Gateway Chronicle 2021

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Hidden Voices

The Gateway Chronicle
Table of Contents
A Word from the Editors 4
Africa 6
The Development of Medicine in Ancient Kemet 8
The Expulsion of Asians in Uganda 12
A Reappraisal of the Role of the African National Congress 14
Rugby in South Africa 16
Asia 20
The Jallianwala Bagh (Amritsar) Massacre 23
Europe 24
The Tenth Muse: The Loss of Sappho’s Work 26
Medieval Feminism? Christine de Pizan and the Defense of Women 30
The Place of Female Midwives in Early Modern England 33
The Forgotten Male Witches 37
The Last Witch 39
The Role of Irish MPs in the Abolition of the Slave Trade 42
The Impact of Queen Victoria on Women’s Opportunities 45
Should Britain be ashamed of Winston Churchill? 49
Going Underground: The Hidden Voices of Miners 52
The Cultural Integration of British Sikhs 55
The Bristol Bus Boycott 57
Anti-Semitism in England 59
Out of Sight, Out of Mind: The Hidden History of Mental Illness 61
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Hidden Voices
America 64
Harriet Tubman 66
Martin Luther King Jr. 68
Arthur Ashe 72
Silence = Death: A History of HIV and Homophobia 74
Barack Obama 80
Colin Kaepernick 83
Australasia 84
Aboriginal Australians: A Forgotten People 86
The Haka: History hidden in plain sight 89
Credits 92
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The Gateway Chronicle
A Word from the
Editors
In 2021, when history is popular as ever, we felt
it was more important than ever to give a voice
to those histories that are forgotten or simply not
covered in standard history curriculums. This need
for minority voices to be heard became all the more
apparent after the summer of 2020, which helped
bring new light onto so much of both our history
in Britain and around the world. However, we did
not want the sole focus of this magazine to be about
retelling British history, as this is covered in all
history curriculums. We wanted this to be a journey
through histories not well known throughout time.
To capture this sense of history throughout the
world we divided the magazine into continents.
With articles from Australasia on the Aboriginal
Australians and the origins of the Haka; Africa and
medicine in Kemet in 3000 BC to the ending of
Apartheid; and to Britain itself with a look at mental
health, midwives and medieval anti-semitism.
There are also articles from America, which look at
key figures such as Martin Luther King and Arthur
Ashe; and to Asia and the Amristar massacre. We
were pleased that the articles reflected such a wide
range of the school with articles from the first form
right the way through to teachers.
We would absolutely like to thank everybody that
contributed to the magazine in the writing of their
articles. Moreover, we would like to extend a huge
thank you to Freddie Houlahan and Ciaran Cook
for their work as design editors. We thank them
for their work on presentation and for managing to
turn a collection of articles into a magazine (not a
chance we could have done this from without them).
We would also like to say a thank you to all the
History Department, especially those that contributed
articles and for urging so many students to
take part. In particular we would like to thank Mrs
Gregory for all her support and encouragement in
putting the magazine together.
We hope you really enjoy the magazine and the
chance to learn about some history that is not
typically taught on a history curriculum!
Sam McDonald & Joe Scragg

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Hidden Voices
The Editorial/Design Team (from left): Sam McDonald, Joe Scragg, Ciaran Cook, Freddie Houlahan

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The Gateway Chronicle
Africa

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Hidden Voices

The Gateway Chronicle
The Development of Medicine
in Ancient Kemet
The ancient civilisation of Kemet, which first began
in the Nile Valley over 5000 years ago, was incredibly
significant in the development of medicine, the
effects of which can still be found today on modern
society. However, the Ancient Egyptians also made
huge strides forwards in agriculture from developing
magnificent infrastructure to understanding the
best agricultural practices. Their society, although
incredibly influential in medicine, was even more so
in the development in agricultural practices as more
people had access to the benefits and therefore their
quality of life increased more due to the development
of agriculture, than medicine.
Kemet civilisation made huge advances in medicinal
practices which would have increased the life expectancy
and quality of life for its citizens. Although
many were priests, the profession of “physician”
emerged which shows the changing attitudes and
the realisation of the importance of medicine.
Documented Ancient Egyptian medical literature
suggests that physicians specialised in one area,
allowing them to gain in depth knowledge of their
expertise and to become more experienced with
those diseases. Prior to the Ancient Egyptians,
people led a largely nomadic lifestyle, where the
idea of medical infrastructure would not have been
applicable. However, in Kemet there was a system
of government, law enforcement, an organized
economy and a permanent population. This stability
allowed medical research and infrastructure
to develop, which improved the quality of life for
citizens as they gained access to physicians with
medical knowledge. One document from c.3400
B.C.E records over 700 remedies, magical formulas
and incantations to repel disease causing demons.
Although, some of their ideas were flawed in the
cause of disease as they believe it was partly from
the consequence of sin or the patient was under a
“demonic attack”, they understood the importance
of pharmaceuticals in healing, as well as the need
for cleanliness in treating patients. This meant that
many remedies did provide some relief from the
illnesses and therefore there was a large influence
on civilians. There were over 160 medicinal plant
products with one being opium, which was used as
an anaesthetic for tooth extraction. The surgeries
performed were often successful with many surviving
amputations and brain surgery for years; they
even developed wooden amputations, as shown by
the evidence from mummies. They had extensive
surgical equipment, including but not exclusive to
surgical stitches and cauterization, scalpels, forceps
and adhesive plasters. This suggests that the Ancient
Egyptians had methods of managing shock,
blood loss and infection, which were aspects doctors
struggled with until the 20 th century. Therefore,
this shows how advanced their knowledge of medicine
was as they were able to successfully navigate
surgery. This knowledge meant they were able to
treat a wider range of illnesses and diseases, therefore
having a dramatic impact on the quality of life
of Kemet civilians.
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Although the development of medicine was extremely
important for improving conditions for the
Kemet civilisation, the development of agriculture
was even more so. This was because everyone was
able to access the more plentiful food, whereas it
was predominantly just the wealthy who had access
to medicine. Many technological innovations were
developed such as the ox-drawn plough. This used
oxen to pull the plough through the fields which
recycled nutrients within the soil, meaning they
were more successful in growing crops. Therefore,
they had a more stable source of food and nutrition
which is imperative in improving living conditions.
Moreover, this revolutionised agriculture because
it became less labour intensive and more efficient,
allowing them to harvest much larger quantities.
The design was so effective that similar versions are
still being used by farmers in developing countries
in the present day. Another important invention
was the sickle. This was a curved blade used when
cutting and harvesting grain and was significant as
it harvested the staple foods of wheat and barley
Hidden Voices
more efficiently. This helped them gain food security,
thereby increasing their quality of life as they
had reliable access to nutritional foods. This was
more significant than medicine, as if a society is
starving, nutritional food is more important in regaining
strength and health. However, the Ancient
Egyptians irrigation systems which included canals
and dams were the most influential development.
This was because with a reliable water supply, it was
possible to irrigate crops which helped in producing
a constant supply of food, averting disease, malnutrition
and famine. In 3100 BC King Menes, ordered
the first perennial irrigation system to be built,
which diverted water from the Nile into canals and
lakes. This was effective as the River Nile was unpredictable
and the Ancient Egyptians relied on its
seasonal flooding which deposited nutrient rich soil
onto the land. However, the creation of reservoirs
in the canals, meant they could continue to irrigate
crops even when the flood failed. These canals carried
water to numerous farms and villages, so huge
numbers benefitted. This allowed them to create

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great agricultural wealth and therefore they could
expand their empire. This improved their quality of
life as more technological innovations were developed
as a result from this security. Therefore, although
medicine was important in improving living
conditions for the Ancient Egyptians, agriculture
was even more significant as it helped all corners of
society.
In conclusion, the Ancient Egyptians made some
marvelous breakthroughs in creating a successful
society which lasted for over 3,000 years. These
The Gateway Chronicle
ranged from agriculture to medicine to mathematics
to writing. However, the most influential development
in increasing Kemet civilian’s quality of
life was the improvement of agriculture. This was
because it gave them food security and an export allowing
them to become an extremely powerful empire.
Although medicine was advanced, less people
had access to it and therefore as a civilisation, there
was less of an impact from medicine as it largely
only benefitted the wealthy of Kemet civilians.
Freya Graynoth L6DMY

Hidden Voices
The River Nile, an essential element in the development of agriculture
in Ancient Kemet
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The Gateway Chronicle
The Expulsion of Asians in
Uganda
Idi Amin Dada Oumee was a military officer in
Uganda who served as president from 1971 to 1979.
He was widely known as the Butcher of Uganda,
and completely obliterated the Ugandan economy
during his time in office. He overthrew the previous
president then married into power in 1971, before
initiating his famous expulsion of Asians from the
country only a year later. This came as a result of
Oboto, the former president, planning to get Idi
Amin arrested for using army funds to make himself
seem wealthy and become president.
Idi Amin launched a revolt against the civilians of
the country in January and then moved to secure
strategic positions near Kampala and Entebbe.
In early August 1972 Idi Amin stated he had had
a dream in which God had told him to banish all
Asian minorities from the country, so, a day later
he accused them of disloyalty and not integrating
and expelled them all. During a 90-day period,
about 80,000 Asians (mostly Guajaratis) left the
country, and if they did not leave for whatever
Idi Amin, president of Uganda
between 1971-1979, considered one
of the most brutal despots in world
history
reason, they would be publicly executed. In total,
there was about half a million people put to death.
In this large group of people, only a handful had
their applications for citizenship in other countries
accepted.
Of those 80,000 people, 27,000 went to the U.K,
6,000 went to Canada, 4,500 ended up in India,
2,500 went to Kenya and the remaining 40,000 went
to various other places around the world.
5,655 Asian firms were liquidated and destroyed
along with many ranches, farms, and agricultural
estates. People had to abandon all their major
possessions like cars, houses etc. and were not paid
any compensation; these were all transferred to Idi
Amin. Anyone that possessed a bank account with
any funds lost their money, as it was all transferred
to the Central Bank of Uganda and could not be
accessed.
At the time, my grandfather’s family were in Kampala,
running a shoemaking business. My grandfather
had nearly finished his university
education in India. On his return, he came
back to his family in Kampala to start
a job, but due to the riots and rumours
of Idi Amin taking over the country, his
family applied for a student visa for him
to enter the UK to studying at a college in
London.
My Grandad travelled from Uganda to
the UK, by ship and arrived at the Tilbury
Port. Unfortunately, soon after, my great
grandparents passed away, and my great
uncle had to shut down the family business.
My Grandad started his new life in
the UK.
Idi Amin’s policies affected many Asians,
including both of my grandads, and my
great grandmother.
Ethan Patel 2.3

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Hidden Voices

The Gateway Chronicle
A Reappraisal of the Role of the
African National Congress and
the Global Black Community in
the Fall of Apartheid in South
Africa
Accounts of the fall of the Apartheid regime in
South Africa have, in the main, been western centric,
calling particular attention to the role of international
economic sanctions, sporting boycotts and
the end of the Cold War between the United States
and the Soviet Union as factors hastening the end
of the racist regime of segregation and oppression.
While these are, of course, vital aspects, such an
analysis tends to overlook or downplay the agency
and power of the African National Congress (ANC)
in shaping the strategy to dismantle Apartheid as
well as developing the role of Black people in Africa
and the wider global community.
Although western-led economic and sporting sanctions
expressed condemnation of the racist Apartheid
system of government, western action was not
as full-throated as we might hope. In Britain in 1964
Harold Wilson’s newly elected Labour Party was
unwilling to impose sanctions and in fact economic
sanctions were not imposed by the United States
and Europe until 1985-1986. In 1964 the future
looked bleak for black people in South Africa. After
the massacre of unarmed Black South Africans by
the police at Sharpeville in 1960, and the government’s
prohibition of the ANC, the leader of the
party, Nelson Mandela, felt he had no alternative
but to abandon the approach of nonviolent protest
in favour of the perpetration of acts of sabotage
against the Apartheid government. After leaving for
Algeria with the objective of training in guerrilla
warfare, he was arrested at a roadblock in Natal and
sentenced to five years of imprisonment. In October
1963, Mandela was tried for treason, sabotage and
violent conspiracy at the Rivonia trial. He made a
speech from the dock, accepting some of the charges
brought against him in a passionate defence of
liberty, democracy and the resistance of tyranny.
His speech which was later titled “I am prepared to
die” brought him respect across the globe. However,
this respect did not translate into direct action from
the west.
Nevertheless, members of South Africa’s Black
community and allies from the South African White
community mobilised a campaign of non-violent
internal resistance. In 1976 in Soweto, a township
near Johannesburg, 20,000 South Africans took part
in a protest led by Black school children to object
to the introduction of Afrikaans, the language of
the Afrikaners who dominated South African politics,
as the language of instruction in Soweto’s
schools which were attended exclusively by Black
South Africans. The police responded violently;
an estimated 400-700 people were killed, many of
them children. This response caused a reluctance to
become involved with such overt political action but
a campaign of peaceful protest nonetheless continued.
Banned ANC flags were flown, clergy married
mixed race couples illegally, funeral marches and
orations were used to protest against the regime as
demonstrations were banned and memorials were
Above: protestors during the 1976 Soweto Uprising
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held such as vigils to commemorate the Sharpeville
massacre. Commercial pressure was also brought to
bear as white-owned shops were boycotted, strikes
were organised by labour groups and rents owed to
white landlords were unpaid. As the tide of change
gained momentum, white-only spaces were utilised
by Black citizens; for example Archbishop Desmond
Tutu led a protest march to a whites-only beach
in 1989 and the National Union of Mineworkers
supported a lunchtime sit-in at an all-white canteen
in the same year. These actions positively impacted
the ruling party’s willingness to negotiate with the
ANC and Nelson Mandela because of the disruption
they caused.
The wider actions of the global community also
affected the dismantling of Apartheid in South Africa
but the scale of influence of Black and alliance
communities and states was wider than that implied
by a western focused narrative. South Africa was
involved in armed conflict against liberation movements
in Angola (1975-1977) and South West Africa
(1966-1989) which drained its economic resources
and morale, the impact of which became more
pronounced when combined with more stringent
economic sanctions in the mid-1980s. The conflicts
are often seen as a case of proxy states fighting
with the support of the United States and the Soviet
Union. Although the Cuban forces who fought
against South Africa were communist, it is clear that
Cuba’s motivation was also based on an anti-colonial
ideology: Fidel Castro pledged forces and weapons
in the spirit of proletariat internationalism
and fittingly named the mission ‘Operation Carlota’
after an African woman who had organised a slave
revolt on Cuba. Despite the roles of international
supporters, the agency of the African protagonists
should not be underestimated. In 1984 Angola and
South Africa signed the Lusaka Accords to declare a
ceasefire. Despite the military support of Cuba and
the Soviet Union throughout the conflict, they were
not consulted by Angola until after the agreement
was signed. This demonstrates their autonomy in
resolving the conflict on their own terms.
A further source of political pressure came from the
African Front-Line States, a coalition of countries
which opposed Apartheid in South Africa. These
included Botswana, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia
and Zimbabwe, as well as Angola. They gave the
ANC a base from which to operate during the period
when they were banned in South Africa and put
pressure on other members of the Commonwealth
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to isolate South Africa.
That these military and political pressures worked
in tandem with economic sanctions from the west
is incontrovertible. However, the role of the global
Black community in bringing about these sanctions
is often overlooked. Black American opinion
was mobilised to exert leverage over US banks
and corporations, who began to divest themselves
of holdings in South Africa during the 1980s. In
response to this economic pressure, the value of the
Rand collapsed.
In this political environment of greater international
co-operation and social and economic pressure
from the majority Black population within South
Africa, when F.W. De Klerk became President of
South Africa in 1989, he confounded expectations
by adopting a great deal of the Harare Declaration
in which the ANC had set out the steps that would
create a climate for beginning negotiations. This
crucial step can be overlooked in the narrative of
the fall of Apartheid but it is clear that the ANC set
the terms of the negotiation: Nelson Mandela was
to be released, bans were to be lifted on outlawed
organisations and the state of emergency was to be
lifted. The majority of the conditions of the Declaration
were met. The leader of the ANC, Nelson
Mandela, created a roadmap of the negotiation process
and the first all-race elections in South Africa
were held in 1994, leading to the ANC winning a
majority and Nelson Mandela becoming its President.
In conclusion, it is apparent that although pressures
from the West in the form of economic and sporting
boycotts were significant factors in the dismantling
of Apartheid in South Africa, the activism of
the Black communities in South Africa itself and
the actions of majority governed African states and
their allies should not be overlooked or downplayed.
A climate in which the negotiations on the road
to democracy could be pursued was only possible
because of the economic pressure caused by wars in
neighbouring states such as Angola and South West
Africa (Namibia) and the internal pressure of economic
boycotts, social protest and disobedience. It is
important that the hidden voices of these contributors
are heard so that their agency in the process is
given due recognition.
Jonathan Webb 4.5

The Gateway Chronicle
Rugby in South Africa: How a
World Cup was able to heal a
broken nation
Johannesburg 1995. Joel Stransky’s extra time drop
goal stunned a nation and made South Africa rugby
world champions for the first, but not last, time.
This was their first world cup that marked a significant
return to sport on the global stage, however,
the cultural impact of this victory on racial tensions
is one that should not be underestimated.
Below: the iconic moment when Nelson Mandela presented
Captain François Pienaar with the Webb Ellis Cup
For over thirty years South Africa had been expelled
from almost every major sports federation for
the segregation laws in their country. On the national
level, there was a huge schism between blacks
and whites not only in sport but in every aspect
of life. The apartheid system meant that different
races lived in different parts of town, had separate
swimming pools, schools and entrances to buildings.
Sport was a microcosm for the whole nation as the
national rugby team, the Springboks, became symbolic
of white privilege. Despite their
inclusion of token black players in the
squad, the international team suffered
a complete isolation from international
rugby between 1985 and 1991. The
consequences of this isolation meant the
Springboks could not participate in the
first two Rugby World cups in 1987 and
1991. By 1995 it was a pivotal turning
point in South Africa’s history. They
needed a unifying force to help bring the
country together under one anthem, one
flag, one ‘rainbow nation’.
This unifying force came in the form
of the 1995 Rugby World Cup. When
Nelson Mandela was freed from prison
in 1990 and later became the first president
in 1994, it was his sole aim to fix
a broken country. He rejected the ideas
of some ANC members, who believed a
black president should exploit his powers
to make the whites subservient, but instead
looked for ways to make amends for
South Africa’s past by encouraging equality.
It was this attitude that was a driving
force in the events of the Rugby World
Cup. Mandela saw this as the perfect
opportunity to reinvent South Africa and
restore the nation’s faith in the national
rugby team and, by extension, help to
create a new, racially equal country.
In addition to the racial tension surrounding
the team, the Springboks were
not performing to a high standard in the
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early 1990s. The sports boycott had rendered them
unable to play the amounts of international sport as
the other leading rugby nations and this was beginning
to show when the All Blacks toured in 1992.
This was their first tour to South Africa since 1976
and it resulted in an All Black victory. The Springboks
were booed and berated by their country not
only for their poor quality of sport but due to the
team’s history as an elitist white organization that
was representative of everything that was wrong
with South Africa. In the 1992 tour, the ANC made
several demands: that the old South African flag
not be flown and that the anthem, Die Stem van
Suid-Afrika, not be played. These both held strong
connections to the supposed glory of apartheid and
focused on the triumphs of minority rule. However,
the crowd of 72,000 waved the old flag and
the anthem was played through the stadium’s PA
system, along with racial chants and slurs from the
stands. In addition, the blacks would often cheer on
the opposition in defiance of white supremacy. The
gaping chasm between blacks and whites was still
evident and without a unifying force, the idea of
Nelson Mandela’s “Rainbow Nation” was looking
increasingly unlikely. It is important not to forget
that going into the world cup South Africa were
ranked ninth in the world so a high placed finished
could help to rectify this and change attitudes to the
Springboks.
Another interesting dynamic is that the Springboks
had one ‘token’ black player in the World Cup squad
named Chester Williams. He was the first nonwhite
to play for South Africa since 1984 when his
uncle, Avril Williams, and Errol Tobias were members
of the squad. Due to the separate sport governing
bodies for blacks and whites, coloured players
had not been selected to represent South Africa
before the removal of apartheid in 1991. Being the
third non-white to represent the Springboks carried
a burden. It is undeniable that this was the beginning
of a process that is continuing in South African
rugby, a particular highlight being Siya Kolisi
becoming the first black Captain, but by no means
was this perfect solution. Chester, being the only
player of colour on the team, resulted in him being
paraded as a victory by the rugby board instead of
the start of things to come. However, this also led
to Chester being viewed as a folk hero among rainbow
nation supporters. He became the poster boy
for the world cup with billboards being used to win
around black South Africans to come out in support
to Springboks. There were critics on both sides of
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the spectrum; those who believed Chester was a glorified
publicity stunt and that there should be more
black players on the team and those who believed
he shouldn’t have been called up in the first place.
However, his popular following by black and white
South Africans alike help to sow the seeds of unity
that would flourish under their unbeaten campaign.
The group stage got off to an excellent start with
South Africa winning all three of their matches including
one against world champions Australia and
a 20-0 victory over Canada. Wins against Western
Samoa and France in pouring rain saw them placed
against New Zealand in the final. The All Blacks
had also won all their games so far and the Springboks
faced them, bitter from their defeat three years
ago.
The final took place in the Ellis Park stadium, in
Johannesburg, in front of a crowd of 63,000. A
myriad of new South African flags greeted the
players as they walked out onto the pitch and the
new national anthem was sung. Mandela had requested
that all the players know the lyrics to Nkosi
Sikelel’ iAfrika to help reinforce unity. 62,000 of
the 63,000 in attendance were of white Afrikaans
decent, the audience that traditionally supported
the Springboks, but the difference this time was
that those who traditionally opposed or berated the
Springboks came out in support of them, watching
in their millions up and down the country. The first
half saw no scores added to the total and the second
half left the two nations at level pegging as the
clock ticked over to extra time. A penalty for each
side left the scores 12-12 but in the last minute of
the first half of extra time, a drop goal from Joel
Stransky wrapped up the match and South Africa
were crowned champions.
After the final whistle had blown, Nelson Mandela
walked out sporting a green and gold jersey and
cap of the Captain François Pienaar. In front of
crowds of adoring South Africans, he shook hands
with Piennar and presented him with the William
Webb Ellis trophy. The shirt that had become synonymous
with racism and apartheid being worn by
South Africa’s first black president was possibly the
greatest public symbol of unity, one that no money
could buy. The symbolic handshake showed the unanimity
of the old and new South Africa and more
importantly it perfectly conveyed Mandela’s desire
for a rainbow nation - a nation where blacks and
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each other. A nation that does not bury its past but
embraces it and everyone. The whole idea was not
that a new nation was being born but that an old
one was being healed and improved through harmony.
In his acceptance speech, Pienaar said that the
trophy had been won not only for the 60,000 fans
present at Ellis Park for the final but all 43,000,000
South Africans.
The Gateway Chronicle
Whilst there are numerous factors that alleviated
racist mindsets in South Africa, the significance of
the 1995 World Cup mustn’t be misrepresented.
Through his interactions with the team, Nelson
Mandela helped to restore the black fans’ faith in
their national team and simultaneously relieved any
fears the whites may have of a black president. The
world cup presented a unique opportunity to showcase
unity on a world stage but also to a nation that
needed unity after so many years of discord. This
was the opportunity for a whole country to get behind
one national force and the world cup provided
the ideal vessel for this. It was the perfect propaganda
campaign that appealed to all races and the fact
the Springboks went onto to win the tournament
only served to ameliorate the concord and goodwill
that always leaves a hazy glow around a country following
a world cup victory. The sweet aftertaste of
the success would be set to continue as the rainbow
nation flourished in the post-apartheid years.
Arthur Roberts L6IMS

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The Gateway Chronicle
Asia

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The Gateway Chronicle
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Hidden Voices
The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
In July 2016, my uncle was getting married in India
and my family was invited to attend. We took an
international flight to Delhi and then flew on a domestic
flight to Amritsar, Punjab. The next day, we
went to visit the holy temple of Sikhs: The Golden
Temple. Devotees from different corners of the
globe seek blessings and spiritual solace here. After
taking our blessings we walked to the famous local
park, Jallianwala Bagh.
My mum explained to me the history of the park.
India was once under British rule, and in early April
1919 there was rioting in Punjab. British and Indian
troops under the command of Brigadier-General
Reginald Dyer were sent to restore order and Dyer
banned all public meetings which, he announced,
would be dispersed by force if necessary. On April
13 th , 1919, the Sikh new year (Baisakhi) was being
celebrated. That day, there were over 5000 people
gathered in the park with their friends and family to
celebrate.
The Punjab lieutenant governor called Michael
O’Dwyer is said to have believed that this was part
of a conspiracy to rebel against the British. Troops
under the command of Brigadier-General Reginald
Dyer marched into the walled enclosure of
the park, locked the gates and without any warning
opened fire on the panicked crowd in the park for
about 15 minutes. According to official figures, 379
were killed and 1200 were wounded, although other
estimates suggest higher casualties. Many people
didn’t want to be killed by the gunfire of the British
army so instead they killed themselves by jumping
into a deep well called the “Martyrs’ Well.” Dyer
told his men to cease fire and then left the dead and
the wounded where they lay.
for more about this tragedy.
The news of the massacre spread like wildfire and
provoked strong disapproval. In the House of Commons,
Winston Churchill condemned ‘An extraordinary
event, a monstrous event, an event which
stands in sinister and singular isolation’. Dyer tried
to defend himself but the conclusion of the investigation
was damning; he was severely castigated
and forced to retire from the Indian army. Michael
O’Dwyer was assassinated in London by a Sikh Revolutionary
Udham Singh, who had been wounded
at Jallianwala Bagh. The last known survivor of the
massacre was Shingara Singh – he died in Amritsar
on June 29th, 2009, at the age of 113.
Today, Jallianwala Bagh is a remembrance park for
tourists and locals to pay their respects to the dead.
It is also a quiet garden in the middle of a noisy and
chaotic city, for the locals to have some peace and
solitude. I will never forget this extraordinary place
and cruel piece of history for the rest of my life.
As I write this, Britain has just observed Remembrance
Day on 11th November, commemorating the
loss of lives during the World Wars. It is important
to know that aside from being a colony of the British
Empire, over one million Indian troops served
overseas, of whom 62,000 died and another 67,000
were wounded during World War One. India has
played an important part in shaping the Britain we
know and the freedoms that we enjoy today. This
makes the loss of life at Jallianwala Bagh even more
senseless and saddening.
Arjun Das 1.1
I felt furious and also shocked to hear of
such an event. I couldn’t believe that
so many people had been trapped in a
park and killed mercilessly. Everywhere
I looked there were hundreds of bullet
marks on the walls. We walked over
to the Martyrs’ Well, which had been
boarded up for safety. I imagined women
carrying children and running into the
well to save themselves from the bullets.
The bodies would have piled up on top of
each other, limbs upon limbs. On my return
to the hotel I searched the internet
23
Outside the memorial park in the present day

24
The Gateway Chronicle
Europe

25
Hidden Voices

The Gateway Chronicle
The Tenth Muse: The Loss of
Sappho’s Work
Born c. 630 BC, Sappho was to become one of the
most revered poets of her time, her work challenging
popular standards around poetry at the time
and its influence still being felt today. Sappho, or
Psappha in her native Aeolic, is most well-known
today for discussions surrounding her sexuality
and gender in the ancient world –
to an extent this overshadows the
success she deserves to receive.
Yet, for someone who was dubbed
the ‘Tenth Muse’ by Plato, surprisingly
little survives of her poetry
today. Myths and fact often become
confused when understanding the
reasons behind this tragedy but
nevertheless it is fascinating to try
to unravel.
A depiction of Pope Gregory
VII
little evidence to support this idea: it is much more
likely there was a translation error when the scholars
reported it. Joseph Scaliger, a French scholar,
wrote in 1666 of Pope Gregory VII ordering the
destruction of all promiscuous poems and later
commented on Gregory of Nazianzus’ burning of
comedians’ and lyrical poets’ works
in the 4 th century (including Sappho).
It seems that in later years,
there was an understandable confusion
between the Gregories. What’s
more likely is that the reasons
scholars listed for this burning was
not because of both Sappho and the
object of her desire being a woman,
but rather because it was considered
too promiscuous.
One could argue that the most obvious pointer to
Sappho’s sexuality, apart from the subjects of her
poems, are the words ‘sapphic’ and ‘lesbian’ that
find their origins in her name, ‘Sappho’, and her
birthplace, the islands of ‘Lesbos’. While she was
rumoured to have a husband – Kerkyas of Andros –
the chances are he never existed as his name literally
translates to ‘Penis Allcock from the Isle of Man’.
It is likely he was made up as a joke by Sappho’s
contemporaries. Whether this was an attempt to
discredit her is unclear yet later attacks on Sappho
as a result of her sexuality can be easily discerned.
Despite the fact that same-sex relationships were
seen as an act rather than an aspect of one’s self in
ancient Greece, Sappho was still ridiculed for her
sexuality. Anacreontic fragments, a type of poem,
used her as an object to sneer at lesbians as a whole,
New Comedians picked up on this slander and used
the poet as a popular burlesque figure in a number
of plays. In the years after her death, Christian
moralists formally cursed her while even modern
editors changed and edited the lines of her poetry
found to obscure her yearning for women who were
the subject of her poems.
But is her sexuality the reason why so little of her
poetry survives into today? A popular myth is that
Pope Gregory VII in 1073 had Sappho’s poetry
burned since it detailed her lesbian desires. There is
While the myth doesn’t account for the loss of Sappho’s
work, there are several possible reasons that
are more feasible. To begin with, Sappho’s work
continued to be translated and studied considerably
in the Roman Era and throughout its empire,
although towards the end of its period she was less
focused on. Partially due to the transformation of
lyrical to written poetry as well as the movement
into Attic and Homeric Greek, Sappho’s poetry
slipped out of the limelight. The native Aeolic,
which Sappho would have written and spoken, was
notably difficult for Romans to translate and study.
The Aeolic Dialect was the language spoken in
Boeotia, Thessaly and Lesbos and contained many
linguistic nuances unfamiliar and confusing to
Roman scholars, much like how an average reader
would find it difficult to understand Middle English
today. Rather than a ruthless and targeted destruction
of great poetry, it appears as though the sad
reality is that we have so little of Sappho’s poetry
today because of a language barrier. Even celebrated
poet Apuleius commented on the ‘strangeness’ of
her writing.
While the main, and most obvious, reason for the
disappointing lack of Sappho’s poetry remaining today
is indeed translation difficulties, this would have
been further impacted by the change from papyrus
scrolls to parchment. As the demand to study her
work declined, so did the need to transcribe it to the
26

27
Hidden Voices

28
more popular form of book. Sappho’s poetry was
set aside and forgotten as time went on. About 150
years after her death, her poetry was written down
and put into papyrus scrolls for the private libraries
of wealthier people in the 5 th century. Throughout
her lifetime, Sappho had written around 10 000
lines of poetry which were eventually collected into
nine books, now simply referred to as Sappho’s Nine
Books. These were all but lost in the ninth century
as the materials used in book binding and making
improved and it was not thought effort should be
put in to transfer her translation onto the new medium.
Out of the 10 000 lines she wrote, only 650 have
survived into today and only one poem, ‘Ode to
Aphrodite’, is complete. Sappho’s work saw a surge
The Gateway Chronicle
Right: a
depiction
of Sappho
from ‘World
Noted Women’
(Mary
Cowden
Clarke,
1858) by
artist Francis
Holl (1815-
1884)
A surviving fragment of Sappho’s work
in popularity following the beginning
of the eighteenth century which resulted
in new copies and translations
of her poetry being published; ancient
authors had their books scrutinised
and thoroughly investigated for
even the smallest quotation. Indeed,
many fragments are simply single
words: Fragment 169A means ‘wedding
gifts’.
Following the end of the nineteenth

29
Hidden Voices
fragments, there can be no doubt that hope still exists for
Sapphic scholars and the desire to give the Tenth Muse the
recognition she deserves.
Milly Caris Harris L6SAH
Above: another fragment of poetry
century, farmers in Egypt started to find scraps of
papyrus and, as news of this arrived in the West,
teams of excavators set about seeing what they
could find. Previously unknown fragments were
found in 1879 at Fayum and between 1896 and 1903
in an Egyptian rubbish dump. The Tithonus Poem
was unearthed in 2004, the fourth poem to have survived
today without many missing fragments. Most
recently, in 2014, Dirk Obbink of Oxford University
announced he had discovered two unseen fragments:
The Brothers Poem and the Kypris Poem.
While some doubt the authenticity of these newest

30
The Gateway Chronicle
Medieval Feminism?
Christine de Pizan and the Defence of Women
Although ‘feminist’ claims for women’s emancipation
did not exist in the Middle Ages and education
was restricted, examples of written testimony in
defence of women from misogyny were, perhaps
surprisingly, prevalent. Christine de Pizan provides
many such examples through her writings, and also
her status as France’s first professional woman of
letters; described by some as the Western tradition’s
‘first feminist’. Since the growth of feminist
study in the 1970s, Christine’s extraordinary career
has become known to students of medieval history.
Especially of interest is the stand she takes against
misogyny in a significant proportion of her works,
differentiating her voice from the mainstream discourse
surrounding women’s status in the Middle
Ages. This is clear in her most famous work, The
City of Ladies, however, it is the position against misogyny
that Christine takes in the Querelle de la Rose,
an academic debate surrounding the popular courtly
romance, The Romance of the Rose, that first staged
her career as a defender of women.
Born in Venice around 1364, Christine de Pizan
moved to Paris in 1368 with her family to join her
father, Thomas Pizan, an astrologer at the court of
Charles V. In 1379, she was married to royal secretary
and notary, Etienne de Castel, expanding her
contacts at court. While Christine describes her
education as nothing more than “stealing scraps and
flakes...that have fallen from the great wealth that
my father had”, it is clear from her writings that she
was highly educated, having great knowledge of the
influential works that were of her time, undoubtedly
having access to the royal libraries through her
father’s positions at Court. Following the deaths of
her father (1388) and husband (1389), Christine was
left almost destitute, a widow with three children,
with a niece and her mother to support. Whereas
most widows would have entered a convent or
remarried, Christine was determined to support
her family through the work of her pen. During
this time, it was unheard of for men to achieve this
without subsiding their income from other sources,
such as Court or Church appointments. As a woman,
Christine could not hope to attain such a position,
making her decision to live and support her
family professionally as a writer even more unusual
and daring.
After Christine had established herself through
courtly love poetry, her career began to take a more
anti-misogynist edge, especially influenced by her
reading of the Romance of the Rose. The epic poem
was the best seller in its day; over 200 manuscripts
of it survive, compared to only 84 of Chaucer’s

31
Canterbury Tales. The work was a product of two
authors from separate generations, Guillaume de
Lorris and Jean de Meun, and depicts a dream-vision
experienced by the narrator, portraying an
allegory of courtly love. Jean de Meun’s portion of
the poem added satire and controversy; the allegorical
characters first depicted by Guillaume becoming
more sexually explicit in their language (and in extracts
misogynistic). Furthermore, whilst the Lover
was left appropriately unsatisfied in the first half,
Hidden Voices
Jean’s ending concludes with the conquest of the
rose, an act that is a thinly veiled metaphor for rape,
“I attacked it vigorously and hurled myself at it
time and time again... I forced my way into it, for it
was the only entrance, in order to duly pick the rose
bud”. Despite the obscenity and misogyny found in
the text, its incorporation, to an almost encyclopaedic
range, of classical Latin texts presented in the
vernacular, and its eloquent narrative style acquired
Jean de Meun a near-cult like following.
Corresponding to when the Rose was written, and
when the debate concerning it began, was a revisiting
and reformulation of the ideals of chivalry
and praise of women. This was notably expressed
through new organisations devoted to the defence
of women, such as the Order of the Golden Shield.
During the same period, a parallel movement
formed of highly educated clerks whose literate
values, ‘clergie’, often opposed those of chivalry;
tending to satirise and promote misogynistic
thinking. This attitude against women was derived
from their religious educational background, which
preached Eve’s role in the Fall and similar anti-female
notions.
Within this climate, Christine wrote her earliest
criticisms of the Rose: The Letter of the God of Love
(1399), the Querelle itself (1401-4), and the Tale of
the Rose (1402). In this latter work especially, Christine
draws on the conflicting ideals of the chivalric
and clerkly cultures of France by criticising Jean de
Meun’s Rose. In an allegorical dream vision (similar
to the Rose’s own form) Christine is commanded by
Loyalty to form the Order of the Rose, founded and
run by women, for the defence of their sex from
degrading treatment. Christine thus had a complex
relationship with the Rose and the culture which it
emerged. While she founded her career upon poems
centred around courtly love and chivalry, she clearly
saw the problematic character of those institutions
supposedly created to defend women. Though ‘chivalry’
in modern times has come to signify courtly
and romantic notions of love and civility, this
ignores the predominance of contradictory themes
in the same texts, including the encouragement of
violence and aggression. While the knights of the
chivalric French romances often succeeded in their
missions because of their love for a lady, this trend
had a misogynistic element, and there was steadily
becoming more of an emphasis upon the role
of homosocial bonding in these texts as an ideal
rather than heterosexual love. Although Christine

32
disapproved of Jean de Meun’s work, many of her
own favourite rhetorical strategies (including the
dream-vision as a narrative device and the use of
allegorical personifications) derived from the tradition
of which the Rose was the pioneering text.
By 1401, the Rose had a profound influence, provoking
the intellectual Jean de Montreuil to pen an
enthusiastic praise of both work and author, specifically
Jean de Meun. While Christine’s disapproval
of the text was already established, owing it being
“one of the most notorious compendia of misogynist
lore available in the vernacular”, it was this
letter (no longer surviving) that provoked her to
lay out her arguments against the Rose and become
embroiled in an academic debate which, as a woman,
she had no place in. This
debate continued until
1404, involving many
of the most renowned
intellectuals of the day.
It would have perhaps
been forgotten, if not
for Christine’s extraordinary
step of compiling
the literature involved in
a manuscript which she
presented to the Queen,
thus turning a private
academic disputation
into a public event.
Throughout the Querelle,
Christine’s claims included
that the language
used by Jean de Meun
was vulgar; that several
of the allegorical figures
unjustly defamed
women as a whole; that
The Gateway Chronicle
as well as many of her later writings, have been
labelled ‘feminist’, there is difficulty to applying this
description to a woman of the fifteenth century.
Today’s definition of the term regarding the active
struggle for women’s legal and political equality did
not exist in medieval Europe, and Christine certainly
did not advocate for any reversal of the social
hierarchy. This is highly pertinent to the historiography
that assesses Christine’s defence of women;
while some have praised her for challenging the
dominant misogynist ideology of her age, others
have criticised her for failing to take a more radical
approach. Moreover, ‘feminism’ itself is tricky to
define in a historical context. While it appears to
have a clear meaning, the word itself can be controversial.
Many today who advocate for the equality
that it connotes would
refuse to define themselves
as ‘feminist’. It is therefore
more productive, and less
anachronistic, to employ
the terms proto-feminist
and anti-misogynist when
observing women of the
Middle Ages. Rather than
looking for advocacy of
equality, one should shift
the perspective to the promotion
of women’s intellectual
activity, the defence
of female moral equality
and the affirmation of
women’s contribution to
society. This change in
terminology and outlook
allows Christine, and women
like her, to be viewed in
the context and values of
her own time, allowing her
the conclusion was shameful; overall the work was
an offence to moral decency. Her involvement in
the debate would provide Christine with greater
visibility, some would say notoriety, as a champion
of women’s sensibilities and moral rectitude; her
subsequent works would increasingly take the form
of prose and follow these themes, leading to her
re-writing of women’s history in The City of Ladies.
Hult has thus seen the debate as a crucial staging in
her career, transitioning her from “disenfranchised
woman to female author”.
fundamentally conservative views not to detract, as
some have claimed, from her position as a defender
of women. While Christine’s voice in defence of
women is incredibly different from what we would
expect of a feminist today, it was in its time dissenting
and radical, and one which spoke with as much
urgency as that of any modern feminist.
Ms Hodson
While Christine’s contributions to the Querelle,

33
Hidden Voices
The Place of Female Midwives
in Early Modern England
Many historians have pointed to the early modern
period as a period of widespread professionalisation,
where artisans and craftsman worked with their
respective guilds to try and legitimise their own
occupations, setting themselves apart as the sole
provider of a particular service. This was especially
the case within the world of medicine, with physicians,
barber surgeons and apothecaries seeking to
align themselves as certified medical practitioners.
In doing so, these medical professionals began to
tarnish the reputation and practises of unlicensed
quacks and irregulars. The rise of gender history
since the 1980s has resulted in a large scholarship
surrounding the main victim of this campaign, the
female midwife, who was gradually replaced by the
male accoucheur. However, a revised analysis of this
transition suggests that it should not necessarily be
considered part of a misogynistic narrative. In fact,
the continuing presence of female midwives, particularly
during rural pregnancies, coupled with the
unchanging level of agency granted to pregnant
mothers, suggests that women still maintained a
significant level of power during childbirth.
Firstly, it is perhaps appropriate to outline the place
of midwives within early modern society, so that
their changing role during the period can be assessed.
Typically, midwives cut across a wide social
spectrum and because of this, their experience
as practitioners was equally as diverse. Usually a
mature, married or widowed woman with children
of her own, the early-modern midwife gained her
knowledge from attending the births of children
within her community, and indeed, from her own
experiences of childbirth. Before 1750, pregnancy
and childbirth existed within a predominantly
female-centric sphere; the delivery of the child and
the ritual of lying-in was only attended by women
from the community, known as gossips. Often
lasting for around a month, the lying-in chamber
thus became a sanctuary for female power; it housed
a discourse that simply could not exist outside of
those four walls. For many women this was a unique
opportunity to separate themselves from the traditional
patriarchal society, albeit temporarily, so it
is no surprise that most women within a community
became part of a mother’s pregnancy journey
in some way. For example, a seventeenth-century
ballad commented on the number of women attending
a typical birth and the costs incurred for the
husband; ‘Her Nurses weekly charge likewise, with
many a Gossips feast: he well perceiv’d, when purse
grew light, and emptied was his Chest’. Clearly for
this husband, the extent of the gossip culture in
early modern England was a little more than he had
bargained for.
However, there were times where the sanctuary of
this female-only space was shattered by the presence
of a male surgeon, who primarily attended
to difficult births. This connection meant that the
presence of a male practitioner within the birthing
room therefore became synonymous with a difficult
birth and the possibility of death from mother and
child, so his presence was often met with fear and
Above: a depiction of a woman ready
to give birth from Jane Sharp’s ‘The
Midwives Book’ (1671)
anxiety. Yet, over
the course of the
early modern period,
it became more
common for men to
be part of the process
of childbirth;
some men even entered
the field permanently,
becoming
‘accoucheurs’, or
‘man-midwives’.
Feminist historians
initially attributed
this shift to changing
provision that
sought to eliminate
women from
medical practice,
replacing women’s
power with that of men. Sheena Sommers, for
example, noted how the surgeon Louis Lapeyre
characterised the female midwife as ‘the lowest
class of human being’, and ‘an animal with nothing
of the woman left’. Indeed, even the midwife Jane
Sharp recognised these negative attitudes towards
female midwives. Speaking in her Midwives Book
(1671), the first book on this subject published by
a woman, she stated that ‘some perhaps may think,
that then it is not proper for women to be of this

34
profession because they cannot attain so rarely to
the knowledge of things as men may’. From sources
like this, it is understandable why this shift towards
male midwives has been linked with misogyny
within medicine, as a belief seems to have existed
that women should be pushed out of the profession
and replaced with men. However, recent historians
have cited the rise of the accoucheur as part
of a wider narrative of professionalisation, where
educated, urban, male professionals began to clamp
down on the unlicensed and unregulated practices
of rural quacks. This went alongside the development
of lying-in hospitals for mothers after 1740,
with around a third and a half of all deliveries in
England being attended by medical practitioners
by 1790. However, other historians have suggested
that the development of midwifery training for
male practitioners during the eighteenth century
was simply part of them ‘completing the range of
skills possessed by the old surgeon-apothecary, who
thereby turned into the fully “general” practitioner’.
This argument put forward by Dorothy and Roy
Porter suggests that changing medical provision
enabled practitioners to become the sole caregiver
to a particular family or community. By developing
a strong relationship with an individual from birth,
the eighteenth-century male practitioner became an
early example of today’s general practitioner, and
this eliminated many opportunities for female caregivers
to practice within smaller towns. Therefore,
the shift of female midwives to a supporting role
was not necessarily motivated by intentional misogyny,
but rather, a desire for male physicians to offer
a more holistic approach to caregiving.
This argument regarding professionalisation has
been corroborated by Susan Broomhall. She noted
how, ‘in the sixteenth century, guild organisations
ordered practice and knowledge in a number of
medical fields’. Physicians, surgeons, barber surgeons
and apothecaries would each have had their
own particular guilds that sought to offer training
and support to their members, and although
in continental cities females may have had access
to these guilds, in early modern London this was
strictly prohibited. As a consequence, the practice
of midwifery was often only regulated by the local
church, with midwives receiving ecclesiastical licenses
to attest to their skills within the community.
Therefore, as medicine became more regulated, it
was inevitable that female practitioners would lose
their status and legitimacy within the profession;
however, certain male practitioners also suffered. It
The Gateway Chronicle
is also important to note that it remained possible
for women to become licensed medical practitioners.
In 1691, for example, Margaret Neale applied for a
surgeon’s licence from the ecclesiastical authorities
in England, and a total of sixteen male signatories
testified to her skills:
‘By her own practice (with good success) [she] hath
attained to much expertness in blood-letting (having bled
many gratis) as also dextrousness in pulling out teeth,
and is reasonably well
versed in dressing and
healing all sort of common
and ordinary sores,
pain, cuts, wounding and
ailments belong to the art
of surgery’.
Similarly, a minority
of women had limited
access to medical provision
through the guilds
of their husbands and
often gained some level
of informal training
from male relatives
within their household.
For example, a 1715
advertisement from the
Old Bailey Proceedings
notes how there ‘liveth
a Gentlewoman, the
Daughter of an eminent
Physician, who practised
in London upwards
of forty years … hath
an ointment call’d the
Royal Ointment for the
Gout and Rheumatic
pains’. As such, the
argument that the rise
of professionalism led
to the conscious and
targeted remove of
female practitioners is
simply not true. This
argument loses further
credibility when noting
that the professionalisation
of medicine was
very much an urban
phenomenon, with
most medical provision

35
remaining parochial in England until at least the
late-eighteenth century. Even where formalised
medical institutions existed, the caregiving role of
a woman persisted. For example, Broomhall notes
how, ‘women at all levels were involved in treatment
of the sick, and the maintenance of health, within
their family or household’, and this was not something
reserved for a certain section of society. It is
only due to being unrepresented in contemporary
source material that the voices of these women have
Hidden Voices
not been fully considered. Therefore, although the
rise of the man-midwife was certainly a threat to female
practitioners, they certainly did not undermine
the authority of the traditional midwife overnight;
caregiving within the domestic sphere remained the
responsibility of the wife and mother throughout
this period.
Furthermore, recent scholarship has stressed the
fact that any shift away from female midwives was
actually brought about by women themselves,
in response to changing fashions.
If this is the case, then it completely
undermines the argument that women
were the unwilling victims of this shift
towards man-midwives. Adrian Wilson,
for example, believes that ‘this change …
did not arise from any campaign on the
part of male practitioners to displace the
female midwife; … on the contrary, it arose
from new choices on the part of mothersto-be,
and it appears to have taken male
practitioners by surprise’. The reason for
this sudden transition seems to be largely
focused on the rise in civility after the
sixteenth century. With the breakdown
of traditional community relationships,
many women worked harder to distinguish
themselves from people lower down the
social scale. For women, a way of doing
this was through the employment of
the man-midwife in favour of the poorer
female midwife, whose negative reputation
among some of the educated classes
has already been outlined. This shift was
further encouraged with the introduction
of forceps by Peter Chamberlen in the seventeenth
century; although, they did not
become widely used until a century later.
These instruments became fashionable
among the elites, who saw the possession
of medical knowledge and instruments as
a distinguishing factor between themselves
and the poor. However, the role played by
fashion has, however, been questioned by
Sommers who states that, ‘while the fashionable
appeal of the man-midwife may
have played a part in women’s decision to
employ a male practitioner, women and
their families were unlikely to make such
an important a decision solely on this basis’.
Nevertheless, it remains the possibility
that the pregnant mother retained a certain

36
level of agency throughout this period – particularly
regarding who would be responsible for the birth
of her child. As such, although there was a rise in
the presence of men within the birthing chamber,
this was not always against a mother’s will and did
not necessarily undermine a woman’s power.
The Gateway Chronicle
To conclude, it is certainly true that there was a rise
in the number and presence of accoucheurs towards
the end of the early modern period and many
historians have previously used this as evidence of
the decline of female power. However, the extent
of this shift has perhaps been overstated, due to an
overreliance on traditional, official, male-centric,
urban source material. Instead, throughout this
period, women still maintained a significant level
of power during pregnancy and childbirth. The
continuing presence of female midwives, particularly
during rural pregnancies, coupled with the
unchanging level of agency granted to pregnant
mothers, suggests that they remained in control of
the process. By exploring contemporary sources
further, it becomes clear that midwives remained
an integral part of a woman’s pregnancy journey.
In fact, the continued need for the female midwife
during this period can perhaps be best summed up
by the words of Susanna Watkin during her own
pregnancy: “Godsake either fetch Ellin Jackson (a
midwife) or else knock me on the head!”
Mr Middleton

Hidden Voices
The Forgotten Male Witches
Contrary to the popular thought of a witch with a
black cat, broomstick and screeching cackle, male
witches were common, accounting for 20-25% of
all those tried for witchcraft in early modern Europe.
In some places such as Normandy, Estonia
and Russia, more men than women were prosecuted
for witchcraft. Although male witches are less well
known, their stories are fascinating and are worthy
of exploring. In this article, I will explore the male
witches specifically in Normandy where almost ¾
of its 380 recorded witches were men and around
2/3 of 100 people condemned to death by the
Rouen Parlement were men.
So who were these male witches? A large range
of occupations seem to commonly arise when
discussing male witches. Some of these include
blacksmiths, clergymen and shepherds. Clergymen
surprisingly accounted for 10% of those tried for
witchcraft in the 17 th century, unexpected due to
their presumed respectability in the villages. Although
it isn’t fully understood why the clergymen
37

38
were disproportionately affected, a possible explanation
is because clergymen often defended others in
court so they came under suspicion were persecuted
themselves. However, the link between shepherds
and accused witches is even more significant. Shepherds
were over 1/5 of all male witches in Normandy
and in the Pays de Caux region nearly half.
In a Norman proverb the word shepherd means
“wizard” and both were associated with their excellent
knowledge of the seasons, nature and the stars.
Moreover, Shepherds were often isolated in their
travelling huts. This made them seem strange and
mysterious, adding to the sense of fear which surrounded
them. Also, these men acquired the knowledge
of basic medicine and tested it on their herds,
which must have appeared like sorcery or some
alliance with bad spirits or devils to uneducated
folk. There was also an association between witches
and the wolves which hunted their flocks, but only a
little is known of this from some spells apparently
used to control them.
One striking discovery when looking at male witches
is the apparent number of things that could lead
to the accusation of “witch”, possibly explaining the
large number of prosecutions, especially when mass
hysteria would grip villages. One example being the
Salem Witch trials in Massachusetts. Some physical
attributes were associated with witches. For example,
men and women were searched for a Devil’s
mark. Conveniently, this description is purposefully
vague, to help prosecution cases. Essentially, a birth
mark may be the cause of your death. One shepherd
was accused of casting spells to set wolves on
a stranger’s flock, while knowing spells to protect
his own. When examined by surgeons the following
day, it was reported that he had no feeling in a
patch on his left side, these together formed enough
“evidence” to prosecute. However, the most common
actions were spells and incantations to perform
magic which could cure or sicken livestock, spoil
harvests or send plagues of rats, grasshoppers or
caterpillars. Moreover, they could apparently cause
disease, madness and death in peasants. In addition,
witches often worked with creatures under Satan
such as spirits of the dead who could vex the living
or possess them. A widespread myth in Normandy
was of Goblins who obeyed the orders of wizards.
There appears to be an incredibly random mix of
actions witches committed. For example, they were
said to gather on the shores of lakes and produce
thunderstorms, magical archery (including shooting
at crucifixes), using toad venom to poison others
The Gateway Chronicle
and finally to be able to look in a bucket of water
and see the face of their enemy.
In conclusion, male witches were surprisingly common
and often prosecuted for a wonderful mix of
actions showing how the modern image conjured
up in our heads of the old woman mixing potions
in a cauldron is so far away from the reality of the
events that happened in Normandy and across early
modern Europe.
Freya Graynoth L6DMY

The Last Witch
We all know the popular image of witches and
witchcraft, dancing around the cauldron in a naked
frenzy of devil worship: but what were they really
like? If only voices from the likes of Jane Wenham
could return from the past. If she could speak
to us today, she might be able to speak with some
authority; she was apparently the last person in
England tried and found guilty of witchcraft. Hers
is a voice I would listen to, charged as she was with
turning in to a cat and conversing with the devil.
I’m not sure, examining her more closely, that
the stereotype of chanting in a group of thirteen
whilst mocking the bible and drinking the blood of
murdered infants really stands up to scrutiny any
more now, than it may have done then. The main
source for this essay is the narrative account of the
trial written by Charles Jones in the 1930s whose
purpose appears to point out the past’s peculiarities.
Perhaps re-examining Wenham’s case with the lens
of an historical anthropologist, we can truly shelve
the witchcraft image with the other clichés where
the truth goes to die.
By her trial date of 4 th March 1712, Wenham was
accused, among other things, of enchanting servants
of the local rector, being able to fly, call upon
her familiars (cats in this case) and force people to
do her ‘labours.’ She came from a tiny village in
Hertfordshire, Walkern, near Stevenage and we
know only she was poor, unmarried and had long
‘lain undern suspicion of being a witch.’ Interestingly
her trial took place when rational beliefs in
witchcraft were growing dormant and yet, belief in
the supernatural was still a hard habit to give up.
39
Hidden Voices
Jane Wenham was a spinster, with no one to defend
her against the accusations of her neighbours.
Thus, she was singled-out easily, living a highly
unusual existence, as fewer than one in twenty
women were unmarried and not ‘controlled’ by their
husbands at this time. The second-class status of
women is well-documented as they promised to
‘obey’ their husbands and forgave all their property
rights to him with their marriage vows. The
Aristotelian doctrines of science and cosmology,
popular at the time, also paid heed to her gender: in
short, women were impure and corruptible. This
was ‘proven’ by the notion that of the four liquids
(humours) in the body that controlled its nature,
the emotional, darker ones of black bile and phlegm
were more prevalent in women. Therefore, the loner
Jane Wenham was reasoned to fall more heavily
under the influence of Satan because there was no
one to help her resist his charms.
Wenham was desperately looking for work and
needed charity. Her trial reported her request for
a gift of straw from a labourer, Matthew Gilston,
who promptly said no. Not to have such cheap
and readily available materials for her bedding and
comfort demonstrates her deprivation. Gilston
then ran, ‘why he did not know, but “only he was
forc’d to it,”’ two miles to acquire some straw for
Jane. Did she make him feel guilty and his actions
were recompense? The same could be said for Anne
Thorn whom Jane asked for a bundle of firewood.
Thorn also found herself mysteriously on a hunt to
fulfil Jane’s request after she had initially given her
a curt refusal. It is highly likely they felt guilty for
their own response to such a poor helpless woman
and contrition for their own shortcomings led them
to try to reconcile with Wenham. Brigg’s suggests
people seek to ‘diabolize’ those who they feel embody
their own personal weakness and through
whom prevent their own desired personal morality,
such was the importance of following your faith by
good deeds. This simply led to the demonisation of
the vulnerable and the weak when one was not in a
position to be kind. It also helps explain festering
irritation towards Jane Wenham by the village.
Anne Thorn was young and newly employed as a
servant. Wenham was asking, in Thorn’s new master’s
house, to give away his wood. To keep her job,
Thorn rightly felt she should refuse Jane but also
feel sorry enough for her and her poverty to travel
far enough upon a recently dislocated knee to acquiesce
to her appeal of firewood. It is probable Thorn
also felt resentment, bridling at the impudence of
the request and the impossible position in which she
was being put. Furthermore, it is straightforward
to explain Jane’s reappearance that day, looking for
work as a washer when the mistress of the house
might have returned and could grant her a paid
job. However, the master of the house overlooked
this, claiming that when the ‘thing bewitched‘(i.e.
the sticks collected by Anne for Jane) were burnt it
would cause the reappearance of the bewitcher and
this was what had brought Wenham to his house.
Wenham’s fate was beginning to be sealed and this
was without the need for the other coincidences
such as her stroking a ‘nurse-child’ that later died

40
(infant death being common in this era) and a sheep
acting strangely ‘skipping … on its head’ around
her.
Wenham knew her rights and dismissing the accusations
of witchcraft that traduced her, obtained
a warrant from the local Justice of the Peace to
fight slander. She was awarded a shilling in compensation,
suggesting those who were learned,
using reason rather than rumour, were on her side.
Wenham’s dismissiveness of the paltry sum and
sly asides that ‘she would get justice elsewhere’
suggests she knew how to play on the superstitions
of her accusers and frighten them more. Wenham
played the only strengths the underdog role had
given her. She was a nuisance: she was poor and
asked for assistance. This placed a burden on a
small community like Walkern’s. Such vagrancy
and vagabondage was not uncommon in this era of
population growth, when climate change reduction
in global mean temperatures meant there were fewer
crops and less food to go around.
The situation between Wenham and one of her
previous accusers, Anne Thorn, did not settle. It
is easy to understand personal slights continuing:
people bear grudges and Wenham comes across as
feisty and relentless. Thorn continued acquiesce
to Wenham’s request for firewood: speedily vaulting
gates, despite her dislocation injury, claiming
she was still bewitched. Only this, she said, could
explain her ability as she was temporarily ‘crippled.’
However, the trial records show a crowd of
the entire village following her as she completed
her task and helped her finish it, egging her on. If
the whole village was involved, might it suggest
Wenham’s widespread need for charity was wellknown
and resented. Might Anne Thorn’s final act,
in front of a dwindling crowd of two, of trying to
drown herself, be the coup de grâce of a drama in
which her personal animosity with Wenham was
about to be won? Teenage resentment sometimes
has few boundaries when the melodrama is in full
swing!
Henry Chauncy, the local notable, issued a warrant
for Wenham’s arrest on charges of felony
and witchcraft, to await trial at the assizes in three
weeks’ time and yet inexplicably the constable broke
into Wenham’s home and took her to Anne Thorn’s
residence. The anthropologist historian should be
rightly suspicious that a legal writ was not carried
out lawfully and that she was taken to her principle
The Gateway Chronicle
accuser who then proceeded to scratch at her face
fiercely, yet mysteriously ‘without drawing blood.’
Though this adds to the litany of strange charges
against Jane Wenham, the only sensible reasons one
can conclude for doing this is that the constable was
trying to get the pair to resolve their differences
peacefully and without the need for a courtroom;
here were two rivals who would not back down. I
wonder if Jane Wenham really believed the charges
had any substance. If they did, she would surely
have been more contrite and to drop the charges,
making up with Thorn as if her life depended upon
it. As it was she appears sensible enough not to
fight back.
Therefore, one should conclude Jane Wenham was a
brave woman who believed the reason and logic of
the law would save her, just as it had when she won
her slander case. Her feisty response when taken to
apologise to Anne Thorn also reflects her sense of
pride and self-worth. Just because she was poor was
no reason to cast aspersions upon her.
At her trial, Wenham was accused of being unable
to say the Lord’s Prayer after several attempts but
perhaps this is exaggeration. Wenham was bodily
searched and found to have no marks of the devil.
She offered to undergo the swimming test for
proving she was not a witch but had been refused
by her accusers: far better for them to take her to
trial against the whole village, steeped as it was, in
prejudice. Her accusers did not want her competing
Right:
Henry
Chauncy,
the notable
who issued
a warrant
for
Wenham’s
arrest

41
on her own terms to prove her innocence.
Wenham’s only admission to being a witch came in
the private company of two parsons who said she
admitted to bewitching Anne Thorn because she
vexed her and that her ‘use of bad language when
annoyed by her neighbours were such that “the
Devil took advantage of her.”’ This could be seen
more as wheedling another two days out of her
hosts before being carted to gaol when being honest
about antagonising her rivals. The swearing also
shows her irrepressible strength of character and
abrasive manner to her neighbours, whilst blaming
her actions on a devil that the law no longer
believed in was an easy excuse for a mere ‘woman’
to make. Such a frank admission satisfied her hosts
to keep her from gaol until a ‘Hellish Noise’ and
scratching of cats was discovered outside the house
frightening all to send her where she should have
been taken in the first place. If they were truly
frightened of her powers, they would not have given
her lodgings, albeit temporary ones. It seems far
more likely they dismissed the accusations because
they saw frailty rather than her devilish powers.
Sixteen witnesses lined up against Wenham at her
trial, all repeating the stories mentioned. Some
claimed her pillow was made of strange materials
including ‘Dead Men’s flesh,’ others that she
could fly. The judge drily noted that ‘there is no
law against that.’ In that singular statement lies
the understanding of the matter. The legal system
required rational explanations and proof according
to the law rather than superstition and fantasy.
Although the charges revolved around bewitching
Anne Thorn, it is instructive that the eventual
charge was of ‘conversing with the devil in the
form of a cat.’ The lawyers made sure the charges
included no injured parties, because ultimately no
claims could be proven. The age of reason was
taking hold. The remaining charges were against
the character of a woman, exemplifying the patriarchal,
localised society that had taken against charity
seekers in a poor village.
Before the jury retired, the judge summed up in
Wenham’s favour. Caught up in the accusations
were slights, rivalries, personal misdemeanours, and
resentment that the law was ill-qualified to examine.
Evidently the judge had realised this. The
same could not be said for the jurors: uninterested
in the limits of the law, her peers found her guilty.
It is difficult to say no to an entire village that has
Hidden Voices
turned out to accuse one of its own. Jane Wenham
was duly sentenced to death, ‘but reprieved until
further orders’ by the judge, fearing a miscarriage
of justice.
Incredibly Jane Wenham survived; saved by Sir John
Powell, who entreated Queen Anne to issue a free
pardon on Wenham’s behalf. A colonel offered her
occupation of a cottage upon his estate and upon his
passing she was cared for by the Earl and Countess
Cowper until her death in 1730. It would appear
the infamous tale of this witch had provoked the
rich into meeting her needs, further suggesting that
the community spirit of charity was still alive but
that such succour was only readily given by those
who could afford it.
We may not know with certainty why the European
witch craze of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
happened but perhaps at a local level, when
we look between the lines of testimony at a trial we
might be able to piece together some ideas of what
it took to be a witch and why they were often those
at the bottom of the pile, who had run out goodwill
like Jane Wenham.
Under the microscope this event shows historical
change in action. It’s not a smooth transition from
the irrational to the rational, but unclear, argumentative
and contested. More rational understanding
was beginning to take hold if the actions of learned
judges and lawyers are anything to go by, but commoners
remained wedded to superstitious views,
perhaps for the unconscious expediency of removing
undesirables and alleviating their own personal
guilt. If only more of the accused had been as
lucky as Jane Wenham. And as bold.
Mr Alcoe

The Gateway Chronicle
The Role of Irish MPs in the
Abolition of the Slave Trade
The abolition of the slave trade is one of the most
critical turning points not just in British history
but Global history. It was the start of a process that
would see the destruction of the most vial (and also
most universal) institutions to have ever scourged
the planet. After the 1807 Act of Parliament on
the issue, the British government, using the power
of the most powerful navy of the time, made its
mission to destroy slavery, even continuing to send
ships to defeat the slave trade whilst existential
annihilation was threatened by Napoleon. The past
few years have seen attempts at examining history
and finding those whose impacts had been forgotten,
with slavery being a keenly contested issue.
However, one common thread in the study of history
(especially in Britain) has continued, the ignoring
of the Irish. The abolition of the slave trade is no
exception in that.
The abolition of the slave trade was a series of
events which the repercussions are still being
experienced. Slavery had been one of the most
universal constants across cultures, with seemingly
unlinked cultures all participating over time. Some
have gone as far to argue that it has existed for over
11,000 years and all civilisations, from the Babylonians
to the Aztecs, have engaged in it. The forced
labour and movement of people for the purpose of
economic production was a constant fact of human
history until the 19 th century. Whilst the abolition
of the slave trade did not end slavery (with it taking
until 1833 for an Act of Parliament to abolish
it in the British Empire and modern slavery still
existing), it was the first major step towards the
Global ending of formal slavery. The slave trade’s
abolition, therefore, should not be underestimated
in importance, as it was the first step in removing a
universal evil of history that, fortunately, we do not
have to endure today. A World without the levels of
slavery of the pre-19 th century era is most certainly
one we should be thankful for living in.
Unsurprisingly, given both the moral nature of the
event and the international ramifications, there is
a large contest over the causes of and narratives
around the abolition of the slave trade as groups
attempt to claim their part in the story. That importance
and controversy is debated, in the UK,
in schools, where slavery it is one of two events
(along with the holocaust) which is compulsory to
teach. Not too much reading of the correct A-Level
textbooks shows careful wording on the part of
writers in an attempt to avoid coming down on any
side of the argument. There is a large contest about
who should take credit. Within school textbooks,
attempts have been made (especially in recent years)
to ensure that there is a diversity in demographics
of those who are discussed and examined on
the topic of the abolition of the slave trade, with
racial diversity playing a large role in that. Current
textbooks tend to give credit to not just the white
British, like Clarkson and Wilberforce, but also
black voices like Equiano.
The debate tends to
take place with framing
around whether it was
the: moral force Evangelicals
and non-conformists;
the economic
argument presented
by Adam Smith in the
Wealth of Nations; the
legal challenges such as
the Somerset Case; the
campaigns by formers
slaves and white abolitionists;
or William
Wilberforce’s Parliamentary
crusade that
tipped the balance. However,
like an unfortunate
amount of history, the
answer: is considerably
duller that what is
generally proposed; falls
to Parliamentary arithmetic
rather than grand
narratives; and has been
ignored when it gives
credit to the Irish.
Abolition, in the UK,
was a legal change. The
Empire where slavery
took place (with slavery
not legal in the
A medallion commissioned by
abolitionist Josiah Wedgwood for
the Committee for the Abolition of
the Slave Trade, founded in 1787
42

43
Common Law history of England, as the Somerset
Case proved) was governed by the rule of law. That
law, for the most part, was set in Westminster by
the British Parliament. For abolition to take place,
Parliament had to pass an act. That was ultimately
what happened in 1807. No other mechanism could
end the slave trade as it was a legal institution and
the British constitution mandated, as a result, that
Parliament was the only route to change. Therefore,
to determine why the slave trade was abolished, it
must be determined who got the act through Parliament,
as it is whoever achieved that who is responsible
for the abolition of slavery. This is where
the textbooks, and most commentators on the topic,
leave the Irish voice unheard.
Most people who have covered the topic will have
heard about William Wilberforce, the case for
British industrialists making the economic argue,
Hidden Voices
the role of former slaves in showing how bad the
slave trade was and the campaign groups led by the
likes of Clarkson. All most certainly had a role to
play in convincing MPs and Lords in Parliament to
go from rejecting abolition in 1791 to approving it
in 1807. They all, most likely, persuaded a number
of MPs. However, the change still required a major
shift in the maths of Parliament, which ultimately
came from Ireland.
In 1800 the Act of Union between Britain and Ireland
was passed, bringing Ireland into the United
Kingdom. On the 1 st of January 1801 100 MPs
from the former Irish Parliament joined the House
of Commons, a larger number than represented
Scotland and Wales combined and constituting
over 15% of all MPs. They entered into a turbulent
time in British politics, with the Napoleonic Wars
in full flow. Between the Irish MPs joining and the
abolition of the slave trade, there were five different
Premierships, including two from William Pitt
the Younger. The Irish MPs were straight into the
political fray as a result.
This is where their influence on the abolition of the
slave trade was found. The first vote in Parliament,
from 1791, had been defeated by 163 votes to 88
before the Act of Union. The majority, therefore, in
Parliament against the abolition of the slave trade
was lower than the number of Irish MPs who came
into Parliament. That meant that the anti-abolition
majority was capable of being overturned by MPs
from Ireland, giving the balance of power to the
Irish.
This left the choice, by the time the 1807 vote
came around, as to whether the slave trade should
be abolished to the Irish MPs. Of course, a large
number of MPs had changed from Great Britain
in the intervening years from 1791 to 1807 but the
economic interest and families that owned the seats
(with this vote still taking place before the Great
Reform Act) meant that the views of those in the
Commons from Great Britain hadn’t really changed.
The Irish MPs had the call and they were overwhelmingly
against the slave trade. They used their
numbers to make abolition inevitable. The final
vote was overwhelmingly for abolition, with a large
British MPs who voted for it, making the final vote
283 votes to 16.
However, that is a somewhat false final number for
the House of Commons as the Irish MPs numbers

44
ensured that it would pass, allowing MPs to vote for
their own political gain rather than to change the
outcome. Many British MPs wanted to win favour
with the new Prime Minister, who had only come
into power the year before. The Irish presence was
what changed the maths which allowed the British
MPs to vote in self-interest.
This leaves the question of why is this logical and
sound narrative generally ignored? The reasons behind
this are, of course, complicated. The influence
of Catholicism in the debate in Ireland is disputed.
That is because whilst Catholics had the power of
persuasion in Ireland, where they were the majority,
they were still not emancipated. That meant that,
legally, Catholics could not vote or stand for Parliament
(amongst other restrictions). Catholics did,
however, have some influence and some Irish Catholics
had previously got around the anti-Catholic
laws by hiding their Catholicism, such as Edmund
Burke (who represented various British constituencies
over the years) appears to have done. To put
the credit on the Irish MPs would be to imply that
the Catholics had helped not just end a World evil
but change British foreign policy. This is potentially
why a large number of sources do not mention the
Irish, as to do so (at the time at least) may have been
seen as being too pro-Catholic, something not particularly
favourable as Britain was fighting Catholic
powers in Europe.
Although, that anti-Catholic explanation does not
appear to explain why it is still not taught 200 years
later. The main reason behind the ignoring of the
Irish today voice is most probably the same as normal.
Ireland is just generally forgotten in Britain.
The Irish election at the start of 2020 went by with
most of the British public not noticing that it happened.
The majority of the Great British population
can’t even name who the Prime Minister is, let alone
pronounce his formal title as Taoiseach. The Irish
just don’t cross the mind of most people over here,
which is a shame given how linked our histories and
presents are. That, most likely, is why credit the
Irish and their MPs deserve for the abolition of the
slave trade is ignored.
The Gateway Chronicle
It unfortunately also appears that this ignored
narrative, and forgotten voices that go with it, is
unlikely to be widely remembered soon. The campaigns
across recent years to hear the voices that
have been perceived as being forgotten in history
tend to ignore the Irish. The attempts at ‘decolonising’
curriculums have, in fact, tended to forget that
Ireland was a colony and have actually further limited
what Irish voices are heard. This is clear with
the Irishman Edmund Burke, who has been removed
from courses in the few years in Britain (such as the
politics course at Leeds). If those voices that have
been remembered over the past few centuries from
Ireland are still becoming rarer, the chances that
on an issue (slavery) that so many different identity
groups wish to make emotional claims to that the
Irish will be heard above the rest of the voices. It’s
unlikely to see this narrative enter the history books
soon. When thinking about forgotten voices, especially
on topics as quick to cause emotion as the abolition
of the slave trade, it should be remembered
that even today we are not remembering every voice
and that historians still have a lot of voices to put
into the public knowledge.
Ciaran Reed OA (2019)

45
Hidden Voices
The Impact of Queen Victoria
on Womens’ Opportunities in
the 19th Century
To fully understand the impact Queen Victoria
had upon the women of the 19 th century, it is first
important to understand exactly what societal
expectations were placed upon them in the first
place. Although Queen Victoria was in a position of
power, it is possible to argue that her own views on
the expectations of women had a negative impact
on the opportunities presented to women throughout
her reign. Exploring the true influence of her
actions brings forward the interesting idea that she
was the catalyst to women beginning to take powerful
positions in the 20 th century.
Women were not expected to take part in academic
learning outside of domestic activities and one
critic, Richard D Altick stated that “a woman was
inferior to a man in all ways except the unique one
that counted most: her femininity. Her place was
in the home, on a veritable pedestal if one could
be afforded, and emphatically not in the world of
affairs.” The general expectation was that women
would marry in their early 20s and the average
groom would have been around 5 years older, although
girls as young as 15 were commonly forced
into marriages or engagements to men up to 20
years older for the societal and monetary gain of
their families. Young women growing up in Victorian
Britain had an endless variety of expectations
placed upon them and to meet these standards they
were expected to place themselves at the authority
of the men around them.
To marry and have children was seen by society as a
women’s destiny and for all classes marriage remained
the main goal of a women. Except for those
widowed, older women without the secure bond of
marriage were likely shunned from society. Single
women were pitied and attracted social disapproval.
But despite this one-third of all women over twenty
were unmarried in 1850. Young girls were not
expected to focus too ‘obviously’ on finding a husband,
being forward suggested a worrying sexual
appetite which was heavily frowned upon. Young
women were expected to remain chaste until marriage
and were sometimes not permitted to speak
to men unless there was a married woman present
as a chaperone. Victorian men expected women
to possess feminine qualities as well as innocence,
otherwise, they would not be of marriage potential.
Charles Petrie wrote in “Victorian Women Expected
to be Idle and Ignorant” that ‘Innocence was what
he demanded from the girls of his class, and they
must not only be innocent but also give the outward
impression of being innocent. White muslin,
typical of virginal purity, clothes many a heroine,
with delicate shades of blue and pink next in popularity.’
Fashion became increasingly volatile during
the Victorian era and because of the impracticality
and health impact of the eras fashion, a reform
movement began. However, in terms of a woman’s
gendered role and the societal expectations placed
upon her, fashion was an extremely important part
of day-to-day life. In some cases this dictated how
other women and men would treat you and in turn
your place in society.
The pressure to secure a marriage before becoming
infertile was a constant responsibility on the young
women of the Victorian era. Women received the
message from society, the Queen, printed materials,
and fashion trends that women should be at
home with children. The idea that motherhood was
a woman’s highest achievement never weakened
through the course of the century and it is in this
period that motherhood was idealised as the “zenith
of a woman’s emotional and spiritual fulfilment”.
These expectations from men and society pressured
women to embody the ideal women. The reality of
this ideal was often much harsher and difficult to
accept. Even now, we still see men influencing how
women are expected to behave and present themselves
in society, but Queen Victoria hardly provided
a standard to the young girls of the 19 th century.
During the 19 th century Queen Victoria was seen to
be the model of marital stability and domestic virtue
for women and she was often described as ‘the
mother of the nation’. So, just how impactful was
one of the most influential Queen’s Britain has seen,
on the women of the Victorian era?
Queen Victoria, as sovereign of the most powerful
empire at the time, had an immense amount of

46
power that she could exert over citizens across the
globe. Whilst her views and actions arguably did
not lead to the direct societal suppression of woman
at the time Victoria’s childhood and upbringing
will have influenced her own views on the roles of
women and subsequently the views of others with
the power to make change. Her youth was dominated
by strict rules known as the ‘Kensington
System’ which meant that she was forced to share
a room with her mother and have little to no time
alone. This approach was devised by John Conroy.
When Victoria was 13, her mother and Conroy
took her on a trip to the Midlands with the sole
purpose of showing her off to the public. It is not
surprising that the princess found it exhausting
and became increasingly stubborn. Whilst such a
confined upbringing could have led Victoria to act
out and push against the constricting expectations
of women at the time, Victoria clung to traditional
gender roles. She insisted that she ruled the United
Kingdom because it was her duty, not because
A photograph of Queen Victoria in 1882, taken by
Alexander Bassano
The Gateway Chronicle
she enjoyed the position or possessed the requisite
skills, “We women are not made for governing.” She
wrote. Surely a woman with such influence could
have paved the way for women in power, but instead
Victoria herself restricted the opportunities women
had and in turn their voices in society. For example,
Victoria was utterly opposed at the prospect of
women becoming doctors and was equally horrified
by the campaign for female suffrage. “The Queen,”
she noted, “is most anxious to enlist someone who
can speak and write, etc. Checking this mad, wicked
folly of ‘Woman’s rights’, with all the attendant
horrors, on which her poor feeble sex seems bent…
God created man and woman different – and let
each remain to their own position.”
This is not to say that Queen Victoria’s rule did not
instigate more opportunities for women than her
predecessor. British feminists continued to feature
Victoria in their campaigns, especially in the
struggle to obtain parliamentary vote as her status
made her incredibly invaluable to the cause.
Queen Victoria was head of state and even if
the role was increasingly ceremonial it was
incredibly controversial given that her female
subjects could not even elect a representative,
let alone obtain a university education. Unfortunately,
these campaigners were not aware
of Victoria’s standing on female suffrage
as most of her disapproving remarks only
became widely known after her death in 1901.
Possibly, if they were made aware of this fact,
they would have been more hesitant to praise
her in their campaigns. Although the Queen
may have disapproved in private, she still
aided a powerful argument for women at the
time and ultimately supported the beginning
of true female suffrage, giving women a voice
in society that has had a lasting impact.
It seems as if Victoria’s candid view on women
was not one of support, however her role
as Queen was one of change and reform, as a
woman with overarching power over a large
portion of the globe. Victoria came to be a
supporter of 150 institutions which included
several other charitable organisations. As well
as this Victoria was an astute diplomat and
helped her nine children marry into the royal
families of Europe. She became the Empress
of India to tie the monarchy and Empire
closer together and approved of Disraeli’s

47
Hidden Voices
imperialist policies, which helped her establish
Britain as the most powerful nation in
the world. Her popularity in Britain soared
and by the end of her reign she had become
a symbol of the empire. Victoria’s views on
women during the 19 th century may have led
to their societal suppression, however this
does not mean that her actions as Queen did
not show to the male population that women
were capable of leading in powerful positions.
She ruled over an Empire that covered a quarter
of the globe, with 400 million subjects.
Nonetheless, during Victoria’s reign, motherhood
and family life were considered to be
“sufficient emotional fulfilment for females”.
These constructs kept women far away from
the public sphere in many ways, while at the
same time, Victorian feminism emerged as
a ‘potent political force’. The Victorian era
itself is characterised as the domestic age,
epitomised by Queen Victoria. She came to
represent a kind of femininity which was centred
on the family, motherhood, and respectability,
overshadowing the obvious amount of control she
had as well as significant achievements in relation to
the growth of the British Empire. It was Victoria’s
own political ideas and commanding nature that led
her to develop such strong relationships with the
people and forces around her. Without a doubt her
voice as sovereign meant that women were given
more opportunities than ever before, it is unfortunate
that her own views did not reflect this change
in the power dynamics, leading to a more profound
change in the societal expectations of women in the
19 th century.
Above: a portrait of prime minister Benjamin Disraeli, whose
imperialist policies helped establish Victorian Britain as a global
power
I do not think it is possible to say that Queen Victoria
directly aided 19 th century women when it came
to issues surrounding female suffrage and their
societal expectations, but she is undoubtedly one of
the most influential Queen’s Britain has ever seen.
Even if it was unintentional, Victoria’s political
decisions and influence meant that women and men
across Britain were faced with the idea that women
were more than capable of moving past the current
societal expectations placed upon and therefore, able
to take positions of power at the same level as men.
Amita Abubakar L6MED

The Gateway Chronicle
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49
Hidden Voices
Should Britain be Ashamed of
Winston Churchill?
Everyone knows who Winston Churchill is. Everyone
knows that his charismatic, pragmatic, and courageous
leadership throughout the Second World
War ensured final victory for the allies. Many such
as our current Prime Minister believe that without
him the War would have been lost. It is with good
reason that we remember Churchill as a hero, he
was an outstanding Military and Political leader
in World War Two. His actions from bombarding
the French Fleet on the 3 rd July 1940, to his rhetoric
to keep Britain going in the Summer of 1940,
to ramping up manufacturing capacity of planes,
to his persistence with Roosevelt that led America
to join the War effort. Churchill was even willing
to put aside his hatred of Communism to ally with
Stalin in May 1942 and went on national TV and
said that “the Russian danger is our danger.” For all
this Britain should rightly be proud of Churchill,
he stood up and defeated possibly the greatest ever
danger to the modern British values. The government’s
prevent strategy describes these modern
British values as democracy, respect and tolerance,
individual liberty, and the rule of law. There is no
doubt that Churchill defeated someone who went
against those modern British values. However, there
is also no doubt that Churchill himself failed to live
up those modern British values.
The first of Churchill’s views that undermine these
modern British values was one that he advocated in
his early Political career when he was Home Secretary.
From January 1899 a letter sent by Churchill
to his cousin shows that he was an advocate of
eugenics. This is shown by the fact that he stated
that “the improvement of the British breed is my
aim in life.” Churchill in one of his first speeches
to Parliament as Home Secretary in 1911 talked of
the need for Labour Camps for the “feeble minded.”
Not only did he want segregation for the feeble
minded, but he wished for their sterilisation to not
risk passing this onto to any future generation. He
also began as Home Secretary the early drafting of
the 1913 Mental Deficiency Act. This supported the
transportation of those deemed to be idiots or imbecilic.
This led to 65,000 people being transferred
to Colonies. Churchill, however, did not feel the
eventual bill went far enough as it did not include
compulsory sterilisation. However, the fact that the
bill did go through with only 3 votes against it and
the fact that the Conservatives and Liberals set up
a Commission in 1904 to investigate would suggest
this view was commonly held at the time. Therefore,
for Churchill to support Eugenics may be just something
that can be put down to a commonly held
view of the time. This view in support of Eugenics
does however undermine those modern British values
of tolerance and individual liberty.
The view however that most undermines those
modern British values of tolerance and respect is
Churchill’s views on race. Thabo Mbeki who was
President of South Africa from 1999-2008 picked
up on this as he described Churchill’s views as racist
and patronising. This is accurate as Churchill’s
doctor Lord Moran at one point commented that
“Winston thinks only of the colour of their skin.”
Furthermore, he referred to Indians as “a beastly
people with a beastly religion,” and of the Chinese
said, “I hate people with slit eyes and pigtails.”
Churchill also supported the 1955 Conservative
slogan to “Keep England White,” as a response to
migration. Defenders of Churchill often argue that
these quotes have simply been taken out of their
original context, however historian Rahul Rao
repudiates this argument by accurately pointing
out that in no context would these views be acceptable.
Moreover, he points out the fact Churchill
was a fantastic orator and a Nobel Prize winner for
Literature in 1953. Therefore, the suggestion that
Churchill could misspeak or not know what he was
saying does not stand particularly strong. Unlike
his views on eugenics this is not something that can
be put down to Churchill just being a man of his
time either. Even right-wing cabinet members such
as Leo Amery, Secretary of State for India were
concerned. Amery even stated that “he could not see
much difference between Churchill’s outlook and
Hitler’s.” Therefore, the fact that even some of his
own Conservative colleagues were worried about
Churchill’s outlook on race would suggest this was
not a commonly held view of the time. This would
suggest that Churchill undermined the current British
value of respect and tolerance with his views
and even undermined what was at the time considered
to be respectful and tolerant.
Moreover, Churchill’s views on Indians led to the
deaths of 2.1 million Indians in 1943 due to the

Bengal Famine. This was due to the decision by
Churchill to continue to import rice from Benghal
despite the shortages caused by poor soil conditions.
This was hugely problematic as 75% of all crops
produced in Benghal was rice. To add further to
these problems Japan had invaded Burma in December
1941, so imports of rice from Burma to India
were completely cut off. Churchill feared that Japan
could invade India, so decided and wanted to ensure
they would starve if they did reach India. This led
to British officials destroying or taking by force surplus
rice from the Bengal region in March 1942. In
1943 with the problems mounting Churchill refused
to enact the famine code, which was used in 1873
and led to mass importation of rice and welfare
stimulus across the Bihar region. Churchill even
refused the help of Canada’s offer of 100,000 tons
of wheat, insisting that they continue to deliver all
supplies to British soldiers in the Balkans and the
Mediterranean. Churchill even blamed the Indians
for the famine suggesting that “they were breeding
like rabbits,” and he asked the Viceroy whether
Gandhi had died yet or not.
However, some historians such as Arthur Herman
do point to the fact that Churchill did take some
action in India to help with the situation. For example,
in September 1943 the Cabinet agreed to send
200,000 tons of rice to India. He also may have
vetoed proposals for Canada to send wheat, however
he pushed for Australia to instead fulfil that
commitment. He also acted in October 1943 when
he appointed Archibald Wavell as Viceroy, who
mobilised the army to move stocks around India.
Moreover, when preparing for D-Day Churchill in
February 1944 Churchill even called an emergency
Cabinet meeting to assess the situation in India
with the Bengal Famine. Therefore, it would seem
in this situation Churchill did undermine the British
values as he allowed Indians to starve, when if they
were British, he likely would not have. However, to
blame him alone for the famine and to suggest he
was single-handedly at fault and did nothing to help
would also be incorrect.
Furthermore, we must also remember in his long
Political career before 1940 Churchill did enjoy
some successes. This is especially true of his time
as Home Secretary in which he made much needed
prison reforms and supported a referendum on
women’s suffrage in 1910. His greatest achievement
though was in the lead up to the War when
he unlike Chamberlain was able to see the danger
The Gateway Chronicle
Above: a family on the sidewalk in
Calcutta during the 1943 Bengal
famine
of the rise of
Hitler. This led
Churchill to
take a stance
of anti-appeasement
against his own
government.
However, we
must also remember
he too
made mistakes
as anyone
would across a
long political
career. This
was especially
true in World
War One when
Churchill was
tasked in October 1914 with helping to defend Antwerp.
He however failed to hang on for the required
10 days for the British strategy and in the process
lost thousands of British troops. Furthermore, the
disaster that is most well known from World War
One is that of Gallipoli. In this campaign Churchill’s
lack of planning cost the lives of around 50,000
troops from France, Britain and across the Empire.
Moreover, in the Russian Civil War in October 1919
he proposed to British troops the use of poison
gas. Additionally, as Chancellor in April 1925 he
announced the use of the gold standard, which had
disastrous consequences in the recession and led to
fall of the Conservatives in 1929. Although, these
may have been failures throughout all of these he
did have the best of intentions and was not alone
in his beliefs that this was the best way of doing
things. For example, in the case of gold standard he
was originally against it but was persuaded into it
by knowledgeable economists. Therefore, we could
not really judge these failures as going against those
modern British values, they were more errors on his
part.
Overall, when judging Churchill, we should feel
some slight shame as now he would not live up to
those modern British values that were set out at the
start. We should recognise that he did undermine
the value of respect and tolerance with his views on
those who were different. He also even by the standards
of the time was acting wrongly on the matter
of the Bengal Famine. However, he did also fight
harder than anyone else in Parliament in the 1930s
50

51
and 1940s to ensure that those British values could
not be undermined by Hitler. I think Britain can feel
shame that he did allow the Bengal famine to occur,
however to feel shame for the man that stood up so
strongly for those British values would be a step too
far.
Hidden Voices
Joe Scragg U6AJG
Above: Churchill making his iconic ‘V for victory’ sign

The Gateway Chronicle
Going Underground: Hidden
Voices of Miners
Stereotypes of members of mining communities
pervaded the popular imagination from the end
of the nineteenth century until the 1980s and are
perhaps responsible for the lack of knowledge of
the diversity of individual experience within those
communities. However, recent research has taken
our understanding further in comprehending the
intellectual life of members of those communities
which prevents us from having a myopic view of
what is actually a complicated landscape.
Coal mining was a vital component of the industrial
revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries, crucial for the fuelling of factories and
steam powered engines for the railways which
provided an infrastructure upon which the rapid
progress of technology could thrive. Communities
sprang up around areas rich in coal, particularly
in the Midlands, the North and the North East of
England, but working condition in the mines were
harsh. Hours were long, the work was extremely
physical and there was significant danger to life;
between 1850 and 1914 90,000 miners died because
of their work in the United Kingdom. The occupation
was considered so dangerous that the 1842
Mines Act prohibited women and boys under ten
years old from working below the surface at collieries.
Although the miners unionised, by the end
of the nineteenth century there were issues with
mine owners lowering wages because of fluctuating
demand and uncertain lines of supply.
Against this backdrop, in 1913, D. H. Lawrence, the
son of a miner himself, published Sons and Lovers, a
novel in which the miner, Walter Morel, is despised
by his more educated wife, Gertrude, when the
initial excitement of their relationship has faded.
Initially, “He seemed to her so noble. He risked his
life daily,” yet she begins to despise him because
“There was nothing at the back of all his show.”
Although some of their
marital conflicts seem
to be driven by attitudes
to religion, the novel
suggests that class and
education are the dominant
causes of the rift.
Of course, the novel is
fictitious, and we should
beware the biographical
fallacy but it highlights
a stereotype which underlines
the physicality
of mining work and sets
it alongside a lack of
education.
Above: protests during the 1984-5 strikes
If we fast forward to
the end of the twentieth
century, we see this duality
played out in media
representations of the
Miners’ Strike of the
1984-1985 at the time
of Margaret Thatcher’s
government. The strikers
protested against
pit closures which were
52

53
planned because the mines were not economically
viable in their existing state. It is the media portrayal
of those communities which is particularly significant
to understanding the enduring prevalence
of assumptions about the miners and their families.
The violence of the clashes between the strikers
and the police was played out to an increasingly media-consuming
audience and these images are still at
the forefront of an internet search of the event.
However, these rather extreme portraits may elide
some of the more nuanced voices of the lived experiences
of members of the mining communities and
recent research has illuminated stories of motivation,
aspiration and change. Work in the field of
Classical Reception Studies, particularly that of Edith
Hall and Henry Stead, has foregrounded some
of these voices. Their research highlights the role
of adult education institutions in changing the intellectual
lives of members of mining communities.
In the early nineteenth century the proliferation of
more affordable literature created a drive for self-education
which led to institutions being created
which supported this. Examples of adult education
institutions include Mutual Improvement Societies,
Adult Schools, Mechanics Institutes, University
Extension Schemes, the Workers’ Educational
Association (WEA) and the Labour Colleges. Adult
Schools, whose primary initial function was to
enable illiterate adults to read the Bible, tended to
be Methodist and
Quaker. However,
a widening
of the curriculum
to include
the teaching of
grammar, geography
and arithmetic
followed.
Mechanics Institutes
originated
in Glasgow in
1800 and offered
scientific lectures;
unlike Mutual
Improvement
Societies, these
were established
not by workers
but philanthropists,
particularly
landowners and
businessmen.
Hidden Voices
Throughout the nineteenth century, the drive
towards more inclusive education continued; by
the 1870s universities were beginning to be more
inclusive of wider communities, through their
University Extension schemes, and the WEA was
established in 1903.
Against this background of widening participation
in education by adults, the question needs to be
asked to what extent did members of mining communities
participate in these activities or similar.
The full extent of the engagement of mining communities
with educational experience is difficult to
measure as records are incomplete and the capture
of individual experience relies on precarious factors
such as a decision to keep personal papers or family
memory. Although a quantitative answer cannot be
produced, a qualitative approach to researching the
question can cast light on individual personal experience
and, in doing so, can undermine preconceptions
about mining communities. For this, we can
turn to the field of classical education, historically
seen as something of a marker of class.
An examination of some of the cultural activities
of the workers in the town of Ashington in Northumberland,
which lies twenty miles from Bolden
Colliery, suggests that there was a great deal of
Below: miners at Ashington Colliery

The Gateway Chronicle
interest in classical texts. Greek and Roman authors
were studied by the Ashington Debating and
Literary Improvement Society, formed in 1898. An
account of this can be found in a letter of 1925
written by Harold Laski who was later appointed
Professor of Political Science at the London School
of Economics. According to historian Henry Stead,
he wrote:
‘There was one…who had learned Greek in order
to read Homer in the original…These twelve every
Friday for thirty six years have met to read and
discuss a book. They argue grimly with text and
counter-text and you have to know your piece to
get by with them. They were saddened, while I was
there, by the death of a miner who was found killed
by a fall of coal; in his coat was found a translation
of Thucydides with the page turned down at the
Periclean speech.’
A bust of ‘Homer’, one of the
classical authors read by miners
The letter
suggests that
the members of
the group were
interested in
debating literature
in detail
since Laski felt
an in-depth textual
knowledge
was required to
enter into their
discussions in
an appropriate
manner. Their
commitment to
their intellectual
development is clear from the duration of their
attendance of the meetings and an emotional attachment
to classical literature is perhaps suggested
by the turning down of the page of Thucydides
containing the Periclean speech, which is one of the
most thought-provoking passages in his History of
the Peloponnesian War.
his coal village, Langley, by repurposing a derelict
cottage into a clubhouse and library. Rhys met
with opposition to his plan from some members
of the workforce but with a Methodist colleague,
Tom Hepburn, persuaded the management of the
colliery to support the idea. The club was successful
and the pitmen who attended read a range of
writers such as Shakespeare, Henry George and
John Ruskin. Furthermore, Ernest Rhys went on
to begin a career in publishing and was the founding
editor of the Everyman series of books which
was established in 1906, bringing affordable classic
books to the general public.
These examples are two of many. However, it is
important to strike a balance between gaining an
understanding of individual experience and extrapolating
it beyond what the evidence will allow.
What these specific accounts demonstrate is two
significant points: first, the stereotypes of the
cultural experience of mine-workers can be lent
more nuance by a consideration of lived experience.
Second, these experiences sometimes provided educational
opportunity as a platform for social mobility.
Furthermore, we must be cautious in attributing
class markers to educational skills such as knowledge
of Latin and Greek languages and familiarity
with classical authors. Indeed, it would be unwise
to underestimate individuals simply based on their
class or educational background.
Jonathan Webb 4.5
It could be argued that such an instance is isolated
but Stead’s research provides plentiful examples:
Sid Chaplin was a colliery blacksmith and belt- fitter
who attended WEA courses at the Spennymore
settlement in County Durham before becoming a
professional writer in the first half of the twentieth
century. A further example is that of Ernest Rhys
who in 1879 established a ‘Winter Nights Club’ in
54

55
Hidden Voices
The Cultural Integration of
British Sikhs
The cultural integration of British Sikhs is a massive
success story for ethnic minorities living in
the UK. After supporting the British in both world
wars, Sikhs emigrated to Britain from the Punjab
region, hoping to find work doing unskilled labour
in the 1950s and 60s. They have since risen through
society, becoming one of the most financially successful
groups. This article will explore the cultural
integration of British Sikhs, a success story that
spans a century.
One of the most significant contributions of Sikhs
to British society is their involvement in the world
wars. More than 100 000 Sikhs formed part of the
British Indian army in World War I; 83 005 died
and 109 045 were wounded across both world wars.
The contribution of Sikhs in World War One is
especially remarkable; although they accounted for
less than 2% of the population of British India at
the time, they made up more than 20% of the British
Indian Army at the outbreak of war. Their early
contribution was critical on the Western Front,
saving the allies from an early defeat. In fact, it was
the Indian jawans (junior soldiers) who stopped the
German advance at Ypres in the autumn of 1914,
a turning point in the war. Ypres proved to be a
crucial strategic landmark, blocking Germany’s
route to the Belgian and French coastal ports. Unfortunately,
despite the fact that the British Indian
Army’s contribution was greater than that of Australia,
Canada and New Zealand combined, it is far
less well-known. This is likely because they went on
to fight on the lesser-known fronts of Mesopotamia,
Arabia, Palestine and North Africa against the
Ottoman Empire. It is therefore critical to recognise
the contribution of the 100 000 Sikhs as part of the
1.5 million-strong British Indian Army that adapted
to the unfamiliar lands of Western Europe, fighting
in harsh, cold conditions that they had never experienced
before. The incredible contribution of Sikhs
as part of the British Indian Army was a significant
factor in influencing the outcome of the early days
of the war and the course of the 20 th Century.
Sri Lankan writer Ambalavaner Sivanandan wrote
‘we are here because you were there’, reflecting that
the British Empire is responsible for Britain’s multi-cultural
society. In the 1950s and 60s, Sikhs came
to Britain looking for unskilled work. Today, about
1% of the British population are Sikhs, who have
an average employment rate of 86% for women and
84% for men, significantly higher than the respective
national figures of 72% and 81%. They are also
second only to the Jewish community in terms of
how financially productive they are as a religious
group. These figures reflect the strong work ethic
of Sikhs, whose top employment sectors include
accountancy and financial management, healthcare,
IT and technology, public service, charity and
social work and teaching and education. The highly
Left: soldiers
in the British
Indian army
skilled jobs that Sikhs take on demonstrate their rise
through society from unskilled labourers to highly
skilled professionals. Additionally, the UK is home
to the largest Sikh Temple outside of India, the
Gurdwara Guru Nanak. It is also notable that there
is an extraordinarily low crime rate associated with
Sikhs, demonstrating their cultural complicity with
the law. As such, it is clear that Sikhs have been successfully
integrated into modern British society.
The success of Sikh cultural integration undoubtedly
stems from their long history with Britain,
once as part of the Empire and now as residents of
the UK, alongside their belief in hard work and the
importance of family. Sikhs are an asset to the UK
population and their successful cultural integration
will set a precedent for years to come.
Ben Harrison L6VLS

The Gateway Chronicle
56

57
Hidden Voices
The Bristol Bus Boycott
Rosa Parks in 1955 refusing to give up her seat is
probably one of the most famous examples of a
refusal to conform to the unfair and unjust laws applied
to those of Black descent. Rosa Parks’ actions
had an effect that was more profound than she could
have ever imagined. Since it is one of the most
famous events to occur in Black History, I decided
to instead explore an instance where Rosa Park’s
actions proved to be inspirational and fuelled dissidence
among those who were unjustly treated. I will
specifically be exploring the Bristol Bus Boycott of
1963
Before describing the events that led up to and after
the Bristol bus boycott it is important to understand
the conditions that many black people experienced
at the time. Bristol in the 1960s like other British
cities of the time had severe racial inequality in
employment. A large number- around 3,000 residents
- of West Indian origin settled in Bristol after
serving in World War two. These men and women
created their own communities but were often
confined to very poor areas. In Bristol the black
community mainly stayed within the St Pauls area.
There were even cases of violent attacks against
people because of their colour. The more famous
cases included gangs of Teddy boys; they would
frequently attack members of the black community
just because of their skin colour.
The 50s and 60s were a tough time for men and
women of colour. One of the more significant cases
of flagrant discrimination was the employment bar
of people of colour by the Bristol Omnibus company.
This company had been owned by the government
since 1950. The company did not hire black
prospective employees for any jobs involving the
bus crew. However, despite the labour shortage, the
company still only hired blacks for the lower paid
positions. The blatant racism and hardships experienced
by the people of the time is evident in this
example; the unemployment experienced by many
of colour coupled with a shortage of workers in
the Bristol Omnibus company shows the complete
lack of reason, logic or morality the management
operated with. In 1955 this bar on the employment
of men and women of colour became official as the
TGWU (Transport and general workers union),
which represented the bus crews, worked alongside
the company’s management to stop the employment
of those of colour. The TGWU was even quoted
by Andrew Hake, the curator of the Bristol Industrial
Mission, to say that “if one black man steps on
the platform as a conductor, every wheel will stop.”
The 50s and 60s was a time of great change and
although there was progress it is clear that there
was also a lot of progress to be made. In America
on December 1 st , 1955 Rosa Parks refused to give
up her seat sparking the Civil Rights movement,
elsewhere in Bristol there was a clear regression
with the introduction of the bar of employment of
those of ‘colour’.
However, it is important to remember that the
TGWU was only in part fuelled by the racism of
the time, but this was not the sole reason for the
Above: Audley Evans, Paul Stephenson and Owen
Henry in front of a 1960s Bristol bus
act. The workers feared that the influx of workers
represented by the new sources of labour would
reduce their wages which would result in a gradual
reduction in their earnings.
Action against this discrimination was heavily
inspired by the non-violent approach of Martin Luther
King. After people of colour were refused interviews
in the Bristol bus company, inspired by the
Montgomery Bus Boycott in the US in 1955 after
Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat, the activists
started a boycott on buses in Bristol. The boycott
saw support across the entire West Indian community.
An editorial from the Bristol Evening Post saw
support from white people as well. Students from
Bristol university went on a march in protest to the
ban against people of colour to the Headquarters of
TGWU where they were jeered by bus crews. The
City Council then stepped in and spoke out against
the collusion of TWGU and the Bristol Bus company.
There evolved an increasingly hostile exchange
of remarks across the media between TGWU and
the West Indian Development council, the group

58
which initially spearheaded
the boycott. After a lot of
pressure and many meetings
between the TGWU
and the Bus company finally
on the 28 th August 1963
the ban on coloured Bus
crew members ended. This
was the very same day
Martin Luther King made
the famous ‘I have a dream
speech’. On September 17 th
the first coloured man, a
Sikh man, joined the bus
crew.
The Gateway Chronicle
The impact of the Bristol Bus Boycott was far more
significant than just the employment of people of
colour as Bus crew members. The boycott acted as a
catalyst in the movement for equality among every
member in society. This is shown by the 1965 Race
and Relations Act which made racial discrimination
unlawful in public places. The Boycott shows the
progress from Rosa Parks to movements across the
world to government enacting laws and regulation
to solidify and engrain change in society. The fight
for racial equality was long and far from easy, however,
movements like the Bristol Boycott was what
made it possible for real change to occur in society
and for there to be more equality among all races.
Although the boycott is less famous than the likes
of the Montgomery Bus boycott, the Bristol bus
boycott was significant in the way it brought about
real change and progress in government as well as
the Bristol bus company itself.
Above: students from the University of Bristol protesting
in support of the boycott
Praneel Jani L6IMS

Hidden Voices
Anti-Semitism in England
1190- The York Massacre:
During the Norman Conquest, the first Jews had
arrived in England. Anti-Semitism had been a
particular feature of the reign of King Stephen and
then Henry II. It is for example believed that in the
time of Henry II was the beginning of the “blood
libel,” in England, which originated the idea that in
religious ceremonies Jews would murder Christian
children. When Richard I became king in 1189, he
caught onto the widespread feeling of pro-Christian
and Anti-Semitic feeling in the country. He
played into this feeling with his plans to personally
go on crusade and with the denial of Benedict of
York (the richest Jew in the land) from attending
his coronation. Anti-Jewish riots occurred across
England in 1190 and this would culminate with the
very worst in York. Rioting in York followed a fire,
in which the local gentry, aiming to wipe out the
A depiction of the York Massacre
excessive debts they owed to the Jewish population,
blamed the Jewish population for the fire. Following
the death of Benedict of York on his way back
from London to York, the Jewish population were
fearful of the rioting. This led them to take refuge
in York castle as they rightly believed that a royal
castle would give them royal protection. However,
due to rumours that the Warden of the Castle was
going to betray them, the Jews inside the castle
chose to lock him out. This led to him request a
local militia capture the castle by force. One of the
nobility, Richard Malebisse, offered safe passage out
of the castle to anyone willing to denounce Judaism
and convert to Christianity. This offer though was
declined and faced with death the 150 Jews inside
the castle made a pact to take their own lives. A few
chose to accept the offer of Malebisse, however he
went back on his offer and decided instead to kill
them. Malebisse then ordered all documents relating
to the money he owed and all records of the
event be destroyed.
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1290- The Expulsion of the Jews:
Following on from the Magna Carta in 1215 king
John made it clear that the provisions were not to
apply to Jews, they would instead rely on a royal
charter. This essentially meant that the rights of
Jews were down to the king only. Henry III was
particularly anti-Semitic in his policies, for example
he required all Jews to wear badges (the same as
Hitler’s policy) and imposed far higher taxation on
Jews than other subjects. This requirement to wear
a badge was later reinforced again by Henry III in
the Statute of Jewry. In 1275 Edward I then passed
his own Statute of Jewry and to fund his invasion
of Wales this declared that all Jews over 12 would
have to pay taxation and that any money he lent
from the Jews would not be paid back at interest.
This is likely because he never planned on paying it
back, so wanted to ensure there was no time limit
on the money. By 1290 Edward I was deeply in
debt due to his wars in Wales, Scotland and France.
This had an impact on the Jewish population as he
realised by expelling the Jews he could seize their
property and their debts would be transferred to
the crown. However, the financial desires went even
further than this as Edward had to persuade parliament
of a steep tax. Therefore, due to the unpopularity
of the Jews at the time due to the propaganda
spread by the “blood libel,” Edward asked parliament
that in exchange for the tax he would expel

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the Jews. In legal terms Edward claimed that the
expulsion was due to the breaking of the Statute of
Jewry. This expulsion led to 2000 Jews leaving England
and the expulsion remained until 1655, when it
was repealed by Cromwell.
1858- The Jews Relief Act:
In 1754 the first attempt to allow Jewish MPs to
enter parliament had failed due to opposition from
Tory MPs and the wider public after the passage of
the Jewish Naturalisation Act in 1753. In 1828 the
first progress was made due to the issue of Catholic
Emancipation. This was the idea that Catholic MPs
as well as Protestants should be allowed to sit in
parliament. Although, this would pass successfully
in 1829, it only allowed those of Christian faith to
be able to sit in parliament at the request of King
George IV. In 1848 however the issue of Jewish
emancipation once more became a prominent issue
due to the election of the first Jewish MP in
Lionel de Rothschild to the City of London. He
was however, due to his refusal to take the oath of
Christianity barred from actually sitting in parliament.
In 1847 Whig Prime Minister Lord John
Russell introduced a bill to allow Jews to sit as MPs.
This bill was twice rejected by the Lords in 1848
and 1851. In 1858 the bill was finally passed, which
allowed for Jewish MPs to sit in the Commons as it
was agreed that each chamber should make its own
laws for the oaths of its members.
The Gateway Chronicle
1936- Battle of Cable Street:
In 1932 the British Union of Fascists (BUF) was
founded by former Conservative and Labour MP
Oswald Mosley. The BUF ran highly anti-Semitic
policies such as its support for the Nazi party. The
BUF initially gained strong support with 50,000
members and backing from the Daily Mail. They
did not however manage to win seats at either local
or national level and in 1935 decided to boycott the
elections, but promised they would bring fascism
in the future. In 1936 Mosley organised a march
through the East end, an area that had at the time
a large Jewish population. Despite requests by local
Jewish authorities the Home Secretary allowed for
the march to go ahead and sent in police to accompany
the BUF. However, at the march the police and
BUF were met with resistance from around 20,000
anti-fascists, who outnumbered the police and the
BUF marchers. The 20,000 was made up largely
from Communists and British Jews. When the
police attempted to clear a path towards Hyde Park
for the BUF to march through, this led to a violent
clash between police and anti-fascist demonstrators,
which led to the arrest of around 150 demonstrators.
However, the demonstration was enough to
force a retreat both on the day from Mosley and
from the British government, who after sensing
public support was against the BUF passed legislation
known as the Public Order Act 1936, which
effectively banned future large scale demonstrations
from the BUF.
Joe Scragg U6AJG
Right: the Battle
of Cable Street
(1936)

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Hidden Voices
Out of Sight, Out of Mind:
The Hidden History of Mental
Illness
In 1961, a union card index of 2.5 million patients
from various hospitals between 1846 and 1960 was
destroyed. Most patient files from this entire period
have also been destroyed – very few records of asylums
and mental health hospitals remain. Who were
these patients? Why were they destroyed? What
can we learn from this dark period of history?
In early legislation, those with mental illness were
referred to as ‘lunatics’ – someone who was ‘sometimes
of good and sound memory and understanding
and sometimes not’. This was changed in 1930
to be ‘person of unsound mind’. Although seeming
shocking today (along with those with learning
difficulties, or ‘natural fools from birth’, being referred
to as ‘idiots’) these words have infiltrated into
colloquial language today as society has become desensitised
to their offensive usage – think of North
Korea’s official media naming Trump’s tweets as
the ‘spasm of a lunatic’. Does this symbolise the
systemic isolation and disregard those with mental
illnesses have experienced throughout history?
The first recorded ‘Lunatic Asylum’ in Europe was
Bethlem Royal Hospital in 1407. Until the Madhouse
Act of 1774, commercial enterprises known
as madhouses were used to house people struggling
with mental illness but the 1774 Act began to regulate
these, with madhouses licensed by the Royal
College of Physicians. It required a single house
for accommodating lunatics, inspected yearly, and
came with a penalty for ‘concealing or confining’
more than one insane person without a license set
at £500 and if a keeper of house took in a patient
without an order from a doctor, they would be fined
£100. This did represent some progress – the state
was no longer willing to let the blatant abuse and
profit off mental illness happen without regulation.
However, this is the key – it was only regulation
of the practices that were already occurring, which
were mainly designed to keep ‘lunatics’ away from
society and not support them, treat them or rehabilitate
them.
Official regulation and institutionalisation of those
deemed to be of ‘unsound mind’ developed throughout
the 1800s. In 1808, the County Asylum Act
was passed (counties could levy a rate to fund the
building of a county asylum – only 20 were built)
and in 1845 the County Asylum/Lunacy Act was
passed, requiring this. Ideas of treating those institutionalised
as patients, not prisoners, were made
more popular due to humanitarians such as William
Tuke and grandson Samuel, who pioneered a York
Retreat in 1792 using a therapeutic setting without
mechanical restraints. 60 asylums were built before
1890 when the next mental health act was passed,
and a further 40 after this.
Public perception of Victorian asylums nowadays
is very negative, viewing them as inhumane and degrading.
This stems from truth and was largely the
outcome that befell it due to the overcrowding that
occurred later in the 1800s, but its actual history is
far more mixed. Early on they were a symbol of
hope for a new humanitarian era. Hanwell Asylum
was one of the first to adopt this new progressive
approach, opening in 1832 and using work as
an essential part of treatment – within the first 4
years, 320 out of 560 of the patients were regularly
employed. Self-sufficiency was valued, with a farm,
bakery and brewery. Hanwell also popularised the
non-restraint system, instead using isolation and
padded cells for violent patients to prevent harm to
themselves or others.
Sadly, the humanitarian method was not maintained
in mental health care and due to overcrowding of
asylums further into the 1800s those in charge
frequently turned to sedatives and restraints. Once
again, those with mental illnesses were not being
supported and were instead being treated as if
they were an out-of-control danger to society that
needed to be institutionalised and criminalised. It is
not fully understood what occurred in the Victorian
Asylum or their 20th century successor, the Mental
Hospital, as many records have been destroyed
but some remnants do still exist. Men and women
were separated until the early 20th century, with
men working in farming and women in laundry and
kitchens. A strict routine and minimal privacy were
maintained for both sections.

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Hill End Hospital opened in St Albans (where
Highfield Park stands today) in 1899, as Hertfordshire
County Asylum, taking over from Bedford
Asylum and Three Counties Asylum which had
taken patients from Hertfordshire throughout the
Victorian period. It was a typical hospital of its era,
being mainly self-sufficient before World War Two
with five farms, producing both crops and livestock,
large gardens, a water pumping station and many
services. Patients were largely the workers on these
and a chapel (now Trestle Arts Base) was situated
to the North of the site. Men and women were separated
and their divisions were unequal, with larger
blocks for female accommodation and more female
blocks being added over subsequent years due to the
gender imbalance – this could be put down to several
factors, such as a damning of women as ‘hysterical’
if they objected to the life that was imposed
on them in this time or the admission of women for
short term stays for ‘recovery from domestic lives’.
One headstone that previously lay in the Garden
of Rest at Highfield Park (where patients were
generally buried in mass pauper graves) details
Emily Evans, who died in 1901 (aged 55) and reads
‘released from sorrow, sin and pain’. Her hospital
records are ambiguous and no specific medical notes
exist, with the register simply stating that she was
diagnosed with dementia and the ‘duration of existing
attack’ was ‘birth’ – it is unclear whether this
is her own, or since she gave birth (possibly to an
illegitimate child, given the ‘sin’ on her epitaph and
the nature of her as a single woman with no trade
or occupation). Hill End went through a period of
severe hardship during World War One (common to
most asylums) as extra residents from Norfolk led
to overcrowding and male attendants left to join up.
After this era, Hill End was renamed the Hertfordshire
County Mental Hospital in 1920 to remove
grim and unpleasant associations with the past, and
then to Hill End Hospital for Mental and Nervous
Diseases in 1936.
During the pre- Second World War period, new
‘heroic therapies’ were developed as psychologists
and psychiatrists began to use a more experimental
approach to treatment, with the idea that mental
illness was based on physical issues in the nervous
system or brain. Some of these treatments included
insulin coma therapy, electroconvulsive therapy and
psychosurgery (such as lobotomy). Largely seen
as disturbing today due to their reckless and dangerous
nature, some doctors may have been trying
this to help their patients but many were treating
The Gateway Chronicle
Above: Hill End Hospital
their patients as less than human who could be
forcefully experimented on to ‘empty the asylums’.
This mistreatment continued at Hill End long after
these practices had received public disapproval, and
alleged abuse at Hill End Hospital Adolescent Unit
in the 1970s and 1980s has been reported by over
100 people leading to a three-year police inquiry.
Hertfordshire police reported that ‘in some cases
children were given adult doses’ of sedative medicine.
Statements given included ‘We were beaten,
we were punched, we were put in headlocks, we had
our heads rammed into doors…I was one of the
lucky ones because I wasn’t raped, but I know of
other people who were’, ‘Your knickers were pulled
down and you were jabbed. You just dropped to the
floor immediately. You couldn’t move for two days’
and ‘I’ve never, ever got over it’. Abuse of this scale
was not taken seriously and could happen because
of an apathetic public and an incompetent state who
did not effectively manage patients or support them
for rehabilitation, especially with adolescents who
historically and currently feel a large stigma and
harmful stereotypes attached to struggles with their
mental health, which leads to further feelings of
shame and isolation, preventing people from seeking
out treatment. Another issue at Hill End and
with the entire system was the misuse of it as a care
centre for those who could not be cared for at home,
no doubt exacerbated by Thatcher’s privatisation
of social care. One woman described experiencing
‘cruelty beyond belief ’ after being sent to Hill End
due to being raped at home aged 13 despite her not
having psychiatric problems – it was not known
where to put her due to an ineffective mental health
care system. Another stated ‘It was basically a psychiatric
home being misused as a dumping ground

63
for people they didn’t know what else to do with’,
‘and medication that was usually used on psychiatric
patients was being used as a punishment.’ Yet, the
inquiry closed in October 2020 due to ‘insufficient
evidence’. Are those who experience mental health
treatment still being disregarded and treated with
suspicion?
Criminalisation of those with mental health issues
has remained a problem, with the misunderstanding
of those struggling and the failure to intervene to
adequately support them leading to 25% of female
inmates and 15% of male inmates reporting symptoms
of psychosis (compared to a rate among the
public of 4%) and on top of this 40% of prisons
inspected in 2016-17 had inadequate or no training
for prison officers to intervene. Criminalisation of
mental illness has also entered our language, desensitising
the public to the issues faced by those who
seek support and instead face institutionalisation:
the term of ‘committing suicide’ is still often used,
despite the Suicide Act of 1961 decriminalising
suicide (although it is staggering of itself that one
could be punished under the law for attempting suicide
up until 60 years ago). As of the 1950 European
Convention on Human Rights, a ‘person of unsound
mind’ could be deprived of liberty by judicial
process; psychiatric inpatients are also half as likely
to register to vote, and half as likely, if registered,
to vote. The lack of support throughout history of
people with mental health issues has led to a system
today which is underfunded and a society, especially
in Britain, that values ‘keep calm and carry on’
above all else – until someone is deemed a danger,
where they are therefore removed from society. We
have failed to learn the lessons of history of how to
support those struggling, due to this history being
hidden.
Hill End hospital closed in November 1995 after
the introduction of Care in the Community in the
1980s. Nearly all buildings were demolished, and a
housing development now lies there with Highfield
Park Trust managing most of the land of Hill End
and Cell Barnes, another hospital. A few signs and a
‘history trail’ are most of what remains to connect
the site currently to its dark and tragic past. If no
physical evidence remains, we must work together
to keep this part of history alive and to remember
the mistakes that have been made and continue to
be made with the treatment of people with mental
health issues. Throughout history, we have tried
to hide away those whom we do not know how to
Hidden Voices
treat or cannot understand but isolation, apathy and
disbelief do not help anyone - they contribute to the
stigma surrounding mental health and the shame
people experience. So, reach out to your friends and
family and push for the acceptance and support from
healthcare every person deserves.
Agnes Tyley L6NPW

64
The Gateway Chronicle
America

65
Hidden Voices

Harriet Tubman
Harriet Tubman (originally named Araminta Ross)
was born around 1820 to 1822. She had an astonishing
8 siblings in total with 4 brothers and 4 sisters.
Harriet was an amazing lady who helped women
and slaves in many ways. She was born into chattel
slavery (when you are owned forever including
offspring and family). Two of her sisters were sold
to a chain gang (a couple of people who are chained
together while working). Being black in those times
could lead her to a similar fate. From a young age,
she was given to different owners repeatedly. All
of them punished her by whippings and beatings
meaning she suffered endlessly.
For example, she was running
an errand for one of her owners
when an overseer threw a
two-pound weight at a fugitive.
Harriet stepped in front
of the fugitive and the weight
hit her. This incident caused
her to develop permanent
narcolepsy.
After that, no one wanted her
as she was deemed useless.
This meant that she was sent
to her father and there she
learnt to cut wood. She was
happy to be with her father
again but work never stopped.
She soon became strong by
cutting wood all day and
giving it to sailors who would
ship the wood.
Minty (Harriet’s nickname) later met a black man
by the name of John Tubman whom she married
in the year 1844. 5 years later her owner died. She
feared being sold and sent away from her family so
she planned an escape with her brothers. She failed
and had to go back. However, she learned from the
attempt that she had to try again, alone.
After successfully reaching the South she went back
and forth 13 times to save more people from slavery.
One time, Harriet caught a glimpse of her previous
owner and was scared of being captured. So,
she let out a chicken she had, which caused chaos,
The Gateway Chronicle
letting her get away freely. After all these amazing
journeys she had been given the nick name ‘Black
Moses’ and gained bounties as big as 100 dollars on
her head as slave owners were angry and wanted
their slaves. Many people were after her but she was
dedicated and did not stop helping slaves.
Later in her life she joined the civil war as a nurse
healing many of the soldiers on the battlefield with
medicine. She was also the first woman to ever lead
soldiers in war, which was amazing in disproving
beliefs about what women could accomplish. Harriet
campaigned for women to have the right to vote,
just as men could. Harriet never stopped fighting
for people’s rights to a better life.
Finally, on the 10 th of
March 1913 Harriet Tubman
died a peaceful death
in a rest home named in
her honor. Her last words
were ‘I go to prepare a
place for you’, symbolizing
what she had done her
entire life in fighting for
people’s right to freedom
with courage and commitment.
Zaid Jazil 1.1
66

67
Hidden Voices

The Gateway Chronicle
Martin Luther King Jr.
Martin Luther King Jr is a man that is very important
in black history and is one of the key people
that we admire as we celebrate black history month.
As a social ‘activist,’ and Baptist minister Martin
Luther King Jr is known to be one of history’s
best leaders of the civil rights movement; this was
proved in 1964, when he was awarded the Nobel
Peace Prize. This is due to the fact that Martin
Luther King Jr dedicated his life and fought for the
human rights and equality of black people in America.
Inspired by Gandhi, with a drive of faith and
hope for fair equal treatment, Martin Luther King
Jr conveyed many speeches over to all Americans,
the most famous being the very emotional ‘I have a
dream.’ This made the Americans move their unfair
ways of thinking and King shifted the world vastly
– despite the fact that there is still much work to
be done to carry on and complete Martin Luther
King Jr’s dream in the current world, we are safely
making progress.
for non violence even further.
In conclusion, Martin Luther King Jr was a
very powerful, emotional and intelligent black
Martin Luther King Jr was born on the 15 th of
January 1929 in Atlanta. We can tell that he was
quite an intelligent student due to the fact that at
the age of only fifteen, King was offered a place at
Morehouse College, where he studied medicine and
law. After graduating in 1948, King earned himself
a Bachelor of divinity degree in Pennyslvania and
was crucially elected President of a predominantly
white class. He then enrolled himself into a graduate
program at Boston University and completed
his coursework in 1953. King got married to Coretta
Scott later, in 1953 – followed by the upcoming
of four children: Yolanda Denise King, Martin
Luther King III, Dexter Scott King and Bernice
Albertine King.
Martin Luther King Jr had become famous at
that time as an inspirational resistance to the
rules of the Supreme Court of segregated
seating on public buses in November of 1956.
For this reason, he therefore also became a
target for white supremacists as they tried
to stop him in many ways. For example, in
January 1956, white supremacists firebombed
King’s house. This was followed a couple of
years later, when on September 20 th 1958, Izola
Ware Curry, asked King whether or not he
was ‘Martin Luther King.’ After King’s reply,
he was stabbed and miraculously survived the
assassination attempt. This boosted his need
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69
leader to American Civil Rights. He inspired
many people and changed the world to form a
much better place, whilst influencing people
such as Rosa Parks, who denied to give up her
seat for a white person. Black history month
helps us celebrate inspiring black people such
Hidden Voices
as Martin Luther King Jr. We are not yet able
to complete King’s dream but we are still
fighting.
Sarun Modi 3.3

The Gateway Chronicle
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71
Hidden Voices

Arthur Ashe
Arthur Ashe was an inspirational character in the
eyes of many people, especially tennis players. He
was an inspiration as he was the first African American
tennis player to compete at the highest level
of the game. He retired early from the game due
to health reasons, but even after retiring he continued
to promote human rights, education and public
health, in part due to his high sporting profile.
Early years
Arthur Robert Ashe Jr. Was born on July 10, 1943
in Virginia. He spent most of his childhood life with
his mother as his dad was a caretaker at a park. At
the age of six Ashe’s mother died to a heart disease.
Ashe lived in the grounds where his dad worked,
which had four tennis courts, a pool and three baseball
diamonds. This was the key to his development
as a future athlete. Ashe started learning tennis at
the age of six, he received lessons from R. Walter
Johnson, an African American Doctor from Virginia.
He opened his home in the summer to tennis
prospects, including Althea Gibson. Johnson used
military style methods to teach his teach tennis. He
stressed the importance of sportsmanship, which
included respect, sharp appearance and no cheating
at any time.
Amateur tennis player
Ashe attended Richmond City Public Schools and
received a diploma from Maggie L. Walker in 1961.
After success as a junior player in the American
Tennis Association (ATA), he was the first African
American junior to receive a U.S. Lawn tennis Association
(USLTA) national ranking. When he won
the National Interscholastic in 1960, it was the first
USLTA national title won by an African American
in the south. The university of California at Los
Angeles awarded him a full tennis scholarship.
The Gateway Chronicle
Professional tennis player
Two events changed Ashe’s life in the late 1960s.
The first was the protest by African American
athletes at the 1968 Olympic Games in Mexico City,
Mexico, in opposition to separation based on race
in the Republic of South Africa. The second event
was in tennis. He won the first U.S. Open tennis
Championship at Forest Hills. The USLTA ranked
him joint first with ROD Lavor. He became a top
money- winner after turning professional in 1969.
In 1972 he helped found the Association of Tennis
professionals (ATP).
In 1973 Ashe became the first African American to
reach the South African finals held in Johannesburg,
South Africa, and he was the doubles winner with
the partner of Tom Okker. Black South Africans
gave Ashe the name “Sipho”, which means “a gift
from God” in zulu. The year 1975 was Ashe’s best
In 1963 Ashe became the first African American
tennis player to win the U.S. Men’s championship
and the first to be named to a U.S Junior Davis
Cup (an international men’s tournament) team. He
became the National College Athletic Association
(NCAA) singles and doubles champion, leading
UCLA and NCAA title in 1965. After Graduating
with a bachelor’s degree in business and administration,
Ashe served in the army for two years, during
which he was assigned time for tennis competitions.
In 1968, Ashe created a tennis program for U.S.
Inner cities.
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73
and most consistent season. He was the first African
American player to win the men’s singles at
Wimbledon, beating the defending champion Jimmy
Connors. Ashe ranked number one in the world and
was named ATP player of the year. Ashe almost
beat John McEnroe in the Masters final in New
York in January 1979, and was a semi finalist at
Wimbledon the summer before. A heart attack soon
after the tournament ended his career. After the
heart surgery Ashe announced his retirement from
the sport.
International role model
After retiring, Ashe served as a captain for the U.S.
Davis Cup team, leading it to consecutive victories
in 1981 and 1982. Ashe received media attention
for his campaigns, his protests against apartheid
in South Africa, and his call for higher education
standards for all athletes. But he spent most of his
time dealing quietly with the “real world” through
public speaking, teaching, writing, business and
public service. Ashe helped develop: the ABC Cities
program, combining tennis and academics; the black
Tennis and Sports Foundation, to assist minority
athletes; and 15-love, a substance abuse program.
After surgery in 1983 Ashe became nation chairman
for the American Heart Association and the
nonmedical member of the national heart, lung and
blood advisory council. In the late 1970’s he became
adviser to Aetna Life and Casualty Company. He
was made a board member in 1982. He represented
Hidden Voices
minority concerns and, later, causes of sickness.
Later years
After brain surgery in 1988 came the discovery
that Ashe had been infected with HIV, the virus
that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS, a fatal disease that attacks the body’s immune
system). Doctors traced the infection back
to a blood transfusion he received after his second
heart operation 1983. After going public with the
news in 1992, Ashe established the Arthur Ashe
Foundation for the defeat of AIDS to provide
treatment to AIDS patients and to promote AIDS
research throughout the world. He rallied professional
tennis players to help funding and to increase
public awareness of the disease. He addressed the
General Assembly of United Nations (UN) on
Worlds AIDS day, December 1 1992.
Arthur Ashe died on February 6 1993, in New York
City. As Ashe’s body lay in state at the governor’s
mansion in Virginia, mourners paid their respects
at a memorial service held in New York City and at
the funeral at Ashe Athletic Centre in Richmond.
In 1996 Ashe’s hometown of Richmond announced
plans to build a statue in his honor. The following
year a new tennis stadium at the National Tennis
Centre in Flushing Meadows, New York, was
named after him.
Lucas Smart 3.3

The Gateway Chronicle
Silence=Death: A History of
HIV and Homophobia
When the first news story referring to HIV was
published on 18 th May 1981 with the headline “Disease
Rumours Largely Unfounded” in a local gay
newspaper called New York Native, the general public
was entirely unaware of the nascent crisis that
would soon unfold on a global scale. By this point,
despite being completely unidentified, the disease
had already spread to five continents, known inside
homeless communities by names such as “junkie
flue” and “the dwindles,” and within four decades
would grow to such an extent that an estimated
32.7 million people have died from AIDS-related
illnesses. Although HIV affects every demographic,
the disease ravaged the LGBTQ+ community and
men who have sex with men (MSM) are still affected
disproportionately, currently accounting for
70% of the new HIV diagnoses in the USA. This
devastating and long-lasting impact is inseparable
from HIV’s complex history and intersection with
homophobia.
The AIDS crisis arrived at a time of progress for
queer rights; the sexual revolution that began in
the 60s acted as a challenge to traditional views of
sexuality while the Stonewall riots in 1969 showed
the urgency of gay liberation, becoming a turning
point in the fight for legal and social acceptance.
Through decades of campaigning, advances were
made and by 1980 over two dozen states had decriminalized
“sodomy” in the USA, the first country
to experience the full scope of the AIDS crisis.
Although there was progress, homophobia remained
ever-present and the emergence of HIV would only
become an excuse for its deadly upsurge.
From the instant HIV came into the public consciousness,
homophobic and deadly myths were
already present. The first major article describing
AIDS was found in The New York Times. Published
on July 3 rd , 1981 under the title “Rare Cancer Seen
In 41 Homosexuals,” the article wrote that “there
was no apparent danger to nonhomosexuals from
contagion,” becoming a source of the misconception
that heterosexual people would be unaffected.
Though it’s an example of harmful misinformation,
it pales in comparison to the sometimes vitriolic and
homophobic articles that would later fill the media,
such as one written by George Gordon in The Daily
Mail which ended by stating that “the gay parades
are over. So too is public tolerance of a society
that paraded its sexual deviation and demanded
rights. The public is demanding to live disease-free
with prime carriers in isolation.” In the early days,
misunderstandings were natural due to the lack
of information and research into HIV, yet, though
our knowledge grew with time, it would take much
longer for misinformation and blatant homophobia
to start fading away.
Our current understanding is that human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) is a retrovirus primarily
spread through unprotected sex, sharing contaminated
needles and
mother-to-child transmission.
After becoming
infected, a person
faces an initial period
when they either experience
influenza-like
illnesses or no symptoms
whatsoever. The
most common symptoms
usually aren’t
identified as signs of
HIV and include fever,
a rash, headaches,
enlargement of lymph
nodes and sores.
There then follows
an interval of asymptomatic
HIV when it
begins to attack the
immune system, infecting
helper T cells,
macrophages and other
essential agents of
the immune response.
Acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome
(AIDS) develops when
the number of CD4 T
cells falls below a certain
point and the immune
system becomes
too weak to respond to
opportunistic illnesses
74

such as pneumonia, tuberculosis and certain cancers.
People with AIDS have a life expectancy of 3 years
after diagnosis without developing a more severe
opportunistic condition, and during this period they
are likely to experience fevers, sweats, chill and unintended
weight loss.
It was through these uncommon opportunistic
illnesses that HIV was first identified: sudden outbreaks
of the rare infection Pneumocystis carinii
pneumonia and the rare cancer Kaposi’s sarcoma
found among gay men and drug users in 1981
surprised America’s Centre for Disease Control and
Prevention, who began to monitor the situation.
Initially, symptoms were attributed to what was
labelled “gay related immune deficiency,” a misnomer
suggesting only gay men were affected. As it
became evident other groups were suffering from
this illness, HIV started being described as the “4H”
disease, referring to the risk groups of heroin users,
homosexuals, haemophiliacs
and Haitians.
As evidence showed
the former moniker
was unsuitable and the
latter created issues of
increasing racism towards
Haitians whilst
ignoring HIV’s ability
to affect those outside
risk groups, the word
AIDS came into use in
1982.
Hidden Voices
God’s punishment for homosexuals, it is God’s punishment
for the society that tolerates homosexuals”
and by 1992, 36% of Americans believed AIDS was
God’s punishment for behaviour they deemed “immoral.”
Though Falwell’s sentiments may appear
uniquely egregious, they in fact played an important
role in the immediate response to the AIDS crisis.
In 1979 Falwell co-founded the Moral Majority, a
right-wing Christian organisation that became a
key force shaping the Republican party in the 80s.
The organisation claimed to support “traditional
family values” while portraying the pursuit of gay
and lesbian rights as an attack against this way of
life. Importantly, the Moral Majority became an early
supporter of Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential
election, spending $10 million on commercials
opposing Democratic candidate Jimmy Carter while
Moral Majority co-founder Robert Billings became
religious adviser to Ragan’s campaign. Not wanting
to alienate groups like the Moral Majority, Reagan
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However, by this point
the idea that HIV was
specific to gay men
would remain, becoming
a weapon for
homophobes and homophobic
organisations.
The epidemic was
often described as “the
gay plague” in tabloids
including The Mail
on Sunday and News
of the World while in
America conservative
Christians would treat
HIV as divine retribution:
Southern Baptist
Jerry Falwell claimed
that “AIDS is not just
Above: Jerrry Falwell Sr., co-founder of the Moral Majority
wouldn’t mention AIDS until 1985, creating four
years of inaction and underfunding for fear of
upsetting a homophobic electorate when the government
could have launched a targeted campaign
to control the pandemic. During this period, for
two years the AIDS budget of San Francisco was
larger than Reagan’s AIDS budget for the entire

The Gateway Chronicle
country and despite the acknowledgement in 1985,
the federal budget in 1986 saw an 11% reduction
in AIDS spending from the level 1985. Though
future funding increase, the deaths that could have
been prevented by more immediate action cannot be
ignored.
When the subject of AIDS was raised in early
White House press conferences, the response
showed Washington wasn’t taking the issue seriously.
On October 15 th , 1982 Lester Kinsolving asked
Ronald Reagan’s Press Secretary Larry Speakes
about AIDS, prompting a chorus of laughter from
journalists at the conference. Speakes then asked if
Kinsolving had the illness himself with the implication
that he was gay and the press once again
erupted with laughter. HIV would continue to be
treated as a subject of humour with Speakes making
jokes speculating on Kinsolving’s sexuality over the
next few years, greeted each time by amusement
from journalists. Even when Reagan acknowledged
the AIDS crisis, a central tenet of his solution was
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Hidden Voices
Above: headlines from British tabloids in the 1980s concerning the AIDS/HIV crisis
77
abstinence-only sex education intended to teach
“values.” The problem with this was twofold: firstly,
there was the not-so-subtle implication that
those who were queer or promiscuous lacked values;
secondly, abstinence-only education has been
shown not to reduce rates of sexual activity whilst
creating ignorance about how to have safe sex and
prevent spreading STDs. The UK arguably took
even more extreme measures around sex education
through the implementation of Section 28 by Margaret
Thatcher’s government in 1988. The amendment
meant local authorities couldn’t “promote the
teaching in any maintained school of the acceptability
of homosexuality as a pretended family relationship.”
This meant there was no available information
on gay sex education that could help prevent
the spread of STDs and it contributed to the stigma
towards members of the LGBTQ+ community
at a time when the British Social Attitudes Survey
showed that 75% of the population described
homosexuality as “always or mostly wrong.” Similar
policies that backfired in the long-term included the

78
decision to ban all members of the MSM category
from donating blood despite the existence of the
ELISA test for HIV by 1895. This occurred when,
as a result of AIDS, blood shortages were common
and consequently the blood supply was artificially
constrained when blood was desperately needed.
Combined together, these all present examples of
the direct line from homophobia to harmful policies
that exacerbated the difficulties facing those with
AIDS.
While homophobia and stigma created issues for
those suffering from HIV through religious and
political oversight, it was perhaps the casual, everyday
stigma that caused the most immediate problems.
Though medical professionals played a vital
role in dealing with the epidemic, a number had
adopted society’s wider fear and still in 2014 15%
of gay and bisexual patients with HIV reported
receiving poor treatment by doctors, the percentage
being far larger in the 80s and 90s. As a result, gay
and bisexual men became less likely to be tested
and receive treatment, less aware of whether they
had the virus and whether they were spreading it.
Furthermore, as experiences of homophobia are
shown to increase the likelihood of substance abuse
and more risky sexual behaviour, it is unsurprising
that HIV spread so rapidly through the community.
Compounded upon this, housing discrimination
and workplace discrimination harmed the security
of both members of the LGBTQ+ community and
those suffering from AIDS whilst simultaneously
suffering social ostracization resulting from incorrect
beliefs that HIV could be spread from skin-toskin
contact or through the air. A harrowing example
of how discrimination and HIV intersect is the
fact that even now 14% of transgender women have
HIV. This is partly because discrimination causes
transgender people to face higher rates of homelessness,
unemployment and poverty so many are
forced to engage in sex work, a field where people
become five times more likely to be diagnosed with
HIV. This link between discrimination and vulnerability
to HIV becomes starker when observing what
happens when racism intersects with the previous
issues: 44% of black transgender women have HIV
while gay black men are 16 times more likely to be
infected than gay white men. Barriers arising from
institutionalised racism combine with poverty to
heighten the dangers of homophobia and leave vulnerable
members of the population exposed to HIV.
Facing stigma or indifference from most unaffected
The Gateway Chronicle
by the illness, the LGBTQ+ community was forced
to carry out its own activism. ACT UP became a
central organisation working to end the AIDS epidemic,
and whether it was placing a giant condom
over the house of homophobic senator Jesse Helms
or spreading the ashes of dead loved ones on the
lawn of the White House to protest George Bush’s
inaction, they were involved. Meanwhile, in response
to the ban on MSM donating blood, lesbian
women performed blood drives to help supply blood
to the depleted reserves desperately needed by those
with AIDS. The importance of campaigning in
educating the public, calming panic and accelerating
Members of AIDS activist group ACT UP
hold a banner stating “Silence Equals Death”
and signs of prominent U.S politicians at a
demonstration held on October 11, 1988

79
the fight against AIDS cannot be overstated and it
was often the groups who suffered most who had to
fight hardest for progress.
In the modern world, AIDS remains a serious
threat: over 38 million people have HIV while there
is no cure for HIV, only retroviral medication that
helps to control it. Marginalised groups continue to
suffer disproportionately due to the continuing history
of stigma and discrimination linked with HIV;
in Africa, the continent most affected by HIV today,
history is repeating itself and the same pattern
of homophobia enabling HIV to spread ever more
Hidden Voices
rapidly has devastated a region struggling with
its health infrastructure. Writing in 1983 on the
impact of the virus on the queer community, Larry
Kramer said that ‘our continued existence depends
on just how angry you can get.’ This remains true
in many parts of the world, and it is only through
understanding the history of HIV and homophobia,
challenging stigma and discrimination, and educating
people about the importance of safe sex and
testing for HIV that this can begin to change.
Jonathan Baddon L6DMY

Barack Obama
The Gateway Chronicle
Barack Hussein Obama II was the first African
American President of the United States of America
from the 20 th January 2009 – 20 th January 2017,
holding the office for two terms. He was elected
the 44 th President of the USA on the 4 th November
2008.
Barack Obama was born on the 4 th August 1961, in
Honolulu, Hawaii. He lived in various places growing
up, including Indonesia, Los Angeles and New
York, before moving to Chicago at the age of 23,
where he worked with churches to help communities
that were affected by the closure of some local
steel plants. He then attended Harvard Law School
and became the first African-American president of
the Harvard Law Review. While at law school he
met his future wife, Michelle.
people. He cut the black healthcare uninsured rate
by a third, freed hundreds of black prisoners and
called for the closure of private prisons. He did
many other things to help black people, but when
his presidency ended, race relations in the United
States of America were not much better than when
he started. In fact, you could say that racism was
on the increase, as the American people voted for
Donald Trump as the next president, who could
be argued to have done very little for black people
living in America. This shows that Barack Obama’s
attempts at making America more diverse, and even
his attempts at making the country fair, did not
work, as a new, highly controversial president was
about to arrive: Donald Trump.
Matthew May 1.3
Obama is a member of the Democratic Party and
previously was Illinois State Senator. While president,
he passed many acts, including the Affordable
Care Act (a significant regulatory overhaul of the
USA’s healthcare coverage which meant more people
had access to healthcare, including more ethnic
minorities); the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform
and Consumer Protection Act (which included an
increase in consumer protection which helped the
general public); and the Tax, Relief, Unemployment
Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of
2010 (which kept income tax rates lower and raised
welfare payments such as unemployment benefit).
He increased troop levels in Afghanistan, ended military
involvement in Iraq (and then started it again
in 2014 after the rise of ISIS) and attempted to
reduce the number of nuclear weapons in the USA
and Russia. In 2013, he became President again,
and won against Mitt Romney, another presidential
candidate. Barack Obama also called for gun control
after a fatal shooting in Sandy Hook Elementary
School. He developed policies on global warming,
immigration and cybersecurity, and interfered in
other wars such as the Syrian Civil War. He also
ordered the death of Osama Bin Laden, the leader
of Al Qaeda. His presidency finally ended in 2017,
with the election of the Republican candidate, Donald
Trump.
Barack Obama was a role model for lots of African
Americans, especially as he was the first African
American president. He therefore showed that
people of all races could be leaders, not just white
Above: Barack Obama speaking in public during his presidency, R
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Below:: Obama’s Controversial Successor,
Donald J. Trump
Hidden Voices
ight: while a student at Harvard Law School
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The Gateway Chronicle
Tommie Smith and John Carlos raising
a fist during the national anthem
at the 1968 Mexico Olympics

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Hidden Voices
Colin Kaepernick
Like many people, I have been inspired by the Black
Lives Matter movement. I am proud to be part of
a generation that realises we need to take action
against racism across the world. On 12th June 2020,
in front of Westminster Lodge, close to St Albans
School, there was a sea of protesters in support
of Black Lives Matter. A protest also happened in
Market Place, St Albans. It made me proud to know
I was part of a community that was ready to stand
up to injustice.
The Black Lives Matter movement has led me to
discover Colin Kaepernick, born on the third of
November 1987. Kaepernick is mixed race, adopted
when he was young by a white family. His new
parents had had two sons who had both died from
heart defects and they wanted to adopt Colin. Being
not only talented in his studies, but also a star quarterback
in American football, Colin went to the University
of Nevada with a scholarship. He studied for
a business degree in college and was later drafted
by the San Francisco 49ers in 2011. He led them to
the Super Bowl two years later.
Before a Packers-49ers pre-season game in 2016,
Kaepernick sat on the San Francisco bench whilst
the national anthem was playing. He said, “I am
not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for
a country that oppresses black people and people
of colour. To me this is bigger than football and it
would be selfish on my part to look the other way.”
This was not the first of his protests, but the first
that Colin had ever done wearing his team kit. The
second time Kaepernick decided to protest, one
of his teammates, Eric Reid, decided to join him
in kneeling down when the national anthem was
played. This has now become a worldwide symbol
of the Black Lives Matter movement.
So, what had inspired Kaepernick?
10 months previously, Kaepernick had been shocked
by the case of the San Francisco Police killing
26 year old Mario Woods. He formed a plan, the
‘Know Your Rights Camp’ for youth empowerment.
He talked of feelings of loss, pain and anger. The
killing of Woods was just the latest in a number of
similar cases.
Kaepernick is part of a tradition of protests. It can
be traced back to 1968, when two African-American
athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, raised
a fist in salute during the US national anthem at
the Mexico Olympics. Today, sportspeople continue
to use their influence to bring equality to
those in need. Many have been inspired recently by
Marcus Rashford’s campaign for free meals in the
school holidays and by Stormzy funding educational
scholarships. As a sign of just how far we have
come, in October 2020 there was widespread disapproval
with the Marseilles football team for them
not taking the knee when remembering Black Lives
Matter.
Colin Kaepernick, we salute you!
Alex Matchett 1.2

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Australasia

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Hidden Voices

The Gateway Chronicle
Aboriginal Australians:
A Forgotten People
In prehistory, humanity flowered from Africa to
inhabit the whole globe. One of these branches
were the people who would later become the Aboriginal
Australians. It is estimated that this migration
came via Southeast Asia around 48,000 to
43,000 BC, with some estimates predicting as early
as 78,000 BC. This migration occurred during a
period of lowered sea levels, producing land bridges
across Malaysia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea
and into Australia which allowed them to reach the
distant continent. From there, most of the continent
was inhabited by about 33,000 BC. Aboriginal
society and culture grew slowly, with evidence of
complex social behaviours beginning to developcremation
developed around 38,000 BC, personal
ornamentation by around 28,000 BC and long-distance
trade by about 8000 BC (in comparison, it is
estimated that trade developed in Europe around
2000 BC). Due to such an early habitation and their
relative isolation, it is likely that Aboriginal Australian
culture has the longest running chronology of
any group on Earth.
spread groups often interacted with one another
heavily through marriage alliances, trade, religious
activity or perhaps even in conflict. Though traditionally
regarded as hunter gatherers, Aboriginal
Australians had a more complex system of gathering
food which was similar to nomadism rather
Formulating a precise picture of Aboriginal Australian
history pre-European colonisation is quite
difficult. Aboriginal Australians did not have a
written language and largely passed down their
history to future generations through oral history,
such as stories and songs. Much of this was lost due
to the violent nature of colonisation and though
archaeological evidence is still available, this does
not create as detailed a history as we would like.
From what we do know however, we can see a very
diverse and varied people over a large area, living in
vastly different climates. The entire continent was
utilised, with people having adapted to live from
extremely arid deserts in the interior of Australia
to dense rainforests in the North- a process that
took thousands of years. The population was most
dense in coastal and fertile riverine areas and more
sparsely populated in the interior desert, and it is
estimated that around 300,000 to 1,000,000 inhabited
the continent. Among these people, there were as
many as 500 different groups, which were somewhat
culturally blended but nevertheless had a strong
local orientation to their local territory. There were
more than 250 different languages, with most people
being bilingual or multilingual. These diversely
than fixed agriculture. Despite this, they did have a
strong attachment to the large areas in which they
gathered resources, with an especially strong emphasis
on maintaining boundaries in more resource
rich areas in which there were more people. They
spent much of the year in smaller groups due to
scarcity of food and water but at certain points over
the year there would be a greater availability of resources.
This would allow larger gatherings where
there was exchange of social and religious business
which linked neighbouring groups in a more shared
culture.
Aboriginal Australians had their own religion called
86

Dreamtime which they believed to preordain their
way of life. As living beings, under their religion,
they had to follow the law of the Dreaming and
carry out rituals, which guaranteed the continuance
of their world. The land was believed to originally
have been inhabited by ancestral figures that had supernatural
abilities, which had become the features
on the landscape and natural forces such as wind
and rain. These beliefs were passed down through
various stories which explained the creation of
various different land marks, people, animals, laws
and customs. One such is Uluru (Ayers Rock) in
the Northern Territory, one of Australia’s most
recognisable landmarks, known for its large size
and orange-red colouring. There are many stories
about the formation of Uluru, one being that serpent
beings were in conflict around the rock which
scarred it. It was seen by the Aboriginal Australians
as a sacred site, known as a resting place for the
ancient spirits that used to inhabit the area during
the Dreaming. The area has a rich history and cave
paintings can still be found within it dating back
thousands of years. Various other sites of religious
importance exist across Australia and demonstrate
the links that various groups had across such a
87
Hidden Voices
large area, but also the diversity of explanations
attributed to various features on the land.
The impact on Aboriginal Australian society of colonialism
by the British Empire was profound. British
colonialism began with the transportation of
criminals to Australia, with the first fleet of ships
arriving in 1788. For the next 150 years, criminals
as well as regular settlers would migrate Australia
and move further inland, bringing their livestock,
crops and guns. Resultantly, from 1788 to 1900, the
Aboriginal population had reduced by 90% due to
disease, loss of important land and direct conflict
with settlers. The initial waves of settlement had
pushed them off vital areas of resources and monopolised
them for their own means, such as water
sources for the use of cattle ranching. This left
groups of Aboriginals with nowhere to collect food
and water, and they were also pushed off the land
into areas that were not generally suitable to settle
where food and water were scarce. Their traditional
patterns of travel, land management, hunting and
gathering were all interrupted which were vital to
their semi-nomadic lifestyle, while sacred sites were
blocked off meaning that no cultural and religious
exchange could take place. Inevitably, from the actions
of the settlers in forcing the Aboriginal Australians
off the land, conflict arose due to the lack
of resources. Aboriginals were left with little choice
but to try to steal food from settler communities, or
attack their livestock to halt their advance in order
to survive. However, settlers quickly reacted with
reprisals, which didn’t just target the perpetrators
of these actions. They went further by also massacring,
terrorising and chasing Aboriginal communities
indiscriminately using the ‘Native Police’.
It is estimated that at least 20,000 died as a direct
result of this conflict. Contemporary sources even
regarded this as a brutal and blatant land grab by
European settlers. A Commons Select Committee,
producing a final report on native people within the
empire in 1837, stated:
“It might be presumed that the native inhabitants of any
land have an incontrovertible right to their own soil: a
plan and sacred right, however, which seems not to have
been understood. Europeans have entered their borders
uninvited, and, when there, have not only acted as if they
were undoubted lords of the soil, but have punished the
natives as aggressors if they have envinced a disposition
to live in their own country”
The ability of the British Empire to recognise the

88
land rights was clear, with a treaty in New Zealand
in 1840 being produced that recognised the
native Maori land rights, but no similar provision
was made for Aboriginal Australians. Despite the
conflict, no state of war was declared. Actions by
settlers in attacking these communities therefore
entered into a legal grey area, as the Aboriginal
Australians were technically subjects of British
Empire which should have granted a degree of
legal protection. In this scenario, if an Aboriginal
Australian attacked a settler’s livestock, they might
be expected to be put on trial in front of a court.
However, no perpetrators of violence were brought
to trial. Similarly, settlers were never punished for
disproportionate reaction nor their appropriation
of land. No significant efforts were made to slow
the advance of settler communities into the interior.
Therefore, violent clashes were guaranteed to
continue. Only when new, more reliable weapons
were used by settlers from about the 1850s were
they able to set out and deal with whom they saw as
troublesome.
Aboriginal Australians were slowly pushed from
areas with enough availability of resources, and
being forced into areas inhabited by other groups,
which produced even greater population pressures.
As the last available land was quickly being settled,
impoverishment and unsuitable life on the frontier
left many with no choice but to live on the fringes
of European settlements. The remainder, by law
were forced into restricted reserves, like that in the
state of Victoria in 1856. Many Europeans viewed
the position they put these communities in to be
a ‘cultural extinction’, with Aboriginal Australian
populations falling dramatically. Those able to live
near European settlements typically did so in slums.
Any work that was available was poorly rewarded-
some could offer their skills and knowledge of
navigating the wilderness, but others were forced
to scavenge and beg. Poverty, poor sanitation, poor
health and their proximity to Europeans meant that
a significant number died from Old World Diseases
such as smallpox. The helpless state that Aboriginal
Australians had been forced into was noticed
by contemporaries and was in some spheres praised
and in others condemned. One such is Secretary of
State for the colonies, Sir George Murray’s letter to
Governor Arthur of Tasmania, speaking of how:
“The extinction of the Native race could not fail to leave
an indelible stain upon the character of the British government”
The Gateway Chronicle
Clearly, therefore, one can see the profound impact
that British colonialism had on Aboriginal Australians.
After having lived and adapted to the varied
climates of Australia over thousands of years, many
were left uprooted from their lives and forced to
move over huge distances just to escape the advance
of colonisation.
Even today, Aboriginal Australians suffer with the
effects of colonisation and settlement. Most did
not have full citizenship and voting rights until
1965, and only in 1967 was it voted that federal
laws would also apply to them equally. From 1910
to 1970 a policy of assimilation was pursued by the
Australian government. This involved the forced
removal of 10-33% of Aboriginal Australian children
from their homes, to then be placed in adoptive
families or institutions. When there, they were
forbidden to speak their native languages and had
their names changed, and abuse and neglect were
common, all based on the false assumption that
their lives would be improved if they became part
of European society. The effects of this still leave
scars upon the community- many forced into these
families and institutions, as well as their own families
and communities, suffer with higher rates of
mental illnesses. Aboriginal Australians still suffer
worse health and socioeconomic outcomes. Efforts
have been made to heal these historic injustices,
with Prime Minister Kevin Rudd issuing a national
apology for the country’s actions towards these
individuals in 2008, however there is much more
to be done for these communities. Not only were
many lives lost due to colonialism in Australia, but
Aboriginal culture, language, even their knowledge
of the land they lived in, that had developed over
thousands of years were also lost. Historians can
only hope to piece together a coherent picture of
Aboriginal history from the evidence still available,
but the loss of such a unique and long-lasting society
presents not only a loss to Aboriginal Australian
communities themselves, but a fatal detriment to
humanity as a whole.
Sam McDonald U6LAB

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Hidden Voices
The Haka: History Hidden in
Plain Sight
The vigorous thigh slapping, eye bulging, and blood
curling roaring of the haka is perhaps most synonymous
with the New Zealand rugby team, nicknamed
the All Blacks. Performed before the kick-off
of every match the haka has become symbolic of
New Zealand rugby, many seeing it as a metaphor
of their aggressive, high tempo and free flowing
style of rugby, however, the true meaning and
purpose of the haka is hidden in plain sight. The
haka is steeped in Maori mythology and history. A
tribe originating from Tahiti, the Maori migrated
to modern day New Zealand in the 14 th Century in
an event that is described as the arrival of a great
fleet who rowed and sailed across the Pacific Ocean
in small wooden boats. Therefore, the origins of
the Haka actually derive first from French Polynesia
and not New Zealand. Nevertheless, the Haka
has become a staple in New Zealand’s culture often
being performed at life events such as weddings,
funerals and birthdays, as well as in national events.
However, the true meaning and purpose of the
Haka is not a sort of theatrical performance. First
and foremost the Haka was performed as an aggressive
war dance to intimidate foe and as a way to
prepare a tribe for battle. When two groups would
meet on the battlefield, they would both perform
their own version of the Haka, it was a formality
that was steeped in tradition. The obvious goal of
this is intimidation of the enemy tribe before battle,
however, it also a ritual that holds its roots in Maori
legend and mythology. The sun god Tama-nui-te-ra
and one of his wives, Hine-raumati, who embodies
the essence of summer, had a son named Tane-rore.
The Maori believed that the shimmering heat haze,
the kind you can
often see over the
grass on a hot day
or coming out the
back of planes at the
airport, was Tanerore
dancing for his
mother. As a result,
the haka emulated
this light, rapid
movement, with the
typical trembling
hands representing
Above: a painting from c.1845 depicting the Haka
Tane-rore’s dance. Therefore, the haka also served
as a ritual to the Maori gods and performed on the
battlefield or during life events it acted almost like
a prayer or request for a blessing. Thus, it is unsurprising
that the haka is still performed during life
events to this day just like how other religions and
cultures around the world have their own ways of
praying or seeking a blessing.
When it comes to the performance of the haka before
All Blacks games, it is a fairly recent addition.
The style of haka performed by the All Blacks is
the ‘Ka Mate’ which was first composed in 1820 by
the Maori chief Te Rauparaha. The All Blacks began
performing the Ka Mate Haka in the early 20 th
Century; however, this was often only done at away
games. It was often performed poorly, half-heartedly
and often as a spectacle rather than something of
substance with true umph and meaning. It was only
when the New Zealand rugby legend, Wayne ‘Buck’
Shelford, took the reigns of the All Blacks that the
haka was taken seriously. Shelford forced the whole
team to learn it and to understand the true meaning
behind the haka in order to instil the passion
required to execute it properly. Nowadays the haka
is performed with passion and intensity. As a result,
the vigorous thigh slapping, eye bulging, and blood
curling roaring of the haka has become an intimidating
pre-match formality for any team coming
up again. Perhaps more importantly, the haka has
become a symbol of Maori culture and synonymous
with New Zealand.
Alex Wilkinson U6LAB

The Gateway Chronicle
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Hidden Voices
The Haka as performed by the
All Blacks in the present day

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92
Editorial:
Content Editors: Sam McDonald
Joe Scragg
CRED
Design Editors:
Supervisor:
Ciaran Cook
Freddie Houlahan
Mrs Gregory

93
Hidden Voices
ITS
Contributors:
Pupils:
Amita Abubakar L6MED
Jonathan Baddon L6DMY
Arjun Das 1.1
Freya Graynoth L6DMY
Milly Caris Harris L6SAH
Ben Harrison L6VLS
Praneel Jani L6IMS
Zaid Jazil 1.1
Alex Matchett 1.2
Matthew May 1.3
Sam McDonald U6LAB
Sarun Modi 3.3
Ethan Patel 2.3
Arthur Roberts L6IMS
Joe Scragg U6AJG
Lucas Smart 3.3
Agnes Tyley L6NPW
Jonathan Webb 4.5
Alex Wilkinson U6LAB
OAs:
Ciaran Reed OA (2019)
Staff:
Mr Alcoe
Ms Hodson
Mr Middleton

The Gateway Chronicle
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