13. Digital transformations and their design – renewal of the socio-technical approach

Digital transformations and their design
Table 1: A classification of policy problems in governance
(from Georgiadou and Recklen, 2018).
Problem class
Consensus among
stakeholders
Problem goals and values
No consensus
(dissensus) among
stakeholders
Special
knowledge
needed to
address
the
problem
Certainty
about
facts and
cause-effect
Uncertainty
about
facts and
cause-effect
(1) Tamed or structured
problems
(debating on the
technicalities)
(2) Weaklystructured
problems
(debating causeeffects
and optimizing
fact collection)
(3) Weaklystructured
problems
(debating goals and
values)
(4) Wicked or
unstructured
problems (endless
debate)
In the category of wicked problems – or malignant (in contrast to benign),
vicious, tricky or aggressive – stakeholders do not agree about the goals (and
the values behind the goals) and do not know how to approach (or address)
the problem. More specifically, wicked problems are characterized in ten
properties (Rittel & Webber, 1973, pp. 160–168). 2 >>
1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem.
2. Wicked problems have no stopping rule.
3. Solutions to wicked problems cannot be true-or-false, only
good-or-bad.
4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a
wicked problem.
5. Every solution to a wicked problem is a “one-shot operation”;
because there is no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error,
every attempt counts significantly.
6. (Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an
exhaustively describable) set of potential solutions, nor is
there a well-described set of permissible operations that may
be incorporated into the plan.
7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of
another problem.
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