................................... 54
Slime ...................................................................................... 60
Slug ...................................................................................... 130
Sodium Chloride .................................................................... 34
Sodium Hypochlorite ............................................................. 68
Sodium Metabisulfite ............................................................ 36
Solar Salt ................................................................................ 34
Solenoid ................................................................................. 54
Soot ................................................................................ 88, 136
Soot Blower ................................................................... 136
Sørensen, Søren ............................................................. 6
Sparge Tube ........................................................................... 34
Spark ...................................................................................... 85
Spark Plug .............................................................................. 85
Stack ................................................................................. 138
Stack Temperature ......................................................... 88, 138
Staged Air Burner................................................................... 90
Staged Combustion ................................................................ 99
Staged Fuel Burner ................................................................ 90
Stainless Steel ...................................................................... 133
Steam Separators ................................................................ 131
Steam Table ......................................................................... 123
Step Up Transformer ............................................................. 85
Stethoscope ........................................................................... 39
Stoichiometric ........................................................................ 88
Stomata ................................................................................. 97
Stress ........................................................................... 10, 34
Stroke..................................................................................... 43
Sub Saturated Water ........................................................... 124
Sub-bituminous ..................................................................... 80
Sublimation .................................................................. 115, 116
Sulfate .................................................................................... 35
Sulfite ......................................................................... 27, 35, 36
Super Skins ..................................................................... 16
Supercritical Steam .............................................................. 123
Superheated Steam ..................................................... 109, 124
Surface Blowdown ...................................................... 16
Surface Tension ........................................................... 16
Swirler .................................................................................... 89
T
TDS ................................................................................... 12, 16
Termperature Glide ............................................................... 72
Therm .......................................................................... 128, 132
Thermal Imager ..................................................................... 39
Thermocouple ....................................................................... 35
P a g e 145

CW
Tom Thumb .................................................................. 128, 132
Torque .................................................................................. 127
Total Dissolved Solids ........................................... 16
Triple Point ........................................................................... 115
TSP ......................................................................................... 26
Tubercle ................................................................................. 60
Turbulent Flame ..................................................................... 88
U
UEL ......................................................................................... 88
Ultra Low NOx ...................................................................... 100
Ultra Violet Light .................................................................... 97
Universal Test Paper ................................................................ 5
Upper Explosive Limit ............................................................. 88
V
Vacuum ........................................................................ 110, 119
Vacuum Chamber ................................................................ 116
Vapor Cone .......................................................................... 118
Vapor Pressure ..................................................................... 109
Vaporization ................................................................. 108, 110
Variable Frequency Drive ..................................................... 127
Vavle Induced Water Hammer............................................. 120
VFD ...................................................................................... 127
Viscosity.................................................................... 74, 93
Volts .................................................................................... 126
W
Water Column ...................................................................... 19
Water Column Blowdown ..................................................... 19
Water Hammer .................................................................... 120
Water Slug ........................................................................... 130
Water Softener ........................................................ 22, 34
Water Tube ............................................................................ 9
Watts ................................................................................... 126
Wax ........................................................................................ 86
Wet Layup ............................................................................ 134
Wet Steam ........................................................................... 124
White rust .............................................................................. 58
Wood Fuel ............................................................................. 77
Z
Zeolite .............................................................................. 22
Zeotrope ................................................................................ 72
Zinc ...................................................................................... 133
P a g e 146