B. Com. Part-III Advanced Accountancy Paper I ... - Shivaji University

B. Com. Part-III : Advance Accountancy Paper-I (Old) Paper-III (New) 

Objectives : - 

Unit No. 2 

Material Issue Pricing 

After studying this unit students should be able to - 

i) Understand the meaning of pricing of material Issues. 

ii) Know the most important and useful methods of issue of material 

iii) Maintain store Ledger Account 

Structure : - 

2.1 Meaning 

2.2 Methods of pricing of material issues 

2.2.1 First in First out Method 

2.2.2 Last in First out Method 

2.2.3 Simple Average Method 

2.2.4 Weighted Average Method 

2.3 Illustrations 

2.4 Self Assessment Questions 

2.4.1 Fill in the blanks 

2.4.2 Short Notes 

2.5 Exercises 

2.6 Further Readings 

Additional part of study material as per revised syllabus 

of concerned subject for the Semester-VI 

1

PRICING OF MATERIAL ISSUES 

2.1 Meaning : 

Materials purchased are kept in stores and issued to different jobs or work orders. These 

jobs or work crders are charged with the cost of materials issued to them. This is called pricing 

of material issues. 

Prices paid for purchases made at different times may be different. While issuing these 

materials, it is essential to consider the price at which it should be charged to jobs or work 

orders. 

There are different methods of pricing materials issues. The selection of a proper method 

of pricing of material issues depends on many factors e.g. 

1) Nature of businees. 

2) Frequency of purchase of materials 

3) Durability of stock 

4) Length of inventory turnover period 

5) Range of price fluctuations etc. 

2.2 Methods of Pricing Material Issues : 

Some important and mostly used methods of pricing of material issues are as follows. 

2.2.1 First in First out (FIFO) Method : 

This method of pricing the issues is based on the assumptiion that the materials purchased 

and received first in store are issued first to the job. It means the materials are issued in the 

order in which they are received. The price of the earliest lot of purchase is taken first and 

when that is exhausted, the price of the next lot of purchase is adopted and so on. In other 

words, the materials are issued at the oldest cost price. The closing stock is valued at latest or 

current price. 

This method is suitable when prices are falling. It is also useful if transactions are few and 

prices of material remain stable. In case of perishable materials this method is best applicable. 

Advantages : 

The following are the advantages of FIFO method. 

i) It is simple to understand and easy to operate. 

ii) It is based on logical and sound principle that materials are issued in order of purchase. 

iii) The closing stock is valued at a more recent price. 

iv) Materials are priced at actual cost hence no unrealised profit or loss arises. 

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v) Deterioration and obsolescence can be avoided by exhausting oldest materials at the 

time of issue. 

Disadvantage : 

This method suffers from the following disadvantages. 

i) The calculation becomes difficult and complecated when purchases are made very 

frequently at different prices. 

ii) Issue price does not reflect current market price. 

iii) Cost of production tends to be high during the period of falling prices. 

iv) The pricing of material returns is difficult. 

v) Cost comparision between two similar job becomes difficult when issues are priced 

differently. 

2.2.2 Last in First out (LIFO) Method : 

This method is exactly opposite of FIFO method. It is based on the assumption that the 

material purchased and received last in store are issued first to the job. Under this method the 

cost of last lot of materials purchased is used for pricing the material issues. Thereafter the 

price of next earlier lot is taken and so on. In other words, the materials are issued at the latest 

cost price. The closing stock of materials are valued at the oldest cost price. 

In case of a rising price LIFO method is suitable because material is issued at current 

price. 

Advantages : 

The following are the advantages of LIFO method. 

i) It is simple to operate and easy to understand. 

ii) It is appropriate for matching cost and revenue. 

iii) Closing stock will be valued at earlier price and will not, therfore show unrealised 

profit. 

iv) It shows real income in times of rising prices. 

v) It is good method of avoiding tax. 


The main disadvantages of LIFO method are as followes. 

i) Calculations become complicated when rates of receipts are highly fluctuating. 

ii) Closing stock are not valued at current market price. It is valued at unreal and outdated 

cost. 

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iii) The stocks require to be adjusted during falling prices. 

iv) Due to variation of prices, comparision of cost of similar job is not possible. 

v) This method is not useful in case of perishable materials. 

2.2.3 Simple Average Method : 

Under this method materials are issued at the average price of materials on hand on the 

date of issue. The simple average price is calculated dividing the total of all rates of material in 

hand by the number of rates. The lot which is exhausted, based on FIFO method is excluded in 

computing the average. 

Rate of Issue = 

Total of Different Rates 

No. of Rates 

This method is useful when the materials are received in uniform quantities and purchase 

prices are normally stable. 

Advantages : 

Following are the advantages of simple average method. 

i) This method is easy to operate. 

ii) It gives reasonably accurate results if prices are stable. 


Following are the disadvantages of simple average method. 

i) Materials are not priced at actual costs. 

ii) It does not take into account the quantity of materials purchased. 

iii) Varification of closing stock becomes difficult. 

iv) When price and quantity of different lots are widly fluctuates, this method gives incorrect 

result. 

2.2.4 Weighted Average Method : 

This method gives due importance to quantity of material in stock. Under this method 

issue price of material is calculated by dividing the value of materials in stock by the quantities 

of material in stock 

Rate of Issue = 

Value of material in stock 

quantities of material in stock 

Weighted average rate is calculated each time when a fresh lot is received. It remains the 

4

same till the next lot is received. Thus issue price are calculated at the time of receipt of 

material and not all the times of issue of material. 

This method is useful, where the purchase price and quantities of material are widely 

different. 

Advantages : 

i) Easy to calculate and operate. 

ii) Closing stock value is acceptable. 

iii) When prices fluctuate considerably, it smooths out the fluctuations. 

iv) This method is more logical than the simple average method. 

Disadvantages : 

i) The issues are not priced at current market price. 

ii) Issue price of materials does not represent actual cost price and therefore a profit or 

loss may arise. 

iii) It involves considerable amount of clerical work. 

2.3 ILLUSTRATIONS : 

Illustration - 1 

The following is a summary of the recepits and issues of materials in a factory during the 

month of April. 

Date Particulars Qty. Rate per unit 

Rs. 

1 Received 2000 10 


8 Issued 1200 - 


12 Issued 1000 - 


31 Issued 200 - 

Prepare a statement showing the pricing of issues on the basis of - 

a) FIFO method 

b) LIFO method 

c) Simple Average method 

d) Wighted Average method 

5

Solution : 

a) STORES LEDGER ACCOUNT (FIFO) 

Material code .................. Bin No. .............. Maximum Level ................... 

Type / Size .................... Location code ........... Minimum Level .................... 

Date Receipts Issues Balance Remark 

April Ref. Qty. Rate Amt. Ref. Qty. Rate Amt. Qty. Rate Amt. 

Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. 

1 2000 10 20,000 2000 10 20,000 

5 300 12 3600 2000 10 20,000 

6 

300 12 3600 

8 1200 10 12000 800 10 8000 

300 12 3600 

10 200 14 2800 800 10 8000 

300 12 3600 

200 14 2800 

12 800 10 8000 100 12 1200 

200 12 2400 200 14 2800 

23 300 11 3300 100 12 1200 

200 14 2800 

300 11 3300 

31 100 12 1200 100 14 1400 

100 14 1400 300 11 3300

) STORES LEDGER ACCOUNT (LIFO) 






1 2000 10 20,000 2000 10 20,000 

5 300 12 3600 2000 10 20,000 

8 300 12 3600 

7 

300 12 3600 

900 10 9000 1100 10 11000 

10 200 14 2800 1100 10 11000 

12 200 14 2800 

200 14 2800 

800 10 8000 300 10 3000 

23 300 11 3300 300 10 3000 

300 11 3300 

31 200 11 2200 300 10 3000 

100 11 1100

c) STORES LEDGER ACCOUNT (Simple Average) 



Date Receipts Issues Balance 



1 2000 10 20,000 2000 10 20,000 

5 300 12 3600 2300 23,600 

8 1200 10+12 = 11 13200 1100 10400 

2 

10 200 14 2800 1300 13200 

12 1000 10+12+14 =12 12000 300 1200 

3 

23 300 11 3300 600 4500 

31 200 12+14+11 =12.33 2467 400 2033 

3 

d) STORES LEDGER ACCOUNT (Weighted Average) 






1 2000 10 20,000 2000 10 20,000 

5 300 12 3600 2300 10.26 23600 

8 1200 10.26 12312 1100 11288 

10 200 14 2800 1300 10.84 14088 

12 1000 10.84 10840 300 3248 

23 300 11 3300 600 10.91 6548 

31 200 10.91 2182 400 4366 

8 

Remark


The following transactions took place in respect of material x during the month of January 

2010 

Solution : 

1 - Opening stock 50 tons at Rs. 1000 per ton 

2 - Issued 30 tons 

6 - Received 60 tons at Rs. 1100 per ton 

9 - Issued 25 tons (Stock verification reveals loss of one ton) 

10 - Received back from orders 10 tons (previously issued at Rs. 990 per ton) 

11 - Issued 40 tons 

22 - Received 22 tons at Rs. 1200 per ton 

31 - Issued 33 tons. 

You are required to write up the stores ledger Account under the - a) FIFO Method 

a) STORES LEDGER ACCOUNT (FIFO) 

Material code .....X........ Bin No. .............. Maximum Level ................... 

9 

b) LIFO Method 



Jan Ref. Qty. Rate Amt. Ref. Qty. Rate Amt. Qty. Rate Amt. 

2010 ton Rs. Rs. ton Rs. Rs. ton Rs. Rs. 

1 Bal. 50 1000 50,000 

2 30 1000 30000 20 1000 20000 

6 60 1100 66000 20 1000 20000 

9 20 1000 20000 

5 1100 5500 

60 1100 66000 

Loss 1 1100 1100 54 1100 59400

10 Back 10 990 9900 54 1100 59400 

10 

10 990 9900 

11 40 1100 44000 14 1100 15400 

10 990 9900 

22 22 1200 26400 14 1100 15400 

31 14 1100 15400 

b) STORES LEDGER ACCOUNT (LIFO) 

10 990 9900 

10 990 9900 

22 1200 26400 

9 1200 10800 13 1200 15600 

Material code .....X........ Bin No. .............. Maximum Level ................... 



Jan 2010 



1 Bal. 50 1000 50,000 

2 30 1000 30000 20 1000 20000 

6 60 1100 66000 20 1000 20000 

60 1100 66000 

9 25 1100 27500 20 1000 20000 

Loss 1 1100 1100 34 1100 37400 

10 Back 10 990 9900 20 1000 20000 

10 990 9900 

11 10 990 9900 20 1000 20000 

30 1100 33000 4 1100 4400

22 22 1200 26400 20 1000 20000 

31 22 1200 26400 


11 

4 1100 4400 

4 1100 4400 

22 1200 26400 

7 1000 7000 13 1000 13000 

Prepare a statement showing the pricing of issues on the basis of (a) simple Average and 

(b) Weighted Average Methods from the following information during a month. 

Date - 

1 - purchased 100 units @ Rs. 10.00 each 


5 - Issued 250 units to joab A vide MR. No. 1 



13 - Issued 200 units to job B vide MR No. 2 

18 - Issued 200 units to job c vide MR No. 3 


25 - Issued 150 units to job D vide MR No. 4 

a) STORES LEDGER ACCOUNT (Simple Average Method) 




1 100 10.00 1000 100 1000 

2 200 10.20 2040 300 3040 

5 MR 250 10.10 2525 50 515 

No.1 

7 300 10.50 3150 350 3665 

10 200 10.80 2160 550 5825

13 MR 200 10.50 2100 350 3725 

No.2 

18 MR 200 10.65 2130 150 1595 

No.3 

20 100 11.00 1100 250 2695 

25 MR 150 10.90 1635 100 1060 

No.4 

Notes - Issue Rates 

1) MR No. 1 - 

10.00 + 10.20 = 10.10 

2 

2) MR No. 2 - 10.20 + 10.50 + 10.80 = 10.50 

3 

3) MR No. 3 - 

4) MR No. 4 - 

10.50 + 10.80 = 10.65 

2 

10.80 + 11.00 = 10.90 

2 

While calculating simple Average price we have to taken into consideration only those 

prices of goods which are in the stock. 

b) STORES LEDGER ACCOUNT (Weighted Average Method) 




1 100 10.00 1000 100 10.00 1000 

2 200 10.20 2040 300 10.13 3040 

5 MR 250 10.13 2533 50 10.13 507 

No.1 

7 300 10.50 3150 350 10.45 3657 

10 200 10.80 2160 550 10.58 5817 

12

13 MR 200 10.58 2116 350 10.58 3701 

No.2 

18 MR 200 10.58 2116 150 10.58 1585 

No.3 

20 100 11.00 1100 250 10.74 2685 

25 MR 150 10.74 1611 100 10.74 1074 

No.4 

Notes - Issue Rates 

1) MR No. 1 - 

3) MR No. 3 - 


3040 = 10.13 

300 

3701 = 10.58 

350 

During Jan 2011, the Parag Engineering co.Ltd. effected the purchase of a certain items 

of stores as under - 

issues. 

Date - Units Total Amount Rs. 

2-1-2011 100 190 

15-1-2011 150 333 

During the same period the details of the issues of the item were as under - 

Date - Units 

8-1-2011 40 

20-1-2011 100 

Besides on 1-1-2011 there was an opening balance of 160 units valued for Rs. 200. 

Enter the above transactions in the stores Ledger under the following methods of pricing 

a) Weighted Average 

b) Last - in - First - out. 

13 

2) MR No. 2 - 

4) MR No. 4 - 

5817 = 10.58 

550 

2685 = 10.74 

250

a) STORES LEDGER ACCOUNT (Weighted Average method) 




1 Bal 160 1.25 200 

2 100 1.90 190 260 1.50 390 

8 50 1.50 75 210 1.50 315 

15 150 2.22 333 360 1.80 648 

20 100 1.80 180 260 1.80 468 

Notes - Issue Rates are calculated as under - 

1) On 8th Jan. - 

390 = 1.50 

260 

b) STORES LEDGER ACCOUNT (LIFO method) 


Jan 2011 



1 Bal. 160 1.25 200 

2 100 1.90 190 160 1.25 200 

14 

2) On 20th Jan. - 

648 = 1.80 

360 

100 1.90 190 

8 50 1.90 95 160 1.25 200 

50 1.90 95 

15 150 2.22 333 160 1.25 200 

50 1.90 95 

150 2.22 333 

20 100 2.22 222 160 1.25 200 

50 1.90 95 

50 2.22 111

2.4 Self Study Questions : 

2.4.1 Fill in the blanks. 

a) FIFO method assumed the material ............... first is issued first. 

b) First in First out method is suitable in times of ................ 

c) LIFO method assumed the material received Last is issued .................. 

d) LIFO method is suitable in times of ................. 

e) For perishable material ................ method is suitable for pricing of issues. 

2.4.2 Write short note on. 

a) First in first out Method 

b) Last in First out Method 

c) Simple Average Method 

d) Weigthted Average Method. 

2.5 Exercies : 

Exercise - 1 

Prepare a store ledger Account showing the receipts and the issues of Material X for 

March 2010 pricing the material issued on the basis of a) FIFO method and b) LIFO method 

Receipts :- 

Date - Quantity Rate per unit Rs. 

1-3-2010 2000 units 20 

18-3-2010 3000 units 18 

30-3-2010 1000 units 16 

Issues :- 

Date - Quantity 

4-3-2010 1000 unis 

10-3-2010 500 units 

22-3-2010 2500 units 

31-3-2010 1000 units 

Exercise - 2 

From the following transactions, prepare separatly the stores Ledger Accounts, using the- 

a) FIFO method and b) LIFO method 

Jan. 1 - Opening balance 100 units @ Rs. 5 each 

Jan. 5 - Received 500 units @ Rs. 6 each 

Jan. 20 - Issued 300 units 

15

Feb. 5 - Issued 200 units 

Feb. 6 - Received 600 units @ Rs. 5 each 

Mar. 10 - Issued 300 units 

Mar. 20 - Issued 250 units. 

Exercise - 3 

The following is a summary of the receipts and issues of materials in a factory during a 

month. 

Date - 

1 - Opening balance 500 units at Rs. 25 per unit 

2 - Issued 70 units 



13 - Received 200 units at Rs. 24.50 per unit 

14 - Returned to store 15 units at Rs. 24 per unit 






27 - Returned to store 12 units at Rs. 24.50 per unit 

28 - Received 100 units at Rs. 25 per unit. 

Work out on the basis of FIFO method. It was revealed that on 15th there was a shortage 

of 5 units and on 27th of 8 units. 

Exercise - 4 

The following transactions took place in respect of material item during the month of 

April. 

Date Receipt Qty. Rate Issue Qty. 

2 2000 2.00 

10 3000 2.40 

15 2500 

18 2500 2.60 

20 2000 

16

Prepare the stores Ledger Account, pricing the issue at the a) simple Average Rate and 

b) Weighted Average Rate. 

Exercise - 5 

The following particulars have been extracted in respect of Material X prepare a store 

Ledger Account showing the receipts and issue, pricing the material issued on the basis of : 

a) Simple Average Basis 

b) Weighted Average Basis 

Receipts :- 

1-10-2011 Opening Stock 200 units at Rs. 3.50 per unit 

3-10-2011 purchased 300 units at Rs. 4.00 per unit 



Issues :- 

4-10-2011 Issued 400 units 

15-10-2011 Issued 600 units 

25-10-2011 Issued 600 units 

6.6 Further Reading : 

1) Bhar B. K. : Cost Accounting - Method and problems 

2) Jain S. P; : Cost Accounting 

Narang K. L. 

3) Jawaharlal : Cost Accounting 

4) V. H. Krishnudwala : Cost Accounting 

& others 

5) The Istitute of Company secretaries of India - 

Company Account, Cost and Management Accounting 

(Study material - Madule I) 

17 

��

B. Com. Part-III : Advance Accountancy Paper-II (Old) Paper-IV (New) 

Objectives : 



Unit-4 

Introduction to Service Tax 

After studying this unit the students should be able to understand - 

Introduction : 

i) the concept of Service Tax 

ii) how the value of taxable service is determined 

iii) the rate of service tax 

iv) who is liable to pay service tax 

v) the concept of VAT 

Taxation is the main source of obtaining funds to the Government. There are two different 

views regarding increasing the funds from taxes. One is to raise the tax rate of current taxes 

and another is to find out new areas of taxation and to bring more and more people under the 

tax net. In the age of LPG it would not be feasible to increase the tax rate so the Government 

has chosen the second way that is to introduce new taxes. So Service Tax was introduced for 

the first time in India in 1994 under the Finance Act of 1994. 

There is another reason to introduce Service Tax in India and that is, increasing importance 

of service sector in Indian economy. Share of service sector increased from 28% of GDP in 

1950 to about 70% of GDP in 2010. 

Service Tax in India : 

The Tax Reforms Committee headed by Dr. Raja Chelliah recognized the revenue potential 

of the service sector in India and recommended introduction of Service Tax on select services. 

On the basis of these recommendations Dr. Manmohan Singh, the then Union Finance Minister, 

introduced the new concept of Service Tax under Chapter V of the Finance Act, 1994. 

Service Tax is a tax levied on notified services provided or to be provided in India, except 

in the State of Jammu and Kashmir. It is chargeable on providing service or services but 

payable only on receipt of taxable service from the customer or client before, during or after 

rendering the services. It is an indirect tax. It was introduced for the first time on 3 services and 

subsequent Finance Acts have added more and more services for tax purpose. As on 01/05/ 

2011 there were 119 services are under the tax net. 

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Value of Taxable Service : 

As service tax is to be charged on the value of taxable service provided or to be provided, 

it is necessary to know how the value of taxable service is to be determined. 

As per section 67, the valuation of taxable service shall be determined under the following 

two situations - 

a) Service tax is separately charged in the Bill. 

b) Service tax is included in the Bill Value. 

Service tax is separately charged in the Bill : 

The valuation of taxable service is depending on the type of consideration of service. It is 

explained as follows - 

i) Whether the provision of service is for a consideration in money: 

Gross amount charged by the service provider in the bill is the value of taxable service. 

ii) Whether the provision of service is for consideration partly in money and 

partly in kind or wholly in kind: 

The amount of money and the market value of consideration received in kind is the value 

of taxable service. 

iii) Whether the provision of service is for a consideration which is not 

ascertainable: 

The valuation of taxable service shall be the amount to be determined in prescribed manner. 

Service tax is included in the Bill Value: 

If the gross amount charged by a service provider is inclusive of service tax payable, the 

value of such taxable service shall be determined by deducting the amount of service tax from 

the gross amount charged. In this situation the service tax is calculated on the basis of reverse 

working. 

Charging Service Tax : 

Section 66 is the charging section of the Act and provides as under - 

i) Service tax is charged @ 10% of gross value of taxable service, but in certain cases, 

abatement is provided for material component of the transaction. 

Though service tax is levied at the basic rate of 10 %, in certain cases an alternative rate 

is also provided. 

ii) An Education Cess @ 2 % is to be charged on the service tax on all taxable services 

vide the Finance No. (2) Act, 2004 with effect from 10/09/2004. 

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iii) The Secondary and Higher Education Cess ( SHEC ) @ 1% shall also be charged on 

the service tax on all taxable services vide the Finance Act, 2007 with effect from 11/05/2007. 

Thus, the current rate of service tax is 10% of the gross value of service plus education 

cess @ 2% of the service tax and SHEC @ 1% of the service tax. Therefore the effective rate 

of service tax is 10.3% of the gross value of taxable services. 

iv)The tax is levied only on those taxable services which are referred to in various subclauses 

of clause (105) of section 65. There is no tax on free services. 

v) There is no particular definition of taxable service/s. Taxable services means those 

services which are included in various sub clauses of section 65 (105). The following are the 

some of the essential characteristics of services - 

a ) existence of two parties - service provider and service recipient. 

b ) service as distinct to sale 

c ) service provided should be a taxable service 

d ) consideration for the service 

vi) There are also certain exemptions from service tax. 

Rate of Service Tax : 

The rate of service tax from the introduction was as follows: 

i) The rate of service tax was 5% on gross value of taxable service, from 01/07/1994 to 

13/05/2003. 

ii) The rate of service tax was 8% on gross value of taxable service, from 14/05/2003 to 

09/09/2004. 

iii) The rate of service tax was 10% on gross value of taxable service and education cess 

was at 2% of the service tax, from 10/09/2004 to 17/04/2006. 

iv)The rate of service tax was 12% on gross value of taxable service and education cess 

was at 2% on the service tax, from 18/04/2006 to 10/05/2007. 

v) The rate of service tax was 12% on gross value of taxable service; education cess was 

at 2% on the service tax and SHEC at 1% on the service tax, from 11/05/2007 to 23/02/2009. 

vi)The rate of service tax was 10% on gross value of taxable service; education cess was 

at 2% on the service tax and SHEC at 1% on the service tax, from 24/02/2009 to 31/03/2012. 

vii) The rate of service tax was 12% on gross value of taxable service; education cess 

was at 2% on the service tax and SHEC at 1% on the service tax, from 01/04/2012 onwards. 

20

Person who has to pay Service Tax : 

The service tax is required to pay as per the provisions of rule 6 of the Service Tax Rules, 

1994. The general principle is that the person providing a taxable service is liable to pay service. 

In certain specific situations, section 68(2) permits the government to notify person other than 

the person providing the taxable service to be liable for payment of service tax .The exceptions 

to general principle are as fallows. 

Sr. No. Services Persons liable for Payment 

1 General Insurance Insurance Company 

2 Insurance Auxiliary Insurance Company 

3 Any service provided from outside Receiver of service in India 

India and Received in India 

4 Goods Transport Agency (GTA) Person making payments of 

freight I.e. receiver of the 

service in organized sector or 

GTA i.e. provider of service in 

other case 

5 Sponsorship Services Person sponsoring the event if 

he is located in India 

6 Business auxiliary services of Mutual fund 

distribution of mutual fund 

Value Added Tax (VAT) : 

Value Added Tax (VAT) is a broad based tax levied of multiple stage with tax on inputs 

credited against taxes on output VAT was firstly introduced in the 1950’s but it remained confined 

to handful number of countries till the 1980’s .As many as 30 Countries have switched over to 

VAT since 1980 and the total number of countries who have adopted VAT presently reached to 

more than 130. India has been slow in adoption of VAT. In domestic trade taxes, it adopted 

excise duty at the Central level and sales tax at State level for this purpose. 

The Central Government attempted reforms in the central excise duty by introducing the 

principles of VAT in 1986 through the introduction of MODVAT. Over the period the rates have 

been rationalized exemption have been reduced and coverage has been extended to almost all 

the commodities commencing MODVAT has now been converted into a central VAT coined 

and called CENVAT. 

21

The state Government had been indifferent in understanding any reforms in the sales tax 

system .The task force known as Kelkar Committee was appointed to study this issue and it 

opined that it is necessary that state VAT should be the tax to unify all the state level taxes i.e. 

Sales Tax, Purchase Tax, Turnover Tax, Work Contract Tax, Entry Tax, Special Additional Tax 

etc. should all be covered under State VAT. The efforts were initiated towards introduction of 

VAT since last many years. 

Concept of VAT : 

VAT is a Tax, which is charged on the increase in value of goods and services at each 

stage of production and circulation. It is also chargeable on the value of all imported goods. It is 

charged by registered VAT business/ persons/ Tax payers. VAT has replaced a number of 

other taxes and its introduction has not resulted in either increased prices to final consumers or 

reduced profitability of business. VAT is levied on the difference between the sale price of the 

goods produced on the services rendered and the cost their of that is the difference between 

the output and the input. 

In other words - 

Ø It is nothing but multi point Sales Tax. 

Ø It is collected on value addition only at each stage. 

Ø Tax paid by the dealer is deducted from the tax payable collected at every point of sale 

and the tax already paid 

Difference between Sales Tax & VAT : 

Sales Tax VAT 

1. Tax is levied at the stage of the first 

sale or at the final stage. 

2. Tax is charged on goods only. 

3. A large numbers of forms are required. 

4. Computation of tax liability is complex 

5. Assessment is done by the department 

6. Penalties for defaulter/evaders are not 

strict. 

7. Dealer reselling tax paid goods do not 

collected any tax on resale and file nil 

returns. 

22 

1. Tax is levied and collected at every 

point of sale. 

2. Tax is charged on goods & services 

both. 

3. At the most a few forms are required. 

4. It is transparent and easier 

5. Self -Assessment is done by dealer. 

6. Penalties will be stricter. 

7. Dealer reselling tax paid goods will have 

to collect tax &VAT, file returns and 

pay VAT at Every Stage of sale.

8. Sales tax is not levied at the time of 

purchase against statutory forms but 

there is misuse of such forms resulting 

in tax evasion. 

9. Returns and challans are filed separately 

and the dealer have to give numerous 

detail 

Key Terms : 

23 

8. VAT dispenses with such forms and sets 

off all tax paid at the amount of tax 

payable on sale 

9. The returns & the Challans are filed 

together in a simple format after self 

assessment done by the dealer himself. 

i) Service Tax - Service Tax is a tax levied on notified services provided or to be provided 

in India, except in the State of Jammu and Kashmir. 

ii) VAT - VAT is a Tax, which is charged on the increase in value of goods and services 

at each stage of production and circulation. 

Self Assessment Questions : 

1) Objective Type: Chose the correct alternative: 

i) Service Tax was introduced in India in the year: 

a) 1991 c) 1994 

b) 2000 d)2004 

ii) Service tax was introduced first time on: 

a) 3 services c) 4 services 

b) 6 services d) 5 services 

iii) Service tax is a charge on: 

a) Taxable service provided 

b) Taxable service to be provided 

c) Taxable service provided or to be provided 

d) Any service provided or to be provided 

iv) The provisions relating to valuation of taxable services are included: 

a) In section 65 of the Finance Act, 1994 

b) In section 67 of the Finance Act, 1994 

c) In section 65A of the Finance Act,1994 

d) None of the above

2) Short Answer Questions: 

a. What is Service Tax? 

b. How the value of taxable service is determined? 

c. How the service tax is charged? 

d. Who has to pay the service tax? 

e. Explain the concept of VAT. 

f. Give the difference between Sales Tax and VAT. 

Further Readings: 

1. Dr. Ahuja Girish, Dr. Gupta Ravi: Systematic Approach to Income Tax, Service Tax 

and VAT, Bharat Law House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 

2. Manoharan T.N., Hari N.V.: Students Handbook on Income Tax, VAT and Service 

Tax, Snow White Pub., Mumbai. 

3. Dr. Patil J.F., Dr. Patil V.S. (Ed.) : Service Tax, Shivaji University, Kolhapur. 

4. Singhania, Vinod K. & Singhania, Monika: Taxmann Students Guide to Income Tax 

including Service Tax/VAT, Taxmann Publications, New Delhi 

5. www.servicetax.gov.in 

24 

��

~r. H$m°_. ^mJ-3 : àJV ~±H$s¨J nona-1 

^maVmVrc ~±H$s¨JMo H$m`Xo Am{U ì`dhma 

`m {df`mÀ`m gwYm[aV Aä`mgH«$_mà_mUo A{YH$Mm ^mJ go{_ñQ>a 5 H$[aVm 

KQ>H$ H«$. 4 _Yrb CnKQ>H$ : B) `m CnKQ>H$mVrb Smart Card And Pay Order 

ñ_mQ>© H$mS>© (Smart Card) 

AmYw{ZH$ ~±H$s¨J_Üò AJXr A{bH$S>rb H$mimV dmnaÊ`mV òUmao EH$ gmYZ åhUOo ñ_mQ>© H$mS>© hmo`. 

R>odrXmam§À`m VgoM H$O©Xmam§À`m ~±H$ ì`dhmamMo ì`dñWmnZ H$aUmao BboŠQ´>m°{ZH$ V§ÌkmZmMo Vo EH$ Anyd© Ago 

Cn`moOZ Amho. E.Q>r.E_., S>o~rQ> H$mS>©, H«o${S>Q> H$mS>© B. Mr nwT>rb gwYm[aV Amd¥Îmr åhUOo ñ_mQ>© H$mS>© hmo`. 

AmJm_r H$mimV {H$aH$moi dñVy d godm àmá H$ê$Z KoÊ`mÀ`m ~m~VrV Ë`mMm Imobda n[aUm_ {XgyZ òB©b. 

J«mhH$m~ÔbMr g§nyU© _m{hVr Ë`mV Agë`m_wio EH$ àH$mao ñ_mQ>© H$mS>© ho ~±H$ J«mhH$mMo gdmª{JU ñdê$nmMo 

AmoiInÌ Amho Ago åhQ>ë`mg `mo½` hmoB©b. 

ñ_mQ>©H$mS>©À`m _XVrZo H$mS>©YmaH$ a¸$_ H$mT>Uo, a¸$_oMo hñVm§VaU d XoUr XoUo B. godm§Mm H$moUË`mhr 

{R>H$mUr dmna H$ê$ eH$Vmo d Amnbo ì`dhma doJmZo nyU© H$ê$ eH$Vmo. H$mS>©YmaH$ Ooìhm ~±Ho$er ì`dhma H$aVmo 

Voìhm Vmo BboŠQ´>m°{ZŠg nÕVrZo AmoiIbm OmVmo d Ë`mMdoir Ë`mMo gd© ì`dhma BboŠQ´>m°{ZH$ nÕVrZo Zm|Xbo 

OmVmV. ñ_mQ>©H$mS>©Mm dmna Ho$ë`mZ§Va J«mhH$mMo gd© ì`dhma A{Ve` gwb^nUo VnmgyZ KoVm òVmV. 

ñ_mQ>© H$mS>©Mm _moR>çm à_mUmV dmna gwê$ Pmë`mg ~±H$ J«mhH$m§Mr dmT>Vr g§»`m ~±H$s¨J ì`dhmamMr JVr 

dmT>dob, A{YH$ nmaXe©H$Vm {Z_m©U hmoB©b VgoM {heo~ Zm|XUr gmonr-gwQ>gwQ>rV d J{V_mZ hmoB©b. 

ñ_mQ>©H$mS>©Mm AmUIr EH$ àJV àH$ma åhUOo Stored Value Card `mMm EH$ àH$ma Am°ñQ´>o{b`m_Üò 

Trans card `m ZmdmZo AmoiIbm OmVmo. gmÜ`m eãXmV ñ_mQ>© H$mS>© ho ~±H$s¨J d BVa àJV g§nH©$ ì`dñWoMo 

EH$ gmYZ åhUyZ bjmV ¿`mdo bmJob. 

AXm AmXoe (Pay Order) 

gm_mÝ`V: dñVy d godm§Mo {dH«o$Vo Am{U nwadR>mXma Ë`m§Mr òUo a¸$_ aoIm§{H$V {S>_m§S> S´>mâQ> d aoIm§{H$V 

MoH$Ûmao ñdrH$maVmV. na§Vw H$mhrdoim Aer n[apñWVr CX²^dVo H$s, MoH$ (YZmXoe) dQ>Ê`mgmR>r {db§~ bmJVmo. 

Ë`m_wio ì`mnmar ì`dhma H$aUmè`m§À`m g_moa AënH$mbrZ amoIVoMm J§^ra àíZ {Z_m©U hmoVmo. hr g_ñ`m 

gmoS>{dÊ`mgmR>r ~±H$ ì`dñWmnH$ "AXm AmXoe' (Pay Order) À`m _mÜ`_mVyZ J«mhH$mbm VmËH$mi a¸$_ 

{_iÊ`mgmR>r _XV H$aVmo. Ë`m_wio ~±H$ J«mhH$ Amnbr a¸$_ VmËH$mi {_i{dVmo d Amnbr amoIVoMr JaO nyU© 

H$ê$ eH$Vmo. AWm©V `mgmR>r ~±H$ d J«mhH$ `m§À`mV nañna {dídmg d gwg§dmX `m§Mr JaO AgVo. g§~§{YV 

~±H$ J«mhH$mMo ~±Ho$er AgUmao Am{W©H$ ì`dhma CÎm_ àH$maMo AgVrb Va J«mhH$mbm `m gw{dYoMm bm^ {_iy 

eH$Vmo. 

~±Ho$Mm ì`dñWmnH$ "AXm AmXoe' XoVmZm g§~§{YV ì`{ŠVMr qH$dm CÚmoJg§ñWoMr Am{W©H$ nV H$m` Amho 

Vo nmhÿZ `m~ÔbMm {ZU©` KoVmo. amoIVoMr g_ñ`m gmoS>{dÊ`mgmR>r `m gmYZmMm Cn`moJ hmoVmo. 

1 

��


^maVmVrc ~±H$s¨JMo H$m`Xo Am{U ì`dhma 


KQ>H$ H«$. 7 _Yrb CnKQ>H$ 

A) Loans and Advances - Meaning, Definitions, Principles of Sound Lending 

H$O} Am{U A{J«_o 

H$O© d A{J«_o XoUo ho ì`mnmar ~±H$m§Mo EH$ _hÎdmMo H$m`© Amho. XoemVrb CÚmoJnVr, CÚmoOH$, ì`mnmar, 

ì`mdgm{`H$ Am{U ~±H$ J«mhH$m§Zm {d{eîQ> H$aUm§gmR>r H$O} {Xbr OmVmV. AWm©V Ë`mgmR>r H$O©XmamH$Sy>Z `mo½` 

Vo VmaU KoVbo OmVo. H$O© {Xë`m_wio ~±Ho$bm CËnÞmMr àmár hmooVo. 

gm_mÝ`V: ì`mnmar ~±H$m doJdoJù`m loUrVrb H$O©Xmam§Zm Aën_wXVrMo H$O© d A{J«_m§Mr _§Oyar XoVmV. 

~±H$m§Mm IM© (R>odrXmam§Zm Úmdo bmJUmao ì`mO + H$_©Mmè`m§Mm nJma + godm§~ÔbMo XoUo + H$a) Am{U H$O© 

d A{J«_m§darb ì`mOmnmgyZ {_iUmao CËnÞ VgoM godm nwa{dë`m~ÔbMo CËnÞ `mVrb \$aH$mdê$Z ~±H$m§Mm Z\$m 

{ZpíMV hmoVmo. dmñV{dH$ nmhVm OmñVrVOmñV Z\$m {_i{dUo ho ì`mnmar ~±H$m§Mo à_wI C{Ôï> AgVo. VgoM H$O© 

d A{J«_m§Mr a¸$_ åhUOo {Zamù`m ^mfoV gm§Jm`Mo Pmë`mg ~±H$m§Zr CgZdma {Xbobr H$Om©D$ a¸$_ hmo`. 

H$O© d A{J«_o XoÊ`mMr VÎdo : 

Iao nmhVm, R>odrXma§mMr R>od d _mJVmjUrM naV H$aÊ`mMr ~±Ho$Mr j_Vm H$m` Amho `mdarb R>odrXmam§Mm 

{dídmg hmM g§nyU© ~±H$ ì`dgm`mÀ`m èmMm _hÎdmMm ^mJ Amho. åhUyZ ~±H$m§Zr H$O© XoVmZm H$mhr {ZpíMV 

VÎdm§Mm Adb§~ H$aUo JaOoMo Amho. H$maU H$Om©D$ a¸$_ åhUOo R>odrXmam§Zm H$mhr H$mbmdYrZ§Va naV H$amdr 

bmJUmar a¸$_ Amho. 

AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV H$Om©g _§Oyar XoVmZm ~±H$m àm_w»`mZo nwT>rb XjVm KoVmV. `mVrb n{hbm ^mJ åhUOo 

_hÎdmMr VÎdo : 

(1) gwa{jVVm 

(2) amoIVm 

(3) bm^Vm 

H$O© _w»`V: R>odtÀ`m AmYmao {Xbo OmVo. åhUyZ H$O© XoVmZm a¸$_ gwa{jV Amho H$m Vo nm{hbo OmVo. 

gwa{jVVm nwT>rb XmoZ à_wI _wÔçm§da AmYm[aV AgVo. 

(1) H$O©XmamZo VmaU {Xbobr _mb_Îmm 

(2) H$O© naV\o$S> H$aÊ`mMr H$O©XmamMr j_Vm 

VgoM `mo½` àH$maMo VmaU, H$O©XmamMo Mm[aÍ`, nV, Am{W©H$ j_Vm, ì`mO {Z`{_V XoUo B. KQ>H$m§Mm 

gwa{jVVo_Üò g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

2

amoIVm åhUOo R>odrXmam§Zr _mJVmjUrM Ë`m§Mr R>od naV H$aÊ`mMr ~±Ho$Mr j_Vm hmo`. VmaU _mb_ÎmoMo 

H$moUVohr ZwH$gmZ Z hmoVm {VMo amoI n¡emV ê$nm§Va H$aÊ`mMr ~±Ho$Mr j_Vm åhUOo amoIVm hmo`. `m_Üò ~±Ho$bm 

Anè Ambo Va _mÌ R>odrXmam§Mm ~±Ho$darb {dídmg Zmhrgm hmoVmo Am{U ~±H$ Am{W©H$ g§H$Q>mV gmnS>Vo. 

H$O© XoÊ`mMo AmUIr EH$ VÎd åhUOo bm^Vm hmo`. bm^VoMo VÎd gmÜ` hmoÊ`mgmR>r gwa{jV _mb_ÎmoMo 

ñdê$n, H$O© KoÊ`mMm hoVy, H$O© naV\o$S>rMm H$O©XmamMm _mJ© H$moUVm ho _hÎdmMo AgVo. CÚmoJ ì`dgm`mgmR>r 

Á`m§Zm H$O© {Xbo Amho, Ë`m§À`mH$Sy>Z ~±Ho$Zo `mo½` d gwa{jV Ago VmaU KoVbo nm{hOo. `mo½` H$maUmgmR>r H$O© 

{Xbo nm{hOo. VgoM H$O© naV\o$S>rMo `mo½` {Z`moOZ Ho$bo nm{hOo. 

H$O© XoÊ`mMo AmUIr EH$ Mm§Jbo VÎd åhUOo Ë`mV YmoŠ`m§Mo {d^mOZ Aem [aVrZo gmYbo nm{hOo H$s 

~±Ho$Zo {d{dY H$maUm§gmR>r doJdoJù`m H$O©Xmam§Zm H$O© XodyZ Omo{I_ H$_r Ho$br nm{hOo. 

AIoarg ~±Ho$Zo H$O© XoVmZm CËnmXH$VoMmgwÕm {dMma Ho$bm nm{hOo. Am{W©H$ KS>m_moS>rVrb CËnmXH$Vm hm 

EH$ _hÎdmMm KQ>H$ Amho. 

gd©gmYmaUnUo H$O© d A{J«_m§Mo XmoZ _w»` àH$ma nS>VmV. 

(1) Agwa{jV H$O} : Á`m H$Om©gmR>r H$moUË`mhr n«H$maMo VmaU KoVbo OmV Zmhr, Ë`mg Agwa{jV H$Oo 

Ago åhUVmV. H$O© _§Oya H$aVmZm ~±H$ H$O©XmamMo ì`{ŠVJV d Am{W©H$ ñdê$nmMo Mm[aÍ`, Am{W©H$ j_Vm, 

Ë`mÀ`m OdiMo ^m§S>db `mdê$Z ì`mOmgh H$O© naV\o$S>rMr j_Vm Amho H$m Vo VnmgVo. CÚmoJ ì`mdgm{`H$m§Zm 

H$O© XoVmZm Ë`mMr ì`mdgm{`H$ nV, ì`dgm`mdarb Ë`mMr {Zð>m, Zmdbm¡{H$H$ d Ë`m§Mr Mm§Jbr Am{W©H$ 

nmíd©^y_r nm{hbr OmVo. 

(2) gwa{jV H$O} d A{J«_o : gmYmaUnUo CÚmoJ ì`mdgm{`H$m§Zm H$O} d A{J«_o _§Oya H$aVmZm Vr 

O{_Z, B_maV, `§Ìgm_J«r, dñVy B. gwa{jV d dmñVd _mb_ÎmoÀ`m AmYmamda {Xbr OmVmV. `m~m~VrV 

àm_w»`mZo nwT>rb XmoZ ~m~tMm {dMma H$aÊ`mV òVmo. 

(A) VmaU {Xbobr _mb_Îmm hr dmñVd _mb_Îmm Agmdr. 

(~) _mb_ÎmoMo ~mOma_yë` ho H$Om©D$ a¸$_onojm OmñV Agm`bm hdo. 

~±H$m gm_mÝ`V: H$Om©À`m AmYmao {dH$V KoVbobr _mb_Îmm VmaU åhUyZ _mJVmV. `mbmM àmW{_H$ 

VmaU Ago åhQ>bo OmVo. BVa VmaUm§Mm C„oI g§~§{YV VmaU (Co-lateral) Agm Ho$bm OmVmo. 

A{J«_m§Mo àH$ma : 

A{J«_m§Mo _w»`V: nwT>rb Mma àH$ma {XgyZ òVmV. 

(1) H$O© 

(2) amoI H$O© nÕVr (Cash Credit) 

(3) A{YH$f© gdbV (Over Draft) 

(4) hþ§S>r IaoXr / dQ>{dUo. 

`m àH$mam§Mo WmoS>Š`mV ñnï>rH$aU nwT>rbn«_mUo H$aVm òB©b. 

3

(1) H$O© : {ZpíMV H$mbmdYrgmR>r, {ZpíMV ì`mOXamZo H$O©Xmambm Or a¸$_ {Xbr OmVo Ë`mg H$O© 

Ago åhUVmV. H$O© ho amoI ñdê$nmV {Xbo OmVo qH$dm H$O©XmamÀ`m H$O© ImË`mda VodT>r a¸$_ O_m Ho$br OmVo. 

JaOoZwgma H$O©Xma a¸$_ CMby eH$Vmo. na§Vw ì`mOmMr AmH$maUr _mÌ g§nyU© H$O© a¸$_oda Ho$br OmVo. 

ì`dgm`mVrb IoiË`m ^m§S>dbmMr JaO ^mJ{dÊ`mgmR>r AënH$mimV _mJUr H$O© CMbbo OmVo. _mJUr H$O© 

ho _mJUr H$aVmjUr {Xbo OmVo. 

_wXV H$O© ho gmYmaV: _Ü`_ _wXVrMo AgVo. (1 Vo 5 df©). XrK© _wXVrMo H$O© 5 dfm©nojm OmñV 

H$mbmdYrMo AgVo. _Ü`_ _wXV H$Om©À`m _XVrZo {Q>H$mD$ `§Ìgm_J«r d CnH$aUo `m§Mr IaoXr Ho$br OmVo. Va 

XrK©_wXV H$Om©À`m ghmæ`mZo B_maVrMo ~m§YH$m_, ZdrZ `§Ìgm_J«rMr IaoXr d H$maImÝ`mMo AmYw{ZH$sH$aU 

Ho$bo OmVo. 

(2) amoI H$O© nÕVr : amoI H$O© åhUOo EH$m {d{eï> _`m©Xon`ªV Ho$ìhmhr Am{U {H$Vrhr a¸$_ 

CMbÊ`mg ~±Ho$Zo H$O©Xmambm {Xbobr nadmJZr hmo`. {deofH$ê$Z ~±H$ Amnë`m {Z`{_V Am{U {dídmgmh© 

J«mhH$mbm Aer gw{dYm CnbãY H$ê$Z XoVo. `m H$O© ImË`mVyZ a¸$_ H$Yrhr H$mT>Vm òVo d O_m H$aVm òVo. 

CMbboë`m H$O© a¸$_oda ì`mO AmH$mabo OmVo. H$mhrdoiog H$O©XmamZo _§Oya H$O© _`m©Xm dmnabr Zmhr Va ~±H$ 

Z CMbboë`m H$O© a¸$_oda gwÕm "~m§{YbH$s ewëH$' AmH$mê$ eH$Vo. 

(3) A{YH$f© gdbV : Ooìhm ~±H$ J«mhH$mbm Amnë`m O_m a¸$_onojm OmñV a¸$_ {d{eï> _`m©Xon`ªV 

Mmby ImË`mda H$mT>Ê`mMr nadmZJr XoVo Voìhm Ë`mg A{YH$f© gdbV Ago åhUVmV. A{YH$f© gdbV hr 

_mb_ÎmoÀ`m VmaUmÀ`m AmYmao {Xbr OmVo. `m àH$maMo H$O© ho AënH$mimgmR>r (EH$/XmoZ _{hZo) {Xbo OmVo. 

\$ma Va EH$ df©n`ªV H$mbmdYr AgVmo. CMb Ho$boë`m Ç$_odaM ì`mO AmH$mabo OmVo. amoI H$O© ho dfm©À`m 

_wXVrgmR>r AgVo Va A{YH$f© gdbV ho EH$/XmoZ _{hZo Aem AëH$mimgmR>r AgVo. åhUOoM àmg§{JH$ 

ñdê$nmMo AgVo. 

4 

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B. Com. Part-III : Advanced Banking Paper-I 

Law and Practice of Banking 


of concerned subject for the Semester-V 

Unit-4 Sub point (B) Smart Card And Pay Order 

Smart Card 

Smart Card is the latest advance in modern trends in banking. It is one of the novel 

application of electronic technology to the management of banking transactions of the depositers 

as also borrowers. Smard Card is in a way a further refinement of ATM / Credit Card / Debit 

Card. It is in a sense a total identity card of the bank customer with the use of Smart Card the 

card holder can avail of any bank service - withdrawal, Transfer and Payment any where in a 

fast manner. 

The Smart Card holder is electronically identifed and all his banking transaction are 

symultaniously recorded in electronic fashion. The record can be examined, verified and 

reconciled in a very user friendly manner. Greater use of Smart Card by increasing a number of 

banking customers enhances the speed of banking transaction, gives full transperency and easy 

as well as fast accounting. 

A further variation of the Smart Card is in the form of stored value card, One of which is 

known as trans card in circulation in Australia. Infact Smart Card is a very advanced multipurpose 

vehicle for banking transaction as well as communication transaction. 

Pay Order 

Normally sellors of Goods and Providers of services get their payment in the form of 

Demand Drafts and crossed cheques. Sometimes realization and enchashment of such crossed 

DD or cheques take sometime, which may create a short-term problem of liquidity, for the 

trader. 

In such circumstances he can take recourse to the method of pay order through which the 

person is paid cash at a certain discount immediately pending realization of cheque or DD in 

normal course of time. 

The Pay Order of a customer of the bank is accepted on the basis of customers creditibility, 

credit and also reputation of the issuer firm or individuals credit and of course the bank in 

whose name the DD or cheque is issued. 

5 

��

B. Com. Part-III : Advanced Banking Paper-I 

Law and Practice of Banking 



Unit-7 Sub point 

A) Loans and Advances - Meaning, Definitions, Principles of Sound Lending 

Loans And Advances 

One of the major functions of commercial banks relates to granting loans and making 

advances to industrialists, businessmens, traders and customers for specific purposes on the 

basis of material security or personal security of the borrower. It is this function which creates 

a source of income for the banks. In fact, this source of income is the major source of income 

for the banks. 

Normally commerical banks give short term loans and advances to various categories of 

borrowers. The difference between expenditure on (Interest paid to the depositers + staff 

salary + salary + service charges + taxes) and the income received by the bank from interest 

on loans & advances and other service charges constitutes roughly the profit of the bank. 

Naturally profit maximization is the objective of the commercial banks. In common words loans 

and advances is expressed as lending by the bank. 

Principles of Lending 

The entire banking business depends for its success on the faith of the depositer's in the 

ability of the bank to pay cash on demand. It is therefore necessary for banks to follow certain 

principles while lending funds to borrowers because the funds belong to basically the depositer's. 

In the modern context the banks follow a set of principles while making loans & advances. 

These principles can be divided into two groups. The first group covers three cardinal principles 

of lending. 

(1) Safety 

(2) Liquidity 

(3) Profitability. 

As loans are made on the basis of deposits which belong to the depositer. The bank must 

make laons and advances on the basis of safety considerations. The safety of a loan depends 

on - 

(I) The Security given by the borrower. 

(II) The repaying capacity of the borrower. 

6

Which also includes the payment of interests. In other words reasonable security and 

integrity, character, credit & capacity of the borrowers are major conditons which determine 

safety of the loan. 

Liquidity means ability and ease of converting an asset into cash without loss as and when 

required, every bank must always be prepared to repay cash on demand to the depositers 

immeditely. Failure to do this adversly affect faith and confidence of the depositers which may 

land the bank in real financial crisis. 

The other principles of lending include profitability, the nature of security, the purpose of 

loan, source of repayment of the borrower. A borrower who borrows money for business must 

have proper security, the right purpose for laon, must have a proper planning for repayment. 

Another principle of lending involves diversification of risks. While making loans & advances 

the bank must ensure that the funds are advanced to different kinds to borrowers which normally 

minimizes risks. 

Finally a banker must think about the productivity of loan also. It is not only character, 

credit & capacity of the borrower, but also the productivity of the economic activity for which 

the loan is taken which must be considered as a very important principle of lending. 

Normally there are two kinds of loans and advances. 

(1) Unsecured advances : This is loan or advance for which no security is obtained 

Generally the banker takes into consideration character, capacity and capital of the borrower 

which determine his ability of timely repayment with interest. A banker may make loans and 

advances to a businessman who has integrity, business reputation and a fairly good financial 

background. 

(2) Secured Loans and Advances : Normally loans & advances are made to businessmen 

on the basis of security of tangible assets like Land, Building, Machinary, Goods or Documents 

of title to goods, While making such secured advances basically two considerations are kept in 

mind. 

(a) The asset to be given as security must be a tangible asset. 

(b) The market value of such security or asset must be clearly more than the amount of 

loan granted. 

The bankers normally require primary security that is the asset which has been bought 

with the help of bank finance. All other securities are described as co-lateral security, which 

are other than the asset bought with the help of bank finance. 

7

Forms of Advances 

There are basically four forms of advances. These are - 

(1) Loans 

(2) Cash Credit 

(3) Over Draft 

(4) Bills purchased and discounted. 

These are explained briefly as below. 

(1) Loans : Loan is a lump-sum amount advanced to a certain borrower for a certain 

period at arranged rate of interest. The loan is paid either in cash or credit in the borrowers 

current account. The interest is charged on entire loan amount. A loan can be a demand loan 

which is granted to meet short term working capital needs. Such demand loan is payable on 

demand. There can be term loans involving medium term (1 to 5 years) and long term (more 

than 5 years) medium term loans are made for the purchase of durable valuable machines and 

equipments. Where as long term loan is made for construction of building, purchase of new 

machinary and modernization of plants. 

(2) Cash Credit : Cash Credit is an arrangement which enables a customer to borrow 

money up to certain limit from the bank. The banker generally makes this facility available to 

their regular and reliable customers. The cash credit account is a running account from which 

cash can be withdrawn and where surplus can be deposited. Interest is charged only on the 

credit made available against pledge or hypothiketion of goods. Some times a bank may ask for 

a commitment charge if the customer does not use the cash credit limit fully. 

(3) Overdraft : When a bank allows a customer to withdraw over and above his credit 

balance in the current account upto a certain limit, it is known as overdraft. It is a temporary 

facility granted against security. The interest is charged only on the amount withdrawn. Cash 

credit is a regular longterm business arrangement where as overdraft is occasional and for 

short term needs only. Sometimes temporary overdrafts are permitted to customer who have 

reliable sources of repayment of borrowed amount. 

8 

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~±H$m Am{U {dÎmr` g§ñWm 


KQ>H$ H«$.3 _Yrb CnKQ>H$ 

aonmo aoQ> d [aìhg© aonmo aoQ> 

^maVr` ZmUo~mOmamV AënH$mbrZ d XrK©H$mbrZ {ZYtMo {Z`§ÌU H$aÊ`mgmR>r AmYw{ZH$ ~±qH$J_Yrb 

H$mhr ZdrZ nÕVtMm dmna H$aÊ`mV òV Amho. A{bH$S>rb H$mimV ~±H$s¨J {gÕm§V Am{U ì`dhmamV aonmo aoQ> 

ho EH$ _hÎdmMo nV{Z`§ÌUmMo g§»`mË_H$ gmYZ g_Obo OmVo. 

AënH$mimV A{Ve` Vrd« Aem Am{W©H$ AS>MUrÀ`m àg§Jr ì`mnmar ~±H$m§Zm JaOoà_mUo {ZYr CnbãY 

Ho$bm OmVmo. Voìhm _Ü`dVu ~±H$ Ë`m {ZYrda Omo ì`mOXa AmH$maVo Ë`mg "aonmo aoQ>' Ago åhUVmV. ZmUo~mOmamVrb 

AënH$mbrZ amoIVoMo {Z`_Z H$aÊ`mgmR>r [aPìh© ~±H$ Am°\$ B§{S>`m "aonmo aoQ>' Am{U "[aìhg© aonmo aoQ>' `m 

gmYZm§Mm Cn`moJ H$aVo. 

aonmo ho 'Repurchase obligation' (nwZaIaoXrMo ~§YZ) `m eãXmMo g§{já ê$n Amho. XoemVrb ~±H$m§Zm 

AënH$mbrZ {ZYr CnbãY H$ê$Z XoÊ`mgmR>r _Ü`dVu ~±H$ Omo ì`mOXa AmH$maVo Ë`mg "aonmo aoQ>' Ago åhUVmV. 

`mCbQ> XoemVrb ì`mnmar ~±H$m§H$Sy>Z AënH$mimgmR>r Ë`m§À`mOdirb A{V[aŠV [e„H$ {ZYr Á`m ì`mOXamZo 

[aPìh© ~±H$ Am°\$ B§{S>`m pñdH$maVo Ë`mg "[aìhg© aonmo aoQ>' Ago åhUVmV. 

Aem n«H$mao [aPìh© ~±H$ Am°\$ B§{S>`m XoemVrb ì`mnmar ~±H$m§À`m amoIVoÀ`m JaOm§gmR>r g_Ýd` 

gmYÊ`mMm à`ËZ H$aVo. VgoM g§»`mË_H$ nV{Z`§ÌUmMo gmYZ åhUyZ [aPìh© ~±H$ Am°\$ B§{S>`m `m gmYZm§Mm 

à^mdr [aVrZo Cn`moJ H$ê$Z KoV Amho. gm_mÝ`V: aonmo aoQ> hm [aìhg© aoQ> nojm 0.5% Zoh_r OmñV AgVmo. gÜ`m 

åhUOoM _mM© 2012 _Üò Amnbo {V_mhr nVYmaoU Om{ha H$aVmZm [aPìh© ~±Ho$Zo aonmo aoQ> 8.5% d [aìhg© aonmo 

aoQ> 8% EdT>m amhrb Ago ñnï> Ho$bo Amho. 

9 

��


~±H$m Am{U {dÎmr` g§ñWm 



g§K{ZYr nÕVr : ñdê$n d H$m`} 

OJmVrb EH$ àJV AW©ì`dñWm ho A_o[aHo$Mo ñWmZ 21 ì`m eVH$mVgwÕm H$m`_ Agë`mMo {XgyZ òVo. 

OmJ{VH$ nmVirda Am{W©H$ dM©ñd Agë`m_wio A_o[aH$Z ZmUo~mOma hm Am§Vaamï´>r` ZmUo~mOmamMo à_wI H|$Ð 

åhUyZ AmoiIbm OmVmo. A_o[aHo$Mm ZmUo~mOma hm "Ý`y`m°H©$ ZmUo~mOma' åhUyZ gd©Ì AmoiIbm OmVmo. 

Ë`mM~amo~a ^¸$_ AW©ì`dñWoMo nmR>~i d _w~bH$ gwdU©gmR>m `m_wio "A_o[aH$Z S>m°ba' ho OJmVrb EH$ à_wI 

Am§Vaamï´>r` MbZ ~Zbo Amho. 

A_o[aHo$Vrb ~±H$ ì`dgm`mVrb {dñH$irVnUm Xya H$ê$Z MbZ ì`dñWoV ZdrZ gwYmaUm gwMdÊ`mgmR>r 

"Z°eZb ~±qH$J H${_eZ'Mr {Z`wŠVr H$aÊ`mV Ambr. `m H${_eZÀ`m {e\$maer pñdH$maÊ`mV Amë`m d 

Ë`mMm n[aUm_ åhUyZ 1913 Mm "g§K{ZYr H$m`Xm' ApñVËdmV Ambm. 1913 `m dfu "g§K{ZYr nÕVr' 

Federal Reserve System hr _Ü`dVu ~±Ho$Mr `§ÌUm A_o[aHo$V ApñVËdmV Ambr. A_o[aH$Z ~±H$ ì`dgm`mVrb 

1913 Z§VaMm H$mbI§S> hm EH$ ZdrZ Q>ßnm _mZbm OmVmo. H$maU `mZ§Va Iè`m AWm©Zo ~±H$ ì`dgm`mbm Zdo 

diU bmJbo. 

"g§K {ZYr nÕVr' hr A_o[aHo$À`m ZmUo~mOmamVrb _Ü`dVu ~±H$ hmo`. g§K{ZYr nÕVrMo _w»` H$m`m©b` 

dm°qe½Q>Z òWo Amho. g§nyU© A_o[aH$m XoemMo 12 {Oëøm_Üò {d^mOZ H$aÊ`mV Ambo d àËòH$ {OëømgmR>r EH$ 

"g§K{ZYr ~±H$' ñWmnZ H$aÊ`mV Ambr. A_o[aHo$V EHy$U 12 g§K{ZYr ~±H$m AgyZ Ë`mVrb Ý`y`m°H©$, {eH$mJmo 

d g°Z \«$mpÝgñH$mo `m VrZ ~±H$m gdm©V _moR>çm AmhoV. g§K{ZYr ~±H$ g^mgX ~±H$m§Zm H$O© XoÊ`mMo H$m`© H$aVmV. 

VgoM _Ü`dVu ~±H$ åhUyZ Amdí`H$ H$m`}gwÕm H$aVmV. 

g§K{ZYr nÕVrMo ñdê$n : 

1. g§K{ZYr {Oëho : 1913 À`m g§K{ZYr H$m`ÚmZwgma A_o[aHo$Mo 12 g§K{ZYr {Oëøm_Üò {d^mOZ 

H$aÊ`mV Ambo. àËòH$ {OëømVrb EH$m ehamg "g§K{ZYr {gQ>r'Mm XOm© XoÊ`mV Ambm Amho. Aem arVrZo 

A_o[aHo$V 12 _Ü`dVu ~±H$m ñWmnZ H$aÊ`mV Amë`m AmhoV. nwT>rb ehamV _Ü`dVu ~±H$m§Mr H$m`m©bò AmhoV. 

(1) ~m°ñQ>Z (2) Šbrìhb±S> (3) {eH$mJmo (4) H°$ÝgZ {gQ>r (5) Ý`y`m°H©$ (6) [aM_ÝS> (7) g|Q> ë`wB©g 

(8) S>„mg (9) {\$bmS>o{ë\$`m (10) A°Q>bmÝQ>m (11) {_{Z`mnm°{bg (12) g°Z \«$mpÝgñH$mo 

darbn¡H$s Ý`y`m°H©$ Am{U {eH$mJmo `m eham§Zm g|Q´>b [aPìh© {gQ>r Ago g§~moYÊ`mV òVo. 

10

2. g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§Mo ^mJ^m§S>db : àËòH$ g§K{ZYr {OëømVrb gd© amï´>r` ~±H$m§Zm ñdV:Mo dgyb 

^m§S>db Am{U amIrd {ZYrÀ`m 6% Jw§VdUyH$ g§K{ZYr ~±Ho$À`m ^mJ^m§S>dbmV H$amdr bmJVo. Vgo H$m`Xoera 

~§YZ gd© amï´>r` ~±H$m§da Amho. `mZ§VagwÕm g§K{ZYr ~±Ho$Mo ^mJ^m§S>db {e„H$ am{hbo Va Ë`m {OëømVrb 

ZmJ[aH$ d gaH$ma `m§Zm ^mJ^m§S>db {dH$Ê`mV òVo. 

3. g§K{ZYr _§S>i : g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§À`m ì`dñWmnZmMr O~m~Xmar g§K{ZYr _§S>imda AgVo. ZdrZ 

MbZ {Z{_©VrÀ`m H$m`m©da XoIaoI, {heo~ nwñVH$m§Mr VnmgUr B. ì`mnH$ A{YH$ma _§S>imbm AmhoV. 

_§S>imÀ`m gXñ`m§Zm nyU©doi ì`dñWmnZmMo H$m_ H$amdo bmJV Agë`m_wio Ë`m§Zm doVZmMr VaVyX Ho$br Amho. 

_§S>imMo gXñ` åhUyZ AW©ì`dñWoÀ`m {d{dY joÌmVrb ì`ŠVtMr {ZdS> Ho$br OmVo. A_o[aHo$À`m Q´>oP[aÀ`m 

goHo«$Q>ar d H§$Q´>moba Am°\$ H$aÝgr ho _§S>imMo nX{gÕ gXñ` AgVmV. Va A_o[aHo$Mo AÜ`j ghm gXñ`m§Mr 

{Z`wŠVr H$aVmV. 

4. g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr H$m_o : A_o[aHo$Vrb ~±H$ ì`dñWoda {Z`§ÌU R>odUmar CƒñVamdarb `§ÌUm 

åhUOo g§MmbH$ _§S>i hmo`. _§S>imMr à_wI H$m_o nwT>rbà_mUo gm§JVm òVrb. gd© g§K ~±H$m§da XoIaoI R>odUo, 

Ë`m§Mo {heo~ VnmgUo, A_o[aHo$Vrb gd© g§K ~±H$m§À`m AÜ`j d CnmÜ`j {Z`wŠVrg _mÝ`Vm XoUo, g§K ~±H$m§À`m 

amIrd {ZYrMo à_mU R>a{dUo, MbZ{Z{_©Vrda XoIaoI R>odUo B. H$m_o g§MmbH$ _§S>img H$amdr bmJVmV. 

5. g§K g„mJma n[afX : àËòH$ g§K{ZYr ~±H$ Xadfu EH$mMr {ZdS> g§K g„mJma n[afXogmR>r H$aVo. 

dm°qe½Q>Z òWo g§K g„mJma n[afXoMr dm{f©H$ g^m ~mobmdbr OmVo. g§K {ZYr ~±H$m§Zm `mo½` Vo _mJ©Xe©Z g„mJma 

n[afX H$aVo. 

6. g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§Mr _Îmm : g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§Mr gdm©{YH$ _hÎdmMr _Îmm åhUOo A_o[aH$Z gaH$maMo 

H$O©amoIo hmo`. Ë`m§Mo à_mU OmñV Amho. VgoM XñVEodOm§Zm ñdrH¥$Vr XodyZ _Îmm {Z_m©U Ho$br OmVo. gwdU©amoIo, 

Eg. S>r. Ama. Mr à_mUnÌo d naH$s` MbZ `m§Mmhr _Îmo_Üò g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

7. g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§Mo Xm{`Ëd : g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§À`m Xm{`ËdmV àm_w»`mZo g^mgX ~±H$m§À`m R>odr, 

gaH$maÀ`m R>odr, g§K{ZYr ~±H$oVrb R>odr d MbZr ZmoQ>m `m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§Mr H$m`} : 

A_o[aHo$Vrb _Ü`dVu ~±H$ åhUyZ g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§Zm nwT>rb H$m_o H$amdr bmJVmV. 

1. H$mJXr MbZ {Z{_©Vr : gaH$mar H$O©amo»`m§À`m VmaUmda H$mJXr ZmoQ>m§Mr {Z{_©Vr H$ê$Z Ë`mMo 

{dVaU Ho$bo OmVo. `m H$mJXr ZmoQ>m§Mo Xm{`Ëd g§K{ZYr ~±Ho$da AgVo. 

2. gaH$maMr ~±H$ : A_o[aHo$Vrb H|$Ð gaH$ma d amÁ` gaH$maMr ~±H$ åhUyZ g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§Zm H$m_ 

H$amdo bmJVo. H|$Ð d amÁ` gaH$maMr òUr Ë`m§À`m ImË`mda O_m Ho$br OmVmV. VgoM Ë`m§Mr XoUr g§K{ZYr 

~±H$m§_m\©$V {Xbr OmVmV. 

3. g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§À`m emIm : g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§Zm g§K{ZYr {OëømV emIm CKS>Vm òVmV. Ë`mgmR>r 

"g§K{ZYr _§S>imH$Sy>Z' nadmZJr ¿`mdr bmJVo. 

11

4. bm^m§emMo dmQ>n : A_o[aHo$Vrb g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§Zm Ë`m§À`m ì`dhmamVyZ àËòH$ dfu Z\$m {_iVmo. 

g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§À`m EHy$U CËnÞmVyZ gd© IM© dOm Ho$ë`mg Ë`m a¸$_oVyZ dgyb ^m§S>dbmda OmñVrVOmñV 6% 

bm^m§e ^mJYmaH$m§Zm {Xbm OmVmo. _mÌ g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§À`m CËnÞmda H$moUË`mhr àH$maMm H$a AmH$mabm OmV 

Zmhr. 

5. hþ§S>çm§Mr IaoXr-{dH«$s : A_o[aHo$Vrb g§K{ZYr ~±H$m§Zm Xoe d naXoemV ì`ŠVr, H§$nÝ`m d ì`mnmar 

~±H$m§H$Sy>Z hþ§S>çm IaoXr H$aÊ`mMm VgoM Ë`m§Mr {dH«$s H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma Amho. 

6. g^mgX ~±H$m§Mm amIrd {ZYr : g§K{ZYr {OëømVrb gd© g^mgX ~±H$m§Zr g§K{ZYr ~±Ho$V Amnbo 

ImVo CKS>bo nm{hOo. Amnë`m ImË`mV Ë`m ~±H$m§Zr {ZpíMV Pmbobm amIrd {ZYr O_m H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho. 

7. AmonZ _mH}$Q> H${_Q>r : A_o[aHo$Vrb Iwë`m ~mOmamVrb ì`dhmamda {Z`§ÌU R>odÊ`mgmR>r ~mam 

gXñ`m§Mr "AmonZ _mHo$Q> H${_Q>r' {Z_m©U H$aÊ`mV Ambr. gaH$maMo amoIo, XñVEodO `m§Mr Iwë`m ~mOmamV 

IaoXr-{dH«$s H$ê$Z ì`mnmar ~±H$m§À`m nV{Z{_©Vrda g§K{ZYr nÕVr {Z`§ÌU R>odVo. 

Aem àH$mao A_o[aHo$Vrb g§K{ZYr ~±H$m BVa XoemVrb _Ü`dVu ~±H$m§à_mUo H$m_o H$aVmV. 

12 

��

B. Com. Part-III : Advanced Banking Paper-II 

Banks and Financial Institutions 




Repo Rate & Reverse Repo Rate 

In modern banking some new methods of controlling short term and longterm funds in the 

money market are being used. In the earlier banking theory and practice which even now 

continues bank rate is supposed to be the important quantitative weapon of credit control. 

It is the rate of interest charged by the central bank for the funds made available to a 

commercial bank in severe financial difficulty. However in modern times central banks, (Reserve 

Bank of India) make use of Repo Rate and Reverse Repo Rate, as methods of regulating short 

term liquidity in the money market. 

Repo means Repurchase option. Repo Rate means the rate of interest at which Reserve 

Bank of India makes short term funds available to banking institutions. Where as Reverse 

Repo Rate means the rate of interest at which Reserve Bank of India is willing to accept short 

term surplus fund from banking institution to enhance their profitability and to balance their 

liquidity requirements. Normally Repo Rate is higher than Reverse Repo Rate with a difference 

of 0.5%. At present RBI applies Repo Rate at 8.5% and Reverse Repo Rate is 8% in March 

2012. 

13 

��

B. Com. Part-III : Advanced Banking Paper-II 

Banks and Financial Institutions 




Federal Reserve System - Nature and Functions : 

United States of America has been and continues to be a highly developed economy in the 

world. As USA dominates world economic order, American money market has naturally becomes 

the centre of International money market. American money market is known as New York 

money market. Similarly because of its strong economy and large Gold stock, American Dollar 

has become an international currency. 

During the biginning of 20 th Century 'National Banking Commission' was appointed to 

remove disorder in American banking and to suggest reforms in monetary system. The 

recommenditions of National Banking Commission were accepted and as a result of that Federal 

Reserve Act was Passed in 1913. This was supposed to work as a Federal System. In fact it 

became The Central Bank of The American economy. With this started a new phase in American 

economic history and reorganisation of the American monetary system. This became a turning 

point in the banking business and history of America. 

Federal Reserve System Acts as The Central Bank in the American money market. The 

Federal Reserve System has its head office at Washington. The entire American country is 

divided into 12 districts or divisions and for each division a federal reserve bank is established. 

As a result there are 12 Federal Reserve Banks in America. The Federal Reserve Banks at 

New York, Chicago and Sanfransisco are relatively large Federal Reserve Bank. Federal Reserve 

Banks lend money to member banks and also carry out other central banking functions. 

The Nature of Federal Reserve System. 

(1) Federal Reserve District : As per the provisions of Federla Reserve Act 1913 

there are 12 Federal Reserve Districts. In each Federal District a major city is identified as 

Federal Reserve City. Thus there are 12 Central banks in America. They are located at Boston, 

Cleveland, Chicago, Cansas, New York, Richmond, Saint louis. Dallas, Philadelphia, Atlanta, 

Minioplis. Sanfransisco. Of these cities New York and Chicago are called as Central Reserve 

City. 

(2) The Share Capital of Federal Reserve Banks : All commercial banks in a federal 

reserve district are required to contribute 6% of their Reserve and paid up capital of Federal 

14

eserve bank of the district. This is a legal binding. If there is surplus of Federal Reserve Banks 

Share capital beyond this contrbution the remaining share capital is sold to the citizens of the 

district or the American Government. 

(3) Federal Reserve Board : Federal Reserve System is managed by a Federal Reserve 

Board. The Federal Reserve Board supervises fresh money supply maintains and Audit books 

of accounts and excersies overall control of the concerned Federal reserve bank. The members 

of the board work full time and receive regular salary. Normally experts from different fields 

are appointed as board members. The treasurry secretary of the American Government and 

Controller of Currency are ex-officio members of the board. The President of USA nominates 

6 members on the Federal Reserve Board. 

The Federal Reserve Board is the highest management body. It exersises control on all 

Federal Reserve Banks. The president and vice-president of different federal reserve banks 

are appointed by the Federal Reserve Board. The Federal Reserve Board also decides additional 

money supply and reserve ratio. 

(4) Federal Reserve Advisary Board : Each Federal Reserve bank elects one member 

on federal advisary board. The Federal Advisary Board meets in Washington as and when 

required. Federal Advisary Board gives guidance to the Federal Reserve Board as well as 

federal reserve banks, as and when required. 

(5) The Assets of Federal Reserve Banks : The securities of Govt. of USA constitute 

the main Asset of the federal reserve banks simillarly financial documents are also as assets, 

Gold securities, SDR and Foreign currency are also included in the assets of the federal reserve 

banks. 

(6) Liabilities of Federal Reserve Banks : Deposits of the member banks, Deposits 

of Govt., other deposits and currency notes are liabilities of the federal reserve banks. 

The Functions of the Federal Reserve Bannks : 

As Central banking agency in the American economy the federal reserve bank performs 

following functions : 

(1) Supply of paper currency : The Federal reserve system supplies Dollars against the 

Govt. securities and distributes same among different district banks. This is the major liability of 

the federal reserve system. 

(2) Government Bank : The Federal Rreserve banks function as banker to federal 

Govt. and Govt. of the state units. They receive Govt. income and pay for Govt. expenses. 

(3) Branches : With prior permission of the Federal Reserve Board the federal reserve 

banks can open branches in their respective districts. 

15

(4) Distribution of Dividend : The federal reserve banks make profits and pay at the 

most 6% dividend from the net profit to the shareholder. The federal reserve banks income 

does not attract any taxation. 

(5) Open Market Operations : The federal reserve banks are empowered to buy and 

sell bills from or to individuals, companies and commercial banks within the country and abroad. 

(6) Reserve Funds : All commercial banks in a reserve district have to open their 

accounts with respective federal reserve banks and keep a certain minimum reserve in that 

account. 

(7) Open Market Committee : The federal Reserve system has an Open market 

committee with 12 members. This committee advices federal reserve system in the buying and 

selling of Govt. securities and financial papers in the open market, in order to regulate credit 

creation. 

It is thus clear that in America the federal reserve system comprising 12 federal reserve 

banks functions as a central bank and carries out different functions of a central bank as in 

other countries. 

16 

��

B. Com. Part-III : Advanced Costing Paper-II (Old) Paper-IV (New) 

4.0 Learning Objectives : 

Unit-4 

INTEGRATED ACCOUNTS AND 

INTEGRATED ACCOUNTING 

After studying this unit you be able to - 

i) Know meaning, importance, advantages of Integrated Accounts 

ii) Understand the features of Integrated Accounts 

iii) Understand the accounting entries and ledger accounts maintained under the Integrated 

Accounting system. 

4.1 Introduction : 



Maintenance of two sets of accounts for cost and financial accounting entails a lot of 

expenditure and effort, quite apart from the time involved in its presentation. Much of this can 

be avoided if the books of accounts are suitable designed in favour of a unified account which 

will meet the purposes of both financial and cost accounting. Two systems are dovetailed in 

such a way that one basic record keeping meets the purposes of the both the systems and 

consequently avoids the duplication of records and need for reconciliation. Such a system is 

referred to as "Integrated or Integral accounting". The degree of integration must be determined 

in advance. Many firms integrate the cost and financial accounts completely while other firms 

integrate the two only up to the stage of prime cost or factory cost. The present chapter deals 

with the meaning, definition, advantages and the necessary journal entries to be passed under 

integrated accounting system. 

4.2 Presentation of subject mater : 

4.2.1 Meaning and Definition : 

The integrated accounts give full information regarding the cost of each product, job, 

process or operation. It gives the full information in such a way that the profit and the loss 

account and the balance sheet can be prepared according to the requirements of law and the 

management maintains full control over the liabilities and assets of its business. Integrated 

accounting system does not recoginze the need for separate sets of accounts. It is single, 

comprehensive accounting system without any distinction between cost and financial accounts. 

1

The two separate systems are combined into one system. There is no need to reconcile the 

profits as shown by the two sets of accounts. Profit as per financial accounts is the profit as per 

cost accounts. 

Definition : 

The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants, England, defines an Integrated 

Accounting system as "a system in which the financial and cost accounts are interlocked to 

ensure that all relevant expenditure is absorbed into the cost accounts." 

Above definition indicates very clearly that under this system only one set of accounts is 

operated. The accounts are so prepared that the information required by both accounting (i. e. 

cost and financial) is available from the same set of books. Thus integral or integrated accounting 

is a system of recording financial and costing trransactions in one self-contained ledger called 

integrated ledger. 

4.2.2 Interlocking and Integrated Accounts : 

There are various types of cost accounting. In spite of those two systems are widely 

recoginzed and those are 'Interlocking' and 'Integrateed' accounting systems. Interlocking 

accounting system is defined by the C. I. M. A. Terminology as, "A system in which the cost 

accounts are distinct from the financial accounts, the two sets of accounts being kept continuously 

in agreement by the use of control accounts or reconciled by other means." 

Integrated accounting system is defined as, "A set of accounting records which provides 

financial and cost accounts using a common input of data for all accounting purposes." 

Above definitioins indicate that in interlocking accounting system the record of cost and 

financial accounts are maintained independently of each other. The same transactions are 

recorded in both sets of books on the basis of double entry. However, a few items of financial 

accounts will not appear in cost accounts. Similarly, there are many items from cost accounts 

which will not find place in financial accounts. 

4.2.3 Advantages of Integrated Accounting : 

Integrated Accounting has the following advantages : 

1. In this system the reconciliation statement is not prepared as there is only one set of 

accounts and the profit or loss figure is same. This saves administrative expenses in the form of 

clerical labour. 

2. The accounting work is considerably reduced by eliminating the maintenance of 

unnecessary duplicate reocrds in the cost as well as in the financial ledger. This system is quite 

economical. 

2

3. This system is simple to prepare and easy to understand. The process of preparing 

interim or final accounts is simplified. 

4. It attempts to co-ordinate the activities and processes of various sections of the accounting 

department, since all efforts are integrated and directed towards achieving a common aim of 

maintaining a high level of efficiency. This helps in achieving better coordination in the activities 

of cost and financial accounting staff. 

5. Centralization of accounts is possible and this results in economy. 

6. This system facilitates mechanized accounting. 

7. The knowledge of cost and financial accounting may be combined together to achieve 

better results. 

8. The system tends to broaden the outlook of the accounting staff and in return they 

appreciate the entire accounting system. 

Disadvantages : 

Besides the merits this system suffers from following disadvantages : 

1. This system of accounting is not suitable for large scale organizations, as these require 

the through and separate information of cost and financial accounting. 

2. In the organization where full integration system is not followed needs reconciliation 

between the two accounts. 

3. A system which is expected to provide costing as well as financial information is quite 

cumbersome and complicated and requires the services of experts. 

4.2.4 Features of Integrated Accounting : 

Integrated Accounting system has the following distinctive features : 

1. The management has to decide the extent of integration of the two sets of books hence 

the degree of integration may differ between firms. 

2. There is no need to open a Cost ledger control Account as it is possible to complete 

double entry without this account. 

3. Under this method a General Ledger is maintained which contains both cost and financial 

accounts. 

4. Cost analysis is made in respect of materials, wages and overheads, which are posted 

in the stores, wages and overhead control accounts and the totals are transferred to the Work 

in progress account at the end of the period by crediting various control accounts. 

5. The balances in the Store account, WIP account and Finished goods accounts are the 

closing stock values, the analysis of which would be found in the subsidiary books. 

3

6. Capital expenditure is separated in the process of cost analysis by debiting sundry 

assets account and crediting the control account. 

7. All advance payments are credited and accruals are debited to the respective control 

accounts as contra entries in the prepayments and accrual accounts. 

4.2.5 Ledger Accounts : 

Under this method a General Ledger is maintained which contains both cost and financial 

accounts. Entries in the General ledger are made in consolidated form from Subsidiary ledger 

where detailed day to day postings are recorded. The General Ledger contains Control accounts 

of each Suhbsidiary ledger and also personal accounts, cash and bank accounts etc. In short, 

when cost accounts are maintained independently of financial accounts, the two are interlocked 

through total or control accounts maintained in each ledger. Transactions are recorded in detail 

in individual accounts in each ledger and are also entered in summary form in the control 

accounts. At the end of accounting period, the sum of the balances in the individual accounts 

should agree with the balances on the control account. 

4.2.6 Journal Entries : 

In integrated system there is no need for a cost ledger control account because separate 

books for cost and financial accounts are not maintained. In place of cost ledger control accounts 

other relevant financial accounts e. g. cash, bank, debtors, creditors etc. are prepared. Following 

journal entries are passed under integrated accounting system for the transactions : 

Sr. Transactions Account Debited Account Credited 

1. Material purchased for cash Store control A/c Cash A/c 

2. Material purchase on credit Store control A/c Creditors A/c 

3. Material purchase for specific job Work-in-Progress A/c Cash or creditors A/c 

4. Purchase of material for immediate Production overhead Creditors or Cash A/c 

repaires work Control A/c 

5. Direct Material issued to production Work-in-progress Store Ledger Control 

4 

Control A/c A/c 

6. Indirect Material issued to Production overhead Store ledger control 

Production control A/c A/c 

7. Material returned to supplier Creditors A/c Store ledger control 

A/c

8. Material returned to stores Store ledger control Work in progress 

A/c A/c 

9. Indirect Material returned to store Store ledger control Production overhead 

A/c A/c 

10. Material transferred from job to job No entry 

11. Payment of wages Wages control A/c Insurance, tax, wages 

A/c payable (if wages 

to be paid cash A/c) 

12. Allocating to direct wages Work in progress Wages control A/c 

control A/c 

13. Allocating to indirect wages as Factory overhead Capital Asset 

factory, admn and selling and control, administer. A/c 

distribution overhead Overhead control, 

selling & distribution 

overhead control A/c 

16. Indirect overheads incurred Respective overhead Cash or Creditors A/c 

control A/c 

17. Absorption of production overheads Work in progress Factory overhead 

control A/c control A/c 

18. Absorption of administration Work in progress Admn. Overhead 

overheads control A/c control A/c 

19. Absorption of selling & Cost of sales A/c Selling & distribution 

distribution overheads control A/c 

20. Over absorption of overheads Respective overhead Overhead adjustment 

A/c or P & L A/c 

21. Under absorption of overheads Overhead adjustment Respective overhead 

a/c or P & L a/c control a/c 

22. Finished goods produced Finished goods work in progress 

control a/c control a/c 

23. Recording cost of goods sold Cost of sales a/c Finished goods 

control a/c 

5

24. Sales return Cost of sales a/c Debtors a/c 

25. Repair work Overhead control a/c Work in progress 

control a/c 

26. Recording sales Cash or debtors a/c Profit and loss a/c 

(sales) 

27. Capital work Sundary asset a/c Work in progress 

control a/c 

28. Abnormal wastage in production Profit and loss a/c Work in progress 

control a/c 

29. Repair work for special order Overhead control a/c Work in progress 

control a/c 

30. Profit No entry No entry 

4.2.7 Practical Problems : 

1. Journalise the following transactions in the integrated books : 

1.Credit purchases 80000 

2. Wages paid 60000 

3. Productive wages 50000 

4. Unproductive wages 10000 

5. Stores issued to production order 70000 

6. Works expenses paid 12000 

7. Works expenses charged to production 22200 

8. Works expenses outstanding 200 

9. Finished goods transterred from 

production order 140000 

10. Administration expenses paid 10000 

11. Administration expenses charged 

to production 10200 

6

Solution : 

Journal 

L. 

S.No. Particulars F. 

Debit Credit 

1. Store Ledger Control A/c................. Dr 80000 

To Creditors A/c ..................... Cr 80000 

(being goods purchased on credit) 

2. Wages A/c .....................Dr 60000 

To Cash A/c ...........Cr 60000 

(being wages paid) 

3. Work-in-progress A/c .....................Dr 50000 

To Wages A/c ....................... Cr 50000 

(being wages charged to production) 

4. Works Expenses Control A/c ................Dr 10000 

To wages A/c ...............................Cr 10000 

(being unproductive wage transferred 

to works expenses control A/c) 

5. Work-in-progress A/c .....................Dr 70000 

To Stores control A/c...............Cr 70000 

(being the stores issued to production 

order) 

6. Works expenses control A/c................Dr 12000 

To cash A/c ...............................Cr 12000 

(being the works expense paid) 

7. Work-in-progress A/c ............................Dr 22200 

To works Expense Control A/c .......Cr 22200 

(being the works expenses incurred 

during the year) 

8. Works Expenses Control A/c..................Dr 200 

To O/s Works Expenses A/c ......... Cr 200 

(being works expenses are still unpaid) 

2. Journalise the following transactions under integrated system. 

Rs. 

1.Credit 275000 

2. Cash 25000 

7

8 

Rs. 

3. Direct wages 55000 

4. Indirect wages 25000 

5. Stores issued against Production order 255000 

6. Works expenses paid 50000 

7. Works expenses incurred on jobs 75000 

8. Administration expenses paid 30000 

9. Outstanding administratiion expenses 5000 

10. Administration expenes incurred on jobs 35000 

11. Finished goods transterred 400000 

Solution : (Alternative Method) 

JOURNAL 

S.No. Particulars L. Debit Credit 

F. 

1. Store Ledger Control A/c................... Dr 300000 

To Creditors A/c ....................... Cr 275000 

To Cash A/c ............................. Cr 25000 

(being raw material purchased on 

credit and cash) 

2. Wages Control A/c .............................Dr 80000 

To Cash A/c ...............................Cr 80000 

(being wages paid) 

3. Work-in-progress Control A/c ..............Dr 55000 

To Wages Control A/c ................ Cr 55000 

(being direct wages charged to 

production) 

4. Works Expenses Control A/c ...............Dr 25000 

To Wages Control A/c .................Cr 25000 

(being indirect wage transferred 

to works overhead) 

5. Work-in-progress Control A/c ..............Dr 255000 

To Stores Ledger control A/c........Cr 255000 

(being the stores issued to production)

6. Works Expenses Control A/c..................Dr 50000 

To cash A/c ....................................Cr 50000 

(being the works expenses incurred) 

7. Work-in-progress Control A/c ................Dr 75000 

To works Expense Control A/c..........Cr 75000 

(being the works expenses charged 

to production) 

8. Administration Expenses Control A/c......Dr 30000 

To cash A/c.....................................Cr 30000 

(being administration expenses incurred) 

9. Administration expenses Control A/c ......Dr. 5000 

To O/s Administration expenses A/c...Cr. 5000 

(being administration expenses unpaid) 

10. Work-in-progress Control A/c ................Dr 35000 

To Administration Expenses Control A/c.......Cr 35000 

(being the administration expenses 

charged to production) 

11. Finished goods control A/c......................Dr 400000 

To Work-in-progress Control A/c......Cr 400000 

(being goods completed and transferred 

to finished goods account) 

3. Following are the extracts of balances of M and Co. Ltd. in its integrated 

Ledger on 31-3-2009. 

Particulars Debit Rs. Credit Rs. 

Store Control Account 3600 

Finished goods Account 2600 

Work-in-progress Control Account 3400 

Creditors Account 1600 

9

Cash at Bank 2000 

Debtors Account 2400 

Fixed Assets Account 11000 

Profit and loss Account 6400 

Depreciation Provision Account 1000 

Share capital Account 16000 

Transactions for the year ending 31-3-2007 were : 

10 

25000 25000 

Rs. 

Wages - Indirect 1000 

Direct 17400 

Stores Purchased on Credit 20000 

Stores issued to production 22000 

Stores issued to repair order 400 

Goods finished during the period at cost 43000 

Goods sold at Cost 44000 

Goods sold at sales value (on cost) 60000 

Production overhead recovered 9600 

Production overheads 8000 

o 

Administratiion overheads paid for by cheque 2400 

Selling and distribution overheads 2800 

Depreciation (works) 260 

Payment from customers 58000 

Payment for suppliers 20200 

Purchase of fixed Asset in cash 400 

Fine Paid 100 

Income Tax 4000 

Charitable donations 200 

Rates prepaid included in production overhead incurred 60 

Interest on bank loan 20 

You are required to wirte up the accounts in Integral Ledger and take out a Trial balance. 

The Administration overhead is written off to profit and loss Account.

Solution : 

2006 

INTEGRAL LEDGER OF M and CO. LTD. 

Stores Control Account 

April To balance bld 3600 31-3-2007 By WIP control A/c 22000 

31-3-07 To Creditors A/c 20000 --"-- By Prod. overhead 

--"-- Control A/c 400 

By balanced 1200 

23600 23600 

Wages Control Account 

31-3-2007 To Bank A/c 18400 31-3-2007 By WIP control A/c 17400 

--"-- By Productiion overhead 

Control A/c 1000 

18400 18400 

Production Overhead Control Account 

31-3-2007 To Wages Control A/c 1000 31-3-2007 By Prepaid Rent A/c 60 

--"-- To Store Control A/c 400 --"-- By Work in Progress 

--"-- To Bank A/c 8000 Control A/c 9600 

--"-- To Depreciation 

Provision A/c 260 

9660 9660 

Administratiion Overhead Control Account 

31-3-2007 To Bank A/c 2400 31-3-2007 By Costing P& L A/c 2400 

2400 2400 

11

Selling and Distributiion Overhead Control Account 

31-3-2007 To Bank A/c 2800 31-3-2007 By Costing P & L A/c 2800 

2800 2800 

Work-in-Progress Control Account 

1-4-2006 To balance b/d 3400 31-3-2007 By Finished 

31-3-2007 To Wages Control A/c 17400 goods A/c 43000 

--"-- To Stores Control A/c 22000 --"-- By balance c/d 9400 

--"-- To Production 

Overhead A/c 9600 

52400 52400 

Finished goods A/c 

1-4-2006 To balance b/d 2600 31-3-2007 By Cost of sales A/c 44000 

31-3-2007 To Work-in-Progress --"-- By balance c/d 1600 


45600 45600 

Cost of Sales A/c 

31-3-2007 To Finished goods A/c 44000 31-3-2007 By Debtors A/c 

To Selling & Distribution (Sales) 60000 

O/h Control A/c 2800 

To Costing P&L A/c 13200 

60000 60000 

Costing Profit and Loss A/c (For the year ended 31-3-2007) 

To Administrative over By Cost of Sales 

head Control A/c 2400 Account 13200 

To P&L A/c 10800 

13200 13200 

12

Profit and Loss A/c 

(For the year ended 31-3-2007) 

To Children donations 200 By balance b/d 6400 

To Interest on bank loan 20 By Costing P &L A/c 10800 

To Fines 100 

To Income Tax 4000 

To N/p C/d 12880 

17200 17200 

Prepaid Rent A/c 

31-3-2007 To Production 31-3-2007 By balance c/d 60 

Overhead Control A/c 60 

60 60 

Depreciation Provision Account 

31-3-2007 To balance c/d 1260 1-4-2006 By balance b/d 1000 

31-3-2007 By Production o/h 


1260 1260 

Debtors Account 

1-4-2006 To balance b/d 2400 31-3-2007 By Bank A/c 58000 

31-3-2007 To Cost of sales A/c 60000 --"-- By balance c/d 4400 

62400 62400 

Creditors Account 

31-3-2007 To Bank 20200 1-4-2006 By balance b/d 1600 

31-3-2007 To balance c/d 1400 31-3-2007 By Stores Control A/c 20000 

21600 21600 

13

Fixed Assets Account 

1-4-2006 To balance b/d 11000 31-3-2007 By balance c/d 11400 

31-3-2007 To Bank A/c 400 

11400 11400 

Share Capital Account 

31-3-2007 To bal. c/d 16000 1-4-2006 By bal. c/d 16000 

16000 16000 

Bank Account 

1-4-2006 To balance b/d 2000 31-3-2007 By wages Control A/c 18400 

31-3-2007 To Debtors A/c 58000 By Fixed Asset A/c 400 

By Production o/h 


By Administration 

o/h Control A/c 2400 

By Selling & Distribution 

o/h Control A/c 2800 

By Creditors A/c 20200 

By Charitable 

donation A/c 200 

By Fines A/c 100 

By Interest on bank loan 20 

By Income Tax 4000 

By balance c/d 3480 

60000 60000 

Trial balance (as on 31-3-2007) 

Particulars Dr. Rs. Cr. Rs. 

Stores Control Account 1200 

Work-in-progress 

Control Account 9400 (P.T.O.) 

14

Finished goods Accounts 1600 

Cash at Bank 3480 

Creditors Account 1400 

Debtors Account 4400 

Prepaid Rent A/c. 60 

Fixed Assets Account 11400 

Depreciation Provision Account 1260 

Profit and Loss Account 12880 

Share capital Account 16000 

4.3 Summary : 

15 

31540 31540 

Integrated or integral accounting is a system of accounting in which both cost and financial 

accounts are kept in the same set of books. These two set of books are maintained under nonintegrated 

system of accounting (i.e. one set for cost accounting and another set for financial 

accounting) are merged into composite system. Hence the reconciliation of cost and financial 

accounts is not necessary. Profit and loss account for financial and costing purposes are discarded 

in favour of unified accounting which serves financial and costing purposes. Records and 

accounts are managed in such a way that unnecessary accounts such as cost ledger control 

account, general ledger adjustment account, purchase account etc. are eliminated and at the 

same time provide objective analysis. Integral accounting offers scope for better understanding 

and coordination as cost and financial accounting functions work complementary to each other 

rather than as separate watertight compartment and widens the outlook of the accounting 

function to appreciate the entire accounting system. In the process, knowledge of cost and 

financial accounting may be pooled together for better accounting system, procedure and 

presentation of account. 

4.4 Check your progress : 

(A) State the following statements are true or false : 

1. Reconciliation statement is necessary under integrated accounting system. 

2. Integration of cost and financial accounts can be done by Third entry system. 

3. There is only one figure of profit under integral accounting. 

4. Integrated accounts eliminate the necessity of operating the General Ledger Control 

A/C. 

5. Loss on the sale of furniture is not included in integrated accounts. 

6. No accounts for debtors and creditors are opened in integrated accounts.

(B) Fill in the gaps : 

1. Under integrated accounting the cost and financial accounts are ........... in one ledger. 

2. Under integral accounting there will be only ............ figure of profit. 

3. .......... records are avoided in integral accounts. 

4. There is ........... of reconciling cost and financial accounts under integrated accounts. 

5. There will be ............ status of cost accountants and financial accountants under 

integrated accounts. 

6. ............. Control account is debited and ............... account is credited for purchase 

of stores under integral accounting system. 

7. For recording sales under integrated accounting ........... is debited and ........... is 

credited. 

4.5 Exercise : 

(A) Write short answer for the following questions. 

1. What do you understand by Integral Accounting ? 

2. Enumerate the advantages of Integrating Accounting. 

3. State three principles of integral accounting. 

4. Write a brief note on integrated accounting system. 

(B) Give journal entries for the following transactions under integrated accounting 

system. 

1. Material purchased on credit. 

2. Payment to creditors. 

3. Issue of direct materials issued for production. 

4. Payment of wages. 

4.6 Code Key : 

(A) 1. False 2. True 3. True 4. True 5. False 6. False 

(B) 1. Merged 2. One 3. Duplication 4. No need 5. Equal 6. Stores, Creditors 

7. Debtors or cash, Sales. 

4.7 Further References : 

1) M. N. Arora : Cost Accounting Principles and Practice (2007) 

Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., Noida. 

16

2) Jawaharlal : Cost Accounting (1998) 

Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co, Ltd., New Delhi. 

3) S. P. Iyengar : Cost Accounting (1989) 

Sultan-chand and sons, New Delhi. 

4) M. Y. Khan and : Cost Accounting and Financial Management (2005) 

P. K. Jain Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. 

17 

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(B) gZ 2011-12 n`ªV Cƒ {ejU KoD$ BpÀN>Umè`m ì`ŠVtMo à_mU 10% nmgyZ 15% n`ªV 

dmT>{dUo. 

3. Amamo½` : (A) ~mb_¥Ë`wXa 28 n`ªV H$_r H$aUo, VgoM _mVm§À`m _¥Ë`yMm Xa Xa hOmar 1 BVH$m 

2011-12 n`ªV H$_r H$aUo. 

(~) 2011-12 n`ªV àOZZ Xa 2.1% BVH$m H$_r H$aUo. 

(H$) gZ 2009 n`ªV gdmªZm ñdÀN> {nÊ`mMo nmUr nwa{dUo. 

(S>) ~mbH$mVrb Hw$nmofUmMo à_mU gÜ`mÀ`m {Zå_o BVHo$ H$_r H$aUo. 

(B) {ó`m d _wbo `m§À`mVrb A°{Z{_`mMo à_mU (AeŠVnUm) gÜ`mÀ`m XamÀ`m {Zå_o H$aUo. 

4. {ó`m d _wbo : (A) 0-6 `m d`moJQ>mVrb ór-nwéf ~mbH$m§Mo qbJ JwUmoÎma 2011-12 n`ªV 935 

d gZ 2016-17 n`ªV Vo 950 BVHo$ JmR>Uo. 

(~) {ó`m d _wbtZm {H$_mZ 33% `moOZm d bm^ XoUo. 

(H$) ~mb _Oyarg Amim. 

5. _wb^yV gmo`tMm {dH$mg : (A) Xm[aÐç aofoImbrb gd© J«m_rU Hw$Qw>§~m§Zm gZ 2009 n`ªV d 11 

ì`m `moOZoÀ`m eodQ>n`ªV drO nwa{dUo. 

(~) 1000 bmoH$dñVr Agbobr IoS>r d S>m|Jar ^mJmVrb 500 d Ë`mnojm OmñV bmoH$dñVr Agbobr 

IoS>r añË`mZo OmoS>Uo. 

(H$) àËòH$ IoS>çmV Q>o{b\$moZMr gw{dYm 2012 n`ªV CnbãY H$ê$Z XoUo. 

(S>) gZ 2012 n`ªV gdmªZm Kam§Mr gw{dYm CnbãY H$ê$Z XoUo d Jar~m§Zm 2016-17 n`ªV Kao 

~m§YÊ`mÀ`m H$m`©H«$_mbm JVr XoUo. 

6. n`m©daU : (A) XoemVrb dZo d O§Jbm§Mo à_mU 5% Zo dmT>{dUo. 

(~) WTO Zo {ZpíMV Ho$bobo hdm ewÕVoMo à_mU 2011-12 n`ªV gd© ehamV àñWm{nV H$aUo. 

3

(H$) 2011-12 n`ªV ehar gm§S>nmÊ`mMr ì`dñWm H$ê$Z gd© ZÚm ñdÀN> H$aUo d nmUr, àXwfU H$_r 

H$aUo. 

(S>) D$Om© j_Vm 20% dmT>{dUo 

11 ì`m `moOZoV _w»`V: nwT>rb Jmoï>r H$amd`mÀ`m hmoË`m (vision) 

1) ObX Am{W©H$ {dH$mgm_wio XoemVrb Xm[aÐç H$_r hmoD$Z amoOmJa dmT> KSy>Z òB©b. 

2) J[a~m§gmR>r {ejU d Amamo½` godm CnbãY H$ê$ZXoUo. 

3) {ejU d Hw$ebVm {dH$mgmÛmao {dH$mg KS>dyZ AmUUo. 

4) amoOJa `moOZmMm {dñVma H$aUo. amï´>r` amoOJma h_r H$m`©H«$_ am~{dUo. 

5) n`m©daU ajU H$aUo. 

6) ór-nwéf {df_Vm H$_r H$aUo. 

7) ì`dñWmnZ gwYmaUm H$ao. 

11 ì`m `moOZoVrb g_J«bjr KQ>H$mVrb Am{W©H$ ~Xb : 

11 ì`m `moOZoVrb (amÁ` d H|$Ð {_iyZ) gmd©O{ZH$ joÌmda 36,44,718 H$mo. é. IM© H$aÊ`mV òVrb, 

Ë`mn¡H$s H|$Ð gaH$ma 21,56571 H$mo. é. (59.2%) d amÁ` gaH$mam§Mm dmQ>m 14,88147 H$mo. é. (40.8%) 

Agob. 

* 11 ì`m `moOZoV 10 ì`m `moOZonojm gaH$maMm IM© 120% Zo OmñV Agob. 

* 11 ì`m `moOZoV gaH$maMm gmd©O{ZH$ joÌmdarb IM© EHy$U Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZmÀ`m (GDP) 13.54% 

BVH$m am{hb, Vmo 10 ì`m `moOZoV 9.46% BVH$m hmoVm. 

Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXdmT>rMo bú` : 

11 ì`m `moOZo Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZdmT>rMm Xa 9% JmR>Uo ho bú` R>a{dÊ`mV Ambo. Vmo 2007-08 _Üò 

8.5% Vo 2011-12 _Üò 10% BVH$m JmR>Uo. XaS>moB© Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZdmT>rMm Xa à{Vdfu 7.6% amIUo d 

Z{OH$À`m 10 dfmªV Vmo XwßnQ> dmT>{dUo hmo`. 

joÌr` {dH$mg dmT>rMo Xa : 

11 ì`m `moOZoV ho Xa nwT>rbà_mUo JmR>Ê`mMo bú` Amho. 

eoVr CÚmoJ V¥Vrj joÌ / godm joÌ 

11 dr `moOZm 4.0% 10 Vo 11% 9 Vo 11% 

`m `moOZoV CÚmoJ d godm joÌmÀ`m dmT>rMm Xa XmoZ AmH$S>r JmR>Ê`mMo bú` R>a{dÊ`mV Ambo. 

4

VŠVm H«$. 1 

BVa KQ>H$ (Or. S>r. nr. À`m %) 

A.H«$. ~m~r 10 dr `moOZm 11 dr `moOZm 

1. Jw§VdUyH$Xa 32.1 36.7 

2. ~MVrMm Xa 30.8 34.8 

3. Mmby ImË`mdarb VyQ> 1.28 1.88 

4. ^m§S>db CËnmXZ JwUmoÎma 4.3 4.1 

5. Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZdmT>rMm Xa 7.5 9.0 

ñÌmoV : B§{S>`Z BH$m°Zm°_r, XÎm gw§Xa_². 

gmd©O{ZH$ joÌ d ImOJr joÌmVrb J§VdUyH$ : 

11 ì`m `moOZoV ImOJr joÌmVrb Jw§dUyH$ 28.5% Zo dmT>oO Agm A§XmO H$aÊ`mV Ambm. Va gmd©O{ZH$ 

joÌmVrb J§wVdUyH$ 8.0% Zo dmT>ob. Ë`m_wio XoemVrb EHy$U Jw§VdUH$sMm Xa 36.7% amhrb Agm A§XmO 

dV©{dÊ`mV Ambm. 

VŠVm H«$. 2 

Jw§VdUyH$sMm Xa 

`moOZm gmd©. joÌ ImOJr joÌ EHy$U 

9 dr `moOZm 7.0 17.3 24.3 

10 dr `moOZm 6.7 24.1 30.8 

11 dr `moOZm 8.0 28.7 36.7 

ñVmoÌ : B§{S>`Z BH$m°Zm°_r, XÎm gw§Xa_². 

VŠVm H«$. 3 

11 ì`m `moOZoVrb gmd©. joÌmVrb gmYZ gm_J«rMo joÌ {Zhm` dmQ>n 

joÌo 10 dr `moOZm 11 dr `moOZm 

(2002-07) (H$mo.é.) (2007-12) (H$mo.é.) 

1) eoVr d g§b¾ joÌo 60702 (3.8) 136381 (3.7) 

2) J«m_rU {dH$mg 137710 (8.5) 301069 (8.3) 

5

3) {deof joÌo H$m`©H«$_ 16423 (1.0) 26329 (0.7) 

4) qgMZ d nya {Z`§ÌU 112415 (6.9) 210326 (5.8) 

EHy$U eoVr joÌ (1 Vo 4) 3,27,250 (20.2)III 674105 (18.5)III 

5) D$Om© 363635 (22.4) II 854123 (23.4) II 

6) CÚmoJ d I{ZOo 64655 (4.0) 153600 (4.2) 

7) dmhVyH$ 263934 (16.3) 572413 (15.7) 

8) XiZdiZ 82945 (5.1) 95380 (2.6) 

9) {dkmZ, V§ÌkmZ d n`m©daU 28673 (1.8) 87933 (2.4) 

10) gd©gmYmaU Am{W©H$ godm 30349 (1.9) 62523 (1.7) 

11) gm_m{OH$ godm 436529 (27.0) I 1102327 (30.9) I 

12) gd©gmYmaU godm 20489 (1.3) 42283 (1.2) 

EHy$U 1618460 (100) 3644718 (100.00) 

H§$gmVrb AmH$S>o EHy$U IMm©Mo à_mU Xe©{dVmV. 

gm_m{OH$ godmV nwT>rb godm g_m{dï> AgVmV. 

i) {ejU, ii) gmd©O{ZH$ Amamo½`, iii) nmUrnwadR>m d ñdÀN>Vm, Kao, ehar {dH$mg dJ¡ao 


11 ì`m `moOZoV gdm©V OmñV IM© gm_m{OH$ godm§da (30.9%) H$aÊ`mMo R>a{dbo Amho, Ë`mZ§Va 

COm©joÌmda (23.4%) Va eoVr joÌmMm H«$_ {Vgam bmJVmo (18.5%). 10 ì`m `moOZoV XoIrb gmYZgm_J«rÀ`m 

dmQ>nmMm H$b (IM©) AZwH«$_o gm_m{OH$ godm, D$Om© d eoVr joÌ AgmM hmoVm. na§Vw 11 ì`m `moOZoV 10 ì`m 

`moOZonojm gm_m{OH$ godm§darb IMm©Mo d D$Om© joÌmdarb IMm©Mo à_mU dmT>ë`mMo {XgyZ òVo. gm_m{OH$ 

godm§darb IM© 27% dê$Z 30.9% Va D$Om© joÌmdarb IMm©Mo à_mU 22.4% dê$Z 23.4% Ago 

dmT>ë`mMo {XgyZ òVo, Va eoVr joÌmdarb IMm©Mo à_mU _mÌ 20.2% dê$Z 18.5% Ago KQ>ë`mMo {XgyZ òVo. 

eoVr joÌmdarb IMm©Vrb KQ>rMo à_mU XoemÀ`m Am{W©H$ {dH$mgmda à{VHy$b n[aUm_ KS>dyZ AmUUmao 

AmhoV. 

_wb^yV godm§darb IM© : dmhVyH$ d XiUdiZmdarb IMm©Mo à_mU 16.3 + 5.1 = 21.4% déZ 

11 ì`m `moOZoV 15.7 + 2.6 = 18.3% Ago _moR>o am{hbo. `mMm AW© Ë`mda OmJ{VH$sH$aUmMm à^md {XgyZ 

òVmo. 

6

VŠVm H«$. 3 

11 ì`m `moOZoVrb amoOJmadmT>rMm A§XmO (Xe bj) 

KQ>H$ 2006-07 2011-12 

1) bmoH$g§»`m 1128.1 1208.0 

2) H$m_Jmag§»`m 438.9 483.6 

3) amoOJma g§Yr 402.2 460.3 

4) ~oamoOJmam§Mr g§»`m 36.7 23.3 

5) ~oamoOJmarMm Xa 8.36% 4.83% 


11 ì`m `moOZoV ~oamoOJmarMm Xa 8.36 dê$Z 4.83% JmR>Ê`mMo C{Ôï> R>a{dÊ`mV Ambo. 

VŠVm H«$. 5 

joÌ{Zhm` amoOJma dmT> 

joÌo 10 ì`m `moOZoVrb g\$bVm 11 ì`m `moOZoVrb A§XmO 

1) eoVr 8.84 -II 00.00 

2) ImUH$m_-ì`dgm` 0.17 00.00 

3) dñVy-CËnmXZ 8.64 - III 11.94 - II 

4) drO, nmUr BVa 0.18 0.02 

5) ~m§YH$m_ 6.44 11.92 - II 

6) ì`mnma, hm°Q>oëg d 10.70 - I 17.40 - I 

aoñQ>ma§Q>.... 

7) dmhVyH$, gmR>dUyH$ d 4.04 9.02 

XiZdiZ.... 

8) {dÎm, {d_m, ñWmda 3.12 3.43 

_mb_Îmm d ì`mnmar godm 

9) gm_w{hH$, gm_m{OH$ d 4.59 4.34 

ì`{ŠVJV godm 

EHy$U 46.71 58.07 

7 

(Xe bj)


10 ì`m `moOZoV gdm©V OmñV amoOJma ì`mnma, hm°ëQ>oëg d aoñQ>ma§Q> joÌmV 10.70 X. bj amoOJma {Z_m©U 

Pmbm. Ë`mZ§Va eoVr joÌ (8.84 X. b.) d H$maImZXmar-dñVy CËnmXZ joÌmMm (8.64 X. bj) AZwH«$_o 

{ÛVr` d V¥Vr` H«$_ bmJVmo. 

11 ì`m `moOZoV nwÝhm ì`mnma, hm°Q>oëg d aoñQ>ma§Q> joÌmV gdm©V OmñV (17.40 X.bj), Ë`mZ§Va 

H$maImZXmar dñVy CËnmXZ joÌmV (11.94 X. bj) d ~m§YH$m_ joÌmV (11.92 X. bj) amoOJma{Z{_©VrMm 

A§XmO dV©{dÊ`mV Ambm Amho. Va eoVr joÌmVrb amoOmJa {Z{_©Vr 8.84 Xebjmdê$Z 0.00 J¥hrV Yabr 

Amho. hm A§XmO `mo½` dmQ>V Zmhr. 

Xm[aÐç {Z_y©bZ : 

11 ì`m `moOZoV Xm[aÐçmMo à_mU 10% Zo H$_r H$aÊ`mMo C{Ôï> R>a{dÊ`mV Ambo Amho. Vo 28% nmgyZ 

18% H$_r H$aUo. ho Xm[aÐç aofoImbrb (BPL) bmoH$m§Mo à_mU {ZpíMV H$aÊ`mgmR>r XaS>moB© IMm©Mm {ZH$f 

dmnabm J«m_rU ^mJmVrb bmoH$m§gmR>r XaS>moB© Xa _{hZm IM© 356 é. d ehar bmoH$m§gmR>r 458 é. 2004-05 

_Üò {ZpíMV H$aÊ`mV Ambm hmoVm. hm {ZH$f AmVm bmJy nS>V Zmhr. H$maU bmoH$m§À`m Cn^moJ IMm©V dmT> 

Pmbr Amho. Ë`m_wio {Z`moOZ _§S>imZo hm {ZH$f ~XbÊ`mgmR>r Vk JQ>mMr Zo_UyH$ Ho$br Amho. Xm[aÐç aofm 

R>a{dÊ`mgmR>r Vmo {ZH$f dmnabm OmUma Amho. Oa `m VkJQ>mZo Xm[aÐçaofm R>a{dÊ`mgmR>rMm XaS>moB© Xa_hm 

Cn^moJ IMm©V dmT> Ho$br Va ^maVmVrb Xm[aÐçaofoImbrb bmoH$g§»òMo à_mU _moR>o am{hb. 

àmXo{eH$ Ag_Vmob Xya H$aUo : 11 ì`m `moOZoV XoemVrb gd© amÁ`m§gmR>r EHy$U Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZdmT>rÀ`m 

XamMr C{Ôï>o (GDP growth rates) R>adyZ {Xbr AmhoV, Ë`mZwgma àËòH$ amÁ`mZo Vr C{Ôï>o JmR>mdrV åhUOo 

^maVmMm Xem§VJ©V CËnmXZ dmT>rMm 9% Xa 11 ì`m `moOZoV àñWm{nV H$aVm òB©b. Ë`m_wio àmXoerH$ Ag_Vmob 

Xya hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoB©b. 

_yë`_mnZ : 11 ì`m `moOZoZo (faster & more inclusive) "ObX d A{YH$ gd©g_mdoeH$' ho _w»` 

C{Ôï> J¥hrV Yê$Z `moOZm§Mr AmIUr Ho$br Amho. na§Vw `m `moOZoZo J¥hrV Yabobo búò (Targets) {H$VnV 

g\$b hmoVrb? `mMm AmT>mdm KoUo Bð> R>aVo. 

1) Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZdmT>rMm 9% Xa JmR>Uo H$R>rU : eoVrjoÌmMm Xa 4%, H$maImZXmar joÌmMm Xa 

10 Vo 11% d godmjoÌmMm Xa 9 Vo 11% J¥hrV Yabm Amho. na§Vw eoVrjoÌmMm 4% JmR>Uo eŠ` hmoB©b H$s Zmhr 

ho gm§JUo H$R>rU H$m_ Amho. 10 ì`m `moOZoV Vmo 2.1% am{hbm. VgoM AmOÀ`m Am{W©H$ _§XrÀ`m H$mimV 

H$maImZXmar joÌmMm Xa 10 Vo 11% amIUo XoIrb eŠ` Zmhr. Ë`m_wio `m `moOZoV XoemÀ`m Am{W©H$ {dH$mgmMm 

Xa 9% Xa amIUo gme§H$ Amho. Am{W©H$ {dH$mgmMm Xa eoVrÀ`m Xamda Adb§~yZ Amho, eoVrjoÌmMm 4% 

{dH$mg Xa JmR>bm ZmhrVa XoemÀ`m Am{W©H$ {dH$mgmMm 9% Xa JmR>Vm òUma Zmhr. AmOXoIrb 58% 

bmoH$g§»òMr àË`j d 10% bmoH$m§Mr AàË`j Cn{O{dH$mg eoVrda Adb§~yZ Amho, åhUOo XoemVrb 68% 

8

moH$g§»`m Oa {dH$mgmnmgyZ d§{MV am{hbr Va `m `moOZobm "A{YH$ gd©g_mdoeH$' (more inclusive) 

`moOZm åhUVm òB©b H$m ? 

2) Xm[aÐç {Z_y©bZ : Ooìhm XoemVrb Xm[aÐç doJmZo H$_r Pmbo VaM `m `moOZobm A{YH$ gd©g_mdoeH$ 

`moOZm åhUVm òB©b. `m `moOZoV 2017 n`ªV Xm[aÐçmMo à_mU 28% déZ 18% åhUOo 10% Zo H$_r 

H$aÊ`mMo C{Ôï> Amho. `mMm AW© Xadfu 1% Zo Xm[aÐç H$_r Ho$bo OmB©b. Xm[aÐçmVrb KQ>rMo à_mU ho à_mU 

1973-74 dfm©nojm H$_r Amho. Oa Xm[aÐç aofoMr ì`m»`m ~Xbbr d Am§Vaamï´>r` ì`m»`m XaS>moB© XaamoOMm 

IM© 2 S>m°bg© J¥hrV Yabm Va ^maVmVrb 80% OZVm X[aÐr R>aob. Ë`m_wio Xm[aÐç {Z_y©bZ `moOZm hmñ`mñnX 

R>aob. 

3) ~oamoOJmar H$_r H$aUo : `m `moOZoV 58 bj amoOJmag§Yr CnbãY H$ê$Z XoÊ`mMo bj R>a{dÊ`mV 

Ambo Amho. `moOZmH$mimV 45 X. bj ZdrZ H$m_Jmam§Mr EHy$U H$m_Jmag§»òV â nS>ob, VgoM _mJMo ~oH$ma 

35 Xebj H$m_Jma AmhoV åhUOo 80 Xebj H$m_Jma ~oH$ma AmhoV Ë`mn¡H$s 58 Xebj H$m_Jmam§Zm amoOJma 

`m `moOZoV {Xë`mg ~oamoOJmarMm Xa 8.36% dê$Z 4.83% BVH$m H$_r hmoB©b Ago J¥hrV Yabo Amho. Vo Iao 

R>aUma Zmhr. 

4) eoVr joÌmMm 4% Xa JmR>Uo H$R>rU : `m `moOZoV eoVrjoÌmÀ`m dmT>rMm Xa 4% J¥hrV Yabm Amho. 

Vmo JmR>Uo eŠ` dmQ>V Zmhr. H$maU eoVrjoÌmÀ`m dmT>rgmR>r, H$O©nwadR>m, Mm§Jë`m qH$_Vr, gmd©O{ZH$ Jw§VdUyH$ 

dmT>, qgMZ gmo`r, J«m_rU {dÚwVrH$aU, _wb^yV gmo`tMm {dH$mg H$aUo, Adf©UàdU joÌmMm {dH$mg BË`m{X 

Cnm` `moOmdo bmJUma AmhoV. na§Vw `m gd© Jmoï>r hmoVrbM Ago Zmhr. eoVr joÌmVrb YmoHo$ d A{ZpíMVVm 

dJ¡ao_wio eoVr joÌmÀ`m {dH$mgmMm 4% Xa JmR>Uo H$R>rU Amho. 

g§X^© : 

1) R. Datta & : "Indian Economy" S. Chand & Company Ltd, 

KPM Sundaram New Delhi (2009) 

2) Planning Commission : "An approch to the 11th Fine Year Plan" 

(2006) 

3) Planning Commission : "11th Five Year Plan" Vol. I, II & III 

(2007) 

9 

��


(H$) 12 ì`m n§Mdm{f©H$ `moOZoMr C{Ôï>o (2012-2017) 

1 E{àb 2012 nmgyZ ^maVmMr 12 dr n§Mdm{f©H$ `moOZm gwê$ Pmbr. {Z`moOZ _§S>imZo 20 Am°JñQ> 

2011 amoOr Pmboë`m ~¡R>H$sV `m `moOZobm _Ý`Vm {Xbr. VgoM 20 gßQ>|~a 2011 amoOr H|$Ð gaH$maZo `m 

`moOZobm _mÝ`Vm {Xbr. n§VàYmZ S>m°. _Z_mohZ qgJ `m§À`m AÜ`jVoImbr Zdr {X„r òWo 22 Am°ŠQ>mo~a 2011 

amoOr amï´>r` {dH$mg n[afXoMr 56 dr ~¡R>H$ Pmbr, Ë`m_Üò H$mhr AQ>tda hr `moOZm pñdH$maÊ`mV Ambr. `m 

`moOZoMr à_wI C{Ôï>o nwT>rb hmoV. 

C{Ôï>o : 

~r. H$m°_. ^mJ-3 : ì`mdgm{`H$ n`m©daU 


1) ObX, gd©g_mdoeH$ d {Q>H$mD$ Am{W©H$ {dH$mg ho `m `moOZoMo _wi C{Ôï> Amho. 

2) XoemÀ`m Am{W©H$ dmT>rMm Xa 9% BVH$m (EHy$U Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZmÀ`m) JmR>Uo. 

3) `m `moOZmH$mimV eoVrjoÌmÀ`m {dH$mgmMm 4% Xadfu JmR>Uo. 

4) XoemVrb Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mgmMm Xa àVrdfu 9.6% JmR>Uo. 

5) godmjoÌmÀ`m {dH$mgmMm Xa àVrdfu 10% àñWm{nV H$aUo. 

6) Xoem§VJ©V Jw§VdUyH$sMm Xa àVrdfu EHy$U Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZmÀ`m 38.7% BVH$m amIUo. 

7) XoemV§J©V ~MVrMm Xa àVr dfu EHy$U Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZmÀ`m 36.2% BVH$m àñWm{nV H$aUo. 

8) Oam{dVr` VyQ> EHy$U Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZmÀ`m 3.25% amIUo. 

9) KmCH$ qH$_V {ZX}em§H$ Xadfu 4.5 Vo 5% Xaå`mZ R>odUo. 

10) n¸$m_mb CËnmXZ H$aUmè`m H$maImÝ`m§À`m (_°Ý`w\°$ŠM[a¨J joÌ) dmT>rMm Xa àVrdfu 11 Vo 12% 

Xaå`mZ R>odUo. 

11) `m joÌmV Xadfu 2 Xebj A{YH$Mm amoOJma {Z_m©U H$aUo. 

12) _mÜ`{_H$ {ejUmMo gmd©{ÌH$saU H$aUo. 

Cƒ {ejUmVrb EHy$U nQ>Zm|XUr JwUmoÎma 2017 n`ªV 20% d 2022 n`ªV 25% n`ªV dmT>{dUo. 

13) Amamo½`godmdarb H|$Ð d amÁ` gaH$mam§Mm IM© 1.3 Vo {H$_mZ 2% n`ªV dmT>{dUo, eŠ` Pmë`mg 

`m `moOZm AIoa hm IM© EHy$U Xoem§VJ©V CËnmXZmÀ`m 2.5 n`ªV dmT>{dUo. 

10

14) ñdÀN> {nÊ`mMo nmUr, ñdÀN>Vm, KZH$Mam ì`dñWmnZ, A{YH$ Mm§Jbm Amhma, _wbm§Mr {ZJm dJ¡ao 

~m~tMr Mm§Jbr A§_b~OmdUr H$aUo. 

15) 12 ì`m `moOZoAIoarg XoemVrb drOoMo CËnmXZ 1,00000 _oJ°d°Q>n`ªV dmT>{dUo. 

16) nmUr, JQ>mao, ñdÀN>Vm, Kao, gmd©O{ZH$ dmhVyH$ BË`m{X gmo`rV ehar Jar~mgmR>r dmT> H$aUo. 

12 dr n§Mdm{f©H$ `moOZoMo darb C{Ôï>o à_wI hmoV. hr C{Ôï>o gmÜ` H$aÊ`mgmR>r eoVr joÌmMm {dH$mg 

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gm_m{OH$Ñï>çm _mJmgboë`m JQ>m§gmR>r H$m`©H«$_ am~{dUo, _mJmgboë`m {d^mJm§gmR>r {deof H$m`©H«$_ am~{dUo 

dJ¡ao Cnm`m§Mm Adb§~ H$amdm bmJob. 

11 

��

Unit 6 : Sub point 

b) 11th Five Year Plan (1st April 2007 to 30th March 2012) 


B. Com. Part-III : Business Environment 



The National Development Council has approved the draft plan of 11th five year plan of 

India, on December 2006 and it was named as "Towards faster and more inclusive growth." 

According to the determined objectives of ths plan it was told to planning commission of India 

to prepare a draft plan of resource allocation. This plan was finally sanctioned by National 

Development Council on December 2007. 

Structure of 11th Plan : While preparing the economic draft plan, it was noted that 

during the period of 10th plan rate of economic growth was remained 7.6% of the GDP, and it 

was remained more than of any previous plan. During the last 4 years of 10th plan rate of 

growth of GDP was remained 8.6%. So, It was stated that Indian economy is one of the fastest 

developing economy in the world. The Rate of Internal investment and saving was also increased. 

Industrial sector of the economy has successfully faced to the world competition & hence it 

was became more competitive in the world. It was resulted into rise in anxiousness of the the 

foreign Investors to invst in Indian economy. This was the sucess of 10th plan in India. 

However, the economic growth achieved in 10th plan by Indian economy didn't reach up 

to the all people. Some groups didn't received it's social and economic benifits, they are deprived 

from these benefits. Socially & economically back wards didn't benefited from the progress 

achieved in 10th plan. Following social groups didn't benifited from this progress. 

1) During the period of 1993 to 2004-05 proportion of poverty in India was declined 

from 36% to 28% but due to the rise in population absolute poverty was not declined e. g. In 

respect of schedule tribes, the total no. of poors was 320 millions in the year 1993-94. It was 

declined up to 302 millions in 2004-05. It means that during the period of 12 years only 18 

millions have came out of poverty. This decline in poverty was very less. During the same 

period poverty was not declined equal to the proportional rate of growth of GDP. Decline in 

poverty was remained equal to the level of poverty prevailing in the year 1973-74 and in the 

same year per capita income was very law. 

12

2) Large proportion of population was deprived from minimum standard of living: 

(A) In the year 2005-06, The children of age group 0-3 didn't get sufficient diet. Large 

proportion of children were malnourished. However the rate of malnutirition was 47% in 

1998, it was not declined but remained constant. 

(B) Humand development indicators like literacy, material and infant mortality rates also 

show slow progress and India lags behind several other countries. In the year 2001 literacy 

rate was 64.8%. Today total no of illiterates was more than 304 millions. Life expectancy of 

male and femal respectively prevailing was 66.9 and 63.9 years on an average. In China it was 

72 years. So, it is less than China. Male-female ratio was 1000:933, so, it was not good. Infant 

mortality rate in India was more than east Asia countries. 

3) Agricultural growth rate was sluggish and it was 2.1% during the 10th plan. Despite a 

target of 4% per year. 

4) Current daily status unemployment rate was increased from 7.3% to 8.3% during the 

period of 1999-2000 to 2004-05. Despite the higher rate of growth 7.6% unempolyment rate 

was not remained satisfactory. The employment was generated only in unorgainzed sector. It 

was declined in organised sector. 

In this scenario the 11th plan was started. 

Objectives : 

Following were the prime objectives of 11th plan. 

1) The rate of growth of GDP was determined 9% per annum. This implies that per capita 

GDP would grow 7.5% per year. 

growth. 

Targets : 

2) The plan document states that the target is not only the faster growth but also inclusive 

In order to achieve the above objectives following targets were fixed. 

1) To increase the GDP and for removal of poverty, it was decided that : 

(a) The rate of growth of GDP should be achieved 9% per year. 

(b) The growth rate of Agricultural sector is to be achieved 4% per year. 

(c) To create employment opportunities to 5 cror 80 lakh of people. 

(d) The rate of unemployment in educated would be reduced upto 5%. 

(e) To increase the real wages of unskilled workers 20%. 

(f) Proportion of per capita poverty is to be reduced by 10%. 

13

2) Education : 

(a) As compare to the year 2003-04, the drop out ratio of children in schools was to be 

reduced from 52.2% to 20%. 

(b) To improve the quality and standard of primary education at it's minimum level. 

(c) Literacy rate should be increased upto 85% in 2011-12. 

(d) Till 2011-12 difference between the literacy rate between male and female should be 

reduced upto 10%. 

(e) Those who are willing to Join the higher education their proportion is increased from 

10% to 15% up to 2011-12. 

3) Health : 

(a) Infant mortality rate is reduced upto 28% and mortality rate per thousand up to 1% 

until the yer 2011-12. 

(b) Reproduction rate is reduced upto 2.1% still the year 2011-12. 

(c) Pure drinking provided to all up to the year 2009. 

(d) Proportion of child malnutrition is to be reduced to the half of the existing level 

today. 

(e) The proportion of Anemia is reduced to the half of the present level in children and 

women. 

4) Women and Children : 

(a) The sex ratio between the age group 0-6 in Male-female children is increased from 

935 to 950 since 2011-12 to 2016-17. 

(b) Minimum benefit of the government schemes is provided up to 33% to the women 

and grils. 

(c) Prevention of child labour. 

5) Infrastructural Development : 

(a) Electricity supply to all the rural poors below poverty line up to the year 2009 and at 

the end of 11 the plan. 

(b) All villeges of total population 1000 and the villeges of popuation of 500 in hilly 

regions are connected by roads. 

(c) Up to the year 2012 very village is made available the facility of telephone. 

(d) Till the year 2012 housing facility is provided to all and houses construction programme 

is to be facilitated for poors up to the year 2016-17. 

14

6) Environment : 

(a) Increase in forestry proportion by 5%. 

(b) To achieve the proportion of air purification as decided by WTO up to 2011-12. 

(c) To treat all Urban waster wate by 2011-12 to clean river waters. 

(d) To increase energy efficiency by 20%. 

Vision for the 11th Plan : 

Following compenents are included in broad vision of 11th plan. 

1) Rapid economic growth will cause to reduce the poverty and create employment 

opportunities. 

2) Provision of essential services in health and education especially for the poor. 

3) Empowerment through education and skill development. 

4) Extension of employment opporturnity with the help of Natonal Rural Employment 

Guarantee Programme. 

5) Sustainability of Environment. 

6) Reduction of gender inequality. 

7) Improvement of governance. 

Macro-Economic demensions of the 11th Plan : 

During the 11th plan, both centre and state government public sector outlay estimated ws 

Rs. 3644718 crore out of that centre would spent Rs. 2156571 crore and state governments 

should spent Rs. 1488147 crore i. e. 59.20% and 40.80% respectively. 

During the 11th plan government expenditure would be more than 120% as compare to 

the 10th plan. During this plan total outlay on public sector would be remained 13.54% of the 

GDP. It was 9.46% in the 10th plan. 

Target of GDP : 

During the 11th plan growth rate of GDP was fixed 9% of the GDP. In the year 2007-08 

it's target was 8.5% and in the year 2011-12 it was to be achieved 10% of the GDP. Moreover 

the percapita GDP growth would be achieved 7.6% per year and this will double in next 10 

years. 

15

Sectoral Growth Rates : 

digit. 

The sectoral growth rate was targeted in this plan as follows. 

11th plan Agriculture Sector Industrial sector Tertiary Sector 

4.0% 10 to 11% 9 to 11% 

During this plan Industrial and tertiary sector's growth rate would be targeted in double 

Table No. 1 

Other Macro economic parameters (% of GDP) 

Sr.No. Items 10th Plan 11th Plan 

1. Investment Rate 32.1 36.7 

2. Domestic Saving Rate 30.8 34.8 

3. Current Account Deficit 1.28 1.88 

4. Capital out put Ratio 4.3 4.1 

5. GDP growth Rate 7.5 9.0 

Source : Indian Economy - R. Datt & KDM Sundhram. 

Public Sector and Private Sector Investment : 

It was estimated that During the 11the plan private sector investment would increased by 

28.5% and public sector investment by 8.0%. Therefore rate of Investment would be reamained 

36.70%. 

Table No. 2 

Rate of Investment 

Plan Public Sector Private Sector Total 

9th plan 7.0 17.3 24.3 

10th plan 6.7 24.1 30.8 

11th plan 8.0 28.7 36.7 


16

Table No. 3 

Sectoral allocations during 10th & 11th plan (Rs. crore) 

Sectors 10th plan 11th plan 

1. Agricultural & allied 60702 (3.8%) 136381 (3.7) 

Activities 

2. Rural Development 137710 (8.5%) 301069 (8.3) 

3. Spl. area programmes 16423 (1.0%) 26329 (0.7) 

4. Irrigation & Flood control 112415 (6.9%) 210326 (5.8) 

Total Agricultre (1 to 4) 327250 (20.2%) 674105 (18.5) 

5. Energy 363635 (22.4%) 854123 (23.4) 

6. Industry and Minerals 64655 (4.0%) 153600 (4.2) 

7. Transport 263934 (16.3%) 572413 (15.7) 

8. Communications 82945 (5.1%) 95380 (2.6) 

9. Science, Technology 

& Environment 27672 (1.8%) 84933 (2.4) 

10.General economic 

Services 30349 (1.9%) 62523 (1.7) 

11.Social Services 436529 (27.0%) 1102327 (30.9) 

12.General Services 20489 (1.3%) 42283 (1.2) 

Total 1618460 (100%) 3644718 (100%) 

(Bracket in figures show proportion of expenditure.) 

Table No. 3 shows that the proportion of expenditure alloted on social services was 

remained highest 30.9% as compare to the other items. Energy sector following it by showing 

23.4% of Expenditure and ranked second and agriculture sector ranked 3rd by showing 18.5% 

of Expenditure. During the 10th Plan also similar Trend of resource allocation ws found. In 

11th Plan proportion of expenditure on social services and energy sector was found increased 

as comparred to the 10th plan. The proportion of expenditure on social services was increased 

from 27% to 30.9%, on Energy sector it was remained 22.4% to 23.4%, but on agricultural 

sector proportion of expenditure was declined from 20.2% to 18.5% during the same period. It 

will adversely affect the economic development of India. 

17

Expenditure on Infrastryctural Development : 

In 10th plan Transport and communication proportion of expenditure was 16.3 + 5.1 = 

21.4%. It was increased in 11th plan os 15.7 + 2.6 = 18.3%. It shows the globalization Impact. 

Table No. 4 

Forecast of Employment increase in 11th plan 

Items 2006-07 2011-12 

1. Population 1128.1 1208.0 

2. Total force 438.9 483.6 

3. Employment opportunities 402.2 460.3 

4. Unemployed 36.7 23.3 

5. Unempoloyment Rate 8.36% 4.83% 


During the 11th Plan rate of unemployment targetted to reduce from 8.36% to 4.83%. 

Table No. 5 

Sectorwise generation of Additional Employment 

Seetors 10th Plan Achievement 11the Plan Projection 

Agriculture ............................... 8.84 0.00 

Mining and Quarrying ................ 0.17 0.00 

Manufacturing .......................... 8.64 11.94 

Electricity, water ek................... 0.18 0.02 

Construction.............................. 6.44 11.92 

Trade, Hotels & Restaurant ....... 10.70 17.40 

Transport, storage & communication 4.04 9.02 

Finance, Insurance, Real Estate 

and Business Services............... 3.12 3.43 

Community, Social & Personal 

Services................................... 4.59 4.34 

Total ....................................... 46.71 58.07 

In the 10th plan higest employment was created in Trade, Hotels and Resturant i. e. 10.70 

millions. Agricultural sector following it as 8.84 millions and manufacturing sector remained 

3rd by showing 8.64 millions of employments. 

18

In 11th Plan Trade, Hotels & Resturant showed highest employment estimation, (17.40 

millions). Manufacturing sector was following it (11.94 millions) & construction sector 

setimated 11.92 millions employments. However, employment creation in agriculture shows 

declining trend of estimation as 8.84 millions to 0.0. This estimation is not found realistic. 

Poverty Eradication : During the periiod of 11th Plan target of poverty removal 

determined by 10%. It means it was reduced from 28% to 18%. In order to determine the 

population below poverty line per capita expenditure criterion was used. This criterion was 

determined Rs. 356 and Rs. 458 per month respectively to the rural and urban people in the 

year 2004-05. Today it is not applicable due to rise in consumption expenditure of the people. 

So, planning commission of India is thinking to change this criterion. If the same criterion is 

used it will lead to increase the total population below poverty line in India. 

Removal of Regional Imbalances : 

The target of GDP rate was determined in the 11th Plan. If every state has tried to achieve 

this 9% of GDP rate per year, it will help to removal of regional imbalances in India. 

Evaluation of 11th Plan : The basic objective of this plan is faster and more inclusive 

growth. Keeping ahead this object this plan has fixed it's different targets. 

Review of success of these targets is taken as follows : 

1) Difficult to achieve 9% of GDP growth rate : In order to achieve 9% rate of GDP 

growth, this plan had assumed 4%, 10 to 11% and 9 to 11% rate of growth of agricultural, 

Industrial and service sector. But it is difficult to achieve the 4% rate of agricultural growth. It 

was remained 2.1% during the 10the Plan. Woldwide recession is existing so, Industrial secto 

and tertiary sectors growth rate also doubtful to achieve. If these rates are not achieved, it is 

difficult to achieve the 9% GDP growth rate. So it is not possible to achieve the faster and 

more inclusive growth. 

2) Removal of Poverty : When the poverty prevailing in economy may rapidly be declined, 

then it is called more inclusive growth. This plan aims to remove the poverty from 28% to 

18% still 2017. It means that reduction of poverty per year is 1%. It is less than the proportion 

of poverty in the year 1973-74. If the International definition of poverty is applied 2 per capita 

expenditure per day India's 80% of population will come under the sphere of poverty. So, 

poverty removal programme would not be successed. 

3) Removal of Unemployment :This plan aims to create 58 lack of employment 

opportunities. During the period of 11the plan there will be addition of 45 millions of new 

work force. 35 millions labours were already unemployed. This will sum up 80 milliions of 

unemployed workers. Out of those only 58 millions were get jobs and remaing will be get 

19

unemployed. Hence the target of this plan to decline the rate of unemployment from 8.36% to 

4.83% would not become successful at the end of this plan. 

4) Difficult to achieve 4% of agricultural growth rate : This plan aims to achieve the 

4% of growth rate per year of agricultural sector. It requires various measures as supply of 

credit, remunerative prices, public Investment, Irrigation facilities, Rural Electrification and 

Infrastructural development, Watershed development etc. A part from these measure agricultural 

sector having high risks and uncertainties. If above measures are not applied & risks & 

uncertainties would become dominant, it is hard to achieve the targetted rate of growth 4% per 

year. 

References : 

1. R. Datta & KDM - Indian Economy, S Chand & Co. Ltd, New Delhi 

Sundhram (2009) 

2. 'Planning Commission' - An Approach to the 11th five year plan (2006) 

3. 'Planning Commission' - "11th five year Plan" Vol I, II & III. (2007) 

20 

��

B. Com. Part-III : Business Environment 

Unit 6 : Sub point 

C) Objectives of 12th Plan (2012-2017) 

India's 12th five year plan was commenced from 1st April 2012. Planning Commissiion 

has accepted this plan in it's meeting held on 20th August 2011 and approved by the Central 

Government in the meeting held on September 2011. The 56th meeting of National Development 

Council headed by Priminister Dr. Manmohansingh held at New Delhi on 22nd October 2011, 

it was accepted with some conditons. It's main objectives are as follows. 

Objectives : 

1. Basic objective of 12th plan is faster, 

2. To achieve the 9% rate of growth of GDP. 

3. In order achieve the 9% of GDP rate of growth Agricultural rate of growth is to be 

achieved 4% per year. 

4. Industrial growth rate should be actieved 9.6% per year. 

5. Service sector's growth rate should be achieved 10% per annum. 

6. The Rate of Investment is to be achieved 38.7% per annum of GDP. 

7. The rate saving to GDP is to be achieved 36.2% per year. 

8. Fiscal deficit is to be reduced up to 3.25% of the GDP. 

9. Wholesale price Index should be kept in the range of 4.5 to 5% per annum. 

10. Manufacturing sector should grow at 11 to 12% per year and create 2-million additional 

Jobs per year. 

11. Universalisation of secondary education by 2017. 

12. It aims to raise the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in higher education to 20% by 

2017 and 25% by 2022. 

13. Expenditure on health by centre and states should increase from 1.3% to at last 2% of 

GDP and upto 2.5% of GDP by the end of 12th Plan. 

14. Clean drinking water, Sanitation and better nutrition, childcare etc is needed. 

15. A Target to achieve 100000 MW capacity of power sector in 12th Plan. 

16. Provision of Based urban services as water, sewerage, sanitation, housing, public 

Transport etc. especailly to urban poors. 

These are some important objectives of 12th Five Year Plan in India. 

21

In order to achieve these objectives better performance in agriculturre, faster jobs creation 

particulary in manufacturing sector, stronger efforts at health, education and skill development, 

Improve effectiveness of programmes directly aimed to the poor, special programmes for socially 

vulnerable groups, special plans for backward regions are needed. 

22 

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ì`m»`m hm°b§S> `m§Zr nwT>rb eãXmV Ho$br Amho, ""gmd©^m¡_gÎmoZo (emgZmZo) _mZdmMo ~mødV©Z {Z`§{ÌV 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r Ho$bobo {Z`_ `mg H$m`Xm Ago åhUVmV. `m ì`m»`mZo H$m`ÚmMm g§~§Y hm _mZdmÀ`m ~mødV©Zmer 

AgVmo ho ñnîQ> Ho$bo Amho. gmb_§S> `m§À`m _Vo, ""Ý`m`XmZmÀ`m à{H«$òV XoemVrb emgZmZo g§_V Ho$bobo d bmJy 

Ho$bobo {gÕm§V Am{U VÎdo `m§Mm g§J«h åhUOo H$m`Xm hmò '' Ago ho H$m`Xo XoemVrb ZmJ[aH$m§Mo OrdZ g_¥Õ 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgVmV Am{U `m§À`m A§_b~OmdUr_wio ZmJ[aH$m§À`m dV©Zmda EH$ àH$maMo {Z`§ÌU amhVo. 

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H$m`Xm g§_V H$aÊ`mMm _yb^yV CÔoe g_mOmVrb _mZd, ì`ŠVr Am{U emgZ `m§À`mVrb AgUmè`m g§~§YmMo 

{Z`_Z H$aUo hm AgVmo. WmoS>Š`mV g_mOmVrb Amnë`m ì`dhmamg§~§Yr emgZg§ñWoZo Ho$boë`m {Z`_m§Zm H$m`Xm 

Ago åhUVmV. 

1.2 {df`-{ddoMZ : 

`m KQ>H$mV AmnU ì`mnmar H$m`Úm§Mm AW©, ñdê$n, ì`mnmar H$m`Úm§À`m {Z{_©VrMo _mJ©, H$ama H$m`ÚmMo 

ñdê$n, H$amam§Mo dJuH$aU, H$m`Xoera H$amamÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r, H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm d Ë`mMo {Z`_, H$ama 

g_márÀ`m {d{dY nÕVr Am{U H$ama^§Jm_wio CnbãY AgUmè`m Cnm``moOZm `m§Mr _m{hVr KoUma AmhmoV. 

1.2.1 ì`mnmar H$m`ÚmMr ì`m»`m d ñdê$n : 

XoemVrb g§gXoH$Sy>Z _mb_Îmm, H§$nÝ`m, naH$s` MbZ {Z`§ÌU, MbZj_ XñVEodOo, H$m_Jma, Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

H$bh `mgma»`m AZoH$ {df`mda {d{dY àH$maMo H$m`Xo g§_V Ho$bo OmVmV. H$m`Xo g§_V H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma 

hm g§gXobm AgVmo. g§gXoZo g§_V Ho$boë`m H$m`Úm§n¡H$s H$mhr H$m`Xo ho ì`mnma, dm{UÁ`, ì`dgm`, CÚmoJ 

Am{U Ë`m§À`mer AZwf§{JH$ AgUmè`m ~m~r `m§À`mer g§~§{YV AgVmV. Aem ì`dgm` CÚmoJ, ì`mnma Am{U 

ì`mnmamer AZwf§{JH$ AgUmè`m ì`dham§Mo {Z`§ÌU Am{U {Z`_Z H$aUmè`m H$m`Úm§Zm ì`mnmar H$m`Xo Ago 

åhUVmV. `m_Üò H$amaH$m`Xm, _mb{dH«$sMm H$m`Xm, ^m{JXmar g§ñWmMm H$m`Xm, MbZj_ XñVEodO H$m`Xm, 

ghH$mar g§ñWmMm H$m`Xm, H§$nZr H$m`Xm, J«mhH$ g§ajU H$m`Xm BË`m{X H$m`Úm§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. ì`mnmar 

H$m`Xo hr H$m`ÚmMr ñdV§Ì Aer emIm ZgyZ Vmo ZmJar H$m`Úm§Mm EH$ ^mJ Amho. Vmo EH$ ñdV§Ì Agm H$m`Xm 

ZgyZ Vmo da Z_yX Ho$ë`mà_mUo H$m`ÚmMm g§M Amho. `mV ì`dgm`mer g§~§{YV Aem AZoH$ H$m`ÚmMm g_mdoe 

hmoVmo. ì`mdgm{`H$ H$m`Xo ho {d{dY ì`dgm{`H$m§Zm Amnbo ì`dhma H$go H$amdoV `m~m~V _mJ©Xe©Z H$aVmV. 

`mg§X^m©V ì`mnmar H$m`ÚmMo ñdê$n ho {dñV¥V Amho. Aem {d{dY H$m`ÚmH$Sy>Z XoemVrb ì`mnma, CÚmoJ Am{U 

ì`dgm` `m§Mo {Z`§ÌU Am{U {Z`_Z Ho$bo OmVo åhUyZ `m§Zm ì`mnmar H$m`Xo Ago g§~moYVmV. `m§Mr ì`m»`m 

nwT>rb {dMmad§Vm§Zr {Xë`m AmhoV. 

1. ñQ>°ba : `m§À`m _Vo CÚmoJ, ì`mnma, ì`dgm` BË`mXr joÌm_Üò ì`mnmar Am{U ì`dgm{`H$m§_Üò Oo 

ì`dhma hmoVmV, Ë`m ì`dhmam§_YyZ {Z_m©U hmoUmè`m h¸$m§À`m Am{U H$V©ì`m§À`m g§X^m©V H$m`ÚmMm Omo ^mJ 

dmnabm OmVmo Ë`mg ì`mnmar H$m`Xo Ago åhUVmV. 

2. Ho$. goZ : `m§À`m _Vo, ì`mnmar H$m`Úm_Üò Aem gd© H$m`Úm§Mm d {Z`_m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo H$s 

Oo ì`mnmar, ì`mdgm{`H$ Am{U ~±H$m `m§À`m_m\©$V hmoUmè`m gd©gm_mÝ` ì`dhmam§er g§~§Y AgVmo Am{U 

ì`mnmajoÌmV H$m`© H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVr_Üò g§~§Y àñWm{nV Ho$bm OmVmo. 

3. àm. Ohm±Jra, E_. Oo. goR>Zm : `m§À`m _Vo ì`mnmar H$m`Xo åhUOo ì`mnmè`m§Mo H$m`Xo H$s Á`m 

ì`mnmè`m§À`m ì`dhmamVrb gd© KQ>Zm§er g§~§Y AgVmo. `mV ì`mnmamer {ZJ{S>V AZoH$ {df`m§À`m H$m`Úm§Mm 

g_mdoe hmoVmo Am{U ì`mnmamVrb àËòH$ ì`dhmamda {Z`§ÌU Am{U n[aUm_ H$aUmè`m H$m`Xoera VÎdm§Mm g_mdoe 

hmoVmo. 

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`mdarb ì`m»`m§dê$Z Ago ñnï> hmoVo H$s, ì`mnmè`m§_Yrb nañnam§Mo g§~§Y {Z`§ÌU Am{U {Z`_Z 

H$aUmè`m H$m`Úm§Zm ì`mnmar H$m`Xo Ago åhUVmV. WmoS>Š`mV ì`mnma{df`H$ ì`dhmamg§~§Yr emgZg§ñWoZo 

Ho$boë`m {Z`_m§Zm ì`mnma{df`H$ H$m`Xo åhUyZ AmoiIbo OmVo. 

1.2.2 ì`mnmar H$m`Úm§À`m {Z{_©VrMo _mJ© (Sources of Business Law) : 

^maVm_Yrb ì`mnmar H$m`Xo ho àm_w»`mZo B§J«Or ì`mnmar H$m`ÚmnmgyZ V`ma Ho$bo Jobobo AmhoV. _yiÀ`m 

B§J«Or ì`mnmar H$m`ÚmVrb H$mhr ^mJ dJiyZ Am{U H$mhr ^mJmV ^maVmVrb àmá n[apñWVrg Cn`wŠV R>aVrb 

Aem gwYmaUm H$ê$Z ^maVr` ì`mnmar H$m`Xo V`ma H$aÊ`mV Ambo AmhoV. Aem ^maVr` ì`mnmar H$m`Úm§À`m 

{Z{_©VrMo _mJ© (ñÌmoV) Imbrbà_mUo AmhoV. 

ì`mnmar H$m`Úm§À`m {Z{_©VrMo _mJ© 

B§J«Or ì`mnma ^maVr` d¡Ym{ZH$ _mJrb Ý`m`mb`rZ ì`mnmar ê$T>r- 

H$m`Xo H$m`Xo Ý`m` {ZdmS>o na§nam 

1. B§J«Or ì`mnmar H$m`Xo (English Mercantile Laws) : B§J«Or ì`mnmar H$m`Xo ho ^maVr` ì`mnmar 

H$m`Xo {Z{_©VrMo à_wI ñÌmoV AmhoV. B§J«Or ì`mnmar H$m`Xo ho _w»`Ëdo B§½b§S>_Yrb ì`mnmè`m§À`m ì`dhmamVrb 

ê$T>r, na§nam, g§Ho$V, B§½bre H$m°_Z bm°, amo_Z bm°, g_mZVoMo VÎd, {~«Q>re g§gXoMo n[a{Z`_ Am{U B§J«Or 

Ý`m`mb`mMo Ý`m`{ZdmS>o `mda AmYmabobo AgVmV, Ago B§J«Or ì`mnmar H$m`Xo ho ^maVr ì`mnmar H$m`ÚmMo 

à_wI AmYma AmhoV. ^maVmV {~«Q>rem§Mo emgZ AgVmZm gd©àW_ ì`mna{df`H$ H$m`Xo g§_V H$aÊ`mMm à`ËZ 

H$aÊ`mV Ambm. `mVyZM ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm 1872 ApñVËdmV Ambm. `m H$m`ÚmÀ`m {Z{_©Vrnydu 1781 

nmgyZ ^maVmVrb _Ðmg, H$bH$Îmm Am{U _w§~B© òWrb Ý`m`mb`mV Xmì`mVrb njm§À`m d¡`ŠVrH$ H$m`Úm§À`m 

AmYmao Ý`m` {ZdmS>m Ho$bm OmV hmoVm. VgoM OoWo A{YH¥$V d¡`ŠVrH$ H$m`ÚmMm dmna H$aUo AeŠ` Ago 

Ë`m{R>H$mUr B§J«Or H$m`ÚmMm dmna H$ê$Z Ý`m`{ZdmS>m H$aÊ`mV òV Ago. 

2. ^maVr` d¡Ym{ZH$ H$m`Xo (Indian Statutory Laws) : ^maVm_Üò gd© àMbrV H$m`Xo g§_V 

H$aÊ`mMm H|${Ð` nmVirda A{YH$ma ^maVr` g§gXobm qH$dm bmoH$gôbm AgyZ amÁ`nmVirda H$m`Xo g§_V 

H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma amÁ` Ý`m` H$m`Xo_§S>img AmhoV. ^maVr` g§gXoZo EImÚm {df`mda ñdV§Ì H$m`Xm g§_V 

H$ê$Z Á`m H$m`ÚmMr {Z{_©Vr H$aÊ`mV òVo Ë`mg d¡Ym{ZH$ H$m`Xm Ago åhUVmV. `m_Üò ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm 

1872, _mb {dH«$s H$m`Xm 1930, MbZj_ XñVEodO H$m`Xm 1881, ^maVr` [aPìh© ~±H$ H$m`Xm 1935, 

`w{ZQ> Q´>ñQ> Am°\$ B§{S>`m `m H$m`Xm 1962 BË`mXtMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. Ago ho gd© d¡Ym{ZH$ H$m`Xo ^maVr` 

ì`mnmar H$m`Úm§À`m {Z{_©VrMo _mJ© AmhoV. 1950 _Üò ^maV àOmgÎmmH$ Pmë`mZ§Va gd© H$m`Xo ho bmoH$gôoZo 

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_§Oya Ho$bo d Ë`mZ§Va Amdí`H$VoZwgma Ë`mV doimodoir Xwê$ñË`m Ho$ë`m Joë`m. 

3. _mJrb Ý`m`mb`rZ Ý`m` {ZdmS>o (Past Judicial decisions) : ^maVr` KQ>ZoZwgma Or {ÌñVar` 

Ý`m`mb`rZ ì`dñWm ApñVËdmV Amho Ë`mVrb gdm}ƒ Ý`m`mb`, Cƒ Ý`m`mbò Am{U Xwæ`_ Ý`m`mbò `m§Zr 

doJdoJù`m IQ>ë`mÀ`m gwZmdUr_Üò {Xbobo _mJrb Ý`m`mb`rZ {ZH$mb Am{U B§J«Or Ý`m`mb`mZo IQ>ë`m_Üò 

{Xbobo _mJrb {ZH$mb ho XoIrb ^maVr` ì`mnmar H$m`ÚmÀ`m {Z{_©VrMo à_wI AmYma _mZbo OmVmV. Ooìhm 

EImÚm Ý`m`mb`mnwT>o gwZmdUrgmR>r Amboë`m IQ>ë`mV EImÚm {df`mda H$m`Xm åhUUo gm§JV Zgob Va 

Ý`m`m{YemZo Amnbr gX²gX²{ddoH$ ~wÕr OmJ¥V R>odyZ Aem IQ>ë`mMm {ZH$mb _mJrb Ý`m`mb`rZ {ZH$mbnÌm§À`m 

AmYmao Ý`m`VÎdmda {Xbm nm{hOo. Agm Ý`m`VÎdmda {ZH$mb XoVmZm Ë`m§Zr _mJrb IQ>ë`mVrb {Xboë`m 

{ZU©`m§Mo AZwH$aU H$ê$Z Ë`m§À`m g_moa Amboë`m IQ>ë`m§Mm {ZH$mb XoUo Ano{jV AgVo. 

4. ì`mnmar éT>r-na§nam (Customs and Usages) : XoemVrb ì`mnma nÕVr_Üò àM{bV Agboë`m 

ê$T>r-na§nam qH$dm àWm `m XoIrb ^maVr` ì`mnmar H$m`Úm§À`m {Z{_©VrMo à_wI ñÌmoV AmhoV. `m ì`mnmar 

ê$T>r-na§nam Am{U g§Ho$V ho ì`mnmè`m§Zr Ë`m§À`m ì`mnmamVrb ì`dhma H$go H$amdoV `mMo {Z`_ Xe©{dVmV. 

Aem ê$T>r-na§nam§Mm H$m`ÚmÀ`m {Z{_©Vr_Üò _hÎd ñnï> H$aÊ`mgmR>r ^maVr` H$m`Xo_§S>imZo H$mhr H$m`ÚmMo 

ñnï> C„oI H$ê$Z ê$T>r-na§namda ZdrZ H$m`ÚmVrb VaVyXtMm H$mhrhr n[aUm_ hmoUma Zmhr Ago Z_yX Ho$bo Amho. 

Ooìhm Aem ê$T>r-na§nam H$moQ>m©H$Sy>Z _mÝ` Ho$ë`m OmVmV Am{U Ë`m§Mm Ý`m`mb`rZ {ZH$mbnÌm_Üò g_mdoe 

H$aÊ`mV òVmo V|ìhm Ë`m ê$T>r-na§nam `m H$m`ÚmMm A{d^mÁ` ^mJ ~ZVmV d Ë`m§Zm H$m`Xoera _mZÊ`mV òVo. 

1.2.3 ^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmMo ñdê$n Am{U H$amam§Mo àH$ma : 

OJm_Üò H$moUVrhr ì`ŠVr dm amï´> ho ñd`§nyU© ZmhrV H$maU àËòH$ ì`ŠVrg Am{U amï´>mg Amnë`m JaOm 

nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r Xwgè`m ì`ŠVr dm amï´>mer H$ama H$aUo An[ahm`© R>aVo. H$amam_wioM ì`mnma A{ñVËdmV òVmo Am{U 

amï´>mamï´>m_Üò dñVy Am{U godm§Mr XodmU-KodmU hmodyZ ì`ŠVrMo, g_mOmMo Am{U n`m©`mZo amï´>m§Mo OdrZ gwIr d 

g_¥Õ ~ZVo. ^maVm_Üò gßQ>|~a 1872 nmgyZ ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm A§_bmV Ambm Amho. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm 

hm Ho$di ì`mnmar H$amamgmR>r Cn`wŠV Zmhr Va Vmo ì`ŠVtÀ`m X¡Z§{XZ OrdZmVrb AZoH$ ì`dhma nma nmS>Ê`mgmR>r 

Cn`wŠV R>aVmo. H$maU AmnUmn¡H$s àËòH$ ì`ŠVr hr Amnë`m X¡Z§{XZ OrdZmV H$iV AWdm Z H$iV AZoH$ 

àH$maMo H$ama H$arV AgVo. Aem H$amam_Üò gwgyÌVm Am{U {Z`_~ÕVm AmUÊ`mgmR>r àËòH$ XoemÀ`m gaH$maZo 

H$mhr H$m`Xo g§_V Ho$bo AmhoV Ë`m§Zm H$ama H$m`Xo Ago åhUVmV. `m H$m`Úm_Üò H$amam§Mr {Z{_©Vr H$er hmoVo, 

H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm H$er Ho$br OmVo d H$ama g_márVyZ ì`ŠVrMr _wŠVVm H|$ìhm hmoVo VgoM EImÚm ì`ŠVrZo H$ama^§J 

Ho$bm Va {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVrg Xmofr ì`ŠVr{déÕ H$moUË`m H$m`Xoera Cnm``moOZm CnbãY AgVmV `m {df`rMo {Z`_ 

gm§{JVbobo AmhoV. `mM~amo~a H$mhr {d{eï> àH$maMo H$ama H$go nma nmS>mdoV `m~m~VMo {Z`_ gm§{JVbobo AmhoV. 

1. H$ama åhUOo H$m` ? 

H$ama H$m`ÚmZo ì`ŠVtZm H$ama H$aÊ`mMo ñdmV§Í` {Xbo Amho. åhUOo ì`ŠVr `m Amnë`m BÀN>oà_mUo 

H$amamVrb AQ>r R>ady eH$VmV. _mÌ H$ama H$m`ÚmZo ì`ŠVtÀ`m `m ñdmV§Í`mda H$mhr _`m©Xm KmVë`m AmhoV. 

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Ogo H$s H$amamV XmoZ gkmZ ì`ŠVr Agmì`mV, Ë`m§Mr _wŠV g§_Vr Agmdr, Ë`m§Zm H$ama H$aÊ`mnmgyZ 

H$moUË`mhr H$m`ÚmZo à{V~§Y Ho$bobo Zgmdo Am{U Vmo ì`W© Zgmdm. Ooìhm `m AQ>r R>amdmH$Sy>Z nyU© hmoVmV V|ìhmM 

H$ama ApñVËdmV òVmo d Vmo H$m`Xoera hmoVmo. Aem H$m`Xoera H$amam§Mr ^maVr` Ý`m`mb`mH$Sy>Z A§_b~OmdUr 

Ho$br OmVo. Oo R>amd `m AQ>tMr nyV©Vm H$arV ZmhrV Ë`m§Zm ì`W© H$ama g_OVmV d Aem H$amam§Mr H$m`ÚmZo 

A§_b~OmUr Ho$br OmV Zmhr. Imbrb à{gÕ H$m`XoVkm§Zr H$amamÀ`m ì`m»`m {Xë`m AmhoV. 

1. ga nmobm°H$ : H$m`ÚmZo Á`m R>amdm§Mr Am{U dMZm§Mr nyV©Vm Ho$br OmVo Ë`mg H$ama Ago åhUVmV. 

2. gmb_§S> : Á`m R>amdm_wio ì`ŠVr_Üò H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U Ho$bo OmVmV Am{U Ë`mVyZ O~m~Xmè`m 

{ZpíMV H$aÊ`mV òVmV Ë`m R>amdm§Zm H$ama Ago åhUVmV. 

3. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm - 1872 : ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm H$b_ 2 (h) à_mUo, Á`m R>amdm§Mr 

H$m`ÚmZo A§_b~OmdUr H$aVm òVo Aem gd© R>amdm§Zm H$ama Ago åhUVmV. Xwgè`m eãXmV gm§Jmd`mMo Pmë`mg 

Á`m R>amdm§Mr Ý`m`mb`mV A§_b~OmdUr H$aVm òVo Am{U Oo R>amd ì`ŠVr_Üò H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$aVmV 

AemM R>amdm§Zm H$ama åhUVmV. 

`m darb ì`m»`m§À`m {díbofUmdê$Z Ago AmT>iyZ òVo H$s, H$amam§Mo XmoZ à_wI KQ>H$ AgVmV. 

1. XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Yrb R>amd - An Agreement 

2. R>amdm§Mr H$m`ÚmZo A§_b~OmdUr hmoUo - A Enforceability of an agreement) 

åhUyZ, H$ama = R>amd + R>amdmMr H$m`Xoera A§_b~OmdUr. 

XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò R>amd hmoÊ`mgmR>r EH$m ì`ŠVrZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg EImXo H¥$Ë` H$aÊ`mgmR>r AWdm Z 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r àñVmd Ho$bm nm{hOo. Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrZo Ë`m àñVmdmg Amnbr g§_Vr {Xbr nm{hOo. åhUOo àñVmd 

Am{U àñVmdmMr pñdH¥$Vr åhUOo R>amd hmo`. Aem R>amdmMr H$m`Úmà_mUo A§_b~OmdUr hmoUo åhUOo R>amdmMo 

H$amamV ê$nm§Va hmoUo hmo`. R>amdm§Mr H$m`ÚmZo A§_b~OmdUr H$aUo åhUOo Ý`m`mb`m§Zr g§~§{YV ì`ŠVtZm 

H$amamV {Xboë`m dMZm§Mr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mg ^mJ nmS>Uo qH$dm R>amdmVrb ì`ŠVtZr {Xboë`m dMZm§Mr nyV©Vm 

Ho$br Zmhr Va g§~§{YV dMZ nyU© Z H$aUmè`m Xmofr ì`ŠVrg {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVrbm ZwH$gmZânmB© XoÊ`mg ^mJ 

nmS>Uo hmo`. àËòH$ R>amd hm XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$aUmam Agbm n{hOo VaM Vmo R>amd 

A§_b~OmdUrÀ`m `mo½`VoMm g_Obm OmVmo. `mdarb Vn{ebmdê$Z AmnUmg Ago åhUVm òB©b H$s H$amam§Mr 

nwT>rbà_mUo XmoZ _hÎdmMr d¡{eï>ço AgVmV - 

R>iH$ H$b_o - 1. XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Yrb R>amd, 2. R>amd H$m`ÚmZwgma A§_b~OmdUrMr `mo½`Vm. 

2. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm 1872 - ñdê$n : 

ì`mdgm{`H$ OJVm_Üò {d{dY ì`dhma hmoV AgVmV. CÚmoOH$, H$m_Jma, ~±H$m, {dÎmg§ñWm, Jw§VdUyH$Xma, 

{d_m H§$nÝ`m, dmhVyH$ H§$nÝ`m, Om{hamV g§ñWm BË`mXr AmnmngmV {d{dY ì`dhma H$arV AgVmV. `m 

ì`dhmamVyZ Oer H$m`Xoera O~m~Xmar {Z_m©U hmoVo VgoM H$mhr A{YH$magwÕm {_iVmV. àËòH$ ì`ŠVrZo qH$dm 

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g§ñWoZo Amnbr H$m`Xoera O~m~Xmar nma nmS>mdr, Am{W©H$ ì`dhmam§Zm ñW¡`©, gwa{jVVm bm^mdr d ì`dhma 

H$aUmè`m§Zm Ano{jV \$m`Xm ìhmdm åhUyZ H$ama H$m`ÚmMr aMZm Am{U {Z{_©Vr H$aÊ`mV Ambr Amho. 

^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm 1 gßQ>|~a 1872 amoOr Oå_y-H$mí_ra dJiVm g§nyU© ^maVâ bmJy H$aÊ`mV 

Ambm. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Úm_Üò EHy$U 1 Vo 238 H$b_o AmhoV. H$ama H$m`Úm§Mr XmoZ ^mJmV {d^mJUr 

Ho$bobr Amho. `mVrb H$b_ 1 Vo 75 `m n{hë`m ^mJmV H$amam§Mr {Z{_©Vr, H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm Am{U H$amam§Mr 

g_már `m§Mo {Z`_ Am{U VÎdo {Xbr AmhoV. `m§ZmM gd©gmYmaU H$amam§Mr _ybVÎdo Ago åhUVmV. hr gd© VÎdo 

ì`ŠVr_Yrb gd© n«H$maÀ`m H$amam§Zm ~§YZH$maH$ hmoVmV. Xwgè`m ^mJmV H$b_ 124 Vo 238 _Üò {deof 

H$amam§Mr _ybVÎdo g_m{dï> H$aÊ`mV Ambobr AmhoV. `m_Üò ZwH$gmZânmB© Am{U h_rMo H$ama, {ZjonmMo d 

VmaUmMo H$ama Am{U A{^H$V¥©Ëd qH$dm à{V{ZYrËdmMo H$ama `m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. `m {deof H$amam§Zm 

gd©gmYmaU H$amamMr VÎdo bmJy hmoV ZmhrV åhUyZ hr gd©gmYmaU H$amam§À`m {Z`_mnmgyZ doJir Ho$bo AmhoV. 

3. H$amam§Mo àH$ma (Classification of Contracts) : 

H$amam§Mr ì`m»`m g_OmdyZ KoVë`mZ§Va H$amam§Mo àH$ma Aä`mgUo Amdí`H$ Amho. H$amam§Mo dJuH$aU 

ho Imbrbà_mUo Ho$bo OmVo. 

H$amam§Mo dJuH$aU 

H$m`Xoera A§_b~OmdUrZwgma {Z{_©VrZwgma nyV©VoZwgma 

H$m`Xoera H$ama ì`Á`©Zr` H$ama ì`W© H$ama ~oH$m`Xoera H$ama A§_b~OmdUr `mo½` 

Zgbobm H$ama 

ì`ŠV H$ama J¥{hV H$ama Am^mgr H$ama 

nyV©Vm Pmbobm H$ama nyV©Vm A§eVm nyV©Vm Pmbobm 

ìhmd`mMm H$ama d ìhmd`mMm H$ama 

7

(A) H$m`Xoera A§_b~OdUrZwgma H$amam§Mo àH$ma (On the basis of Enforceability) : 

H$amam§Mr H$m`ÚmZwgma A§_b~OmdUr hmoV Agob qH$dm A§_b~OmdUr hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm Agob Va Ë`m 

H$amam§Zm H$m`Xoera AW© AgVmo. Aem A§_b~OmdUrÀ`m Ñ{ï>H$moUmVyZ H$amam§Mo nwT>rb àH$ma AmhoV. 

1) H$m`Xoera H$ama (Valid Contract) : Á`m H$amam§Mr H$m`Úmà_mUo A§_b~OmdUr H$aVm òVo Am{U 

Oo H$ama ì`ŠVr_Üò H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$aVmV Ë`m§Zm H$m`Xoera H$ama åhUVmV. H$m`Xoera H$amamg d¡Y 

H$ama Agohr åhUVmV. Ë`mV H$amamMr gd© _yb^yV VÎdo g_m{dï> AgVmV. 

2) dÁ`©Zr` H$ama (Voidable Contract) : Ooìhm EImÚm H$amamMr A§_b~OdUr H$aUo qH$dm 

A§_b~OmdUr Z H$aUo ho H$amamer g§~§{YV EH$m njmÀ`m BÀN>oda Adb§~yZ AgVo, na§Vw Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg/ 

njmg Vgm A{YH$ma ZgVmo Voìhm Ë`mg dÁ`©Zr` H$ama Ago åhUVmV. Á`m H$amam_Üò ì`ŠVtMr g§_Vr hr 

~bà`moJ, AZw{MV à^md, H$nQ> Am{U AgË` {dYmZ `m H$maUmZo {_i{dbobr AgVo V|ìhm Vmo dÁ`©Zr` H$ama 

hmoVmo. Ë`m_wio Á`m ì`ŠVrMr g§_Vr `m H$maUmZo {_i{dbobr AgVo Ë`mM ì`ŠVrg H$ama A_bmV AmUÊ`mMm 

qH$dm aÔ H$aÊ`mMm h¸$ àmá hmoVmo. Oa Aem ì`ŠVrZo H$ama aÔ Ho$bm Zmhr Va Vmo H$ama H$m`Xoera hmoVmo. Aem 

H$amam_Üò H$mama ì`ŠVrMr g§_Vr hr _wŠV AgV Zmhr. 

3) ì`W©/ ewÝ` H$ama (Void Contract) : Á`m H$amam§Mr H$m`ÚmZo A§_b~OmdUr H$aVm òV Zmhr 

Am{U Omo H$ama ì`ŠVr_Üò H$moUVohr H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$arV Zmhr Ë`mg ì`W©/eyÝ` H$ama Ago 

åhUVmV. O|ìhm EImÚm H$amamMr A§_b~OmdUrMr `mo½`Vm g§nVo V|ìhm Vmo H$ama ì`W© hmoVmo. Aem H$amam§Mr 

A§_b~OmdUr H$amamVrb XmoÝhr ì`ŠVr H$ê$ eH$V ZmhrV Am{U Ý`m`mb`m§Zm Aem H$amam§À`m nyV©VoMm AmJ«h 

YaVm òV Zmhr. `mV AkmZmMo H$ama, à{V\$bm{edm` AgUmao H$ama, ~oH$m`Xoera CÔoe AgUmao R>amd, 

MyH$sMr g§_Vr {Xbobo R>amd, n¡OoMo R>amd, A{ZpíMV AWm©Mo R>amd BË`mqXMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. ho gd© R>amd ì`W© 

H$ama g_OÊ`mV òVmV. 

4) ~oH$m`Xoera H$ama (Illegal Contract) : Á`m R>amdm§Mo CÔoe Am{U à{V\$b ~oH$m`Xoera AgVmV 

A{U ^maVmVrb àM{bV H$m`ÚmZwgma à{V~§{YV (Prohibited) H¥$Ëò H$aUo qH$dm g_mO{hV {damoYr H¥$Ëò 

H$aÊ`mMo AgVmV Ë`m§Zm ~oH$m`Xoera H$ama åhUVmV. gd© ~oH$m`Xoera H$ama ho ì`W© H$ama AgVmV. CXm. {OV|Ð 

Am{U Y_]Ð `m§Zr byQ>_marMm ì`dgm` gwê$ H$aÊ`mMm H$ama Ho$bm. hm H$ama àM{bV H$m`ÚmÀ`m {damoYmV 

Agë`mZo ~oH$m`Xoera VgoM ì`W© hmoVmo. 

5) A§_b~OmdUr `mo½` Zgbobm H$ama (Unenforceable Contract) : Oo H$ama _ybV: H$m`Xoera 

AgVmV na§Vw H$mhr Vm§{ÌH$ Xmofm_wio Aem H$amam§Mr A§_b~Odr H$aVm òV Zmhr Aem H$amam§Zm A§_b~OmdUr 

`mo½` Zgbobo H$ama Ago åhUVmV. CXm. H$ama boIr ZgUo, H$amamMr Zm|XUr Z H$aUo, H$amamg `mo½` a¸$_oMo 

_wÐm§H$ ZgUo, H$mi_`m©XoÀ`m H$m`ÚmZwgma H$amamÀ`m A§_b~OmdUrMm H$mbmdYr g§nUo BË`m{X Vm§{ÌH$ 

~m~t_wio H$amamMr H$m`Úmà_mUo A§_b~OmdUr H$aUo eŠ` hmoV Zmhr. Agm Vm§{ÌH$ Xmof Xya Ho$ë`mZ§Va 

H$m`Úmà_mUo Aem H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm H$aVm òVo. 

(~) H$amam§À`m {Z{_©VrZwgma H$amam§Mo àH$ma (Classification on the basis of formation) : 

H$ama {Z{_©Vr hr EH$ {ZpíMV à{H«$`m Amho. Á`m_Üò àñVmd gmXa H$aUo, àñVmdmMo g§dhZ, àñVmdmMr 

8

pñdH¥$Vr, pñdH¥$VrMo g§dhZ, R>amd d Ë`mMr H$m`Xoera A§_b~OmdUr `m nÕVrZo H$ama ApñVËdmV òVmo d 

g_má hmoVmo. Aem `m H$ama {Z{_©VrÀ`m Ñ{ï>H$moUmVyZ H$amamMo nwT>rb àH$ma nS>VmV. 

1) ì`ŠV / ñnï> H$ama (Express Contract) : Á`m H$amam_Üò H$ama ApñVËdmV òVmZm Aem 

H$amamÀ`m AQ>r ñnï>nUo boIr qH$dm Vm|S>r ñnï> Ho$boë`m AgVmV V|ìhm Ë`mg ì`ŠV qH$dm ñnï> H$ama Ago 

åhUVmV. CXm. g§nVamdmZo Amnbr ñHy$Q>a 10000 é. qH$_Vrg b§nQ>amd `m§Zm {dH$Ê`mMo boIr nÌ nmR>{dbo. 

b§nQ>amdm§Zr Ë`mg boIr g§_VrXe©H$ nÌ nmR>{dbo. `m R>amdmÀ`m AQ>r ñnï>, XmoÝhr njm§Zm _mÝ` Agë`mZo Ë`mg 

ì`ŠV / ñnï> H$ama Ago åhUVm òB©b. 

2) J¥{hV / Üd{ZV H$ama (Implied Contract) : Á`m R>amdm§Mr {Z{_©Vr boIr AWdm Vm|S>r dMZm§Zr 

ì`ŠV hmoV Zmhr Va R>amdmer g§~§{YV njmMr dmJUyH$ dm H¥$Vr `m§À`m _mÜ`_mVyZ hmoVo V|ìhm Ë`m R>amdmg 

Üd{ZV AWdm J¥hrV H$ama Ago åhUVmV. CXm. EImÚm ~wQ>nm°{be H$aUmè`m _wbJm Vwåhmg Z {dMmaVm 

~wQ>nm°bre H$aVmo d Vwåhr Ë`mg {damoY Z H$aVm Vgo H$é XoVm `mMmM AW© Ë`mÀ`m ~wQ>nm°{be H$aÊ`mÀ`m 

àñVmdmg Vw_À`m H¥$VrVyZ g§_Vr AgVo Ë`m _wbmMo Oo H$mhr n[al{_H$ Agob Vo XoUo Vw_À`mda ~§YZH$maH$ 

hmoVo. `m_Üò àñVmd gmXarH$aU, àñVmdmg {Xbobr g§_Vr d R>amdmMr A§_b~OmdUr `m gd© ~m~r H¥$VrÀ` 

_mÜ`_mVyZ H$aÊ`mV òVmV. åhUyZ Aem R>amdm§Zm Üd{ZV / J¥{hV H$ama åhUVmV. 

3) Am^mgr / aMZmË_H$ H$ama (Quasi Contract) : O|ìhm H$ama Pmbobm ZgVmZm {d{eï> n[apñWVrV 

XmoZ njm_Üò H$amamgmaIo g§~§Y {Z_m©U hmoVmV d àM{bV H$m`Xm Aem g§~§YmZm _mÝ`Vm XoVmo d g§~§{YV 

njmda H$amamMr A§_b~OmdUr H$aÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar nS>Vo. H$ama aMZmË_H$ / Am^mgr H$ama AgVmo. V|ìhm 

Ë`mg Am^mgr H$ama ho ì`ŠV qH$dm J¥{hV Agy eH$VmV. CXm. AkmZ ì`ŠVrg OrdZmdí`H$ dñVy§Mm nwadR>m 

H$aUo, hadbobr dñVy gmnS>br Va Ë`mÀ`m Iè`m _mbH$mMm emoY KodyZ Vr dñVy Ë`mg naV H$aUo BË`mXr 

Am^mgr H$amamMr CXmhaUo AmhoV. 

(H$) nyV©VoZwgma H$amam§Mo dJuH$aU (Classification on the basis of Execution) : 

H$ama ApñVËdmV Amë`mZ§Va Aem H$amamMr nyV©Vm H$ama ì`ŠVr `m H$er H$aVmV `mdê$Z H$amamMo 

nwT>rbà_mUo àH$ma nS>VmV. 

1) nyV©Vm Pmbobm H$ama (Executed Contract) : Á`m H$amamV H$amamer g§~§{YV XmoÝhr ì`ŠVr 

H$amamVrb Amnmnbr dMZo nyU© H$aVmV åhUOoM H$amamZwgma {Z_m©U Pmbobr O~m~Xmar nyU©V: nma nmS>VmV 

V|ìhm Ë`mg nyV©Vm Pmbobm H$ama åhUVmV. CXm. amOrdZo nwñVH$ {dH«o$Ë`mg 100 énò XodyZ gm_mÝ` AÜ``ZmMo 

nwñVH$ IaoXr Ho$bo hm nyV©Vm Pmbobm H$ama Amho. 

2) nyV©Vm ìhmd`mMm H$ama (Executory Contract) : Á`m H$amam_Üò H$amamer g§~§{YV XmoÝhr 

nj H$amamVrb Amnmnbr dMZo AÚmn nyU© Ho$bobr ZgVmV qH$dm Ë`m§Zr H$moUVrM O~m~Xmar AÚmn nma 

nmS>bobr ZgVo V|ìhm Aem H$amamg nyV©Vm ìhmd`mMm H$ama Ago åhUVmV. CXm. S>m°. gmR>o `m§Zr gwaoe 

9

`mg é. 2000 à{V _{hZm nJmamda _XVZrg åhUyZ Zo_bo d nwT>À`m _{hÝ`mÀ`m EH$ VmaIonmgyZ 

H$m_mda éOy hmoÊ`mg gm§{JVbo. 

3) A§eV: nyV©Vm Pmbobm d A§eV: nyV©Vm ìhmd`mMm H$ama (Partly Executed and Partly 

Executory Contract) : Á`m H$amam_Üò H$amamer g§~§{YV EH$ ì`ŠVr hr H$amamVrb Amnbo {Xbobo dMZ nyU© 

Ho$bobo AgVo Am{U Xwgar ì`ŠVr hr Amnbo dMZ AÚmn nyU© Ho$bobo AgV Zmhr V|ìhm Aem H$amamg A§eV: 

nyV©Vm Pmbobm Am{U A§eV: nyV©Vm ìhmd`mMm H$ama åhUVmV. CXm. aoëdo Hw$brZo àdmem§Mo gm{hË` aoëdo 

ñQ>oeZdê$Z CMbyZ Q>°Šgr_Üò R>odbo åhUOo aoëdo Hw$brZo Amnë`m dMZmMr nyV©Vm Ho$br. AmVm àdmembm Ë`m 

aoëdoHw$brbm Ë`À`m l_mMm `mo½` _mo~Xbm XodyZ Amnë`m dMZmMr nyV©Vm H$amdr bmJob. 

1.2.4 H$m`Xoera H$ama Am{U H$m`Xoera H$amamÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r (Valid Contract and its 

essentials) : 

H$m`Xoera H$ama : H$amamMr gdm©V n{hbr nmàr åhUOo àñVmd hmo`. Ooìhm EH$ ì`ŠVr Xwgè`m 

ì`ŠVrMr g§_Vr {_i{dÊ`mÀ`m hoVyZo EImXr H$m`Xoera H¥$Vr H$aUo, Z H$aUo qH$dm H¥$Vr H$aÊ`mnmgyZ A{bá 

amhUo `m~m~V BÀN>m àH$Q> H$aVo Ë`mg àñVmd åhUVmV. Xwgar ì`ŠVr `m àñVmdmg A§_b~OmdUr H$aÊ`mÀ`m 

hoVyZo g§_Vr XoVo V|ìhm R>amd ApñVËdmV òVmo. `m R>amdmVyZ {Z_m©U hmoUmao CÎmaXm{`Ëd O|ìhm R>amdmer g§~§{YV 

nj nma nmS>VmV Voìhm Vo H$m`Xoera H$amamMr A§_b~OmdUr H$arV AgVmV. EImXm nj H$amamZwgma {Z_m©U 

Pmbobr O~m~Xmar nma nmS>rV Zgob qH$dm nma nmS>Ê`mg ZH$ma XoV Agob Va Xwgam nj Ë`mÀ`mda H$m`Xoera 

H$m`©dmhr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. H$maU `m XmoÝhr njmV H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U Pmbobo AgVmV. `mCbQ> Ym{_©H$, 

gm_m{OH$ qH$dm Z¡{VH$ ñdê$nmMo R>amd H$m`ÚmZwgma A§_bmV AmUVm òV ZmhrV H$maU Aem R>amdm_Üò 

ì`ŠVr_Üò H$moUVohr H$m`Xoera g§§~§Y {Z_m©U hmoV ZmhrV. CXm. EImÚm {_ÌmZo _¡ÌrnmoQ>r OodZmgmR>r {Xbobo 

Am_§ÌU qH$dm d{S>bm§Zr _wbmg _moQ>magm`H$b IaoXr H$ê$Z XoÊ`mMo {Xbobo dMZ, hr dMZo H$m`Xoera 

O~m~Xmar {Z_m©U H$ê$ eH$V ZmhrV. dMZ _moS>bo åhUyZ {_Ìmda H$m`Xoera H$madmB© H$aVm òUma Zmhr H$maU 

{_Ìm§{_Ìm§_Üò, dS>rb-_wbJm `m§À`m_Üò _¡ÌrMo, ào_mMo, ñZohmMo g§~§Y AgVmV Vo H$m`Xoera hmoV ZmhrV. 

åhUyZ Á`m R>amdm§Mm CÔoe R>amdmer g§~§{YV ì`ŠVr_Üò H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$aUo hm AgVmo Ë`mM 

R>amdm§Zm ^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmZgma H$ama åhUVmV åhUyZ Ago åhQ>bo OmVo H$s, gd© H$ama R>amd AgVmV, 

na§Vw gd© R>amd H$ama AgVrbM Ago Zmhr. Ooìhm EImXm R>amd H$ama H$m`ÚmVrb H$b_ 10 _Yrb {Xboë`m 

AQ>r nyU© H$aVmo V|ìhmM Ë`m R>amdmMo H$m`Xoera H$amamV ê$nm§Va hmoVo. åhUyZ H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 10 

_Üò H$m`Xoera H$amamMr ì`m»`m Imbrbà_mUo {Xbr Amho. 

H$m`Xoera H$amamMr ì`m»`m - H$ama H$m`Xm H$b_ 10 : 

""Oa XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Yrb R>amd H$amanmÌ ì`ŠVtZr Amnë`m _wŠV g§_VrZo Ho$bm Agob, R>amdmMo CÔoe d 

à{V\$b H$m`Xoera Agob Am{U Vmo R>amd H$moUË`mhr H$m`ÚmZo ì`W© R>a{dbm Zgob Va Agm R>amd H$m`Xoera 

10

H$ama hmoVmo. VgoM Vmo R>amd boIr Agmdm dm Zm|X{dbobm Agmdm Aer AQ> Agob Va Vmo boIr dm Zm|X{dbobm 

Agbm nm{hOo. 

`m darb ì`m»òdê$Z Ago åhUVm òB©b H$s, H$m`Xoera H$amamZo H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 10 _Üò 

{Xboë`m gd© AQ>r nyU© Ho$ë`m nm{hOoV. 

H$m`Xoera H$amamÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r 

XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò H$m`Xoera g§~§Y H$amanmÌ _wŠV H$m`Xoera H$m`Xoera 

R>amd hmoUo {Z_m©U H$aÊ`mMm CÔoe ì`ŠVr g§_Vr CÔoe à{V\$b 

R>amd ì`W© R>amd {ZpíMV R>amdmVrb AQ>rMr H$m`Xoera 

Zgbm nm{hOo AWm©Mm Agmdm nyV©Vm eŠ` ~m~tMr nyV©Vm 

1. XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò R>amd hmoUo (An Agreement) : H$m`Xoera H$amamÀ`m {Z{_©VrgmR>r XmoZ 

ì`ŠVr_Üò R>amd ApñVËdmV Ambm nm{hOo. `mgmR>r EH$m ì`ŠVrZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg àñVmd Ho$bm nm{hOo. 

Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrZo Ë`m àñVmdmbm g§_Vr XodyZ pñdH$mabm nm{hOo. àñVmd H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVrg àñVmdH$ Am{U 

àñVmdmbm pñdH¥$Vr XoUmè`m qH$dm Á`mbm àñVmd H$aÊ`mV Ambm Amho Ë`mg àñVmdVm åhUVmV. àñVmd 

Am{U àñVmdmMr pñdH¥$Vr `m XmoÝhr ~m~r H$m`Xoera Agë`m nm{hOoV. O|ìhm àñVmdH$mMm àñVmd àñVmdVm 

pñdH$maVmo V|ìhm XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò R>amd ApñVËdmV òVmo. àñVmd Am{U àñVmdmMr pñdH¥$Vr H$m`Xoera 

hmoÊ`mgmR>r H$m`ÚmVrb AQ>r nyU© Ho$ë`m nm{hOoV. àñVmd hm {dZmAQ> {ZpíMV ñdê$nmV àñVmdË`mbm 

H$i{dbm nm{hOo Am{U àñVmdË`mZo n«ñVmdmMr pñdH¥$Vr àñVmdH$mg H$i{dbr nm{hOo VaM XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò 

R>amd ApñVËdmV òVmo. 

2. H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$aUo (Intention to create legal relationship) : R>amdm§Mr H$m`Xoera 

A_b~OmdUr H$aVm òÊ`mgmR>r R>amdmer g§~§{YV XmoÝhr ì`ŠVr_Üò H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U hmoUo Amdí`H$ 

AgVo. åhUyZ H$m`Xoera H$amamÀ`m {Z{_©Vr_Üò R>amdmer g§~§{YV XmoÝhr njm§Mm nañnam_Üò H$m`Xoera g§~§Y 

{Z_m©U H$aUo hm CÔoe Agbm nm{hOo. Oa R>amdmMm CÔoe hm Z¡g{J©H$ ào_, {Oìhmim, _¡ÌrnyU© g§~§Y, `mda 

AmYm[aV Agob Va Aem R>amdm§Mr H$m`Xoera A§_b~OmdUr H$aUo eŠ` ZgVo. _¡ÌrUrÀ`m Kar OodUmg 

OmÊ`mMm R>amd qH$dm nVrZo nËZrgmR>r gmS>r AmUÊ`mMm R>amd H$m`Xoera hmoV ZmhrV. H$maU {_Ì, nVr-nËZr 

11

`m§À`mV Z¡g{J©H$ ào_mMo g§~§Y AgVmV Vo H$m`Xoera g§~§Y hmoV ZmhrV. åhUyZ Aem R>amdm§Zm H$m`Xoera H$ama 

åhQ>bo OmV Zmhr. XmoZ ì`ŠVr O|ìhm ì`mnmar H$ama H$aVmV V|ìhm Ë`m§À`mV H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U hmoVmV 

AemM R>amdm§Mr H$m`ÚmZwgma A§_b~OmdUr H$aUo eŠ` AgVo åhUyZ àËòH$ R>amdmMm CÔoe H$amamer g§~§{YV 

ì`ŠVr_Üò H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$aUmam Agbm nm{hOo. 

3. H$amanmÌ ì`ŠVr (Capacity to Contract) : H$m`Xoera H$amamÀ`m {Z{_©Vr_Üò R>amdmer g§~§{YV 

XmoÝhr ì`ŠVr `m H$ama H$aÊ`mg nmÌ Agë`m nm{hOoV. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 11 _Üò H$amanmÌ 

ì`ŠVrMr ì`m»`m nwT>rbà_mo {Xbr Amho. 

""H$amanmÌ ì`ŠVr åhUOo Or ì`ŠVr d`mZo gkmZ AgyZ {OMr ~wpÜX_Îmm gwk Amho Am{U {Obm àM{bV 

H$moUË`mhr H$m`ÚmZo H$ama H$aÊ`mg AnmÌ R>a{dbobo Zmhr Aer ì`ŠVr hmo`.'' `m ì`m»òà_mUo H$ama 

H$aUmar ì`ŠVr H$ama H$aÊ`mg Am{U H$amamMr O~m~Xmar nobÊ`mg gj_ AgUo Amdí`H$ Amho. Á`m 

ì`ŠVrZo d`mMr 18 df} nyU© Ho$br AmhoV Vr gkmZ åhUyZ AmoiIbr OmVo. Á`m ì`ŠVrg H$amamÀ`m AQ>r 

H$iVmV Am{U H$ama Amnë`m \$m`ÚmMm qH$dm VmoQ>çmMm Amho `mMm gmamgma {dMma H$aÊ`mMr eŠVr 

AgVo Ë`mg gwk ~w{Õ_ÎmoMr ì`ŠVr _mZVmV. VgoM àM{bV H$m`ÚmZwgma H$ama H$aÊ`mg AnmÌ åhUyZ 

Kmo{fV Ho$boë`m ì`ŠVr Zgmì`mV. H$ama H$m`ÚmZo naH$s` eÌy, naXoemVrb amOXyV, gmd©O{ZH$ H§$nÝ`m 

Am{U Vwa§JdmgmVrb H¡$Xr `m§Zm H$ama H$aÊ`mg à{V~§Y Ho$bm Amho. Aem ì`ŠVr gmoSy>Z BVa gd© ì`ŠVr 

`m H$ama H$aÊ`mg nmÌ g_Oë`m OmVmV. VgoM AkmZ ì`ŠVr, doS>r qH$dm _yI© ì`ŠVr, ZeoV Yw§X amhUmar 

qH$dm A{VAmOmamZo ~oewÕ AgUmar qH$dm VmËnwaVr ewÕ hanbobr ì`ŠVr `m AnmÌ g_Oë`m OmVmV d 

`m§À`mer Pmbobm H$ama hm ì`W© g_OÊ`mV òVmo. 

4. _wŠV g§_Vr (Free Consent) : _wŠV g§_Vr hm H$m`Xoera H$amamMm _w»` AmYma AgVmo. R>amdmer 

g§~§{YV XmoÝhr ì`ŠVtMr R>amdmg _wŠV g§_Vr Agdr bmJVo. H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 13 _Üò g§_VrMm AW© 

nwT>rbà_mUo {Xbm Amho. O|ìhm XmoÝhr H$ama ì`ŠVr `m R>amdmÀ`m EH$mM {df`mda EH$mM {dMmagaUrZo Am{U 

EH$mMdoir gh_Vr Xe©{dVmV V|ìhm Ë`mMr H$amamg g§_Vr Amho Ago åhUVmV. WmoS>Š`mV R>amdmer g§~§{YV 

ì`ŠVtMo àñVm{dV H$m`m©~m~V, R>amdmÀ`m AWm©~m~V, R>amdmVyZ {Z_m©U hmoUmè`m O~m~Xmar~m~V EH$_V 

AgUo åhUOo g§_Vr hmo`. H$m`Xoera H$amamgmR>r \$ŠV g§_Vr AgyZ MmbV Zmhr Va Vr g§_Vr _wŠV Agmdr 

bmJVo. H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 14 _Üò _wŠV g§_VrMm AW© nwT>rbà_mUo {Xbm Amho. 

""Á`m R>amdmg ì`ŠVrZr {Xbobr g§_Vr hr ~bà`moJ, AZw{MV à^md, H$nQ>, AgË`{dYmZ Am{U MyH$ 

`m H$maUm{edm` {Xbobr AgVo V|ìhm Vr _wŠV hmoVo. Á`mdoir `m H$maUm§Zr g§_Vr {_i{dÊ`mV òVo V|ìhm Vr 

_wŠV AgV Zmhr Am{U Agm R>amd H$m`Xoera H$ama Z hmoVm Vmo dÁ`©Zr` H$ama hmoVmo.'' `m H$maUm§Mm AW© 

Imbrbà_mUo gm§{JVbm OmVmo. 

(A) ~bà`moJ (Coersion) - YmH$ qH$dm ~bà`moJ åhUOo EH$m ì`ŠVrZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrda X~md 

AmUyZ qH$dm ^rVr XmIdyZ H$ama H$aÊ`mg àd¥Îm H$aUo hmo`. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm H$b_ 15 à_mUo ^maVr` 

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\$m¡OXmar H$m`ÚmZo à{V~§Y Ho$bobo H¥$Ë` H$ê$Z qH$dm H$aÊ`mMm YmH$ XmIdyZ EH$ ì`ŠVr Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg 

H$ama H$aÊ`mg ^mJ nmS>Vo qH$dm Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrZo R>amd H$amdm åhUyZ Ë`m ì`ŠVrMr _mb_Îmm ~oH$m`Xoera[aË`m 

AS>dyZ qH$dm AS>dyZ R>odÊ`mMr ^rVr KmbyZ Ë`m ì`ŠVrMr H$amamg g§_Vr {_i{dVo V|ìhm Vr YmH$mZo qH$dm 

~bà`moJmZo {_i{dbobr g§_Vr hmoVo Vr _wŠV AgV Zmhr. Ë`m_wio Vmo dÁ`©Zr` H$ama hmoVmo. 

(~) AZw{MV à^md qH$dm Z¡{VH$ dOZ (Undue Influence) - AZw{MV à^md qH$dm Z¡{VH$ dOZ 

åhUOo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrH$Sy>Z AdmOdr \$m`Xm H$ê$Z KoÊ`mgmR>r EH$m ì`ŠVrZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrÀ`m _Zmda à^md 

Q>mHy$Z Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg H$ama H$aÊ`mg ^mJ nmS>Uo hmo`. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm H$b_ 16 Zwgma O|ìhm ì`ŠVrì`ŠVr_Üò 

Aem àH$maMo g§~§Y AgVmV H$s EH$ ì`ŠVr Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrÀ`m BÀN>oda ({dMmagaUrda) ghOnUo 

à^md Q>mHy$ eH$Vo Am{U Ë`mnmgyZ AZw{MV bm^ Kody eH$Vo `mbmM AZw{MV à^mdmZo H$ama KS>dyZ AmUbm 

Ago åhUVmV. Vmo H$m`Xoera hmoV Zmhr, Vmo dÁ`©Zr` H$ama hmoVmo H$maU g§_Vr hr _wŠV ZgVo. 

(H$) H$nQ> qH$dm \$gdUyH$ (Fraud) - H$nQ> åhUOo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrMr \$gdUyH$ H$aÊ`mÀ`m CÔoemZo 

ImoQ>o ~mobUo d BVam§Zm \$g{dUo hmo`. H$amamer g§~§{YV EH$ ì`ŠVr EImXr Jmoï> Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrnmgyZ bndyZ 

R>odrV Agob Am{U R>amdmg Ë`mMr g§_Vr KoV Agob Va Agm R>amd dÁ`©Zr` H$ama hmoVmo. ^maVr` H$ama 

H$m`Xm H$b_ 17 à_mUo, Ooìhm H$amamMr EH$ ì`ŠVr qH$dm Ë`mMm à{V{ZYr Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg qH$dm Ë`mÀ`m 

à{V{ZYrg \$g{dÊ`mÀ`m CÔoemZo EImXr Jmoï> ImoQ>r Amho ho _m{hV AgVmZm Vr Iar Amho Ago gm§JVmo qH$dm 

dñVwpñWVr _wÔm_ bndyZ R>odVmo qH$dm dMZmMo nmbZ H$amd`mMo Zmhr `m hoVyZo dMZ XoVmo qH$dm H$m`ÚmZwgma 

EImXr Jmoï> CKS> H$aÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar AgVmZm Vr Jmoï> CKS> H$arV Zmhr qH$dm b~mS>r H$aVmo V|ìhm Aem 

H¥$Ë`mg H$nQ> Ago åhQ>bo OmVo. H$nQ>mZo à^m{dV g§_Vr _wŠV ZgVo. Á`m ì`ŠVrMr g§_Vr H$nQ>mZo {_i{dbobr 

AgVo Aem ì`ŠVrg H$ama aÔ H$aÊ`mMm h¸$ AgVmo H$maU Vmo dÁ`©Zr` R>amd hmoVmo. 

(S>) AgË` {dYmZ / J¡aà{VnmXZ (Mis-representation) - H$ama H$aÊ`mg àd¥Îm H$aÊ`mÀ`m hoVyZo 

H$ama H$aVmZm AWdm H$amamnydu H$amamÀ`m _hËdmÀ`m {df`mg§~§Yr EH$ ì`ŠVr Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg ImoQ>r qH$dm 

AdmñVd _m{hVr XoV Agob Va Ë`mg AgË` H$WZ qH$dm J¡aà{VnmXZ Ago åhUVmV. AgË`H$WZ ho ñnï>nUo 

~mobyZ, {bIrV ñdê$nmV qH$dm H¥$VrVyZ Ho$bo OmVo. `m_Üò H$WZ H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVrMm CÔoe Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrMr 

\$gdUyH$ H$aUo hm AgV Zmhr. Va {dYmZ H$aUmar ì`ŠVr hr AZmdYmZmZo EImXo {dYmZ ImoQ>o AgVmZm Vo 

Iao Amho Ago H$WZ H$aVo. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm H$b_ 18 à_mUo O|ìhm EImXr ì`ŠVr EImXo {dYmZ R>m_nUo 

Iao Amho, Ago gm§JVo na§Vw dmñVdmV Vo {dYmZ ImoQ>o AgVo Vo§ìhm Ago {dYmZ H$aUo åhUOo AgË` H$WZ hmo`. 

AgË` H$WZmMm CÔoe hm R>amdmg g§_Vr KoÊ`mMm Agbm nm{hOo. AgË` H$WZmda {dœmg R>odyZ g§_Vr XoUmar 

ì`ŠVr H$ama aÔ H$ê$ eH$Vo qH$dm BÀN>m Agë`mg H$amamMr A§_b~OmdUr H$ê$ eH$Vo. 

(B) MyH$ (Mistake) - EImÚm Jmoï>r~m~V, {df`m~m~V MyH$sMm g_O åhUOo MyH$ hmo`. O|ìhm 

H$amamMm {df`M ApñVËdmV ZgVmo qH$dm Zï> Pmbobm AgVmo Am{U XmoÝhr H$ama ì`ŠVtZm hr ~m~ R>amd 

H$aVmZm _m{hV ZgVo V|ìhm R>amd H$aÊ`mV XmoÝhr ì`ŠVtMr MyH$ Pmbr Ago åhUVmV. H$amamMm EH$ qH$dm 

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AZoH$ nj H$amamMr {df`dñVy qH$dm H$m`ÚmMr MyH$ H$arV AgVrb Va H$amambm {Xbobr g§_Vr _wŠV ZgVo. 

H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 20 à_mUo O|ìhm R>amdmÀ`m _hÎdmÀ`m {df`mg§~§Yr XmoÝhr H$ama ì`ŠVtMr MyH$ hmoVo 

V|ìhm Agm R>amd ì`W© hmoVmo. 

CXm. A Zo ~ Mm KmoS>m {dH$V KoÊ`mMm R>amd Ho$bm. R>amdmÀ`mdoir KmoS>m _`V hmoVm `mMr _m{hVr A 

Am{U ~ XmoKm§Zmhr ZgVo åhUyZ Agm R>amd ì`W© hmoVmo. MyH$s_wio H$ama aÔ AWdm ì`W© hmoÊ`mgmR>r Imbrb 

AQ>r nyU© ìhmì`m bmJVmV. 

1. MyH$ hr XmoÝhr ì`ŠVtMr Agmdr bmJVo. 

2. MyH$ hr R>amdmÀ`m _hÎdÀ`m {df`mg§~§Yr Agbr nm{hOo. 

3. ^maVmV àM{bV Agboë`m H$m`Úm~m~V MyH$ hmoVm H$m_m Zò. 

4. dñVy§À`m qH$_Vr~m~V A§XmO MyH$bm H$s H$ama aÔ hmoV Zmhr. 

5. {dXoer H$m`Úm~m~V MyH$ Pmbr Agob Va H$ama aÔ hmoVmo. 

6. ñdV:À`m H$m`Xoera h¸$m~m~V Pmboë`m MyH$s_wio R>amd Ho$bm Va R>amd aÔ hmoVmo. 

5. H$m`Xoera CÔoe (Lawful object) : H$m`Xoera H$amaÀ`m {Z{_©VrgmR>r R>amdmMm CÔoe hm 

H$m`Xoera Agbm nm{hOo. Oa H$amanmÌ ì`ŠVr_Üò _wŠV g§_VrZo R>amd hmoV Agob Am{U Ë`mMm CÔoe 

H$m`Xoera Agob VaM Vmo R>amd H$m`Xoera H$ama ~ZVmo. H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 23 _Üò R>amdmMm CÔoe d 

à{V\$i ~oH$m`Xoera H|$ìhm AgVmV ho gm§{JVbo Amho. åhUyZ `m H$b_m_Üò gm§{JVboë`m R>amdm§Mo CÔoe gmoSy>Z 

BVa gd© R>amdm§Mo CÔoe ho H$m`Xoera _mZÊ`mV òVmV. Oa R>amdmMo C{ÔîQ> ho - 

1. Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrMr \$gdUyH$ H$aUmao Agob qH$dm 

2. H$m`ÚmZo à{V~§Y Ho$bobo H¥$Ë` H$aÊ`m~m~V Agob qH$dm 

3. H$m`ÚmVrb {Z`_m§Mm ^§J H$aUmao Agob qH$dm 

4. Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg AWdm Ë`mÀ`m _mb_Îmog YmoH$m nmohM{dUmao Agob qH$dm 

5. AZ¡{VH$ AWdm gm_m{OH$ YmoaUm{déÕMo Agob Va Vo ~oH$m`Xoera g_OÊ`mV òVo. åhUyZ R>amdmMo 

C{Ôï> ho darb 1 Vo 5 `m CnH$b_mV gm§{JVë`mà_mUo Zgob VaM R>amd H$m`Xoera H$ama hmoVmo. 

6. H$m`Xoera à{V\$b (Lawful Consideration) : à{V\$b hm H$m`Xoera H$amamMm nm`m _mZbm 

OmVmo. à{V\$b åhUOo H$ama H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVtZm H$amamnmgyZ {_iUmam _mo~Xbm hmo`. H$ama H$aUmè`m àËòH$ 

ì`ŠVrbm H$amamnmgyZ _mo~Xbm hm {_imbmM nm{hOo. H$amamVrb àñVmdH$ Am{U àñVmdVm `mn¡H$s EH$mgOar 

H$amamnmgyZ _mo~Xbm {_imbm Zmhr Va Ë`m§À`mÑï>rZo H$ama ì`W© hmoVmo. EH$m ì`ŠVrZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg Ë`mZo 

Ho$boë`m dMZnydVuMm _mo~Xbm åhUyZ H$mhrVar XoUo åhUOo à{V\$b hmo`. à{V\$b ho dmñVd, H$m`Xoera Agbo 

nm{hOo, VgoM Vo _m¡ë`dmZ Agbo nm{hOo dMZnyVu åhUyZ EImXr H¥$Vr H$aUo, H¥$Vr Z H$aUo, dñVy§Mr qH$_V 

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XoUo AWdm godm XoUo `m ñdê$nmV à{V\$b Agy eH$Vo. à{V\$b ho EH$m ì`ŠVrZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrMo dMZ {dH$V 

KoÊ`mgmR>r {Xbobr qH$_V AgVo. CXm. a_oeZo Am¡fY XwH$mZmVyZ 25 é. XodyZ P§Sy>~m_ {dH$V KoVbm Va òWo 

a_oebm 25 én`m§À`m ~Xë`mV P§Sy>~m_ {_imbm Va Am¡fY {dH«o$Ë`mg Ë`m~Xë`mV n¡go {_imbo. `mbmM 

à{V\$b Ago åhUVmV. åhUyZ gd©gmYmaU {Z`_ Amho H$s n«{V\$bm{edm` AgUmao H$ama ì`W© AgVmV. `m 

{Z`_mg H$mhr AndmX AmhoV. AndmXmË_H$ H$amam_Üò à{V\$bm{edm` H$ama H$m`Xoera hmoVmo. à{V\$bm_wioM 

ì`ŠVr `m H$ama H$aÊ`mg ào[aV hmoVmV. à{V\$b ho Zoh_r H$m`Xoera Agbo nm{hOo. Oa R>amdmMo à{V\$b ho 

darb H$m`Xoera C{Ôï>mÀ`m CnH$b_ 1 Vo 5 `m àH$maMo Agob Va Vo à{V\$b ~oH$m`Xoera g_OÊ`mV òVo. 

7. R>amd ì`W© Zgbm nm{hOo (No expressely declared to bevoid) : H$m`Xoera H$amamÀ`m 

{Z{_©VrgmR>r XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò Pmbobm R>amd hm ì`W© Zgbm nm{hOo. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmZo H$mhr R>amd ho ì`W© 

R>a{dbo AmhoV. Oar Ago R>amd H$m`Xoera H$amamÀ`m BVa AQ>r nyU© H$arV Agbo Var Vo ì`W© g_OÊ`mV òVmV 

Vo H$m`Xoera hmoV ZmhrV. H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 26 Vo 30 _Üò Imbrb R>amd ho ì`W© R>amd åhUyZ Kmo{fV 

Ho$bo AmhoV. 

1. {ddmh à{V~§YH$ R>amd 6. n¡OoMm R>amd 

2. ì`mnmaY§Xm à{V~§YH$ R>amd 7. H$ama H$aÊ`mg AnmÌ AgUmè`m ì`ŠVrMm R>amd 

3. Ý`m`XmZmÀ`m H$m_mV hñVjon H$aUmam R>amd 8. à{V\$bm{edm` AgUmao R>amd 

4. A{ZpíMV AWm©Mo R>amd 9. ~oH$mXoera CÔoe d ~oH$m`Xoera à{V\$b AgUmao 

5. AeŠ` H¥$Ë` H$aÊ`m~m~VMm R>amd R>amd. 

`m darb R>amdm§Mr H$m`XoeranUo A§_b~OmUr H$aVm òV Zmhr. 

8. R>amd {ZpíMV AWm©Mm Agmdm (Meaning of agreement must be certain) : H$moUË`mhr 

R>amdmMr H$m`XoeranUo A§_b~OmdUr H$aÊ`mgmR>r Vmo R>amd {ZpíMV AWm©Mm Agbm nm{hOo. ^maVr` H$ama 

H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 29 à_mUo Á`m R>amdmMm Ame` {ZpíMV ZgVmo qH$dm {ZpíMV H$aVm òÊ`mgmaIm ZgVmo 

Ë`m§Mr H$m`ÚmZwgma A§_b~OmdUr hmody eH$V Zmhr. Á`m R>amdm§Mr eãXaMZm g§{X½Y, Añnï> Am{U R>amdmMm 

hoVy ñnï> H$aUmar Zgob Va Ë`mg A{ZpíMV AWm©Mo R>amd åhUVmV. H$m`Xoera H$amamgmR>r R>amd {Zg§{X½Y d 

{ZpíMV AWm©Mm Agbm nm{hOo. CXm. A Zo ~ bm Amnë`m eoVmVrb {d{dY Am§ã`m§À`m àH$mam§n¡H$s H$mhr Am§~o 

{dH$Ê`mMm R>amd Ho$bm. hm R>amd g§{X½Y Amho H$maU H$moUË`m àH$maMo Am§~o {H$Vr à_mUmV d Ë`m§Mr qH$_V 

H$m` `m ~m~r ñnï> Zgë`mZo Aem R>amdmMr A§_b~OmdUr hmoUma Zmhr. 

9. R>amdmVrb AQ>rMr nyV©Vm eŠ` Pmbr nm{hOo (Possibility of Performance) : H$m`Xoera 

H$amamÀ`m {Z{_©VrgmR>r XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò Pmboë`m R>amdmVrb AQ>r/dMZo hr nyV©Vm H$aVm òÊ`mgmaIr Agbr 

nm{hOoV. H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 56 à_mUo Oo R>amd nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mg AeŠ` R>aVmV Vo ì`W© g_Obo OmVmV. 

CXm. A Zo ~ bm Ago dMZ {Xbo H$s ~ Zo A bm 5000 é. {Xbo Va A ~ bm AmH$memVrb Vmao AmUyZ XoB©b. 

`m R>amdm_Üò AmH$memVyZ Vmao O{_Zrda AmUUo ho AeŠ` H¥$Ë` Agë`mZo Vmo R>amd ì`W© hmoVmo. 

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10. H$m`Xoera ~m~tMr nyV©Vm (Legal Formalities) : H$ama hm boIr AWdm Vm|S>r Agy eH$Vmo na§Vw 

Oa H$m`ÚmZo Amdí`H$ Ho$bo Agob Va Vmo boIr Agbm nm{hOo d Ë`mMr arVga Zm|XUr Ho$br nm{hOo. H$ama 

{bIrV ñdê$nmV à_m{UV d Zm|XUrH¥$V Agob Va XmoZ njm_Üò H$ama Pmë`mMm H$m`Xoera nwamdm CnbãY 

AgVmo. Oa EImÚm njmZo H$ama nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mg ZH$ma {Xbm Va boIr d Zm|XUrH¥$V H$amamÀ`m AmYmao Ë`m 

njmda Xwgam nj H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. VgoM H$mhr H$m`ÚmZr H$ama ho boIr ñdê$nmVM Agbo 

nm{hOoV Ago ~§YZ KmVbo Amho. CXm. H$mb_`m©Xog§~§YrÀ`m H$m`ÚmZwgma _wXV~mø H$Om©À`m naV\o$S>rMm R>amd 

boIr Agbm nm{hOo. VgoM Z¡g{J©H$ ào_ Am{U dmËgë`mnmoQ>r ~jrg XoÊ`mMm R>amd boIr Am{U Zm|X{dbobm 

Agmdm. `m{edm` bdmX A{Y{Z`_ 1940, g§nÎmr hñVm§VaU H$m`Xm 1882 d MbZj_ XñVEodO H$m`Xm 

1881 AZwgma hmoUmao H$ama {bIrV à_m{UV Am{U Zm|XUrH¥$V AgUo A{Zdm`© Ho$bo Amho. 

1.2.5 H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm / A§_b~OmdUr (Performance of Contract) : 

AW© : H$m`Xoera H$ama Am{U H$m`Xoera H$amamÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r `m{df`r g{dñVa _m{hVr KoVë`mZ§Va 

H$amamÀ`m _yb^yV VÎdm_Yrb Xwgar nmàr åhUOo H$amam§Mr A§_b~OmdUr / nyV©Vm hmo`. XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò 

H$m`Xoera H$ama ApñVËdmV Amë`mZ§Va Ë`mMr A§_b~OmdUr H$er H$amdr `m§À`m _yb^yV VÎdm§Mr _m{hVr `m 

àH$aUmV òVo. H$m`Xoera H$amam_wio H$ama ì`ŠVtÀ`m_Üò Oo H$m`Xoera g§~§Y {Z_m©U hmoVmV Am{U `mVyZ 

H$m`Xoera H$V©ìò òVmV Vr H$V©ìò ì`ŠVtZr H$er nma nmS>mdrV `mMm Aä`mg H$amam§À`m nyV©Vo_Üò òVmo. 

gm_mÝ`nUo H$amamÀ`m XmoÝhr njm§Zr H$amamVrb Amnmnë`m dMZmMr nyV©Vm H$aUo `mg H$amanyV©Vm Ago åhUVmV. 

^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 37 _Üò H$amanyV©VoMm AW© Imbrbà_mUo {Xbm Amho. 

""^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmImbr qH$dm BVa H$m`ÚmImbr EImÚm dMZmMr nyV©Vm aÔ hmoÊ`mnydu qH$dm H$ama 

ì`ŠVtZm H$amanyV©VoÀ`m O~m~XmarVyZ _m\$s {_iÊ`mnydu H$ama ì`ŠVtZr H$amamVrb dMZm§Mr nyV©Vm Ho$br 

nm{hOo qH$dm H$amanyV©VoMr BÀN>m àX{e©V Ho$br nm{hOo `mg H$ama nyV©Vm åhUVmV.'' 

H$ama nyV©Vm _mJUr H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma àñVmdË`mg Am{U dMZm§Mr (H$amamMr) nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mMr 

O~m~Xmar n«ñVmdH$mda AgVo. 

H$ama nyV©VoMr àH$ma : H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm hr Imbrb XmoZ n«H$mam§Zr hmody eH$Vo. 

H$ama nyV©VoMo àH$ma 

àË`j H$ama H$ama nyV©VoMr BÀN>m 

nyV©Vm Am{U V`mar Xe©{dUo 

16

1. àË`j H$ama nyV©Vm (Actual Performance) : Á`mdoir àñVmdH$ hm H$amamVrb Amnbo dMZ nyU© 

H$aÊ`mg V`ma AgVmo Ë`mMdoir àñVmdZm Ë`mMr pñdH¥$Vr H$aVmo V|ìhm H$amam§Mr àË`j nyV©Vm Pmbr Ago 

åhUVmV. åhUOoM O|ìhm H$ama ì`ŠVr `m R>aë`mà_mUo Amnmnë`m dMZmMr nyV©Vm H$ê$Z O~m~Xmar nma 

nmS>VmV V|ìhm H$amamMr àË`j A§_b~OmdUr Pmbr Ago åhUVmV. 

2. H$ama nyV©VoMr BÀN>m Am{U V`mar Xe©{dUo - H$b_ 38 (Tender as to performance of 

contract) : Oo§ìhm àñVmdH$ Amnë`m dMZmMr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mMr BÀN>m Am{U V`mar àñVmdË`mbm Xe©{dVmo 

Am{U àñVmdVm _mÌ Ë`mMm ñdrH$ma H$arV Zmhr V|ìhm Ë`mg H$ama nyV©VoMr BÀN>m Am{U V`mar Xe©{dUo Ago 

åhUVmV. CXm. j Zo ` bm 1000 nmoVr Jhÿ {dÊ`mMm H$ama Ho$bm. H$amamà_mUo 1 Am°ŠQ>mo~a amoOr j ` H$S>o 

1000 nmoVr Jhÿ nmR>{dbm _mÌ ` Zo Vmo pñdH$maÊ`mMo ZmH$mabo d Jìhmg pñdH¥$Vr {Xbr Zmhr. òWo 

H$m`Úmà_mUo j Zo Amnbo dMZ nyU© Ho$bo _mÌ ` Zo Ë`mg pñdH¥$Vr {Xbr Zmhr. Va j Zo H$amanyV©VoMr BÀN>m 

Am{U V`mar Xe©{dbr Ago _mZyZ j hm H$amanyV©VoÀ`m O~m~XmarVyZ _wŠV hmoVmo. H$maU H$ama nyV©VoMr BÀN>m 

Am{U V`mar `mg àË`j H$ama nyV©Vm _mUyZ àñVmdH$ Amnë`m O~m~XmarVyZ _wŠV hmoVmo. Ë`mZ§Va dMZmMr 

nyV©Vm H$amdr bmJV Zmhr. CbQ> àñVmdË`{déÕ H$ama^§JmÀ`m ZwH$gmZ ânmB©gmR>r H$moQ>m©V Xmdm bmdë`mMm 

h¸$ àmá hmVmo. àñVmdH$mMr H$amanyV©VoMr BÀN>m dm V`mar H$m`Xoera Agmdr bmJVo. Vr H$m`Xoera hmoÊ`mgmR>r 

Imbrb AQ>r nyU© Ho$ë`m nm{hOoV. 

H$m`Xoera H$ama nyV©VoÀ`m BÀN>m d V`marÀ`m AQ>r 

{dZmAQ> `mo½` doi `mo½` {R>H$mU àñVmdË`mg g§nyU© V`mar `mo½` ñdê$n 

V`mar `mo½` g§Yr Xe©{dUo 

`mo½` ì`ŠVrg g§`wŠV àñVmdË`mn¡H$s EH$mH$S>o 

(A) {dZmAQ> V`mar Xe©{dUo - àñVmdH$mZo H$ama nyV©VoMr BÀN>m Am{U V`mar {dZmAQ> Xe©{dbr 

nm{hOo. EImXr AQ> KmbyZ V`mar Xe©{dbr Va Vr geV© V`mar hmoVo. {dZmAQ> g_Obr OmV Zmhr. 

(~) `mo½`doir V`mar Xe©{dUo - H$amanyV©VoMr BÀN>m Am{U V`mar àñVmdH$mZo `mo½`doir àX{e©V 

Ho$br nm{hOo. `mo½` doi åhUOo H$m_mH$mOmMr doi hmo`. 

(H$) `mo½` {R>H$mUr V`mar Xe©{dUo - Oa {d{eï> {R>H$mUr H$ama nyV©Vm H$aUoMo R>abo Agob Va Ë`mM 

17

{R>H$mUr H$amanyV©VoMr BÀN>m d V`mar àñVmdH$mZo Xe©{dbr nm{hOo. Oa {R>H$mU R>abo Zgob Va àñVmdVm R>adyZ 

XoB©b Ë`m {R>H$mUr H$amanyV©VoMr BÀN>m d V`mar àñVmdH$mZo Xe©{dbr nm{hOo. 

(S>) àñVmdË`mg `mo½` g§Yr XoUo - O|ìhm H$ama nyV©VoMr BÀN>m Am{U V`mar _mb nmR>{dÊ`mÀ`m 

g§X^m©V AgVo V|ìhm àñVmdH$mZo àñVmdË`mH$S>o nmR>{dboë`m dñVy gm§{JVboë`m JwU d¡{eï>çmà_mUo AmhoV H$s 

ZmhrV `mMr VnmgUr H$aÊ`mMr nwaogr g§Yr àñVmdË`mg {Xbr nm{hOo. 

(B) g§nyU© V`mar Xe©{dUo - àñVmdH$mZo H$amamÀ`m nyV©VoVrb H$mhr ^mJmMr åhUOo A§eV: H$ama nyU© 

H$aÊ`mMr BÀN>m d V`mar Xe©{dbr Va Vr H$m`Xoera hmoV Zmhr. g§nyU© H$amamVrb dMZmMr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mMr 

V`mar Xe©{dbr nm{hOo. 

(\$) `mo½` ñdê$nmV V`mar Xe©{dUo - H$ama nyV©VoMr V`ma Xe©{dVmZm àñVmdH$mZo àñVmdË`mg Xo` 

AgUmar a¸$_ `mo½` ñdê$nmV åhUOo H$mJXr ZmoQ>m qH$dm MbZr ZmÊ`m§À`m ñdê$nmVM XoÊ`mMr V`mar Xe©{dbr 

nm{hOo Vr MoH$Zo XodyZ MmbUma Zmhr. 

(J) `mo½` ì`ŠVrg V`mar Xe©{dUo - àñVmdH$mZo H$amanyV©VoMr BÀN>m Am{U V`mar hr àñVmdË`mH$S>o 

qH$dm àñVmdË`mÀ`m A{YH¥$V à{V{ZYrH$S>o àX{e©V Ho$br nm{hOo. Vr {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVrH$S>o àX{e©V H$ê$Z 

MmbUma Zmhr. 

(_) g§`wŠV àñVmdË`mn¡H$s EH$mH$S>o àX{e©V H$aUo - Á`m H$amam_Üò g§`wŠV àñVmdVo AgVmV 

Aemdoir H$ama nyV©VoMr BÀN>m d V`mar àñVmdH$mZo g§`wŠV àñVmdË`mn¡H$s H$moUË`mhr EH$m àñVmdË`mH$S>o 

àX{e©V Ho$br Va Vr H$m`Xoera hmoVo. 

3. H$ama H$moUr nyU© Ho$bo nm{hOoV (Who should Perform Contract) (H$b_ 37, 40, 41 d 

42) : gmYmaUnUo H$amamZwgma dMZm§Mr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar dMZXmË`mda (àñVmdH$mda) AgVo. 

H$ama H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVtZrM H$amamVrb dMZm§Mr àË`j nyV©Vm Ho$br nm{hOo qH$dm H$ama nyV©VoMr BÀN>m d V`mar 

Xe©{dbr nm{hOo. `mg§X^m©V H$b_ 37, 40, 41 d 42 _Üò nwT>rb {Z`_ {Xbo Amho. 

H$ama H$moUr nyU© Ho$bo nm{hOoV 

àñVmdH$ H$m`Xoera dmag n«{V{ZYr {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ 

(A) àñVmdH$ - Oa H$amamÀ`m ñdê$nmdê$Z Agm hoVy ñnï> hmoV Agob H$s H$amamVrb dMZ ho 

àñVmdH$mZoM nyU© Ho$bo nm{hOo Va Aem H$amamMr nyV©Vm hr ñdV: àñVmdH$mZoM Ho$br nm{hOo. Oa H$amanyV©Vonydu 

18

àñVmdH$mMm _¥Ë`y Pmbm H$s Agm H$ama aÔ hmoVmo. åhUyZ Á`m H$amam§À`m nyV©Vo_Üò ì`ŠVrMo d¡`ŠVrH$ 

JwUd¡{eï>ç, H$g~ gm_mdbobo AgVo Ago H$ama ñdV: àñVmdH$mZo nyU© Ho$bo nm{hOoV. 

(~) H$m`Xoera dmag - H$amam_Üò Agm ñnï> hoVy Agob H$s H$amamVrb dMZ ho àñVmdH$mZo nyU© Ho$bo 

Zmhr Var Mmbob åhUOoM Á`m H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm hr ì`ŠVtÀ`m H$bmJwUmda Adb§~yZ ZgVo. Aem H$amamVrb 

dMZm§Mr nyV©Vm hr àñVmdH$ _`V Pmbm Var Ë`m dMZmMr nyV©Vm hr àñVmdH$mÀ`m H$m`Xoera dmagmda òVo. 

(H$) à{V{ZYr - H$amamÀ`m ñdê$nmdê$Z qH$dm hoVydéZ H$ama ì`ŠVtZrM H$amamMr nyV©Vm Ho$br nm{hOo 

Ago ~§YZ Zgob Va H$ama nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r Xwgè`m `mo½` ì`ŠVrMr à{V{ZYr åhUyZ {Z`wŠVr H$ê$Z Ë`m 

à{V{ZYr _m\©$V H$ama nyV©Vm H$ê$Z KoVm òVmo. 

(S>) {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr - Oa àñVmdH$mÀ`m dVrZo EImÚm {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVrZo H$amamMr nyV©Vm Ho$br 

àñVmdË`mZo Ë`mg _mÝ`Vm {Xbr Va Aem {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVrg H$ama nyV©VoMm A{YH$ma àmá hmoVmo. àñVmdË`mbm 

nwÝhm àñVmdH$mH$S>o H$ama nyV©Vm _mJUr H$aVm òUma Zmhr. 

(B) g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ - Á`mdoir XmoZ qH$dm A{YH$ àñVmdH$ EH$m àñVmdË`mer g§`wŠV H$ama H$aVmV 

V|ìhm Aem H$amamMr nyV©Vm hr gd© g§`wŠV àñVmdH$m§Zr Amnë`m h`mVrV Ho$br nm{hOo. `m§À`mn¡H$s EImXm 

g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ _`V Pmbm Va Ë`mMm H$m`Xoera dmag Am{U BVa g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ `m§Zr {_iyZ H$amamMr 

nyV©Vm Ho$br nm{hOo. Oa gd©M g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ H$amanyVunydu _`V Pmbo Va Ë`m§À`m H$m`Xoera dmagm§Zr 

g§`wŠVnUo dMZm§Mr nyV©Vm Ho$br nm{hOo. 

4. g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ Am{U Ë`m§Mr H$amanyV©VoMr O~m~Xmar (Joint Promisor and Devolution of 

joint liabilets) (H$b_ 42, 43, d 44) : 

g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ (Joint Promisor) (H$b_ 42) : Á`m H$amam_Üò XmoZ àñVmdH$ Am{U EH$ 

àñVmdVm qH$dm EH$ àñVmdH$ Am{U XmoZ qH$dm A{YH$ àñVmdVo AgVmV V|ìhm Ë`mg g§`wŠV àñVmd (Joint 

Promise) Ago åhUVmV. O|ìhm XmoZ qH$dm A{YH$ àñVmdH$ g§`wŠVnUo EH$m {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVrer H$ama H$aVmV 

V|ìhm Vo g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ åhUyZ AmoiIbo OmVmV. 

CXm. j Am{U ` `m§Zr g§`wŠVnUo H$ H$Sy>Z é. 10000 H$O© KoVbo. òWo j Am{U ` ho g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ 

~ZVmV d Agm H$ama g§`wŠV àñVmd åhUyZ AmoiIÊ`mV òVmo. 

g§`wŠV àñVmdH$m§Mr H$amanyV©VoÀ`m O~m~XmarMo ñdê$n 

O~m~Xmar g_mZ n«_mUmV Ag_W© g§`wŠV g§`wŠV àñVmdH$mn¡H$s 

g§`wŠVrH$ d d¡`{ŠVH$ H$amanyV©Vm _mJUr H$aUo àñVmdH$mMm {hñgm EH$mg _m\$s 

BVam§Zr dmQy>Z KoUo {_imë`mMm n[aUm_ 

19

^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 43 Am{U 44 _Üò g§`wŠV àñVmdH$m§À`m H$ama nyV©VoÀ`m O~m~XmarMo 

ñdê$n Imbrbà_mUo amhrb - 

(A) g§`wŠV àñVmdH$m§Mr H$ama nyV©VoMr O~m~Xmar g§`wŠVrH$ Am{U d¡`{ŠVH$ - g§`wŠV 

àñVmdH$m§Mr H$ama nyV©VoMr O~m~Xmar hr g§`wŠVrH$ Am{U d¡`{ŠVH$ AgVo, åhUOoM g§`wŠV àñVmdH$m§Zr 

gdmªZr {_iyZ Amnbm H$ama nyU© Ho$bm nm{hOo qH$dm H$moUË`mhr EH$m g§`wŠV àñVmdH$mZo g§nyU© H$amamMr nyV©Vm 

Ho$br nm{hOo. CXm. A_a, AH$~a Am{U A°ÝWmoZr `m§Zr amOoeH$Sy>Z KoVboë`m 15000 é. H$Om©Mr naV\o$S> 

H$aÊ`mMo dMZ {Xbo. òWo amOoe `m {VKm§H$Sy>Z qH$dm EH$m H$Sy>Z Ë`mZo {Xbobo H$O© dgyb H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

(~) g_mZ à_mUV H$ama nyV©Vm _mJUr H$aUo - O|ìhm g§`wŠV àñVmdH$mn¡H$s EH$m g§`wŠV 

àñVmdH$mg g§nyU© H$amamMr nyV©Vm H$aUo ^mJ nS>Vo Voìhm Vmo àñVmdH$ BVa g§`wŠV àñVmdH$mH$Sy>Z g_mZ 

à_mUmV H$amanyV©Vm _mJUr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. CXm. darb CXmhaUmV lr. amOoe `m§Zm A_aZo g§nyU© 15000 énò 

{Xbo AgVrb Va A_aZo AH$~a Am{U A°ÝWmoZr `m BVa g§`wŠV àñVmdH$mH$Sy>Z àËòH$s 5000 é. dgyb H$ê$ 

eH$Vmo. 

(H$) Ag_W© g§`wŠV àñVmdH$mÀ`m {hññ`mMr a¸$_ BVa àñVmdH$m§Zr dmQy>Z KoUo - g§`wŠV 

àñVmdH$mn¡H$s EImXm àñVmdH$ {XdmiImoa R>abm Am{U Amnë`m g_mZ {híemMr a¸$_ XoÊ`mg Ag_W© Agob 

Va Ë`mÀ`m {híemMr a¸$_ BVa g§`wŠV n«ñVmdH$m§Zr g_mZ dmQy>Z KoVbr nm{hOo. 

CXm. darb CXmhaUmV lr. amOoe `m§Zm A_aZo 15000 é. {Xbo AgVrb Va A_a AH$~a Am{U A°ÝWmoZr 

`m§À`mH$Sy>Z àËòH$s 5000 énò dgyb H$a eHo$b. _mÌ `mVrb A°ÝWmoZr hm {XdmiImoa R>abm Va Ë`mÀ`m 

{híemMo 5000 é. A_a Am{U AH$~a `m§Zr g_mZ dmQy>Z KoVbo nm{hOoV. åhUyZ A_a \$ŠV 7500 é. 

AH$~aH$Sy>Z _mJUr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

(S>) g§`wŠV àñVmdH$mn¡H$s EH$mg _m\$s {_imë`mMm n[aUm_ - Ooìhm H$amam_Üò g§`wŠV 

àñVmdH$ AgVmV V|ìhm àñVmdË`mZo g§`wŠV àñVmdH$mn¡H$s EImÚm n«ñVmdH$mg dMZnyVuÀ`m O~m~XmarVyZ 

_wŠV Ho$bo Var BVa g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ dMZnyVuVyZ _wŠV hmoV ZmhrV. VgoM _wŠVVm {_imbobm g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ 

BVam§À`m O~m~XmarVyZ _wŠV hmoV Zmhr. 

CXm. darb CXm._Üò lr. amOoe `m§Zr A°ÝWmoZr `mg H$Om©À`m O~m~XmarVyZ _m\$s {Xbr Va A_a Am{U 

AH$~a ho g§`wŠV H$Om©À`m O~m~XmarVyZ _wŠV hmoV ZmhrV VgoM _m\$s {_imbobm A°ÝWmoZr hm g§`wŠV àñVmdH$ 

A_a Am{U AH$~a `m§À`m g§`wŠV O~m~XmarVyZ _wŠV hmoV Zmhr. 

5. H$amanyV©VoMr _wXV Am{U {R>H$mU (Time and Place of Performance) (H$b_ 46 Vo 50): 

Ooìhm H$ama H$aVmZm H$ama ì`ŠVrZr H$ama nyV©VoMr doi Am{U {R>H$mU {ZpíMV Ho$bo Agob Va Ë`mMdoir 

Am{U R>aboë`m {R>H$mUr H$amamMr nyV©Vm Pmbr nm{hOo. na§Vw H$ama nyV©VoMr doi Am{U {R>H$mU ho H$amamZo R>adyZ 

{Xbobo ZgVo V|ìhm Imbrb {Z`_mZwgma H$ama nyV©Vm Ho$br nm{hOo. 

20

H$amanyV©VoMr doi Am{U {R>H$mU `m~m~VMo {Z`_ 

doi Am{U OmJm doi d OmJm àñVmdË`mg Z_yX Ho$boë`m {db~mZo nyV©Vog XmoÝhr nj H$ama 

Z_yX Ho$br Agob Z_yX Ho$br Zgob {dMmaUm H$ê$Z doioV nyV©Vm àñVmdË`mMr nyV©VoMr doi 

Z Pmë`mg _mÝ`Vm _hÎdmMr ~m~ 

_mZVmV 

(A) H$ama nyVuMr doi d OmJm Z_yX Ho$br Agob$ - Oa H$amamV dMZnyVuMr doi Am{U {R>H$mU 

ñnï>nUo Z_yX Ho$bo Agob Va Ë`mMdoir Am{U ñWir H$amamMr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mV Ambr nm{hOo. 

(~) H$amanyVuMr doi Am{U {R>H$mU Z_yX Ho$bo Zgob - Oa H$amamV dMZnyVuMr doi Am{U 

{R>H$mU Z_yX Ho$bo Zgob Va `mo½`doir Am{U `mo½` {R>H$mUr H$amamMr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mV Ambr nm{hOo. `mo½`doi 

åhUOo H$m_H$mOmMr doi Am{U `mo½` {R>H$mU åhUOo H$m_H$mOmMo ñWi qH$dm XwH$mZ qH$dm H$m`m©b` hmo`. 

(H$) àñVmdË`mg {dMmaUm H$ê$Z H$ama nyV©Vm - àñVmdH$mZo àñVmdË`mg H$amanyVuMo {R>H$mU 

Am{U doi `m~m~V ñnï>nUo {dMmaUm H$ê$ZM H$amanyV©Vm Ho$br nm{hOo. 

(S>) H$amamV Z_yX Ho$boë`m doioV nyV©Vm Z Pmë`mg - Oa H$amamV Z_yX Ho$boë`m doioV H$amamMr 

nyV©Vm Z Pmë`mg Agm H$ama àñVmdË`mÀ`m BÀN>oZwgma dÁ`©Zr` H$ama hmoVmo. Vmo àñVmdH$mda H$ama^§Jm~Ôb 

H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. {db§~m~Ôb ZwH$gmZânmB© _mJy eH$Vmo. 

(B) {db§~mZo H$amanyV©Vog àñVmdË`mMr _mÝ`Vm {_imë`mg - Oa H$amamV {ZYm©[aV Ho$boë`m 

doioV qH$dm `mo½` doioV H$amanyV©Vm Pmbr Zmhr Am{U Varhr àñVmdVm {db§~mZo àñVmdH$mg H$amanyVuVoMr 

_mÝ`Vm XoV Agob Va àñVmdVm H$amanyV©Vog hmoUmè`m {db§~m~Ôb ZwH$gmaZânmB© _mJy eH$V Zmhr. 

(\$) XmoÝhr nj H$amanyVuVoMr doi _hÎdmMr ~m~ _mZV AgVrb - Oa H$amamVrb XmoÝhr nj 

ho H$amanyV©VoMr doi hr A{V_hÎdmMr ~m~ g_OVmV qH$dm ì`dhmamMo ñdê$n Ago Agob H$s H$amanyV©Vm hr 

doiodaM Pmbr nm{hOo Va Aem n[apñWVrV doioda H$ama nyV©Vm Pmbr nm{hOo AÝ`Wm H$ama aÔ hmoVmo. 

1.2.6 H$amam§Mr g_már (Discharge of Contract) : 

H$ama g_már åhUOo H$m` ? : H$amamÀ`m _yb^yV VÎdm_Yrb H$ama {Z{_©Vr, H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm `m XmoZ 

AdñWmZ§Va H$ama g_már hr eodQ>Mr {Vgar AdñWm Amho. H$amamVyZ H$amamÀ`m njm§Zm H$mhr A{YH$ma 

{_iVmV VgoM Ë`m§À`mda H$mhr H$m`Xoera O~m~XmaMmgwÕm {Z_m©U hmoVmV. H$amamer g§~§{YV AgUmè`m 

ì`ŠVtZr Amnmnbr O~m~Xmar nma nmS>br åhUOo H$amamMr g_már (eodQ>) hmoVmo. H$mhr doim H$amamV ì`ŠVr 

`m H$amam§VyZ {Z_m©U Pmbobr O~m~Xmar nma nmS>rV ZmhrV qH$dm nma nmS>Ê`mg ZH$ma XoVmV Voìhm H$ama g§nwï>mV 

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òVmo. O|ìhm H$amamZo {Z_m©U Ho$bobr ì`ŠVr_Yrb H$m`Xoera O~m~Xmar g§nwï>mV òVo Voìhm H$amamMr g_már Pmbr 

Ago åhUVmV. Oo§ìhm H$amamMr g_már hmoVo V|ìhm XmoZ H$ama ì`ŠVr_Yrb H$amam_wio {Z_m©U Pmbobo h¸$ Am{U 

H$V©ìò g§nwï>mV òVmV d H$ama ì`ŠVr `m H$amamÀ`m O~m~XmarVyZ _wŠV hmoVmV. H$amamMr g_már hr H$ama 

nyV©VoVyZ qH$dm H$ama^§Jm_wio hmody eH$Vo. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmV Imbrbn¡H$s H$moUË`mhr EH$m nÕVrZo 

(_mJm©Zo) H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. 

H$ama g_márÀ`m nÕVr 

H$amanyV©Vm nañnamMm H$m`ÚmVrb H$amamVrb H$mb_`m©Xm H$amamMr H$amamMm ^§J 

Pmë`mZo g§_VrZo VaVwXr_wio _hÎdmÀ`m g§në`mZo nyV©Vm AeŠ` Pmë`mZo 

~Xbm_wio Pmë`mZo 

àË`j H$amanyV©VoMm àñVmdH$mMr h¸$m§Mo H$ama ì`ŠVrMm àñVmdH$ d 

H$amanyV©Vm à`ËZ {XdmiImoar {dbZrH$aU _¥Ë`y àñVmdVm EH$M ì`ŠVr 

ZyVZrH$aU H$amamV H$ama aÔ H$amanyV©VoV h¸$ Ë`mJ VS>OmoS> d 

~Xb H$aUo H$aUo gdbV XoUo H$aUo g_mYmZ 

H$amamMm H$ama ì`ŠVrMm H$m`ÚmVrb `wÕ Kmo{fV {d{eï> KQ>Zm àË`j _wXVnyd© 

{df` Zï> hmoUo _¥Ë`y ~Xb hmoUo Z KS>Uo H$ama^§J H$ama^§J 

H$ama g_márÀ`m {d{dY nÕVr : 

1. H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm Pmë`mZo (H$b_ 37) (By Performance) : H$amamMo XmoÝhr nj O|ìhm 

H$amamàVr Agbobr Amnbr O~m~Xmar nyU©nUo nma nmS>VmV V|ìhm H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. H$amamMr nyV©Vm 

H$aÊ`mMo XmoZ àH$ma AmhoV. 

(A) àË`j H$amanyV©Vm - Oo§ìhm H$amamVrb AQ>rà_mUo H$ama ì`ŠVr `m Amnë`m H$m`Xoera O~m~Xmè`m 

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nyU© H$aVmV V|ìhm Ë`mg àË`j H$amanyV©Vm Pmbr Ago åhUVmV. ~hþVm§er H$ama ho `m nÕVrZo g_má Ho$bo 

OmVmV. A§eV: H$amamMr nyV©Vm hr H$ama g_már hmody eH$V Zmhr. 

(~) H$ama nyV©VoMm à`ËZ - H$ama nyV©VoÀ`m à`ËZmg H$ama H$m`Úm_Üò àË`j H$ama nyV©Vm _mZVmV. 

O|ìhm àñVmdH$ H$amamVrb Amnbo dMZ nyU© H$aÊ`mMr àñVmdË`mg BÀN>m Am{U V`mar Xe©{dVmo _mÌ àñVmdVm 

Ë`mMm pñdH$ma H$arV Zmhr V|ìhm Ë`mg H$amanyV©VoMm à`ËZ Ago åhUVmV. H$amanyV©VoÀ`m à`ËZm_wio àñVmdH$ 

hm H$amamVrb dMZnyVuÀ`m O~m~XmarVyZ _wŠV hmoVmo d Ë`mg nwÝhm H$amamVrb dMZmMr nyV©Vm H$amdr bmJV 

Zmhr. 

2. nañna g§_VrZo H$ama g_már (Discharge of Contract by Mutual Agreement) : 

Á`mà_mUo H$ama hm ì`ŠVr_Yrb nañna R>amdmZo ApñVËdmV òVmo Ë`mà_mUo H$ama ì`ŠVr `m nañna g§_VrZo 

EopÀN>H$ H$ama H$ê$Z H$amamMr g_már H$ê$ eH$VmV. nañnam_Üò R>amd H$ê$Z Imbrbn¡H$s EImÚm _mJm©Zo 

H$ama g_má H$aVm òdy eH$Vmo. 

(A>) H$amamMo ZwVZrH$aU (Novation) : H$amamVrb ì`ŠVr `m O|ìhm ApñVËdmV Agboë`m H$amamÀ`m 

OmJr ZdrZ H$ama H$aVmV V|ìhm Ë`mg H$amamMo ZwVZrH$aU Ago åhUVmV. `m_Üò OwÝ`m H$amamMr OmJm ZdrZ 

H$amamH$Sy>Z KoVbr OmVo d OwZm _yi H$ama g_má hmoVmo. _yi H$ama g_má hmoÊ`mgmR>r ZdrZ H$amamMr nyV©Vm 

hmoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. ZdrZ H$amamV H$amamÀ`m _yi ì`ŠVr `m Ë`mM amhVmV qH$d ì`ŠVr_Üò ~Xb hr hmody 

eH$Vmo. 

(~) H$amamVrb ~Xb (Alteration) : O|ìhm H$amamVrb XmoÝhr ì`ŠVr `m nañnam§À`m g§_VrZo H$amamVrb 

AQ>rV ~Xb H$aVmV V|ìhm Ë`mg H$amamVrb ~Xbm_wio H$ama g_már åhUVmV. Aem ~Xbm_wio _yi H$ama g_má 

hmoVmo Am{U ZdrZ H$ama ApñVËdmV òVmo. 

(H$) H$ama aÔ H$aUo (Rescission) : H$amamVrb ì`ŠVr `m AmnmngmV R>adyZ H$ama aÔ H$ê$ eH$VmV. 

H$ama aÔ Pmë`mZ§Va H$amamer g§~§{YV njm§Mr O~m~Xmar g§nwï>mV òVo d H$ama g_má hmoVmo. 

(S>) H$ama nyV©VoMr gdbV XoUo ( Remission) : H$ama ì`ŠVtZm H$amamZwgma {ZpíMV A{YH$ma 

AgVmV O|ìhm àñVmdVm hm àñVmdH$mH$Sy>Z H$amamV R>aboë`m à{V\$bmnojm H$_r à{V\$b pñdH$maVmo qH$dm 

H$amamMm H$mhr^mJ ñdoÀN>oZo gmoSy>Z XoVmo V|ìhm Ë`mg H$ama nyV©Vog gdbV XoUo Ago åhUVmV. 

(B) h¸$ Ë`mJ H$aUo ( Waiver) : O|ìhm H$amamVrb EImXr ì`ŠVr Ë`mg H$amamZwgma Agbobm 

A{YH$ma OmUyZ~wOyZ gmoSy>Z XoVo Ë`mg h¸$ Ë`mJ H$aUo åhUVmV. EH$m njmZo ñdoÀN>oZo Amnbm A{YH$ma Ë`mJ 

Ho$bm åhUOo Xygar ì`ŠVr Amnë`m O~m~XmarVyZ _wŠV hmoVo. 

(\$) VS>OmoS> Am{U g_mYmZ (Accord and Satisfaction) : O|ìhm àñVmdH$mg H$amamVrb AQ>rà_mUo 

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Amnbo dMZ nyU© H$aUo AeŠ` hmoVo V|ìhm Vmo àñVmdË`mnwT>o VS>OmoS>rMm àñVmd R>odVmo. `m àñVmdm_Üò 

àñVmdH$ H$amamV {Xboë`m dMZmÀ`m _mo~Xë`mV H$_r à{V\$b pñdH$maÊ`mMr àñVmdË`mg {dZ§Vr H$aVmo. 

O|ìhm hr {dZ§Vr àñVmdVm pñdH$maVmo V|ìhm XmoÝhr njmV VS>OmoS> Pmbr Ago åhUVmV. `m VS>OmoS>rà_mUo 

àñVmdH$ O|ìhm Amnë`m dMZmMr nyV©Vm H$aVmo V|ìhm XmoÝhr njm§Mo g_mYmZ hmodyZ Am{U H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. 

3. H$m`ÚmVrb VaVyXr_wio (By Operation of Law) : àMbrV H$m`ÚmVrb VaVyXr_wio Imbrb 

KQ>Zm KS>ë`mg AmnmoAmn H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. 

(A) àñVmdH$mMr {XdmiImoar (Insolvancy of Promisor) : H$amamer g§~§{YV EImÚm ì`ŠVrg 

(àñVmdH$mg) Ý`m`mb`mZo {XdmiImoa åhUyZ Kmo{fV Ho$bo Agob Va Vmo {XdmiImoar Kmo{fV hmoÊ`mÀ`m 

VmaIon`ªVÀ`m H$amamÀ`m O~m~XmarVyZ _wŠV hmoVmo åhUOoM Ë`mZo Ho$bobo gd© H$ama aÔ hmoVmV. 

(~) h¸$m§Mo {dbZrH$aU (Merger) : O|ìhm EImÚm bhmZ H$amamMo _moR>çm H$amamV énm§Va hmoVo V|ìhm 

N>moQ>m H$ama aÔ hmoVmo Am{U ZdrZ H$ama ApñVËdmV òVmo. CXm. A ~ À`m KamV ^mS>çmZo ahmV hmoVm. A Zo 

~ er Ë`mMo Ka {dH$V KoÊ`mMm H$ama Ho$bm. `m_wio Ka ^mS>çmZo KoÊ`mMm H$ama aÔ hmoVmo d Ka IaoXrMm ZdrZ 

H$ama ApñVËdmV òVmo. 

(H$) H$ama ì`ŠVrMm _¥Ë`y (Death of Promisor) : O|ìhm EImÚm H$amamÀ`m nyV©Vo_Üò ì`ŠVrMo 

JwU-H$m¡eë` gm_mdbobo AgVo V|ìhm Aem H$amamMr nyV©Vm ñdV: àñVmdH$mZo Ho$br nm{hOo. Oa H$amanyVu nydu 

àñVmdH$mMm _¥Ë`y Pmbm Va H$ama aÔ hmoVmo. 

(S>) àñVmdH$ Am{U àñVmdVm EH$M ì`ŠVr AgUo (Identity of Promisor and Promisee) : 

O|ìhm àñVmdH$ hm àñVmdVm ~ZVmo V|ìhm Aem H$amamVrb BVa ì`ŠVr§Mr H$amamÀ`m O~m~XmarVyZ _wŠVVm hmoVo 

d H$ama g_má hmoVmo. CXm. A Zo ~ da ì`mnmar hþ§S>r H$mT>br Ë`mg ~ Zo pñdH¥$Vr {Xbr. Ë`mZ§Va A Zo Vr hþ§S>r 

H$ bm hñVm§Va Ho$br. H$ Zo Z§Va Vr ~ bm hñVm§Va Ho$br Va òWo ~ hm àñVmdH$ Am{U àñVmdVm ~ZVmo åhUyZ 

`m H$amamVrb BVa ì`ŠVtMr H$amamVyZ _wŠVVm hmoVo. 

4. H$amamVrb _hÎdmÀ`m ~Xbm_wio (By Material Alteration) : {b{IV H$amamVrb EImXo 

_hÎdmMo H$b_ EH$m ì`ŠVrZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrÀ` g§_Vr{edm` ~Xbbo Va gd© H$ama g_má hmoB©b. H$ama hmoV 

AgVmo V|ìhm H$amamVrb _hÎdmMo H$b_, Ogo aH$_oMm AmH$S>m, dñVy§À`m XOm©Mm AmH$S>m, dñVy XoÊ`mMr VmarI 

BË`mXr EH$m ì`ŠVrZo ~Xbbo Va Agm ~Xb _hÎdmMm ~Xb g_Obm OmVmo d Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrÀ`m Ñï>rZo Vmo 

H$ama ì`W© hmoVmo. CXm. YZmXoemÀ`m YmaH$mZo _yi aH$_oV \o$a~Xb nañna Ho$bm qH$dm ~ZmdQ> ghr Ho$ë`mg 

Ë`m YZmXoemMr a¸$_ dgyb H$aVm òUma Zmhr. `mMmM AW© Agm {b{IV H$ama aÔ hmoB©b. 

5. H$mb_`m©Xm g§në`mZo (By Lapse of Time) : ^maVr` H$mb_`m©Xog§~§YrMm H$m`Xm 1963 

à_mUo H$ama EH$m {ZpíMV H$mbmdYrV nyV©Vm H$amdm bmJVmo. `m H$m`ÚmZwgma H$ama ApñVËdmV Amë`mZ§Va 

Ë`m H$amamMr A§_b~OmdUr VrZ dfm©À`m AmV Pmbr nm{hOo. Oa A§_b~OmdUr VrZ dfm©V Pmbr Zmhr qH$dm 

àñVmdË`mZo H$amanyV©Vm Pmbr Zmhr åhUyZ H$moUVrhr H$m`©dmhr Ho$br Zmhr Va Vmo H$ama H$mb~mø hmoVmo. `mZ§Va 

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Ë`mH$amamMr A§_b~OmdUr AeŠ` ~ZVo. CXm. A Zo ~ `mg EH$ dfm©gmR>r 20000 é. Mm _mb CYmarda 

{dH$bm. EH$ dfm©Mr _wXV g§në`mZ§Va ~ Zo CYmarMr a¸$_ {Xbr Zmhr. `mZ§VaÀ`m VrZ dfm©V A Zo ~ H$S>o 

n¡emMr _mJUr Ho$br Zmhr. H$mb_`m©Xm H$m`ÚmZwgma a¸$_ dgyb H$aÊ`mMr _wXV VrZ df} g§në`mZo A Am{U 

~ `m§À`mVrb H$ama aÔ hmoB©b. 

6. H$amamMr nyV©Vm AeŠ` Pmë`mZo (By Impossibility of Performance) : H$ama H$arV 

AgVmZm H$amamÀ`m nyV©VogmR>r Amdí`H$ Agbobo gd© KQ>H$ AZwHy$b AgVmV. na§Vw H$ama ApñVËdmV 

Amë`mZ§Va H$mhr AZno{jV Am{U AmH$pñ_H$ KQ>Zm KSy>Z Amë`m_wio H$amamMr nyV©Vm H$aUo AeŠ` ~ZVo V|ìhm 

Agm H$am ì`W© ~ZVmo d AmnmoAmn aÔ hmoVmo. H$amanyV©VoÀ`m AeŠ`Vobm níMmV AeŠ`Vm qH$dm Z¡amíòÛmao 

H$amamMr g_már Ago åhUVmV. H$ama Pmë`mZ§Va nwT>rb H$maUm_wio H$amamMr nyV©Vm AeŠ` hmoVo. 

(A) H$amamMm {df` Zï> hmoUo (Destruction of subject matter) : H$amamMr {df`dñVy H$moUË`mhr 

njmMm Xmof ZgVmZm Zï> hmoV Agob Va H$ama AmnmoAmn g§nwï>mV òVmo. CXm. A Zo Amnbr {hamo hm|S>m 

_moQ>magm`H$b ~ bm 30000 én`m§g {dH$Ê`mMm H$ama Ho$bm. _moQ>magm`H$b Mmoarg Joë`m_wio A Am{U ~ 

`m§À`mVrb H$ama aÔ hmoB©b. 

(~) H$ama ì`ŠVrMm _¥Ë`y AWdm Ag_W©Vm (Death or Personal Incapacity) : EImÚm H$amamMr 

nyV©Vm hr ì`ŠVrÀ`m H$bm JwUmda Am{U H$m¡eë`mda AmYmabobr AgVo Aem ì`ŠVrMm H$amanyV©Vonydu _¥Ë`y 

Pmbm qH$dm Vr ì`ŠVr emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ÑîQ>çm H$amanyV©Vog Ag_W© R>abr Va H$ama aÔ hmoVmo. CXm. amYm 

Am{U H¥$îU `m§Zr {ddmhmMm H$ama Ho$bm. na§Vw {ddmhmÀ`m {VWrAmYrM amYm doS>r Pmbr hm H$ama ì`W© hmoVmo. 

(H$) H$m`ÚmVrb ~Xb (Change in Law) : H$ama Pmë`mZ§Va àMbrV H$m`ÚmV ~Xb Pmë`mg nydu 

H$m`Xoera Agbobm H$ama ~oH$m`Xoera hmoVmo. Agm H$ama AmnmoAmn aÔ hmoVmo. CXm. A Zo ~ bm Amnbr 

eoVO_rZ {dH$Ê`mMm H$ama Ho$bm. H$ama Pmë`mZ§Va gaH$maZo A Mr O_rZ gmd©O{ZH$ H$m_mgmR>r Amnë`m 

Vmã`mV KoVbr. Ë`m_wio A Am{U ~ `m§À`mVrb H$ama H$m`ÚmVrb ~Xbm_wio aÔ hmoVmo. 

(S>) `wÕ Kmo{fV hmoUo (Outbreak of War) : `wÕOÝ` n[apñWVrV eÌyamï´>mVrb ZmJ[aH$m§er Ho$bobo 

H$ama ì`W© hmoVmV Am{U `wÕmMr KmofUm hmoÊ`mnydu Pmbobo H$ama ñW{JV hmoVmV. 

(B) {d{eï> KQ>Zm Z KS>ë`mg (Non-existance of Particular state of thing) : H$ama ApñVËdmV 

Amë`mZ§Va EImÚm H$amamMr nyV©Vm {d{eï> KQ>ZoÀ`m KS>Ê`mda Adb§~yZ AgVo. Vr KQ>Zm KS>Uo AeŠ` 

Pmë`mg H$ama ì`W© ~ZVmo Am{U H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. CXm. A Am{U ~ `m§Zr {ddmh H$aÊ`mMm R>amd Ho$bm. 

{ddmhmÀ`m VmaIonydu A qH$dm ~ `mn¡H$s EH$ doS>m Pmbm `m_wio H$ama ì`W© hmoB©b. 

7. H$ama^§Jm_wio (By Breach of Contract) : O|ìhm EImXr ì`ŠVr / nj H$amamZwgma {Z_m©U Pmbobr 

Amnbr O~m~Xmar nyU© H$arV Zmhr qH$dm nyU© H$aÊ`mg ZH$ma XoVmo V|ìhm Ë`mg H$ama^§J åhUVmV. H$ama^§Jm_wio H$ama 

g_má hmoVmo. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 39 à_mUo H$ama^§JmMo nwT>rbà_mUo XmoZ àH$ma AmhoV. 

25

(A) àË`j H$ama ^§J (Actual Breach of Contract) : O|ìhm H$ama nyV©VoÀ`m doiog H$amamÀ`m XmoZ 

ì`ŠVr n¡H$s H$moUr EH$mZo Amnbo dMZ nyU© Ho$bo Zmhr qH$dm dMZnyV©Vm H$aÊ`mg ZH$ma {Xbm V|ìhm Ë`mg 

àË`j qH$dm dmñV{dH$ H$ama^§J åhUVmV. CXm. A Zo Amnbr gmoÝ`mMr MoZ 20000 én`mg ~ bm {dH$Ê`mMm 

H$ama Ho$bm. R>aë`mà_mUo A Zo ~ bm gmoÝ`mMr MoZ XoÊ`mMo ZmH$mabo `m_wio A Am{U ~ `mVrb H$ama aÔ hmoVmo. 

(~) _wXVnyd© H$ama^§J (Anticipatory Brcach of Contract) : O|ìhm àñVmdH$ H$ama nyV©VoMr doi 

òÊ`mnyduM Amnbo dMZ nyU© H$aÊ`mMo boIr AWdm Vm|S>r ZmH$maVmo qH$dm Amnë`m dV©ZmZo H$amamMr nyV©Vm hmoUo 

AeŠ` H$aVmo V|ìhm Ë`mg _wXVnyd© qH$dm Ano{jV H$ama^§J Ago åhUVmV. _wXVnyd© H$ama^§Jm_Üò àñVmdH$m§Mm 

H$amamVrb dMZ nyU© Z H$aÊ`mMm CÔoe ñnï> AgVmo. Á`mdoir _wXVnyd© H$ama^§J hmoVmo V|ìhm àñVmdË`mbm 

Amnë`m dMZnyVunmgyZ _m\$s {_iVo d XmohmoVrb H$ama g_má hmoVmo. 

CXm. lr. nmQ>rb `m§Zr EH$m ^mOrnmbm {dH«o$Ë`mg 10 OyZ amoOr ^mOrnmbm nwa{dÊ`mMm H$ama Ho$bm. na§Vw 

Ë`mnyduM 1 OyZ amoOr lr. nmQ>rb `m§Zr AmnU ^mOrnmbm nwady eH$V Zmhr Ago g§~§{YV {dHo«$Ë`mg boIr 

H$i{dbo. òWo lr. nmQ>rb `m§Zr ñnï>nUo H$amanyV©VoMr VmarI òÊ`mnyduM Amnbo dMZ nyU© H$aÊ`mg ZH$ma 

{Xbm Amho. hm _wXVnyd© H$ama ^§J hmoVmo. Aem _wXVnyd© H$ama^§Jm_wio àñVmdË`mg àñVmdH$m{déÕ nwT>rb XmoZ 

A{YH$ma àmá hmoVmV. 

1. _wXVnyd© H$ama^§JmV àñVmdVm Amnë`m dMZ nyVuVyZ _wŠV hmoVmo. Ë`mbm àñVmdH$m{déÕ VmËH$mi 

H$ama^§Jm~Ôb H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$aVm òVo Ë`mgmR>r Ë`mbm H$amanyV©VoMr VmarI òB©n`ªV Wm§~Ê`mMr JaO 

ZgVo. 

2. àñVmdVm VmËH$mi H$ama aÔ Z H$aVm H$amamÀ`m nyV©VoÀ`m VmaIon`ªV Wm§~yZ Z§Va H$ama^§Jm~Ôb 

àñVmdH$m{déÕ H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

1.2.7 H$ama^§Jm~Ôb Cnm``moOZm (Remedies for Breach of Contract) : 

AW© : XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò H$ama Pmbm åhUOo Ë`m§À`m_Üò H$ama nyU© H$aÊ`mMr H$m`Xoera O~m~Xmar {Z_m©U 

hmoVo. àËòH$ H$ama ì`ŠVr `m Amnbo H$amamVrb dMZ nyU© H$aÊ`mg H$m`ÚmZo O~m~Xma AgVmV. O|ìhm 

H$amaì`ŠVr H$amam§VJ©V Agbobr Ë`§mMr O~m~Xmar nma nmS>Ê`mg ZH$ma XoVmV qH$dm nma nmS>rV ZmhrV V|ìhm 

Ë`mg H$ama^§J Ago åhQ>bo OmVo. H$ama^§Jm_wio Á`m ì`ŠVrMo ZwH$gmZ hmoVo Ë`mg j{VJ«ñV ({ZXm}fr) ì`ŠVr 

Ago åhUVmV. Á`m ì`ŠVrZo H$ama^§J Ho$bobm AgVmo Ë`mg Xmofr ì`ŠVr Ago åhUVmV. H$ama^§Jm~Ôb 

j{VJ«ñV ì`ŠVrbm Xmofr ì`ŠVr{déÕ H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr / H¥$Vr H$aÊ`mMm Omo A{YH$ma àmá hmoVmo Ë`mg 

H$ama^§Jm~Ôb Cnm``moOZm Ago åhUVmV. H$ama^§Jm_wio {ZXmo©fr (j{VJ«ñV) ì`ŠVrg Xmofr ì`ŠVr{déÕ nwT>rb 

Cnm` (A{YH$ma) CnbãY AmhoV. 

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H$ama^§Jm~ÔbÀ`m Cnm``moOZm 

H$ama aÔ H$aUo ZwH$gmZ ânmB© H$moQ>m©V Xmdm bmdyZ OodT>o {_i{dbo H$moQ>m©H$Sy>Z _ZmB© 

gmR>r Xmdm bmdUo H$ama nyV©VoMr _mJUr VodT>oM `m VÎdmÀ`m AmXoe 

H$aUo AmYmao Xmdm bmdUo {H$_i{dUo 

gd©gmYmaU {deof ZwH$gmZ X§S>mË_H$ Zm__mÌ J¡agmò r~m~V A§XmOo 

ZwH$gmZ ânmB© ânmB© ZwH$gmZ ânmB© ZwH$gmZ ânmB© ZwH$gmZ ânmB© ZwH$gmZ ânmB© 

27 

VmËnwaVm H$m`_Mm 

_ZmB© AmXoe _ZmB© AmXoe 

1. H$ama aÔ H$aUo (Rescission of Contract) : O|ìhm H$amamVrb EH$ ì`ŠVr H$ama^§J H$aVo V|ìhm 

Xwgar ì`ŠVr H$ama aÔ H$ê$ eH$Vo. `m {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVrbm Amnbo dMZ nyU© H$aÊ`mMr Amdí`H$Vm ZgVo, Aer 

{ZXm}fr ì`ŠVr H$ama^§Jm~Ôb Xmofr ì`ŠVrH$Sy>Z ZwH$gmZ ânmB© _mJUr H$aÊ`mÀ`m CÔoemZo H$m`Xoera 

H$m`©dmhr H$ê$ eH$Vo. Ý`m`mb`mZo H$ama aÔ Pmë`mMm {ZU©` {Xë`mZ§Va Ý`m`mb`mÀ`m AmXoemZwgma {ZXmo©fr 

ì`ŠVrg ZwH$gmZ ânmB© {_iy eH$Vo. 

2. ZwH$gmZ ânmB©gmR>r Xmdm bmdUo (Suit for Damages) : EH$m ì`ŠVrZo Amnë`m dMZmMm ^§J 

Ho$ë`mZ§Va Aem H$ama^§JmMm ghm{OH$ Am{U àË`j n[aUm_ åhUyZ Oo ZwH$gmZ hmoB©b Vo Xmofr ì`ŠVrZo ^ê$Z 

Úmdo bmJob. j{VJ«ñV ì`ŠVr ZwH$gmZ àmá H$ê$ eH$Vo. AWm©VM `mgmR>r Ë`mbm ZwH$gmZ ânmB©Mm Xmdm 

XmIb H$amdm bmJVmo. àË`j OodT>o ZwH$gmZ Pmbo Agob VodT>rM ZwH$gmZ ânmB© n¡emÀ`m ñdê$nmV {_iy 

eH$Vo. Aem ZwH$gmZ ânmB© XoÊ`mMo nwT>rbà_mUo n«H$ma nS>VmV. 

(A) gd©gmYmaU ZwH$gmZ ânmB© (Ordinary Damages) : H$ama^§J Pmë`mg gmYmaU n[apñWVrV 

H$moUVo Am{U {H$Vr àË`j ZwH$gmZ hmoB©b `mMr H$ënZm H$amamÀ`m XmoÝhr ì`ŠVtZm AgVo. Aem ZwH$gmZrÀ`m 

ânmB©bm gmYmaU ZwH$gmZ ânmB© åhUVmV. `m_Üò àË`j Pmbobo ZwH$gmZ ânmB© H$aÊ`mMm CÔoe AgVmo. 

CXm. A Zo ~ bm EH$m {d{eï> {Xder EH$m {ZpíMV qH$_Vrg 100 nmoVr gmIa {dH$V XoÊ`mMm H$ama Ho$bm.

A Zo Amnbo dMZ nmibo Zmhr Ë`m_wio ~ bm hr gmIa H$amamVrb qH$_Vrnojm Á`mXm qH$_V XodyZ {dH$V ¿`mdr 

bmJbr. ~ bm OodT>r qH$_V dMZ^§Jm_wio Á`mXm _moOmdr bmJbr VodT>rM a¸$_ A H$Sy>Z dgyb H$ê$ eHo$b. 

(~) {deof ZwH$gmZ ânmB© (Special Damages) : H$ama^§Jm_wio ì`ŠVrMo H$moUË`m àH$maMo 

AàË`j ZwH$gmZ hmoB©b `mMo kmZ H$amamÀ`m Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg Agob Am{U Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrZo H$ama^§J Ho$bm Va 

Aem {deof ZwH$gmZr~Ôb àmá hmoUmè`m ânmB©g {deof ZwH$gmZ ânmB© Ago åhUVmV. CXm. A Zo ~ bm EH$ 

q¹$Q>b ñQ>rb 30000 é. qH$_Vrg {dH$Ê`mMm R>amd Ho$bm. ~ bm doioda pñQ>bMm nwadR>m ìhmdm åhUyZ A 

Zo H$ bm Vgo ñnï> gm§JyZ H$ ~amo~a 1 {Šd§Q>b pñQ>b 25000 é. IaoXr H$aÊ`mMm R>amd Ho$bm. H$ Zo pñQ>bMm 

nwadR>m Z Ho$ë`mZo A ~ bm doioda pñQ>b nwadR>m H$ê$ eH$bm Zmhr. ~ Zo H$ama aÔ Ho$bm. ~ Zo H$ama aÔ 

Ho$ë`m_wio A Mo 5000 (3000-25000) ZwH$gmZ Pmbo. A H$ H$Sy>Z ZwH$gmZ ânmB© _mJUr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

(H$) {ejmË_H$ / X§S>mË_H$ ZwH$gmZ ânmB© (Exemplary or Vindictive Damages) : H$ama^§J 

H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVrg {ejm XoÊ`mMr VaVyX H$ama H$m`ÚmV Zmhr. na§Vw H$ama^§Jm_wio ì`ŠVrÀ`m à{Vð>obm AWdm 

Zmdbm¡{H$H$mg ~mYm nmohMUma Agob Va g§~§{YV Xmofr ì`ŠVrg {ejm ìhmdr `m CÔoemZo Aer ZwH$gmZ ânmB© 

_mJUr Ho$br OmVo. {ddmhmÀ`m H$amamMm ^§J Pmë`mg VgoM J«mhH$mÀ`m ImË`mV nwaogo n¡go {e„H$ AgVmZm 

~±Ho$Zo J«mhH$mbm YZmXoe AZmXa Ho$bm Va Ý`m`mb` Xmofr ì`ŠVtZm X§S>mË_H$ ZwH$gmZ ânmB© XoÊ`mMm AmXoe 

Xody eH$Vo. 

(S>) Zm__mÌ ZwH$gmZ ânmB© (Nominal Damages) : O|ìhm H$ama^§Jm_wio {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVrMo Pmbobo 

ZwH$gmZ AË`ën AgVo V|ìhm Ý`m`mb` Xmofr ì`ŠVrg Ë`mZo Ho$boë`m H$ama ^§Jm~Ôb O~m~Xma YaÊ`mgmR>r 

Zm__mÌ ZwH$gmZ ânmB© XoÊ`mMm AmXoe XoVo. Aem àH$maMr ZwH$gmZ ânmB© XoÊ`mMm AmXoe hm {ZXm}fr 

ì`ŠVrg Ý`m` XoUo hm AgVmo. 

(B) J¡agmo`r~m~V ZwH$gmZ ânmB© (Damages for Inconvenience) : H$ama^§Jm_wio EImÚm 

ì`ŠVrMr J¡agmo` hmoV Agob qH$dm Ë`mbm Ìmg ghZ H$amdm bmJV Agob Va Ë`m~Ôb Xmofr ì`ŠVrH$Sy>Z 

Pmboë`m J¡agmo`r~m~V {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVr ZwH$gmZ ânmB© _mJUr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

(\$) A§XmOo {ZpíMV Ho$bobr ZwH$gmZ ânmB© (Liquidated damages) : O|ìhm H$amamÀ`m XmoÝhr 

ì`ŠVr `m H$amamÀ`mdoirM H$ama^§J Pmbm Va Xmofr ì`ŠVrZo {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVrg {H$Vr ZwH$gmZ ânmB© Úmdr ho 

{ZpíMV H$aVmV V|ìhm Ë`mg A§XmOo {ZpíMV Ho$bobr ZwH$gmZ ânmB© Ago åhUVmV. H$amamZwgma OodT>r ZwH$gmZ 

ânmB©Mr a¸$_ {ZpíMV Ho$br OmVo VodT>rM a¸$_ {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVrg Xmofr ì`ŠVrH$Sy>Z _mJUr H$aVm òVo. 

3. H$moQ>m©V Xmdm bmdyZ {d{eï> H$amanyV©VoMr _mJUr H$aUo (Specific Performance) : 

H$amamZwgma _mÝ` Ho$boë`m dMZm§MrM nyV©Vm åhUOo {d{eï> H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm hmo`. AgmYmaU n[apñWVrV 

H$ama^§J Pmë`mg Xmofr ì`ŠVrZo H$amamVrb AQ>rà_mUo dMZmMr nyV©Vm H$amdr Ago AmXoe H$moQ>m©H$Sy>Z ìhmdoV 

Agm Xmdm bmdyZ H$amanyV©VoMr _mJUr {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVrbm H$aVm òVo. {d{eï> dMZnyVu H$ê$Z _mJÊ`mMm 

28

A{YH$ma gd© H$amam§À`m ~m~VrV bmJy hmoV Zmhr. Va Oo H$ama Xw{_©i d Eo{Vhm{gH$ dñVy§À`m g§X^m©V AgVmV 

Am{U H$ama^§Jm_wio {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVrMo Pmbobo ZwH$gmZ n¡emV ì`ŠV H$aVm òV Zmhr qH$dm n¡emÀ`m ñdê$nmV 

ZwH$gmZ ânmB© XoUo eŠ` ZgVo AemMdoir H$amamMr nyV©Vm àñVmdH$mZo Ho$brM nm{hOo Agm AmXoe (Decrce) 

Ý`m`mb` Xody eH$Vo. 

CXm. Ë`mZ§Va A Zo ~ bm EH$ Xw{_©i V¡b{MÌ 50000 én`mg {dH«$s H$aÊ`mMm H$ama Ho$bm. Ë`mZ§Va 

A Zo Vo Xw{_©i V¡b{MÌ ~ bm {dH$Ê`mMo ZmH$mabo åhUyZ ~ A {déÕ H$moQ>m©V Xmdm bmdyZ {d{eï> H$amamMr 

nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mMr _mJUr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. Imbrb n[apñWVrV H$moQ>m©V Xmdm bmdyZ {d{eï> H$amamMr nyV©Vm _mJUr 

H$aVm òV Zmhr. 

1. O|ìhm H$ama^§JmnmgyZ Pmbobo ZwH$gmZ n¡emÀ`m ñdê$nmV ì`ŠV H$aVm òVo. 

2. O|ìhm H$ama ho ì`ŠVrJV ñdê$nmMo ZgVmV. 

3. O|ìhm H§$nZrZo KQ>ZmnÌH$mÀ`m A{YH$maH$jo~mhoaMo H$ama H$aVo. 

4. O|ìhm H$moQ>m©g H$amanyV©Voda ZOa R>odUo AeŠ` AgVo. 

5. O|ìhm H$amamVrb EImXr ì`ŠVr AkmZr AgVo. 

4. OodT>o {_i{dbo VodT>oM _mJUr H$aÊ`mgmR>r Xmdm bmdUo (Suit for Quantum-merit) : 

O|ìhm EImÚm H$amam_Üò H$m_ nyU© Pmë`mZ§Va _mo~Xbm XoÊ`mMm H$ama AgVmo Am{U Agm H$ama Xwgè`m 

ì`ŠVrH$Sy>Z H$m_ nyU© hmoÊ`mAJmoXa ^§J Ho$bm OmVmo qH$dm AmH$pñ_H$ H$maUm_wio Vo H$m_ nyU© hmody eH$bo Zmhr 

Va {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVr hr Xmofr ì`ŠVrH$Sy>Z Ë`mZo nyU© Ho$boë`m H$m_mÀ`m à_mUmV _mo~Xbm _mJy eH$Vo qH$dm AnyU© 

am{hboë`m H$m_m~Ôb ZwH$gmZ ânmB© _mJUr H$ê$ eH$Vo. `mbmM OodT>o {_i{dbo VodT>oM _mJUr H$aUo 

(Quantum of merit) VÎd Ago åhUVmV. 

CXm. A Zo ~ bm Amnë`m H$m`m©b`mV _XVZrg åhUyZ ZmoH$arg R>odbo ~ Zo n§Yam {Xdg H$m_ Ho$ë`mZ§Va 

ZmoH$ar gmoS>br Va ~ bm OodT>o {Xdg H$m_ Ho$bo VodT>çmM {Xdgm§Mm åhUOo 15 {XdgmMm nJma _mJUr H$aVm 

òB©b. Imbrb n[apñWVrV H$m_ H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVrg OodT>o {_i{dbo Agob VodT>oM `m VÎdmZwgma _mo~Xbm 

_mJUr H$aÊ`mMm h¸$ AgVmo. 

1. O|ìhm H$ama ì`W© hmoVmo Voìhm EH$m ì`ŠVrZo H$amamà_mUo Ho$boë`m H$m_mMm \$m`Xm Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg 

{_iVmo V|ìhm Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrZo H$m_ H$aUmè`m n{hë`m ì`ŠVrg Ë`mÀ`m H$m_mMm `mo½` _mo~Xbm {Xbm nm{hOo. 

2. O|ìhm EImXo H¥$Ë` {dZm_mo~Xbm Ho$bo OmV Zmhr Am{U Ë`m H¥$Ë`mMm \$m`Xm Xwgar ì`ŠVr KoVo V|ìhm 

Aem ì`ŠVrZo Vo H¥$Ë` H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVrg Ë`m H¥$Ë`m~m~VMm _mo~Xbm {Xbm nm{hOo. 

3. O|ìhm H$ama nyU© hmoÊ`mAJmoXaM aÔ H$aÊ`mV òVmo. 

4. O|ìhm Pmbobo H$m_ AnyU© am{hboë`m H$m_mnmgyZ doJio H$aVm òVo V|ìhm nyU© Pmboë`m H$m_mMm 

29

_mo~Xbm _mJVm òVmo. 

5. O|ìhm Ag_mYmZH$maH$ nÕVrZo H$ama nyU© Ho$bm OmVmo Vo§ìhm H$ama nyV©Vo~Ôb àñVmdH$mbm nyU© 

_mo~Xbm {_iÊ`mMm h¸$ AgVmo. na§Vw Ag_mYmZH$maH$ H$amanyV©Vm Ho$ë`m~Ôb {_iUmè`m _mo~Xë`mVyZ H$mhr 

a¸$_ dOmdQ> H$aÊ`mMm àñVmdH$mg h¸$ AgVmo. 

5. H$moQ>m©H$Sy>Z _ZmB© AmXoe {_i{dUo (Granting of Injunction) : _ZmB© / à{V~§YmË_H$ AmXoe 

åhUOo Agm Ý`m`mb`rZ AmXoe H$s Á`mÛmao EH$m {d{eï> ì`ŠVrg {d{eï> H$m`© H$aÊ`mg à{V~§Y H$aUo hmo`. 

O|ìhm H$amamer g§~§{YV AgUmar EH$ ì`ŠVr H$amamMm ^§J H$arV Amho qH$dm H$aÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm Agob Va 

Aem ì`ŠVrZo H$ama^§J H$ê$ Zò `mgmR>r Ý`m`mb`mH$S>o AO© XmIb H$ê$Z _ZmB© / à{V~§YmË_H$ AmXoe 

{_i{dVm òVmo. 

CXm. EH$m gwà{gÕ A{^ZoÌrZo df©â EH$m {d{eï> {Z_m©Ë`mH$S>o H$m_ H$aÊ`mMm H$ama Ho$bm Agob d Vr 

A{^ZoÌr Ë`mM doir Xwgè`m {Z_m©Ë`mH$S>o H$m_ H$aÊ`mMo dMZ {Xbo Agob Va n{hë`m {Z_m©Ë`mZo Ë`m A{^ZoÌrZo 

Xwgè`m {Z_m©Ë`mH$S>o H$m_ H$ê$ Zò `mgmR>r H$moQ>m©H$Sy>Z à{V~§YmË_H$ AmXoe {_idy eH$Vmo. Agm _ZmB© AmXoe 

{_i{dÊ`mMo XmoZ àH$ma nS>VmV. 

(A) VmËnwaVm _ZmB© AmXoe (Temporary Injuction) : Á`m _ZmB© AmXoemV H$amamVrb AQ>rà_mUo 

H$m_ nyU© hmoB©n`ªV à{V~§YmË_H$ AmXoe {Xbm OmVmo Ë`mg VmËnwaVm _ZmB© AmXoe åhUVmV. 

(~) H$m`_Mm _ZmB© AmXoe (Perpetual Injunction) : Á`m _ZmB© AmXoemV Xmì`mMm A§{V_ {ZH$mb 

bmJon`ªV Ý`m`mb`mH$Sy>Z à{V~§YmË_H$ AmXoe {_i{dbm OmVmo Ë`mg H$m`_Mm _ZmB© AmXoe åhUVmV. 

1.3 g§H$ënZm Am{U gmam§e : 

1.3.1 g§H$ënZm : 

1. àñVmd (Proposal) : O|ìhm EH$ ì`ŠVr Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrMr g§_Vr {_i{dÊ`mÀ`m hoVyZo EImXo H¥$Ë` 

H$aÊ`m~m~V Am{U Z H$aÊ`m~m~V Amnbr BÀN>m Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg_moa ì`ŠV H$aVo V|ìhm n{hë`m ì`ŠVrZo 

Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg àñVmd Ho$bm Ago åhUVmV. 

2. à{VàñVmd (Counter Proposal) : àñVmdmg pñdH¥$Vr XoVmZm àñVmdmVrb EImÚm AQ>rV ~Xb 

Ho$bm Va Vr àñVmdmMr pñdH¥$Vr Z hmoVm CbQ> àñVmdË`mH$Sy>Z àñVmdH$mbm Ho$bobm à{VàñVmd hmoVmo. 

3. àñVmdmMr pñdH¥$Vr (Acceptance of Proposal) : Á`m ì`ŠVrg àñVmd H$aÊ`mV Ambm Amho 

Ë`m ì`ŠVrZo àñVmdmg Amnbr g§_Vr {Xbr Va àñVmdmMr pñdH¥$Vr Pmbr Ago åhUVmV. 

4. dMZ (Promise) : pñdH¥$Vr {Xboë`m àñVmdmg dMZ Ago åhUVmV åhUyZ àñVmd + àñVmdmMr 

pñdH¥$Vr = R>amdmMo dMZ. 

5. àñVmdH$ (Promisor) : Or ì`ŠVr àñVmd H$aVo Ë`mg àñVmdH$ åhUVmV. 

6. àñVmdVm (Promisee) : Á`m ì`ŠVrg àñVmd H$aÊ`mV Ambm Amho qH$dm Or ì`ŠVr àñVmdmg 

30

Amnbr g§_Vr ì`ŠV H$aVo Ë`mg àñVmdVm Ago åhUVmV. 

7. à{V\$b (Consideration) : H$ama ì`ŠVtZm H$amamnmgyZ {_iUmam _mo~Xbm hm à{V\$b AgVmo. 

Vmo n¡emÀ`m ñdê$nmV, dñVyÀ`m ñdê$nmV, Z\$m, ì`mO, Ë`mJ BË`m{X ñdê$nmV AgVmo. 

8. R>amd (Agreement) : àËòH$ dMZmg Am{U EH$_oH$m§Mo à{V\$b AgUmè`m dMZm§À`m g§Mmg 

(Set of promises) R>amd Ago åhUVmV. àñVmdmg pñdH¥$Vr {Xbr H$s Ë`mMo R>amdmV ê$nm§Va hmoVo. 

9. H$ama (Contract) : Á`m R>amdm§Mr H$m`Xoera A§_b~OmdUr H$aVm òVo Ë`mg H$ama åhUVmV. åhUyZ 

H$ama = R>amd + R>amdmMr H$m`ÚmZo A§_b~OmdUr. 

10. Am^mgr / VmÑí` H$ama (Quasi Contract) : H$m`ÚmÀ`m ZOaoVyZ g_Obm OmUmam H$ama qH$dm 

H$m`ÚmgmaIo g§~§Y AgUmam H$ama. 

11. H$ama^§J (Breach of Contract) : O|ìhm H$amaì`ŠVr `m H$amam§VJ©V Agbobr Ë`m§Mr O~m~Xmar 

nma nmS>rV ZmhrV qH$dm nma nmS>Ê`mg ZH$ma XoVmV V|ìhm Ë`mg H$ama^§J åhUVmV. 

12. H$amanyV©Vm (Performance of Contract) : EImÚm H$amamVrb dMZmMr nyV©Vm aÔ hmoÊ`mnydu 

qH$dm H$amaì`ŠVtZm H$amanyV©VonmgyZ _m\$s {_iÊ`mnydu H$amamVrb {Xboë`m dMZm§Mr nyV©Vm H$aUo qH$dm 

dMZnyVuMr BÀN>m àX{e©V H$aUo `mg H$amanyV©Vm åhUVmV. 

1.3.2 gmam§e : 

ì`mnmar H$m`Úm§Mr {Z{_©Vr hr àm_w»`mZo B§J«Or ì`mnmar H$m`ÚmnmgyZ Pmbr Amho. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm 

hm n{hbm ì`mnmar H$m`Xm 1 gßQ>|~a 1872 amoOr Oå_y H$mí_ra gmoSy>Z g§nyU© ^maVâ bmJy H$aÊ`mV Ambm 

Amho. gXa H$m`Úm_Üò EHy$Z 1 Vo 238 H$b_o AmhoV. `m§Mr XmoZ ^mJmV {d^mJUr Ho$br Amho. H$b_ 1 Vo 

75 `m n{hë`m ^mJmVrb H$ama H$m`ÚmMr _yb^yV VÎdo hr gd© àH$maÀ`m H$amam§Zm bmJy Ho$br AmhoV. H$amamMr 

_ybVÎdo hr VrZ ^mJmV {d^mJUr Ho$br AmhoV. n{hë`m ^mJmg H$ama {Z{_©VrMr _yb^yV VÎdo, Xwgè`m^mJ - 

H$ama nyV©VoMo {Z`_ Am{U {Vgam ^mJ hm H$ama g_márMr _ybVÎdo Agm Amho. n{hë`m ^mJm_Üò H$ama 

{Z{_©VrgmR>r H$moUË`m ~m~r Amdí`H$ AgVmV. H$m`Xoera H$ama H$gm ApñVËdmV òVmo Ë`mÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r 

H$moUË`m AmhoV `m ~m~tMm g_mdoe Ho$bm Amho. Xwgè`m nmàrV H$amam§Mr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mMo {Z`_ {Xbo AmhoV 

Á`m_Üò àË`j H$amanyV©Vm, H$amanyV©VoMm à`ËZ, H$ama H$moUr nyU© Ho$bo nm{hOoV, g§`wŠV àñVmdm_Üò g§`wŠV 

àñVmdH$m§Mr H$amanyV©VoMr O~m~Xmar H$er AgVo Am{U H$ama nyV©VoMr doi Am{U {R>H$mU `m~m~VMo {Z`_ 

gm§{JVbobo AmhoV. _yb^yV H$amam§À`m {Vgè`m ^mJmV H$ama g_márMo {d{dY àH$ma gm§{JVbo AmhoV. H$ama 

g_már hr H$amamMr nyV©Vm Pmë`mZo hmoVo VgoM H$ama ^§J Pmbm Var H$ama g_má hmoVmo _mÌ H$am^§Jm_wio H$ama 

g_már Pmbr Va jVrJ«ñV ({ZXm}fr) ì`ŠVrbm Xmofr ì`ŠVr{déÕ ZwH$gmZ ânmB© _mJUr H$aÊ`mÀ`m H$m`Xoera 

H$moUË`m Cnm``moOZm CnbãY AmhoV `mMo {Z`_ XoIrb {Xbo AmhoV. `m {Z`_mZwgmaM {ZXm}fr ì`ŠVrg H$moQ>m©V 

Xmdm bmdyZ ZwH$gmZ ânmB© _mJUr H$aVm òVo. Xwgè`m ^mJmVrb H$b_ 124 Vo 238 _Üò {deof H$amam§Mm 

g_mdoe H$aÊ`mV Ambm Amho. `m_Üò ZwH$gmZ ânmB© d h_rMo H$ama, {Zjon Am{U VmaUmMo H$ama, A{^H$V¥©Ëd 

31

à{V{ZYrËdmMo H$ama `m {deof H$amam§Mm g_mdoe Amho, åhUyZ `mg {deof H$amam§Mr _ybVÎdo Ago åhUVmV. 

1.4 ñd`§AÜ``ZmgmR>r àíZ : 

1. ì`mnmar H$m`ÚmÀ`m {Z{_©VrMo _mJ© gm§Jm. 

2. "gd© H$ama R>amd AgVmV na§Vw gd© R>amd H$ama AgVrbM Ago Zmhr' `m {dYmZmer gh_V AmhmV 

H$m`? 

3. H$m`Xoera H$amaÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r ñnï> H$am. 

4. H$amam§Mo dJuH$aU ñnï> H$am. 

5. A§_b~OmdUrZwgma H$amam§Mo {H$Vr àH$ma nS>VmV ? 

6. _wŠV g§_Vr åhUOo H$m` ? 

7. H$amanyV©Vm åhUOo H$m` ? H$amanyV©VoMo àH$ma gm§Jm. 

8. H$ama nyV©VoVrb g§`wŠV àñVmdH$m§Mr O~m~Xmar ñnï> H$am. 

9. H$ama g_már åhUOo H$m` ? 

10. H$ama g_márÀ`m {d{dY nÕVr H$moUË`m ? 

11. H$ama^§J åhUOo H$m` ? H$ama^§JmMo àH$ma gm§Jm. 

12. H$ama^§J~Ôb AgUmè`m Cnm`moOZm gm§Jm. 

13. ZwH$gmZ ânmB©Mo {d{dY n«H$ma H$moUVo ? 

14. H$moUË`m H$maUm_wio H$ama nyV©VoÀ`m AeŠ`Vo_wio H$ama g_má hmoVmo ? 

1.5 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r gm{hË` : 

1. S. S. Gulshan, - Mercantile Law, Excel Book, New Delhi. 

2. N. D. Kapoor - Mercantile Law, Sultanchand & Sons, New Delhi. 

3. Dr. Manmohan Prasad - Principles of Business Law and 

Management, Himalaya Publishin House. 

4. ~r. S>r. Omoer - ì`mnma{df`H$ Am{U Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$m`Xo 

AZ_mob àH$meZ, nwUo. 

5. http/wwwanswers.com/topic/contracts-legal. 

6. www.expertlaw.com.Expert law library. 

32 

��

2.0 C{Ôï>ço 

2.1 àñVmdZm 

2.2 {df`-{ddoMZ 



KQ>H$-2 

{deof H$ama (Special Contracts) 

2.2.1 {ZjonmMm H$ama Am{U {Zjon H$amamÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r 

2.2.2 {ZjonXmË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò 

2.2.3 {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò 

2.2.4 {Zjon H$amam§Mr g_mßVr 

2.2.5 VmaU, VmaU H$amamMr ì`m»`m Am{U d¡{eï>ço 

2.2.6 VmaUXmË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò 

2.2.7 VmaUJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò 

2.2.8 {Zjon Am{U VmaU H$ama `mVrb \$aH$ 

2.2.9 A{^H$Vm© H$amamMr ì`m»`m, {Z{_©Vr Am{U g_mßVr 

2.2.10 A{^H$Vm© Am{U àYmZ `m§Mo h¸$ Am{U H$V©ìò 

2.3 g§H$ënZm Am{U gmam§e 

2.4 ñd`§AÜ``ZmgmR>r àíZ 

2.5 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r g§X^© J«§W 

33

2.0 C{Ôïç>o : 

àñVyV KQ>H$mMm Aä`mg Ho$ë`mZ§Va {dÚmÏ`mªZm ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm 1872 _Yrb {deof H$amamn¡H$s 

{Zjon d VmaUmMo H$ama Am{U à{V{YËdmMo H$ama `m~m~mVÀ`m VaVyXtMr _m{hVr hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoB©b. 

1. {Zjon H$amamMr ì`m»`m Am{U bjUo `m§Mr _m{hVr hmoB©b. 

2. {ZjonXmË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò H$iVrb. 

3. {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò bjmV òB©b. 

4. {Zjon H$amam§À`m g_mßVrMm n[aM` hmoB©b. 

5. VmaU, VmaU H$ama Am{U VmaU H$amamMr d¡{eï>ço gm§JVm òVrb. 

6. VmaUXmË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò g_OÊ`mg _XV hmoB©b. 

7. VmaUJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò `m§Mm n[aM` hmoB©b. 

8. {Zjon Am{U VmaU H$ama `mVrb \$aH$ H$iob. 

9. A{^H$Vm© H$amamMm AW©, {Z{_©Vr Am{U g_mßVrÀ`m nÕVr `m§Mr _m{hVr g_OÊ`mg _XV hmoB©b. 

10. A{^H$Vm© Am{U àYmZ `m§Mo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ì`m§Mo ñdê$n bjmV òB©b. 


^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm 1872 _Yrb H$b_ 124 Vo 238 _Üò gm§{JVbobo {Z`_ Am{U Ho$boë`m VaVyXr 

`m \$ŠV {d{eï> àH$maÀ`m H$amam§Zm bmJy hmoVmV åhUyZ `m§Zm {deof H$amam§Mr _ybVÎdo (Principles of special 

contracts) Ago åhUVmV. `m_Üò ZwH$gmZânmB©, h_rMo H$ama, {ZjonmMo H$ama, VmaUmMo H$ama Am{U 

A{^H$V©¥Ëd/ à{V{ZYrËdmMo H$ama `m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. àñVwV àH$aUm_Üò {deof H$amamn¡H$s {Zjon, VmaU 

Am{U A{^H$V©¥ËdmMo {deof H$ama `m H$amam§Mr _m{hVr Aä`mgmgmR>r {Xbr Amho. {ZjonmMo d VmaUmMo H$ama 

ho {deof H$ama AmhoV H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 148 Vo 181 _Üò {Zjon Am{U VmaUmÀ`m H$amamg§~§Yr VaVyXr 

gm§{JVboë`m AmhoV. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 182 Vo 238 _Üò A{^H$V¥©ËdmÀ`m H$amamg§~§Yr VaVyXr 

{Xboë`m AmhoV. àñVwV àH$aUmV AmnU {ZjonmMo H$ama, VmaUmMo H$ama, A{^H$Vm© àYmZ `m§À`m d¡Ym{ZH$ 

A{YH$ma{df`r Am{U O~m~Xmè`m{df`r Aä`mg H$aUma AmhmoV. 

2.2 {df`-{ddoMZ : 

`m ^mJm_Üò {deof H$amamn¡H$s {ZjonmMo H$ama, VmaUmMo H$ama Am{U A{^H¥$V©dmMo H$ama `m§Mr _m{hVr 

H$ê$Z KoUma AmhmoV. 

2.2.1 {ZjonmMm H$ama Am{U {ZjonmÀ`m H$amamMr d¡{eï>ço / bjUo : 

{ZjonmMm H$ama (Contract of Bailment) : B§J«OrVrb Bailment hm eãX \«|$M _Yrb _yi eãX 

'baillier' `m eãXmnmgyZ ~Zbobm Amho. `m eãXmMm AW© 'To deliver' åhUOoM Xwgè`mg gmon{dUo Agm hmoVmo. 

34

EH$m {d{eï> CÔoemZo Amnë`m dñVy§Mm Vm~m Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg gmon{dUo åhUOo {Zjon hmo`. Amnë`m X¡Z§{XZ 

ì`dhmam_Üò {Zjon hm \$magm àM{bV Zgbobm eãX _mÌ ì`dhmamV _moR>çm à_mUmda dmnabm OmV Agë`mMo 

AmT>iyZ òVo. CXm. J«§Wmb`mVyZ EImXo nwñVH$ Aä`mgmgmR>r KoUo åhUOo {Zjon hmo`. nwñVH$mMo dmMZ 

Pmë`mZ§Va Vo nwÝhm J«§Wmb`mV O_m H$aVmo. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 148 _Üò {ZjonmÀ`m H$amamMr 

ì`m»`m nwT>rbà_mUo {Xbr Amho, ""{ZjonmMm H$ama åhUOo Agm H$ama H$s, Á`mZwgma EH$ ì`ŠVr {d{eï> hoVyZo 

Amnbr dñVy ñdoÀN>oZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrÀ`m Vmã`mV XoVo d hoVy nyU© Pmë`mZ§Va Vr dñVy naV KoVo qH$dm Ë`m dñVyMm 

{d{Z`moJ bmdÊ`mMr gyMZm Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg XoVo.'' 

CXm. ~§Q>rZo Amnbo KS>çmi XwéñVrgmR>r ~~brH$S>o {Xbo. KS>çmi XwéñV Pmë`mZ§Va ~§Q>rZo ~~brbm 

200 é. _Oyar {Xbr Am{U KS>çmi naV KoVbo. `m_Üò XmoZ nj AgVmV. dñVy§Mo àXmZ (dñVy§Mm Vm~m) 

XoUmè`m ì`ŠVrg {ZjonXmVm (Bailor) Ago åhUVmV. Á`m ì`ŠVrg dñVy§Mm Vm~m {Xbm OmVmo Ë`m {ZjonJ¥{hVm 

(Bailee) Ago åhUVmV. ñdoÀN>oZo dñVyMo àXmZ H$aÊ`mÀ`m ì`dhmamg {Zjon (Bailment) Ago åhUVmV. 

{ZjonmÀ`m H$amamÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r/d¡{eï>ço : 

{ZjonmÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r 

R>amd {df` dñVy dñVy§Mm Vm~m CÔoe CÔoe nyVuZ§Va dñVy naV KoUo 

1. R>amd (Agreement) : {ZjonmÀ`m H$amamgmR>r {ZjonXmVm Am{U {ZjonJ¥{hVm `m§À`m_Üò R>amd hmoUo 

Amdí`H$ Amho. hm R>amd boIr AWdm Vm|S>r Agbm Var MmbVmo. H$mhrdoim H$m`ÚmÀ`m VaVyXrVyZ J¥{hV {Zjon 

R>amd ApñVËdmV òVmo. CXm. ha{dbobr dñVy gmnS>bobr ì`ŠVr Am{U dñVyMm _mbH$ `m§À`mV H$m`ÚmÀ`m 

ZOaoVyZ {ZjonmMm R>amd ApñVËdmV òVmo. 

2. {df` dñVy (Subject Matter) : {ZjonmÀ`m H$amamgmR>r {df`dñVy hr MbdñVy Agbr nm{hOo. 

MbdñVy `m g§H$ënZoV n¡gm d n¡go dgyb H$aÊ`mMm h¸$ (Actionable claims) gmoSy>Z Á`m dñVy§Mo EH$m 

{R>H$mUmhÿZ Xwgè`m {R>H$mUr ñWbm§Va H$aVm òVo Ë`m gdmªMm `mV g_mdoe hmoVmo. Aem MbMrM Amdí`H$Vm 

{ZjonmdñVy§gmR>r AgVo. 

3. dñVy§Mm Vm~m (Delivery of goods) : {ZjonmÀ`m H$amamgmR>r EH$m ì`ŠVrZo ñdoÀN>oZo Amnë`m 

dñVy§Mm Vm~m Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrH$S>o XoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. _mbH$mZo Amnë`m dñVy ZmoH$amÀ`m Vmã`mV {Xë`mg 

Vmo {Zjon hmoV Zmhr. VgoM Aem dñVy§Mm Vm~m Ë`m dñVy§Mo àË`j àXmZ qH$dm aMZmË_H$ nÕVrZo XoUo Amdí`H$ 

AgVo. 

35

4. CÔoe (Purpose) : {ZjonmMm H$ama hm {d{eï> H$mbmdYrgmR>r d {d{eï> CÔoemgmR>r Ho$bm OmVmo. 

{ZjonmMo CÔoe ho gwa{jVVogmR>r, dñVyÀ`m dmnamgmR>r, VmaUmgmR>r, dmhVyH$sgmR>r, XwéñVrgmR>r d ^mS>çmZo 

dmnamgmR>r, gewëH$ Am{U {Z:ewëH$ BË`mXr AgVmV. Aem {ZjonmÀ`m CÔoemZwgma dñVyda à{H«$`m Ho$br Omdy 

eH$Vo. dñVyMo ñdê$n ~Xbbo Omdy eH$Vo qH$dm dñVy _yi ñdê$nmV naV Ho$ë`m Omdy eH$VmV. 

5. CÔoenyVuZ§Va dñVy naV KoUo (Return of specific goods) : {Zjonm_Üò EH$m ì`ŠVr {d{eï> hoVyZo 

Amnbr dñVy ñdoÀN>oZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrÀ`m Vmã`mV {Xbobr AgVo. hoVy nyU© Pmë`mZ§Va dñVyMo hñVm§VaU H$aUmar 

ì`ŠVr Vr dñVy nwÝhm Amnë`m Vmã`mV KoVo qH$dm dñVyMr {dëhodmQ> bmdÊ`mMr gyMZm Á`m ì`ŠVrg dñVyMm 

Vm~m {Xbobm AgVmo Ë`mg XoVo. 

2.2.2 {ZjonXmË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò (Rights and Daties of Bailor) : 

(A) {ZjonXmË`mMo A{YH$ma / h¸$ (Rights of Bailor ) - H$b_ 152 Vo 163 : 

{ZjonXmË`mMo A{YH$ma 

{ZîH$miOrnyd©H$ ZwH$gma {ZjonmMm AZ{YH¥$V dñVy§À`m dñVy Vmã`mV 

ânmB© _mJUr H$aÊ`mMm H$ama aÔ ga{_gimgmR>r ZwH$gmZ KoÊ`mMm 

A{YH$ma H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma ânmB© _mJUr H$aUo A{YH$ma 

dñVy§À`m AZm{YH¥$V dñVyV hmoUmar {Z:ewëH$ {Zjo{nV 

dmnam~m~V ZwH$gmZ dmT> àmá H$aUo dñVy naV KoUo 

ânmB© _mJUr H$aUo 

1. {ZjonJ¥{hË`mÀ`m {ZîH$miOrnUmgmR>r ZwH$gmZânmB© _mJUr H$aUo : {ZjonJ¥{hË`mÀ`m 

~ondm©B©_wio, {ZîH$miOrnUm_wio {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mo H$mhr ZwH$gmZ Pmë`mg Ë`mMr ânmB© {ZjonJ¥{hË`mH$Sy>Z H$ê$Z 

KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma {ZjonXmË`mg AgVmo. 

2. {ZjonmMm H$ama aÔ H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo {ZjonrV dñVy§Mm MyH$sÀ`m nÕVrZo 

qH$dm H$ama~mø CÔoemgmR>r dmna H$arV Agob Va {ZjonXmVm {ZjonmMm H$ama aÔ H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

3. AZm{YH¥$V dñVy§À`m ga{_gimgmR>r ZwH$gmaZ ânmB© _mJUr H$aUo : {ZjonJ¥{hVm Amnë`m 

ñdV:À`m dñVy Am{U {ZjonXmË`mZo {Zjon H$amamgmR>r Ë`mÀ`m Vmã`mV {Xboë`m dñVy `m§Mr AZm{YH¥$VnUo 

36

ga{_gi H$arV Agob Va Ë`m_wio {ZjonXmË`mMo Oo ZwH$gmZ hmoB©b Ë`mMr ânmB© Vmo {ZjonJ¥{hË`H$Sy>Z _mJUr 

H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

4. dñVy Vmã`mV KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : Á`m CÔoemgmR>r {ZjonXmË`mZo {ZjonJ¥{hË`mÀ`m Vmã`mV dñVy 

{Xboë`m AgVmV Vmo {ZjonmMm CÔoe g§në`mZ§Va qH$dm {ZjonmMm H$mbmdYr g§në`mZ§Va Amnë`m dñVy Vmã`mV 

KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma {ZjonXmË`mg AgVmo. 

5. dñVy§À`m AZm{YH¥¥$V dmnam~m~V ZwH$gmZ ânmB© _mJUr H$aUo : {ZjonJ¥{hVm {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mm 

AZm{YH¥$VnUo {ZjonXmË`mÀ`m g§_Vr{edm` dmna H$arV Agob d Ë`m_wio {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mo H$mhr ZwH$gmZ hmoV 

Agob Va {ZjonJ¥Ë`mH$Sy>Z ZwH$gmZrMr ânmB© H$ê$Z KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma {ZjonXmË`mg AgVmo. 

6. dñVyV hmoUmar dmT> àmßV H$aUo : {Zjo{nV dñVy {ZjonJ¥{hË`mÀ`m Vmã`mV AgVmZm Ë`m dñVy§_Üò 

H$mhr dmT> hmoV Agob Va Aer dmT> àmá H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma {ZjonXmË`mg AgVmo. 

7. {Z:ewëH$ {Zjo{nV dñVy naV KoUo : {Z:ewëH$ {Zjon Agob Va {ZjonXmVm {Zjo{nV dñVy `m H|$ìhmhr 

naV Kody eH$Vmo. Aem dñVy `m {d{eï> H$mbmdYrgmR>r qH$dm CÔoemgmR>r {Xë`m Agë`m Var {Z:ewëH$ {Zjon 

doioÀ`m AmYr H|$ìhmhr aÔ H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma {ZjonXmË`mg AgVmo. na§Vw {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo hmoUmao ZwH$gmZ Ë`mZo 

^ê$Z {Xbo nm{hOo. VgoM EImXm {VèhmB©V {Zjo{nV dñVy§Zm BOm nmohM{dV Agob qH$dm ~iO~arZo {ZjonJ¥¥{hË`mH$Sy>Z 

dñVyMm Vm~m KoV Agob Va Aem {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVrda H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma Amho. 

(~) {ZjonXmË`mMr H$V©ìò (Duties of Bailor ) : {ZjonXmË`mMr H$V©ìò qH$dm O~m~Xmè`m nwT>rbà_mUo AmhoV. 

{ZjonXmË`mMr H$V©ìò 

{Zjo{nV dñVy_Yrb Agm_mÝ` ñdê$nmMm {Z:ewëH$ {Zjon _wXVnyd© 

Xmof CKS> H$aUo IM© ghZ H$aUo aÔ Ho$ë`mg ZwH$gmZ 

ânmB© XoUo 

dñVy naV {ZjonJ¥{hË`mg _mbH$sh¸$mÀ`m 

àmá H$aUo ZwH$gmZânmB© Xmofm~m~V hmoUmao 

H$ê$Z XoUo ZwH$gmZânmB© H$aUo 

1. {Zjo{nVdñVy_Yrb Xmof CKS> H$aUo : {ZjonXmË`mZo {d{eï> hoVygmR>r {ZjonJ¥{hË`mÀ`m Vmã`mV 

37

dñVy XoVmZm Ë`m dñVy_Yrb _m{hV Agoboë`m Xmofm§Mr _m{hVr {ZjonJ¥{hË`mg {Xbr nm{hOo. {ZjonXmË`mZo 

OmUrdnyd©H$ dñVy_Yrb Xmof CKS> Ho$bo ZmhrV Ë`m_wio {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo H$mhr ZwH$gmZ Pmë`mg Aem ZwH$gmZrMr 

ânmB© H$ê$Z XoÊ`mMr Om~~Xmar {ZjonXmË`mda òVo. VgoM {Zjon gewëH$ Agob Va {ZjonXmË`mZo Ë`mÀ`m 

dñVy_Yrb Xmof _m{hV Agmo dm Zgmo, Agm Xmof CKS> Z Ho$ë`m~Ôb {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo Oo H$mhr ZwH$gmZ hmoB©b 

Ë`mMr ânmB© H$aÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar {ZjonXmË`mda AgVo. VgoM dñVy Oa ñ\$moQ>H$ AgVrb Va Ë`mMr 

nyd©H$ënZm {ZjonJ{hË`mg XoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

2. Agm_mÝ` ñdê$nmMm IM© ghZ H$aUo : {ZjonmMm H$ama hm gewëH$ Agob Va {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo 

{ZjonmÀ`m g§X^m©V Omo Agm_mÝ` IM© Ho$bm Agob Ë`mMr ânmB© H$ê$Z XoÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar {ZjonXmË`mda 

AgVo. gd©gmYmaU IM© hm {ZjonJ¥¥{hË`mg H$amdm bmJVmo. `mCbQ> {Zjon {Z:ewëH$ Agob Am{U {Zjo{nV 

dñVyda H$mhr à{H«$`m H$amdr bmJV Agob AWdm dñVy gwa{jV R>odÊ`mgmR>r `m gm_mÝ` IM© {ZjonXmË`mZo 

{ZjonJ¥{hË`mg ^ê$Z {Xbm nm{hOo. 

3. {Z:ewëH$ {Zjon _wXVnyd© aÔ Ho$ë`mg ZwH$gmZ ânmB© H$aUo : Oa {Zjon {Z:ewëH$ Agob Va 

{ZjonXmVm Agm {Zjon H|$ìhm§hr aÔ H$ê$ eH$Vmo. Oa {ZjonXmË`mZo Agm {Zjon _wXVnyd© aÔ Ho$bm Va 

{ZjonJ¥¥{hË`mMo Oo H$mhr ZwH$gmZ hmoB©b Ë`mMr ânmB© H$ê$Z XoUo ho {ZjonXmË`mMo H$V©ì` AgVo. CXm. A Zo 

Amnbr H$ma ~ bm EH$ _{hÝ`mgmR>r _mo\$V dmnaÊ`mg {Xbr. ~ Zo _moQ>ma XwéñVrgmR>r é. 5000 IM© Ho$bo. 

A Zo EH$m AmR>dS>çmZ§Va Amnbr H$ma naV KoVbr. `m_wio ~ Mo ZwH$gmZ Pmbo. Ë`mbm H$maMm nwaonya \$m`Xm 

KoVm Ambm Zmhr Ë`m_wio ~ Zo Ho$bobm IM© ^ê$Z XoÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar A da am{hb. 

4. dñVy naV àmá H$aUo : {ZjonmMm CÔoe nyU© Pmë`mZ§Va AWdm {ZjonmMm H$mbmdYr g_má 

Pmë`mZ§Va {ZjonJ¥{hVm {Zjo{nV dñVy naV H$arV Agob Va {ZjonXmË`mZo Ë`m dñVy§Mm naV pñdH$ma Ho$bm 

nm{hOo. Oa {Zjon XmË`mZo dñVyMm naV pñdH$ma Ho$bm Zmhr Va dñVyMm gm§^mi H$aUo, dñVy gwa{jV R>odUo 

`mH$[aVm Omo Omo Amdí`H$ IM© {ZjonJ¥{hVm H$arb Ë`m gd© Amdí`H$ Am{U AmH$pñ_H$ IMm©Mr ânmB© 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r {ZjonXmVm O~m~Xma AgVmo. 

5. {ZjonJ¥{hË`mg ZwH$gmZ ânmB© H$ê$Z XoUo : {ZjonmÀ`m H$amamZwgma {ZjonrV dñVy_Yrb 

YmoŠ`mMr O~m~Xmar ñdV: {ZjonXmË`mZo pñdH$mabr nm{hOo. {ZjonrV dñVy~m~V `mo½` I~aXmar {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo 

KodyZ XoIrb Aem dñVy§Zm H$moUVmhr YmoH$m {Z_m©U Pmbm Va Ë`m YmoŠ`mMr O~m~Xmar {ZjonXmË`mda AgVo. 

CXm. A Zo Amnbm KmoS>m KmoS>Xm¡S>rgmR>r ~ bm nmM {XdgmH$[aVm ^mS>çmZo {Xbm. {Vgè`m {Xder KmoS>m 

AmOmar nS>bm Am{U _`V Pmbm. Va òWo ~ hm A bm O~m~Xma amhUma Zmhr `mMr O~m~Xmar A ZoM 

pñdH$mabr nm{hOo. 

6. _mbH$s h¸$mÀ`m Xmofm~m~V hmoUmar ZwH$gmZânmB© H$aUo : {ZjonXmË`mbm {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mm 

Mm§Jbm A{YH$ma (H$mmòXrea _mbH$s h¸$) ZgVmZm Ë`m dñVy§Mm Vm~m {ZjonJ¥{hË`mg XoÊ`mV Ambm Agob 

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Am{U Ë`m_wio {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo H$mhr ZwH$gmZ hmoV Agob Va Vo ZwH$gmZ ^ê$Z XoÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar {ZjonXmË`mda 

AgVo. 

2.2.3 {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò (Rights and Dutes of Bailee) : 

(A) {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma (Rights of Bailee) : 

{ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma 

ZwH$gmZânmB© IMm©Mr à{VnyVu Amdí`H$ IMm©Mr H$ama aÔ Ho$ë`m- 

_mJUr H$aUo H$aUo a¸$_ àmá H$aUo ~m~V ZwH$gmZ 

ânmB© _mJUr H$aUo 

g§`wŠV {ZjonXmË`mn¡H$s dñVy§Mm Mm§Jbm A{YH$ma {Zjo{nV dñVyda {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr 

H$moUË`mhr EH$mg Zgboë`m {ZjonXmË`mg J«hUm{YH$ma {déÕ H$m`Xoera 

dñVy naV H$aUo dñVy naV H$aUo dmnaUo H$m`©dmhr H$aUo 

1. Zw_gmZânmB© _mJUr H$aUo : {ZjonXmË`mZo {ZjonJ¥{hË`mÀ`m Vmã`mV {Zjo{nV dñVy XoVmZm Ë`m 

dñVy_Yrb A§J^yV AgUmao Xmof Z gm§{JVë`m_wio {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo H$mhr ZwH$gmZ hmoV Agob Va Ë`mMr ânmB© 

{ZjonXmË`mH$Sy>Z H$ê$Z KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

2.IMm©Mr à{VnyVu H$aUo : {ZjonJ¥{hË`mg {ZjonUmgmR>r H$mhr Á`mXmMm IM© H$amdm bmJbm Va 

Aem Ho$boë`m Á`mXm IMm©Mr à{VnyVu {ZjonXmË`mH$Sy>Z _mJUr H$ê$Z KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

3. Amdí`H$ IMm©Mr a¸$_ n«mßV H$aUo : {ZjonJ¥{hVm {Zjo{nV dñVy ~m~V dñVy§Mr hmVmiUr, 

dñVy§Mr dmhVyH$ BË`mXr H$maUmgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmam IM© H$arV Agob Va Vmo IM© {ZjonXmË`mH$Sy>Z dgyb 

H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. VgoM H$mhrdoim dñVyda à{H«$`m Ho$br OmV Agob Va Ë`m à{H«$ògmR>r òUmam IM© 

XoIrb dgyb H$aÊ`mMm h¸$ AgVmo. 

4. H$ama aÔ Ho$ë`m~m~V ZwH$gmZânmB© _mJUo : {ZjonXmË`mZo {ZjonmMm H$mbmdYr g§nÊ`mnydu 

qH$dm {ZjonmMm CÔoe nyU© hmoÊ`mAJmoXa {ZjonmMm H$ama aÔ Ho$bm. Ë`m_wio {ZjonJ¥{hË`mg ZwH$gmZ ghZ H$amdr 

bmJbr Va Aem ZwH$gmZrMr ânmB© dgyb H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma {ZjonJ¥{hË`mg àmá hmoVmo. 

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5. g§`wŠV {ZjonXmË`mn¡H$s H$moUË`mhr EH$mg dñVy naV H$aUo : H$amamV doJim C„oI Ho$bm Zgob 

Va {ZjonJ¥{hVm g§`wŠV {ZjonXmË`m§Mr g§_Vr Z KoVm H$moUË`mhr EH$m {ZjonXmË`mg dñVy naV H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

qH$dm Ë`m§À`m gyMZoZwgma Xwgè`m {ZjonXmË`mg dñVy§Mm Vm~m Xody eH$Vmo. 

6. dñVyMo Mm§Jbo A{YH$ma Zgboë`m {ZjonXmË`mg dñVy naV H$aUo : {ZjonXmË`mbm dñVy§Mm 

Mm§Jbm A{YH$ma àmá Pmbobm Zgob Am{U {ZjonJ¥{hVm gX²^mdZoZo {ZjonXmË`mH$S>o dñVyMm Vm~m XoV Agob 

Va dñVyMm Iè`m _mbH$mn«Vr Ë`mMr H$m§hrhr O~m~Xmar {Z_m©U hmoV Zmhr. 

7. {Zjo{nV dñVyda J«hUm{YH$ma dmnaUo : {ZjonJ¥{hË`mg {ZjonmÀ`m H$amamZwgma Ë`mÀ`m H$m`m©Mm 

`mo½` _mo~Xbm Am{U Ë`mZo Ho$bobm Amdí`H$ IM© àmá hmoB©n`ªV Ë`mÀ`m Vmã`mV AgUmè`m {ZjonXmË`mÀ`m 

dñVyda J«hUm{YH$ma dmnê$ eH$Vmo. åhUOoM Omon`ªV {ZjonJ¥{hË`mg {ZjonXmË`mH$Sy>Z Xo` Agbobr a¸$_ 

{_iV Zmhr Vmon`ªV {ZjonJ¥{hVm dñVy Amnë`m Vmã`mV Xody eH$Vmo. 

8. {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr{déÕ H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$aUo : Oa {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr MyH$sÀ`m nÕVrZo 

{ZjonJ¥{hË`mÀ`m Vmã`mV Agboë`m dñVyÀ`m dmnamda AS>MUr AmUrV Agob qH$dm Ë`m§À`mnmgyZ dñVy 

{hamdyZ KoV AgVrb Va Vmo Aem {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr{déÕ H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

(~) {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMr H$V©ìò (Duties of Bailee ) : {ZjonJ¥{hVm hm {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mm aIdmbXma AgVmo 

H$maU {ZjonXmË`mZo Ë`mg dñVy àXmZ Ho$boë`m AgVmV Ë`mMr H$V©ìò nwT>rbà_mUo AmhoV. 

{ZjonJ¥{hË`mMr H$V©ìò 

{Zjo{nV {Zjo{nV {Zjo{nV {Zjo{nV {Zjo{nV dñVy {ZjonXmË`mÀ`m 

dñVy§Mr `mo½` dñVyMm dñVy§Mr dñVy naV gmo~V dñVyVrb _mbH$s 

H$miOr KoUo AZm{YH¥$V dmna ga{_gi Z H$aUo dmT> naV H$aUo h¸$m{déÕ 

Z H$aUo H$aUo H¥$Ë` Z H$aUo 

1. {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mr `mo½` H$miOr KoUo : {ZjonmMm H$ama hm {Z:ewëH$ qH$dm gweëH$ Agmo, 

{ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mr `mo½` nÕVrZo H$miOr KoVbr nm{hOo. gd©gm_mÝ` n[apñWVrV EImXr ì`ŠVr 

Amnë`m ñdV:À`m dñVy~m~V OodT>r H$miOr KoVo VodT>r H$miOr {Zjo{nV dñVy~m~V {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo KoUo 

Amdí`H$ AgVo. {ZjonJ¥{hË`mÀ`m hbJOunUm_wio qH$dm {ZîH$miOrnUm_wio {Zjo{nV dñVyMo H$moUË`mhr 

àH$aMo ZwH$gmZ hmoV Agob Va {ZjonJ¥{hVm ZwH$gmZânmB©gmR>r O~m~Xma Yabm OmVmo. Oa {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo `mo½` 

H$miOr KodyZ hr dñVy Zï> Pmbr AWdm dñVyMo ZwH$gmZ Pmbo Va ânmB© XoÊ`mg {ZjonJ¥{hVm O~m~Xma amhUma 

Zmhr _mÌ Ë`mZo dñVyMr nwaonya H$miOr KoVbr ho {gÕ H$aÊ`mMr Ë`mÀ`mda O~m~Xmar Agob. 

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2. {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mm AZm{YH¥$V dmna Z H$aUo : {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mm `mo½` A{YH¥¥$V 

dmna H$aUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. Oa {ZjonJ¥{hVm {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mm dmna {ZjonmÀ`m CÔoemà_mUo H$arV Zgob Va 

Vmo AZm{YH¥$V dmna g_Obm OmVmo. Aem AZ{YH¥$V dmnam_wio dñVy§Mo H$mhr ZwH$gmZ hmoUma Agob Ë`mÀ`m 

ZwH$gmZânmB©gmR>r Ë`mg O~m~Xma Yabo OmVo. Oar Ago ZwH$gmZ AnKmVmZo Pmbo qH$dm dñVy§Mm dmna H$aVmZm 

nyaonya H$miOr KoVbr Agbr Var Ë`mMr O~m~Xmar hr {Z_m©U hmoVo. 

3. {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mr ga{_gi Z H$aUo : {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo {ZjonXmË`mMr g§_Vr Z KoVm nañna 

ñdV:À`m dñVy_Üò {ZjonXmË`mÀ`m dñVy§Mr ga{_gi H$ê$ Zò. Oa {ZjonJ¥{hVm hoVynyd©H$ AWdm AnKmVmZo 

Ë`mÀ`m dñVyV {Zjo{nV dñVy§Mr ga{_gi H$arV Agob Va Ë`mMr O~m~Xmar nwT>rbà_mUo amhrb. 

(i) {_lU Ho$boë`m dñVy doJù`m H$aUo eŠ` Agob Va dñVy doJù`m H$aÊ`mMm IM© Am{U dñVy doJù`m 

H$aVmZm dñVy§Mo ZwH$gmZ Pmë`mg Ë`mMr ânmB© XoÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar {ZjonJ¥{hË`mda òVo. 

(ii) {_lU Ho$boë`m dñVy doJù`m H$aUo eŠ` Zgob {ZjonXmË`mMo OodT>o ZwH$gmZ Pmbo Agob Ë`mMr 

ânmB© {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo Ho$br nm{hOo. 

4. {Zjo{nV dñVy naV H$aUo : {ZjonmMm CÔoe AWdm H$mbmdYr g§në`mZ§Va {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo 

{ZjonXmË`mH$Sy>Z dñVyMr _mJUr H$aÊ`mMr dmQ> Z nmhVm {Zjo{nV dñVy naV Ho$ë`m nm{hOoV. Oa dñVyMo g§`wŠV 

{ZjonXmVo AgVrb Va Ë`mn¡H$s H$moUË`mhr EH$mH$S>o dñVy naV Ho$ë`m nm{hOoV. VgoM dñVy naV H$aÊ`mg 

{db§~ Pmë`mg {ZjonJ¥{hË`mda H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr hmody eH$Vo. 

5. {Zjo{nV dñVygmo~V dñVyVrb dmT> naV H$aUo : H$amamV {Zamim C„oI Zgob Va {Zjo{nV 

dñVy_Üò Or Z¡g{J©H$ dmT> hmoB©b qH$dm {Zjo{nV dñVynmgyZ bm^ hmoB©b Vr dmT> qH$dm \$m`Xm {ZjonXmË`mg 

XoÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar {ZjonJ¥{hË`mda AgVo. 

6. {ZjonXmË`mÀ`m _mbH$sh¸$m{déÕ H$moUVohr H¥$Ë` Z H$aUo : {ZjonXmVm ñdoÀN>oZo 

Amnë`m dñVy `m {d{eï> hoVygmR>r {ZjonJ¥{hË`mÀ`m Vmã`mV XoV AgVmo. {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo {ZjonXmË`mÀ`mdVrZo 

Am{U {ZjonXmË`mgmR>rM Ë`m dñVy YmaU Ho$boë`m Agmì`mV. {ZjonXmË`mÀ`m dñVy naV {_i{dUo `m 

A{YH$mam{déÕ H$moUVohr H¥$Ë` H$ê$ Zò. {ZjonmMm H$mbmdYr g§në`mZ§Va {ZjonXmË`mH$S>oM dñVy 

gmon{dë`m nm{hOoV. Ë`m BVam§H$S>o gmon{dë`m Va Ë`mbm {ZjonXmË`mg ZwH$gmZânmB© XoÊ`mgmR>r O~m~Xma 

Yabo OmB©b. 

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2.2.4 {Zjon H$amam§Mr g_már (Termination of contract of Bailment) : 

{ZjonmMm H$ama nwT>rb n[apñWVrV g_má hmoVmo. 

{Zjon H$ama g_márÀ`m KQ>Zm 

{Zjon H$ama {Zjon CÔoemMr {Zjon H$amamer {Z:ewëH$ {Zjon {ZjonXmVm {Zjon{df` 

_wXV nyV©Vm {dg§JV H¥$Ë` _wXVnyd© aÔ qH$dm {ZjonJ¥{hV dñVy Zï> 

g§në`mg Pmë`mg KS>ë`mg Ho$ë`mg `mn¡H$s EH$mMm Pmë`mg 

_¥Ë`y Pmë`mg 

1. {Zjon H$amamMr _wXV g§në`mg : Oa {ZjonmMm H$ama {d{eï> H$mbmdYrgmR>rMm Agob Va Ë`mMr 

_wXV g§nbr H$s H$ama g_má hmoVmo. 

2. {Zjon CÔoemMr nyV©Vm Pmë`mg : {ZjonmMm H$ama hm EH$m {d{eï> CÔoemgmR>r Agob Am{U Oa 

Vmo CÔoe nyU© Pmbm åhUOo {ZjonmMm H$ama g§nVmo. 

3. {Zjon H$amamer {dg§JV H¥$Ë` KSë`mg : Oa {ZjonJ¥{hË`mZo {Zjon H$amamer {dg§JV EImXo 

H¥$Ë`/H¥$Vr Ho$br dm H$arV Agob Va {ZjonmMm H$mbmdYr g§nÊ`mnyduM qH$dm CÔoe nyU© Pmbobm Zgbm Var 

H$ama aÔ hmoD$Z {Zjon H$ama g_má hmoVmo. 

4. {Z:ewëH$ {Zjon H$ama _wXVnyd© aÔ Ho$ë`mg : {Z:ewëH$ {ZjonmMm H$ama _wXVg_már nydu H|$ìhmhr 

aÔ H$aVm òVmo. Ë`m_wio {ZjonmMm H$ama g§nVmo 

5. {ZjonXmVm qH$dm {ZjonJ¥{hVm `mn¡H$s EH$mMm _¥Ë`y : {ZjonXmVm qH$dm {ZjonJ¥{hVm `mn¡H$s 

EH$m njmMm _¥Ë`y Pmë`mg {Zjon H$ama g§nVmo. 

6. {Zjon H$ama {df`dñVy Zï> Pmë`mg : {ZjonmÀ`m H$amamMr {df`dñVy Zï> Pmë`mg {Zjon 

H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. 

2.2.5 VmaU, VmaU H$ama - ì`m»`m Am{U d¡{eîQ>ço 

(Contract of Pledge and Essentials of Pledge) : 

1. àmñVm{dH$ : VmaU åhUOo EH$ àH$maMm {Zjon Amho. `m_Üò gmdH$mamZo H$O©Xmamg {Xboë`m 

H$Om©À`m gwa{jVVogmR>r gmdH$ma hm H$O©Xmamer Mb ñdê$nmMr _mb_Îmm àË`j AWdm AàË`j ñdê$nmV 

Amnë`m Vmã`mV R>odrV AgVmo Am{U H$Om©Mr arVga naV\o$S> Pmbr åhUOo Vr Mb _mb_Îmm ñdÀN>oZo 

H$O©Xmamg naV H$aVmo. 

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2. VmaU åhUOo H$m` ? : H$O©XmamZo KoVbobo H$O© \o$S>Ê`mMr qH$dm {Xboë`m dMZmÀ`m nyV©VoMr ImÌr 

XoÊ`mgmR>r EH$m ì`ŠVrZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrOdi dñVy§Mm {Zjon H$aUo `mbm VmaU åhUVmV. 

3. VmaUmMm H$ama åhUOo H$m` ? : Á`m H$amamZo EH$ ì`ŠVr H$Om©gmR>r à{V^yVr (Security) åhUyZ 

qH$dm dMZ nyV©VogmR>r Amnë`m _mbH$sÀ`m VgoM Amnë`m Vmã`mV Agboë`m dñVy ñdoÀN>oZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrÀ`m 

Vmã`mV XoVmo Ë`mg VmaUmMm H$ama Ago åhUVmV. 

CXm. A Zo ~ H$Sy>Z 10000 énò H$O© KoVbo `m H$O©\o$S>rMr ImÌr åhUyZ Amnbr _moQ>magm`H$b ~ Odi 

R>odbr. Va VoWo A Am{U ~ _Üò _moQ>magm`H$bMm {Zjon Pmbm Amho. hr _moQ>magm`H$b ~ À`m Vmã`mV XoÊ`mg 

VmaU åhQ>bo OmB©b. òWo VmaU åhUyZ dñVy XoUmè`mg VmaUXmVm Am{U dñVy VmaU åhUyZ pñdH$maUmè`mg 

VmaUJ¥{hVm Ago åhUVmV. `m CXmhaUm_Üò A hm VmaUXmVm (Poawnor) Am{U ~ hm VmaUJ¥{hVm (Pawnee) 

hmoVmo. EH$ _hÎdmMr ~m~ bjmV KoVbr nm{hOo H$s Ho$di MbdñVy§MoM VmaU hmody eH$Vo. VgoM 

H$Om©À`m CÔoemgmR>rM VmaU Amdí`H$ AgVo Ago Zmhr Va dMZmMr nyV©Vm ìhmdr åhUyZhr VmaU pñdH$mabo 

OmVo. 

4. H$m`Xoera VmaU H$amamMr d¡{eï>ço (Essentials of Contract of Pledge) : 

VmaU H$amamÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r/d¡{eï>ço 

MbdñVy VmaUXmVm H$m`Xoera _mbH$ dñVy àXmZ VmaUXmË`mH$S>o _mbH$s h¸$ 

1. Mb dñVy (Movable goods) : VmaU H$amamgmR>r Mb dñVyM Amdí`H$ AgVo. VgoM Á`m MbdñVy 

àXmZ `mo½` {ñWVrV AgVmV AemM dñVy§Mo VmaU hmody eH$Vo. 

2. VmaUXmVm H$m`Xoera _mbH$ (Legal owner) : VmaU XoUmè`m ì`ŠVrbm VmaUdñVy§Mr H$m`Xoera 

_mbH$s Agbr nm{hOo. åhUOoM VmaUXmË`mH$S>o dñVy§Mm H$m`Xoera A{YH$ma AgUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. Ho$di 

dñVy§Mm Vm~m Agbobr ì`ŠVr dñV§yMo VmaU H$ê$ eH$Uma Zmhr. 

3. dñVy àXmZ H$aUo (Delivery of Goods) : VmaU H$ama ApñVËdmV òÊ`gmR>r dñVy§Mo àË`j qH$dm 

aMZmË_H$ nÕVrZo àXmZ hmoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. Oa VmaU XoÊ`mMo dMZ {Xbo OmV Agob _mÌ dñVy§Mm Vm~m 

VmaUJ¥{hË`mH$S>o {Xbm OmV Zgob Va Ë`mg VmaU H$ama åhUVm òV Zmhr. 

4. VmaUXmË`mH$S>o _mbH$s h¸$ (Ownership with Pawnor) : VmaU H$amam_Üò VmaU dñVy§Mm Vm~m 

Oar VmaUJ¥{hË`mH$S>o OmV Agbm Var Ë`m dñVy§Mm _mbH$s h¸$ _mÌ VmaUXmË`mH$S>oM Agbr nm{hOo. 

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2.2.6 VmaUXmË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò (Rights and Duties of Pownor) : 

(A) VmaUXmË`mMo A{YH$ma (Rithts of Pawnor) : 

Or ì`ŠVr Amnë`m dñVy H$mT>boë`m H$Om©gmR>r n«{V^yVr (security) åhUyZ H$O© XoUmè`m gmdH$mamÀ`m 

Vmã`mV XoVo Ë`mg VmaUXmVm Ago åhUVmV. VmaUXmË`mg nwT>rbà_mUo A{YH$ma àmá hmoVmV. 

VmaUXmË`mMo A{YH$ma 

VmaU dñVy§Mm ZwH$gmZânmB© VmaU dñVyVrb dñVy {dH«$s VmaU dñVy- {dH«$snmgyZ 

naV Vm~m _mJUr dmT> àmá nydu H$O© ~m~V ImÌr hmoUmam bm^ 

KoUo H$aUo H$aUo naV\o$S> H$aUo KoUo àmá H$aUo 

1. VmaU dñVy§Mm naV Vm~m KoUo : VmaUXmVm H$Om©Mr nyU©nUo naV\o$S> Ho$ë`mZ§Va AWdm {Xboë`m 

dMZmMr nyV©Vm Ho$ë`mZ§Va Amnë`m VmaU dñVy naV Amnë`m Vmã`mV KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

2. ZwH$gmZânmB© _mJUr H$aUo : VmaUJ¥{hË`mÀ`m {ZîH$miOrnUm_wio qH$dm Xwb©{jVnUm_wio VmaU 

{Xboë`m dñVy§Mo ZwH$gmZ Pmbo Agob Va VmaUXmË`mg Aer ZwH$gmZânmB© H$ê$Z KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma Amho. 

3. VmaU dñVyV Pmbobr dmT> àmá H$aUo : VmaU dñVy_Üò H$mhr dmT> hmoV Agob Va Vr dmT> àmá 

H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma VmaUXmË`mg AgVmo. 

4. dñVy {dH«$snydu H$O© naV\o$S> H$aUo : H$Om©À`m naV\o$S>r A^mdr Ë`m dñVy§Mr {dH«$sMr gyMZm àmá 

Pmbr Agob Va n«Ë`j Aem dñVy§Mr {dH«$s hmoÊ`mnydu H$Om©Mr naV\o$S> H$ê$Z VmaU dñVy àmá H$aÊ`mMm 

A{YH$ma VmaUXmË`mg AgVmo. _mÌ VmaUJ¥{hË`mg Vmon`ªV dñVy gm§^miÊ`mMm Omo IM© Pmbobm Agob Ë`mMr 

ânmB© H$ê$Z XoÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar dMZXmË`mda amhrb. 

5. VmaU dñVy~m~V ImÌr H$ê$Z KoUo : VmaUJ¥{hË`mÀ`m Vmã`mV {Xboë`m VmaUdñVy§Mr `mo½` àH$mao 

H$miOr KVbr OmVo qH$dm Zmhr `mMr VnmgUr H$ê$Z ImÌr H$ê$Z KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma VmaUXmË`mg AgVmo. 

6. VmaU dñVy {dH«$snmgyZ hmoUmam bm^ àmá H$aUo : H$Om©À`m na\o$S>r A^mdr qH$dm dMZnyVu 

A^mdr VmaU dñVy§Mr {dH«$s hmoV Agob Am{U Ë`m {dH«$sVyZ H$Om©À`m aH$_onojm OmñV a¸$_ àmá hmoV Agob 

Va Aer Á`mXmMr a¸$_ àmá H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma VmaUXmË`mg AgVmo. 

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(~) VmaUXmË`mMr H$V©ìò (Duties of Pawnor ) : VmaUXmË`mMr H$V©ìò nwT>rbà_mUo AmhoV. 

VmaUXmË`mMr H$V©ìò 

VmaU dñVyVrb Xmof VmaU H$amamMo VmaUJ¥{hË`mZo H$ama g_márZ§Va 

VmaUJ¥{hË`mg nmbZ H$aUo Ho$bobm IM© naV dñVy naV 

ñnï> H$aUo H$aUo H$aUo 

1. VmaUdñVyVrb Xmof VmaUJ¥{hË`mg ñnï> H$aUo : VmaU H$amamZwgma VmaU XoÊ`mV òUmè`m dñVyV 

H$mhr Xmof AgVrb AWdm CUrdm AgVrb Va `mMr ñnï> H$ënZm VmaUJ¥{hË`mg dñVy§Mo VmaU XoVmZm XoUo 

VmaUXmË`mMo H$V©ì` _mZbo OmVo. 

2. VmaU H$amamMo nmbZ H$aUo : VmaU H$amamZwgma dñVyÀ`m VmaUmda KoVboë`m H$Om©Mr naV\o$S> 

H$aUo AWdm {Xboë`m dMZm§Mr nyV©Vm H$aUo åhUOoM VmaUXmË`mZo VmaU H$amamMo nmbZ H$aUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

3. VmaUJ¥{hË`mZo Ho$bobm IM© naV H$aUo : VmaU J¥{hË`mZo VmaU {Xboë`m dñVyda H$mhr Agm_mÝ` 

ñdê$nmMm IM© Ho$bm Agob Va Ë`m IMm©Mr ânmB© H$ê$Z XoUo ho VmaUXmË`mMo H$V©ì` AgVo. 

4. VmaU H$amag_márZ§Va dñVy naV KoUo : VmaU H$ama H$Om©Mr naV\o$S> Pmë`mZ§Va qH$dm dMZmMr 

nyV©Vm Pmë`mZ§Va g_mßV hmoVmo. Agm VmaU H$ama g_má Pmë`mZ§Va dñVy naV KoUo. 

2.2.7 VmaUJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò (Rights and Duties of Pawnee) : 

(A) VmaUJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma (Rights of Pawnee) : 

VmaU H$amamZwgma Or ì`ŠVr Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrH$Sy>Z VmaU {Xboë`m dñVy pñdH$maVo Ë`mg VmaU J¥{hVm Ago 

åhUVmV. VmaUJ¥¥{hË`mg nwT>rb A{YH$ma àmá hmoVmV. 

VmaUJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma 

VmaU dñVy H$O©dgybrgmR>r Agm_mÝ` ñdê$nmMm VmaU dñVy§Mm H$O© naV\o$S>rV 

Vmã`mV R>odÊ`mMm VmaUdñVy IM© dgyb Mm§Jbm A{YH$ma VmaUXmË`mZo MyH$ 

A{YH$ma AS>{dÊ`mMm H$aUoMm àmá Ho$br Va 

A{YH$ma A{YH$ma H$aUo {_iUmao A{YH$ma 

45

1. VmaU dñVy Vmã`mV R>odÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : VmaU H$amamà_mUo VmaUJ¥{hË`mg VmaU {Xboë`m 

dñVy~m~V {deof J«hUm{YH$ma (Particular Lien) AgVmo. Á`m_Üò g§nyU© H$Om©Mr naV\o$S> hmoV Zmhr Vmon`ªV 

VmaU dñVy Vmo Amnë`m Vmã`mV R>ody eH$Vmo. VgoM H$Om©darb ì`mO d VmaUdñVygmR>r Ho$bobm Amdí`H$ 

ñdê$nmMm IM© dgyb hmoB©n`ªV Aem VmaU dñVy Amnë`m Vmã`mV R>odÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

2. H$O©dgybrgmR>r VmaU dñVy AS>{dÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : Oa EH$m H$Om©gmR>r {Xboë`m VmaUmZ§Va 

Ë`mM dñVy VmaUmda VmaUJ¥{hVm Ë`mM VmaUXmË`mbm Xwgao H$O© XoV Agob d Ë`mgmR>r doJio VmaU {Xbobo 

Zgob Va Xwgè`m H$Om©gmR>r XoIrb `mM dñVy VmaU g_Oë`m OmVmV. Ë`m_wio `m XmoÝhr H$Om©Mr ì`mOmgh 

naV\o$S> hmoB©n`ªV VmaUJ¥{hË`mg VmaUdñVy AS>{dÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

3. Agm_mÝ` ñdê$nmMm IM© dgyb H$aUoMm A{YH$ma : VmaUJ¥{hVm VmaUdñVy gwa{jV R>odÊ`mgmR>r 

H$m§hr Agm_mÝ` ñdê$nmMm IM© H$arV Agob Va Agm Agm_mÝ` IM© dgyb H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. Agm 

Agm_mÝ` IM© dgyb H$aÊ`mgmR>r Vmo VmaUXmË`m{déÕ H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. _mÌ Ë`mg `mH$[aVm 

dñVy AS>{dÊ`mMm A{YH$ma ZgVmo. 

4. VmaU dñVy§Mm Mm§Jbm A{YH$ma (Title) n«má H$aUo : Ooìhm VmaUdñVyda VmaUXmË`mMm Mm§Jbm 

A{YH$ma ZgVmo d Ë`m dñVy VmaUJ¥{hVm gX^mdZoZo (good faith) pñdH$marV Agob Va Ë`m dñVy§Mm Ë`mg 

Mm§Jbm A{YH$ma àmá hmoVmo. 

5. H$O© naV\o$S>rV VmaUXmË`mZo MyH$ Ho$br Va {_iUmao A{YH$ma : VmaUXmË`mZo H$O©naV\o$S> 

H$aÊ`mV MyH$ Ho$br Va VmaU J¥{hË`mg nwT>rb A{YH$ma àmá hmoVmV. 

(i) VmaUJ¥{hË`mg VmaUXmË`m{déÕ H$O©dgybrgmR>r Xmdm XmIb H$ê$ eH$Vmo d Amnë`m Vmã`mV 

Agboë`m dñVy ghà{V^yVr (Collateral Security) åhUyZ AS>dyZ R>ody eH$Vmo. 

(ii) VmaUXmË`mg `mo½` Vr nyd©gyMZm XodyZ VmaU dñVy§Mr {dH«$s H$ê$ eH$Vmo. `mH$arVm VmaUXmË`mg `mMr 

gyMZm {Xbr OmUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

(~) VmaUJ¥{hË`mMr H$V©ìò (Duties of Pawnee ) : VmaUJ¥{hË`mMr H$V©ìò nwT>rbà_mUo AmhoV. 

VmaJ¥¥{hË`mMr H$V©ìò 

VmaU dñVy§Mr VmaUdñV§yMm VmaU AQ>rer VmaU VmaU dñVy§Mr ñdV: H$Om©À`m 

`mo½` AZm{YH¥$V {dg§JV H$m`© dñVy > dñVyVrb IaoXr a¸$_onjm 

H$miOr dmna Z naV dmT H$é Á`mXm 

KoUo Z H$aUo H$aUo H$aUo naV Zò a¸$_ 

H$aUo naV H$aUo 

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1. VmaUdñVy§Mr `mo½` H$miOr KoUo : EImXr gm_mÝ`ì`ŠVr Amnë`m dñVy§Mr Oer H$miOr KoVmo 

VerM H$miOr VmaUJ¥{hË`mZo Ë`mÀ`m Vmã`mV Agboë`m VmaU dñVy§Mr `mo½` H$miOr ¿`mdr bmJVo. 

2. VmaUdñVy§Mm AZm{YH¥$V dmna Z H$aUo : VmaUJ¥{hË`mZo VmaUdñVy§Mm AZm{YH¥$V dmna H$ê$ Zò. 

VgoM VmaUdñVy Am{U Amnë`m dñVy `m§Mr ga{_gi H$ê$ Zò. 

3. VmaUmÀ`m AQ>rer {dg§VJ H$m`© H$ê$ Zò : VmaUH$amamer {dg§JV hmoB©b Ago H$moUVohr H$m`© 

VmaUJ¥{hË`mZo H$ê$ Zò. VgoM VmaU hm XoIrb EH$ àH$maMm H$ama AgVmo Ë`m_wio H$amaH$m`ÚmÀ`m VaVyXtMm 

^§J hmoB©b Ago H¥$Ë` H$ê$ Zò. 

4. VmaUdñVy naV H$aUo : VmaUXmË`mZo H$Om©Mr naV\o$S> Ho$br qH$dm VmaU H$amamà_mUo dMZmMr 

nyV©Vm Pmë`mZ§Va VmaUdñVy VmaUXmË`mg naV H$aUo ho VmaUJ¥{hË`mMo à_wI H$V©ì` AgVo. 

5. VmaUdñVyV hmoUmar dmT> naV H$aUo : VmaUJ¥{hË`mÀ`m Vmã`mV AgUmè`m dñVyV dmT> hmoV Agob 

Va Vr dmT> H$Om©Mr naV\o$S> hmoVmM VmaUdñVygmo~V VmaUdñVyV Pmbobr dmT> VmaUXmË`mg naV Ho$br nm{hOo. 

6. VmaUdñVy§Mr ñdV: IaoXr H$ê$ Zò : Oa VmaUXmË`mZo H$Om©Mr naV\o$S> Ho$br Zmhr Am{U 

H$O©dgybrgmR>r VmaUdñVy§Mr {dH«$s H$aÊ`mMm àg§J {Z_m©U Pmbm Va VmaUJ¥{hË`mZo dñVy{dH«$s H$aVmZm Ë`m 

dñV§yMr ñdV: IaoXr H$ê$ Zò. 

7. H$O© naV\o$S>rnojm A{YH$Mr a¸$_ naV H$aUo : VmaUJ¥{hË`mZo H$O©\o$S>rgmR>r VmaUdñVy§Mr {dH«$s 

H$aUma Agob Va Aem dñVy§À`m {dH«$snmgyZ {_imbobr a¸$_ H$Om©À`m a¸$_onojm OmñV Agob Va Ë`m a¸$_oVyZ 

H$Om©Mr a¸$_ dOm H$ê$Z Cd©[aV Á`mXmMr a¸$_ VmaUXmË`mg naV Ho$br nm{hOo d `m VmaU dñVy {dH«$s 

H$aÊ`mnydu VmaUXmË`mg nyd©gyMZm {Xbobr Agmdr. 

2.2.8 {ZjonmMm H$ama Am{U VmaU H$ama `mVrb \$aH$ 

(Distinction between Baliment and Pledge) : 

_wÔm {ZjonmMm H$ama VmaUmMm H$ama 

1. CÔoe {ZjonH$amamMo dñVy§Mr XwéñVr, gmdH$mamZo {Xboë`m H$Om©Mr 

gwa{jVVm, dmhVyH$ `mà_mUo gwa{jVVm qH$dm H$O©XmamZo {Xboë`m 

{d{dY CÔoe AgVmV. dMZmMr nyV©Vm hm VmaU H$amamMm 

CÔoe AgVmo. 

47

2. dñVyMm {ZjonmÀ`m H$amam_Üò {Zjo{nV VmaU H$amam_Üò VmaUJ¥¥{hË`mg 

dmnamMm dñVy§Mm dmna {ZjonJ¥{hË`mg VmaU dñVy§Mm dmna H$aÊ`mMm 

A{YH$ma H$aVm òVmo. A{YH$ma ZgVmo. 

3. à{V\$b {ZjonmÀ`m H$amam_Üò n«{V\$b VmaU H$amamgmR>r à{V\$b 

Agbo nm{hOo Ago ~§YZ Zmhr Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

H$maU {ZjonmMm H$ama hm {Z:ewëH$ 

Agy eH$Vmo. 

4. dñVy {ZjonmÀ`m H$amam_Üò {ZjonJ¥{hVm VmaU H$amam_Üò R>a{dboë`m 

{dH«$sMm Amdí`H$ IM© Am{U Amnbm H$mbmdYrV H$Om©Mr a¸$_ nyU©nUo 

A{YH$ma _mo~Xbm dgyb H$aÊ`mgmR>r Ë`mÀ`m dgyb Pmbr Zmhr, VmaUJ¥{hVm 

Vmã`mVrb {Zjo{nV dñVy AS>dyZ VmaUXmË`mg `mo½` gyMZm XodyZ VmaU 

R>ody eH$Vmo, {ZjonXmË`m{déÕ Xmdm {Xboë`m dñVy§Mr {dH«$s H$ê$ eH$Vmo. _mÌ 

XmIb H$ê$ eH$Vmo _mÌ dñVy {dH«$s {dH«$sVyZ A{YH$ a¸$_ {_imbr Va 

H$aÊ`mMm Ë`mg A{YH$ma ZgVmo. Vr A{YH$Mr a¸$_ VmaUXmË`mg naV 

Ho$br nm{hOo. 

2.2.9 A{^H$Vm© H$amamMr ì`m»`m, {Z{_©Vr Am{U H$amamMr g_már (Agency Contract 

Defination Creation and Discharge of contract of agency) : 

(A) àñVmdZm : A{^H¥$VËd qH$dm à{V{ZYrMm H$ama hm {deof àH$maMm H$ama Amho. AmYw{ZH$H$mimVrb 

_m{hVr Am{U V§ÌkmZm_wio ì`mnma ì`dgm`mMo joÌ {dñVmabo Amho. EH$Q>m ì`mdgm{`H$ ì`dgm`mMr O~m~Xmar 

noby eH$V Zmhr. ~arMer H$m`} Ë`mbm BVam§H$Sy>Z H$ê$Z ¿`mdr bmJVmV. Ago ì`mdgm{`H$ Am{U Ë`m§Mo 

à{V{ZYr `m§À`mVrb ì`mdgm{`H$ g§~§Ym§Zm d¡Ym{ZH$Vm àmá ìhmdr åhUyZ ^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 

182 Vo 238 _Üò à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amam{df`r VaVyXr {Xë`m AmhoV. gXa ^mJmV AmnU A{^H¥$VËdmÀ`m 

H$amamMm AW©, {Z{_©Vr, g_már Am{U A{^H$Vm© Am{U àYmZ `m§Mo h¸$ Am{U H$V©ìò `mMr _m{hVr KoUma 

AmhmoV. 

A{^H$V¥©ËdmMm H$ama - AW© (A Contract of Agency) : Á`m H$amamZwgma XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò 

à{V{ZYrËdmMo g§~§Y {Z_m©U hmoVmV Ë`mg à{V{Z{YËdmMm qH$dm A{^H$V¥©ËdmMm H$ama Ago åhUVmV. `m_Üò 

EH$ ì`ŠVr hr à_wI AgVo Va Xwgar ì`ŠVr A{^H$Vm© AgVo. A{^H$Vm© åhUOo Aer ì`ŠVr H$s {OMr {Z`wŠVr 

Xwgè`mÀ`m dVrZo H$m`© H$aÊ`mgmR>r qH$dm {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr~amo~a ì`dhma H$aÊ`mgmR>r Ho$br OmVo. àYmZ 

åhUOo Aer ì`ŠVr H$s {OÀ`mdVrZo H$m`© H$aÊ`mgmR>r qH$dm {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVrer H$ama H$aÊ`mgmR>r A{^H$Ë`m©Mr 

Zo_UyH$ Ho$br OmVo Aer ì`ŠVr hmo`. WmoS>Š`mV àYmZ hm _mbH$ AgVmo Am{U à{V{ZYr hm Ë`m _mbH$mMm 

EO§Q> AgVmo. CXm. A Zo Amnë`mdVrZo 100 nmoVr Vm§Xyi IaoXr H$aÊ`mgmR>r ~ `mMr {Z`wŠVr H$aVmo. `m 

CXmhaUmV A hm àYmZ hmoVmo Va ~ hm Ë`mMm à{V{ZYr ~ZVmo. `m Xmohm|_Üò Omo H$ama Pmbm Ë`mg 

48

A{^H$V¥©ËdmMm H$ama åhUVmV. A{^H$Vm© hm àYmZ Am{U {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr `mVrb Xwdm AgVmo. Vmo àYmZ 

Am{U {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr `m§À`m_Üò H$amaË_H$ g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$aVmo. 

WmoS>Š`mV àYmZ ñdV: Or H$m`} H$ê$ eH$Vmo Vr H$m`} A{^H$Ë`m©_m\©$V H$adyZ Kody eH$Vmo. A{^H$Ë`m©Zo 

Ho$bobr H$m`©o OUy H$mhr àYmZmZoM Ho$br AmhoV ho g_OyZ àYmZmda ~§YZH$maH$ hmoVmV. 

A{^H$Vm© H$moU hmody eH$mVo ? (Who can be an Agent ?) : 

1) H$moUVrhr H$amanmÌ ì`ŠVr A{^H$Vm© hmody eH$Vo. 

2) AkmZ ì`ŠVr A{^H$Vm© hmody eH$Vo _mÌ {VÀ`m {ZîH$miOrnUm_wio hmoUmè`m ZwH$gmZrg àYmZ 

O~m~Xma amhV Zmhr. 

(~) à{V{ZYr H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr - A{^H$V©¥Ëd H$go {Z_m©U hmoVo? (How Agency is created?) 

: 

n«_wI Am{U à{V{ZYr `m§À`mVrb H$m`Xoera g§~§Ymg A{^H$V©¥Ëd Ago åhUVmV. A{^H$V©¥ËdmMm H$ama 

nwT>rb _mJmªZr A{ñVËdmV òVmo. 

à{V{ZYr H$amamÀ`m {Z{_©VrMo _mJ©/nÕVr 

ñnï> R>amdmZo n«{V{ZYr J¥{hV R>amdmZo nwï>rH$aUmZo H$m`ÚmÀ`m VaVyXrVyZ 

H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr A{^H$V¥©Ëd à{V{ZYr H$amamMr à{V{ZYr H$ama 

H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr {Z{_©Vr {Z{_©Vr 

à{V~§YmË_H$ àXe©ZmZo JaOoVyZ 

A{^H$V¥©Ëd A{^H$V¥¥©Ëd A{^H$V¥©Ëd {Z{_©Vr 

1. ñnï> H$amamZo à{V{ZYr H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr (Agency by express Authority) : A{^H$Ë`m©Mr 

Zo_UyH$ Vm|S>r AWdm boIr H$amamZo hmody eH$Vo. `m H$amamZwgma àYmZ Amnë`m dVrZo H$m`© H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

A{YH$ma à{V{ZYrg XoV AgVmo. gmYmaUV: à{V{ZYrMm boIr H$ama hm _w»Ë`ma nÌmÀ`m ñdê$nmV AgVmo. 

`m _w»Ë`ma nÌmÀ`m AmYmao àYmZ à{V{ZYrbm Amnë`mdVrZo H$m`© H$aÊ`mgmR>rMo A{YH$ma XoV AgVmo. CXm. 

A `m ì`mnmè`mZo ~ `m à{V{ZYrbm Amnë`m ì`dgm`mMo ì`dñWmnZ nmhÊ`mgmR>r dQ>_wIË`ma nÌmÀ`m AmYmao 

{Z`wŠVr Ho$br. òWo àYmZ Am{U à{V{ZYr `m§À`m_Üò boIr H$amamZo A{^H$V©¥ËdmMo g§~§Y {Z_m©U Pmbo AmhoV. 

49

2. J¥{hV R>amdmZo A{^H$V¥©Ëd H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr (Agency by Implied Agreement) : O|ìhm XmoZ 

ì`ŠVtMo dV©Z, g§~§Y qH$dm n[apñWVr `mdê$Z XmoZ ì`ŠVr_Üò à{V{Z{YËdmMo g§~§Y {Z_m©U Pmbo AmhoV Ago 

g_OÊ`mV òVo V|ìhm Ë`mg J¥{hV R>amdmZo A{^H$V¥©Ëd H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr Pmbr Ago åhUVmV. 

CXm. A Am{U ~ {_Ì AmhoV. A nwÊ`mV amhVmo. A Zo Amnbo nwÊ`mVrb Ka ^mS>çmZo {Xbo Amho. ~ A 

À`m KamÀ`m ^mS>çmMr a¸$_ n«ËòH$ _{hÝ`mg dgyb H$aVmo Am{U AH$S>o nmR>{dVmo. òWo A Am{U ~ `m§À`mV 

boIr R>amd Pmbobm Zgbm Var Ë`m§À`mV A{^H¥$V©ËdmMo g§~§Y AmhoV ho Ë`m§À`m dV©Zmdê$Z ñnï> hmoVo. åhUyZ 

`mg J¥{hV R>amdmZo A{^H$V¥©Ëd H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr Ago åhUVmV. `m J¥{hV R>amdmZo {Z_m©U hmoUmè`m A{^H$V¥©Ëd/ 

à{V{ZYr H$amamMo nwT>rbà_mUo àH$ma nS>VmV. 

(i) à{V~§YmË_H$ A{^H$V¥©Vd (Agency by Estoppel) : Ooìhm EImXr ì`ŠVr Amnbr dV©UyH$ qH$dm 

H¥$Vr qH$dm dŠVì` (boIr dm Vm|S>r) `m§À`m _mÜ`_mZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg EImXr Jmoï> qH$dm n[apñWVr ApñVËdmV 

Agë`mMm {dœmg H$amd`mg bmdVo na§Vw àË`jmV Vr n[apñWVr ApñVËdmV ZgVo V|ìhm Ago dŠVì` qH$dm 

H¥$Vr H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVrg Amnë`m H¥$VrMm, dŠVì`mMm qH$dm dV©ZmMm ZH$ma H$aVm òUma Zmhr. `mbmM 

ZH$mamË_H$ A[^H$V¥©Ëd åhUVmV. `mV EImXr ì`ŠVr Amnë`m dV©ZmZo qH$dm Vm|S>r dŠVì`mZo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg 

AmnU {Vgè`m ì`ŠVrMm A{^H$Vm© Agë`mMo ^mg{dV AgVo. (na§Vw àË`jmV Vr ì`ŠVr A{^H$Vm© ZgVo) 

Am{U `mg {Vgar ì`ŠVr Amjon KoV Zmhr V|ìhm Ë`m Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrZo n{hë`m ì`ŠVrÀ`m H¥$Vrda {dídmg R>odyZ 

EImXm H$ama Ho$bm Va Ë`m ì`dhmamMr O~m~Xmar A{^H$Vm© Amho Ago ^mg{dUmè`m ì`ŠVrbm Q>miVm òUma 

Zmhr. VgoM Vr {Vgar ì`ŠVr XoIrb à_wI åhUyZ O~m~Xma amhrb. 

CXm. A ~ À`m CnpñWVrV H$ bm gm§JVmo H$s, Vmo A ~ Mm à{V{ZYr Amho. àË`jmV Vmo Ë`mMm A{^H$Vm© 

ZgVmo. ~ `mda H$moUVmhr Amjon KoV Zmhr. A hm ~ Mm à{V{ZYr Amho Ago g_OyZ H$ A bm 50000 é. 

Mm _mb CYmarda {dH«$s H$aVmo. Aemdoir ~ da àYmZ `m ZmË`mZo CYma _mbmMr a¸$_ H$ bm XoÊ`mMr 

O~m~Xmar òVo. Ë`mg ZmH$maVm òUma Zmhr. 

(ii) àXe©ZmZo à{V{Z{YËd (Agency by Holding out) : àXe©ZmZo à{V{Z{YËd åhUOo AemàH$maMo 

à{V{Z{YËd H$s Oo {Z_m©U H$aÊ`mgmR>r ñdV: àYmZ Amnë`m dV©ZmZo qH$dm H¥$VrZo à{V{ZYr Am{U AmnUm_Üò 

A{^H$V¥©ËdmMo g§~§Y Agë`mMo ^mg{dVmo V|ìhm Ë`mg àXe©ZmZo à{V{Z{YËd {Z_m©U H$aUo Ago åhUVmV. 

à{V~§YmË_H$ A{^H$V¥©Ëd Am{U àXe©ZmZo A{^H$V¥©Ëd `mV _hÎdmMm \$aH$ Agm H$s à{V~§YmË_H$ à{V{ZYrËdm_Üò 

ZH$mamË_H$ H¥$Vr AWdm dV©Z `mVyZ A{^H$V¥©Ëd {Z_m©U hmoVo Va àXe©ZmZo {Z_m©U hmoUmao A{^H$V¥©Ëd ho 

hmoH$mamË_H$ H¥$Vr qH$dm dV©Z `mVyZ {Z_m©U hmoV AgVo. 

CXm. A hm ~ Mm ZmoH$a AgyZ Vmo Ë`m§À`mdVrZo Zoh_r H$ À`m XwH$mZmVyZ CYmarda dñVy IaoXr H$amd`mMm 

d ~ Ë`mZo IaoXr Ho$boë`m _mbmMo n¡go XoV Ago. A Zo ~ Mr ZmoH$ar gmoS>ë`mZ§Va H$ À`m XwH$mZmVyZ _mb 

CYmarda IaoXr Ho$bm Va òWo ~ Zo Ë`m _mbmMo n¡go {Xbo nm{hOo. H$maU nydu Pmboë`m ì`dhmam_Üò A hm 

Amnbm à{V{ZYr Amho Ago ~ Zo _mÝ` Ho$bo Amho. 

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(iii) JaOoZwgma à{V{ZYrËdmMr {Z{_©Vr (Agency by Necessity) : H$m§hrdoim Aer n[apñWVr 

{Z_m©U hmoVo H$s EH$m ì`ŠVrbm Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrZo A{YH¥$V Ho$bobo ZgVmZmhr JaO åhUyZ EImXo H$m`© H$amdo 

bmJVo, Aem H$m`m©g Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrMr H$m`© H$aÊ`mnydu g§_Vr KoVbobr ZgVo. VargwÕm Ago A{^H$V¥©Ëd 

{Z_m©U Pmë`mMo H$m`Xm _mZVmo V|ìhm Ë`mg JaOoVyZ A{^H$V¥©Ëd {Z{_©VrMm H$ama åhUVmV. JaOoVyZ à{V{ZYrËd 

{Z_m©U hmoÊ`mgmR>r nwT>rb AQ>tMr nyV©Vm hmoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

(1) àYmZmÀ`mdVrZo H$m`© H$aÊ`mMr IamoIa Amdí`H$Vm {Z_m©U ìhmdr bmJVo. 

(2) à{V{ZYrZo gX²^mdZoZo H$m`© Ho$bo Agmdo d Vo H$m`© àYmZmÀ`m {hVmgmR>r Agmdo. 

(3) H$m`© H$aVmZm àYmZmer g§nH©$ gmYZo AeŠ` Agbo nm{hOo. 

CXm. A Zo ~ bm _w§~B©dê$Z ZmJnyabm ^mOrnmë`mZo âbobm Q´>H$ nmR>{dbm. ^mOrnmë`mZo âbobm Q´>H$ 

àdmgmV AgVmZm AnKmV Pmbm. ^mOrnmbm hr Zmed§V dñVy Agë`mZo Q´>H$MmbH$mZo Vm~S>Vmo~ A bm Z 

{dMmaVm ^mOrnmbm {dHy$Z Q>mH$bm. òWo Q´>H$ MmbH$mZo ^mOrnmë`mMo Ho$bobr {dH«$s A da ~§YZH$maH$ hmoVo 

H$maU JaOoVyZ à{V{ZYrËd H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr Pmbr Ago _mZbo OmVo. 

3. nwîQ>rH$aUmZo qH$dm Ho$boë`m H$m`m©g g§_Vr XodyZ à{V{ZYrËd {Z_m©U H$aUo (Agency by 

Ratification) : O|ìhm EH$ ì`ŠVr Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg _m{hVr Z XoVm qH$dm Ë`mMm AmXoe àmá Z hmoVmM Ë`m 

Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrgmR>r EImXo H¥$Ë`/H$m`© H$aVo d Z§Va Ë`m H$m`m©g Ë`mMr g§_Vr KoVo V|ìhm `m XmoÝhr ì`ŠVr_Üò 

nwï>rH$aUmZo à{V{Z{YËd H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr Pmë`mMo _mZbo OmVo. H$m`m©Mo nwï>rH$aU Ho$ë`mZ§Va qH$dm H$m`m©g Z§Va 

g§_Vr {Xë`mZ§Va àYmZ à{V{ZYrZo Ho$boë`m H$m`m©Mr O~m~Xmar Q>miy eH$V Zmhr. CXm. A Zo ~ bm Z 

H$i{dVmM Ë`mÀ`mgmR>r _w§~B©dê$Z _mo~mB©b \$moZ IaoXr H$ê$Z AmUbm. ~ hm _mo~mB©b \$moZ pñdH$mê$ eH$Vmo 

qH$dm ZmH$mê$ eH$Vmo. ~ Zo A Zo AmUbobm _mo~mB©b \$moZMm pñdH$ma H$ê$Z A À`m ì`dhmamg _mÝ`Vm {Xë`mg 

A hm ~ Mm à{V{ZYr ~ZVmo. Ë`m_wio A Zo Ho$boë`m _mo~mB©b \$moZ IaoXrÀ`m ì`dhmamg ~ O~m~Xma amhVmo. 

4. H$m`ÚmVrb VaVyXr_wio {Z_m©U hmoUmao à{V{Z{YËd (Agency by Operation of Law) : 

H$m§hrdoim H$m`ÚmVrb VaVyXr bmJy Pmë`m_wio à{V{ZYr H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr hmoVo. Aem àH$maMo à{V{Z{YËd ho 

J¥{hV AgVo. H§$nZr H$m`ÚmZwgma O|ìhm H§$nZrMr ñWmnZm Ho$br OmVo V|ìhm H§$nZrMr ñWmnZm H$aUmao àdV©H$ 

ho A{^H$V} ~ZVmV d Ë`m§Zm H§$nZrMo A{^H$V} åhUyZ H$m`© H$amdo bmJVo. VgoM ^maVr` ^m{JXmar H$m`Xm 

1932 _Yrb H$b_ 18 d 19 à_mUo O|ìhm EImXm ^mJrXma ^mJrXmar g§ñWoÀ`m ì`dgm`mV g{H«$` ^mJ KoVmo 

V|ìhm Vmo BVa ^mJrXmam§Mm à{V{ZYr ~ZVmo d Ë`mZo Ho$boë`m gd© H$m`Xoera ì`dhmam§Zm BVa gd© ^mJrXma ho àYmZ 

åhUyZ O~m~Xma amhVmV. åhUyZ ^mJrXmar g§ñWoMr {Z{_©Vr hr H$m`ÚmVrb VaVyXrVyZ {Z_m©U hmoUmè`m à{V{ZYrËd 

H$amamMo CÎm_ CXmhaU Amho. 

(H$) à{V{ZYrËd H$amamMr g_már (Termination of Contract of Agency) : 

à{V{ZYrËd H$amamMr g_már åhUOo àYmZ Am{U A{^H$Vm© `m§À`m_Üò H$amamZo ApñVËdmV Ambobo 

H$m`Xoera g§~§Y g§nwï>mV òUo hmo`. n«{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amamMr g_már nwT>rb nÕVrZo hmody eH$Vo. 

51

à{V{ZYrËd H$amamÀ`m g_márÀ`m nÕVr 

à{V{ZYrËd H$amamVrb ì`ŠVtÀ`m H¥$Vr_wio H$m`ÚmVrb VaVyXr_wio 

nañnamVrb àYmZmZo à{V{ZYrMo à{V{ZYrZo 

R>amdm_wio A{YH$ma H$mTy>Z à{V{ZYrËdmMm 

KoVë`mg Ë`mJ Ho$ë`mg 

à{V{ZYrËdmMm àYmZ qH$dm à{V{ZYr àYmZ H$amamMr {df` 

H$mbmdYr g§në`m_wio `mn¡H$s EH$mMm {XdmiImoa dñVy Zï> 

_¥Ë`y Pmë`mg Pmë`mg Pmë`mg 

àYmZ d à{V{ZYr H§$nZrMo à{V{ZYrËd H$amamMr 

ho naH$s` eÌy {dgO©Z A§_b~OmdUr Pmë`mg 

~Zë`mg Pmë`mg 

(A) à{V{ZYrËd H$amamVrb ì`ŠVtÀ`m H¥$Vr_wio (By Act of Parties) : à{V{ZYr H$amamVrb 

g§~§{YV ì`ŠVtÀ`m H¥$Vr_wio à{V{ZYrËd H$amamMr g_már Imbrbn¡H$s EH$m nÕVrZo hmoVo. 

1.nañnamVrb R>amdm_wio (By Mutual Agreement) : àYmZ Am{U à{V{ZYr `m§Zr à{V{ZYrËdmMo 

g§~§Y g_má H$aÊ`mgmR>r ñdoÀN>oZo nañnam§V à{V{ZYrËd H$ama g_márMm R>amd H$ê$Z Ë`mZwgma à{V{ZYrËdmMm 

H$ama g§nwï>mV AmUy eH$VmV. 

2. àYmZmZo n«{V{ZYrMo A{YH$ma H$mTy>Z KoVë`mg (By Revocation of Authority by Principal): 

àYmZ hm à{V{ZYrg Amnë`mdVrZo H$m`© H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma àXmZ H$arV AgVmo. Oa àYmZmZo 

à{V{ZYrMo A{YH$ma H$mTy>Z KoVë`mg à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. _mÌ à{V{ZYrMo A{YH$ma H$mTy>Z 

KoÊ`mnydu Imbrb AQ>tMr nyV©Vm hmoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

52

(1) à{V{ZYrËdmMo H$m`© gwê$ hmoÊ`mnyduM à{V{ZYrMo A{YH$ma H$mTy>Z KoVm òVrb. 

(2) à{V{ZYrËdmMo H$m`© gwê$ Pmbo Agob Am{U Vo aÔ H$amd`mMo Agob Va àYmZmZo à{V{ZYrbm Am{U 

Ì`ñW ì`ŠVtZm `m~m~V `mo½` gyMZm {Xë`m nm{hOoV. 

(3) {d{eï> _wXVrMm à{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama Agob Am{U Vr _wXV g§nÊ`mnydu H$ama aÔ H$amd`mMm Agob 

Va à{V{ZYrg A{YH$ma aÔ H$aÊ`mMr gyMZm {Xbr nm{hOo. Aer gyMZm Z XoVm à{V{ZYrMo A{YH$ma H$mTy>Z 

KoVë`mg Ë`m_wio A{^H$Ë`m©Mo Oo ZwH$gmZ hmoB©b Ë`mMr ânmB© àYmZmZo Ho$br nm{hOo. 

3. à{V{ZYrZo à{V{ZYrËdmMm Ë`mJ H$o$ë`mg (By Renunciation of agency by the agent) : 

A{^H$Vm© Amnë`m àYmZmg `mo½` boIr gyMZm XodyZ à{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama g_má H$ê$ eH$Vmo. Oa à{V{ZYrËdmMm 

H$ama {d{eï> _wXVrgmR>r Agob Am{U Vr _wXV g§nÊ`mnydu à{V{ZYrbm à{V{ZYrËd g§ndmd`Mo Agob Va 

`m~m~V à{V{ZYrZo àYmZmg nyd©gyMZm {Xbr nm{hOo. VgoM _wXVnyd© à{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama g§nwï>mV AmUë`m_wio 

àYmZmMo Oo ZwH$gmZ hmoB©b Ë`mMr ânmB© H$aÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar à{V{ZYrda AgVo. à{V{ZYr hm ñnï>nUo ì`ŠV 

H$ê$Z qH$dm J¥{hV H¥$VrÛmao à{V{ZYrËdmMm Ë`mJ H$ê$Z à{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama g_má H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

(~) H$m`ÚmVrb VaVyXr_wio à{V{ZYrËd H$amamMr g_már (By Operation of Law) : 

Imbrb H$maUm_wio H$m`ÚmVrb VaVwXrZygma AmnmoAmn à{V{ZYrËd H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. 

1. à{V{ZYrËdmMm H$mbmdYr g§në`mg : Ooìhm EImÚm {d{eï> H$mbmdYrgmR>r à{V{ZYrMr 

{Z`wŠVr Ho$br OmVo. Voìhm Vmo H$mbmdYr nyU© Pmbm H$s AmnmoAmn à{V{ZYrËdMm H$ama g_má hmoVmo. 

2. àYmZ qH$dm à{V{Yr `mn¡H$s EH$mMm _¥Ë`y Pmë`mg : àYmZ qH$dm à{V{ZYr `mn¡H$s EImXm 

_¥Ë`y nmdbm AWdm doS>m Pmbm H$s à{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama AmnmoAmn g_má hmoVmo. na§Vw O|ìhm àYmZmMm _¥Ë`y 

hmoVmo AWdm Vmo doS>ga R>aVmo V|ìhm Ë`mÀ`m H$m`Xoera dmagm§Mo {hVg§~§Y gwa{jV R>odÊ`mMr g§nyU© O~m~Xmar 

à{V{ZYrda AgVo. 

3. àYmZ {XdmiImoa Pmë`mg : àYmZ {XdmiImoa åhUyZ Kmo{fV Pmë`mg à{V{ZYrMm H$ama g_má 

hmoVmo. Aem n[apñWVrV à{V{ZYrZo Amnë`m àYmZmMo {hVg§~§Y gwa{jV R>odbo nm{hOoV. à{V{Z{YËd H$amamÀ`m 

H$mbmdYrV à{V{ZYr {XdmiImoa Pmbm Varhr à{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama g_má hmoVmo. 

4. à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amamMr {df`dñVy Zï> Pmë`mg : à{V{ZYrËd H$amamMr {df`dñVy Zï> 

Pmë`mg à{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama g_má hmoVmo. CXm. A hm {d_m EO§Q> Amho. {d_m H§$nZrZo Ë`mg EH$m H§$nZrÀ`m 

JmoS>mdyZMm {d_m CVa{dÊ`mg nmR>{dbo. na§Vw JmoS>mdyZMm {d_m CVa{dÊ`mnyduM Vo JmoS>mdyZ AmJrV OiyZ ^ñ_ 

Pmbo. åhUOoM à{V{ZYrËd H$amamMr {df`dñVy Zï> Pmbr `m_wio à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. 

5. àYmZ d à{V{ZYr ho naH$s` eÌy ~Zë`mg : O|ìhm àYmZ Am{U à{V{ZYr ho doJdoJù`m Xoem§V 

amhVmV V|ìhm Vo EH$_oH$m§Mo {_Ì AgVmV. na§Vw Oa `m XmoZ Xoem_Üò `wÕ gwê$ Pmbo Va Vo nañnam§Mo eÌy ~ZVmV. 

53

Ë`m_wio Ë`m§À`mVrb à{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama g_má hmoVmo. `wÕ Mmby Agon`ªV n«{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama hm ñW{JV 

hmoVmo dm aÔ hmoVmo. 

6. H§$nZrMo {dgO©Z Pmë`mg : O|ìhm EImXr H§$nZr hr àYmZ qH$dm à{V{ZYr åhUyZ H$m`© H$arV 

AgVo. Aem H§$nZrMo O|ìhm {dgO©Z hmoVo V|ìhm AmnmoAmn à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. 

7. à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amamMr A§_b~OdUr Pmë`mg : àYmZ Am{U à{V{ZYr `m§Zr à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m 

H$amamà_mUo nañnam~m~VÀ`m dMZm§Mr nyV©Vm Ho$br åhUOo à{V{Z{YËd H$amamMr g_már hmoVo. 

2.2.10 A{^H$Vm©/à{V{ZYr Am{U àYmZ `m§Mo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò : 

(Rights and Duties of Agent and Principal) : 

(A) A{^H$Vm©/à{V{ZYrMo A{YH$ma (Roghts of an Agent) : 

à{V{ZYrg Amnë`m àYmZm{déÕ nwT>rb A{YH$ma àmá hmoVmo. 

n«{V{ZYrMo A{YH$ma 

a¸$_ AS>dyZ _mo~Xbm _mbmdarb H$m`Xoera H$m`©- ZwH$gmZânmB© àdmgmVrb 

R>odÊ`mMm àmá Vm~oh¸$ dm{h_wio Pmboë`m _mJÊ`mMm _mb 

A{YH$ma H$aÊ`mMm dmnaÊ`mMm ZwH$gmZrMr ânmB© A{YH$ma AS>{dÊ`mMm 

A{YH$ma A{YH$ma _mJUr H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma 

A{YH$ma 

1. a¸$_ AS>dyZ R>odÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : àYmZmÀ`mdVrZo Ë`mÀ`m ì`dhmamVrb {d{dY ~m~rda aH$_m 

pñdH$maÊ`mMm A{YH$ma à{V{ZYrg AgVmo. Aem àmá Pmboë`m aH$_m àYmZmH$Sy>Z Ë`mÀ`m H$m`m©Mm _mo~Xbm, 

Ë`mZo ñdV: Ho$bobm IM© Am{U àYmZmg AJmD$ {Xboë`m aH$_m àmá hmoB©n`ªV àYmZmMr O_m a¸$_ AS>dyZ 

R>odÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

2. _mo~Xbm àmá H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : à{V{ZYrg à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amamZwgma {ZpíMV Ho$bobm 

Ë`mÀ`m H$m`m©Mm _mo~Xbm _mJUr H$aÊ`mMm h¸$ AgVmo. à{V{ZYrg Ë`mMo H$m`© nyU© Ho$ë`mZ§Va Vm~S>Vmo~ 

_mo~Xbm {_imbm nm{hOo. H$amamV _mo~Xbm {ZpíMV R>abm Zgob Va à{V{ZYr àYmZmH$Sy>Z `mo½` _mo~Xbm 

_mJUr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. VgoM à{V{ZYrZo Amnë`m H$m`m©V {ZîH$miOrnUm XmI{dV Agob qH$dm J¡adV©Z H$arV 

Agob Va OodT>o H$m`© Ë`mZo MyH$sMo Ho$bo Agob Ë`m H$m`m©Mm _mo~Xbm Ë`mg _mJUr H$aVm òUma Zmhr. 

3. _mbmdarb Vm~oh¸$ dmnaÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : Oa H$amamV doJim C„oI Zgob Va à{V{ZYr hm 

Ë`mÀ`m àYmZmH$Sy>Z òUo Agbobo H${_eZ, _mo~Xbm, Ho$bobm IM© d A°S>ìhmÝg dgyb hmoB©n`ªV Ë`mÀ`m 

54

Vmã`mV n«YmZmÀ`m Agboë`m MbdñVy, H$mJXnÌo Am{U AMb_mb_Îmm AS>dyZ R>odÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo 

`mbmM _mbmdarb Vm~oh¸$ Ago åhUVmV. 

4. H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr_wio Pmboë`m ZwH$gmZrMr ânmB© _mJÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : à{V{ZYrËdmMo 

H$m`© H$arV AgVmZm à{V{ZYrg H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhrg gm_moao Omdo bmJVo. Ë`mgmR>r Ë`mbm ñdV: H$mhr IM©hr 

H$amdm bmJVmo. V|ìhm Agm Pmbobm gZXera IM© àYmZmH$Sy>Z dgyb H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. VgoM 

H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr_wio H$mhr ZwH$gmZ ghZ H$amdo bmJbo Va Ë`m ZwH$gmZrMr ânmB© _mJUr H$aÊ`mMm 

A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

5. ZwH$gmZânmB© _mJÊ`mMm h¸$ : Oa àYmZmÀ`m {ZîH$miOrnUm_wio qH$dm Vm§{ÌH$ H$m¡eë`mÀ`m 

A^mdm_wio à{V{ZYrbm H$mhr BOm Pmbr AWdm ZwH$gmZ ghZ H$amdo bmJV Agob Va à{V{ZYr Aem Pmboë`m 

ZwH$gmZrMr ânmB© H$aÊ`mgmR>r a¸$_ àYmZmH$Sy>Z _mJUr H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

6. àdmgmVrb _mb AS>{dÊ`mMm h¸$ : à{V{ZYrZo àYmZmH$[aVm ñdV:À`m n¡emVyZ _mbmMr IaoXr 

Ho$br Agob Va Vmo Ë`m n¡emMr dgybr H$aÊ`mgmR>r àdmgmV Agboë`m àYmZmÀ`m dñVy AS>dyZ Amnë`m 

Vmã`mV Kody eH$Vmo. VgoM Ë`mZo àYmZmÀ`mdVrZo IaoXr Ho$boë`m _mbmMr qH$_V XoÊ`mMr h_r KoVbr Agob 

Va _mbmMr qH$_V {Xbr OmÊ`mgmR>r àYmZmH$S>o nmR>{dÊ`mV Ambobm _mb àdmgmV AS>dyZ Amnë`m Vmã`mV 

Kody eH$Vmo. 

(~) A{^H$Vm©/à{V{ZYrMr H$V©ìò (Duties of an Agent) : 

à{V{ZYr hm àYmZÀ`mdVrZo Zoh_r H$m`© H$arV AgVmo. Ë`m_wio `m à{V{ZYrg àYmZmàVr nwT>rb H$V©ìò 

nma nmS>mdr bmJVmV. 

à{V{ZYrMr H$V©ìò 

àYmZmÀ`m à{V{ZYrËd H$m`m©gmR>r `mo½` {heo~ Amdí`H$VoZwgma ñdV:À`m 

AmXoemà_mUo `mo½` H$m¡eë` d gmXa H$aUo àYmZmer g§nH©$ ZmdmZo ì`dhma 

H$m`© H$aUo n[al_ `m§Mm dmna H$aUo gmYUo Z H$aUo 

àYmZmÀ`mdVrZo àYmZmMo {hVg§~§Y n«YmZmÀ`m ì`dgm`mMr àYmZmÀ`m A{YH$mamMo 

àmá Pmboë`m a¸$_m gwa{jV àmá _m{hVr {hVg§~§Ymg YmoH$m àXmZ Z 

Ë`mg naV H$aUo R>odUo Jwá R>odUo Z nmohM{dUo H$aUo 

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1. àYmZmÀ`m AmXoemà_mUo H$m`© H$aUo : àËòH$ à{V{ZYrZo àYmZmZo KmbyZ {Xboë`m A{YH$ma_`m©XoV 

amhÿZ H$m`© H$aUo ho _yb^yV H$V©ì` _mZbo OmVo. VgoM ho H$m`© H$aVmZm àYmZmMo doimodoir _mJ©Xe©Z KoUoXoIrb 

Amdí`H$ AgVo. `mMmM AW© à{V{ZYrZo àYmZmÀ`m AmXoemZwgma H$m`© Ho$bo nm{hOo. àYmZmH$Sy>Z à{V{ZYrg 

ñnï> AmXoe ZgVrb Va Ë`mZo ì`mnmar àWoZwgma H$m`© Ho$bo nm{hOo. Oa à{V{ZYr àYmZmÀ`m AmXoem§Mo C„§KZ 

H$arV Agob Va Ë`mgmR>r Vmo àYmZmg O~m~Xma amhVmo. 

2. à{V{ZYrËdmMo H$m`© H$aVmZm `mo½` H$m¡eë` d n[al_mMm dmna H$aUo : à{V{ZYrZo 

à{V{ZYrËdmMo H$m`© H$aVmZm `mo½` H$m¡eë` d n[al_ `m§Mm dmna Ho$bm nm{hOo. à{V{ZYr Mmb{dV Agboë`m 

ì`dgm`mgmaIm ì`dgm` AÝ` ì`ŠVr `m OodT>çm H$m¡eë`mZo Mmb{dVmV VodT>çmM VmH$VrZo Am{U H$m¡eë`mMm 

dmna H$ê$Z àYmZmMm ì`dgm` Mmb{dbm nm{hOo. Oa ì`dgm` Mmb{dVmZm à{V{ZYrMo H$mhr H$gya Ho$br d 

Ë`m_wio àYmZmMo ZwH$gmZ Pmbo Va Ë`mZo Aem ZwH$gmZmMr ânmB© Ho$br nm{hOo. à{V{ZYrÀ`m {ZîH$miOrnUm_wio 

àYmZmÀ`m ì`dgm`mMo OodT>o ZwH$gmZ Pmbo Agob VodT>rM ânmB© H$aUo ho à{V{ZYrMo H$V©ì` _mZbo OmVo. 

3. `mo½`doir {heo~ gmXa H$aUo : à{V{ZYrZo à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m g§nyU© ì`dhmam§Mm {~ZMyH$ {heo~ 

R>odbm nm{hOo. VgoM àYmZmZo _mJUr H$aVmjUr Vo {heo~ VmËH$mi gmXa Ho$bo nm{hOoV. à{V{ZYrZo Zoh_r 

ñdV:Mo d¡`{ŠVH$ ì`dhma Am{U à{V{ZYrËdmMo ì`dhma `m§Mo {heo~ ñdV§ÌnUo R>odbo nm{hOoV. 

4. àYmZmer g§nH©$ gmYUo : à{V{ZYrZo Zoh_r Amnë`m àYmZmer MMm© H$ê$Z Amnbo H$m`© Ho$bo 

nm{hOo. {deofV: O|ìhm Ooìhm AS>MUrMo àg§J òVrb Ë`m Ë`mdoir àYmZmMm g„m KodyZM H$m`© Ho$bo nm{hOo. 

àYmZmÀ`m g§_Vr{edm` à{V{ZYrg àYmZmMm ì`dgm` H$aVm òV Zmhr. àYmZmÀ`m g§_Vr{edm` ì`dgm` 

Ho$bm Va Ë`mg à{V{ZYr d¡`{ŠVH$[aË`m O~m~Xma Yabm OmVmo. àËòH$doir àYmZmer g„m_gbV H$ê$ZM 

à{V{ZYrZo H$m`© H$amdo Aer Anojm AgVo. na§Vw AmUr~mUrÀ`m n[apñWVrV àYmZmer g§nH©$ gmYUo eŠ` Zgob 

Va gX²gX²{ddoH$ ~wÕrMm dmna H$ê$Z à{V{ZYrZo H$m`© Ho$bo nm{hOo. 

5. à{V{ZYrZo ñdV:À`m ZmdmZo ì`dhma H$ê$ Zò : à{V{ZYrËd H$amamà_mUo gd© H$m`}hr àYmZmÀ`m 

ZmdmZoM H$aUo ho à{V{ZYrMo AmÚH$V©ì` _mZbo OmVo. Oa à{V{ZYr hm àYmZmÀ`m g§_Vr{edm` ñdV:À`m 

ZmdmZo ì`dgm`Vrb ì`dhma H$arV Agob Va Aem ì`dhmam§Zm Vmo d¡`{ŠVH$[aË`m O~m~Xma amhVmo. VgoM Aem 

ì`dhmamVyZ ZwH$gmZ Pmbo Va Ë`m ZwH$gmZrMr ânmB© Ho$br nm{hOo d Aem ì`dhmamVyZ Z\$m Pmbm Agob Va 

àYmZ Agm Z\$m dgyb H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

6. àYmZmÀ`mdVrZo àmá a¸$_m naV H$aUo : àYmZmgmR>r H$m`© H$aVmZm Ë`À`m ì`dgm`mVrb 

ì`dhmamnmgyZ àmá hmoUmè`m gd© aH$_m àYmZmg XoUo ho à{V{YrMo gdm©V _hÎdmMo H$V©ì` _mZbo OmVo. AWm©V 

Aem àmá aH$_oVyZ ñdV:Mm _mo~Xbm, ì`dgm` Mmb{dÊ`mgmR>r Ho$bobm IM© Am{U àYmZmg AJmD$ {Xboë`m 

aH$_m `m§Mr H$nmV H$ê$Z Kody eH$Vmo. 

7. àYmZmMo {hVg§~§Y gwa{jV R>odUo : àYmZmMm _¥Ë`y Pmë`mg qH$dm Vmo doS>ga Pmbm Va 

56

n«{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama g_má hmoVmo. VarXoIrb àYmZmZo à{V{ZYrda {dídmg Xe©{dbobm AgVmo åhUyZ à{V{ZYrZo 

àYmZmÀ`m _mb_ÎmoMo d àYmZmÀ`m H$m`Xoera dmagm§Mo {hVg§~§Y gwa{jV R>odUo _hÎdmMo H$V©ì` _mZbo OmVo. 

8. àYmZmÀ`m ì`dgm`mMr àmßV _m{hVr Jwá R>odUo : à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amamZwgma àYmZmÀ`m 

ì`dgm`mMr g{dñVa _m{hVr à{V{ZYrg àmá hmoV AgVo. Aem àmá _m{hVr~m~V JwáVm ~miJUo Amdí`H$ 

AgVo. Aer _m{hVr BVam§Zm {Xë`m_wio àYmZmMo ZwH$gmZ hmoUma Agob Va Aem ZwH$gmZrg à{V{ZYr O~m~Xma 

Yabm OmVmo. 

9. n«YmZmÀ`m {hVg§~§Ymg YmoH$m Z nmohM{dUo : à{V{ZYrZo Zoh_r àYmZmÀ`m {hVg§~§Ym§Zm àYmÝ` 

{Xbo nm{hOo. O|ìhm à{V{ZYrMo d¡`{ŠVH$ {hVg§~§Y Am{U àYmZmMo {hVg§~§Y `mV {ddmX {Z_m©U hmoVmo V|ìhm 

Ë`mZo àYmZmMo {hVg§§Y gwa{jV R>odÊ`mg àmYmÝ` {Xbo nm{hOo. AÝ`Wm àYmZ H$ama aÔ H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

10. àYmZmÀ`m g§_Vr{edm` A{YH$mam§Mo àXmZ Z H$aUo : n«{V{ZYrZo Ë`mg gmon{dbobo H$m`© ñdV: 

H$amd`Mo AgVo. Ë`m H$m`m©Mr O~m~Xmar BVam§da gmondyZ MmbUma Zmhr. åhUOoM àYmZmÀ`m g§_Vr{edm` 

à{V{ZYrZo Amnbo A{YH$ma Xwgè`mg àXmZ H$ê$ Zò AÝ`Wm Vmo d¡`{ŠVH$ O~m~Xma amhrb. 

(H$) àYmZmMo A{YH$ma (Rights of Principal) : 

à{V{ZYrÀ`m H$V©ì`mMm {dMma H$aVm Ago {XgyZ òVo H$s à{V{ZYrMr H$V©ìò hr àYmZmMo A{YH$ma 

hmoVmV. åhUyZ àYmZmg Amnë`m à{V{ZYràVr nwT>rb A{YH$ma àmá hmoVmV. 

àYmZmMo A{YH$ma 

ZwH$gmZânmB© Jwá bm^ H$m`© H$aÊ`mg§~§Yr {heo~ _mJUr 

H$ê$Z KoUo dgyb H$aUo gyMZm XoUo H$aUo 

ì`dhmamVrb àmá A{YH$ma àXmZmg H$ama^§JmgmR>r 

aH$_m§Mr _mJUr H$aUo g§_Vr XoUo H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$aUo 

1. ZwH$gmZânmB© H$ê$Z KoUo : à{V{ZYr Amnë`m H$m`m©V {ZîH$miOrnUm Xe©{dV Agob qH$dm 

n[al_nyd©H$ H$m`© H$arV Zgob qH$dm àYmZmÀ`m AmXoem§Mo C„§KZ H$arV Agob qH$dm ì`mnmar ê$T>rna§nam 

_mo{S>V Agob Am{U Ë`m_wio àYmZmMo ZwH$gmZ hmoV Agob Va àYmZ Aem ZwH$gmZrMr ânmB© à{V{ZYrH$Sy>Z 

H$ê$Z Kody eH$Vmo. 

57

2. à{V{ZYrH$Sy>Z Jwá bm^ dgyb H$aUo : àYmZmÀ`m g§_Vr{edm` àYmZmÀ`m ì`dhmamVyZ AZ{YH¥$V 

Jwá bm^ à{V{ZYr {_i{dV Agob Va Aem Jwá bm^m§Mr dgybr àYmZmg H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. VgoM 

{dídg^§Jm~m~V à{V{ZYrg O~m~Xma Yê$Z ì`dhmam§Mo H${_eZ aÔ H$ê$ eH$Vmo VgoM Ì`ñW ì`ŠVrer 

à{V{ZYrZo Ho$bobo H$ama aÔ H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

3. à{V{ZYrg H$m`© H$aÊ`mg§~§Yr gyMZm XoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : àYmZ à{V{ZYrbm Ë`mÀ`m 

ì`dgm`mVrb ì`dhma H$aVmZm Amdí`H$ Ë`m gyMZm XoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. Ë`mÀ`m gwMZoZwgma à{V{ZYrZo 

H$m`© H$aUo ~§YZH$maH$ AgVo. 

4. à{V{ZYrH$Sy>Z {heo~ _mJÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : à{V{ZYrZo àYmZmÀ`m dVrZo Ho$boë`m ì`dhmam§Mo 

gd© {hemo~ ì`dpñWV R>odUo Am{U àYmZmZo _mJVmjUr g§nyU© ì`dhmam§Mo {heo~ gmXa H$aUo ~§YZH$maH$ AgVo. 

5. A{^H$V¥©ËdmÀ`m ì`dhmamVyZ àmá Pmboë`m a¸$_m§Mr _mJUr H$aUoMm h¸$ : àYmZmg 

A{^H$Ë`m©Zo Ë`mÀ`m ì`dhmamV àYmZmÀ`mdVrZo Á`m aH$_m pñdH$maboë`m AgVmV Aem àmá Pmboë`m 

aH$_m§Mr _mJUr H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

6. A{YH$ma àXmZmg g§_Vr XoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : à{V{ZYrZo àYmZmg Ho$boë`m {dZ§VrZwgma Ë`mÀ`m 

A{YH$mam§Mo Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg àXmZ H$aÊ`mg g§_Vr XoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

7. H$ama^§JmgmR>r H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma : à{V{ZYr àYmZmÀ`m ì`dgm`mVrb 

ì`dhma H$aVmZm A{^H$V¥©ËdmÀ`m H$amamMm ^§J H$arV Agob Va Ë`mÀ`mda H$m`Xoera H$m`©dmhr H$aÊ`mMm 

A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

(S>) àYmZmMr H$V©ìò (Duties of Principal) : 

à{V{ZYrMo A{YH$ma åhUOo àYmZmMr H$V©dò AgVmV. åhUyZ àYmZmMr à{V{ZYrÀ`m àVr H$V©ìò 

nwT>rbà_mUo AmhoV. 

àYmZmMr A{YH$ma 

à{V{ZYrg Ë`mÀ`m à{V{ZYrg à{V{ZYrZo à{V{ZYrg `mo½` Cnà{V{ZYr Zo_UyH$sg 

H$m`m©Mm ZwH$gmZânmB© Ho$bobm IM© gmo`r gdbVrMm nadmZJr 

_mo~XbmXoUo XoUo naV H$aUo bm^ CnbãY H$aUo XoUo 

1. à{V{ZYrg Ë`mÀ`m H$m`m©Mm _mo~Xbm XoUo : à{V{ZYrMo à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amamZwgma Ho$boë`m 

H$m`m©Mm _mo~Xbm Am{U H${_eZ XoUo ho àYmZmMo à_wI H$V©ì` _mZbo OmVo. 

58

2. à{V{ZYrg ZwH$gmZânmB© XoUo : à{V{ZYrZo àYmZmH$[aVm gX²gX²{ddoH$ ~wÕrZo EImXo H$m`© Ho$bo 

Agob Am{U Ë`m_wio Ë`mbm ZwH$gmZ ghZ H$amdo bmJbo Va à{V{ZYrÀ`m Pmboë`m ZwH$gmZrMr ânmB© àYmZmZo 

Ho$br nm{hOo. 

3. à{V{ZYrZo Ho$bobm IM© naV H$aUo : à{V{ZYrZo àYmZmÀ`m dVrZo àYmZmMm ì`dgm` H$aVmZm 

ñdV: H$mhr IM© Ho$bm Agob Am{U Vmo IM© `mo½` H$maUmgmR>r Ho$bm Jobm Agob Va n«YmZmZo Agm IM© 

à{V{ZYrg naV H$aUo ~§YZH$maH$ AgVo. 

4. à{V{ZYrg `mo½` gmo`r gdbVtMm bm^ CnbãY H$ê$Z XoUo : àYmZmZo à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m 

H$amamZwgma à{V{ZYrg ì`dgm` H$aÊ`mgmR>r `mo½` Aem gmo`r Am{U gdbVr CnbãY H$ê$Z {Xë`m nm{hOoV. 

Oa Aem gmo`r gdbVr Z {Xë`mZo à{V{ZYrbm Amnbo H$m`© ì`dpñWV H$aVm Ambo Zmhr qH$dm ZwH$gmZ ghZ 

H$amdo bmJbo Va Ë`mg àYmZ O~m~Xma Yabm OmVmo. 

5. Cnà{V{ZYr Zo_UyH$sg _mÝ`Vm XoUo : à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$m`m©gmR>r Cnà{V{ZYrMr _XV KoUo 

JaOoMo Agob Va àYmZmZo Cnà{V{ZYr Zo_UyH$ H$aÊ`mg g§_Vr XoÊ`mMo H$V©ì` nma nmS>mdo bmJVo. 

2.3 g§H$ënZm Am{U gmam§e : 

1. g§H$ënZm : 

1. {Zjon - EH$m {d{eï> CÔoemZo Amnë`m dñVy§Mm Vm~m Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrg gmon{dUo `mg {Zjon Ago 

åhUVmV. 

2. {Zjon {df` dñVy - {ZjonmÀ`m H$amamgmR>r {df`dñVy hr H$moUVrhr Mb dñVy Agy eH$Vo. 

{ZjonmÀ`m CÔoemà_mUo Aem dñVyda à{H«$`m Ho$br Omdy eH$Vo, dñVyMo ñdê$n ~Xbbo OmD$ eH$Vo qH$dm dñVy 

_yi ñdê$nmV naV Ho$ë`m OmD$ eH$VmV. 

3. {ZjonXmVm - dñVy§Mo àXmZ (dñVy§Mm Vm~m) XoUmè`m ì`ŠVrg {ZjonXmVm Ago åhUVmV. 

4. {ZjonJ¥{hVm - Á`m ì`ŠVrg dñVyMo àXmZ Ho$bo OmVo Ë`m ì`ŠVrg {ZjonJ¥{hVm (Bailee) 

åhUVmV. 

5. J«hUm{YH$ma - Right of Lien - dñVy Amnë`m Vmã`mV R>odÊ`mMm A{YH$ma Amnë`m H$m`Xoera 

H$Om©Mr naV\o$S> hmoB©n`ªV qH$dm Amnë`m A{YH$mam§Mr nyV©Vm hmoB©n`ªV H$O©XmamÀ`m dñVy Amnë`m Vmã`mV 

R>odÊ`mMm A{YH$ma hmo`. 

6. VmaU - Pledge - H$Om©À`m gwa{jVVogmR>r qH$dm dMZmÀ`m nyV©VogmR>r dñVy§Mm {Zjon H$aUo `mg 

VmaU åhUVmV. 

7. VmaU dñVy - Pledged goods - Á`m dñVy VmaU J¥{hË`mH$S>o (gmdH$mamH$S>o) ñdoÀN>oZo à{V^y{V 

(Security) åhUyZ R>odë`m OmVmV Ë`m§Zm VmaU dñVy Ago åhUVmV. 

59

8. VmaUXmVm - Pawnor - Amnë`m dñVy§Mo VmaU H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVrg VmaUXmVm Ago åhUVmV. 

9. VmaUJ¥{hVm - Pawnee or pledgee - Á`m ì`ŠVrH$S>o dñVy `m VmaU åhUyZ R>odë`m OmVmV Ë`m 

ì`ŠVrg VmaUJ¥{hVm Ago åhUVmV. 

10. A{^H$Vm©/à{V{ZYr Agent - Á`m ì`ŠVrMr {Z`wŠVr Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrÀ`m dVrZo H$m`© H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

qH$dm {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr~amo~a ì`dhma H$aÊ`mgmR>r Ho$br OmVo Ë`mg A{^H$Vm© Ago åhUVmV. 

11. àYmZ/à_wI - Principal - {OÀ`m dVrZo H$m`© H$aÊ`mgmR>r qH$dm {VèhmB©V ì`ŠVr~amo~a 

Amnë`mdVrZo ì`dhma H$aÊ`mgmR>r A{^H$Ë`m©Mr {Z`wŠVr H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVrg àYmZ/à_wI åhUVmV. 

12. CnA{^H$Vm© - Sub.Agent - à{V{ZYrÀ`m ì`dgm`mV _yi A{^H$Ë`m©Zo Zo_boë`m d Ë`mÀ`m 

{Z`§ÌUmImbr H$m`© H$aUmè`m ì`ŠVrg CnA{^H$Vm© Ago åhUVmV. 

2. gmam§e : 

^maVr` H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 124 Vo 238 _Üò {deof H$amam§Mr _ybVÎdo {Xbobr AmhoV. `m§Zm {deof 

àH$maMo H$ama Ago åhUVmV. Aem H$amam§Mr {Z{_©Vr, nyV©Vm Am{U g_márgmR>r gd©gmYmaU H$amamMo {Z`_ d 

_ybVÎdo bmJy hmoV ZmhrV. Ë`m_wio ho H$ama gd©gmYmaU gm_mÝ` H$amamnmgyZ doJio Ho$bo AmhoV d `m H$amam§À`m 

{Z{_©Vr, nyV©Vm Am{U g_már~m~V XoIrb ñdV§Ì {Z`_ Ho$bo AmhoV. `m_Üò ZwH$gmZânmB©Mo, h_rMo, {ZjonmMo, 

VmaUmMo Am{U A{^H$V¥©ËdmÀ`m H$amam§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. Amnë`m Aä`mgmgmR>r \$ŠV {Zjon, VmaUmMo H$ama 

Am{U A{^H$V¥©ËdmMm {deof H$amamMm g_mdoe Ho$bm Amho. 

{Zjon Am{U VmaUmMo H$ama ho {deof H$ama AmhoV. ^maVr` H$ama H$m`Xm H$b_ 148 Vo 181 H$b_m_Üò 

{Zjon Am{U VmaUmÀ`m H$amamg§~§Yr VaVyXr Ho$ë`m AmhoV. `mV {Zjon åhUOo H$m`, {ZjonmMm H$ama H$gm 

ApñVËdmV òVmo, {ZjonmÀ`m H$amamV nj {H$Vr AgVmV Am{U `m {ZjonXmVm Am{U {ZjonJ¥{hVm `m§Mo 

nañnam~m~V A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò H$moUVr AmhoV `mMr _m{hVr {Xbr Amho. VgoM VmaU H$amam_Üò VmaU 

åhUOo H$m`, VmaUmMm H$ama H$gm ApñVËdmV òVmo. VmaU H$amamgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmè`m XmoZ njm_Üò 

VmaUXmVm H$moUmg åhUVmV, VmaUJ¥{hVm H$moU AgVmo Am{U Aem VmaUXmVm d VmaUJ¥{hVmMo A{YH$ma d 

H$V©ìò {dfX Ho$br AmhoV. 

_m{hVr V§ÌkmZmÀ`m `wJmV H$moUË`mhr ì`ŠVrbm ñdV:Mr gd© H$m`©o ñdV: H$aUo AeŠ` AgVo. 

ñdV:À`m ì`dgm`mVrb ñdV:Mr H$mhr H$m`} H$aÊ`mgmR>r Xwgè`m ì`ŠVrMr _XV ¿`mdr bmJVo. ì`dgm`mVrb 

~arMer H$m_o BVamH$Sy>Z H$ê$Z ¿`mdr bmJVmV. Ago ì`dgm{`H$ Am{U Ë`m§Zm _XV H$aUmao à{V{ZYr 

`m§À`mVrb ì`dgm{`H$ g§~§Ym§Zm H$m`XoeranUm àmá H$ê$Z XoÊ`mgmR>r H$ama H$m`ÚmÀ`m H$b_ 182 Vo 238 

_Üò à{V{ZYrËdmÀ`m H$amamg§~§Yr VaVyXr Ho$ë`m AmhoV. `m_Üò à{V{ZYrËdmMm H$ama H$gm ApñVËdmV òVmo, 

à{V{ZYr H$amamMr g_már H$moUH$moUË`m nÕVrZo hmoVo Am{U A§{V_Vm n«{V{ZYr Am{U àYmZ `m§Mo EH$_oH$màVr 

AgUmao h¸$ Am{U H$V©ìò H$moUVr AmhoV `mMr _m{hVr {Xbr Amho. 

60

2.4 ñd`§AÜ``ZmgmR>r àíZ : 

1. {ZjonmMm H$ama åhUOo H$m`? Ë`mÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r gm§Jm. 

2. {ZjonXmË`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò ñnï> H$am. 

3. {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMr {d{dY H$V©ìò gm§Jm. 

4. {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMo A{YH$ma gm§Jm. 

5. VmaUmMm H$ama åhUOo H$m`? VmaU H$amamMr d¡{eï>ço ñnï> H$am. 

6. {ZjonmMm H$ama Am{U VmaUmMm H$ama `mVrb \$aH$ ñnîQ> H$am. 

7. VmaUXmVm Ë`mMo A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò gm§Jm. 

8. A{^H$V¥©Ëd g§H$ënZoMm AW© gm§JyZ {VÀ`m {Z{_©VrMo _mJ© gm§Jm. 

9. à{V{ZYrËd H$ama g_márÀ`m {d{dY nÕVr ñnï> H$am. 

10. à{V{ZYrMr àYmZmàVr AgUmao A{YH$ma {deX H$am. 

11. àYmZmMo à{V{ZYr àVr AgUmao A{YH$ma Am{U H$V©ìò ñnï> H$am. 

Q>rnm {bhm. 

1. à{V{ZYr H$amamÀ`m Amdí`H$ AQ>r 

2. {ZjonJ¥{hË`mMr H$V©ìò 

3. à{V{ZYrÀ`m O~m~Xmè`m 

4. J¥{hVR>amdmZo A{^H$V¥©Ëd H$amamMr {Z{_©Vr. 

2.5 A{YH$ dmMZmgmR>r g§X^© J«§W : 

1. S. S. Gulshan, - Mercantile Law, Excel Book, New Delhi. 

2. N. D. Kapoor - Business Law, Sultanchand & Sons, New Delhi. 

3. Prof. S. N. Kulkarni - Laws Regulating Business 

Diamond Publication, Pune. 

4. Dr. Manmohan Prasad - Principles of Business Law and Management 

Himalaya Publishing House. 

5. ~r. S>r. Omoer - ì`mnma{df`H$ Am{U Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$m`Xo 

AZ_mob àH$meZ, nwUo. 

6. http/wwwanswers.com/topic/contracts-legal. 

7. www.expertlaw.com.Expert law library. 

61 

��

C{Ôï>o : 



OwÝ`m nwñVH$mVrc KQ>H$-8 Z{dZ Aä`mgH«$_mà_mUo KQ>H$-4 _Yrc CnKQ>H$ 

1. ì`mnmar {MÝh (Trade marks) 

2. {deof h¸$ (Patents) 

3. _wÐZ h¸$ (Copyrights) 

KQ>H$ H«$. 4 

~m¡{ÕH$ g§nXm h¸$ 

(Intellectual Property Rights) 

4. aMZoMr Zm|XUr (Registration of Designs) 

(\$ŠV g§H$ënZm§Mm Aä`mg) 

1. ~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXm h¸$mer g§~§{YV _wb^yV g§H$ënZm§Mo AmH$bZ hmoUo. 

2. ~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXm h¸$m{df`rÀ`m H$m`Úm~m~V Om{Udm {Z_m©U H$aUo. 

àñVmdZm : 

~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXm h¸$ ho _mZdr _ZmÀ`m {Z{_©V JmoîQ>rMo H$m`Xo{ea h¸$ hmoV. ~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXm nwT>rb Jmoï>tMm 

{ZX}e H$aVo. 

emoY, Am¡Úmo{JH$ CËnm{XV dñVyMr aMZm, gm{hË`rH$ d H$bmË_H$ H¥$Vr, à{VHo$ BË`mXr Á`m§Mm ì`mnmaì`dgm`mV 

dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. 

~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXm hr g§km H$m`ÚmMo gd©gmYmaU joÌ {ZX}{eV H$aVo. `m_Üò ì`mnmar {MÝh (Trademark), 

{deof h¸$ (Patents), _wÐZ h¸$ (Copyrights), aMZm (Designs) d g§~§{YV h¸$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXo~m~VMm H$m`Xm hm _mZ{gH$ qH$dm g¥OZmË_H$ l_mVyZ {Z_m©U Pmboë`m g§nÎmrMm dmna d 

{d{Z`moJ {Z`§{ÌV H$aVmo. hm H$m`Xm H$ënZm, emoY, {MÝho BË`mXr ñdê$nmÀ`m AÑí` g§nÎmrMo g§ajU H$aVmo. 

~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXm hr XmoZ àH$maÀ`m àdJm©V {d^mJVm òVo - 

1) Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§nÎmr : `m_Üò emoY, {deof h¸$, ì`mnmar {MÝho, Am¡Úmo{JH$ aMZm, ñÌmoVm§Mo 

^m¡Jmo{bH$ _mJ© BË`mXtMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

62

2) _wÐZ h¸$ : `m_Üò gm{hpË`H$ Am{U H$bmË_H$ H¥$VtMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. CXm. H$mX§~è`m, H${dVm, 

ZmQ>Ho$, {MÌnQ> Am{U g§{JVaMZm BË`mXr. 

~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXoMo g_W©Z (Justification) : 

gwadmVrbm Agm àý CnpñWV hmoVmo H$s, ~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXoÀ`m H$m`Xo{ea g§ajUmMr Amdí`H$Vm Amho H$m? 

`mMo gd©gmYmaU g_W©Z Ago H$aVm òB©b H$s ~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXm h¸$m§À`m gwa{jVVo_wio `mo½` Ë`m dV©Zw{H$bm 

àmoËgmhZ {_iob. 

CXm. {deofh¸$ (Patents) ì`dñWoMo Ago g_W©Z Ho$bo OmVo H$s `m_wio g§emoYH$ Ë`mMoH$S>rb _m¡ë`dmZ 

Vm§{ÌH$ _m{hVrMr BVam§er XodmUKodmU H$ê$ eH$Vmo. Oa ~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXoÀ`m h¸$m§À`m gwa{jVVoMm H$m`Xm ZgVm 

Va ho eŠ` Pmbo ZgVo. 

~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXoMo Am§Vaamï´>r` KQ>H$ : 

ì`mnma d dm{UÁ`mÀ`m OmJ{V{H$H$aUm_wio ~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXoÀ`m {dñVmamdaVr àM§S> à^md nS>bm Amho. 

nwT>rb Am§Vaamï´>r` g§ñWm ~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXoer àË`jnUo {ZJS>rV AmhoV. 

1) {X n°[ag H$Z²ìhoÝeZ \$m°a X àmoQ>oŠeZ Am°\$ B§S>pñQ´>`b àm°nQ>u, 1967. 

2) {X ~Z© H$Z²ìhoÝeZ \$m°a X àmoQ>oŠeZ Am°\$ {bQ>aar A°ÝS> Am{Q>©pñQ>H$ dŠg©, 1971. 

3) {X amo_ H$Z²ìhoÝeZ \$m°a X àmoQ>oŠeZ Am°\$ na\$m°_©g©², àmoS>çygg©² Am°\$ \$moZmoJ«°åg A°ÝS> ~«m°S>H$mñQtJ 

Am°aJZm`PoeÝg, 1961. 

4) {X Q´>rQ>r Am°Z BQ>boŠÀ`wAb àm°nQ>u BZ [añnoŠQ> Am°\$ B§{Q>J«oQ>oS> g{H©$Q>g² BZ² A°Q> dm°qe½Q>Z S>r gr Am°Z 

_o, 26, 1989. 

5) {OZrìhm H$Z²ìhoeZ Am°Z àmoQ>oŠeZ Am°\$ Ý`y âb°ÝQ> ìham`Q>rO. 

6) J°Q> A°ÝS> S>ãë`y. Q>r. Amo. A°J«r_|Q> BÝH$ë`yqS>J {Q´>n²g A°{J«_|Q>. 

7) H$ZìhoÝeZ BñQ>m°pãbqeJ dëS>© B§Q>boŠÀ`yAb n«m°nQ>u Am°aJZm`PoeZ (WIPO) 

8) noQ>oÝQ> H$moAm°naoeZ {Q´>EQ>r (PCT) 

9) ~wS>m noñQ> {Q´>EQ>r. 

darb gd© H$ama / g§ñWm `m {d{dY joÌmVrb ~m¡ÕrH$ g§nXm h¸$mMm AdH$me {Z{üV H$aVmV. ^maV 

hm Aem Am§Vaamï´>r`ñVamdarb ~hþVoH$ g§ñWm§Mm gXñ` Amho. 

1. ì`mnmar {MÝh H$m`Xm - 1999 (Trademark Act 1999) : 

ì`mnmar {MÝh ho Ñî` à{VH$ qH$dm {MÝh `m ê$nmV eãXê$n Ho$bobo AgVo. 

ì`mnmar {MÝhm_Üò EH$ qH$dm Ë`mnojm A{YH$ R>iH$ eãX, Ajao, g§ñWm, aoImQ>Zo, {MÌo, à{VHo$, a§J 

qH$dm BVa àH$maÀ`m {deof gmXarH$aU V§Ìm§Mm dñVyÀ`m Om{hamVrgmR>r dmna Ho$bobm AgVmo. 

63

ì`mnmar {MÝh hr EH$ dm{UÁ` {df`H$ g§nÎmr Amho {OMm dmna CÚmoJì`dgm`H$ dm{UÁ`{df`H$ 

H$maUmgmR>r H$aVmV. ì`mnmar {MÝhm_wio _mbH$mbm Ë`m {MÝhmÀ`m gdªH$f dmnam~m~V {Za§Va h¸$ {_iVmo. 

ì`mnmar {MÝhmMr Zm|XUr Ho$ë`m_wio ì`mdgm{`H$mbm Ë`m {MÝhmÀ`m dmnam~m~VMm gd©ñdr h¸$ àmá 

hmoVmo. ì`mnmar {MÝhmÀ`m H$m`ÚmMm hoVy hm Ë`m {MÝhm~m~V Zm|XUr CnbãY H$ê$Z XoUo, {MÝhmMr gwa{jVVm 

d {MÝhmMm J¡admna amoIZo hm Amho. Oa EImÚmZo ì`mnmar {MÝhm~m~V AmH«$_U Ho$bo Va Ë`m~m~V _yi ì`mnmar 

{MÝhmMm _mbH$ Amnë`m {MÝhmÀ`m gwa{jVVo~m~V Ý`m` _mJy eH$Vmo. hm H$m`Xm ì`mnmar {MÝhmÀ`m 

_mbH$mbm nwT>rb ê$nmV _XV H$aVmo - 

(A) H$moQ>m©Mm _ZmB© H$aUmam AmXoe. 

(~) ZwH$gmZânmB© 

(H$) Zâ`mMo ImVo. 

gXaMm H$m`Xm nwT>rb énm_Üò X§S>mMrgwÕm VaVyX H$aVmo - 

(A) AQ>H$ H$aUo 

(~) ì`mnmar {MÝhmVrb N>oS>N>mS>r~m~V X§S> H$aUo. 

2. {deof h¸$ (noQ>§ÝQ>) H$m`Xm - 1970 (The Patents Act 1970) : 

{deofh¸$ Aem ì`{ŠVbm {Xbm OmVmo H$s Á`m ì`{ŠVZo Zì`m d Cn`wŠV dñVy§Mr {Z{_©Vr Ho$bobr Amho 

qH$dm ApñVËdmV Agboë`m dñVy_Üò _hÎdnyU© gwYmaUm Ho$bobr Amho qH$dm dñVyÀ`m {Z{_©VrMr Zdr à{H«$`m 

V`ma Ho$br Amho. 

{deof h¸$m_Üò {Z_m©Ë`mbm Ë`mÀ`m aMZoà_mUo Z{dZ dñVy CËnm{XV H$aÊ`mMm h¸$ amhVmo. {deofh¸$YmaH$ 

ì`{ŠV Amnbo {deofh¸$ Xwgè`mbm {dHy$ eH$Vo. Ë`mMà_mUo {deofh¸$ dmnam~m~VMo h¸$ àXmZ H$ê$ 

eH$Vo. {deofh¸$ ì`dñWm `m H$maUm§Zr g_W©{Z` ~ZVo H$maU Ë`m_wio Zì`m V§ÌkmZmMm d CÚmoJmMm dmna 

dmT>rg bmJVmo. 

`m H$m`ÚmMr C{Ôï>o nwT>rbà_mUo AmhoV - 

(A) {deof h¸$m§Mo g§ajU H$aUo. 

(~) {deof h¸$m§er {ZJS>rV g_mOmÀ`m {hVm§Mo ajU H$aUo. 

`m H$m`Úm_Üò 2002 gmbr XwéñVr H$aÊ`mV Ambobr Amho. `m XwéñV H$m`ÚmVrb H$b_ 48 à_mUo 

{deofh¸$YmaH$mMr _mÝ`Vm Zgboë`m H$moUË`mhr ì`{ŠVbm {deofh¸$mMm dmna, Ë`mMr IaoXr qH$dm {dH«$s 

qH$dm hñVm§VaU H$aÊ`mnmgyZ _ZmB© H$aÊ`mV Ambobr Amho. 

gw{à_H$moQ>m©Zo Ago _V Zm|Xdbobo Amho H$s, {deofh¸$ H$m`ÚmMm hoVy hm emñÌr` g§emoYZ, Zdo V§ÌkmZ 

64

d Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mgmgmR>r àmoËgmhZ XoUmam Amho. 

3. _wÐU h¸$ H$m`Xm - 1957 (Copyright Act 1957) : 

_wÐZh¸$mZwgma EImÚm ì`{ŠVbm qH$dm Ë`mZo A{YH$ma {Xboë`m ì`{ŠVbm nwT>rb Jmoï>tÀ`m ~m~VrV h¸$ 

àmá hmoVmo - 

(A) gm{hpË`H$, ZmQ>ç, g§{JV qH$dm H$bm{df`H$ H¥$Vr 

(~) {MÌnQ>{Z{_©Vr 

(H$) ÜdZr_wÐU. 

_wbV: _wÐZh¸$ åhUOo {d{eï> eãX / g§{hVm `m§À`m nwZ:{Z©{_©VrMm h¸$ hmo`. 

_wÐZh¸$ H$m`ÚmMm hoVy hm boIH$mZm, g§{JV aMZm V`ma H$aUmè`m§Zm d BVa àH$maMr Zd-{Z{_©Vr 

H$aUmè`m§Zm Ë`m§Mr {Z{_©Vr _mZYZmg{hV Xwgè`mbm dmnê$ XoÊ`mÀ`m h¸$m§Mo g_W©Z H$aVo. 

^maVmZo J°Q>H$amamda ghr Ho$ë`mZ§Va Vmo OmJ{VH$ ~mOmanoR>r` AW©ì`dñWoMm ^mJ ~Zbm Amho. Ë`mZ§Va 

1957 À`m _wÐZh¸$ H$m`Úm_Üò 1994 gmbr XwéñVr H$aÊ`mV Ambr. gÜ`m hm XwéñV H$m`Xm AZoH$ Xoem§Vrb 

_wÐZh¸$ H$m`Úm§er gwg§JV Agm Amho. 

Vm§{ÌH$ n«JVr_wio nwZ:a_wÐZ ghO d ñdñV Pmbo Amho. na§Vw Ë`mM~amo~a AZ{YH¥$V nwZ:a_wÐZ àM§S> 

à_mUmV dmT>bo Amho, Á`mMo {Z`§ÌU H$aUo AdKS> Pmbo Amho. Ë`m_wio AZoH$ amï´>m§Zr EH${ÌV òdyZ `m~m~VMo 

H$m`Xo Ho$bobo AmhoV. 

CXm. X ~Z© H$ÝhoÝeZ d `w{Zìhg©b H$m°nr amB©Q>g² H$ÝhoÝeZ. 

^maV hm `m XmoÝhr H$amam§Mm gXñ` Amho. 

4. Am¡Úmo{JH$ aMZm Zm|XUr H$m`Xm - (Registration of Industrial Designs Act - 2000) : 

Under section 2 (d) of the Designs Act, "The 'Design' means only the features of shape,[ 

configuration, patterns, ornaments or compositioin of lines or colurs applied to any article whether 

in two dimensional or three dimensional or in both forms, by any industrial process or means, 

whether manual, mechanical or chemical, separate or combined, which in the finished article 

appeal to and are judged solely by the eye; but does not include any mode or principle of 

construction or anything which is in substance a mere mechanical device, and does not include 

any trademark or property mark or any artistic work." 

darb ì`m»òà_mUo Am¡Úmo{JH$ aMZoMr ghm d¡{eï>ço amhVmV, Vr nwT>rbà_mUo - 

(A) AmH$ma (Shape) 

(~) g§JUH$s` àUmbrMr OwiUr (Configuration) 

65

(H$) gmMo~ÕVm (Pattern) 

(S>) Amb§H$H$m[aH$ H$bmHw$ga / Xm{JZo (Ornaments) 

(B) aofm§Mr ~m§YUr (Composition of lines) 

(\$) a§Jg§JVr (Colours) 

AmH$ma (Shape) d g§JZ{H$` OwiUr (Configuration) `m g§km dñVyÀ`m AmH$mamMm {ZX}e H$aVmV. ho 

AmH$ma gmYmaUV: {Ì{_Vr` ñdê$nmMo amhVmV. 

gmMo~ÕVm (Pattern) Am{U Amb§H$m[aH$ H$bmHw$ga (Ornaments) `m g§km `m dñVyÀ`m n¥ð>^mJr` 

H$bmHw$g[aer {ZJS>rV amhVmV. ho KQ>H$ {Û{_Vr` ñdê$nmMo amhVmV. 

aofm§Mr ~m§YUr (Composition of lines) d a§Jg§JVr (Colours) `m g§km dñVyÀ`m n¥ð>^mJmer g§~§{YV 

amhVmV. 

66 

��

1.0 Objectives 

1.1 Introduction 

B. Com. Part-III : Business Regulatory Frame Work 



1.2 Presentation of Subject Matter 

1.2.1 Definition of Law 

Unit-1 

The Indian Contract Act - Concepts 

1.2.2 Concept of Business Law and its sources 

1.2.3 Law of Contract 

1.2.4 Essentials of a valid contract 

1.2.5 Performance of Contract 

1.2.6 Discharge of Contract 

1.2.7 Remedies for Breach of Contract 

1.3 Exercises 

1.4 Books for further Readings 

1.0 Objectives : 

After the study of this unit, the students will be able to understand - 

� What is definition of Law. 

� Concept of Business Law and its sources. 

� What is Law of Contract. 

� Essential Elements of valid contract. 

� Performance of Contract. 

� Discharge of Contract. 

� Remedies for Breach of Contract. 

67


Man is a special animal and as such he comes into contract with different people from 

morning till night and in different capacities for instances with newspaper dealer, milkman, 

transport company,as a tax payer, customes, etc. These contacts and many more are not available, 

he has to face them everyday. Therefere in dealing with all these people he is expected to 

observe a code of conduct or has to work within the set of rules prescribed by the government. 

The object is simply to form a welfare state. 

With the growth of society if behaviours of people change from person to person and it 

becomes difficult to control the. Therefore there are common set of rules, principles which are 

to be followed by all the people and according act within that framework. If they disobey these 

rules there will be punishment by the government. These set of rules is formed as Law. 


1.2.1 What is Law? : 

The word Law is a general term and has different meaning to different people viz :- 

1. A citizen may think law as set of rule. 

2. A legislator may think as law created by him. 

3. To a lawyer law may be his prefession. 

Definition of Law : 

authority." 

Holland : "Law is a rule of external human action enforced by the sovereign political 

Salmend : "Law is the body of principles recognised and applied by the state in the 

administrration of justice." 

Austin : "Law is a rule of conduct imposed and enfered by the sovereign. 

1.2.2 Concept of Business Law and Its Sources : 

"Business" means the creation of goods and their distributions or the provision of allied 

service with the purpose of obtaining profit. It includes manufacturing of goods, providing 

services, trading etc. Business plays a very significant role in the development of an economy. 

The business has however to be carried out in a certain framework which includes social, 

economical, political, legal etec. The legal enverionment of business is framed by the government 

to safeguard its interest. From the installation to any unit till its working business needs the help 

of Law and therefore law and business are closely related. 

68

The term 'Business Law' may be defined as that branch of law which has law concerning 

trade, industry and commerce. The term 'Business Law' is used to denote that branch of law 

which is concerned with these matters, which deal with business transactions i. e. contractual 

situations and the rights and obligations that arise out of business transactions. Therefore the 

term business law is also used to denote the aggregate body of those legal rules which are 

connected with trade, industry and commerce. 

Sources of Business Law : 

Before the enactments of various Acts relating to business transactions all the activities 

or transactions in the business were regulated by the personal law of the parties to the contract. 

e.g. :- Hindus were governed by the Hindu Law, the Muslims were governed by 

Mohammadaon Law. If one party was hindu and the others Muslim the personal law of the 

defendant applied. If both hindu and muslim law were not having any provision of law on any 

point then the court took the help of English law. 

Gradually it was felt necessary to frame laws for all business transactions. But before 

these laws were framed like the Indian Contract Act 1872, The sale of Goods Act 1930, The 

Indian Partnership 1932, The Insurance Act 1938, The Arbitration Act 1940 we need to study 

the sources of the business law. 

Sources of Business Law 

English Statutory Judicial Customs 

Mercantile Law Laws Decisions and usages 

Common Law Equity Law Merchant or Roman law 

I. English Mercantile Law : 

a previous case is followed in the next case. 

69 

Maritime usages 

The Indian Mercantile Law is mostly based on the English Mercantile law. It is one of the 

most important source of Indian Mercantile law. The English law follows the principle of "justice, 

equity and good conscience" Even today if there is no specifie provision of law the court takes 

help of the English Mercantile law. The sources of English Mercantile law are :- 

a. Common law : This law is based on English customs, usages and traditions which 

were developed over conturies by English courts. The law is not written but decision given in

. Equity : Eauity are the judgements given by the judges and which become precedents. 

The precedents become Law of Equity. It is also unwritten law and developed seperately from 

common law. 

c. Law Merchant : It is that branch of law which was based on customs and usages. 

Which prevailed among the merchants. It was developed during the 14 th and 15 th century. The 

customs follwed by the merchants gradually become law of Merchants. 

d. Roman Law : Roman law was taken help of when the customs and usages failed to 

provide solutions to a particular case. 

II. Statutory Laws : 

When a 'bill' is passed by the parliament and signed by the president it becames an 'Act' 

or a 'Statute Law'. Most of the business Law is a Statutory Law e.g :- The Indian Contract Act 

1872, The Negotiable Instrument Act 1881, The sale of Good Act 1930, The Indian Partnership 

Act 1932, The Companies Act 1956 etc. 

III. Judicial Decisions : 

Judical decisions means decisions given in a particular case in the past are again followed 

in the next similar case that comes before the court. Such Judical decisions later on become 

law. These decisions introduce the principle of justice, equity and good conscience. 

IV. Customs and Usages : 

Custom means any tradition followed for ages without interruption by the society. Customs 

gradually develop into law. It is one of the important source of business law. In order to become 

law a custom must be ancient, reasonable, certain, definiete, consistent. When custom is accepted 

by the court it becomes the guiding principle of law. 

1.2.3 Law of Contract : 

Law of Contract is one of the most important law which is applicable not only to the 

business community but also to others. Everyone of us enter into a number of contracts almost 

everyday and most of the time we do so without even reading that we are doing it from point of 

contract act. 

e.g. :- when we give our car for repairs, we travel by bus, buy milk, go to movie go to hotel 

and eat something we are entering into a contract. 

Law of contract not only creates a legal relationship between porsons but also provides a 

basis for other branches of Law. e. g ;- Law of sale of goods, Partnership, Insurance, Negotiable 

Instruments are all based upon the Contract Act. That is why as a commerce study it is important 

to study the laws of contract. 

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The Indian Contract Act 1872. The Law of contract in India is contained in the Indian 

Contract Act 1872. This Act is mainly based on the English Common Law. It extends to the 

whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir and came into force on 1 st September 

1872. 

Initally the Act contained sections 1 to 266 now it contains 

Sections 1 - 75 as General Principle of Contract 

Sections 124 - 238 as Special Contract. 

Sections 76 to 123 are now contained in the sale of Goods Act 1930. Similarly Sections 

239 to 266 are repealed and now contained in The Indian Partnership Act 1932. 

Definition of Contract : 

According to Section 2 (h) 

"Contract is an agreement enforceable at Law." 

Pollock : Every agreement and promise enforceable at law is a Contract. 

Anson : Contract is a legally binding agreement between two or more persons by which 

rights are acquired by one or more to acts or forbearances (abstaining from doing something) 

"On the part of the others." 

parties. 

u 

Salmond : A contract is an agreement creating and defining obligations between the 

If we analyse the definition of contract it contains two elements. 

(a) An Agreement 

(b) Enforceability of Law 

An Agreement as defined in Section 2(e) of Indian Contract Act means :- 

"Every promise and every set of promise, forming consideration for each other." 

Therefore again the concept of promise needs to be defined. 

'Promise' is thus defined as "When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his 

assent thereto the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal when accepted becomes a 

promise." - Sec. [ 2 (b)]. 

u 

Therefore, to sum up we may put it in an equation :- 

Offer + Acceptance = Agreement 

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Agreement + Legal Enforceability = Contract. 

The agreements are of two kinds :- 

(1) Social / Moral Agreements and 

(2) Legal agreements. 

e.g :- 'A' invites his friend 'B' for dinner or 'A' invites 'B' for a marriage ceremony here if 

'B' fails to attend then 'A' cannot bring a suit against 'B' because the agreements are of social 

nature. 

But if a legal agreement is broken a person can file a suit. 

1.2.4 Essentials of a valid contract : 

A contract is said to be vaild when it fulfills all the requirements enumarated under sec. 10 

oa Indian Contract Act. Valid means a legal contract which can be enforced in a court of law. 

According to section 10 of Indian Contract Act :- 

"All agreements are contracts, if they are made by free consent of the parties, competent 

to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object and are not expressely declared 

to be void." 

From the above definition we can gather the following essentials of a valid contract :- 

1. Offer and Acceptance 

2. Legal Relationship 

3. Lawful consideration 

4. Free consent 

5. Competent parties 

6. Lawful object 

7. Agreements not declared to be void 

8. Certainty of meaning 

9. Possibility of performance 

10. Legal formalities 

1. Offer and Acceptance : 

There must be two parties to on agreement i. e. one party making the offer and the other 

party accepting it. The term offer may be defined as "When a person signifies his willingness to 

do or to obstain from doing. Somethin, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such 

act or obstinence." 

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e.g. :- A says to B, "Will you purchase my car for Rs. 50,000?" is an offer. The person 

making the offer is known as the offeror, proposer or promisor and the pesson to whom it is 

made is called the offeree or promisee. When the offeree accepts the offer, he is called the 

acceptor or promisee. 

Acceptance means when the offeree signifies his assent to the offer, the offer is said to 

be accepted. 

The offer must be definite and the acceptance of the offer must be absolute and 

unconditional. The acceptance may be express or implied but must be according to the mode 

prescribed and must be communicated to the offeror. 

2. Legal Relationship : 

A relationship between a person may be either social or legal. When two parties enter into 

agreement their intention must be to create a legal relationship between them. An agreement to 

have lunch at a friend's house is not an agreement to create legal relation and therefore not a 

contract. Also if 'A' promises his wife 'B' to get her a saree if she sings a song. 'B' sings a song 

'A' does not bring her a saree 'B' cannot bring a case against 'A'. 

3. Lawful Consideration : 

The third essential element of a contract is that there must be consideration "Consideration" 

in simple term means "Something in return". The agreement is legally enforeceable only when 

both the parties give something and other gets something in return. 

According to section 2(d) of Indian contract Act Consideration means :- 

"When at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or obstained 

from doing or does or obstains from doing or promises to do or obstain from doing something, 

such act or abstinance or promise is called a consideration." 

e.g. :- 'A' sells his car for Rs. 50,000/- to 'B', here Rs. 50,000/- is consideration received 

by and A the car by 'B'. 

However there are certain rules for consideration they are :- 

1. It must move at the desire of the promisor. 

2. It may move from promisee or any other person. 

3. It may be past present or future. 

4. It need not be adequate. 

5. It must be real. 

6. It must not be illegal, immoral or opposed to public policy. 

7. It must be a promise to do something or abstain from doing something. 

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4. Free Consent : 

It is the essential of every contract that the consent must be free. A consent is said to be 

free when it is not caused by coercion, undueinfluence, fraud, misrepresentation and mistake. 

[Sep. 14]. According to Sec. 13. Consent means "Two or more persons are said to consent, 

when they agree upon the same thing in the same sense." Therefore all the above mentioned 

five elements should not be present when a person is giving his assent to a particular offer. If 

any one of the above element is present then the contract becomes viodable at the option of 

other party. Therefore, it is ncecssary to explain the above elements in brief :- 

(a) Coercion : Coercion means compelling a person to enter into agreement either by 

applying force or fear to body or property. 

Thus coertion is the committing or threatening to committ any act which is Forbidden by 

Indian Penal Code (I.P.C) In Ranganayakamma V Alwar Shetty :- 

A young girl of 13 years lost her husband and her husbands relations refused to hand over 

her husband's dead body for funeral unless she adopted a boy of her choice. It was held the 

adoption was forced one and hence not binding on her. 

(b) Undue-Influence : Sometimes when a special relationship exists between persons, a 

person is compelled to enter into a contract against his will. Thus a person may take an unfair 

advantage of his position to dominate the will of another person thereby causing him to enter 

into an agreement. This is undueinfluence. 

The concept of unduce-influence is defined in section 16 of Indian Contract Act. In order 

to excercise this undueinfluence 

a) a person must stand in a fiduciary relation i. e. relation of trust and confidence. e.g.:father 

and son, doctor and patient etc. 

b) a person must hold real or apperant outhority eg. :- master and servant, police and 

accused etc. 

e.g. :- 'A' the father advanced money to 'B' his son when he was minor. On attaining 

majority 'A' by misure of parental influence excuted a bond of greater amount. 

(c) Fraud : According to section 17 of Indian Contract Act fraud means the active 

concealment or hidding of a fact, known to be false and thereby causing another person to 

enter into a contract. In fraud there must be active concealment i. e. purposly a fact must be 

hidden. 

e.g. :- Where a man and a women went through a ceremony of marriage. The man know 

that there was no real intention on his part to regard it as real marriage, It was held that the 

consent of wife was obtained by fraud and the marriage was just a pretendance. 

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(d) Mirpresentation : A false statement may be made by a person either wilfully or 

innocently. When a statement is made by a person without an intention to deceive the other 

party it is called misrepresentation. However if it made purposly to deceive then it is fraud. 

For eg. : (i) In Babul V R. A. Singh : A told his wife in front of their daughter that the 

bridegroom proposed for her was a young man. The bridegroom, however was over 60 yrs. 

The daughter gave her consent to marry him believing that statement of her father. Held the 

consent of the daughter was obtained by misrepresentation. 

(ii) 'A' innocently in good faith tells 'B' that his T.V. set is made in Japan. 'B' thereupon 

buys the T.V. set. However it comes out to be an Indian make. 'A' is guilty of currepresentation. 

(e) Mistake : Mistake may be defined as an erroneous belief about something and there 

may be a misunderstanding between the parties. 

Mistakes are of 2 kinds : 

i) Mistake of fact, ii) Mistake of Law. 

i) Mistake of fact : Mistake of fact may be either bilateral mistake or unilateral mistake. 

Bilateral means when both the parties are under mistake and unilateral means only when one 

party is under mistake. 

If it is a mistake of fact the contract is void. However the following conditions must be 

fulfilled for ground of mistake : 

(i) There must be a mistake as to formation of a contract. 

(ii) Mistake must be of both the parties. 

(iii) It must be in respect of matter important to contract. 

(iv) It must be mistake of fact and not mistake of Law. 

ii) Mistake of Law : "Ignoriantia juris non-exusat" it means ignorance of Law is not an 

excuse. Every person must known what is the law of his land. 

However mistake as to foreign law as the same effect as the mistake of fact and the 

contract can be avoided due to such a mistakee. 

e.g. A agree to buy a horse from 'B'. It is found that the horse was dead at the time of 

bargain, both the parties were unaware of this fact. Thus this agreement is under mistake. 

5. Competent Parties : 

The parties who enter into a contract must have the capacity to do so. "Capacity" here 

means competence of the parties to enter into a valid contract. 

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According to section 10 an agreement becomes a contract if it is entered into between the 

parties who are competent to contract. 

According to section 11 of Indian Contract Act. 

"Every person is competent to contract who 

a. is of the age of majerity [i. e. completed the age of 18 years]. According to the law to 

which he is subject. 

b. is of sound mind. ie. he should not be idiot, lunatic or a drunkard. 

c. and is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject. 

6. Lawful Object : 

One of the essential of a valid contract is that the object of agreement must be lawful. 

Both the consideration and object of an agreement must be lawful otherwise the contract 

becomes void. 

According to section 23 of Indian contract Act, an agreement of which the object or 

consideration is unlowful is void. 

Object means the purpose or design in some cases, consideration may be lawful but the 

purpose of agreement may be unlawful then contract is void. 

objects. 

e.g. :- Paying bribe to get work done, money paid to smuggle goods etc. are all unlawful 

Also the object or consideration of an agreement are unlawful in following cases : 

i. If it is forbidden by law. 

ii. If it defeats the provisions of law. 

iii. If it is fraudulent. 

iv. If it involves or implies injury to the person or property of another. 

v. If court regards it immoral. 

vi. If court regards it a opposed to public policy. 

7. Agreements not declared to be void : 

An agreement must not be declared to be void. A void agreement is one which cannot be 

enforceable at law [sec. 2(g)] i. e. against which no suit can be filed in any court. Therefore if 

an agreement possess all the requirements of a valid contract it must however not be declarred 

to be void. 

Following agreements are declared to be void under the contract act :- 

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a) Agreement by incompetent parties. 

b) Agreements made under mutual mistake. 

c) Agreements the consideration or object is unlawful. 

d) Agreement without conisederation. 

e) Agreement in restraint of marraiges. 

f) Agreement in restraint of trade. 

g) Agreement in restraint of legal proceedings. 

h) Agreement by way of wager. 

i) Contingent agreement. 

j) Agreement to do impossible acts. 

k) Agreement in restraint of legal proceedings. 

8. Certainty of meaning : 

The agreement must be certain and not vague or indefinite (Sec. 29). If it is vague and it 

is not possible to asertin its meaning it cannot be enforced. 

e.g. : 'A' agrees to sell 100 kgs. of oil to 'B' but what kind of oil is not mentioned. The 

agreement is void. 

9. Possibility of performance : 

According to Sec. 56 of Contract Act "an agreement to do an impossibel act is void." For 

a lowful contract the conditions must be capable of performance. 

e.g. :- An agreement to draw parallel lines and pay Rs. 1000/- if they meet is impossible 

also agreement to pay Rs. 5000/- if a person puts life in a dead man are all impossible acts. 

10. Legal Formalities : 

A contract may be made by words spoken or written. It is not compulsory whether 

agreement should be written or oral. But in the interest of parties it is in writing and stamped. 

Also some documents are signed in front of witnesses and are registered. 

1.2.5 Performance of Contract : 

What is performance of Contract ? 

When a party makes an offer and the other party agrees to perform according to offer 

there is an agreement. When all the essentials mentioned in section 10 of Indian Contract Act 

are fullfilled a contract is formed and here the first step in the formation of a contract comes to 

an end. Then the second step comes into existence and i. e. performance of contract. 

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According to section 37 of the Contract Act "Performance of Contract" means fulfilling 

of the legal obligations created under the contract by both the promisor and promisee." 

The parties to contract must either perform or offer to perform their respective promises 

unless such performance is dispensed with or excused under the provisions of this act or of any 

other law. 

Therefore when a contract is duly performed by both the parties. The contract comes to 

a happy ending and nothing more remains. 

2. Types of performance : 

There are two ways in which a contract may be performed. 

1. Actual performance. 

2. Attempted performance. 

1. Actual performance : When a party to the contract does what he has promised to do 

in the contract it is called actual performance. 

e.g. : 'A' agrees to buy 100 kg of wheat from 'B'. 'B' sends the wheat and 'A' pays the 

price. Both the parties have performed their part it is called actual performance. 

2. Attempted performance : When a party to the contract offers his pefrormance but 

the other party does not accept, it is called attempted performance or Tender as to performance. 

e.g. :- A agrees to buy 100 kgs of wheat from B. B. sends the wheat but A does not 

accept and pay for them this is called attempted performance on part of 'B' or tender of 

peformance. 

fulfilled. 

In order to be a valid tender or attempted pefrormance following requirements must be 

(i) It must be unconditional 

(ii) It must be of the whole quantity of the goods contracted. 

(iii) It must be at a proper time and place. 

(iv) It must be by a proper person. 

(v) It must be to a proper form. 

(vi) If there are more than one promises, offer or tender may be made to any one of the 

joint promisee. 

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(vii) In case of tender of goods a reasonable opportunity must be given to the promisee to 

inspect the goods. 

(viii) The party Tendering the performance must be ready and willing to fulfill the obligation. 

3. Performance : By whom? 

The contract may be performed by any of the following persons :- 

1) Promisor : If the contract requires some personal skill or diligence of the promisor like 

contract to marry, paint a picture, sing, dance then it must be performed by the promisor himself. 

Also according to sec 40, if there is something in the contract to show that it was the intention 

of the parties that the promise should be performed by the promisor himself such promise must 

be performed by promisor. 

2) Agent : If no personal skill is required that the act may be done by any person appointed 

by the promisor or promisee. Such a person is called an agent and his acts will be binding on the 

person appointing him. 

3) Legal Representatives : An act which requires personal skill of a person like dance 

or singing such a contract dies with the person. i. e. "Actio personalis moritur cum persona". 

i. e. personal action dies on the death of the promisor. But in all other contracts the legal 

representatives of such a person can be made liable. 

e.g. :- A contracts to delives goods to 'B' on 1 st of June for Rs. 1000/-. 'A' dies before 1 st 

june. The contract should be performed by legal representatives of A and B should pay Rs. 

1000/- to representatives of A. 

4) Third person : According to section 41 if the promisee accepts performance of 

promise from a third person, then afterwards he cannot enforce it against the promisor. 

5) Joint Promisor : When two ar more persons make a joint promise, they are known as 

joint promisors. 

If there is no specific contract than all joint promisors must jointly fulfil the promise. If all 

or any one of the joint promisor dies the legal representatives of all of them or any one of them 

as the case may be must fulfil the obligations. 

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4. Liabilities of Joint Promisors : 

Possibility who is liable 

1) When two or more persons make All are equally liable 

joint promise. 

2) If there is death of any one joint The legal representatives of dead 

promisor. promisor 

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+ 

Surviving joint promisors liable. 

3) If all original promisors die and work Legal representatives of all joint 

does not require personal skill promisors are liable 

4) If all original promisors die and work Nobody is liable. Contract comes to an 

requires personal skill end on death of promisors. 

5) If one joint promisor makes a All the remaining joint promisors must 

default share the loss equally. Later the 

promisors who contributed for loss may 

bring suit against joint promisor who 

made default. 

6) If one joint promisor becomes All remaining joint promisors may be 

insolvent made liable. 

7) If one joint promisor is compelled He may compell the other joint 

to pay the debts of all other joint promisors to contribute equally. 

promisors.

5. Time and Place of Performance : 

The parties to the contract must decided the time and place of performance of contract. 

However the rules regarding it are laid down in section 46 to 50 of the Act. They are as follows:- 

1) If no time specified within reasonable time - sec.46 : When the time at which the 

contract is to be peformed is not specified the contract must be performed within a reasonable 

time. 

2) When time is specified - sec. 47: If the time is specified as to on which day the 

contract is to be peformed it must be performed during the business hours and the place decided 

by the parties. 

3) Performance on a Section day and place - sec. 48 : If the promise is to be performed 

on a certain day at a certain place the promisee may make an application to perform the 

contract during business hours at place decided earlier. 

4) Promisor to make application if time is not fixed - sec. 49 : If the place is not 

fixed by the parties then it is the duty of the promisor to make an application to the promisee to 

fix a date and time to perform the contract. 

5) Manner of performance - sec. 50 : The performance of any promise may be made 

in any manner. or at any time which the promisee preserbes. 

e.g. : 'A' owes Rs. 2000/- to B. B. inistead of cash accepts some goods of A. The delivery 

of goods operates as performance of contract. 

1.2.6 Discharge of Contract : 

1. Meaning : 

Discharge means termination of the contractual relationship between the parties. When 

the rights and obligations of the parties comes to an end it is termed as discharge of contract. 

"Eodem mado quo quid constitutus, eodem mode destruitur." Which means "a thing may 

be destroyed in the same manner in which it is constituted." 

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2. Methods of Discharge of Contract (ways) : 

By Performance By agreement By lapse of By operation By breach By imposibility 

Actual Attempted 

Express Implied 1. Death 

time of Law of contract of performance 

a. Navation 2. Merger 

b. Rescission 3. Insolvency 

c. Alteration 4. Unauthorised 

d. Remission alteration of 

e. waiver terms of contract 

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Actual Anticipatory 

f. merger 1. Known to parties 

2. Unknown to parties 

3. Supervening impossibility 

OnExcuse Not on Excuse 

1. Destruction of subject matter 1. Difficulty of performance 

2. Non Existence of state of thing 2. Commercial impossibility 

3. Death / Incapacity 3. Failure of third party 

4. Change of Law 4. Strike, Lock-outs 

5. Out break of war 5. Failure of one object

I) By performance : 

Performance means the doing of that according to the terms of contract. Discharge by 

performance takes place when the parties to the contract fulfill their irobligations that arise 

under the contract. In such a case the parties are discharged and the contract comes to an end. 

But if only one party performs his promise, he alone is discharged and the other party has an 

option to sue him. 

This performance may be (i) actual or attempted. 

(i) Actual Performance : When both the parties perform their promise, the contract is 

discharged. 

(ii) Attempted performance : When a party to the contract offers his performance, but 

the other party does not accept it, it is called attempted performance or tender. If the seller 

offers the goods as per the order to the buyer and if the buyer refuses to accept them it is called 

tender or attempted performance on part of seller. 

II) By Agreement : 

As already stated thing may be destroyed in the same manner in which it is constituted. 

A contract comes into existence by entering into an agreement, in the same way a contract 

may come to an end by entering into an agreement. These agreements to end the contract may be. 

a. express 

b. implied. 

i. Express agreements : are those which are expressed in words or are written and 

ii. Implied agreements : They are discussed in sections 62 and 63 of Indian contract 

Act. They are as follows :- 

(a) Novation - sec. 62 : Novation means substitution of a new contract in place of an old 

contract. In such a case the old contract comes to an end. The consideration of new contract 

is the discharge of the old contract. 

e.g. : 'A' owes money to 'B'. It is agreed between A, B & C. Theat 'B' shall henceforth 

accept 'C' as his debtor, instead of A. The old debt of A and B is at an end and a new debt of 'C' 

and 'B' takes place. 

(b) Rescission - sec. 62 : Rescission takes place when all or some of the terms of 

contract are cancelled. It may occur. 

by mutual consent of the parties or 

Where one party fails in performance of his obligation. 

e.g. : A promises to supply cartain goods to B 6 months after date. By the time the goods 

go out of fashion. A and B may rescind or cancell the contract. 

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(c) Alteration - sec. 62 : Alteration of a contract means when one or more of the terms 

of contract are altered or changed by the mutual consent of the parties to the contract. The old 

contract is discharged. 

e.g. : 'A' enters into contract with 'B' for supply of 100 beds of cotton at this godown No.1 

by first of next month. 'A' & 'B' may alter / change the terms of contract by 1st of next month. 

In Novation a new contract comes into existence in place of old one even parties may be 

new, but in alteration parties are the same only the terms of contract are changed. 

(d) Remission - sec. 63 : Remission means accepatance of a lesser amount than what 

was decided in the contract. sec. 63 allows the promisee to dispense with or remitt the performance 

of promise by the promisor or to extend time for performance or accept any other consideration 

insread of performance. 

e.g. : 'A' owes Rs. 5000 to 'B'. 'B' accepts Rs. 2000 in full satisfaction of Rs. 5000 then 

'B' connot sue 'A' for remaining Rs. 3000. 

(e) Waiver : Waiver means to "give away" or "obondon". A party to the contract may 

waive or give away his right, whereby the other party is released from his obligation. 

(f) Merger : Merger takes place when an inferior right of a party under contract is 

merged into a superior right arising between the same party to the contract. 

e.g. : 'P' holds a property as a tenant. 'P' later buys the property. His right as a tenant is 

merged as a landlord. 

III) By lapse of time : 

The Limitation Act 1963 states that a contract should be performed within a particular 

period which is called as period of limitation. If it is not performed within that period and if the 

other party also does not bring any case against him the contract comes to an end by lapse of 

time. 

IV) By operation of Law : 

A contract is discharged by operation of law in the following cases : 

(1) Death : In a contract which involves personal skill or ability, the contract is terminated 

on the death of the promisor. If the contract does not involve personal skill then the rights and 

liabilities pass on to the legal representatives. 

(2) Merger : Already explained 

(3) Insolvency : When person is declared inselvent by the court, he is discharged from 

all liabilities which arise before his declaration as insolvent 

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(4) Unauthorised alterations in terms of contract : When a party to a contract makes 

any material alteration or changes in the contract without the consent of the other party, the 

other party can terminate the contract. The alterations must be material or important to the 

contract. e.g. : Signature is forged etc. 

V) By Breach of Contract : 

Breach of contract means breaking the terms of contract. This breach occurs when any 

party fails to perform his obligations or duty. 

Breach of contract may be :- 

(a) Actual breach : This breach occurs when at the time of performance is due, one 

party fails or refuses to perform his duty. 

e. g. :- 'A' agrees to delives 5 bags of wheat on 1st January to B. 'A' fails to deliver on that 

day it is actual breach. 

(b) Anticipatory breach : It is a type of breach when a party declares his intention of not 

performing his part before the date of performance. This refusal of one party is before the date 

agreed between the parties. 

e.g. :- 'A' agrees to deliver 5 bags of wheat on 1st January to B. Before 1st January 'A' 

declares his intentiion of not sending wheat bags to B. 

breach :- 

Following rights are available to the promisee or aggrieved party in case of anticipatory 

He can treat the contract as broken and claim damages. or 

He can treat the contract as still operative and wait for the date of performance. 

VI) Discharge by Impossibility of Performance : 

It an agreement contains something to do which is impossible to perform the contract is 

void i. e. having no existence in the eyes of law. 

Impossibility may fall under any of the following catagories : 

1. Known to the parties : This is known as initial impossibility or absolute impossibility 

Here the agreement is void. 

e.g. : 'A' agrees to put life in a dead man. 

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2. Unknown to parties : When at the time of making the contract both the parties are 

ignorant about the non existence of subject matter. 

e.g. : 'A' contracts with 'B' to marry each other. Before the time fixed for marriage 'A' 

comes to know that 'B' is already married to C. which is not allowed by Law. Contract is void. 

3. Supervening impossibility : A contract is discharged by supervening impossibility 

i.e. impossibility arising subsequent to the formation of contract called as supervening impossibity 

are as follows : 

ON Excuse 

1. Destructiion of subject matter : When the subject matter of a contract is destroyed 

without any fault of the parties to the contract, subsequent to the formation of the contract, the 


e.g. : 'C' lets a music hall to 'D' for a series of concert on a certain day. The hall was 

accidetally burnt down before the date of concert. The contract is void. 

2. Non - existance of a particulars state of thing : Of there is any change in the state 

of thing which is subject matter of contract or if the state of thing does not exist on the date of 

contract the contract is void and discharged. 

e.g. : 'A' and 'B' contract to marry each other. Before the time fixed for marriage A goes 

mad, the contract becomes void. 

3. Death or Incapacity of parties : When the performance of a contract requires the 

personal skill or labour of a person then the contract is discharged due to the illness, death or 

incapacity of the parties. 

e.g. : 'A' agrees to draw a picture for 'B' by 15th of January. 'A' dies before 15th. The 


4. Change of Law : After formation of the contract if there is change in the law by the 

Government and the act becomes impossible to perform the contract is discharged. 

e.g. : 'D' enters into a contract with 'P' on 1st March for supply of certain imported goods 

in the month of Spetember in the same year. In June the import of such goods is banned by 

government. The contract is discharged. 

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5. Outbreak of War : If the Contract is made with the foreigner and there is outbreak of 

war between India and that foreign country then the contract between the parties come to an 

end. 

NOT ON EXCUSE - Contract not discharged : 

1. Difficulty of performance : A contract is not discharged on the ground that it has 

become more difficult to perform due to some events. 

e.g. : 'A' sold certain wood to 'B' which is to be supplied between July and September. 

Before wood was supplied war broke out in month of August and 'A' could not bring wood to 

send it to 'B' Held contract is not discharged. 

2. Commercial Impossibility : A contract is not discharged on ground of commercal 

impossibility like raw material not available etc. 

3. Failure of third party : When a Contract could not be performed because of the 

failure by third party is not an excuse and the contract is not discharged. 

e.g. : 'A' enters into a contract with 'B' for the sale of cloth to be produced by 'C' the 

manufacturer of cloth. 'C' did not manufacture that cloth. 'A' is liable for damages to 'B' since 

contract is not discharged. 

4. Strike, Lock-out : A strike by workman or a lock-out by the employer does not 

excuse the performance of the contract. 

e.g. : 'A' agreed to send goods to 'B' by 15th of January. But due to the strike in the 

companyhe could not send the goods on time. 'A' is liable for damages to 'B'. 

5. Failure of one object : When a contract is entered into for several objects, the failure 

of one of them does not discharge the other. 

1.2.7 REMEDIES FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT : 

"Where there is a right there is a remedy." According to the above saying, a contract gives 

rise to rights and duties between the parties. Along with other rights, when there is any damage 

caused to one party, he has a right to claim remedies given in the Law. 

A remedy is the courses of action which are available to an aggrieved party (i.e. party not 

at default) for the enforcement of right under a contract. 

Thus when a contract is broken the injured party has one or more of the following remedies. 

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Remedies 

Rescission Suit for Suit upon Suit for Suit for 

of Contract damages Quantum specific injunction 

Meritum performance 

Ordinary damages Special damages Vindictive damages Nominal damages 

I. Rescission of Contract : 

When there is breach of contract by one party, the other party may rescind or cancel the 

contract and may act in two ways :- 

a. Sit quietly at home if he decides not to take any legal action against the guilty party or 

b. aggrived party intends to sue the guilty party he may file a suit for rescission or cancellation 

of contract. 

The court may grant recission in the following cases :- 

a. When the contract is viodable by the plaintiff. 

b. Where the contract is unlawful. 

e.g. : 'A' contracts to supply 100 kg. of rice for Rs. 4000/- to 'B' on 1st January. If 'A' 

does not supply the rice on the appointed day 'B' may treat the contract as rescinded or cancelled 

and may it quit or bring a suit for damages. 

II. Suit for damages : 

"Damages" means compensation in Law and "damage" means hurt or injury to body or 

property of a person. Therefore damages are monetary compensation allowed to an injured 

party for the loss or injury suffered by him. 

The basis for measuring the damages for breach of contract is based on the judgement in 

a leading case of Hadley V Baxendale. 

case : Hadley V Baxendale 

Facts : 'X's flour mill stopped working because of breakdown of the crankshaft, a part of 

the machinary. He delivered the shaft to Y a common carrier to deliver it to the foundry, where 

the new shaft was to be made. 'Y' promised to deliver it within two days, but he delayed and the 

mill stopped working for another five days. X received the new shaft seven days later than they 

88

would have otherwised received. X brought a suit for damages against Y for the delay in the 

delivery of broken part and also for the loss of profit suffered by the mill as it stopped working. 

X had never informed Y that the delay would result in loss of profits. 

Held : The court held that X was entitled only to ordinary damages and not for the loss of 

profit caused by the stoppage of mill during the period of the delay. 

Principle laid down : The court laid down the following principle while giving the above 

decision. 

"Where two parties have made a contract which one of them has broken the damages 

which the other party ought to receive in respect of such breach of contract should be either, 

such as may fairly and reasonablly considered arising naturally i. e. according to the usual 

course of thing from such breach of contract itself or such as may be reasonably be supposed 

in contemplation of parties at the time they made the contract as the probable result of breach 

of it." 

From the decision in the above case damages can be classified into following four 

catagories:- 

1. Ordinary damages : 

When a contract is broken the other party can recover from the guilty party ordinary or 

general damages. These damages are known to the parties that may arise in the usual course 

and may arise naturally and directly. 

e.g. : 'A' agrees to sell 5 bags of rice @ 500/- per bag to B after two months. On the date 

of delivery the price of rice goes up @ 550/- per bag. 'A' refuses to deliver bags to B. B can 

claim compensation of Rs. 250/- from A. i. e. difference between contract price and market 

price (550-500) for 5 bags. 

2. Special damages : 

Special damages are those which arise as a result of special or unusual circumstances. 

Special damages cannot be claimed as a right. They can be claimed only if some special loss 

occurs to one of the party. 

e.g. : 'A' a builder contracts to construct a house for 'B' by 1st July. So that 'B' can let it 

to 'C' at Rs. 1000/- per month. 'B' informed 'A' about the contract with 'C'. 'A' builds the house 

so badly. That before 1st July it falls down and has to be rebuilt which took another few months. 

Here 'A' has committed a breach of contract and therefore is liable to pay 'B' cost of 

rebuilding + for rent lost + for compensation. 

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3. Vindictive damages : 

Vindictive damages are damages awarded by way of punishment and not as compensation. 

Hence vindictive damages have no place in Law of contract. But there are two exceptions 

whereby damages can be awarded by way of punishment, they are, 

a) breach of a promise to marry and. 

b) dishonour of a cheque by a banker. 

4. Nominal damages : 

Nominal damages are of a very small amount and are only for name sake. This amount of 

compensation can be of rupee one also. 

III. Suit for Quantum Meritum : 

The third remedy for breach of Contract which is available to an injured party is the "Suit 

for Quantum Meritum" The phrase "Quantum Meritum" means "as much as is earned" or "in 

the proportion to the work done." 

This right to sue on quantum meritum arises when a contract which is partly performed is 

discharged because remaining half part is not performed by the other party. 

The aggrieved party may file a suit upon quantum meritum and can claim proportion to 

work done in following cases : 

1. When an agreement is found to be void and the person who receives benefit out of it 

has to give it back. 

2. When something is done without any intention to do that thing gratituosly. 

3. When there is express or implied contract to provide services but there is no agreement 

as to how much remunaration should be paid. 

4. When the work completed can be seperated from the incomplete work. 

5. When contract is cancelled before time. 

e.g. : A engaged B to write a book on history to be published by instalments in a weekly 

periodical in newspaper. The fees to be paid was Rs. 5000/-. After few issues in the periodical 

suddently publishing was stopped. Here 'B' could recover the payment of work published as 

suit of Quantum Meritum. 

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IV. Suit for Specific Performance : 

Specific performance means actually carrying out the contract as agreed and no 

compensation is damanded. In certain cases of breach of a contract, damages are not an 

adequate relief. In such cases court may direct the party committing breach to do or perform 

his part according to terms of contract. 

e.g. : 'A' agrees to send five bags of rice to 'B' 'A' fails to sent it. 'B' does not want 

compensation but tells 'A' to perform his part and send five bags of rice. This is specific 

performance. 

estimated. 

Specific performance is ordered by court in the following cases :- 

1. When compensation in terms of money is not an adequate relief. 

2. When actual damage or loss caused by non-performance cannot be asertained or 

3. When compensation in money cannot be get. 

However specific performance will not be granted in following cases : 

1. Where damages are an adequate remedy. 

2. Where the contract is not certain. 

3. Where the contract can be cancelled. 

4. Where contract is made by trustee in the breach of trust. 

5. Where the contract is of personal nature i. e. contract to marry. 

6. Where court cannot supervise the performance. 

7. When one party is minor. 

V. Suit for Injunction : 

"Injunction" means prohibiting a person to do a particular act. It is a negative term when 

a party to a contract does something which he promised not to do, is a breach of contract and 

the court may stop the person from doing that act. 

e.g. : 'A' a film actress, agreed to act exclusively for 'B' for a year and for no one else. 

During the year she contracted to act for 'C'. 

Held she could be restricted by order of court called injunction from doing so. 

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1.3 Exercises : 

Act. 

Granting of Injunction 

Temporary injunction Permanent injunction 

It is meant for the perios A person is restricted 

until the work is completed permanetly from doing 

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the said act 

1. Define Business Law. Discuss the sources of business Law. 

2. Define the term contract ? What are th essential elements of valid contract. 

3. "All contract are agreements but all agreements are not contract" Discuss. 

4. Define consent. When is the consent said to be free - consent ? 

5. Discuss in brief agreements expressely declared to be void." under Indian Contract 

6. What is Tender of Performance ? What constitues a legal tender ? 

7. Dicuss in brief the various modes of discharge of contract. 

8. What is doctrine of supervening impossibility ? 

When it applies and when not ? discuss. 

9. Discuss in brief the various remedies available in case of breach of contract. 

10. How contract can be discharged by operation of law. 

1.4 Books for further Reading : 

1. Elements of Mercantile Law - N. D. Kapoor, Sultan Chand and sons, Delhi. 

2. Laws Regulating Business - Prof. S. N. Kulkarni 

Diamond Publication, Pune. 

3. Business Law - K. R. Bulchandani 

Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi. 

4. Princeples of Business Law and - Dr. Manmohan prasad, Himalaya 

Management Publishing House, Mumbai. 

5. Mercantile Law - S. S. Gulshan, Excel Book, Delhi. 

��

2.0 Objectives 






Unit-2 

Special Contract 

2.2.1 Definition of Contract of Bailment 

2.2.2 Essentials of Contract of Bailment 

2.2.3 Duties and Rights of the bailor 

2.2.4 Duties and Rights of the bailee 

2.2.5 Definition of pledge 

2.2.6 Distinction between pledge and bailment 

2.2.7 Rights and Duties of pawnor 

2.2.8 Rights and Duties of Pawnee 

2.2.9 Definition of Contract of Agency 

2.2.10 Creation of Agency Contract 

2.2.11 Discharge or Termination of Agency Contract 

2.2.12 Rights and Duties of Agent and Principal 

2.3 Exercises 

2.4 Books for further Reading 

2.0 Objectives : 

The study of this untit will enable students to understand the provisions of special contract 

� Definition and Nature of Contract of Bailment. 

� Essentials of contract of Bailment 

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� Duties and Rights of the bailor 

� Duties and Rights of the bailee 

� Defination of contract of pledge. 

� Difference between pledge and bailment 

� Rights and Duties of Pawnor. 

� Rights and Duties of Pawnee. 

� Definition and Nature of contract of Agency. 

� Various modes of creation of Agency contract. 

� Discharge or Terminatin of contract of Agency. 

� Rights and Duties of Agent and principal. 


Bailment is a special type of contract and is contained in sections 148 to 181 of the Indian 

Contract Act 1872. It simplies a sort of relationship where the personal property of one person 

temporarily goes into the hand or porsersion of another person. Thus the ownership of that 

article is with one person and the persession is with another person. 

2.2.1 Definition of Bailment : 

Bailment is defined in section 148 of The Indian Contract Act as :- 

"A bailment is the delivery of goods from one person to another for some purspose, upon 

a contract that they shall when the purpose is accomplished be returned or otherwise be disposed 

of according to the directions of the person delivering them." 

The person delivering the goods is called the "Bailor and the person to whom they are 

delivered is called the "Bailee." Examples of contract of bailment are :- 

1. A person delivering a cloth to the tailor to stich a suit. 

2. A friend lending his book to another friend on a condition to be returned after examination. 

3. 'A' delivering his watch to 'B' for repairs. 

2.2.2 Essentials of bailment : 

1. Contract : Bailment is created by an agreement between bailor and bailee such an 

agreement may be express or implied. 

2. Delivery of possessiion of goods : This is an important essential of bailment. There 

should be delivery of possession of good trom the bailor to the bailee. "Possession" must be 

distinguished from "custody of goods". A person who has the custody of goods like a servant, a 

guest in the house are not the bailee. In bailment the goods must be handed over by the bailor 

to the bailee for some purpose. 

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3. Movable goods : Only movable goods are the subject matter of bailment "Goods" is 

defined in section 2 (7) of The Sale of Goods Act 1930 as :- 

"Every kind of movable property other than money and actionable claims." 

Money deposited in a bank is not bailment because the banker is not bound to return the 

same notes to the depositor. 

4. Specific purpose : In bailment the goods are delivered only for some rpecific purpose. 

When the purpose is accemplished the goods are to be returned back or disposed off according 

to the directions of the person delivering them. 

5. Return of goods : The bailee must return the goods as soon as the purpose is 

accomplished. These goods must be returned to the bailor or any other person as per bailors 

directions. Also the goods may be returned in the same form or some altered form. 

e.g. :- Wheat given for making flour in a grinding mill, cloth given to a taitor to stich a suit. 

2.2.3 Duties and Rights of the Bailor : 

1. Duties of Bailor : 

1. To disclose known faults : It is the first and foremost duty of the bailor to disclose 

the known faults to the bailee which expose the bailee to extra ordinary risk. If the bailor does 

not disclose the faults he is responsible for any damage that may arise to the bailee. 

e.g. :- 'A' lends a cycle to 'B' which he knows is without breaks. 'A' is bound to tell 'B' 

about it or if he fails to do so he will be liable for damages. 

2. To bear extra - Ordinary expenses of bailment : The bailor should pay the extra 

ordinary expenses of the bailment incurred by the bailee in any gratituous bailment. 

e.g.: A pays expenses to watchman to watch the car left by 'B' at 'A's custody. 'B' is 

bound to pay back expenses paid by A to the watchman. 

3. To indemnify bailee for premature termination of bailment : In case of gratituions 

bailment if the bailment is terminated by the bailor before the time preseribed then in such a 

case the loss occuring to the bailee out of such premature termination should be compensated 

by the bailor. However such a loss occured by the bailee should not be more than the benefits 

derived. 

e.g. : 'A' lends an old car to 'B' gratituosly for three months to use. 'B' incurs Rs. 500/- for 

repairs 'A' asks back the car immediately after one month, he will have to compensate B. 

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4. To receive back the goods : It is the duty of the bailor to receive back the goods 

from the bailee when the purpose of bailment is accomplished. If the bailor neglects or refuses 

to take back the goods, the bailee is entitled to receive compensation from the bailor for the 

expenses incured to preserve the goods in his custody. 

5. To indemnity the bailee : If the bailee suffers any loss due to the defects in the title 

of the bailor, the bailor is responsible to the loss that may occur to the bailee. The bailee has 

every right to get compensation from the bailor. 

2. Rights of the Bailor : 

1. Right to file suit : If the bailee is deprived the use of the goods by any third person the 

bailor has every right to bring a suit against such a third person. Bailor can also claim compensation 

from such a third person. 

2. To avoid the contract : A bailor can terminate the contract of bailment if the bailee 

does any act against the contract of bailment regarding the goods. 

bailment. 

e.g. : 'A' lets a car to 'B' for his own use. 'B' uses the car for tourist. 'A' can terminate the 

3. Right to return the goods : The bailor has right to receive back the goods from the 

bailee when the purpose is accomplished. Bailor can also direct the boilee to return the goods 

as per his instructions. If the bailee refuses to return the bailor can file a suit against the bailee. 

2.2.4 Duties and Rights of the Bailee : 

1. Duties of the Bailee 

1. Duty to take reasonable care of goods bailed : In case of bailment the bailee is 

bound to take care of the goods bailed as a man of ordinary prudence. He should take care as 

if the goods are his own. 

In case of loss or damage to the goods bailed it is the bailee who should prove that there 

was no negligence on his part and that loss / damage occured inspite of the fact that he took 

reasonable care of them. If however bailee took all care and there was no negligence on his 

part yet loss occured he is not liable for the loss, destruction or damage. 

e.g. : 'A' was admitted in a hospital. He handed over the jewellary to B a hospital official. 

The jewellary was stolen. 'B' a hospital official. The jewellary was stolen. 'B' is liable for the 

loss. 

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2. Duty not to make unauthorised use of goods : If the bailee makes any use of the 

goods bailed which is not according to the conditions of the bailment he is liable to make 

compensation to the bailor for any damages arising to the goods during such use. 

The bailee must use the goods bailed strictly according to the purpose for which they are 

bailled. 

e.g. : 'A' lets a car to 'B' for his own use. 'B' uses it for tourist purpose. 'B' is liable to 

compensate 'A' if the car is damaged. 

3. Duty not to mix goods bailed with his own goods : It is the duty of the bailee not 

to mix the goods bailed with his own goods. Without the consent of the bailor. If however the 

bailee mixes the goods with the consent of the bailor whether intentionally or accidentally and 

the good can be seperated the cost of seperation should be borne by the bailee. If however the 

goods cannot be seperated the bailee must compensate the bailor for the loss. 

4. Duty to return the goods : It is the duty of the bailee to return the goods to the bailor 

as per his directions on the expiry of the time stated. Where there are joint owners, bailee may 

return the goods to any one of the joint owners. 

If the bailee fails to return the gods at a proper time he is responsible for the loss, destruction 

or damage to the goods bailed. 

5. Duty to return accretion or increase to the goods : It is the duty of the bailee to 

return to the bailor any increase arising naturally to the goods bailled during the period of 

bailment. 

e.g. : 'A' leaves a cow in the custody of 'B' to be taken care of. The cow has a calf. 'B' is 

bound to deliver the calf as well as cow to 'A'. 

6. Duty not to set up adverse title jus-terti : The bailee cannot set up the defence of 

jus terti i. e. goods belong to a third person cannot be said by the bailee. Even if there is a 

person who says that the goods belong to him, the bailee must return the goods to the bailor. 

2. Rights of the bailee : 

1. Right to remuneration or expenses : The bailee is entitled to receive all the lawful 

charges for providing his service to the bailor and he has the right to claim remuneration for 

such services. 

2. Right to compensation : If there are any fault in the goods bailed and the fault was 

not disclosed to the bailee, the bailee has a right to receive compensation from the bailor. Also 

if the bailor wrongfully refuses to take back the goods bailed, the bailee can claim compensation. 

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3. Delivery of goods to one of several joint bailors of goods : If there are more 

than one owners to the goods bailed, the bailee must deliver the goods to any one of the joint 

bailors of the goods. This return to one joint owner is as if the goods are delivered to all of 

them. 

4. Right against trespassers : If a third person wrongfully deprives a bialee stands in 

the shoes of the bailor and has a right to bring a suit against the trespasser. 

5. Bailees Right to lien : Right to lien means right to return or keep the possessiion of 

the goods until the amount or remunaration is paid. This right to retain the possession is also 

called as right to particular lien. 

e.g. : 'A' delives a rough diamand to 'B' a jewellar;to be cut and polished which is done 

by B. B is entitled to retain or keep the diamand with him till the amount of his services are 

paid. 

6. Right to deliver goods, in good faith, to the bailor without title - S. 166 : The 

bailee has a right to deliver the goods to the bailor even if the bailor has no title. Thus bailee has 

nothing to do who is true owner of goods. However the bailee must act in good faith and 

unaware who is true owner. 

2.2.5 Meaning and definition of Pledge : 

Pledge is a type of special contract. According to section 174 of The Indian Contract Act 

1872. "Pledge" may be defined as :- 

"The bailment of goods as security for payment of a debt or performance of a promise." 

The bailor in this case is called the "Pledgor" or "Pawnor" and the bailee is called the 

"Pledgee" or "Pawnee." 

Thus pledge is a bailment of goods as a security. 

e.g. :- 'A' borrows Rs. 200/- from 'B' and keeps his mobile handset as security for payment 

of Rs. 200/- the debt. Here the bailment of mobile is a pledge. 

Any kind of movable goods only can be pledged like goods, documents, ornaments and 

even a bank passbook. But the important point is that there must be delivery of goods this 

delivery maybe (a) actual or (b) constructive or (c) symbolic. 

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2.2.6 Difference between pledge and bailment : 

Pledge Bailment 

1. Pledge is the bailment of goods Bailment of goods is for a specific 

as a security i. e. payment of purpose and not as a debt. 

debt 

2. In case of default i. e. if pawnor Bailee in the bailment can retain the 

fails to repay the loan the pawnee goods or sue for the price 

has a right to resale the goods after 

giving notice to the pawnor. 

3. The pawnee has no right to use the Bailee may use the goods, if the bailor 

goods pledged with him permits him. 

2.2.7 Rights and Duties of Pawnor : 

1. Rights of Pownor : 

1. Right to get back goods : When the promise is fulfilled or the loan or debt is repaid 

the pownar has a right to get back the goods pledged. 

2. Right to redeem debt : Many a times, time is stipulated in the contract of pledge as 

to when the loan is to be repaid or when the promise should be performed. In such a case if the 

pawnor makes a default to payment of debt or performance of promise at the stipulated time, 

he may still get back the goods pledged before they are sold. This is called right of redemption. 

However in such a case he must pay the additional expenses to the pawnee for his default. 

3. Right of preservation and maintenance of goods : It is the right of the pawnor to 

see that the goods pledged are kept in a proper and safe condition by the pawnee and that they 

are properly maintained. 

4. Right of an ordinary debtor : In addition to the above rights the pawnor has a right of 

an ordinary debtor which are given to him by various laws which are meant for his protection. 

5. Right to calim increase on goods pledged : If there is any increase in the goods 

pledged the pawnor has a right to claim that increase from the pawnee. 

e.g. : 'A' pledges his shares with 'B' and takes a loan. During the continuance of loan 

period bonus shares are issued to 'A'. Here 'A' can claim these bonus shares. 

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2. Duties of a Pawnor : 

1. Duty to repay the loan : It is the first and the foremost duty of the pawnor to repay 

the loan taken from the pawnee within the stipulated time. 

2. Duty to pay additional expenses : If the pawnor has spend additional amount on the 

preservation and maintenance of the goods pledged. The pawnor must pay that additional 

expenses. 

3. Duty to follow terms of contract : It is the duty of pawnor to act according to the 

terms of contract of pledge. 

4. Duty to perform the promise : The pawnor should perform the promise within the 

stipulated time. 

2.2.8 Rights and Duties of Pawnee : 

(1) Rights of Pawnee : 

1. Right of retainor : The pawnee may keep the goods in his pessession unless and until 

the debt is paid by the pawnor. He may retain the goods not only for the amount of debt but also 

for the interest on it and for all expenses incured by him for the possession and maintenance of 

the goods. 

2. Right to retain the goods for subsequent advances : If the pawnee has given 

additional loan against the goods pledged he may retain the goods for such subsequent advances 

also. 

3. Right to extra ordinary expenses : The pawnee has a right to sue for the amount of 

extra ordinary expenses incured by him. 

4. Right to receive payment : The pawnee has a right to receive the amount given to 

the pawnee by way of debt. He can also claim interest and expenses on the goods pledged. 

5. Right against the true owner, when pawnor's title is defective : When the pawnor 

has obtained the possession of goods under a viodable contract i. e. by fraud, coercien, undue 

- influence and such goods are pledged by him, then the pawnee gets a good title if he has acted 

in good faith and without notice of the defect of title of the pawnor. 

6. Right to file a suit : If the pawnor makes a default in the repayment of the loan the 

pawnee has a right to file a suit against the pawnor. 

7. Right to resale : In case of default the pawnee may resale the goods pledged with 

him after giving a notice of such resale to the pawnor. 

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8. Right to claim loss : In case, after resale of goods there is loss occured to the 

pawnee then he may claim such a loss from the pawnor. But if any profit is earned he must 

repay it to the pawnor. 

(2) Duties of Pawnee : 

1. Duty to return the goods : The first duty of the pawnee is to return the goods after 

repayment of loan or performance of promise. 

2. Duty not use the goods : The goods given to pawnee are only as a security for loan 

taken from him. Here the pawnee should not use the goods. 

3. Duty to preserve the goods : The goods pledged should be kept properly and also 

maintained in a proper condition. 

4. Duty to return increase : If there is any increase in the goods pledged the pawnee 

should return such an increase in the goods. 

5. Duty to return profit : If there is any profit earned by the pawnee on the resale of 

goods in default to repay the loan, the surplus amount of profit should be returned to the pawnor. 

6. Duty not to violate terms of contract : The pledgee should act according to the 

terms of contract and should not violate it e. g. - he should not sell the goods pledged without 

giving notice to the pawnor. 

2.2.9 Definition of Contract of Agency : 

Now a days it is not always possible for a person to do his acts by himself. He may not 

always be able to do or attend the work personally, which are necessary for him. Sometimes he 

has to depend on the service of the other people. 

e.g. : A father may ask his son to deposit money in the bank or pay electricity bill or A 

friend may ask another friend to pay him a movice ticket. 

In these examples a person doing the act for another is called as agent. The law relating 

to contract of Agency is contained in sections 182 to 238 of The Indian Contract Act 1872. 

However all the persons acting for and on behaf of another person are not agents. Therefore 

we have to be clear regarding the concept of agency. 

Definition of Agent : 

According to section 182 of The Indian Contract Act agent is defined as :- 

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"An agent is a person employed to do any act for another or to represent another in 

dealing with third person. 

The person for whom such act is done or who is represented is called the principal." 

The main function of an agent is to bring his principal into contractual relation with third 

person. This means that an agent is merely a connecting link between principal and third party. 

Essentials of agency : 

1. There should be an agreement between the principal and agent. 

2. There should be intention of an agent to act on behalf of principal. 

3. No consideration is necessary to create agency. 

Rules of agency : 

The contract of agency is based on two rules :- 

1) Whatever a person can do personally he can do it through an agent. 

However there the two exceptions where agent cannot be appointed. 

(i) Contract of marriage, (ii) Work annexed to public office eg. of magistrate. 

2) He who does an act through another does it by himself. i. e. whatever lawful acts are 

done by agent on behalf of principal, are said to have done by agent himself 

Who may appoint an agent ? 

Any person who is, 

1. Major 

2. Of sound mind 

3. Not disqualified by law 

can appoint an agent. 

Who may be appointed as agent : 

Any person may be an agent, he may even be minor person of unsound mind like a idiot, 

lunatic or drunkard may be appointed as an agent. This is because the acts of agents are 

binding on principal which means agent cannot be able to pay damages and hence principal will 

always be careful in appointing an agent. 

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2.2.10 CREATION OF AGENCY : 

An agency can be created in any one of the following ways : 

Creation of agency 

By Agreement By Ratification By Operation of law 

Express Implied 

agreement agreement 

By Estoppel By Holdingout By Necessity 

I) By agreement : 

A Contract of agency by, 

1. Express agreement or 

2. Implied agreement 

1. Express agreement : 

A contract of agency is normally created by an express agreement. Express agreement is 

in writing or orally. A general term of written agreement is generally in format of power of 

attorney whereby the principal transfers his powers in fovour of an agent for a specific period 

on the condition that when the work is completed the agreement will stand cancelled. 

2. By Implied Agreement : 

Implied agency is presumed from the conduct of the parties. We can presume each on 

agency from the circumstances of the case or from the conduct of the parties. 

e.g. : 'A' and 'B' are brothers. A lives in Mumbai and 'B' in Kolhapur. They have house at 

Pune and given it on rent. 'B' collects the rent and send 1/2 rent to brother 'A' at Mumbai even 

though there is no written contract yet 'B' is agent of 'A'. 

The implied agreements may fall into any one of the following categories :- 

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i) Agency by Estoppel : When a person either by his conduct or by words (spoken or 

written), leads wilfully another person to believe that a certain state of thing exists and thereby 

asks the other person to act later on he is stopped from denying or refusing that the fact or state 

of thing did not exist. 

Sometimes the agent does not have authority to do an act on behalf of principal, but the 

principal creates an impussion in the mind of third person, either by his conduct or words, that 

the agent has an authority to act on his behalf. In such a situation the principal is liable towards 

the third party for acts done by agent, by applying the "Law of estoppel". 

e.g. :- 'B' tells 'C' that he is 'A' agent. A is listening this. Actually 'B' was not agent of 'A' 

however does not object to this statement. Later on 'C' supplier goods to 'B' who pretends to be 

agent of 'A'. 'A' is liable to pay the price of goods to 'C' because by keeping quiet 'A' has led 'C' 

to believe that 'B' is his agent. 

ii) By Holding out : An agency by holding out also the principal is bound by the acts of 

the agent. It is also like estoppel but in holding out some positive act must be done by the agent 

to led a third person to believe that he is agent of the principal. In estoppel there is a negative 

act but in holding there is some positive act done by agent. 

e.g. : 'A' is the servant of 'B' and habitually purchases goods on credit for 'B'. From C's 

shop. Later on 'B' settles the credit amount. If 'A' leaves the job of 'B' and then purchases 

goods on credit from 'C', 'B' must pay the loss sufferred by him because he had admitted 

previously that 'A' is his servant. 

However it is not for all acts the principal is liable. The principal is liable only for those 

acts which are done within authority and are legal and not criminal. 

iii) Agency by Necessity : In any urgent circumstances, law gives authority to a person 

to act as the agent of another person for the benefit of that person. It may also not be possible 

to communicate that he is appointed as agent, such an agency in emergency is called agency by 

necessity. 

Following conditions must be fullfilled for agency by necessity : 

a. There should be real necessity for acting as agent. 

b. It is impossible to communicate with the principal. 

c. The so called agent is acting for benefit of principal. 

Agency by necessity may arise in the following situations : 

(a) When the agent has to exceed his authority in time of emergency. 

e.g. :- 'A' sends a truck full of fruits from Kolhapur to 'B' at Mumbai. The truck mets with 

an accident at Pune. Since fruits will perish the truck driver without communicating with 'A' 

sells them. This is agency by necessity in case of emergency. 

104

(b) A person has possession of anothers property, does one acts to preserve that property 

even though he is not an agent. He may act as agent in necessity. 

e.g. :- A horse was sent by a train. When it arrived at the station nobody came to take its 

delivery. Railway authority had to feed and take care of the horse. Here railway authority is 

agent in necessity. 

(c) Husband and wife : A husband is bound to maintain his wife and supply her with all the 

necessaries in life. If he does not maintain her, the wife can act as the agent in necessity and 

pledge the credit of her husband. But if the wife lives seperately by her own will then she 

cannot act as agent in necessity. 

II) Agency by Ratification : 

A person may act on behalf of another 

(a) with his consent or (b) without his consent. If a person does any act without the 

consent and is lawful and for benefit of that other, the other person may accept the act. This is 

ratification. 

Ratification means adopting or accepting an act done by a person, after it is done. 

e.g. :- 'A' buys 5 bags of wheat on behalf of 'B'. 'B' did not appoint 'A' as his agent. 'B' 

mayupon hearing this accept or reject the bags of wheat If 'B' accepts then the act is ratified 

and binding on 'B'. 

Following are the essential rules of ratification :- 

(i) The agent must act as agent of principal which can be identified at the time of contract. 

(ii) The act must be lawful. 

(iii) The principal must be in existence when act was done. 

(iv) The principal must be competent to contract. 

(v) The whole act must be ratified and not only some portion can be ratified. 

(vi) The act must be rafifed within a reasonable time. 

(vii) Ratefication can be express or implied. 

(viii) Principal can only ratify the act of agent and nobody else than him. 

(ix) Ratification must be done at proper place and time. 

(x) Ratification must be made with full knowledge of facts. 

(xi) Ratification should relate back to the date when the contract was performed by agent. 

Limitation :- The principal cannot ratify the acts of agent if :- 

1. Principal is incompetent to contract. 

2. Principal does not have knowledge of facts. 

3. If the act is void or illegal. 

4. If act to be ratified puts third party to damages. 

105

III) Agency by operation of law : 

The agency sometimes is implied by operation of law. Generally. 

(a) Promoters of the company when the company is formed. 

(b) Partners in a partnership firm who act on behalf of other partners. 

are the agents which are by operation of law. 

2.2.11 Termination of Agency - sec. 201 : 

When the contractual relation between the agent and principal come to an end it is called 

"Termination of Agency." 

Agency can be terminated in any of the following ways. 

Termination of Agency 

By act of the parties By operation of Law 

Agreement Revocation Revocation 

by principal by agent 

Performance Expiry of Death of Insanity of Insolvency 

of Contract time either party either party of principal 

Destruction of Principal Disolution of Termination of 

subject matter becoming company sub-agents 

alien enemy authority 

106

I) Termination by act of parties : 

1. Agreement : Like any other agreement the contract of agency can be terminated by 

mutual agreement between the principal and agent. 

2. Revocation by the principal : The contract of agency can be revocked by the principal 

at any time. However following conditions must be fulfilled before the authority is revoked : 

(i) It can be revoked before agent has excerised his authority. 

(ii) Revocation may be exprress or implied by the conduct of principal. 

e.g. : 'A' asks 'B' to rent the house of 'A' to anybody who is in need. 'A' afterwards rents 

it to 'C' himself. This is revocation of 'B' authority. 

(iii) Notice of revocation must be given by principal to agent if it is stated in the contract. 

(iv) In case of continuous agency, the agency can be revoked for future transactions by 

giving notice. 

(v) If the agency is created for fixed period and the principal revokes the authority of 

agent before expiry of fixed period he must pay compensation to the agent. 

3. Revocation by an agent : An agent may also terminate the agency, because a person 

cannot be compelled to continue as agent against his will. An agent must give a notice of his 

renunciation to the principal. If he does not give such a notice he will be liable to pay compensation 

to the principal for any damage that may arise. 

Also if agency is for a fixed period and the agent revokes his agency before expiry of time 

he must pay compensation to the principal. 

II) Termination by Operation of Law : 

1. Performance of Contract : When the contract of agency is entered for a particular 

object; it is automatically terminated when the object is accomplished or when the object becomes 

impossible to perform. 

2. Expiry of time : When the agent is appointed for a fixed time then the agency comes 

to an end after the expiry of that time even if the work is not completed. 

3. Death of either party : Agency is terminated automatically on the death of either the 

principal or the agent. If there is death of the principal the agent must take all reasonable steps 

to protect the interest of principal. 

4. Insanity of either party : Contract of agency comes to an end if either the principal 

or the agent becomes insane. However it is interesting to note that at the begining an insane 

person can be appointed by the principal at his risk. 

107

5. Insolvency of principal : If the principal becomes insolvent the contract of agency is 

automatically terminated. 

6. Destruction of subject - matter : If the subject-matter for which an agent is appointed, 

is destroyed then the agency comes to an end. 

e.g. :- If agency was created for the sale of a house and the house is destroyed by fire the 

agency is ended. 

7. Principal becoming alien enemy : If the principal and agent are citizens of two 

different countries and a war breaks out between the two countries, they became alien enemies 

and the contract is terminated. 

8. Dissolution of company : If the agency is between an incorporated company and 

such a company is dissolved the agency is terminated. 

9. Termination of sub - agents authority : Sub - agent is a person appointed by an 

agent with consent of the principal. When the agency of an agent is terminated authomatically 

the agent appointed by the agent i. e. sub - agents authority is also terminated. 

2.2.12 RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF AGENT AND PRINCIPAL : 

1) Duties of an agent : 

1. To act according to the directions of principal : It is the first and foremost duty of 

an agnet to act according to the directions given by the principal. In other words he has to 

follow the principals orders. If there is no special direction given by the principal then the agent 

has to act according to the customs that are prevailing regarding that trade. If the agent does 

not follow the directions given by the principal then he has to compensate the principal if any 

loss occurs due to his act. 

e.g. :- 'A' agreed to store the 'B' goods in his own godwon. 'A' however stored them in 

godown of 'C'. Goods were destroyed by fire without negligence on part of 'A', Even then 'A' 

was liable for loss to 'B' since he did not follow the directions of B. 

2. To act with reasonable care, skill and diligence : It is the duty of an agent to act 

with reasonable care, skill and diligence. He must act like a person possessed with similar skill 

in the similar business. 

If he does not act with care, skill and diligence and any loss occurs to principal due to the 

direct consequences of agent, the agent is liable to compensate the principal for such a loss. 

e.g. :- 'A' an agent had authority from principal to sale goods on credit. 'A' sold the goods 

to 'B' on credit without inquiring about his financial status 'B' was insolvent at the time he 

purchased the goods. 'A' must compensate the principal for the loss because he did not act with 

reasonable care, skill and diligence. 

108

3. Duty to render accounts - : It is the duty of an agent to keep the books of accounts 

of all the transsactions which he deals with the principals money. 

4. Duty to communicate with principal in case of difficulty : In case of difficulty it is 

the duty of an agent to communicate with his principal and get his advice and instructions. 

5. Duty not to deal on his own account : An agent is appointed to act for and on behalf 

of the principal and therefore it is the duty of an agent not to deal on his own account. If he 

violates this rule he may be made responsible for any loss that may arise out of his own dealing. 

Also if the agent obtains any advantage or benefit out of such a dealing the principal may claim 

it from the agent. 

6. Duty to pay sums received for the principal : The agent is bound to pay all the 

amounts which are received for the principal. He may return the amount after deducting the 

amount of expenses incured by him and the amount of remunaration payable to him by the 

principal. 

7. Duty to protect interest of principal : If the principal dies, the agency is termintated. 

On termination of agency it is the duty of an agent to preserve and protect the interest of the 

principal since the principal had appointed him on faith and trust in him. 

8. Duty not to misuse information : It is the duty of an agent not to misuse any 

information of the principaland thereby leak out all the secrets to outsiders. If any such information 

of principal is misused and loss is sustained by the principal the principal can claim compensation 

from the agent. 

9. Duty not to make secret profits from agency : The relation between the agent and 

principal is of trust and confidence. Therefore the agent must not make a secret profit from 

agency. If he earns any extra income from the contract of agency he must bring this fact to the 

knowledge of the principal. 

10. Duty not to set up on adverse title : The agent must not set up his own title or 

ownership to the goods which he possesses and belong to principal. If he sets up such a wrong 

title he will be liable for 'conversion' under Indian Penal Code. 

11. Duty not to put himself in a position where interest and duty contract : An 

agent must act in the interest of the principal. He must not put himself in such a situation where 

the duty and interest will conflict. 

e.g. :- 'A' appointed 'B' as his agent to buy some shares for him. 'B' sold his own shares 

to 'A' at higher rate without disclosing to whom they belonged. 'A' could terminate the contract. 

109

12. Duty not to delegate authority : To delegate authority means ask someone else to 

do the work which a person is asked to do. An agent is appointed to do the work himself for the 

principal and so he must not employ another person to perform his duties. However the agent 

may appoint a sub-agent with consent of the principal. 

2) Rights of an Agent : 

An agent has following rights against the principal :- 

1. Right of retainer : The agent has a right to keep the amount spend and remuration 

due to him from the principal, out of any amount which is received on behalf of principal. 

2. Right to remuneration : The agent has a right to receive the agreed amount of 

remuneration from the principal. If no such amount is decided to be paid then he is liable to 

receive a reasonable amount. He can claim the amount of remuneration only on the completion 

of the work. If however the agent does any misconduct or fails in his work then he is not 

entitled to any amount of remuneration. 

e.g. :- A appointed 'B' to recover Rs. 1000/- from C. 'B' failed to recover money from 'C'. 

'B' is not entitled to remuneration. 

3. Right of lien : Lien means possessiion of goods. An agent has right to retain the goods 

or any documents of the principal till the amount of commission, or remunaration or expenses 

incured by him are paid. This right to lien is a particular lien only restricted to amounts arising 

out of contract of agency. Here the agent has only right to lien i. e. possession of goods and not 

a right to resale of goods. 

4. Right of indemnification : "To indemnify" means to "Compensate a person." An 

agent has a right to be indeminified by the principal for all the lawful acts done by him in course 

of agency and also for all the expenses incured by him. However the agent cannot claim 

indemnify or compensation for unlawful or criminal act. 

e.g. :- 'A' asks 'B' to beat 'C' and agrees to pay amount and also indemnify him against all 

consequences of the act. 'B' beats 'C'. 'C' brings case and asks damages from 'B'. 'B' pays and 

later asks 'A' to indemnify him. 'A' refuses. Here 'A' is not liable to indemnify 'B' for criminal 

act. 

5. Right of compensation : An agent has a right to be compensated for all the injuries or 

damage sustained by him for doing any lawful act of a principal. This injuries must be sustained 

due to the principals neglect or want of skill. 

110

6. Right of stoppage in transit : Like an unpaid seller, an agent also has a right to stop 

the goods in transit i. e. duration of travelling. He can stop these goods, 

a. for money incured by him or 

b. if principal has become insolvent. 

7. Right to be indemnfied against consequonces of acts done in good faith : An 

agent has a right to be indemnified against the consequences of an act which is done in good 

faith, even if the act turns out to be injurious to the right of third person. 

3) Duties of the Principal : 

The duties of the principal are the rights of an agent. 

Following are the duties of the principal towards the agent. 

1. To pay remuneration and other expenses : It is the duty of the principal to pay 

remuneration and other expenses incured by the agent for the work done by him for the principal. 

2. Duty of indemnify agent for lawful acts : The principal is bound to indemnify the 

agent i.e. compensate him if he has incured any loss while doing any lawful act. 

3. Duty to compensate agent for acts done in good faith : A principal is liable to 

compensate the agent for all the acts done in good faith even if it causes injury to a third person. 

However the principal is not liable to pay for any criminal act. 

4. Duty to indeminfy agent for injury caused due to principals neglect : If any 

injury is caused to the agent due to the neglegiance of principal then principal must compensate 

the agent. 

e.g. :- 'A' eomployed 'B' a bricklayer to lay briks in a building. 'A' himself put a ladder in 

a wrong way due to which 'B' fells down and gets injures 'A' is liable to compensate 'B' 

5. Duty to pay third party for agent's misrepresentation or fraud : An agent is 

appointed by the principal all the acts done by agent are said as acts done by the principal. 

Therefore if the agent committs a fraud or misrepresentation while doing principals work, the 

principal must compensate the third party for loss. 

4) Rights of Principal : 

1. Right to recover damages : If principal suffers any loss due to the misconduct of the 

agent like if he does not follow the directions of the principal, then principal can recover damages 

from the agent. 

111

2. Right to ask for accounts : If the agent makes any secret profit out of the agency the 

principal has a right to ask for accounts from agent. 

3. Right to terminate contract : The principal has every right to cancell the contract of 

agency. He can do so when there is misconduct on the par of agent or the agent is earning 

secret profits out of agency. 

4. Right to give directions : The principal has every right to give directions to the agent 

as to how he should act. 

2.3 Exercises : 

1. Explain the concept of Bailment. What are its characterstics ? 

2. Discuss in brief right and duties of bailor. 

3. Discuss in brief rights and daties of bailee. 

4. Explain various duties of Bailee. 

5. Explain various Rights of Bailor. 

6. Explain the contract of pledge and give its features. 

7. Enumerate the rights and duties of pawnor and pawnee. 

8. Distingwish between pledge and Bailment. 

9. Explain the concept Agency. How agency is created ? 

10. Explain the varous modes of termination of contract of agency. 

11. Give in brief the rights and duties of the principal as against Agent. 

12. Give in brief the rights and duties of an agent towards his principal. 

2.4 Books for further Reading : 

1. Mercantile Law - S. S. Gulshan, Excel Books, New Delhi. 

2. Business Law - N. D. Kapoor, Sultanchand & s. New Delhi. 

3. Principles of Business Law - Dr. Manmohan Prasad, 

and Management Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai. 

4. http/www.answers com/topic/contracts/legal 

5. www.expertlaw.com.Expert Law Library. 

112 

��


G Trademarks 

G Patents 

G Copyrights 



Unit-8 

Intellectual Property Rights 

G Registration of Designs (Only Concepts) 

Objectives : 

I. To understand the basic concepts of Intellected Property Rights. 

II. To create legal awareness about Intellectual Property Rights. 


Intellectual Property Rights (I.P.R.) are the legal rights governing the use of creations of 

the human minds. Intellectual property refers to creation of mind, i. e. inventions, industrial 

designs for article. literary and artistic work, symbols, etc., used in commerce. 

The term "Intellectual Property" refers to the general area of law. It includs copyrights, 

patents, designs and trademark and the related rights. 

The intellectual property law regulates the creation, use and exploitation of mental or 

creative labour. They establish property protection over intangible things such as ideas, inventions, 

signs and information. 

Intellectual property is divided into two categories. i) Industrial property, which includs 

inventions (patents), trademarks, industrial designs and geographic indications of source. and ii) 

Copyright, which includs literary and artistic works such as novels, poems, plays, films and 

musical works etc. 

Justification for Intellectual Property : 

The question is why legal protection is provided to intellectual property ? The general 

justification for the protection of intellectual property rights is that the intellectual property 

induces or encourages desirable behaviour e.g. patent system is sometime justified on the basis 

that it provides inventor with an incentive to disclose valuable technical information to the 

public, which would have otherwise remain secret. 

113

International aspect of Intellectual Property : 

The globalisation of trade and commerce has made a tremendous impact on the expansion 

of the regime of intellectual property. Following International Coventions are directly concerned 

with intellectual property : 

i) The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, 1967. 

ii) The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, 1971. 

iii) The Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms 

and Broadcasting Organisations, 1961. 

iv) The Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits done at Washington 

DC, on May 26, 1989. 

v) Geneva Convention on Protection of New Plant Varieties. 

vi) GATT and WTO Agreement including TRIPS Agreement. 

vii) Convention establishing World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) 

viii) Patent Co-operation Treaty (PCT) 

ix) Budapest Treaty. 

All these Conventions define the scope and width of intellectual property rights in different 

fields. India is a member of almost all the important International Conventions. 

1) The Trade Marks Act, 1999 : 

A trademark is a visual symbol or sign in the form of a word or a label. 

The sign may consist of one or more distinctive words, letters, numbers, drawings, pictures, 

emblems, colours or the form of the other special presentation of containers or packages for 

the product. 

It is a commercial asset intended to be used commercially by businessmen. Due to 

trademark the owner gets a perpetual right to its exclusive use in relation to his goods and 

services. 

Registration of trade mark gives the businessman an exclusive right to the use of trade 

mark. The object of trade mark law is to provide for the registration; better protection of trade 

marks for goods and services and the prevention of the use of fraudulent marks on goods and 

services. If there is any invasion of this right by any other person by a mark which is the same 

or deceptive similar to his trade marks, he can protect his trade mark by an action or infringement. 

In case of the infringement of registered trade mark or passing of a registered or 

unregistered trade mark, the trade mark law provide to the proprietor of the trade mark relief in 

114

the form of 

a) injunction. 

b) damages and 

c)account of profit. 

The Act also provide for the penalties in the form of 

a) imprisonment and 

b) Fines for the offence of falsification of trade mark and has false application of 

trade mark. 

2) The Patents Act, 1970 : 

A patent is a right granted to a person who has invented a new and useful article or an 

improvement of an existing article or a new process of making an article. 

It consists of an exclusive right to manufacture new article invented or manufacture an 

article according to the invented process for a limited period. 

The owner of the patent can sell his patent property. He can also grant licenses to others 

to exploit the patent. 

A patent system is justified because it encourages and develops new technology and 

industry. 

The objectives of the Act are : 

1) The protection of individual interest of the patent and 

2) The protection of interest of the society. 

This Act has been recently amended by the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2002. Section 48 

of the Amendment Act confers the exclusive right to prevent third parties, who do not have 

consent of patentee, from the act of making, using, offering for sale, selling or importing for 

those purposes his patent invention in India. 

The Supreme Court held that, "The object of Patent law is to encourage scientific research, 

new technology and industrial progress." 

3) The Copyright Act, 1957 : 

Copyright means the exclusive rights to do or authorise others to do certain acts in relation 

to (1) Literacy, dramatic, musical and artistic works. 

(2) Cinematograph film and 

(3) Sound recordings 

Basically copyrights is the right to copy or reproduce the word in which copyright subsists. 

115

The object of copyright law is to encourage authors composers, artists and designers who 

create original works by rewarding them with the exclusive right for a limited period to exploit 

the work for monetary gain. 

After signing the GATT, India entered into global market economy. Then the number of 

changes have been made in the Copyright Act of 1957 by the Amending Act of 1994. Now this 

law is more in lines with the present law in many developed countries. 

The technological progress has made reproduction of copyright material easy and cheap 

but at the same time it has made piracy of copyright work very simple and difficult to regulate 

and control them. Therefore, varions countries have joined together to form the International 

Conventions namely - The Bern Convention and Universal Copyright Convention. India is also 

a member of both the Conventions. 

4) The Designs Act, 2000 : (Registration of Designs) 

Under section 2 (d) of The Design Act, the "Design" means only the features of shape, 

configuration, pattern, ornaments or composition of lines or colours applied to any article whether 

in two dimensional or three dimensional or in both forms, by any industrial process or means, 

whether manual, mechanical or chemical, separate or combined, which in the finished article 

appeal to and are judged soley by the eye; but does not include any mode or principle of 

construction or anything which is in substance a mere mechanical device and does not include 

any trade mark or property mark or any artistic work. 

There are six features to a design : 

i) Shape ii) Configuration iii) Pattern iv) Ornament v) Composition of lines vi) Colours. 

The terms shape and configuration refer to the form of an article. It is usually three 

dimensional in nature. 

The terms pattern and ornament are decorative features ordinarily applied to the surface 

of the article. It is two dimensional in nature. 

The terms composition of lines and colours are applied to the surface of the article. 

116 

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g§ñWm H$m`Xm 2002 _Üò gwYmaUm gwM{dUo. 

4. ghH$mar MidirgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmè`m Am{U àg§JmZwgma CX²^dUmè`m ~m~tgmR>r Cnm` `moOZm 

gwM{dUo. 

ghH$mar g§ñWm Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo ghH$mar Midir~m~V gZ 1904 nmgyZ Zo_boë`m {d{dY g{_Ë`m§À`m 

{e\$maetMm AmT>mdm Am{U doJdoJù`m joÌmVrb ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m àJVrMm AmT>mdm KoVbm. ghH$mar 

Midirg§~§Yr gd© gmYH$ ~mYH$ Jmoï>tMm {dMma H$ê$Z ghH$mar MidirMo ñdê$n ñdm`Îm, ñdV§Ì d bmoH$emhr 

amhrb ho {dMmamV KoD$Z amÁ`KQ>ZoV ~Xb H$aÊ`mgmR>r {e\$maer Ho$ë`m. Ë`mMà_mUo ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$mar g§ñWm 

H$m`Xm 2002 _Üò ~Xb H$aÊ`mgmR>r gyMZm Ho$ë`m. ghH$mar g§ñWm Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrÀ`m {e\$maer àm_w»`mZo 

XmoZ ^mJmV {d^mJë`m AmhoV. 

1. amÁ`KQ>ZoVrb ~Xbmg§~§YrÀ`m {e\$maer. 

2. ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$mar g§ñWm H$m`Xm 2002 _Üò Ho$ë`m OmUmè`m XwéñË`m{df`H$ {e\$maer. 

ghH$mar g§ñWm Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrÀ`m _Vo ghH$mar g§ñWm `m àm_w»`mZo g^mgXm§À`m ñdm`Îm Am{U 

Am{W©H$ g§ñWm, ñdmdb§~r d ñdV: {Q>Hy$Z amhUmè`m, ñdV§Ì Mm§Jbo d nmaXe©H$ ì`dhma H$aUmè`m g§ñWm Am{U 

Á`m ghH$mar VÎdmda d _yë`mda MmbUmè`m g§ñWm AmhoV. `m gd© ~m~r {dMmamV KoD$Z `m g{_VrZo KQ>ZoV 

~Xb H$aÊ`mgmR>r nwT>rb {e\$maer gwM{dë`m AmhoV. 

(I) amÁ`KQ>ZoVrb ~Xbmg§~§YrÀ`m {e\$maer : 

1. Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo àW_ ApñVËdmV AgUmao XoemVrb ghH$mar g§ñWm§Mo àemgZ d {Z`§ÌUmMm 

{dMma Ho$bm. Ë`m§À`m _Vo ghH$ma hm {df` amÁ` gaH$maÀ`m AIË`m[aVrb Amho. Ë`m_wio doJdoJù`m amÁ`mV 

ghH$mam~m~V Ë`m§Mo ñdV§Ì ghH$ma H$m`Xo AmhoV. Ë`m_wio ghH$mar Midi ñdV§Ì d bmoH$emhr ñdê$nmMr ahmdr 

åhUyZ gd© amÁ`mVrb ghH$ma H$m`Úm_Üò EH$ê$nVm AWdm EH$gmaIonUm Agbm nm{hOo. VgoM gaH$mar 

ZmoH$aemhrÀ`m A{V[aŠV {Z`§ÌU d hñVjonmnmgyZ ghH$mar Midi _wŠV Ho$br nm{hOo. AZoH$ amÁ`m§Zr "_m°S>ob 

H$mo Am°nao{Q>ìh A°ŠQ>'/ AmXe© ghH$ma H$m`ÚmÀ`m YVuda Amnë`m amÁ`m§_Üò ghH$ma H$m`Xo ~Z{dbo AmhoV. 

ho H$m`Xo Á`m ghH$mar g§ñWm_Üò gaH$maMr ^m{JXmar Zmhr, Aem ghH$mar g§ñWmgmR>r V`ma Ho$bo AmhoV. 

Ë`m_wio `m g{_VrÀ`m Ñ{ï>H$moZ Agm Pmbr H$s ghH$mar g§ñWmMr ñdm`ÎmVm {Q>H${dÊ`mgmR>r amÁ`KQ>ZoV H$mhr 

~Xb Ho$bo nm{hOo, Á`m_wio ghH$ma H$m`Xm amÁ`KQ>ZoÀ`m Mm¡H$Q>rV òB©b d Ë`mbm H$m`Xoera ñdê$n àmá hmoB©b. 

`m g{_VrZo 7 OyZ 2007 amoOr amÁ`KQ>ZoVrb d ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$ma H$m`Xm 2002 _Üò ~Xb H$aÊ`mg§~§YrMm 

Amnbm Ahdmb H|$Ð gaH$mabm gmXa Ho$bm. Ë`m_Üò nwT>rb ~Xb gwM{dÊ`mV Ambo AmhoV. 

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1. `m Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo amÁò d H|$ÐmÀ`m AIË`m[aVrb ghH$mar g§ñWm§À`m pñWVrMm Aä`mg Ho$bm 

d amÁ`KQ>ZoVrb IX-A EodOr IX-B H$b_ gwM{dbo, Oo n§Mm`V amÁ` g§ñWm d ZJanm{bH$m§ZmXoIrb bmJy hmoVo. 

ho H$b_ ñnï> H$aVo H$s ghH$mar g§ñWm `m gaH$maÀ`m {Z`§ÌUmImbrb g§ñWm hmoV. na§Vw ZJanm{bH$m d n§Mm`V 

amÁ` g§ñWmZm bmJy Ho$bo OmUmao VÎd AWdm g_mZVm ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm bmJy nS>obM Ago Zìho, Ago `m g{_VrMo 

_V ~Zbo. n§Mm`V amÁ` g§ñWm d ZJanm{bH$m `m bmoH$m§À`mH$Sy>Z Mmb{dë`m OmVmV na§Vw ghH$mar g§ñWm `m 

ñd`§em{gV g§ñWm hmoV. 

amÁ`KQ>ZoVrb H$b_ 19 (1) (C) Am{U H$b_ 19 (4) Zwgma ZmJ[aH$m§Zm g§ñWm qH$dm g§KQ>Zm ñWmnZ 

H$aÊ`mMm h¸$ ~hmb H$aVo, na§Vw ghH$mar g§ñWm ñWmnZ H$aÊ`m~m~VMo ñnï>rH$aU XoV Zmhr. ghH$mar g§ñWm `m 

amÁ`m§À`m `mXr_Üò (state list) g_m{dï> AmhoV, Va H|$ÐmÀ`m `mXr_Üò g_m{dï> ZmhrV (Centralist) H$m_Jma 

g§KQ>Zm g_dVu `mXr (gm_mB©H$ `mXr) (Concurrent list) _Üò g_m{dï> AmhoV åhUyZ KQ>ZoMo 19 (1) (C) ho 

H$b_ Oo gy{MV H$aVo, Vo ñnï>nUo _m§S>Uo JaOoMo Amho. ghH$mar g§ñWm `m bmoH$m§À`m g§KQ>Zm AmhoV Ë`m_wio 

Ë`m§À`mda Or ~§YZo/{Z~ªY Kmbmd`mMo AgVrb Vo amÁ`KQ>ZoÀ`m H$b_ 19 (4) À`m Mm¡H$Q>rVM Agbo 

nm{hOoV. 

Ë`mMà_mUo H$m`Xm d H$moQ>mªZr {Xbobo Ý`m`-{ZdmS>o ñnï> H$aVmV H$s ghH$mar g§ñWm `m gaH$maZo ñWmnZ 

Ho$boë`m g§ñWm AmhoV, g^mgXm§Zr {Z_m©U Ho$boë`m g§ñWm ZìhoV. Ë`m_wio amÁ`KQ>ZoV ghH$mar g§ñWm§Mr {ZpíMV 

Aer ì`m»`m Agbr nm{hOo, Á`m_Üò ghH$mar g§ñWm `m bmoH$m§Zr (_mbH$sÀ`m) ñWmnZ Ho$boë`m, {Z`§{ÌV 

Ho$boë`m d Mmb{dboë`m g§ñWm hmoV Ago ñnï> hmoB©b. 

ghH$mar g§ñWm Cƒm{YH$ma g{_Vrbm Aer ^rVr dmQ>V hmoVr H$s, ghH$mar g§ñWm ~m~V IX-A Z§Va IX- 

B hm ^mJ n§Mm`V amÁ` g§ñWm d ZJanm{bH$m§À`m ~amo~a, amÁ`KQ>ZoV g_m{dï> H$aVmZm ghH$mar g§ñWm gwÕm 

gaH$maÀ`m {Z`§ÌUmImbrb g§ñWm AmhoV, Agm AW© hmoB©b. Ë`m_wio hm ^mJ, amÁ`KQ>ZoV g_m{dï> H$aVmZm 

bmoH$gôÀ`m H${_Q>rZo (Parlimentary Committee) Aer XjVm KoVbr nm{hOo H$s, darb dmŠàMZm ghH$mar 

g§ñWm§Zm bmJy hmoUma Zmhr. WmoS>Š`mV, ghH$mar g§ñWm gaH$maÀ`m {Z`§ÌUmV AgUma ZmhrV. 

(A) amÁ`KQ>ZoÀ`m H$b_ 19 (1) (C) _Üò _wb^yV h¸$ ghH$mar g§ñWmMm g_mdoe H$aÊ`mg§~§YrÀ`m 

{e\$maer : 

ghH$mar g§ñWm Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo KQ>ZoÀ`m H$b_ 19 (1) (C) _Üò Imbrb ~m~tMm g_mdoe H$amdm 

Aer {e\$mag Ho$br Amho. 

1) amÁ`KQ>ZoÀ`m H$b_ 19 (1) (C) _Üò "g§KQ>Zm' (Associations) `m eãXmEodOr "ghH$mar g§ñWm' 

(Co-operative societies) hm eãX Kmbmdm 

2) amÁ`KQ>Zo_Üò CnH$b_ (4) g_m{dï> H$amdo Oo ghH$mar g§ñWoMr ì`m»`m ñnï> H$aVo Am{U Ë`mMm 

AW© Agm hmoVmo H$s, ghH$mar g§ñWm EopÀN>H$, bmoH$emhr, ñdm`Îm d g^mgXm§Mm Am{W©H$ gh^mJ `m VÎdmda 

ñWmnZ Ho$ë`m OmVrb d Mmb{dë`m OmVrb. 

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(~) {Z`mo{OV IX-B ^mJ amÁ`KQ>ZoV g_m{dï> H$aÊ`mg§~§YrÀ`m {e\$maer : 

1) Cƒm{YH$mar g{_VrZo ghH$mar g§ñWm~m~V Imbrb ^mJ amÁ`KQ>ZoV g_m{dï> H$amdm Ago gwM{dbo. 

Á`m_wio Ë`m gaH$maÀ`m {Z`§ÌUmnmgyZ Xya amhVrb Ë`m~m~V H$b_mà_mUo {e\$maer nwT>rb hmoV. 

2) ghH$mar g§ñWm. 

243. ZH ì`m»`m : `m ^mJmV nwT>rb ~m~tMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

(A) {H«$`merb g^mgX (Active member) : Omo g^mgX ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m H$m_H$mOmV {VÀ`m 

nmoQ>{Z`_mZwgma gh^mJr hmoVmo, Ë`mg {H«$`merb g^mgX Ago åhUmdo. 

(~) A{YH¥$V ì`ŠVr (Authorised Person) : Or ì`ŠVr KQ>ZoÀ`m H$b_ 243 ZQ Zwgma A{YH¥$V 

ì`ŠVr åhUyZ AmoiIbr OmVo, Aer ì`ŠVr. 

(H$) _§S>i (Board) : åhUOo ghH$mar g§ñWmMo {Z`§ÌU H$aUmar g§ñWm hmo`. Or H$moUË`mhr ZmdmZo 

AmoiIbr OmV Agob Am{U {OÀ`m hmVr ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m H$m_H$mO{df`H$ ì`dñWmnZmMo {X½Xe©Z d 

{Z`§ÌU AgVo Aer g§km hmo`. 

(S>) ghH$mar g§ñWm (A Co-operative society) : ghH$mar g§ñWm åhUOo Aer ñdm`Îm g§ñWm H$s Or 

bmoH$m§Zr ñdoÀN>oZo EH${ÌV òD$Z ñdV:À`m g_mZ JaOm d C{Ôï>o nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r d bmoH$emhr VÎdo d _yë`mZwgma 

ApñVËdmV AgUmè`m amÁ` AWdm H|$Ð gaH$maÀ`m ghH$ma H$m`ÚmZwgma Zm|Xbobr AWdm Zm|Xbr OmUmar g§ñWm 

hmo`. 

(B©) "gaH$ma' (Government) : åhUOo H|$Ð gaH$ma AWdm amÁ` gaH$ma hmo`. 

(\$) ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$mar g§ñWm (Multi-state Co-operative society) : åhUOo Aer g§ñWm H$s 

{OMo H$m`©joÌ EH$mnojm A{YH$ amÁ`m§_Üò AgVo Am{U ApñVËdmV AgUmè`m H$moUË`mhr ghH$mar H$m`ÚmZwgma 

{VMr Zm|XUr Pmbobr AgVo. AWdm Zm|Xbr OmUmar AgVo. 

(J) A{YH$mar (Office bearer) : ghH$mar g§ñWoMm A{YH$mar åhUOo AÜ`j, CnmÜ`j, g{Md, 

I{OZXma qH$dm g§MmbH$ _§S>im_Üò {ZdSy>Z Ambobr H$moUVrhr ì`ŠVr hmo`. 

(M) amÁ`ñVar` ghH$mar g§ñWm : åhUOo amÁ`mVrb H$m`Xo _§S>imZo V`ma Ho$boë`m ghH$mar H$m`ÚmZwgma 

{ZX}erV Ho$bobr d {OMo H$m`©joÌ g§nyU© amÁ`â AgUmar ghH$mar g§ñWm hmo`. 

(N>) df© (Year) : åhUOo 31 _mM© amoOr g§nUmao df© hmo`. 

243. ZI ghH$mar g§ñWmMo EH${ÌH$aU (Incorporation of co-operative society) : amÁ`mMo H$m`Xo_§S>i, 

H$m`ÚmZwgma ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m EH${ÌH$aUmMr {Z`§ÌUmMr d ~§X H$aÊ`mMr VaVyX H$aVo, Á`m ghH$mar g§ñWm 

EopÀN>H$, bmoH$emhr, ñdm`ÎmVm d g^mgXm§Mo Am{W©H$ {hV `m VÎdmda H$m`} H$arV AgVmV. 

243. ZJ ghH$mar g§ñWmMm A{YH$mar d g§MmbH$ _§S>imVrb gXñ` g§ñWm d H$m`©H$mb (Number 

and terms of members of Board of Directors and its office bearers) : 

1) ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>imV {H$Vr gXñ` g§»`m Agmdr ho amÁ` gaH$maÀ`m H$m`ÚmV Z_yX 

4

Ho$bobo AgVo, na§Vw 21 nojm OmñV gXñ` g§MmbH$ _§S>imV ZgmdoV. 

2) \$ŠV {H«$`merb g^mgXM g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m {ZdS>UwH$sV _VXmZ H$ê$ eH$Vrb d {ZdS>UyH$ 

bT>dy eH$Vrb. na§Vw _§Ìr ghH$mar g§ñWoMo AÜ`j, CnmÜ`j (MoAa_Z qH$dm ìhmB©g MoAa_Z) hmoÊ`mg nmÌ 

ZmhrV. VgoM Á`m g^mgXm§Zm ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr {ZdS>UyH$ bT>dm`Mr AgVo Ë`m§Mm g§ñWoÀ`m 

ì`dgm`mer H$moUË`mhr àH$maMm g§~§Y AgVm H$m_m Zò. 

3) g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr _wXV {ZdS>UyH$ Pmë`mÀ`m VmaIonmgyZ nwT>o nmM dfo© amhrb. g§MmbH$ _§S>imV 

{ZdSy>Z Ambobo gXñ`M (MoAa_Z, ìhmB©g MoAa_Z) AÜ`j qH$dm CnmÜ`jm§À`m {ZdS>UyH$sg Cô amhÊ`mg 

AWdm _XVmZ H$aÊ`mg nmÌ AgVrb. 

g§MmbH$ _§S>im_Üò H$mhr H$maUm_wio EImXr OmJm [aŠV Pmë`mg Vr âÊ`mMm A{YH$ma g§MmbH$ 

_§S>imbm Agob Va g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr _wXV _yi _wXVrÀ`m (5 df}) {Zåå`mnojm H$_r Agob VaM Aer OmJm 

âVm òB©b. 

4) amÁ` gaH$maÀ`m H$m`Xo_§S>imbm [aŠV g§MmbH$mMr OmJm âVm òB©b, Vmo g§MmbH$ ~±H$s¨J, ì`dñWmnZ 

AWdm {dÎmr` dJ¡ao joÌmVrb VÁk ì`ŠVr Agbm nm{hOo. na§Vw Aem Zo_ë`m OmUmè`m g^mgXm§Mr g§»`m 

XmoZnojm OmñV AgVm H$m_m Zò. VgoM g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m {ZdS>UyH$rV nam^yV Pmboë`m C_oXdmambm g§MmbH$ 

_§S>imda pñdH¥$V gXñ` åhUyZ Zo_Vm òUma Zmhr. 

243. ZK g§MmbH$ _§S>i gXñ`m§Mr {ZdS>UyH$ (Election of members of Board) : 

amÁ`mÀ`m ghH$ma H$m`ÚmZwgma ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>imbm ghH$mar g§ñWm d {VÀ`mer g§~§YrV 

gd© {ZdS>UwH$m KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma Agob, VgoM g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr _wXV g§nÊ`mnydu `m {ZdS>UyH$m KoVë`m 

nm{hOoV, Ë`mgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmar à{H«$`m d _mJ©Xe©Z amÁ` gaH$maMo H$m`Xo_§S>i nwadob. 

243. ZL g§MmbH$ _§S>i aÔ H$aUo (Supersession of Board of Directors) : 

ghH$ma H$m`ÚmMm _gwXm ñnï> H$aVmo H$s ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m OmJr BVa H$moUmMrhr 

Zo_UyH$ H$aVm òUma Zmhr AWdm ghm _{hÝ`mÀ`m H$mbmdYrnojm OmñV H$mi g§MmbH$ _§S>imbm ñW{JVr XoVm 

òUma Zmhr. VWm{n ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$mar g§ñWm ì`{V[aŠV AgUmar ghH$mar g§ñWm Or ~±H$s¨J ì`dgm` H$aVo, 

Aem g§ñWogmR>r hr VaVyX 6 _{hÝ`mEodOr 1 df© amhrb, Á`m g§ñWoV gaH$maMr ^m{JXmar, {dÎmr` _XV AWdm 

gaH$maMr h_r Zgob. 

`m g{_VrZo gyM{dbo H$s ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m JÀN>§Xrg AWdm H$mTy>Z Q>mH$Ê`mg 

H$moUË`mhr n[apñWVrV nadmZJr AgUma Zmhr, Á`m g§ñWoV gaH$maMo ^mJ^m§S>db 51% nojm H$_r Agob. 

243. ZM ghH$mar g§ñWmMr {hemo~ VnmgUr (Audit of Accounts of co-operative Societies) : 

àËòH$ ghH$mar g§ñWoZo dfm©VyZ EH$Xm H$m`ÚmZwgma {hemo~ VnmgUr H$aÊ`mMr VaVyX H$amdr. hr {hemo~ 

VnmgUr H$m`ÚmZwgma _mÝ` Agboë`m {hemo~ VnmgUrH$Sy>Z H$ê$Z ¿`mdr. Ë`m {hemo~ VnmgUrgmMr Zo_UyH$ 

ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m gd©gmYmaU gôZo H$amdr. àËòH$ ghH$mar g§ñWoMr {hemo~ VnmgUr Am{W©H$ dfm©À`m ghm 

5

_{hÝ`mÀ`m AmV H$amdr. 

243. ZN gd©gmYmaU g^m ~mobmdUo (Convening of the general body meeting) : 

ghH$ma H$m`ÚmZwgma ghH$mar g§ñWoMr gd©gmYmaU g^m Am{W©H$ df© g§nÊ`mnydu ghm _{hÝ`mÀ`m AmV 

~mobdmdr d gôMo H$m_H$mO H$amdo. 

243. ZO g^mgXm§Mm _m{hVr {_i{dÊ`mMm A{YH$ma (Right of a member of get Information): 

ghH$ma H$m`ÚmZwgma àËòH$ ghH$mar g§ñWoZo Amnë`m H$m_H$mOmer g§~§YrV nwñVHo$, _m{hVr, {hemo~ dJ¡ao 

àËòH$ g^mgXmbm CnbãY H$ê$Z {Xbr nm{hOoV. VgoM ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m ì`dñWmnZm_Yrb àËòH$ g^mgXmZo 

{H$_mZ H$mhr {_Q>tJZm CnpñWV am{hboM nm{hOo. VgoM àËòH$ g^mgXmbm {ejU à{ejU XoUo ~§YZH$maH$ Amho. 

243. ZP _m{hVrnÌH$ (Returens) : 

àËòH$ Am{W©H$ df© g§nyÊ`mnydu 6 _{hÝ`mÀ`m AmV ghH$mar g§ñWoZo amÁ` gaH$maZo {Z`wŠV Ho$boë`m 

A{YH$mè`mbm Amnbo _m{hVrnÌH$ gmXa Ho$bo nm{hOo. Á`m_Üò dm{f©H$ Ahdmb, Am°{S>Q>aZo Vnmgbobo {hemo~nÌH$, 

Am{YŠ` dmQ>nmMr `moOZm, nmoQ>{Z`_ XwéñË`m, gd©gmYmaU gôMr VmarI, {ZdS>UyH$m KoÊ`mg§~§YrMr 

_m{hVr BË`mXtMm g_mdoe Agmdm. 

243. ZQ JwÝho d X§S> (Offences and Penalties) : 

amÁ`mMo H$m`Xo_§S>i Imbrb JwÝømgmR>r X§S> AmH$maUr H$aÊ`mg§~§Yr H$m`Xm H$aÊ`mMr VaVyX H$aob. _wÔm_ 

MyH$sMr _m{hVr XoUo, My{H$Mo _m{hVr nÌH$ V`ma H$aUo, _wÔm_ EImXr _m{hVr Z XoUo, g^mgX, ZmoH$aXma AWdm 

A{YH$mè`mZo H$m`ÚmMo C„§KZ H$aUo, ^«ï>mMma dJ¡ao. 

243. ZR ~hþamÁ`r` d H|$Ðem{gV àXoemV ghH$mar g§ñWm ñWmnZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r AO© H$aUo (Application 

to Multi-state co-operative Societies and union territories) : 

hr VaVyX ~hþamÁ` ghH$mar g§ñWm d H|$Ðem{gV àXoemVrb ghH$mar g§ñWmZm bmJy nS>Vo. 

II) ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$mar g§ñWm H$m`Xm 2002 _Yrb XwéñË`m (Amedment to the multi-state cooperative 

Societies Act 2002) : 

Joë`m gmV dfm©nmgyZ ~hþamÁ` ghH$mar H$m`Xm 2002 ApñVËdmV Amho, `m§Mr `m g{_VrZo Zm|X KoVbr. 

hm H$m`Xm A{YH$ ì`mnH$ H$ê$Z ~hþamÁ` ghH$mar g§ñWm g_moarb g_ñ`m Xya H$aÊ`mgmR>r Ë`m_Üò ~Xb H$aUo 

Amdí`H$ Amho, Ago `m g{_VrMo _V ~Zbo. `m ~m~V Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo Imbrb {e\$maer Ho$ë`m. 

1. `m ghH$mar g§ñWmgmR>r Am§Vaamï´>r` _mÝ` Pmbobr ghH$mamMr ì`m»`m bmJy H$amdr, Á`m_wio `m 

g§ñWmMo EopÀN>H$, ñdm`Îm d bmoH$emhr ñdê$n {Q>Hy$Z amhrb. 

2. ghH$mar g§ñWm `m g^mgXm§À`m _mbH$sÀ`m d Ë`m§À`mH$Sy>Z {Z`§{ÌV Ho$ë`m OmUmè`m g§ñWm AmhoV, 

Ë`m_wio `m H$m`ÚmV "{H«$`merb g^mgX' hr g§H$ënZm g_m{dï> H$amdr. VgoM {H«$`merb g^mgXm§Mr ì`m»`m 

XoIrb g_m{dï> H$amdr. `m H$m`Úm_Üò Aer VaVyX Amho H$s \$ŠV {H«$`merb g^mgXmbmM _V XoÊ`mMm d 

6

{ZdS>UyH$sbm Cô amhÊ`mMm A{YH$ma amhrb. 

3. `m Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo Aer {e\$mag Ho$br H$s H§$nZr H$m`ÚmV g_m{dï> Agbobr {dídñVmÀ`m 

O~m~Xmar~m~VMr VaVyX `m H$m`ÚmV (MSCS - 2002) g_m{dï> H$amdr. hr VaVyX ghH$mar g§ñWoMo g§MmbH$ 

_§S>i d pñdH¥$V g^mgXm§ZmXoIrb ~§YZH$maH$ amhrb. 

4. `m g{_VrZo {e\$mag Ho$bo H$s, ghH$mamV Ym{_©H$ d amOH$s` g§KQ>ZmZm ~§Xr KmbÊ`mMr VaVyX 

H$amdr. 

5. _VXmZmMm h¸$ Zgboë`m ^mJ {dH«$sÛmao d Iwë`m ~mOmamV eoAg©Mr {dH«$s H$ê$Z ^m§S>db C^maUr 

H$aÊ`mMr VaVyX `m H$m`ÚmV H$amdr, Aer {e\$mag `m g{_VrZo Ho$br. 

lr. {edmOramd nmQ>rb `m§À`m AÜ`jVoImbr AgUmè`m ghH$ma{df`H$ Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo ghH$mam~m~V 

darb {e\$maer Ho$ë`m. 

ghH$ma{df`H$ Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrÀ`m {e\$maer : 

gZ 2005 _Üò ghH$mam~m~V AmT>mdm KoD$Z {e\$maer H$aÊ`mgmR>r lr. {edmOramd nmQ>rb g{_VrZo 

nwT>rb {e\$maer Ho$ë`m. 

1. ghH$mar g§ñWm `m Ë`m§À`m g^mgXm§À`m g§ñWm hmoV. Ë`m àm_w»`mZo ñdm`Îm d Am{W©H$ g§ñWm AmhoV. 

ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m g^mgXm§Zr Ë`m§À`m gd©gm_mÝ` Am{W©H$, gm_m{OH$ d gm§ñH¥${VH$ JaOm nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

EopÀN>H$[aË`m EH${ÌV òD$Z ñWmnZ Ho$boë`m AgVmV. Ë`m g^mgXm§À`m g§`wŠV _mbH$sÀ`m AgVmV d bmoH$emhr 

VÎdmda MmbVmV. VgoM Ë`m ñdmdb§~r d ñd`§nyU© g§ñWm hmoV. ghH$mamMr VÎdo d _yëò S>moù`mg_moa R>odyZ 

ghH$mar g§ñWm ñdV§Ì, Mm§Jbo d nmaXe©H$ H$m`© H$arV AgVmV. g^mgXm§Mo H$ë`mU d {dH$mg, ì`mdgm{`H$Vm, 

XOm© d EH$Vm hr ghH$mar g§ñWm§Mr Mm§Jbr d¡{eï>ço hmoV. {ejU d OmJê$H$Vm ho ghH$mar g§ñWm§Mo A§VJ©V JwU 

hmoV. 

2. ghH$mar g§ñWm§Mr darb d¡{eï>ço {dMmamV KoD$Z AmOÀ`m ñnY}À`m `wJmV `m g{_VrZo ghH$mar 

g§ñWmMo àíZ d AmìhmZm§Mm {dMma Ho$bm. `m g{_VrZo ghH$mar g§ñWm g_moarb àíZm§Mo XmoZ ^mJmV d{J©H$aU 

Ho$bo - (1) H$m`m©Ë_H$ àíZ : `m_Üò g^mgXËd, {Z`§ÌU d H$m_ H$aÊ`mMr H¥$Vr `m àíZm§Mm g_mdoe 

hmoVmo, (2) ~mø àíZ : `m_Üò amO{H$`rH$aU, {Z`§ÌU d gaH$mar hñVjon `m§Mm g_mdoe H$aÊ`mV Ambm. 

3. H$m`Xoera `mo½`Vm hr ghH$mar g§ñWmMr à_wI JaO Amho. ho AmoiIyZ `m g{_VrZo `m~m~V 

_hÎdnyU© {e\$maer Ho$ë`m. Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo amÁ`KQ>ZoVrb 106 dr XwéñVr d ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$mar H$m`Xm 

2002 `m§Mm Aä`mg H$ê$Z Ë`m~m~V H$b_mZwgma {e\$maer Ho$ë`m. 

4. `m g{_VrZo ghH$mar H$m`Xm d ghH$mar g§ñWm§Mo Cn{Z`_ `m_Üò `mo½` XwéñË`m H$aÊ`mg§~§Yr 

{e\$maer Ho$ë`m. 

5. àJVrerb Am{U gw`mo½` H$m`Xm : gÚ:pñWVrV ghH$mar g§ñWm ~§YZmË_H$ H$m`ÚmZwgma MmbVmV, 

Ë`m_wio ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m H$m`©àUmbr_Üò gwYmaUm hmoÊ`mgmR>r àJVrerb d gw`mo½` H$m`Úm§Mr Amdí`H$Vm 

7

Amho. Á`m_wio Ë`m BVa g§ñWmer ñnYm© XoD$ eH$Vrb Ë`mgmR>r `m g{_VrZo nwT>rb {e\$maer Ho$ë`m AmhoV. 

5.1 ~«÷àH$me Mm¡Yar H${_Q>rZo gwM{dbobm d BVa g{_Ë`m§Zr _mÝ` Ho$bobm _m°S>ob ghH$mar H$m`Xm hm 

EH$M H$m`Xm {d{dY amÁ`mV àMbrV Agboë`m doJdoJù`m ghH$mar H$m`Úm§EodOr bmJy H$amdm. 

5.2 {d{dY amÁ`mV àMbrV Agbobo g_m§Va ghH$mar H$m`Xo ho H$_r Cn`mo{JVoMo Am{U àíZ {Z_m©U 

H$aUmao AmhoV. amÁ`mV àM{bV Agboë`m H$m`ÚmEodOr bmJy Ho$ë`m OmUmè`m H$m`Úmbm {Q>H$md Yê$ eHo$b 

Agm Xwgam n`m©` CnbãY Zmhr. Zdm ghH$mar H$m`Xm g^mgXm§Mr H$miOr KoUmam d ghH$mar VÎdm§da AmYmabobm 

Agë`m_wio Ë`mbm Xwgam n`m©` Zmhr. 

5.2.1 Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo gwM{dbobm _m°S>ob (AmXe©) ghH$mar H$m`Xm d ~¡ÚZmWZ g{_VrZo gwM{dboë`m 

Xwê$ñË`m ì`mnH$ ñdê$nmÀ`m AmhoV. VWm{n, AmUIr H$mhr A{YH$ ~Xbm§Mr Amdí`H$Vm {dMmamV KoVm 

Imbrb ~m~tda â Úmdm. 

5.2.2 gaH$mabm H$m`Xm H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma Zmhr. gaH$ma hm A{YH$ma XñVyaIwÔ H$m`Úm_ÜòM g_m{dï> 

Amho. ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m gd© H$m`Xo{df`H$ ~m~r {VÀ`m nmoQ>{Z`_m_Üò g_m{dï> Ho$ë`m nm{hOoV. 

5.3 darb ~m~r {dMmamV KoD$Z ghH$mar g§ñWm `m Am{W©H$ g§ñWm AmhoV, ho ñnï> H$aÊ`mgmR>r H$m`ÚmMr 

JaO Amho, Ë`mgmR>r ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m ñnï> ì`m»òMr Amdí`H$Vm Amho. `m g{_VrZo ghH$mar g§ñWmMr nwT>rb 

ì`m»`m Ho$br - 

""ghH$mar g§ñWm åhUOo Aer ñdm`Îm g§ñWm H$s, Or bmoH$m§Zr ñdoÀN>oZo EH${ÌV òD$Z ñdV:À`m g_mZ 

JaOm d C{Ôï>o gmÜ` H$aÊ`mgmR>r g§`wŠV _mbH$sÀ`m d bmoH$emhr VÎdo d _yë`mZwgma MmbUmar g§ñWm hmo`.'' 

ghH$mar g§ñWoMr hr ì`m»`m ^maVr` amÁ` KQ>Zm, ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$ma H$m`Xm 2002 d gd© amÁ`mVrb ghH$mar 

H$m`Úm§_Üò g_m{dï> H$amdr. 

5.4 ghH$mar g§ñWm_Yrb g^mgXm§Mm gh^mJ dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r d ghH$mar g§ñWoer g§~§YrV Zgboë`m 

bmoH$m§Zm Xya R>odÊ`mgmR>r ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$mar H$m`Xm d amÁ` ghH$mar H$m`Úm§_Üò nwT>rb ~m~r g_m{dï> 

H$amì`mV. 

(1) {H«$`merb g^mgXmMr ì`m»`m - ""Omo g^mgX ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m H$m_H$mOmV gh^mJr AgVmo, 

{VÀ`m nmoQ>{Z`_mZwgma {VMm godm§Mm bm^ KoVmo. 

(2) {H«$`merb g^mgXmMm ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m ì`dgm`mV dmQ>m AgVmo Am{U Ë`mbm _V XoÊ`mMm d 

~moS>m©À`m {ZdS>UyH$sbm Cô amhÊ`mMm A{YH$ma AgVmo. 

(3) ghH$mar g§ñWoMm dmna Z H$aUmè`m g^mgXm§Zm H$_r H$aÊ`mgmR>r ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m nmoQ>{Z`_m_Üò 

Ë`m§Mo g^mgXËd Wm§~{dÊ`mgmR>r VaVyX H$amdr, Ooìhm {H$_mZ g§ñWoV ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m godm§Mm {d{eï> H$mimV 

dmna H$arV ZmhrV d ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m Amdí`H$ {_Q>tJ_Üò gh^mJr hmoV ZmhrV. 

5.5 ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr n[aUm_H$maH$Vm gwYmaÊ`mgmR>r {deofV: Ë`m§Mr {dídñVnUmMr 

^w{_H$m d bmoH$m§Mm {dídmg dmT>{dÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar VgoM ghH$mar g§ñWoMr O~m~XmanUm d ì`mdgm{`H$VoMr 

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h_r XoUmè`m H$m`Úm_Üò nwT>rb VaVwXr Agmì`mV. 

5.5.1 ghH$mar g§ñWoMo g§MmbH$ _§S>i, nJmar H$m`©H$mar A{YH$mar d ì`dñWmnH$m§Mr ^y{_H$m O~m~Xmar 

ñnîQ>nUo {ZpíMV H$amdr. g§MmbH$ _§S>imZo ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m YmoaU{df`H$ ~m~r d à_wI ì`mdgm{`H$ {ZU©` 

¿`mdoV, `moOZm V`ma H$amì`mV d {d{eï> H$mbrZ C{Ôï>o R>admdrV Va X¡Z§{XZ {ZU©` H$m`©H$mar A{YH$mè`m§Zr 

¿`mdoV. 

5.5.2 ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>imVrb g§MmbH$m§Zm H§$nZr H$m`ÚmVrb {dídñVnUmMr VaVyX 

~§YZH$maH$ amhrb. VgoM g§MmbH$ _§S>imZo Ë`m§Mo {hVg§~§Y Jw§Vboë`m ~m~r CKS> H$amì`mV Á`m_wio g§Kf© 

Q>miVm òB©b. Ë`mgmR>r Cƒm{YH$mar g{_VrZo nwT>rb {e\$maer Ho$ë`m. 

(1) g§MmbH$ _§S>imMo {hVg§~§Y Agboë`m ~m~r CKS> H$aUo - ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m àËòH$ g^mgXmZo Omo 

ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m gm¡ÚmV AWdm ì`dhmamV ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m dVrZo àË`j AWdm AàË`jnUo gh^mJr Agob 

AWdm g§~§YrV Agob Va Ë`mZo Ë`mMm g§~§Y g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m ~¡R>H$s_Üò CKS> H$amdm / ñnï> H$amdm. 

(2) Omo g§MmbH$ ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m ì`dhmamV gh^mJr Agob Ë`mZo g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m H$m_H$mOmV 

gh^mJr hmoD$ Zò. Ë`mZo g§MmbH$ åhUyZ g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m H$m_H$mOmg AWdm MM}g AWdm ghH$mar 

g§ñWoÀ`m dVrZo EImXm ì`dhma hmoV Agë`mg Ë`mbm CnpñWV amhÿ Zò. 

5.5.3 ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m nmoQ>{Z`_m_Üò ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>imgmR>r ghH$mar VÎdm§er 

OwiUmao d `mo½` Ago {ZH$f _m§S>mdoV / bmJy H$amdoV. 

5.5.4 ghH$mar g§ñWoV Á`m ì`ŠVrbm pñdH¥$V g^mgX åhUyZ gm_rb H$ê$Z KoVbo OmVo, Vr ì`ŠVr 

ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m ì`dgm`mer g§~§YrV joÌm_Yrb VÁk ì`ŠVr Agbr nm{hOo. ghH$mar g§ñWoZo VÁk ì`ŠVtMm 

{dMma H$ê$Z, Vr ì`ŠVr ghH$mar g§ñWobm H$m_H$mOm_Üò Cn`wŠV R>abr nm{hOo. ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m ì`mdgm{`H$ 

{ZU©`m_Üò Ë`m ì`ŠVrbm _VXmZ H$aÊ`mMr nadmZJr Agob. 

5.5.5 ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m {ZdSy>Z Amboë`m àËòH$ g§MmbH$mZo {ZdSy>Z Amë`mnmgyZ ghm _{hÝ`mÀ`m 

AmV {d{eï> à{ejU H$m`©H«$_ nyU© H$aUo ~§YZH$maH$ amhrb. OoUo H$ê$Z Ë`mÀ`m Hw$ebVoV d kmZmV â nSy>Z 

Vmo Amnë`mda gmon{dboë`m O~m~Xmè`m g_mYmZH$maH$[aË`m nma nmSy> eHo$b. ho ~§YZ nmibo Zmhr Va Vmo 

g§MmbH$ åhUyZ H$m_ H$aÊ`mg AnmÌ R>aob. 

5.5.6 ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m nmoQ>{Z`_m_Üò ì`dñWmnH$s` g§MmbH$m§Mr nmÌVm Z_yX Ho$bobr Agmdr. 

5.6 ghH$mar g§ñWm_Yrb amOH$s` hñVjon H$_r H$aÊ`mgmR>r _m°S>ob ghH$mar H$m`ÚmVrb {e\$maetÀ`m 

A§_b~OmdUr~amo~aM Ë`mgmR>r H$m`Xm H$amdm. 

5.6.1 ghH$mar g§ñWoMm _VXmZ h¸$ {VMo Aml` XmVo d {H«$`merb g^mgXm§nwaVoM _`m©{XV AgmdoV. 

Ë`m_wio ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m ì`dñWmnH$s` _§S>imda {H«$`merb g^mgXm§ZmM {ZdSy>Z XoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma Agob, 

amOH$s` ì`ŠVr ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m {H«$`merb g^mgX AgVmV, Ë`m§Zm g§MmbH$ _§S>imda {ZdSy>Z OmÊ`mMm d 

H$m_H$mOmV gh^mJr hmoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma Amho, Oa Vo {ZdSy>Z Ambo Va. 

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5.6.2 CƒñVar` ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m H$m_H$mOmV {ZU©`à{H«$òV ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m A{YH¥$V g^mgXm§Zm 

gh^mJr hmoÊ`mMm h¸$ amhrb. 

5.6.3 g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr AmirnmirZo {Zd¥Îmr - g§MmbH$ _§S>imVrb gXñ`m§Mr {Zd¥Îmr hr 

AmirnmhrZo am{hb, Á`m_wio ZdrZ {dMmagaUrMo bmoH$ g§MmbH$ _§S>imV òVrb d g§MmbH$ _§S>iXoIrb H$m`_ 

amhrb. 

5.6.4 ghH$mar g§ñWoMm g^mgX Pmë`mZ§Va 12 _{hÝ`m§Zr Ë`mbm _VXmZmMm h¸$ amhrb. åhUOo g^mgX 

Pmë`mnmgyZ n{hbo 12 _{hZo Ë`mbm _VXmZmMm h¸$ AgUma Zmhr. `m ~§YZm_wio _VXmZmgmR>r g^mgX hmoÊ`mda 

_`m©Xm nS>Vrb d g^mgXm§Mr ^mD$JXu hmoUma Zmhr. 

5.6.5 amOH$s` d Ym{_©H$ g§KQ>ZmÀ`m ghH$mar g§ñWoVrb gh^mJmda ~§YZ amhrb. 

5.7 Á`m ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm gaH$mar Am{W©H$ _XV {_imbobr Amho, Vr Ë`m§Zr gaH$mabm naV H$amdr. Á`m 

ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm hr Am{W©H$ _XV naV H$aVm òUma Zmhr, Ë`m§Zr gaH$maÀ`m nadmZJrZo gm_§Oñ` H$ama H$amdm. 

5.8 ghH$mar g§ñWmMr ñnYm©Ë_H$Vm dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r H$m`ÚmZo ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm nwT>rb ~m~r H$ê$ 

Úmì`mV. 

5.8.1 ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm Ë`m§Mr g§KQ>ZmË_H$ aMZm, H$_©Mmar Zo_UyH$ YmoaU, godm eVu d Ë`m§Mo _mo~Xbo 

(doVZ) R>ady ÚmdoV, Ë`mbm g§MmbH$ _§S>imZo _mÝ`Vm {Xbobr Agbr nm{hOo. 

5.8.2 ghH$mar g§ñWmZr BVa ì`mdgm{`H$ g§ñWmer g§`wŠV ì`dhma, ^m{JXmar, Cng§ñWm Am{U YmoaUmË_H$ 

H$ama H$amdoV. 

5.8.3 ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m H$m`©joÌmdarb ~§YZo H$mTy>Z Q>mH$mdrV, ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zr H$m`©joÌ ~§YZmMm 

{dMma Z H$aVm H$m_ H$amdo. H$m`©joÌ d Ë`mM joÌmVrb g^mgX `m ~§YZm_wio ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m H$m`m©V 

AS>Wio {Z_m©U Pmbo AmhoV, Ë`m_wio Ë`m§Zm _moR>çm CËnmXZmMo bm^ {_iV ZmhrV. 

5.8.4 ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m ì`mdgm{`H$ {ZU©`m_Üò {ZYrMr O_dm-O_d H$aUo d Am{YŠ` dmQ>nm_Üò 

bd{MH$Vm Agmdr. 

6.0 amÁ`KQ>ZoVrb XwéñVr - `m g{_VrÀ`m _Vo, ghH$mar g§ñWm H$m`Xm _m°S>ob ghH$mar H$m`Úmda 

AmYm[aV Agmdm. Ë`mgmR>r amÁ`KQ>ZoV ~Xb H$aÊ`mMr Amdí`H$Vm Amho. 

7.0 gaH$maMr ^y{_H$m - gaH$maZo ghH$mar g§ñWm§Mm H$ma^ma ñdm`ÎmnUo MmbÊ`mMr h_r Úmdr. 

Ë`m_wio ghH$mar g§ñWm eŠVrembr hmoVrb. 

7.1 ghH$mar g§ñWmMm H$ma^ma ñdV§ÌnUo d Mm§Jbm MmbÊ`mgmR>r gaH$maZo YmoaU V`ma H$amdo. Vo H$m`Xm 

d H$m`©H$mar Cnm`m§da AmYm[aV Agmdo, VgoM Ë`mZo ghH$mar g§ñWmZm Iwbr d ñdV§Ì ~mOmaì`dñWm nwadmdr. 

Ë`m_wio gaH$maZo ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm H$moUË`mhr Am{W©H$ H$m`m©V gh^mJr hmoÊ`mMr nadmZJr Úmdr. 

7.2 ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m ^mJ-^m§S>dbmMo ê$nm§Va AZwXmZo AWdm gwb^ H$Om©V H$amdo. 

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7.3 Á`m ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm gaH$maH$Sy>Z ^mJ-^m§S>db, H$O© AWdm h_r {_imbr Agob Aem ghH$mar 

g§ñWm ~amo~a gaH$maZo gm_§Oñ` H$ama H$amdm, H$s Omon`ªV gaH$maMo ^mJ^m§S>db AWdm H$Om©Mr naV\o$S> hmoUma 

Zmhr Vmon`ªV gaH$ma Ë`m g§ñWm§_Üò _hÎdmMr ^y{_H$m nma nmS>ob. 

7.4 Omon`ªV ghH$mar g§ñWmH$Sy>Z gaH$mabm {dZ§Vr Ho$br OmUma Zmhr Vmonæ§V gaH$ma ghH$mar g§ñWm_Üò 

_hÎdnyU© ^y{_H$m AgUmè`m A{YH$mè`m§Mr Zo_UyH$ H$aUma Zmhr. 

7.5 Oa Aem àH$maMr _hÎdmMr ^y{_H$m nma nmS>Umè`m A{YH$mè`mMr Zo_UyH$ gaH$maZo Ho$br Va Ë`mMm 

H$m`©H$mb {H$_mZ 3 df} amhrb. 

7.6 gaH$maZo ghH$mar g§ñWmZm g^mgX {ejU, ì`dñWmnH$mMo à{ejU, g§MmbH$ _§S>i d ZoÌËd 

{dH$mg `mgmR>r AZwXmZ Úmdo. 

7.7 gaH$maZo ghH$mar g§ñWm ñWmnZ H$aÊ`mÀ`m CÔrï>mnmgyZ Xya amhmdo. H$mhr amÁ`m§_Üò gaH$ma ghH$mar 

g§ñWmÀ`m g§KQ>Zm_Üò gh^mJr Amho, ho H$m_ Ë`m§Zr ghH$mar g§ñWm qH$dm bmoH$m§À`m g§KQ>Zm AWdm g§Kmda 

gmondmdoV. 

8. ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m {Z`moOZmgmR>r {dH$mgmË_H$ COiUr : 

8.1 ghH$mar joÌmbm AW©ì`dñWoVrb V¥Vr` joÌ åhUyZ _hÎdmMo ñWmZ {Xbo nm{hOo. Am{W©H$Ñï>çm Xw~©b 

KQ>H$mgmR>r Ë`mMm {dH$mg Ho$bm nm{hOo. 

8.2 ghH$mamÀ`m {dH$mgmgmR>r d YmoaUo d {Z`moOZmgmR>r amï´>r` nmVirda ñdV§Ì ghH$mar Am`moJ / 

_§S>i H$m`_ñdê$nr ñWmnZ H$amdm. Vmo ñdm`Îm Agmdm. 

9. ñnYm©Ë_H$Vm dmT>{dUo : ghH$mar g§ñWmMr ñnYm©Ë_H$Vm d ì`mdgm{`H$Vm dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r Cƒm{YH$ma 

g{_VrZo nwT>rb {e\$maer Ho$ë`m. 

9.1 ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m g§aMZoMo n[ajU H$amdo. Vo IM© n[aUm_H$maH$ (IM© H$_r H$aUo) d ghH$mar 

g§ñWm§VJ©VMo Omio dmT>{dUmao Agmdo. 

9.2 ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m ì`dgm`mMo EImÚm èñdr g§ñWoV {d{bZrH$aU H$aVmZm g^mgXm§À`m {hVmMo 

ajU H$amdo. 

9.3 g§Kr` ghH$mar g§ñWmZr ZdrZ V§ÌkmZ d ì`dñWmnZ _m{hVr nÕVrMm ñdrH$ma H$aVmZm, bhmZ 

ghH$mar g§ñWm, Á`m ñdV:Mr _m{hVr nÕVr V`ma H$ê$ eH$V ZmhrV qH$dm _m{hVr V§ÌkmZmda AmYm[aV nÕVrMm 

dmna H$ê$e H$V ZmhrV, Aem g§ñWmMr O~m~Xmar ¿`mdr d Ë`m§À`m g^mgX g§ñWm§Zm _XV H$amdr. 

9.4 CƒñVar` ghH$mar g§ñWmZr Ë`m§À`m KQ>H$ g§ñWmer ì`mdgm{`H$ ñnYm© H$ê$ Zò åhUyZ H$m`Xoera 

VaVyX H$amdr. 

10.0 _mZdr g§gmYZ {dH$mg d ì`mdgm{`H$VoMr Amdí`H$Vm : ghH$mar g§ñWm_Üò _mZd g§gmYZ 

{dH$mg H$aÊ`mgmR>r Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo nwT>rb {e\$maer Ho$ë`m. 

11

10.1 g^mgXm§Zr ghH$mar g§ñWm~m~VMo Ë`m§Mo A{YH$ma d h¸$ Am{U O~m~Xmè`mm~V gVH©$ d OmJê$H$ 

amhmdo åhUyZ ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zr g^mgX {ejU d OmJéH$VogmR>r Amdí`H$ H$m`©H«$_ {Za§VanUo Mmby H$amdoV. 

10.2 H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ gXñ`ËdmMr g§H$ënZm ghH$mam_Üò am~dmdr Á`m_wio VéU dJ© ghH$mamer OmoS>bm 

OmB©b. {ó`m d VéUm§Mm gh^mJ ghH$mamV dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r {deof à`ËZ H$amdoV. ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m ì`mdgm{`H$ 

KS>m_moS>r Aem arVrZo V`ma H$amì`mV H$s Á`m_wio ghH$mamVrb {d{dY ñVamda {ó`m§Mm gh^mJ _moR>çm à_mUmV 

dmT>ob. 

10.3 ghH$mar joÌmVrb nwT>mè`m§Zm, Vo {ZdSy>Z Amë`mnmgyZ ghm _{hÝ`mÀ`m AmV Ë`m§Zr ghH$mar 

à{ejU nyU© Ho$bo nm{hOo, Ago ~§YZ Kmbmdo. 

10.4 ghH$mar g§ñWmMo ì`dñWmnZ ì`mdgm{`H$ {dH$mgm{^_wI Agmdo. g^mgXm§Mm gh^mJ d ^m§S>db 

`m_Üò dmT> hmoUmè`m nÕVtMm Adb§~ H$amdm. 

10.5 ghH$mar g§ñWm§À`m _w»` H$m`©H$mar A{YH$mè`mZo gw`mo½` {ZH$fm§Mm dmna H$amdm, Á`m_wio ghH$mar 

g§ñWoMm ì`dgm` d AmH$ma_mZmV dmT> hmoB©b. 

10.6 ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zr doimodoir Vkm§Mr _XV CnbãY H$amdr, Ë`mgmR>r ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zr `mo½` {deof 

Vkm§Mr Zo_UyH$ Ho$br nm{hOo. Cƒ nmVirdarb ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zr bhmZ ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zmhr _XV CnbãY H$ê$Z 

{Xbr nm{hOo. 

10.7 ghH$mar ZoÌËd ho gw{e{jV, à{e{jV d H$miOr KoUmao O~m~Xma d hþema Agbo nm{hOo. Ë`m_wio 

g§MmbH$ _§S>i d ì`dñWmnZmZo hr JaO bjmV KoVbr nm{hOo. 

10.8 H$_©Mmar à{ejU amï´>r` ghH$mar {dH$mg _§S>imMr gmYZgm_J«r H|$Ð `moOZm ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm 

CnbãY H$ê$Z Úmì`mV. Ë`m~amo~aM H|$Ð gaH$maÀ`m gmYZgm_J«r H|$Ð C^maUr `moOZm V`ma H$aUo XoIrb 

{dMmamV ¿`mì`mV. 

10.9 ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm à{e{jV ì`mdgm{`H$ nwa{dÊ`mgmR>r ghH$mar {dÚmnrR>mMr ñWmnZm H$amdr. 

Ë`gmR>r NCUI _mZd g§gmYZ {dH$mg _§Ìmb` d {dÚmnrR> AZwXmZ Am`moJmZo Am{W©H$ d BVa nmR>~i nwadmdo. 

Ë`mgmR>r ApñVËdmV AgUmè`m à{ejU g§ñWmMm dmna H$amdm. 

10.10 àËòH$ ghH$mar g§ñWoZo {VMo _mZd g§gmYZ {dH$mgmMo YmoaU Amnë`m nmoQ>{Z`_m_Üò ñnï> H$ê$Z 

gm§{JVbo nm{hOo d Vo gd© g^mgXm§Z, H$_©Mmar dJ©, g§MmbH$ dJ¡a|Zm bmJy Agob. VgoM n«ËòH$ ghH$mar g§ñWoZo 

{VMo _mZdr eŠVr {Z`moOZ, H$_©Mmar âVr à{H«$`m, ì`mdgm{`H$Vm ñnï>nUo Z_yX Ho$br nm{hOo. àËòH$ ghH$mar 

g§ñWoZo Amnë`m dm{f©H$ A§XmOnÌH$mV 2% a¸$_ g^mgXmMo {ejU, à{ejUmgmR>r d gd© ñVamdarb Hw$ebVm 

dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r amIyZ R>odbr nm{hOo. 

11. ^m§S>db{Z{_©Vr d Am{W©H$ gwÑT>Vm : `m _wÚm~m~V Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo Imbrb {e\$maer Ho$ë`m. 

11.1 ghH$mar g§ñWm§À`m g^mgXm§Mr ^m§S>db C^maUrMr Aj_Vm {dMmamV KoVm, Ë`mgmR>r ~mø 

_XVrMr Amdí`H$Vm Amho, Ë`mgmR>r H|$Ð gaH$maZo eoVH$è`m§Zm ghH$mar g§ñWmMo ^mJ^m§S>db IaoXr H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

12

gwb^ H$Om©Mr VaVyX A§XmOnÌH$m_Üò H$amdr. `m `moOZm [aPìh© ~±Ho$À`m _XVrZo gwê$ H$amì`mV d Ë`m_m\©$V 

eoVH$è`m§Zm eoVr à{H«$`m ghH$mar g§ñWmMo ^mJ IaoXr H$aÊ`mgmR>r gwb^ H$O} / ì`mO {da{hV H$O} CnbãY 

H$ê$Z ÚmdrV. 

11.2 `m Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo {e\$mag Ho$br H$s ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm nyU© CËnÞ H$a _m\$s Úmdr. Ë`m_wio 

ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m amIrd {ZYrV dmT> hmoB©b. `m VaVyXr_wio ghH$mar g§ñWmMm ^m§S>dbr nm`m _O~yV hmoÊ`mg 

_XV hmoB©b. Aem n«H$mao ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm OJmVrb 65% XoemV CËnÞ H$amV gyQ> {Xbr OmVo. 

11.3 gaH$maZo ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m ^mJ^m§S>dbmV gh^mJ KoVë`mg ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m ñdmV§Í` d 

ñdm`ÎmoVda gaH$maMo {Z`§ÌU àñWm{nV hmoB©b Ago `m g{_VrMo _V hmoVo, åhUyZ `m g{_VrZo ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm 

gaH$maZo ^mJ^m§S>db nwa{dÊ`mMr {e\$mag Ho$br Zmhr. Ë`mEodOr gaH$maZo ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm AZwXmZo AWdm 

ì`mO_wŠV H$O©o ÚmdrV. Ë`m§Mr g§nyU©V: naV\o$S> Ho$br nm{hOo. 

11.4 Á`m {R>H$mUr ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zr gaH$maH$Sy>Z ~rO ^m§S>dbmgmR>r _XV KoVbr Agob, Ë`mMr 

ghH$mar g§ñWmZr Vm~S>Vmo~ naV\o$S> Ho$br nm{hOo. 

11.5 AZoH$ ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm Ë`m§À`m g^mgXm§H$Sy>Z ^m§S>db C^maUrda _`m©Xm nS>VmV. CËnmXZ 

ghH$mar g§ñWm, à{H«$`m ghH$mar g§ñWm, godm ghH$mar g§ñWm d ghH$mar ~±H$m dJ¡a|Zm _moR>çm ^m§S>db C^maUrMr 

Amdí`H$Vm AgVo, åhUyZ Ë`m§Zr {dÎmr` ~mOmamVyZ ^m§S>db C^mamdo, Ë`m~amo~aM H$O} XoIrb C^mamdrV. 

Am{W©H$Ñï>çm g~b AgUmè`m ghH$mar g§ñWm ^m§S>dbàYmZ AgVmV, Ë`m_wio Aer {e\$mag H$aÊ`mV òVo H$s 

`mg§ñWmZr N>Ìr g§KQ>Zm ñWmnZ H$amdr. Á`m_wio ~mOmamVyZ ^m§S>db C^maVm òB©b, H$Om©Mr AmIUr H$aVm òB©b 

d Amdí`H$ Am{W©H$ d Vm§{ÌH$ _XV ghH$mar g§ñWmZm {_iob. AZoH$ XoemV Aem àH$maMo ghH$mar g§ñWm§Mm 

Z_wZm ApñVËdmV Amho. ImbÀ`m nmVirdarb ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm _XV H$aÊ`mgmR>r ~m°ÝS>g², qS>~oMg©, {deof 

g_^mJ dJ¡ao àH$maMr {dÎmr` gmYZo {Z_m©U Ho$br nm{hOoV. 

11.6 J«m_rU H$O©nwadR>çmVrb ghH$mar ~±H$m§Mm dmQ>m doJmZo H$_r hmoV Amho, Vmo gÜ`m 20% À`m 

Odinmg Amho. H$maU Ë`m§À`mH$S>o ñdV:Mo \§$S> ({ZYr) _`m©{XV AmhoV, VgoM Ë`m nwZ{d©VmgmR>r Zm~mS>©da 

Adb§~yZ AmhoV. Zm~mS>© nwZ{d©VmgmR>r [aPìh© ~±Ho$da Adb§~yZ Amho. na§Vw [aPìh© ~±Ho$Zo gÜ`m gd©gmYmaU 

nVYmoaU (General line of credit) Ûmao Ho$bm OmUmam H$O©nwadR>m H$_r Ho$bm Amho. Ë`m_wio ghH$mar ~±H$m§Zm 

Zm~mS>© nwaogm nwZ{d©Îm H$O©nwadR>m H$ê$ eH$V Zmhr. AZoH$ ghH$mar ~±H$m Am{W©H$Ñï>çm Xw~©b AmhoV, Ë`m_wio Ë`m 

~mOmamVyZ {ZYrMr C^maUr H$ê$ eH$V ZmhrV. åhUyZ ghH$mar ~±H$m§Zm ~mOmamVyZ {ZYr C^maÊ`mgmR>r n`m©`r 

g§KQ>Zm C^maUrMr Amdí`H$Vm Amho, Ë`mÛmao {ZYr Jmoim H$ê$Z ghH$mar H$O©nwadR>m d ~±H$s¨J g§aMZm `m_Yrb 

A§Va H$_r H$aVm òB©b. 

11.7 {d{dY XoemVrb ghH$mar g§ñWmZr ^mJ^m§S>dbmV dmT> H$aÊ`mgmR>r {d{dY YmoaUo A§{JH$mabr 

AmhoV. ^maVm_Üò ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zr ^m§S>db C^maUrgmR>r {dÎmr` gmYZo {dH${gV Ho$br nm{hOoV. VgoM EH$ 

g^mgX EH$ _V ho VÎd bjmV KoVbo nm{hOo. 

11.8 godmjoÌmV dmT> hmoÊ`mMr _moR>r eŠVr Amho. Ë`mjoÌmMr dmT> {ZYrA^mdr Iw§Q>br Amho. amï´>r` 

ghH$mar {dH$mg _§S>imMr ñWmnZm ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm g§ñWmË_H$ H$O©nwadR>m H$aÊ`mgmR>r Pmbr Amho. na§Vw 

13

Ë`mÀ`mH$S>o godm ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm H$O©nwadR>m H$aÊ`mgmR>r _`m©{XV {ZYr Amho. Vmo {d{dY àH$maÀ`m godm 

g§ñWm§V {d^mJbm Omdm. 

11.9 _yë`d{Y©V ghH$mar ì`mdgm{`H$ àH$ën§Zm _moR>çm à_mUmV ^m§S>db nwadR>m H$aÊ`mgmR>r H°$ZS>m d 

A_o[aHo$à_mUo H$O©nwadR>m d BVa {dÎmr` n`m©` CnbãY Agbo nm{hOoV. VgoM A_o[aH$m d H°$ZS>mà_mUo 

eoVO_rZ gwYmaUm d ghH$mar {dnUZ g§ñWm H$O} H$m`Xm âVmV Agmdm. `m H$m`ÚmZwgma Oa Aem H$Om©_wio 

{dÎmnwadR>m H$aUmè`m g§ñWm§Zm VmoQ>m Pmbm Va Ë`m§Zm gaH$mar _§Ìmb`mH$Sy>Z 95% ZwH$gmZ ânmB© {_iVo. 

12. {dÎm nwadR>m/H$O©nwadR>çmMo _mJ© : eoVH$è`m§Zm nwaogm H$O©nwadR>m hmoV Zgë`m_wio `m g{_VrZo Ë`mg§~§Yr 

nwT>rb {e\$maer Ho$ë`m AmhoV. 

12.1 Oo eoVH$ar ghH$mar nVg§ñWmÀ`m H$joV ZmhrV Ë`m§Zm ghH$mar g§ñWmMo g^mgX hmoÊ`mgmR>r CÎmoOZ 

Úmdo. Ë`mgmR>r eoVH$è`m§Zm gwb^ H$O© AWdm AZwXmZo ÚmdrV. Ë`mÀ`m ghmæ`mZo eoVH$è`m§Zr ghH$mar g§ñWmMo 

^mJ-^m§S>db IaoXr H$amdo. 

12.2 J«m_rU d eoVrjoÌmVrb _moR>r bmoH$g§»`m àMbrV {dÎmnwadR>m nÕVrnmgyZ Xya H$m am{hbr? `mMm 

gImob Aä`mg H$amdm d àMbrV H$O©nwadR>m nÕVr_Üò ~Xb H$ê$Z OmñVrVOmñV bmoH$g§»`m H$O©nwadR>çmImbr 

AmUmdr. 

12.3 Am{W©H$Ñï>çm H$_Hw$dV àmW{_H$ ghH$mar nVnwadR>m g§ñWmer g§~§YrV H$Om©Mr Amdí`H$Vm 

AgUmè`m eoVH$è`m§À`m JaOm ^mJ{dÊ`mgmR>r doJù`m nVnwadR>m nÕVrMm {dMma H$amdm. 

12.4 Oo eoVH$ar Zm~mS>©À`m H$O©nwadR>çmbm nmÌ R>aUma ZmhrV Ë`m§À`mgmR>r ñd`§ghmæ`Vm JQ>m§Mr 

ñWmnZm H$amdr Á`m_Üò {~Ja WH$~mH$sXma g^mgXm§Mm g_mdoe H$amdm. 

12.5 ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm nwZ{d©ÎmmMm EImXm Á`mXm _mJ© nwadmdm / {Z_m©U H$amdm. Ë`mgmR>r RIDF H$Sy>Z 

H$O©nwadR>çmMr EImXr Mm§Jbr `moOZm V`ma H$amdr. 

12.6 eoVrjoÌmV _moR>çm à_mUmV YmoHo$ AgVmV, Vo dma§dma {Z_m©U hmoVmV. Ë`mgmR>r eoVrjoÌmbm hmoUmam 

H$O©nwadR>m d {d_m `m ~m~r VnmgyZ Ë`m~m~V H$m`_ñdê$nr Cnm``moOZm H$amdr. Ë`mgmR>r Vkm§À`m g{_VrZo 

`mMm Aä`mg H$amdm d BVa g{_Ë`m§Zr Ë`m~m~V Ho$boë`m {e\$maer {dMmamV ¿`mì`mV. 

13. AmOmar d Am{W©H$Ñï>çm H$_Hw$dV ghH$mar g§ñWm nwZd©gZ : J«m_rU ^mJmVrb AmOmar AgUmè`m 

CËnmXZ à{H«$`m, godm d BVa àH$maÀ`m ghH$mar g§ñWmMo àíZ gmoS>{dÊ`mgmR>r `m g{_VrZo Aer {e\$mag Ho$br 

H$s EH$ amï´>r` nmVirda ghH$mar nwZd©gZ g{_Vr ñWmnZ H$amdr. 

13.2 amï´>r` ghH$mar nwZd©gZ g{_Vr ñWmnZ H$aVmZm H|$Ð gaH$maZo amÁ` gaH$mam§À`m _XVrZo amï´>r` 

ghH$mar nwZd©gZ d g§ñWm g§ajU {ZYr AmOmar g§ñWmgmR>r ñWmnZm H$amdm. Ë`mMm Z_wZm d nmÌVm {ZH$f \§$S> 

dmQ>n H$aÊ`mgmR>r amï´>r` ghH$mar g{_VrZo R>admdoV. BVa joÌmVrb \§$S>mà_mUoM ghH$mar g§ñWm§Mo Adgm`Z \§$S> 

amÁ` gaH$mam§H$S>o CnbãY AgmdoV. Ë`m_YyZ {d{eï> ì`dgm` H$aUmè`m ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm _XV Úmdr. 

13.3 `m g{_VrZo Aer {e\$mag Ho$br H$s EImÚm g§ñWoV {dbrZ hmoÊ`mgmR>r qH$d ì`dgm` ~§X 

14

H$aÊ`mgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmao EH$gmaIo {ZH$f / _mJ©Xe©H$ VÎdo V`ma H$amdrV. hr _m©Xe©H$ VÎdo gd© amÁ`m§Zr 

ñdrH$mamdrV. 

14. amÁ`KQ>ZoVrb XwéñVr : ghH$ma hm {df` amÁ` gaH$mam§À`m AIË`m[aVrb Amho. Ë`m_wio {d{dY 

amÁ`mVrb ghH$ma{df`H$ H$m`ÚmV EH$gmaIonUm Agbm nm{hOo, Ë`m_wio ghH$mar g§ñWm ñdm`Îm d bmoH$emhr 

nÕVrZo H$ma^ma H$aVrb. AZoH$ amÁ`mV _m°S>ob ghH$mar H$m`Úmà_mUo g_m§Va H$m`Xo àMbrV AmhoV. amÁ`KQ>ZoV 

~Xb H$ê$Z ghH$mar g§ñWm§Mr ñdm`ÎmVm {Q>H${dbr nm{hOo. Ë`mgmR>r Cƒm{YH$ma g{_VrZo nwT>rb {e\$maer 

Ho$ë`m. 

14.1 `m g{_VrÀ`m {e\$maer 106 amÁ`KQ>Zm XwéñVr {dYo`H$ 2006 _Üò g_m{dï> AmhoV. Ë`m_Yrb 

_w»` H$b_o Imbrb à_mUo AmhoV. 

14.1.1 amÁ`KQ>ZoMo H$b_ 19 (1) gr gy{MV H$aVo H$s, ghH$mar g§ñWm `m g§KQ>Zm AmhoV, Ë`m_wio 

Ë`m§À`mda H$moUVohr ~§YZ KmbVmZm Vo H$b_ 19 (4) A§VJ©V Agbo nm{hOo. Oo ñnï> H$aVo H$s, ghH$mar g§ñWm 

g^mgXm§Zr ñWmnZ Ho$boë`m Ë`m§À`m _mbH$sÀ`m AmhoV d Ë`m§Mo {Z`§ÌU d ì`dñWmnZ Ë`m§À`m g^mgXm§H$Sy>ZM 

Ho$bo nm{hOo. 

amÁ`KQ>ZoMo H$b_ 19 _Yrb H$b_ 1 À`m CnH$b_ gr _Üò g§KQ>Zm `m eãXmZ§Va ""ghH$mar g§ñWm'' 

hm eãX g_m{dï> H$aVmZm ghH$mar g§ñWmMr nwT>rb ì`m»`m (ZdrZ CnH$b_-EM) Zwgma nwT>rb ì`m»`m Úmdr. 

ghH$mar g§ñWm hr EopÀN>H$, bmoH$emhr, g^mgXm§Mo {Z`§ÌU, g^mgXm§Mm Am{W©H$ gh^mJ d ñdm`ÎmVm `m 

ghH$mar VÎdmda AmYm[aV ñWmnZ Ho$bobr d MmbUmar g§ñWm hmo`.'' 

14.1.2 ghH$mar g§ñWm~m~V IX-A Z§Va IX-B hm ^mJ amÁ`KQ>ZoV g_m{dï> H$aVmZm g{_Vrbm Aer 

^rVr dmQ>V hmoVr H$s n§Mm`V amÁ` g§ñWm d ZJanm{bH$m§À`m ~amo~aM ghH$mar g§ñWmgwÕm gaH$maÀ`m {Z`§ÌUmImbrb 

g§ñWm hmoV, Agm AW© hmoB©b. Ë`m_wio hm ^mJ amÁ`KQ>ZoV g_m{dï> H$aVmZm bmoH$gôÀ`m H${_Q>rZo Aer XjVm 

¿`mdr H$s ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm darb dmŠàMZm bmJy hmoUma Zmhr. WmoS>Š`mV ghH$mar g§ñWm gaH$maÀ`m {Z`§ÌUmImbr 

AgUma ZmhrV. 

14.1.3 Cƒm{YH$mar g{_VrZo ghH$mar g§ñWoMr nwT>rb ì`m»`m amÁ`KQ>ZoV g_m{dï> H$amdr Ago åhQ>bo. 

""ghH$mar g§ñWm `m ñdm`Îm, bmoH$m§Zr ñdoÀN>oZo EH${ÌV òD$Z, gdmªÀ`m g_mZ JaOm d BÀN>m nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r, 

g§`wŠV _mbH$s VÎdmda bmoH$emhr VÎdmZwgma {Z`§{ÌV Ho$ë`m OmUmè`m VgoM Ë`m amÁ` AWdm H|$Ð gaH$maÀ`m 

àMbrV ghH$mar H$m`ÚmZwgma Zm|XUr Ho$boë`m qH$dm Zm|XUr Ho$ë`m OmUmè`m Am{U ghH$mar VÎdo d _yë`mZwgma 

MmbUmè`m g§ñWm hmoV.'' 

14.14 243 ZJ ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m A{YH$mar d g§MmbH$ _§S>imVrb gXñ`g§»`m d Ë`m§Mm H$m`©H$mb: 

(1) ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>imV {H$Vr gXñ` g§»`m Agmdr, ho amÁ` gaH$maÀ`m H$m`ÚmV 

Z_yX Ho$bobo AgVo; na§Vw 21 nojm OmñV gXñ` g§MmbH$ _§S>imV ZgmdoV. 

(2) g§MmbH$ _§S>imMm H$m`©H$mb (_wXV) {ZdSy>Z Amboë`m VmaIonmgyZ nwT>o 5 df} BVH$m amhrb. 

g§MmbH$ _§S>imda {ZdSy>Z Amboë`m gXñ`mbmM g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m {ZdS>UyH$sV _VXmZ H$aÊ`mMm h¸$ Agob 

15

d Ë`mbmM MoAa_Z qH$dm ìhmB©g MoAa_Z qH$dm AÜ`j AWdm CnmÜ`jmMr {ZdS>UyH$ bT>{dVm òB©b / Vmo 

g^mgXM darb nXmÀ`m {ZdS>UyH$sbm Cô amhÊ`mg nmÌ Agob. 

(3) Or ì`ŠVr g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m {ZdS>UyH$sV nS>br Agob Ë`mbm nwÝhm H$mhr H$maUmZo OmJm [aŠV 

Pmbr Agë`mg AWdm BVa H$maUmñVd ñdrH¥$V gXñ` åhUyZ KoVm òUma Zmhr. 

14.15 243 ZK g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr {ZdS>UyH$ : 

ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m gd© {ZdS>UyH$m KoUo gd©gmYmaU gôÀ`m AIË`m[aV AgVo. VgoM gd©gmYmaU g^m 

KoUo/ ~mobmdUo hr ~m~ g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m AIË`m[aV Agmdr Aer {e\$mag `m g{_VrZo Ho$br. 

14.16 243 ZL g§MmbH$ _§S>i aÔ H$aUo : 

Á`m ghH$mar g§ñWm_Üò gaH$maMo ^mJ^m§S>db, H$O© AZwXmZ AWdm h_r {Xbobr Zgob `m àH$maÀ`m 

H$moUË`mhr ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>i ~aImñV H$aVm òUma Zmhr. Á`m ghH$mar g§ñWoV gaH$maMo WmoS>oVar 

^mJ^m§S>db Agob AWdm Am{W©H$ _XV qH$dm h_r {Xbobr Agob Aem ghH$mar g§ñWmMo g§MmbH$ _§S>i 

~aImñV H$aVm òB©b. 

g§MmbH$ _§S>i ~aImñVr~m~V `m g{_VrZo Aer {e\$mag Ho$br H$s, Á`m ghH$mar g§ñWm_Üò 51% nojm 

H$_r gaH$maMo ^mJ^m§S>db Agob Aem ghH$mar g§ñWmMo g§MmbH$ _§S>i ~aImñV H$aVm òUma Zmhr. 

15 ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$mar g§ñWm H$m`Xm 2002 _Üò XwéñVr : 

~hþamÁ` ghH$mar g§ñWm H$m`Xm 2002 hm Joë`m 7 dfm©nmgyZ ^maVmV ApñVËdmV Amho, Vmo A{YH$ 

ì`mnH$ d ghH$mar g§ñWmMo ì`mdhm[aH$ àíZ gmoS>{dU`mgmR>r Cn`wŠV R>amdm Agm Ë`m_Üò ~Xb H$aÊ`mMr 

JaO {Z_m©U Pmbr Amho, åhUyZ `m g{_VrZo Ë`m_Üò ~Xb H$aÊ`mgmR>r H$b_mZwgma XwéñË`m gyM{dë`m Ë`m 

nwT>rbà_mUo AmhoV - 

(1) ghH$mar g§ñWoMr Am§Vaamï´>r` nmVirda pñdH$mabobr ì`m»`m ^maVmV bmJy H$amdr. Or ghH$mar 

g§ñWm `m EopÀN>H$, ñdm`Îm d bmoH$emhr ñdê$nmÀ`m g§ñWm Agë`mMo Xe©{dVo. 

(2) `m H$m`ÚmV ghH$mar g§ñWm `m {VMm dmna H$aUmè`m g^mgXm§À`m _mbH$sÀ`m d {Z`§ÌUmImbrb 

g§ñWm hmoV, Ë`m_wio `m H$m`ÚmV "{H«$`merb g^mgXmMr' ì`m»`m g_m{dï> H$amdr d Ë`mZwgma {H«$`merb 

g^mgXmMr ì`m»`m H$m`ÚmV g_m{dï> H$amdr. øm H$m`ÚmZwgma \$ŠV {H«$`merb g^mgXmZmM {ZdS>UyH$sbm Cô 

amhVm òB©b d _VXmZ H$aVm òB©b. 

(3) `m g{_VrZo {e\$mag Ho$br H$s `m ghH$mar H$m`ÚmV H§$nZr H$m`Úmà_mUo {dídñVnUmMr VaVyX 

H$amdr. Vr gd© g§MmbH$m§Zm ~§YZH$maH$ amhrb. VgoM Vr g§MmbH$ _§S>imVrb pñdH¥$V gXñ`m§Zmhr ~§YZH$maH$ 

amhrb. 

(4) Ym{_©H$ d amOH$s` g§KQ>ZmZm ghH$mar g§ñWm_Üò ~§Xr KmbÊ`Mr VaVyX H$amdr. 

(5) ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm ^m§S>db ~mOmamVyZ npãbH$ BíeyÛmao _VXmZmg nmÌ ZgUmao ^mJ^m§S>db Jmoim 

H$aÊ`mMr VaVyX H$amdr. 

16

`m H$m`ÚmVrb XwéñË`m Imbrbà_mUo AmhoV. 

goŠeZ 3 - ì`m»`m : 

goŠeZ 22 (5) (gr) - ghH$mar g§ñWoMo ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$mar g§ñWoV ê$nm§Va H$aÊ`mMr VaVyX 

goŠeZ 25 (4) - H$moUË`m ì`ŠVr g^mgX hmoD$ eH$VmV 

goŠeZ 28 - {d{eï> XoÊ`mMr naV\o$S> H$aon`ªV g^mgXm§Zm g^mgXËdmMm h¸$ Z XoÊ`mMr VaVyX 

goŠeZ 30 (1) - g^mgXËd aÔ H$aUo / hH$mbnÅ>r 

goŠeZ 30 (2) - hH$mbnÅ>r Ho$boë`m g^mgXmMm nwZà©doe 

goŠeZ 31 - g^mgXm§Mo _V 

goŠeZ 35 (1) - ^mJm§Mo {d_moMZ 

goŠeZ 38 (3) - gd©gmYmaU gôMo KQ>ZmXÎm A{YH$ma d H$m`©o 

goŠeZ 39 (1) (Ho$) - dm{f©H$ gd©gmYmaU g^m 

goŠeZ 41 - g§MmbH$ _§S>i 

goŠeZ 43 (2) - g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m g^mgXmMr AnmÌVm 

goŠeZ 44 (1) d (2) - MoAa_Z qH$dm AÜ`j qH$dm CnmÜ`j åhUyZ H$m_ H$aÊ`mgmR>r AQ>H$md 

goŠeZ 45 (5)(6)(7) - g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr {ZdS>UyH$ 

goŠeZ 46 (1) d (2) - ghH$mar g§ñWoÀ`m H$m`m©b`mV nXm{YH$mar åhUyZ H$m_ H$aUo. 

goŠeZ 49 (2)(S>r)(E_) - g§MmbH$ _§S>imMo A{YH$ma d H$m`} 

goŠeZ 50 (3) - g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr {_Q>tJ 

goŠeZ 52 (1) - _w»` H$m`©H$mar A{YH$mè`mMo A{YH$ma d H$m`} 

goŠeZ 53 (1) - g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m H${_Q>çm 

goŠeZ 63 (1) (~r) - Am{YŠ` dmQ>n (Z\$m) 

goŠeZ 65 - _XV Jmoim H$aÊ`mdarb ~§YZo 

goŠeZ 67 (1) (111) - H$O© H$mT>Ê`mdarb ~§YZo 

goŠeZ 70 (7) (E) - {hemo~Vnmg{ZgmMr Zo_UyH$ d H$_r H$aUo 

goŠeZ 84 (1) - H$bhmg§~§Yr g§X^© 

goŠeZ 99 (2) - A{nb H$aUo. 

g§X^© : 

1) Report of the High Power Committee on co-operatives (2009) 

Published by : Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. 

17 

��

~r. H$m°_. ^mJ-3 : ghH$mamMm {dH$mg 


KQ>H$ H«$. 3 

CnKQ>H$ : Zm\o$S>-{dnUZ ghH$mar g§ñWmMo _hm_§S>irH$aU 

Am{U CËnmXZ ghH$mar g§ñWm 

(Ao.Hw$[a`Z - AbK g{_Vr Ahdmb) 

ghH$mar g§ñWmMm ì`dgm` H§$nÝ`mgmaIm ìhmdm `mgmR>r 1 Zmoìh|~a 1999 amoOr ""dm`. Ho$. AbK'' 

`m§À`m AÜ`jVoImbr Cƒm{YH$ma g{_Vr Zo_br. `m g{_Vrbm ghH$mar g§ñWmMm H$ma^ma H§$nÝ`mgmaIm H$aUo, 

Am{U ghH$mar g§ñWmMm ì`dgm` / H$ma^ma ImOJr H§$nÝ`mÀ`m ì`dgm`mà_mUo / H$ma^mamà_mUo ~XbÊ`mgmR>r 

H$m`Xoera _gyXm V`ma H$amd`mMm hmoVm. `m g{_VrZo 15 _mM© 2000 amoOr Amnbm Ahdmb gaH$mabm gmXa 

Ho$bm. `m g{_VrÀ`m {e\$maer Imbrbà_mUo ñnï> H$aVm òVrb. 

{e\$maer : 

1) AmOÀ`m ñnY}À`m n[apñWVrV ghH$mar g§ñWm ñnY}V {Q>H$mì`mV åhUyZ Ë`m§Mo ê$nm§Va CËnmXH$mÀ`m 

_mbH$sÀ`m g§ñWm_Üò H$aÊ`mgmR>r H$m`Xoera d {Z`§ÌU H$aUmar H$m`Xoera Mm¡H$Q> V`ma H$aUo Á`m_wio ghH$mar 

g§ñWm BVa ImOJr g§ñWmer ñnYm© H$ê$ eH$Vrb. H§$nZr H$m`Xm 1956 hm ImOJr _`m©{XV, gmd©O{ZH$ 

_`m©{XV, {dídñV H§$nÝ`m d {ZYr `mgmR>r Cn`wŠV Amho. Ë`m H$m`ÚmÀ`m {d{eï> d gw`mo½` VaVyXr Ë`m§Zm bmJy 

nS>VmV. H§$nZr H$m`Xm hm CËnmXZ H§$nÝ`m ñWmnZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r d Zm|XUr H$aÊ`mgmR>r Cn`wŠV Amho. H$m`Úm_Üò 

nañna _XV d ghH$mar VËdo A{YH$ IwbonUmZo g_m{dï> H$aÊ`mgmR>r d OwidyZ KoÊ`mgmR>r H$m`Xoera Mm¡H$Q> 

CnbãY Amho. H§$nZr H$m`Xm hm ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm EopÀN>H$[aË`m ZdrZ CËnmXH$ H§$nÝ`m_Üò ~XbÊ`mMr g§Yr 

CnbãY H$ê$Z XoVmo. Am§VaamÁò ghH$mar g§ñWm, Á`m§Mm CÔoe EH$mnojm A{YH$ amÁ`m§_Üò ì`dgm` H$aUo hm 

AgVmo Ë`m§Zm XoIrb H§$nZr H$m`ÚmMr gmo` CnbãY Amho. 

2) Am§VaamÁ`r` ghH$mar g§ñWoMo ê$nm§Va CËnmXH$ H§$nÝ`m_Üò H$aUo ho nyU©V: ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm EopÀN>H$ 

Amho. 

3) Aem g§ñWm§À`m g^mgXm§Mo ^mJ ^m§S>dbmMr bmoH$m§À`m_Üò IaoXr-{dH«$s H$aVm òUma Zmhr, VgoM 

g§MmbH$ _§S>i ~mS>m©À`m g§_VrZ§VaM Ë`mZo hñVm§VaU H$aVm òB©b. CËnmXH$ H§$nZr ~hþamï´>r` qH$dm BVa 

H§$nÝ`m§Zm Vmã`mV KoVm òUma Zmhr. 

4) ~hþamÁ`r` ghH$mar g§ñWm hr CËnmXH$ H§$nZr_Üò ê$nm§V[aV H$aÊ`mgmR>r, Ë`m g§ñWoÀ`m 2/3 g^mgXm§À`m 

~hþ_VmMr Amdí`H$Vm bmJob. 

5) ZdrZ H§$nZr hr "CËnmXH$ H§$nZr' åhUyZ AmoiIbr OmB©b. ZdrZ H§$nZr_Üò {d{eï> àH$maÀ`m 

18

moH$m§ZmM gh^mJr hmoVm òB©b d Ë`m§MrM _mbH$s Agob. ZdrZ H§$nZrMo g^mgX ho àmW{_H$ CËnmXH$ AgVrb. 

6) CËnmXH$ H§$nZrMo C{Ôï> ho CËnmXZ, à{H«$`m, n¸$m _mb V`ma H$aUo d àmW{_H$ CËnmXZmMr {dH«$s 

H$aUo BË`m{X Agob. 

7) EImÚm CËnmXH$ H§$nZr_Üò ê$nm§V[aV Pmboë`m g§ñWobm {VÀ`m _yi ghH$mar àH$mamV Omd`mMo 

Agob Va Ver VaVyX amÁ` ghH$mar H$m`Úm_Üò Amho. 

8) amÁ` ghH$mar H$m`Úm_Üò ghH$mar {Z~§YH$mMr _mÝ`Vm ghH$mar g§ñWm Mmb{dÊ`gmR>r, àm_w»`mZo 

{VMm ì`dgm` Mmb{dÊ`mgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgVo. hr {Z`§ÌUmË_H$ d ~§YZH$maH$ nÕVr ghH$mar g§ñWm ñnYm©Ë_H$ 

~ZÊ`m_Üò AS>Wim R>aVo. ñnYm©Ë_H$ ~mOmaì`dñWoV ñnYm©erb ~ZÊ`mgmR>r àemgH$s` d Am{W©H$ ~m~rg§~§Yr 

Vm~S>Vmo~ {ZU©` KoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo, Ë`mgmR>r BVa g§ñWmà_mUo ghH$mar g§ñWm ñdm`Îm Agë`m nm{hOoV. 

VËH$mbrZ H$m`Xm, Ý`m` d H§$nZr H$ma^ma Am{U OhmOdmhVyH$ _§Ìr lr. AéU OoQ>br `m§Zr gZ 2001 

_Üò H§$nZr ~rb bmoH$gôV gmXa Ho$bo. (Xwgar XwéñVr). `m ~rbm_Üò gZ 1956 À`m H§$nZr H$m`Úmà_mUo 

ghH$mar g§ñWmÀ`m ñWmnZobm CÎmoOZ XoÊ`mV Ambo. 

lr. dm`. Oo AbK MoAa_Z Agboë`m g{_VrZo gZ 1956 À`m H§$nZr H$m`ÚmV XwéñVr H$aÊ`mMr 

{e\$mag Ho$br. `m g{_VrÀ`m {e\$maerZwgma CËnmXH$ H§$nZr ~rb bmoH$gôV gmXa H$aÊ`mV Ambo d 6 \o$~«wdmar 

2003 amoOr Ë`mMo IX-A ^mJ CËnmXH$ H§$nZr Ago ê$nm§Va H§$nZr H$m`Xm 1956 _Üò Pmbo. `m_wio ghH$mar 

VËdmda AmYm[aV ZdrZ g§ñWmË_H$ n`m©` ghH$mar g§ñWm§Zm CnbãY Pmbm. 

19 

��

B. Com. Part-III : Co-operative Development 



Unit 1 sub point 

D) High Power Committee Report on co-operatives 

(Shivajirao Patil Committee Report) 

Indian co-operative movement completed a hundred years. Over the years it has actived 

several achievements in various sectors. However, Indian co-operative movement is facing 

various problems and challenges during era of globalization. They are realted to the 

government, administration and control and new global environment. In order to slove these 

problems some specific meansures are needed. Therefore, a conference of state co-operative 

ministers held on 7th December, 2004 at New Delhi, resolved that Government of India may 

constitute a High powered committee to review the achievements of co-operative movement 

during the last hundred years and the prepare a rood map recommending steps to be taken 

to address challenges being faced by the movement in changing scenario of globalization. 

Accordingly, a high powered committee on co-operatives was consitutued by the 

Government of India on 10th May 2005. 

Members : following were the members of this committee - 

1. Shri Shivajirao G. Patil (Chairman) 

2. Dr. S. S. Sisodia, member 

3. Shri. H. K. Patil, member 

4. Dr. Amrita Patel, member 

5. Dr. Y.S.P. Thorad, member 

6. Shri. Satish Chander, member secretary 

Terms and References : 

The terms Reference of the committee are as follows - 

1. To review the Indian co-operative movement during last one hundred years. 

2. To identify the challenges being faced by the co-operative sector and to suggest 

measures to solve them and to enable the co-operative movement to keep pace with changing 

socio-economic environment. 

20

3. To suggest an appropriate policy and legislative fram work with changes in cooperative 

legislation in the contry, to ensure the democratic authonomous and professional 

functioning of co-operatives and amendments to the multistate co-operative societies Act 

2002. 

4. Any other incidental issue a deemed necessary by the committee for its 

consideration. 

This committee has collected and complied the main recommendations of various 

committees and commission on co-operation set up since 1904. Also it has collected sectorwise 

achievements of co-operatives. The committee deliberated upon and finalized it 

recommendatiions for the amendement of the constitution to ensure autonomous, free and 

democratic functioning of co-operatives. It also finalized various suggestions to further 

amend the multi-state co-operative societies Act 2002. 

The recommendation of this committee are mainly divided into Two as follows, 

I) Recommendations on proposed amendementnts of the consitutuion. 

II) Recommendations on further amendments to the MSCS Act 2002. 

The committee has envisioned that co-operative as primarily, autionomous, economic 

institutions of autonomous, economic institutions of user members. It sees them as selfreliand 

and self-sustaining institutions functioning in a free, fair and trasparent manner in 

keeping with the priciples and values of the co-operative movement. 

I. Amendment to the Constitution : 

1. The committee took note of the situation prevailing in the administration and governance 

of co-operatives in the country. It was felt that co-operative societies is a state subject and 

various states have enacted their own co-operative societies Acts. So, there in need for 

uniformity in co-operative legislation, particulary in respect of autonomous and democratic 

functioning of co-operatives. There is also a need to the removal of co-operatives from 

excessive bureaucratic control and interference, several states have passed paralled legislative 

on the lines of the model co-operative Act to cover co-operatives which donot government 

equity. 

The committee therefore, supports the view that co-operative autonomy can be ensureal 

by making certain amendments in the constitution. So that co-operative legislation would 

brought in confirmity with the provisions of the constitution. This committee submitted it's 

interim Report containing recommendations on the constitution Amendment bill & 

Amendments to multi state co-operative societies Act 2002 to the government on 7th June 

2007. 

1) The HPC (High Powered Committee) analyzed the situation in respect of co-operatives 

prevailing in the states as well as in centre and that introducing new part IX-B after IX-A 

of the constitution on the bill proposes, along with Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI) and 

21

Muncipalities would imply that co-operatives are a part of governance. The committee is 

of the view that the anology applied to Panchayati Raj and Nagarpalika may not hold good 

for co-operatives. The Panchayati Raj institution and Municipalities are meant for governance 

of the people where as the spirit of co-operative is self-governance. 

Article 19 (1) (c) with Article 19 (4) guarantees the right of the citizens to form 

association or unions, but doesnit explicitly include the right to form co-operatives. Cooperative 

societies fall in the state list and are excluded from the central list. Trade unions 

are also included in the concurrent list. Therefore, it is important to make explicit what is 

implicit in Article 19 (1) (c) - that co-operatives are associations and any restrictions on them 

have to be within the Framework of Article 19 (4). 

Further by law, executive orders & court ruling shows that co-operatives are creatures 

of government but not of their user members. So, it is necessary to have a detinition of cooperatives 

in the constitution. Which clearly indicate that they are promoted owned, controlled 

and managed only by their user members. 

The committee feared that by introducing part IX-B after part IX-A of the constitution 

along with Panchayati Raj institutions (PRI) and Municipalties would imply that co-operatives 

are a part of goverance, because of PRI and Municipalties and governace institutions. The 

Introduction of a part on co-operative societies after the Article dealing with them may be 

construed as implying that co-operatives are also governance institutions. So, standing 

committee of parliament may also be requested to took into this aspect and consider the need 

of insertion of this part an appropriate place in the constitution to ensure that this constural 

is dispelled. 

A) The Recommendatiions for insertion of co-operative societies in fundamental 

Rights under Article 19 (1) (c) : 

The Committee recommends the introduction of the following clauses under Article 19 

(1) (c) of te constitution. 

(1) The word "Co-operative Societies shall be in after the word "Association" in sub-clause 

(c). 

(2) A new sub-clause (h) shall be added which defines co-operatives as which implies that 

to form and run co-operatives based on principles of voluntary, democratic member 

control, member economic participation and autonomous functioning. 

B) Recommendations on proposed Insertion of co-operative societies in Part 

IX-B : 

(1) The following part on the co-operatives societies shall be inserted at an appropriate 

place which would keep away it from the governance institutions. Clause-wise suggestions 

of the HPC are given below. 

(2) The co-operative Societies. 

22

243. ZH Definitions : In this part as 

a) Active member : is one who participates in the working of co-operative, using it's 

services as prescribed in the by laws of the co-operative. 

b) Authorized person : means a person authorized under Article 243 ZQ. 

c) 'Board' means the governing body of a co-operative society by whatever name called 

to which the direction and control of the management of the affairs of a society is 

entrusted. 

d) "A co-operative Society" - is an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily 

to meet their common needs & aspirations through a Jointly owned and democratically 

controlled enterprise and adhering to the co-operative principles and values, registered 

or deemed to be registered under any law relating to co-operative societies for the time 

being in force in any state or the centre. 

e) 'Government' means central or state Government. 

f) Multi-state co-operative society means a society with area of operation in more than 

one state and registered or deemed to be registered under any law in force relating to 

such co-operative. 

g) "office bearer" means a president, vice president, chairperson, vice-chairperson, secretary 

trasurer and included any other person to be elected by the Board of Directors. 

h) State level co-operative society means a co-operative society having its area of operation 

extending to the whole of a state and defined as such in any law made by the state 

legislature. 

i) 'Year' means the year ending on 31st day of March. 

243 ZI Incorporation of co-operative societies : 

The legislature of state shall, by law, make provisions with respect to the incorporation, 

regulation and winding up of co-operative societies based on the principles of voluntary, 

democratic control, member economic participation and autonomous functioning. 

243 ZJ Number and term of members of Board of Directors and its office bearers: 

1) The Board shall consist of such number of directors as may be provided by a state 

legislature but the maximum number of directors shall not exceed more than 21. 

2) Only active members are eligible to vote and stand for election to its Board of directors 

But ministers would not be eligibility to be elected as chairman or vice-chairman or 

president or vice-president of the co-operative society. Also, those members, who have 

to stand for election of Board of Directors would not have any interest in any business 

of the society. 

23

3) The term of elected members of the Board of Directors & its office bearers shall be 

five years from the date of election only elected members of the Board of Directors 

shall be eligible to vote in election and to be elected as chairman or vice chairman, 

president or vice president of the Board. 

Any casual vacancy arised may be filled by co-option by the Board, if the term of office 

of the Board is less than half of its original term. 

4) The legislature of state shall provide for co-option of members, by the Board, who 

having experience in the Field of banking, Management, finance etc. provided that 

number of such co-opted members shall not exceed more than two. Also, the candidate 

who have lost in election to the Board shall not be co-opted on the Board. 

243 ZK Election of members of Board : 

According to the law of state legislature, the election of a co-operative society shall 

be conducted before the expiry of the term of the Board of a co-operative society shall be 

conducted by the Board of a co-operative society. However, state legislature shall provide 

for the procedure and guidelines for conducting the elections. 

243 ZL Supersession of Board of Directors : 

The bill provides that no Board of a co-operative society shall be superseded or kept 

under suspension for a period more than 6 months. However in case of a co-operative 

society, other than multi state co-operative society, which is doing banking Business this 

provision is applicable for oney year instead of six months, where there is no government 

share holding of loan or financial assistance or any guarantee by the government. 

The committee suggested that no supercession of the Board of Directors should be 

allowed in any case where government shareholding is less than 51% 

243 ZM Audit of accounts of co-operative societies : 

Every co-operative society, by law, shall make a provisions for it's audit at least once 

in a year, by a auditor approved by law. This auditor should be appointed by a general body 

of a co-operative society. The accounts of every co-operative society shall be audited within 

a period of six months of the every financial year. 

243 ZN Convening of the general body meeting : 

By law the annual general body meeting of the co-operative society shall be convened 

within a period of six months from close of the financial year to transact the business. 

243 ZO Right of a member to get information : 

By Law, Every co-operative society should provide books, information, accounts to 

every member of the co-operative society regarding it's business earried. 

24

Every member in the management of the co-operative society should attend the minimum 

number of meetings. 

Also, Every member should be provided mandatory co-operative education and training. 

243 ZP Returns : 

Every co-operative society shall file returns within six months of the close of every year 

to authority designated by state government. These returns should include Annual Report, 

audited statement of accounts, plan for surplus disposal, List of amendments in by - laws, 

date of general body meeting, conduct of elections, when due etc. 

243 ZQ Offences and Penalties : 

The legislature of state, by law make provisions for offences and penalties regarding 

the following defaults. 

Wilfully making false return, provide false information, wilfully not providing any 

informatiion required, Disobedience for any act, by a member, employee or officer or for 

any corrupt practies by any one. 

243 ZR Application to Multi-state co-operative societies and union Territories: 

The provision of this part shall apply to a multi-state co-operative society and union 

territories. 

II Amendment to the Multi-state co-operative societies Act 2002 : 

This committee took note that the MSCS Act 2002 is in operation, since last six years. 

There is a need to make the Act more comprehensive to solve the practical problems faced 

by multistate co-operative societies. 

In regards this, the committee has furnished following recommendations. 

1) The internationally accepted definition of co-operative society should be introduced, 

which reflects its voluntary, autonmous and democratic nature. 

2) In order to ensure that the co-operatives are user owned and user controlled a concept 

of "active member" may introduced in the Act and accordingly, a definition of 'active 

member' may be included. The act should provide that only active members shall have 

the right to vote/ contest elections. 

3) The committee also recommended that provision for fiduciary rrespensibility as progvided 

in the companies Act should be introduced. It should be mandatory for the directors 

of the co-operative boards. This provision also applicable to the co-opted experts on 

the Board. 

4) Provisions may be introduced to put restriction on political and religious organizations. 

5) Also, provision for raising capital through issue of non voting shares and IPO may be 

Included. 

25

These are some major recommendation of the High power committee headed by 

Shivajirao Patil committee on co-operatives, 2005. 

Recommendations of the HPC on co-operatives : 

The followings are the main recommendations of the HPC. 

1. According to this committee, future co-operatives are primarily autonomous, economic 

institutions of user members. These members are united voluntarily, to meet their 

common economic, social and cultural needs by the co-operatives. Which are jointly 

owned and democratically controlled enterprises. They are self reliant and self sustaining 

institutions functioning in a free, fair and transperent maneer in keeping with the 

principles and values of co-operatives. Member centrality and member development are 

the key drivers and professionalism, quality and integrity the hallmarks. Education for 

awareness building would be an integral part of co-operative. 

2. Keeping the above features of co-operatives, the committee has analysed the problems 

and challenges facing the co-operatives in the scenario of increasing competition. The 

committee has categoried these problems in to two as, functional problems as 

membership, Governance and operations these are the internal problems of the cooperatives 

and external problems as politicization and the control / Interference by 

governments. 

3. The legal enablement is a major requirem for co-operatives, so it is a core 

recommendations. The committee has examined the 106th constitution Amendment bill 

and the MSCS Act 2002 and proposed the clausewise amendments. 

4. The committee has given suggestions regarding appropriate amendment in the cooperative 

Act by laws of the co-operatives. 

5. A progressive and enabling legislation : 

Presently co-operatives are operating under restrictive laws. So, it is necessary that a 

progressive and enabling legislation which facilities the working of the co-operatives. So 

they can greatly complete with other corporates. So, committee recommended that. 

5.1 The model co-operatives Act proposed by Choudhari Brahm Prakash Committee 

and endrosed by all recent committees should be enacted as a single law replacing existing 

state Acts. 

5.2 The parallel law existing in various states has poor utility and problems faced, 

there can be no viable alternative to a single enabling law which is member centric and based 

on co-operative principles replacing the existing state Acts. 

5.2.1 The amendments suggested by model co-operative Act and the Vaidyanathan 

committee are comprehensive in nature. However considering the need for a few more 

changes and the greater emphasis need on some issues the following may be considered. 

26

5.2.2 The government has no power of rule making the power of the state is incorporated 

in the Act itself. All matters within the purview of co-operative societies should be included 

in the Act in by laws. 

5.3 Keeping in view, the need for a clear legal recognitiion of co-operative as 

economic institutions The clear definition of co-operatives is needed as "co-operatives are 

autonomous associations of persons united voluntarily to meet their common needs and 

aspirations through a Jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise and adhering 

to the co-operative principles and values." This definition should be included in the constitution 

of India, MSCS Act 2002 and in all the state co-operative societies Acts. 

5.4 In order to increase the member participation in co-operatives and enable them 

to do away with non-user members, the MSCS Act and state co-operative societies Acts must 

provide: 

1) A defination of active member as "an active member is one who participates in 

the affairs of the co-operative, using its services, according to by - laws of the co-operative. 

2) The active members who have a stake in the Business to have the right to vote 

and contest elections to the board. 

3) In order to exit to non-user members, the provisiion in by-laws is made for 

cessation of membership on failure to fulfill the obligations as specified as use of minimum 

level of services in terms of quantum and period specified and the required participation in 

meetings. 

5.5 In order to improve the effectiveness of Boards Particularly their trusteeship role 

and fiduciary responsibility, to ensure accountability and professionalization of the 

organization, the law should provide for. 

5.5.1 The roles and responsibilities of the co-operative Board and paid executives and 

managers should be clearly defined. The board should idealy confine itself to formulating 

policies and major business decisions, laying down plans and periodie goals, where as day 

to day decisiion should be taken by the executives. 

5.5.2 A fair provision for fiduciary responsibility as provided in the companies Act, 

should be mandatory for the directors on co-operative Boards. Board also to disclose certain 

information to avoid confilict of interest following are suggestions in this regard as, 

1) Disclosure of interests by Directors : Every director of a co-operative, who is in 

any way directly or indirectly concerned or interested in a contract on behalf of co-operative, 

shall disclose the nature of concern or interest at a meeting of the Board of directors. 

2) Interested Director not to be present in Board's proceddings. (1) No director of a 

co-operative shall present as a director in the discussion of or note on any contract entered 

on behalf of the co-operative. 

27

5.5.3 Fit and proper criteria for Board members should be laid down by the cooperative 

in its by laws. 

5.5.4 The co-opted experts should be specialists in business related areas of the cooperative 

should decide in regards the expertise, that would be useful for its operations. In 

business decisions the co-opted member should be allowed to vote. 

5.5.5 It should be mandatory to any person elected as a director on the Board to under 

go for prescribed training programmes within six months of being elected, in order equipping 

skills and knowledge required to perform satisfactorily discharge his responsibilities. failure 

to do so will result in his disqualification as a director. 

5.5.6 In regards to the qualifications for to post of Managing directors of the cooperative. 

Its shall be specified in the by-laws of co-operatives. 

5.6 In order to remove the political interference in the co-operative, it is necessary 

that along with the recommendations in the model co-operative Act, the law should provide 

for. 

5.6.1 Voting rights linked to patronage and restricted to active membership. This will 

ensure that only active members have right to elect the management of the society. Political 

personalities are the active members, they can be entitled to be on the boards and participate 

in the management if elected. 

5.6.2 It is appropriate that in the higher tier co-operative it is ensured that user member 

of the co-operatives is to be given his right in decision making. 

5.6.3 Rotational retirement of Board members : is to be allowed for fresh thinking 

and for the continutity in management. 

5.6.4 This committee recommended that restriction on voting right to members should 

be provided for the first tweleve months after Joining the co-operatives. This provision will 

guard against mass enrolement in co-operatives for the purpose of elections. 

5.6.5 Restrictiion on contribution to political and religious organization. 

5.7 The co-operatives, who has received government equity contribution should be 

returned to the government, where in cases co-operatives are unable to return the government 

equity, they may enter into an MOV with the permission of government. 

5.8 In order to enhance the competitiveness, the law should enable co-operatives to. 

5.8.1 Decide their organizational structure and staffing recruitment policies, service 

conditions and remuneration, as approved by the Board. 

5.8.2 Measures such as formation of Joint ventures, partnership, subsidiaries and 

strategic alliances with co-operatives and other corporates are adopted. 

5.8.3 Co-operatives should operate without any imposed area restrictions. They are 

hampered due to their area of operation and membership in it. So, they are not getting the 

benefit of economics of scale. 

28

5.8.4 They should have flexibility in bust decisions, mobilizing funds and surplus 

allocation. 

6. Constitutiion Amendment : According to this committee there is need that state 

co-operative societies Acts follow the Model co-operative Act. So it recommends the need 

for a constitution Amendment. 

7. The Role of Government : Governments would ensure the qutonomous functioning 

of the co-operatives to strengthen them. 

7.1 Government should design a policy for faciliating the functioning of co-operatives 

with free and fair means. It should be based by legislative and executive measures that open 

and free market conditions should be provided to co-operatives. Hence, government should 

permit the entry of co-operatives to any line of economic activity as chosen by the members. 

7.2 Conversion of equity held in co-operatives into grant or soft loan. 

7.3 Government should execute an agreeement / MOU with co-operatives, that have 

received government equity, loans and gurantees, so as government should play a mutually 

accepted role till equity / loan is not repaid. 

7.4 Government should not depute officers to occupy key positiions in co-operatives 

except on an explicit request from co-operative. 

7.5 If, Government has deputed the officers to hold key positions, they are given a 

minimum tensure of 3 years. 

7.6 Government should provide a grant for the member education, Manager's training 

and board members and leadership development. 

7.7 The government should refrain from the setting targets for formation of cooperatives. 

In some states the government departments themselves are engaged in the taks 

of organizing co-operatives, This task should be left to the unions and federations of the cooperatives 

and the people. 

8. Development orientation to planning for co-operative : 

8.1 It is important that due recognitation is given to co-operatives as a third sector of 

the economy and it's development, particulasly for the weaker segments. 

8.2 In order to frame the planning and policies, an independent permanent body 

should be formed at national level namely co-operative commission for the developmeent 

of co-operatives. It should be autonomous body. 

9. Enhancing competitiveness : In order to enhance competitiveness and 

professionalism in co-operatives, HPC recommends as. 

9.1 Structure of the co-operatives should be examined. It should be make cost effective 

and encouraging the net-working amongst the co-operatives. 

29

9.2 While consolidating of business through mergers of co-operatives for successful 

corporate use, the interest of members is protected. 

9.3 In order to adopt new technologies and management information systems, federal 

co-operatives should take responsibilities to support their member organizations, particularly 

the small co-operatives, who are not able to build up their own information system or use 

of IT based technology. 

9.4 A legal provision shuld be made for highertier co-operatives should desist from 

competing in business with their constituent members. 

10. Human Resource Development and the need for Professionalism : 

as, 

In regards to the human resource development in co-operatives committee recommends 

10.1 In order to sensitize members regarding their rights, responsibilities regarding the 

co-operative society co-operatives should undertake member awarness and education 

programmes continuously. 

10.2 The concept of family membership in co-operative should be considered to attrach 

youth special efforts shall be made to facilitate women and youth participation in cooperatives. 

The business activities of the co-operatives are reoriented such as to facilitate 

greater number of women to participate at different levels in the co-operatives. 

10.3 It should be made obligatory to the co-operative leaders to undergo training on 

co-operative and business management within six months of their being elected. 

10.4 The management of co-operatives are oriented on business development, methods 

of enhancing member participatiion and strategies for maximizing member capital. 

10.5 Chief executive of co-operatives should adopt appropriate criteria based on the 

business and size of the co-operative. 

10.6 The co-operatives should avail expert assistance from time to time co-operatives 

should appoint suitable expertise, specialists etc. Higher tier organizations should provide 

the help to small co-operatives. 

10.7 Co-operative ledership should be educated, trained and groming and talented. 

Therefore Board and management of co-operatives should be considered this need. 

10.8 Various schemes like Training and personnel, Resource centre sheme of NCDC 

should be availed by co-operatives and in addition a central government scheme for setting 

up such resource centres be considered. 

10.9 In order to provide trained professional to co-operative management a co-operative 

university should be set up and for this purpose NCUI, HRD Ministry and UGC should 

provide necessary support for it. Existing taining institute should be utilized for this purpose. 

30

10.10 Every co-operative should spell out its HRD policy in its by-laws and it should 

be applicable to al members, employees, Board of Directors etc. Also, it should specify 

manpower planning, recruitment procedures, professionalization. Every co-operative should 

reserve 2% amount of it's annual budget for training and member education and skill 

upgradation at all levels. 

11. Capital formation and financial sustainability : 

It this regards committee recommended as, 

11.1 Considering the inability of large proportion of members to increase share capital, 

there is need for external support. So, central and state governments should provide a 

budgefary scheme of soft loans to farmers for capital participation in co-operatives. Such 

scheme are in force under the ageis of RBI. Under which soft loans / interest free loans are 

provided to agricultural produce processing units towards initial share capital contribution. 

11.2 This committee recommended that full income tax exemption is offerred to all cooperatives. 

It causes to save the reserves of co-operatives. This measure incentive for the 

co-operatives will strengthen the capital base of co-operatives. Such type of exemption is 

given in global level by 65% of the countries. 

11.3 Committee is of the view that government participation in share capital of cooperatives 

brings governemt control on freedom and autonomy of co-operatives. So it is not 

recommended. Therefore in order to provide help to co-operatives they can provide grants 

or interest free loans, they should be strictly repatrible. 

11.4 Wherre the co-operatives have avalied the benefit of initial share capital participation 

support by government, this must be redeemed at the earliest. 

11.5 Most of the co-operatives have their own limitations to raise capital from their 

members. Co-operatives like manufcaturing / processing / services / banking etc. required 

to raise higher capital. 

Therefore, they have to raise capital from financial market as well as debt also. 

The financially sound co-operatives are capital intensive. So it is recommended that 

such co-operatives promote an Umbrella organization. Which are source of capital from 

market, arrange for debt and provide the requirred financial and technical help to cooperatives. 

Such models in respect of co-operatives in many countries. The financial 

instruments are specifically structured in the form of bonds, debentures, special shares etc. 

for the help of grassroot level co-operatives. 

11.6 The share of co-operative banks in rural credit is declining steadily and is around 

20%. Because of they have very limited their own funds and depend upon refinance from 

NABARD. For the refinance NABARD is dependent upon General Line of Credit (GLC) 

from RBI. But now GLC support is withdrawn by RBI. So NABARD carit provide edequate 

refinance to co-operatives. Many co-operatives banks are weak and unable to raise funds 

31

from the market. So, there is strong need for an alternative organizational set up to mobilize 

funds and to bridge the gap in the co-operative credit and banking structure. 

11.7 Co-operatives in various countries have adopted different strategies to augment 

their equity. In India, co-operatives should develop the financial instruments to raise capital 

according to their business by keeping in mind one member-one vote concept. 

11.8 Service sector have high potential for growth. It's growth is hampered due to lack 

of adequate funding. The NCDC is set up to provide institutional finance to co-operatives 

but it has a limited portfolio in funding service co-operatives. This may be diversified to 

include all service sub-sectors. 

11.9 In order to meet high capital requirements of value added co-operative business 

projects, there should be debt financing and other financing options alike Canada and USA. 

Farm improvement and marketing co-operatives Loans Act (FIMCLA) in Canads & USA, 

under this Act, the ministry is liable to pay the lender 95% of the loss sustained as a result 

of loans made. 

12. Access to Credit / Finance : 

Regarding the issue of lack of credit to farming community, the committee recomended 

that, 

12.1 To provide incentives to become members of co-operatives to those who are 

outside the credit system. These incentives are in the form of soft loan / grants for the 

purpose of share capital contribution to co-operatives. 

12.2 To conduct a detailes study on the reasons for large sections of rural and agrirultural 

population, which is not covered by formal credit system. Therefore emphasis is needed to 

make modifications to enable larger coverage of these population. 

12.3 In order to meet the credit needs of the credit worthy farmers of weak PACS a 

seperate credit line is to be considered. 

12.4 Those farmers are ineligible for NABARD fundaling for them SHGs are to be 

formed comprising non-defaulting members. 

12.5 A additional avenue of refinance to co-operatives should be provided by drawing 

a suitable scheme of fundng by RIDF. 

12.6 There is high degree of risk in agriculture In order to meet these recurring risks, 

the whole issue of finance and insurance needs a fresh look and permanent solution, an 

expert committee can study the issue with rrecommendations made by various studies. 

13. Rehabilitation of sick and weak co-operatives : 

13.1 In order to addrress the problems of sick units of co-operatives engaged in 

manufacturing, processing, services and other activities relating to rural economy. The 

committee recommens that a National co-operative Rehabilitation committee is to be set up. 

32

13.2 While setting up the Rehabilitation committee, It is recommended that a National 

co-operative Rehabilitation and institutional protection fund for revival of sick units be 

created by the Government of India, with contribution from the states. It's modalities and 

eligible criteria for disbursal from the fund are to be determined. The Rehabilitation committee 

may be the authority for approving disbursals from the fund. Liquidation funds available 

with the states alike orhte existing sectorial funds to support industry specific co-operatives. 

13.3 It is recommended that uniform guidelines for easy exist by way of mergers or 

clousers are to be framed. These guidelines will have to be adopted by all the states. 

14. Constitution Amendment : The co-operation is a state subject, so there is need for 

uniformity in co-operative legislation for autonomous and democratic functioning of cooperatives 

several states have their paralled legislation for co-operatives on the lines of the 

Model co-operatives Act. The co-operative autonomy can be ensured only when certain 

amendments are introduced in the constitution. Therefore HPC has made following 

recommendations. 

14.1 The recommendations of the committee on the 106th constitution Amendment Bill 

2006, introduced in Loksabha. The main clauses in respect of which committee suggested 

are as follows. 

14.1.1 Article 19 (1) (c) of the constitution explictly imply that co-operatives are 

associations so any restrictions on them have to be within the framework of Article 19 (4). 

It is necessary to have a definition of co-operatives in the constitutiion, which will clearly 

indicate that they are promoted, owned, controlled and managed by only their user members. 

The insertion of the word "co-operative societies" after the word association in subclause 

(c) of clause (1) of Article 19 and a definition of co-operatives (new sub clause (h)) 

to form and run co-operatives based on principles of voluntary, democratic member control, 

member economic participation and autonomous functioning is recommended. 

14.1.2 The Committee has fear that by introlducing new part IX-B after part IX-A of 

the constittion along with Panchayat Raj institution (PRI) and municiplaties would imply 

that co-operatives are a part of goverance, The insertion of this part may be at an appropriate 

place in the constitutiion to ensure that this construal is dispelled. 

14.1.3 HPC recommended that following definition of co-operative Society should be 

included. "A co-operative society is an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily 

to meet their common needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically 

controlled enterprise and adhering to the co-operative principles and values, registered or 

deemed to be registered under any law relating to co-operative societies for the time being 

inforce in any state or the centre. 

33

14.1.4 243 ZJ Number and Term of members of Board of Directors and its office 

Bearers : 

1) The Bill specifies that maximum members of directors on the Board shall not 

exceed twenty one except the state level co-operative society. 

2) This committee recommended that the term of office of elected members of the 

Board and its office bearers shall be five years from the date of election further it recommended 

that only elected members of the Board of Directors shall be eligible to vote in the election 

and to be elected as Chairman or Vice-Chairman or President or Vice-President of the Board. 

3) The committee also have recommended that the candidates who have lost in 

elections to the Board shall not be co-opted on the Board either on casual vaccancy or 

otherwise. 

14.1.5 243 ZK Elections of Members of Board : 

All elections of the co-operative societies shall vest in the General Body of co-operative 

society and committee recommends that the functions of holding meetings of general body 

shall vest in the Board of co-operative society. 

14.1.6 243 ZL Supersession of Board of Directors : 

Where there is no government shareholding of loan or financial assistance or any 

guarantee the government. In this regards no board of a co-operative society shall be 

superseded. Where there is a minor government share holding of financial assistance or any 

guarantee by the government can be superseded. 

The committee has suggested that no supercession of the board of directors should be 

allowed in any case where government share holding is less than 51%. 

15. Amendments in Act 2002 : 

The Multi-state co-operative societies Act 2002 has been in operation of the last seven 

years and there is need to make the Act more comprehensive and to mitigate practical 

problems being faced by Multi-state co-operative societies under this Act, the committee has 

proposed clausewise amendments in MSCS Act 2002 as follows. 

1) The internationally accepted definition of co-operative society should be introduced. 

Which reflects it's voluntary, autonomous and democratic nature. 

2) In order to ensure that the co-operatives are user owned and user controlled a concept 

of 'active member' may be introduced in the Act and accordingly a definition of active 

member may be included. The act should provide that only active members shall have the 

right to vote/ contest elections. 

3) The committee recommended that provision of fiduciary responsibility as in companies 

Act should be introduced. It should be mandatory for the directors of the co-operative 

boards. This provision also applicable to the co-opted experts on the Board. 

4) Provisions may be introducted to put restriction on political and religious organizations. 

34

5) Also, provision for raising capital through issue of non voting shares and IPO may 

be included. 

Detailed amendment with regard to : 

Section 3 - definition : 

Section 22 (5) (c) - Conversion of a co-operative society into MSCS 

Section 25 (4) - Persons who may become members 

Section 28 - Members not to exercise rights till due payment made 

Section 30 (1) - Expulsion of members 

Section 30 (2) - Readmission of expelled members 

Section 31 - Vote of members 

Section 35 (1) - Redemptiion of shares 

Section 38 (3) - Constitution powers and functions of General Body 

Section 39 (1) (K) - Annual General Meeting of General Body 

Section 41 - Board of Directors 

Section 43 (2) - Disqualifications for being a member of Board 

Section 44 (1) & (2) - Prohibition to hold office of chairperson or President or 

Vice-President 

Sections 45 (5), (6) & (7) - Election of members of Board 

Sections 46 (1) & (2) - Holding of office in co-operative society 

Sections 49 (2)(b) & m - Powers and functions of Board 

Section 50 (3) - Meeting of Board 

Section 52 (1) - Powers and functions of chief Executive 

Sections 53 (1) - Committees of Board 

Section 63 (1) (b) - Disposal of Net Profits 

Section 65 - Restriction on contribution 

Section 67 (1) (iii) - Restriction on Borrowing 

Section 70 (7) (a) - Appointment and removal of auditor 

Section 84 (1) - Reference of Disputes 

Section 99 (2) - Appeals. 

References : 

1) "Report of the High Powerd Committee co-operatives" (2009) 

Published by : Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. 

35 

��

B. Com. Part-III : Co-operative Development 



Unit 3 sub point 

Subunit : NAFED - Corporatisation of Marketing and 

Production co-operative (Kurian-Alagh Committee Report) 

A high level committee on formation of co-operative business as companies was set up 

in 1st November 1999. The Chairman of the committee was "Y. K. Alagh." This committee 

has to draft a legislative framework for the formation of co-operative business as companies 

and to convert existing co-operative business into companies under a regulatory framework 

similar to that of a private limited companies. The committee submitted it's reprt to the 

government on 15th March 2000. It's recommendations are as follows. 

Recommendations : 

1) A statutory and regulatory framework is to be framed, which creates the potential 

for producer-owned enterprises to complete with other enterprises on a competitive footing. 

The company Act is useful to various types of companies viz. Private limited, public limited, 

trusteeship companies and nidhis. It's specific and appropriate provisiions are applicable to 

them. Company Act provides them provisions for the formation and registration of producer 

companies. It included the mutual assistance and co-operative principles within the more 

liberal regulatory framework. With suitable adaptions. It also provides an opportunity to cooperative 

institutions to voluntarily transform themselves into the new form of producer 

companies. This facility will be available to inter-state co-operative, whose objects extend to 

more than one state. 

2) The conversion of inter-state co-operatives to producer companies is to be purely 

voluntary. 

3) Member equity may not be publicly Traded and only be transferred after the 

approval of the Board of Directors of the producer company. The producer company is not 

vulnerable to take over by the multinationals or other companies. 

4) The inter-state co-operative society can be converted into producer company only 

of the 2/3 rd majority of the members of the concerned society. 

5) The new form of company woulld be recognised as "Primary producers" i. e. The 

members related to this company are to be promary producers. 

6) The object of the producer company is production, Processing. manufacture and 

sale of primary produces as well as allied matter among with other things. 

36

7) There is provision for converted producer company to go back to the original fold 

of co-operative in state co-operative law. 

8) In state co-operative laws, The Registrar's approval is required for the governance 

and esecially business. This regulatory and restrictive system is main obstacles to cooperatives 

being competitive in a market economy. In order to complete in market economy 

quick decisions are required regarding financial and administrative matters, for which 

autonomy is essential alike other business. 

The minister of law, Justic and company affairs and shipping Shri. Arun Jately introduced 

the companies Bill, 2001 in Loksabha (Second Amendment). Th Bill seeks fo facilitate 

formation of co-operative business as companies as per the provisions of the companies Act, 

1956. 

The committee headed by Y. K. Alagh recommended the amendment of the companies 

Act 1956. According to the recommendations of the committee the producer companies Bill 

was introduced in the parliament and became law on 6th February 2003, as part IX-A 

producer compaines in the companies Act 1956. Based on the co-operative principles of 

mutual assistance, It provides an alternative to the institutional form that is presently available 

to co-operative enterprises. 

37 

��

~r. H$m°_. ^mJ-3 : Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZ nona-1 



Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZmMr AmoiI 

(Introduction to Industrial Management) 

� Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZ-AW©, _hÎd � Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZmVrb AmYw{ZH$ àdmh 

� JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ � CnH«$_ g§gmYZ {Z`moOZ � ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZ 

AW© d ì`m»`m : 

"Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZ' `m g§koVrb Am¡Úmo{JH$ d ì`dñWmnZ `m XmoZ eãXm§Mo AW© ñdV§Ì d {^Þ 

AmhoV. Am¡Úmo{JH$ hm eãX CÚmoJm§er g§~§{YV Amho. dñVy qH$dm godm§Mr {Z{_©Vr H$aUmè`m g§ñWobm CÚmoJ Ago 

åhUVmV. CÚmoJm§_Üò CËnmXZmMr {H«$`m Ho$br OmVo. H$ÀÀ`m _mbmda `mo½` Ë`m à{H«$`m H$ê$Z Ë`mMo A§{V_ 

Cn^mo½` dñVy_Üò ê$nm§Va H$aUo åhUOo CËnmXZ {H«$`m hmo`. CÚmoJmÛmao Imbrb {H«$`m Ho$ë`m OmVmV. CXm. 

CËIZZ {H«$`m, n¥W¸$aUmË_H$ {H«$`m, g§`moJmË_H$ {H«$`m BË`mXr. 

CËnmXZ {H«$ò_Üò Z¡g{J©H$ gmYZg§nÎmrda `mo½` à{H«$`m H$ê$Z Ë`mg ê$n Cn`mo{JVm XoD$Z Ë`mMo 

Cn`mo{JVm _yë` dmT>{dbo OmVo. H$ÀÀ`m _mbmda `mo½` Vo g§ñH$ma Ho$ë`m_wio Ë`m§Mm Cn^moJ KoUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

CÚmoJg§ñWm{Z{_©V A§{V_ dñVy d godm§Mm Cn^moJ KoD$Z J«mhH$ Amnë`m JaOm§Mr nyV©Vm H$arV AgVmV. 

WmoS>Š`mV, g_mOmÀ`m JaOnyVugmR>r, g_mYmZnyVugmR>r CÚmoJm§VJ©V CËnmXZ {H«$òÛmao A§{V_ dñVy d godm§Mr 

{Z{_©Vr Ho$br OmVo. AW©ì`dñWo_Üò CÚmoJg§ñWm§Zm A{Ve` _hÎdmMo ñWmZ Amho. g_mOH$ë`mU, amï´>{dH$mg 

d amï´>mÀ`m Am{W©H$ d Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mgm_Üò CÚmoJjoÌmMo `moJXmZ \$ma _moR>o AgVo. 

"ì`dñWmnZ' g§ko~m~V {d{dY {dMmad§Vm§Zr Amnbo {dMma Imbrbà_mUo ì`ŠV Ho$bo AmhoV. 

1. Ooåg bw§S>r `m§À`m _Vo, ""{d{eï> CÔoem§À`m àmárgmR>r BVam§À`m à`ËZm§Zm {Z`mo{OV, g_pÝdV, ào[aV 

d {Z`§{ÌV H$aÊ`mMo H$m`© åhUOo ì`dñWmnZ hmo`.'' 

2. Om°O© Q>oar `m§À`m _Vo, ""_mZdr gmYZo d AÝ` gmYZm§Mm Cn`moJ H$ê$Z C{Ôï>o R>a{dUmar d gmÜ` 

H$aUmar d¡{eîQ>çnyU© à{H«$`m åhUOo ì`dñWmnZ hmo`.'' 

AmYw{ZH$ `wJm_Üò ì`dñWmnZmMm {dH$mg A{Ve` doJmZo hmoV Amho. ì`dñWmnZm~m~V ZdZdrZ 

g§H$ënZm, {dMma, V§Ìo ApñVËdmV òV AmhoV. CÚmoJjoÌm_Üò AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ {dMmam§Mm, {gÕm§VmMm 

gImobnUo Cn`moJ Ho$bm OmV Amho. CÚmoJg§ñWoMr nyd©{ZYm©[aV C{Ôï>o gmÜ` H$aÊ`mMo EH$ à_wI gmYZ åhUOo 

ì`dñWmnZ hmo`. OmJ{VH$sH$aUmÀ`m `wJmV AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmbm n`m©` Zmhr Ago åhQ>bo OmVo. `m_wio 

gÚ:pñWVrV gd© CÚmoJg§ñWm AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMm à^mdr Cn`moJ H$ê$Z ñd{dH$mg gmYVmZm {XgVmV. 

1

Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo CÚmoJg§ñWm§Mo ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo hmo`. ì`dñWmnZ emómÀ`m gmhmæ`mZo CÚmoJm§Vrb 

{H«$`m nÕVeranUo nyU© H$aUo åhUOo Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZ hmo`. 

21 ì`m eVH$m_Üò Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd gVV dmT>V Amho. à^mdr Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZm_wio 

CÚmoJjoÌmMm {dñVma d {dH$mg doJmZo hmoVmo. `m_wio amï´>mÀ`m Am{W©H$ d Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mgmbm MmbZm àmá 

hmoVo. AW©ì`dñWobm ñW¡`© d JVr àmá hmoVo. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd (Importance of Industrial Management) : 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H«$m§VrZ§Va CÚmoJjoÌm_Üò hiyhiy ì`dñWmnZmMm Adb§~ Ho$bm OmD$ bmJbm. `mM H$mimV 

CÚmoJjoÌm~amo~a ì`dñWmnZ emómMmhr hiyhiy {dH$mg hmoV hmoVm. 18 ì`m eVH$mÀ`m CÎmamYm©nmgyZ Vo 19 

ì`m eVH$mÀ`m CÎmamYm©n`ªV CÚmoJjoÌm_Üò na§namJV ì`dñWmnZ nÕVrMm Adb§~ Ho$bm OmV hmoVm. 19 ì`m 

eVH$mÀ`m AIoaÀ`m H$mbI§S>mV am°~Q>© AmodoZ, Mmb©g ~°~oO, hoÝar Q>m¡Zo `m§gma»`m {dMmad§Vm§Zr ì`dñWmnZm~m~V 

emór` {dMmam§Mr _m§S>Ur Ho$br. \«o$S>[aH$ Q>oba `m§Zr gd©àW_ ì`d{ñWV d {dñV¥V ñdê$nmV emór` 

ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m {gÕm§VmMr _m§S>Ur Ho$br. emór` ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd CÚmoJOJVmbm nQ>ë`m_wio emór` 

ì`dñWmnZmMm CÚmoJjoÌm_Üò _moR>çm à_mUmV Adb§~ Ho$bm OmD$ bmJbm. OdiOdi 1930 Vo 1940 n`ªV 

CÚmoJjoÌmda emór` ì`dñWmnZmMm à^md hmoVm. `m H$mimV {d{dY ì`dñWmnZ {dMmad§Vm§Zr CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb 

_mZdr KQ>H$m§Mo _hÎd {deX Ho$bo. `mZ§VaÀ`m H$mimV CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb _mZdr KQ>H$mMo, _mZdr g§~§YmMo _hÎd 

dmT>V Jobo. ì`dñWmnZmbm _mZdr, gm_m{OH$ Ñ{ï>H$moU {Xbm Jobm. 1960 Z§Va OnmZr ì`dñWmnZ nÕVrMo 

_hÎd dmT>V Jobo. AZoH$ {dMmad§Vm§Zr ì`dñWmnZm~m~V AZoH$ AmYw{ZH$ {dMmam§Mr, g§H$ënZm§Mr _m§S>Ur 

Ho$br. CXm. ì`yhaMZmË_H$ ì`dñWmnZ, PoS> {gÕm§V, C{ÔîQ>m{Y{ð>V ì`dñWmnZ, g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ, 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^, VUmd ì`dñWmnZ BË`mXr 21 ì`m eVH$m_Üò OmJ{VH$sH$aUmMr à{H«$`m A{YH$ J{V_mZ 

Pmë`mZo OmJ{VH$ n`m©daUmV èñdr hmoÊ`mgmR>r CÚmoJg§ñWm A{Ve` gImobnUo AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ g§H$ënZm§Mm, 

V§ÌmMm, nÕVtMm Adb§~ H$ê$ bmJë`m. CÚmoJjoÌmMo ì`dñWmnZ AmYw{ZH$ nÕVtZr, {gÕm§Vm§Zr Ho$bo OmD$ 

bmJë`mZo CÚmoJjoÌmMm gdm}ƒ {dH$mg Pmbm. Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo ì`dñWmnZ emómMm CÚmoJjoÌm_Üò 

Adb§~ H$aUo hmò . à^mdr Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo bm^, _hÎd Imbrb _wÔçm§À`m AmYmao {deX Ho$bo OmVo. 

1. CËnmXZ gmYZm§Mo AMyH$ g§H$bZ : CËnmXZ {H«$òbm àma§^ H$aÊ`mnydu Amdí`H$ Ë`m CËnmXZ 

gmYZgm_J«rMo AMyH$ g§H$bZ H$amdo bmJVo. CXm. {d{dY àH$maMm H$ƒm _mb, `§Ìgm_J«r, hË`mao, CnH$aUo, 

O_rZ, B_maV, D$Om©gmYZo BË`mXr. `m gd© KQ>H$m§Mr IaoXr `mo½` doir, `mo½` à_mUmV, `mo½` {H$_Vrg, `mo½` 

XOm©V H$amdr bmJVo. IaoXr {H«$òMo emóewÕ nÕVrZo ì`dñWmnZ Ho$ë`mg emór` IaoXrMo bm^ CÚmoJ g§KQ>Zog 

àmá hmoVmV. WmoS>Š`mV, à^mdr IaoXr ì`dñWmnZm_wio CËnmXZ gmYZm§Mo AMyH$ g§H$bZ H$ê$Z EHy$U CËnmXZ 

IMm©_Üò ~MV H$aVm òVo. 

2. dñVy g§emoYZ d {dH$mg : J«mhH$m§À`m Anojm, AmH$m§jm, AmdS>r{ZdS>r gVV ~XbV AgVmV. 

J«mhH$dJ© Zoh_r ZdZdrZ dñVy§H$S>o AmH${f©V hmoV AgVmo. ~XbË`m \°$eZà_mUo J«mhH$m§À`m _mJUr_Üòhr ~Xb 

hmoVmo. `m_wio CÚmoOH$m§Zm dñVy g§emoYZ d {dH$mgmMr à{H«$`m A{daV gwê$ R>odmdr bmJVo. dñVy g§emoYZm_Üò 

nyU©V: ZdrZ dñVyMm emoY KoUo qH$dm dñVyMm {d{dY JwU{deofm§n¡H$s EH$m qH$dm H$mhr JwU{deofm§_Üò ~Xb 

2

H$aUo A{^àoV Amho, Va dñVy {dH$mgm_Üò dñVy g§emoYZmbm _yV© ñdê$n XoUo d dñVyMr Cn`wŠVVm dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r 

dñVyÀ`m JwUdÎmo_Üò gVV gwYmaUm H$aUo A{^n«oV Amho. ì`dñWmnZ emómÀ`m _XVrZo dñVy g§emoYZ d 

{dH$mg H$m`© Ho$ë`mg `m H$m`m©Mr AMyH$Vm dmT>Vo. 

3. H$_©Mmar {Z`wŠVr : AmYw{ZH$ `wJmV ì`dgm`mVrb _mZdr KQ>H$mg A{Ve` _hÎd àmá Pmbo Amho. 

H$_©Mmè`m§Zm ì`dgm`mMo EH$ _hÎdmMo g§gmYZ g_Obo OmVo. H$_©Mmè`m§À`m ghH$m`m©da d {Zð>oda g§KQ>ZoMo 

è Adb§~yZ AgVo, `mMr gd© KQ>H$m§Zm OmUrd Pmbr Amho. `m_wio H$_©Mmè`m§Mr âVr d {ZdS> A{Ve` 

H$miOrnd©H$ d {dMmanyd©H$ H$amdr bmJVo. CÚmoOH$ H$_©Mmar âVr d {ZdS>rÀ`m {H«$òMo AMyH$ {Z`moOZ, 

g§KQ>Z, {ZX}eZ d {Z`§ÌU H$ê$Z ì`dgm` g§ñWog `mo½` d nmÌ H$_©Mmar àmá H$ê$ eH$VmV. 

4. H$_©Mmar {dH$mg : H$_©Mmar {dH$mgmVyZ ì`dgm` {dH$mg `m VÎdmMo _hÎd CÚmoOH$m§Zm nQ>bo Amho. 

`m_wio Vo ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m _mÜ`_mVyZ H$_©Mmar {dH$mgmgmR>r gVV à`ËZerb Agbobo {XgVmV. CXm. ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m 

d {ZU©`mÀ`m à{H«$òV H$_©Mmè`m§Zm gh^mJ, gVV H$m`©àmoËgmhZ, H$_©Mmè`m§Zm {dMma d _VñdmV§Í`, A{YH$ma 

àXmZ, à^mdr d J{V_mZ ZoV¥Ëd BË`mXr H$_©Mmar KQ>H$mMo à^mdr ì`dñWmnZ Ho$ë`m_wio H$_©Mmar {dH$mgmg 

MmbZm {_iVo. H$_©Mmè`m§Zm H$m`© d _mZ{gH$ g_mYmZ bm^ë`mZo Vo g§KQ>Zobm nyU© ghH$m`© d {Zð>m ~hmb H$aVmV. 

5. H$_©Mmar-_mbH$-ì`dñWmnZ g§~§Y ÑT> : H$_©Mmar, _mbH$ d ì`dñWmnZ ho CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb 

VrZ à_wI _yb^yV KQ>H$ AmhoV. `m {VKm§_Üò {dídmg, ghH$m`© d gm_§Oñ` Agob, Va CÚmoJg§ñWm èñdr 

hmoVo. H$_©Mmar d _mbH$ `m§À`mV g»` d gbmoIm àñWm{nV H$aUo ho ì`dñWmnZmMo EH$ à_wI H$m`© Amho. 

ì`dñWmnZmZo Amnë`m ì`dñWmnZ H$m¡eë`mMm d AZw^dmMm Cn`moJ H$ê$Z `m XmoZ KQ>H$m§V EH$ê$nVm gmYyZ 

Ë`m§Mr eŠVr g§ñWoÀ`m èmV namd{V©V Ho$br nm{hOo. 

6. CËnmXZ C{Ôï>m§Mr gmÜ`Vm : CËnmXZmMo C{Ôï> {H$_mZ gmYZm§V, à`ËZmV, IMm©V gmÜ` H$aUo ho 

àËòH$ CnH«$_mMo A§{V_ Üò` AgVo. CËnmXZ {H«$`m H$m`©j_VoZo d n[aUm_H$maH$VoZo nyU© Pmë`mg CËnmXZmMo 

C{ÔîQ> ghO gmÜ` hmoVo. à^mdr d emóewÕ CËnmXZ ì`dñWmnZm_wio CËnmXZ gmYZm§Mo AMyH$ g§H$bZ, 

CËnmXZ {H«$òMo AMyH$ {Z`moOZ, CËnmXZ Cn{d^mJm§_Üò AMyH$ g_Ýd`, CËnmXZ g_ñ`m§{déÕ AMyH$ {ZU©`, 

CËnmXZ H$m`m©da H$mQ>oH$moa {Z`§ÌU R>odUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

7. ^m§S>db C^maUr : ^m§S>db C^maUr ho CÚmoJg§ñWoMo EH$ àmW{_H$ d _yb^yV H$m`© Amho. CÚmoJmMo 

ñdßZ, H$ënZm àË`jmV òÊ`mgmR>r nwaoem ^m§S>dbmMr Amdí`H$Vm AgVo. Amdí`H$VoBVHo$M ^m§S>db {H$_mZ 

IMm©V g§nmXZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r Am{W©H$ `moOZm AmImdr bmJVo. ^m§S>dbmMo AMyH$ ì`dñWmnZ Ho$ë`m_wio Am{W©H$ 

`moOZobm {ZpíMV è àmá hmoVo. ^m§S>dbr JaOoMm A§XmO, ^m§S>db C^maUrÀ`m _mJm©Mr {ZdS>, ^m§S>db aMZm, 

^m§S>dbmMo à~§YZ hr gd© H$m`} à^mdr {dÎm ì`dñWmnZm_wio H$m`©j_VoZo nyU© hmoVmV. 

8. g§J«hU d _mbgmR>m {Z`§ÌU : CËnmXZ g§ñWoMo Am{W©H$ è ~è`mM A§er H$m`©j_ g§J«hU d 

_mbgmR>m {Z`§ÌUmda AmYm[aV AgVo. g§J«hU ì`dñWmnZm_wio gmYZgm_J«rMo gwa{jV OVZ, _mbmMr ^m¡{VH$ 

_moOUr, AMyH$ _mb hmVmiUr _mbmMo dJuH$aU d gm§Ho${VH$sH$aU d _mbmMo {heo~ boIZ hr gd© H$m`} 

AMyH$nUo nma nS>VmV. VgoM _mbgmR>m ì`dñWmnZm_wio _mbgmR>m n`m©á nmVirg amIUo, _mbgmR>çmMo 

gwa{jV OVZ d nwadR>m, _mbgmR>m _moOUr, _mbgmR>m qH$_V{ZpíMVr hr gd© H$m`} H$m`©j_VoZo nyU© hmoVmV. 

3

WmoS>Š`mV, g§J«hU d _mbgmR>m H$m`m©Mo AMyH$ {Z`moOZ, g§KQ>Z, {ZX}eZ d {Z`§ÌU Ho$ë`m_wio CËnmXZ IMm©V 

~arM ~MV hmoVo. 

9. _mb hmVmiUr d A§VJ©V dmhVyH$ : CÚmoJg§ñWo_Üò H$ƒm _mb, hË`mao d CnH$aUm§Mr _mb 

hmVmiUr d A§VJ©V dmhVyH$ {Z`{_V H$amdr bmJVo. hr XmoÝhr H$m`} H$m`©j_VoZo Ho$ë`mg gmYZgm_J«rMm 

Anì``, ZmgYyg hmoV Zmhr. AMyH$ _mb hmVmiUr d gwa{jV A§VJ©V dmhVwH$sgmR>r `m XmoÝhr H$m`mªMo 

emóewÕ nÕVrZo ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo Amdí`H$ R>aVo. 

10. dñVy d godm§Mo {dVaU : AmYw{ZH$ `wJmV dñVy d godm§À`m {dVaU {H«$òg CËnmXZ {H«$ònojm 

A{YH$ _hÎd àmá Pmbo Amho. dmT>Ë`m ñnY}_wio {dVaU godoMo _hÎd {Xdg|{Xdg dmT>V Amho. `m_wio {dVaU 

H$m`m©Mo à^mdr ì`dñWmnZ H$amdo bmJVo. {dH«$`d¥Õr, J«mhH$d¥Õr, ~mOmanoR> d bm^d¥Õr Aem {d{dY 

C{Ôï>m§Mr gmÜ`Vm H$m`©j_ {dVaU ì`dñWmnZmda AmYm[aV AgVo. Om{hamV, àË`j {dH«$s, {dH«$sníMmV 

godm, ~mOmanoR> g§emoYZ, dmQ>n_mJ©-_Ü`ñWm§Mr {ZdS>, J«mhH$ g§nH©$ BË`mXr H$m`} AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m 

V§ÌmÀ`m, e¡ë`m§À`m gmhmæ`mZo nma nmS>ë`mg A§{V_ {dVaU H$m`m©g H$m`©j_Vm àmá hmoVo. 

11. `§ÌaMZm : ì`mdgm{`Z H$m`} H$m`©j_VoZo nma nmS>Ê`mgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmar `§Ìo, hË`mao, 

CnH$aUo, godmH|$Ðo, H$m`©H|$Ðo BË`mXtMr `mo½` OmJr _m§S>Ur H$aUo åhUOo `§ÌaMZm hmo`. `mo½` d emór` aMZo_wio 

H$m`©àdmhmg `mo½` {Xem, JVr d gmVË` àmá hmoVo. `§ÌaMZo~m~V AMyH$ nydm©Zw_mZ d {Z`moOZ Ho$ë`mg, AMyH$ 

{ZU©` KoVë`mg d `§ÌaMoZoMo à^mdr {Z`§ÌU Ho$ë`mg `§ÌaMZm AmXe© hmoVo. WmoS>Š`mV, `§ÌaMZoMo emóewÕ 

nÕVrZo ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho. 

12. AmXe© H$m`©dmVmdaU : CËnmXZ ñWimdarb H$m`©n[apñWVr d H$m`©dmVmdaU CËgmhdY©H$ d 

Amamo½`Xm`H$ Agbo nm{hOo. H$m_Jmam§Mo H$m`©g_mYmZ, H$m`©j_Vm n`m©`mZo g§KQ>ZoMr H$m`©j_Vm `mo½` 

H$m`©pñWVrda Adb§~yZ AgVo. ì`dñWmnZmZo H$m`©n[apñWVr_Yrb gd© KQ>H$m§Mo AMyH$ {Z`moOZ, g§KQ>Z, 

g_Ýd` d {Z`§ÌU Ho$bo nm{hOo. ì`dñWmnZmZo H$m`©dmVmdaUmVrb gd© KQ>H$m§~m~V AMyH$ {ZU©` KoD$Z 

H$m`©dmVmdaU gwa{jV ~Z{dbo nm{hOo. 

13. JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU : AmYw{ZH$ `wJm_Üò dñVy d godm§À`m JwUdÎmobm {deof ñWmZ Amho. OmJ{VH$ 

~mOmanoR>o_Üò dñVyÀ`m JwUdÎmobm gdm}ƒ _hÎd {Xbo OmVo. gÚ:{ñWVrV JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmMr OmJm g_J« 

JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmZo KoVbobr Amho. ì`dgm`mVrb gd© KQ>H$m§Zr g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m à{H«$òV ^mJ 

KoVë`mg ì`dgm`mÀ`m H$m`©j_VoV _moR>r dmT> hmoVo. A§{V_ dñVy d godm§À`m gdm©oƒ JwUdÎmogmR>r g_J« JwUdÎmm 

ì`dñWmnZ AË`§V Amdí`H$ Amho. 

14. ì`dgm`mMr H$m`©j_Vm, CËnmXH$Vm : ì`dgm`mMr H$m`©j_Vm d CËnmXH$Vm hr ~è`mM A§er 

AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ nÕVr d V§Ìmda AmYm[aV AgVo. ì`mdgm`rZ H$m`mªMo AMyH$ {Z`moOZ, g§KQ>Z, {ZX}eZ 

d {Z`§ÌU Ho$ë`mZo AMyH$ {ZU©` à{H«$ò_wio, {d{dY {d^mJm§Vrb `mo½` g_Ýd`m_wio, ObX g§XoedhZm_wio d 

J{V_mZ ZoV¥Ëdm_wio Ë`m§Mr H$m`©j_Vm, CËnmXH$Vm C§MmdVo. n[aUm_V: ì`dgm`mMr H$m`©j_Vm d CËnmXH$Vmhr 

C§MmdVo. 

4

15. ì`dgm` {dñVma d {dH$mg : à^mdr ì`dñWmnZ ho ì`dgm` {dñVma d {dH$mgmMo EH$ _yb^yV 

gmYZ Amho. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ {dMmam§Mm, g§H$ënZm§Mm Adb§~ H$ê$Z CËnmXZ gmYZm§Mm H$_mb dmna d 

CËnmXZ IMm©V ~MV H$aUo eŠ` hmoVo. CXm. ì`yhaMZmË_H$ ì`dñWmnZ, C{Ôï>m{Y{ð>V ì`dñWmnZ BË`mXr. 

WmoS>Š`mV, Hw$eb ì`dñWmnZm_wio ì`dgm`mÀ`m bm^j_VoMr d¥Õr hmoVo. n`m©`mZo ì`dgm`mMm {dñVma d 

{dH$mg hmoVmo. 

16. J«mhH$ g_mYmZ : J«mhH$ g_mYmZmda J«mhH$m§Mm nmqR>~m, ghH$m`© d {Zðm> AmYm[aV AgVo. 

ì`dgm`mZo J«mhH${hVmMm {dMma Ho$ë`mg J«mhH$hr ì`dgm`{hVmMm {dMma H$aVmV. J«mhH$m§Zm amñV {H$_VrV, 

XO}Xma, Amdí`H$ Ë`m à_mUmV dñVy d godm§Mm nwadR>m Ho$ë`mg J«mhH$m§Zm gwIg_mYmZ àmá hmoVo. CËnmXZ d 

{dVaU H$m`m©À`m AMyH$ {Z`moOZ d {Z`§ÌUm_wio dñVy d godm§À`m JwUdÎmo_Üò dmT> hmoD$Z CËnmXZ IMm©V KQ> 

hmoVo. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ J«mhH$m§er gVV g§nH©$ gmYyZ Ë`m§À`m Anojm, BÀN>m OmUyZ KoVo d Ë`mZwgma 

Amnë`m CËnmXZ d {dVaU YmoaUmV `mo½` Vo ~Xb H$aVo. `m_wio J«mhH$ gwIr ~ZVmV. 

17. g_mOH$ë`mU : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmH$S>o gm_m{OH$ Ñ{ï>H$moU Agë`mZo Vo g_mO{hVmMm, 

H$ë`mUmMm àmYmÝ`mZo {dMma H$aVo. Z¡g{J©H$ gmYZg§nÎmrMm `mo½` dmna, amoOJmadmT>rg MmbZm, `§Ì d 

l_eŠVrMm _hÎm_ Cn`moJ, `mo½` ì`mnmar àWm§Mm Adb§~, Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm àñWmnZogmR>r à`ËZ Aem 

{d{dY gH$mamË_H$ H¥$Vt_wio g_mOH$ë`mU, CÞVr eŠ` hmoVo. WmoS>Š`mV, AmYw{ZH$ d J{V_mZ ì`dñWmnZ 

ì`dgm`mMm H$ma^ma H$m`©j_VoZo MmbdyZ g_mO{dH$mgmbm MmbZm XoVmV. 

18. amï´>{dH$mg : XoemVrb CÚmoJjoÌm_Üò AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ nÕVr, VÎdm§Mm Adb§~ Ho$ë`mg 

CÚmoJjoÌmMm {dñVma d {dH$mg hmoVmo. Hw$eb ì`dñWmnH$m§_wio XoemVrb Z¡g{J©H$ gmYZg§nÎmrMm, _Zwî`~imMm 

gw`mo½` d n[anyU© dmna hmoVmo. CÚmoJjoÌmÀ`m {dH$mgm_wio amoOJmadmT>rg MmbZm {_iVo. dñVy d godm§Mo _moR>çm 

à_mUmV CËnmXZ Pmë`m_wio bmoH$m§À`m amhUr_mZm§Mm ñVa C§MmdVmo. à^mdr ì`dñWmnZm_wio CÚmoJjoÌmMm 

{dH$mg Pmë`mZo amï´>mÀ`m Am{W©H$ d Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mgmbm MmbZm {_iVo. amï´>r` CËnmXZmV d CËnÞmV dmT> 

hmoVo. 

19. CÚmoJg§ñWoÀ`m nyd©{ZYm©[aV CÔoem§Mr nyV©Vm : CÚmoJg§ñWoMo ì`dñWmnZ Hw$eb d ~w{Õ_mZ 

ì`dñWmnH$m§À`m hmVr Agob Va Vo AMyH$nUo H$_©Mmè`m§À`m H$m`mªMo d à`ËZm§Mo {Z`moOZ, g§KQ>Z, {ZX}eZ 

d {Z`§ÌU H$aVmV. `m_wio H$m`©àdmhmg `mo½` {Xem d JVr àmá hmoD$Z H$m`m©Mr H$m`©j_Vm C§MmdVo. 

CÚmoJg§ñWoÀ`m nyd©{ZYm©[aV CÔoem§Mr nyV©Vm hmoVo d {Vbm Am{W©H$ ñW¡`© bm^Vo. 

20. Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm : ì`dñWmnZmbm _mZdr Ñ{ï>H$moZ XoÊ`mMo _m¡{bH$ H$m`© EëQ>Z _o`mo `m§Zr Ho$bo 

Amho. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ {dMmad§Vm§Zr ì`dgm` g§ñWoVrb _mZdr KQ>H$mMo _hÎd {d{dY àH$mao {deX Ho$bo 

Amho. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ H$_©Mmar g_mYmZmgmR>r d {dH$mgmgmR>r gVV à`ËZerb AgVo. `m AZwf§JmZo 

H$_©Mmè`m§Zm {d{dY àH$maÀ`m godm-gw{dYm nwa{dë`m OmVmV. `m_wio H$m_Jma-ì`dñWmnZ-_mbH$ `m§À`mV 

ñZoh d gbmoIm d¥{Õ§JV hmoVmo. H$m_Jmam§Zm nyU© H$m`©, _mZ{gH$, Am{W©H$ g_mYmZ bm^Vo. `m_wio CÚmoJjoÌmV 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm àñWm{nV hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. 

5

21. ~mø KQ>H$m§Mo {hVg§dY©Z : CÚmoJg§ñWo_Üò CËnmXZ d {dVaU `m XmoZ _yb^yV {H«$`m nma nmS>ë`m 

OmVmV. na§Vw, `m {H«$`m H$m`©j_VoZo nma nmS>Ê`mgmR>r g_mOmVrb {d{dY ì`ŠVr KQ>H$m§Mr, g§ñWm§Mr _XV 

¿`mdr bmJVo. CXm. nwadR>mXma, AmZwf§{JH$ godm nwa{dUmè`m g§ñWm, {dVaU {H«$òV gh^mJr hmoUmao _Ü`ñW, 

emgZ, ñWm{ZH$ ñdamÁ` g§ñWm, gm_m{OH$ g§ñWm BË`mXr. `m g§ñWm§Mo Am{W©H$ {hVg§~§Y CÚmoJg§ñWo_Üò 

Jw§Vbobo AgVmV. CÚmoJg§ñWoMo Hw$eb ZoV¥Ëd à{e{jV ì`dñWmnH$ dJ© H$arV Agob, Va Vo gm_m{OH$ {hVmMo 

^mZ R>odyZ `moOZm d YmoaUm§Mr AmIUr H$aVmV. `m_wio AmnmoAmn {d{dY gm_m{OH$ KQ>H$m§Mo {hVg§ajU d 

{hVg§dY©Z hmoVo. 

`m{edm`, CÚmoJjoÌmMo ì`dñWmnZ AmYw{ZH$ nÕVrZo, V§ÌmZo Ho$bo OmV Agob, Va Ë`mMo AZoH$ bm^ 

g§~§{YV CÚmoJg§ñWobm, CÚmoJjoÌmbm, gm_m{OH$ KQ>H$m§Zm d amï´>mbm àmá hmoVmV. CXm. ì`dgm` n`m©daUmVrb 

à{VHy$b KQ>H$m§da èñdr _mV, Va AZwHy$b KQ>H$m§Mm à^mdr Cn`moJ, AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌkmZmMm ghO Adb§~, 

OmJ{VH$ ñnY}da _mV, CËnmXZ gmYZm§_Üò AMyH$ g_Ýd`, ObX amï´>{dH$mg, {Z`m©Vd¥Õr, amîQ´>mÀ`m g§nÞVoV 

d g_¥ÕrV dmT> BË`mXr. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZmVrb AmYw{ZH$ àdmh : 

(Recent Trends In Industrial Management) : 

21 ì`m eVH$mÀ`m àma§^mnmgyZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZ A{Ve` doJmZo {dH${gV hmoV Amho. AZoH$ 

ì`dñWmnZ {dMmad§Vm§Zr ZdZdrZ g§H$ënZm _m§Sy>Z ì`dñWmnZ emó g_¥Õ Ho$bo Amho. `m gd© Zdg§H$ënZm§Mm 

CÚmoJ joÌm_Üò _moR>çm à_mUmV Adb§~ Ho$bm OmV Amho. OmJ{VH$sH$aUmÀ`m nmíd©^y_rda ì`yhaMZmË_H$ 

ì`dñWmnZ, {gŠg {g½_m, g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ `m g§H$ënZm§Zm A{Ve` _hÎd àmá Pmbo Amho. 

gÚpñWVrV AZoH$ CÚmoJ g§ñWm§Zr Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZmVrb `m AmYw{ZH$ {dMmam§Mm, àdmhm§Mm Adb§~ 

H$ê$Z OmJ{VH$ ~mOmanoR> nmXmH«$m§V Ho$br Amho. Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZmVrb H$mhr _hÎdmMo AmYw{ZH$ àdmh, 

{dMma Imbrbà_mUo AmhoV. 

1. JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ 

2. CnH«$_ g§gmYZ {Z`moOZ 

3. ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ 

1. JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ (Quality Management) : 

JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmV _w»`V: VrZ KQ>H$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. JwUdÎmm gwYmaUm, JwUdÎmm h_r d JwUdÎmm 

{Z`§ÌU. JwUdVm ì`dñWmnZ \$ŠV dñVyÀ`m JwUdÎmoda àH$me Q>mH$V Zmhr Va dñVy_Üò Cƒ JwUdÎmm AmUVo. 

JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ JwUdÎmm h_r~amo~a dñVy d {VÀ`m {Z_m©U nÕVrda {Z`§ÌU R>oD$Z JwUdÎmoV A{YH$ gmVË` 

AmUVo. 

JwUdÎmm gwYmaUm (Quality Improvement) : 

JwUdÎmm gwYmaUoÀ`m AZoH$ nÕVr ApñVËdmV AmhoV. `m_Üò dñVy gwYmaUm à{H«$`m gwYmaUm d 

J«mhH$H|${ÐV gwYmaUm `m KQ>H$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m Imbrb nÕVr d V§Ìm§À`m AmYmao 

6

JwUdÎmm gwYmaUm gmÜ` hmoVo. 

1. ISO 9004-2000 : `m_Üò H$m_{Jar gwYmaUogmR>r _mJ©Xe©H$ gwMZm, VÎdo Z_yX Ho$br AmhoV. 

2. ISO 15504-4 : 2005 : _m{hVr V§ÌkmZ - à{H«$`m VnmgUr ^mJ 4 - à{H«$`m gwYmaUm d à{H«$`m 

j_Vm R>a{dÊ`mgmR>r _mJ©Xe©Z. 

3. GFD - Quality Function Deployment : JwUdÎmm H$m`} AJH«$_mZo H$aUo. 

4. Kaizen : {Za§Va gwYmaUm 

5. Zero Defect Program : g§»`mË_H$ à{H«$`m {Z`§ÌUmda AmYm[aV 

6. Six Sigma : gm§p»`H$s` g§H$ënZm, H$m`m©Vrb Xmof _moOÊ`mMo V§Ì 

7. PDCA - Plan, Do, check, Act : JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU 

8. Quality Circle : JwU _§S>io 

9. Taguchi Methods : g§»`mË_H$ nÕV 

10. The Toyota Production System : 

11. Konsei Engineering : 

12. TQM - Total Quality Management : g§nyU© JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ 

13. TRIZ - Theory of Inventive Problem Sloving 

14. BPR - Business Process Reengineering. 

JwUdÎmm à_mU (Quality Standards) : 

Am§Vaamï´>r` à_mUrH$aU g§KQ>ZoZo (ISO)1987 _Üò JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ nÕVr à_mUmMr {Z{_©Vr Ho$br. 

`m_Üò ISO 9000 : 1987 à_mU loUr_Üò ISO 9001 : 1987, ISO 9002 : 1987 Am{U ISO 9003 : 1987 

B. Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. hr à_mUo doJdoJù`m àH$maÀ`m CÚmoJm§Zm bmJy hmoVmV. 

Am§Vaamï´>r` à_mUrH$aU g§KQ>Zm R>am{dH$ dfmªZr gXa à_mUm§Mm AmT>mdm KoVo. `mMr Z{dZ Amd¥Îmr 

1994 _Üò V`ma Ho$br. Ë`mg ISO 9000 : 1994 loUr Ago åhUVmV. `m_Üò ISO 9001 : 1994, 9002 : 

1994 Am{U 9003 : 1994 `m Amd¥Î`m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

gZ 2000 _Üò `m loÊ`m_Üò _moR>r gwYmaUm H$aÊ`mV Ambr. ISO 9000 : 2000 loUr, ISO 9002 d 

9003 à_mUo EH$Ì H$ê$Z Ë`mEodOr EH$M à_mU ISO 9001 : 2000 ApñVËdmV Ambo Amho. {S>g|~a 2003 

nmgyZ ISO 2000 d 2003 hr _mZHo$ d¡Y g_Obr OmV ZmhrV. 

ISO Zo `m loÊ`m_Üò 14-10-2008 _Üò WmoS>r gwYmaUm Ho$br Amho. 

CXm. ISO 9004 : 2000 Mr H$mJXnÌo _wë`_mZH$ ISO 9001 : 2000 nojm A{YH$ H$m_{Jar gwYmaUm 

7

H$er H$amd`mMr `mMr _mJ©Xe©H$ VÎdo gm§{JVbr AmhoV. ISO Mo JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ nÕVr _mZH$ ì`dgm` 

g§KQ>ZoVrb H$m`©à{H«$`m d nÕVr à_m{UV H$aVo. ISO 9000 _mZH$ ho dñVy qH$dm godoMr JwUdÎmm à_m{UV 

H$aV Zmhr. 

ISO Zo gZ 2005 _Üò ISO 22000 ho _mZH$ ImÚ CÚmoJmgmR>r bmJy Ho$bo Amho. ISO Zo BVa 

CÚmoJm§gmR>rhr _mZHo$ bmJy Ho$br. CXm. Vm§{ÌH$ _mZH$ - TS 16949, ISO 9001 : 2000 A°Q>mo_mo{Q>ìh 

CÚmoJm§gmR>r, ISO Zo JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmg ghmæ` H$aUmar AZoH$ _mZHo$ {Z_mU Ho$br. AmhoV. EH$ JQ> 

à{H«$`m§Mo dU©Z H$aVmo. (ISO 12207 d ISO 15288) Am{U BVa à{H«$`m§Mr VnmgUr d gwYmaUm§Mo dU©Z H$aVmo. 

(ISO 15504). 

Software Engineering Institutue H$S>o ñdV:À`m à{H«$`m VnmgUr d gwYmaUm nÕVr AmhoV. CMMI 

- Capability Maturity Model integrated à{H«$`m VnmgUrgmR>r. 

IDEAL - à{H«$`m gwYmaUogmR>r. 

JwUdÎmm h_r (Quality Assurance) : 

JwUdÎmm hr H$mhr EH$m ì`ŠVrMr qH$dm EH$m {d^mJmMr O~m~Xmar ZgVo. g§KQ>ZoVrb àËòH$ KQ>H$, dñVy 

qH$dm godoÀ`m {Z{_©Vr à{H«$ò_Üò àË`j qH$dm AàË`j ñdê$nmV gh^mJr hmoV AgVmo. Aemdoir àËòH$OU 

Agm {dMma H$aVmo H$s, JwUdÎmoMr H$miOr Xwgam H$moUrVar hmoB©b. `m_wio JwUdÎmoH$S>o Xwb©j hmoVo. Aemdoir 

dñVy godm§Mm XOm© Cƒ amhÊ`mgmR>r `m§À`m {Z{_©VrMr H$m`©nÕVr {ZpíMV H$amdr {VMr A§_b~OmdUr A{Ve` 

H$m`©j_VoZo d H$m¡eë`nyd©H$ H$amdr bmJVo. 

JwUdÎmm h_r åhUOo dñVy d godo_wio {d{eð> JaOm§Mr g_mYmZ nyVu hmoB©b `m{dfjrMm {dídmg 

XoÊ`mgmR>r Ho$ë`m OmUmè`m gd© {Z`moOZ~Õ d nÕVera {H«$`m H$m`} hmoV. JwUdÎmm h_r_Üò ì`dñWmnZ d 

J«mhH$ XmoKm§Mohr {hVg§~§Y Jw§Vbobo AgVmV. JwUdÎmm h_r J«mhH$ d ì`dñWmnZ `m XmoKm§À`mV Agm {dídmg 

{Z_m©U H$aVo H$s, g§KQ>ZoÀ`m {H«$`m§_Üò dñVy d godobm Cƒ JwUdÎmm XoÊ`mMr j_Vm Amho d `mo½` {Z`§ÌUmÛmao 

XOm©da dmB©Q> n[aUm_ H$aUmè`m KQ>H$m§Mo {Z_w©bZ Ho$bo OmVo. 

JwUdÎmm h_rMr _w»` XmoZ d¡{eï>ço AmhoV. EH$ C{Ôï>mg AZwê$n åhUOo Á`m CÔoemgmR>r dñVy {Z_m©U Ho$br 

Amho. Vmo CÔoe nyU© Pmbm nm{hOo d XmoZ AMyH$ dñVy `mMm AW© Xmofm§Mo nyU© {Z_y©bZ. JwUdÎmm h_r_Üò H$ƒm 

_mbmMm XOm©, OwiUr H$m`©, dñVy Am{U KQ>H$, CËnmXZmer g§~§{YV godm, ì`dñWmnZ, CËnmXZ d VnmgUr 

à{H«$`m `m§À`m {Z`_Zm§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

JwUdÎmm h_r A§VJ©V Ho$ë`m OmUmè`m {H«$`m : 

JwUdÎmm h_r {H«$`m§_Üò Imbrb KQ>H$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

� dñVy AmamIS>m h_r 

� g§gmYZ à{V H$m`© h_r 

� CËnmXZ {H«$`m h_r. 

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dñVyÀ`m XOm© `mo½` amhÊ`mgmR>r H§$nZrZo `mo½` YmoaU, H$m`©nÕVr, JwUdÎmm h_rMr nÕVr {ZpíMV Ho$br 

nm{hOo. JwUdÎmm h_rA§VJ©V Imbrb H$m`mªMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

� VnmgUr d MmMUr 

� H$m_{Jar VnmgUr 

� à{H«$`m {Z`§ÌU 

� {OdZ d {dídg{Z`Vm MmMUr 

� gd}jU Am{U àWm, H$m`©nÕVr d JwU {Z`§ÌU àíZmMr VnmgUr 

� VnmgUr _moOUr gmYZo, hË`mao `m§Mo {Z`§ÌU 

� Zmng§Vr d nwU© H$m_m§Mo {díbofU 

� J«mhH$ VH«$matMo {díbofU 

� {dH«$s naVMm AmT>mdm 

� JwUdÎmm IMm©Mo {díbofU 

� ñnY©H$m§À`m dñVyMm Aä`mg. 

JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ nÕVrMo \$m`Xo (Benefits of Quality Management Systems) : 

1. ñnYm© j_VoV dmT> Am{U amï´>r` d Am§Vaamï´>r` nmVirda Zmdbm¡{H$H$ dmT>. 

2. J«mhH$m§Mr JaOnyVu, g_mYmZnyVu. 

3. `mo½` AmamIS>m, `mo½` XOm©Mr h_r, Ëd[aV AmXoe nyV©Vm, H$m`©j_ godm. 

4. J«mhH$m§Mm {dídmg dmT>Vmo d g§KQ>ZoMr H$m`©j_Vm dmT>Vo. 

5. gVV g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmgmR>r qH$dm H$m`PoZgmR>r nm`m. 

6. g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmgmR>r H$m`©j_ gmYZ. 

JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ nÕVrMo KQ>H$ (Elements of Quality Management Systems) : 

ISO Zo JwUdÎmo~m~V EHy$U 20 _mZHo$ / {ZH$f {ZpíMV Ho$bo AmhoV. ISO-9000 à_mU {MÝhmgmR>r 

{ZpíMV Ho$boë`m {ZH$fm§ZmM JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ nÕVrMo {ZH$f / KQ>H$ åhUVmV. 

1. JwUdÎmm nÕVr (Quality System) : `m {ZH$fmZwgma H§$nZrZo Amnbr JwUdÎmm nÕVr {ZpíMV Ho$br 

nm{hOo. Vr {ZpíMV, ñnï>, {Z:g§{X½Y d {b{IV ñdê$nmV Agmdr. JwUdÎmm nÕVr YmoaUo, H$m`©nÕVr, 

H$m`©AmXoe, AmMmag§{hVm Aem ñdê$nmV ñnï> Agmdr. JwUdÎmm nÕVr g{dñVa ñdê$nmV XñVEodOm_Üò 

{b{hbobr Agmdr. `m XñVEodOmg "JwUdÎmm _m{hVr nwpñVH$m' (Quality Manual) Ago åhUVmVm. 

2. AmamIS>m / {Z`§ÌU (Design Control) : H§$nZrZo Amnë`m CËnm{XV dñVy§Mr àmê$n à{H«$`m 

(Design Process) AMyH$nUo {ZpíMV Ho$bobr Agmdr. Ë`mg§~§YrMo g{dñVa d ñdV§Ì XñVEodO V`ma 

H$amdoV. `mMà_mUo àmê$n à{H«$ò_Üò AmXmZ d àXmZ KQ>H$ (Inputs and Outputs) {ZpíMV AgmdoV. 

9

Ë`m§Mrhr Zm|X ñdV§Ì XñVEodOm_Üò H$amdr. Ë`mà_mUo dñVy AmamIS>çmMr {Z`{_V VnmgUr H$ê$Z Ë`mV 

gwYmaUm H$amdr. 

3. IaoXr (Purchasing) : A§{V_ dñVyÀ`m {Z{_©VrgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmè`m gmYZgm_J«rMr IaoXr 

`mo½` d gj_ nwadR>mXmamH$Sy>Z Ho$br nm{hOo. nwadR>mXmamÀ`m `mo½`VoMr nyd©VnmgUr H$amdr. gm_J«r IaoXrnydu 

Ë`mMo à_mU, XOm©, JwUd¡{eï>ço {ZpíMV H$amdrV. IaoXrMo A{YH$ma g_j A{YH$mè`mg AgmdoV. J«mhH$m§Zm 

gmYZgm_J«r VnmgUrMo ñdmV§Í` Agmdo. 

4. gmYZgm_J«rMo g§ajU : CËnmXZ gmYZgm_J«r _m¡ë`dmZ Agë`m_wio Ë`m§Mo g§J«hU d g§ajU 

emóewÕ nÕVrZo H$aÊ`mV `mdo. H$ƒm _mb d gm_J«r Ëd[aV AmoiIVm `mdr d Ë`m§Mm Cn`moJ H$aVm `mdm 

åhUyZ Ë`m§Mo AMyH$ dJuH$aU H$ê$Z `mo½` OmJr _m§S>Ur H$amdr. H$ÀÀ`m _mbmÀ`m _yi JwUY_m©_Üò ~Xb 

hmoUma Zmhr, Aem nÕVrZo Ë`m§Mo gwa{jV OVZ H$amdo. 

5. gm_J«r AmoiI d emoY (Product Indentification and Traceability) : {d{eï> H$ƒm _mb 

CËnmXZmÀ`m H$moUË`mhr AdñWo_Üò AgVmZm ghO d Ëd[aV AmoiIVm Ambm nm{hOo. VgoM Agm H$ƒm _mb 

CËnmXZ à{H«$ò_Üò Ëd[aV gmnS>Uo Amdí`H$ Amho. gm_J«r AmoiI d emoY KoÊ`mMo ñdmV§Í` d A{YH$ma 

J«mhH$m§Zm Agbo nm{hOoV. 

6. XñVEodOm§Mo {Z`§ÌU (Documents Control) : ISO à_mUnÌ g§nmXZmÀ`m à{H«$ò_Üò XñVEodOm§Zm, 

H$mJXnÌm§Zm A{Ve` _hÎd Amho. `m_wio XñVEodOm§Mo boIZ emór` nÕVrZo {~ZMyH$ Pmbo nm{hOo. Amdí`H$ 

Vo gd© XñVEodO V`ma Ho$bo nm{hOoV d Vo AÚ`mdV R>odmdoV. XñVEodOm§Mo boIZ H$moUr Ho$bo? Ë`mg H$moUr 

_mÝ`Vm {Xbr? Ë`m§Mr àmW{_H$ VnmgUr H$moUr Ho$br? Ë`m§Mm Zm_mo„oI Vn{ebmgh H$mJXnÌm§_Üò Zm|X{dbobm 

Agmdm. n[anyU© XñVEodOm_wio Ë`mg A{YH¥$VVm, H$m`Xo{eaVm àmßV hmoVo. 

7. ì`dñWmnZmMr O~m~Xmar (Management Responsibility) : ISO n«_mUnÌ H$m`©àUmbr_Üò 

ì`dñWmnZmbm A{Ve` _hÎMmMr ^y{_H$m nma nmS>mdr bmJVo. ì`dñWmnZmbm ISO à_mUnÌ g§nmXZmÀ`m 

_mo{h_oMr à^mdr ZoV¥Ëd H$amdo bmJVo. `mo½` Ago YmoaUmË_H$ {ZU©` ¿`mdo bmJVmV. JwUdÎmm YmoaUmMo `mo½` 

XñVEodOm_Üò boIZ H$ê$Z Ë`m§Mr n[anyU© _m{hVr H$_©Mmè`m§Zm g_OmdyZ gm§{JVbr nm{hOo. gd© H$_©Mmè`m§Zm 

gVV H$m`©àoaUm XoD$Z `m _mo{h_o_Üò {H«$`merb Ho$bo nm{hOo. `mo½` d gj_ A{YH$mè`mMr JwUdÎmm g§MmbH$ 

qH$dm JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnH$ åhUyZ {Z`wŠVr Ho$br nm{hOo. JwUdÎmm H$m`©àUmbrÀ`m H$m_{JarMm {Z`{_V AmT>mdm 

KoVbm nm{hOo. ì`dgm`m§VJ©V gXa _mo{h_og nmofH$ dmVmdaU{Z{_©Vr H$aUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

8. J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm§Mm AmT>mdm (Contract Review) : ISO à_mU{MÝh BÀNw>H$ H§$nZrZo àW_ 

J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm, Anojm OmUyZ KoVë`m nm{hOoV. J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm§Mm gVV AmT>mdm KoVbm nm{hOo. 

J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm§Mr ì`dpñWVnUo nyV©Vm H$aVm òB©b BVH$s ì`dgm`mMr Vm§{ÌH$, Vm§{ÌH$ d g§KQ>ZmË_H$ j_Vm 

Amho H$m `mMm AmT>mdm ì`dñWmnZmZo KoVbm nm{hOo. VgoM J«mhH$m§À`m Anojm d ñdV:À`m gm_Ï`m©{df`r 

KoVboë`m AmT>mì`mg§~§Yr `mo½` Vr H$mJXnÌo V`ma H$ê$Z Vr OnyZ R>odmdrV. 

9. à{H«$`m {Z`§ÌU (Process Control) : ì`dgm`m_Yrb ì`mdgm`rZ H$m`} nma nmS>Ê`mgmR>r Ho$ë`m 

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OmUmè`m à{H«$`m, Cn{H«$`m, H$m`©nÕV `m§Mo AMyH$ {Z`moOZ Ho$bobo Agmdo. à{H«$`m-Cn{H«$`m§Mr AmIUr d 

{ZpíMVr {dMmanyd©H$ d VÁkmÀ`m gëë`mZo H$amdr. à{H«$`m nyVugmR>r dmnabr OmUmar gm_J«r, H$ƒm _mb d 

CnH$aUo à_m{UV AgmdrV. H$_©Mmar dJ© Hw$eb d H$m`©j_ Agmdm. `§Ìo, CnH$aUo `m§À`m hmVmiUrMr, 

dmnamMr, XoI^mbrMr nÕV {ZpíMV d emór` Agmdr. `m gd© Jmoï>tMo boIZ `mo½` XñVEodOm§_Üò H$amdo. 

10. VnmgUr d MmMUr (Inspection and Testing) : JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌUmgmR>r gmYZm§Mr, à{H«$`m§VJ©V 

_mbmMr d A§{V_ dñVy§Mr VnmgUr d MmMUr gj_ A{YH$mè`m§Ûmao d A{Ve` H$mQ>oH$moanUo Ho$br nm{hOo. 

VnmgUr d MmMUr KoÊ`mMr nÕV emór` Agmdr. VnmgUr d JwU {Z`§ÌUmgmR>r àJV gmYZm§Mr d V§ÌmMr 

{ZdS> H$amdr. A§{V_ dñVyÀ`m gdm}ƒ JwUdÎmogmR>r IaoXr Hoo$boë`m gd© àH$maÀ`m gmYZgm_J«rMr, àËòH$ 

à{H«$òZ§Va à{H«$`m§VJ©V _mbmMr d A§{V_ à{H«$òZ§Va CËnm{XV dñVy§Mr gImob JwUdÎmm VnmgUr Ho$br nm{hOo. 

JwUdÎmm VnmgUr d MmMUr H$m`m©À`m `mo½` Ë`m Zm|Xr ñdV§Ì XñVEodOm_Üò H$amì`mV. 

11. VnmgUr d MmMUrMr pñWVr (Inspection and Test Status) : dñVyÀ`m JwUdÎmm VnmgUr d 

MmMUr H$m`m©Mr boIr Zm|X ñdV§Ì XñVEodOm_Üò H$amdr. `m XñVEodOm_Üò AÚ`mdV Zm|Xr Agmì`mV. 

g§~§{YV gj_ A{YH$mè`m§Mo A{^àm`, eoao d ñdmjar Agmdr. gmYZgm_J«r, A§{V_ dñVy JwUdÎmoÀ`m 

X¥{ï>H$moUmVyZ "ñdrH¥$V'H$s "AñdrH¥$V' `mMm ñnï> C„oI XñVEodOm_Üò H$amdm. 

12. JwUdÎmm VnmgUr d MmMUr CnH$aUo (Inspection and Test Equipments) : H§$nZr_Üò 

JwUdÎmm VnmgUr d MmMUrgmR>r dmnabr OmUmar gmYZo d CnH$aUo à_m{UV, dñVw{Zð>, emór` d AMyH$ 

AgmdrV. gXa gmYZm§Zm, CnH$aUm§Zm gd©_mÝ`Vm d bmoH${à`Vm Agmdr. gmYZo d CnH$aUo AmYw{ZH$ 

AgmdrV. Ë`m§Mr g{dñVa _m{hVr g§~§{YV XñVEodOm_Üò Z_yX H$amdr. 

13. A`mo½` _mbmMo {Z`§ÌU (Control of Non-Conforming Product) : A§{V_ dñVyÀ`m nyd©{ZYm©[aV 

JwUdÎmoer gwg§JV Aem dñVy d {dg§JV dñVy `m§Mo ñnï> dJuH$aU Ho$bo nm{hOo. {dg§JV dñVy CËnmXZmÀ`m 

à{H«$òV òUma ZmhrV `mMr nyU© XjVm JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnH$mZo KoVbr nm{hOo. {dg§JV dñVy d _mbmMr `mo½` 

nÕVrZo {dëhodmQ> bmdbr nm{hOo. `mMà_mUo gwg§JV _mbmMr AmoiI, VnmgUr, H$mJXnÌo, _yë`_mnZ 

BË`mXr~m~VMm ñnï> C„oI g§~§{YV H$mJXnÌm§_Üò, XñVEodOm_Üò H$aÊ`mV `mdm. 

14. gwYmamË_H$ `moOZm (Correction Plan) : H§$nZrZo JwUdÎmm H$m`©àUmbrMm VÁkm§_m\©$V d 

emñÌr` nÕVrZo gVV AmT>mdm KoVbm nm{hOo. ApñVËdmVrb H$m`©àUmbr_Yrb C{Udm, ÌwQ>tMm gVV emoY 

KoVbm nm{hOo. Ë`m{déÕ à^mdr `moOZm H$ê$Z H$m`©àUmbrMr JwUdÎmm C§Mm{dbr nm{hOo. H$m`©àUmbr_Üò gVV 

gwYmaUm H$ê$Z {VMr CËnmXH$Vm dmT>dmdr. doimodoir Ho$boë`m gd© gwYmaUm d gwYmamË_H$ `moOZm§Mr boIr Zmo§X 

R>odmdr. 

15. hmVmiUr, g§J«hU, ~m§YUr d nmR>dUr (Handling, Storage, Packageing and Delivery): 

H$ƒm _mb, à{H«$`m§VJ©V _mb d A§{V_ CËnmXZ `m§Mr hmVmiUr, g§J«hU, ~m§YUr d nmR>dUr nÕV nyd©{ZpíMV 

d emór` Agmdr. `m {H«$`m H$aÊ`mgmR>r dmnabr OmUmar `§Ìo d gmYZo XO}Xma d à_m{UV AgmdrV, Va `m 

{H«$`m H$aUmam H$_©Mmar dJ© à{e{jV d Hw$eb Agmdm. `m gd© à_wI H$m`mªÀ`m H$m`©nÕVrMo {d{hV Z_wÝ`mV 

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XñVEodOrH$aU H$amdo. hr gd© H$m`} H$m`©j_VoZo Ho$ë`mg gd© AdñWoVrb _mbmMm Anì`` Z hmoVm Ë`m§Mm 

_hÎm_ dmna hmoVmo. 

16. A§VJ©V JwUdÎmm VnmgUr (Internal Quality Audit) : H§$nZrZo JwUdÎmm H$m`©àUmbr{df`r 

AmIbobr YmoaUo, KoVbobo {ZU©`, nyd©{Z`mo{OV H$m`©nÕVr d H$m`©gyMZm Ho$bobo {ZX}eZ `m gdmªMr A§_b~OmdUr 

à^mdrnUo hmoVo H$m Zmhr `mMr VnmgUr JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnH$mZo Ho$br nm{hOo. hr VnmgUr {Z`{_V Xa VrZ 

qH$dm ghm _{hÝ`m§Zr KoÊ`mV `mdr. A§VJ©V JwUdÎmm VnmgUrgmR>r à{e{jV H$_©Mmar dJ© {Z`wŠV H$amdm. `m 

VnmgUrÀ`m Zm|Xr, Ë`m~m~VMo Ahdmb `m§Mr Zm|X `mo½` H$mJXnÌm_Üò H$aÊ`mV `mdr. 

17. JwUdÎmm Xáa (Quality Rrecords) : ISO H$m`©àUmbr_Üò {b{IV Zm|Xr, H$mJXnÌo, XñVEodO 

`m§Zm A{Ve` _hÎd Amho. ì`dgm`m_Yrb àËòH$ H$m`m©Mo, H¥$VrMo, {ZU©`mMo, H$m_{JarMo nÕVera boIZ 

ñdV§Ì XñVEodOm_Üò Ho$bo nm{hOo. gd© H$mJXnÌo, XñVEodO `mo½` H$mbmdYrn`ªV OVZ Ho$bo nm{hOoV. 

18. à{ejU (Training) : ISO JwUdÎmm _mo{h_o_Üò ì`dgm`mVrb gd© KQ>H$m§Mm g{H«$` gh^mJ 

Amdí`H$ AgVmo. ì`dgm`mÀ`m gdmªJrU JwUdÎmm d¥ÕrgmR>r gd© H$_©Mmè`m§Zm gImob {ejU-à{ejU XoD$Z 

H$m`©Hw$eb ~Z{dbo nm{hOo. `mgmR>r VÁkm§_m\©$V à{ejU H$m`©H«$_m§Mo {Z`{_V Am`moOZ Ho$bo nm{hOo. à{ejUmMo 

gVV _yë`_mnZ H$ê$Z à{ejU H$m`©H«$_mV gwYmaUm Ho$br nm{hOo. H$_©Mmè`m§Zm à{ejU KoÊ`mgmR>r àmoËgm{hV 

H$amdo. 

19. {dH«$sZ§Va godm (Servicing) : ISO H$m`©nÕVr_Üò {dH«$sZ§VaÀ`m godm§Zm \$ma _hÎd Amho. 

`m§{ÌH$, Vm§{ÌH$ d XrK©H$mbrZ dñVy§À`m X¥{ï>H$moUmVyZ `m godm§Zm \$ma _hÎd Amho. H§$nZrZo `m godm§{df`rMo 

YmoaU d H$m`©nÕVr ñnï>nUo {ZpíMV H$amdr. ho YmoaU d H$m`©nÕVr {b{IV, A{YH¥$V d Omhra Agmdr. 

J«mhH$m§À`m Anojm, JaOm, AS>MUr {dMmamV KoD$Z ho YmoaU d H$m`©nÕVr {ZpíMV H$amdr. 

20. gm§p»`H$s` V§Ìo (Statistical Techniques) : H$m`©nÕVrÀ`m d H$m_{JarÀ`m JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌUmgmR>r 

AmYw{ZH$, dñVw{Zð> d emór` gm§p»`H$s` V§ÌmMm Adb§~ H$amdm. gm§p»`H$s` V§Ìm_wio JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU \$ma 

à^mdrnUo H$aVm òVo. gm§p»`H$s` V§ÌmMr d Ë`m§Mm Adb§~ H$aÊ`mÀ`m nÕVrMr ì`dpñWV Zm|X g§~§{YV 

H$mJXnÌm§_Üò H$amdr. 

JwUdÎmm nÕVr à_mUnÌ àmárMr H$m`©nÕV (Quality System Certification Procedure) : 

1. à_mUnÌ XoUmè`m g§ñWoH$S>o A{YH¥$V Z_wÝ`mV AO© H$aUo. 

2. JwUdÎmm nÕVrMr Vk g{_Vr_m\©$V àmW{_H$ VnmgUr. 

3. VnmgUrnyd© ôQ>. 

4. g§ñWoVrb JwUdÎmm nÕVrMr àË`j VnmgUr. 

5. ÌwQ>r Xya H$aÊ`mgmR>r g§ñWm gwYmamË_H$ Cnm` `moOVo. 

6. naVmdm àXmZ. 

7. naVmdm AmT>mdm. 

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JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU (Quality Control) : dñVy{Z{_©VrÀ`m à{H«$òV A§{V_ dñVyÀ`m JwUdÎmobm 

gdm©{YH$ _hÎd Amho. J«mhH$m§Mo g_mYmZ, JOanyVu, _mJUrMo n«_mU, H§$nZr{df`r à{V_m Aem AZoH$ Jmoï>r 

A§{V_ dñVy /godoÀ`m JwUdÎmoda AmYm[aV AgVmV. 

Oo. E_. Owa°Z `m§À`m _Vo, ""JwUdÎmm åhUOo dñVyÀ`m {d{dY d¡{eï>çm§Ûmao d {ZXm}fm§_wio J«mhH$mg 

{_imbobo g_mYmZ hmo`.'' 

JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m {dH$mg à{H«$òVrb Q>ßno : 

1. VnmgUr (Inspection) 

2. JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU (Quality Control) 

3. JwUdÎmm h_r (Quality Assurance) 

4. g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ (Total Quality Management) 

1. VnmgUr (Inspection) : 

CËnmXZ {Z`§ÌUmÀ`m gd© nÕVr_Üò VnmgUr `m AË`§V _hÎdmÀ`m H$m`m©Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. VnmgUr 

{H«$òMo Üò` `mo½` XOm©Mr dñVy àmá H$aUo ho AgVo. A{YH¥$V XOm©, à_mUmZwgma CËnm{XV dñVyV qH$dm godoV 

{d{eï> JwU qH$dm ñd^m{dH$ JwU AmhoV H$m ho _moOÊ`mÀ`m d _yë`_mnZmÀ`m à{H«$òg VnmgUr åhUVmV. 

ì`m»`m : Aë\$moS>© d ~oÅ>r `m§À`m _Vo, ""VnmgUr åhUOo CËnm{XV dñVy R>a{dboë`m V\$mdV _`m©XoV 

Amho, `mgmR>r dñVyMr MmMUr {deofV: _moOUr gmYZmZo KoÊ`mMr H$bm hmo`.'' 

JwU {Z`§ÌU H$m`©H«$_m§VJ©V VnmgUr {H«$`m Imbrb C{Ôï>o gmÜ` H$aVo. 

1. ~mX Pmboë`m, H$_r àVrÀ`m gd© dñVy ~mOybm H$mTy>Z R>odUo. J«mhH$m§Zm \$ŠV Mm§Jë`mM XOm©À`m dñVy 

àmá hmoVrb `mMr XjVm KoUo. ho VÎd, {Z`_ gd© AdñWm§_Yrb dñVy§Zm bmJy Ho$bo OmVmV. CXm. H$ƒm _mb, 

AY©n¸$m _mb d n¸$m _mb. 

2. VnmgUr_wio Amdí`H$Vonojm bhmZ qH$dm _moR>o gwQ>o ^mJ, H$ÀÀ`m _mbmVrb Xmof, CËnmXZ à{H«$òVrb 

Xmof emoYyZ H$mT>Vm òVmV. `m_wio CËnmXZ {H«$òMr nwZamd¥Îmr H$amdr bmJV Zmhr. Aem àH$mao H$ƒm _mb, gwQ>o 

^mJ, AY©n¸$m _mb `m§Mo JwU {Z`§ÌU H$aUo eŠ` hmoVo. VgoM dñVy§À`m JwUmda {Z`§ÌU R>odVm òVo. 

àñWm{nV à_mUm§er H$ƒm _mb, dñVy qH$dm H¥$Vr gmÜ`VoMr VwbZm H$aÊ`mMr H$bm åhUOo VnmgUr 

hmo`. à_mU {ZpíMV / ñnï> Zgob Va VnmgUr {H«$`m AMyH$nUo H$aVm òV Zmhr. 

VnmUrMo _hÎd : 

1. {ZpíMV Ho$boë`m JwU{deofmà_mUo H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMm XOm© Zgob, Va CËnmXZmMr {H«$`m gwê$ Ho$br OmV 

Zmhr. `m_wio nwT>rb AZmdí`H$ {H«$`m d Ë`mda hmoUmam IM© Q>mibm OmVmo. 

2. AmYr Pmboë`m à{H«$`m§_Üò MwH$sMm _mb V`ma Pmbm Agob Va Aem MwH$sÀ`m AY©nŠŠ`m _mbmda 

nwT>rb à{H«$`m Ho$ë`m OmV ZmhrV. 

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3. VnmgUr_wio CËnmXZ nyU©V: aÔ H$aÊ`mMo Q>miVm òVo. Ë`m_wio CËnmXZ IM© pñWa amhVmo. 

4. VnmgUr_wio MwH$sÀ`m dñVy J«mhH$m§Zm {dH$ë`m OmV ZmhrV. `m_wio J«mhH$m§_Üò CËnmXH$m{df`r 

{dídmg {Z_m©U hmoVmo. 

5. VnmgUr_wio n«_wI, _moR>çm H$m`m©Mo bhmZ {H«$`m§_Üò {d^mOZ H$aUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

6. Am¡Úmo{JH$ VnmgUr ho ì`dñWmnZmMo EH$ à^mdr V§Ì åhUyZ CX`mg Ambo Amho. 

7. VnmgUr_wio n[adV©Zr` ^mJm§Mr d gwQ>çm ^mJm§Mr {Z{_©Vr H$aVm òVo. 

8. VnmgUrÀ`m gmYZm§_Üò d nÕVr_Üò _moR>m {dH$mg Pmë`m_wio OwZr `§Ìo, `§Ìgm_J«r ~XbyZ Ë`m OmJr 

AmYw{ZH$ `§Ìo, `§Ìgm_J«r ~g{dUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

Vnmg{ZgmÀ`m A§Jr Imbrb JwUd¡{eï>ço d H$m¡eë` Agob Va Vmo VnmgUr H$m`© à^mdr d n[aUm_H$maH$ 

H$ê$ eH$Vmo. CXm. AMyH$ {ZarjU eŠVr, gyú_ Ñï>r, VnmgUr gmYZo hmVmiÊ`mMo H$m¡eë`, AMyH$ AmH$bZ, 

H$m`©nÕVr{df`r gImob kmZ, àm_m{UH$nUm, dŠVeranUm, CËnmXZ gmYZm§{df`r nyU© kmZ, _yë`_mnZ, VwbZm 

H$m¡eë`, JwUà_mUmMr _m{hVr BË`mXr. 

VnmgUrMo àH$ma (Types of Inspection) : 

Vnmg{Zgmbm VnmgUrÀ`m AZoH$ àH$mam§VyZ `mo½` àH$mamMr {ZdS> H$amdr bmJVo. H$m`m©Mo ñdê$n, 

àH$ma, H$m`©nÕVr, dñVyMo JwUà_mU, dñVyMr g§»`m BË`mXr KQ>H$ {dMmamV KoD$Z Vmo `mo½` VnmgUr àH$mamMr 

{ZdS> H$aVmo. AMyH$ VnmgUr nÕVrZo VnmgUr Ho$br VaM VnmgUrMo CÔoe g\$b hmoVmV. 

1. à{V~§YmË_H$ VnmgUr : `m nÕVr_Üò Xmofm§Mm emoY KoUo, Xmofm§_mJrb H$maUo {ZpíMV H$aUo d 

Aer H$maUo Xya hmoÊ`mgmR>r Cnm``moOZm gwM{dUo `m {H«$`m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. `m nÕVrMm _w»` CÔoe Xmofm§Mr 

{Z{_©VrM hmoD$ Zò åhUyZ I~aXmar KoUo hm Amho. `m nÕVr_wio ^{dî`mVrb Xmofm§À`m CËnÎmrg Amim KmVbm 

OmVmo. 

2. Cnm`mË_H$ VnmgUr : CËnmXZmMr {H«$`m nyU© Pmë`mZ§Va hr VnmgUr Ho$br OmVo. MwH$sMo H$m`© 

d Xmof`wŠV dñVy H$moUË`m H$maUm_wio {Z_m©U Pmbr Ë`m H$maUm§Mm emoY d Ë`m H$maUmMo CƒmQ>Z H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

`mo½` Cnm``moOZm `m nÕVrV gwM{dbr OmVo. `m nÕVrV _w»`V: A`mo½`, H$_r XOm©À`m dñVy, Mm§Jë`m 

dñVy§nmgyZ Xya H$aUo A{^àoV Amho. 

3. {H«$`mË_H$ VnmgUr : CËnmXZmÀ`m à{H«$òVyZ dñVy nwT>o gaH$V AgVmZm àËòH$ à{H«$òÀ`m {R>H$mUr 

dñVy Ano{jV JwUdÎmoBVH$s Amho H$m Zmhr `mMr VnmgUr Ho$br OmVo. åhUyZ `m nÕVrg {H«$`mË_H$ VnmgUr 

åhUVmV. 

4. H|$Ðr^yV VnmgUr : `m nÕVr_Üò H$ƒm _mb, dñVyMo hbHo$ d bhmZ gwQ>o ^mJ JwU {Z`§ÌU 

{d^mJm_Üò VnmgUrgmR>r AmUbo OmVmV. VnmgZrg `mo½` gmYZm§À`m gmhmæ`mZo `m dñVy§À`m doJdoJù`m 

VnmgÊ`m Amnë`m {d^mJmV H$aVmV. VnmgUr_Üò CÎmrU© Pmboë`m dñVy CËnmXZ {d^mJmV nwT>rb {H«$`m§gmR>r 

nmR>{dë`m OmVmV. 

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5. H$m_mÀ`m {R>H$mUr VnmgUr : AdKS> d AmH$mamZo _moR>çm dñVy JwU {Z`§ÌU {d^mJmV dmhÿZ 

ZoUo eŠ` ZgVo. `m_wio VnmgZrg ñdV: H$m_mÀ`m {R>H$mUr OmD$Z Aem dñVy§Mr VnmgUr H$aVmV. H$ƒm _mb, 

AY©n¸$m _mb, n¸$m _mb Aem {VÝhr àH$maÀ`m dñVy§Mr VnmgUr `m nÕVrA§VJ©V Ho$br OmVo. 

6. àW_ ZJ VnmgUr : Á`m ì`dgm`mV AY© ñd`§M{bV d nyU© ñd`§M{bV `§Ìo, `§Ìgm_J«r AgVo, 

Aem ì`dgm`mV àW_ MmMUrgmR>r WmoS>çm dñVy V`ma Ho$ë`m OmVmV. Ë`m§Mr VnmgUr Ho$br OmVo. Oa 

dñVy_Üò H$mhr C{Udm / Xmof AmT>ië`mg Ë`mà_mUo `§Ìo, gm_J«r, hË`mao `mV `mo½` Vo ~Xb d hbdmhbd 

Ho$br OmVo. nwÝhm MmMUr dñVy V`ma Ho$ë`m OmVmV. Ë`m§Mr VnmgUr Ho$br OmVo. Á`m doir MmMUr dñVy 

Ano{jV JwU{ZH$f nyU© H$aob Ë`m doirM g§~§{YV `§ÌmÀ`m _XVrZo CËnmXZ{H«$òg àma§^ Ho$bm OmVmo. 

7. _mJ©Xe©H$ dñVy§Mr VnmgUr : à{V ZJ VnmgUr nÕVrMr {dñVm[aV Amd¥Îmr åhUOo hr nÕV hmo`. 

EH$mM dñVyda doJdoJù`m à{H«$`m doJdoJù`m `§Ìm§À`m _XVrZo Ho$ë`m OmV AgVrb, Va àW_ H$mhr ZJ gd© 

`§Ìm§À`m gmhmæ`mZo CËnm{XV Ho$bo OmVmV. Ë`m§Mr VnmgUr Ho$br OmVo. Oa CËnm{XV dñVy Ano{jV XOm© gmÜ` 

H$arV Agob, Va CËnmXZmÀ`m {H«$òg àma§^ Ho$bm OmVmo. 

8. _w»` q~Xy VnmgUr : hr nÕV à{V~§YmË_H$ VnmgUr nÕVrMm EH$ ^mJ g_Obr OmVo. CËnmXZ 

{H«$òÀ`m R>amdrH$ _Ü`dVu q~Xyn`ªV H$m`© nyU© Pmë`mZ§Va H$m`m©Mr VnmgUr Ho$br OmVo. H$m`© Ano{jV 

JwU{ZH$f nyU© H$arV Agob VaM Ë`mda nwT>rb {H«$`m gwê$ Ho$ë`m OmVmV. 

9. A§{V_ q~Xy VnmgUr : CËnmXZmMr {H«$`m nyU© Pmë`mZ§Va CËnm{XV dñVyMr A§{V_ VnmgUr Ho$br 

OmVo. `m VnmgUr_Üò CÎmrU© Pmboë`m dñVy ~mOmanoR>oV {dH«$sgmR>r nmR>{dë`m OmVmV. `m VnmgUr_Üò dñVy§Mr 

H$m`©j_Vm, AmXoemà_mUo {Z{_©Vr, gmÜ`Vm, ~møñdê$n BË`mXr KQ>H$m§Mr VnmgUr Ho$br OmVo. 

2. JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU (Quality Control) : 

JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU ho ì`dñWmnZmMo EH$ _hÎdnyU© H$m`© Amho. JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU åhUOo Aer nÕVr 

gmYZm§Mm d V§ÌmMm g_wh {H$ Á`mAmYmao {ZpíMV Ho$boë`m d¡{eï>çm§à_mUo {H$_mZ IMm©V dñVy {Z{_©Vr Pmbr 

H$m ho nmhUo, VnmgUo hmo`. Ab\$moS>© d ~oÅ>r `m§À`m _Vo, ""JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU åhUOo EH$ Aer nÕVr Á`mÀ`m 

AmYmao dñVy§Mr JwUdÎmm, J«mhH$m§Zr R>adboë`m {deof dU©ZmMo Am{U `m§{ÌH$ VgoM {Z{_©Vr H$m¡eë`m§Mo g_mYmZ 

H$ê$ eH$Vrb {VWn`ªV dmT>dUo. `m nÕVrMm _w»` CÔoe MyH$sÀ`m Jmoï>r emoYyZ ZmH$maÊ`mnojm `mo½` dñVy§Mr 

{Z{_©Vr H$aUo hm Amho. 

JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌUmÀ`m VrZ _wb^yV ~mOy : 

1. _mÝ`Vm H$m`© : ho H$m`© dñVyÀ`m VnmgUrer g§~§{YV Amho. `m_Üò Á`m dñVy Ano{jV d¡{eï>çm§Zwgma 

{Z_m©U Pmë`m AmhoV Ë`m ~mOybm H$mT>ë`m OmVmV d Á`m dñVy§_Üò Xmof AmhoV Ë`m dñVy Zmng§V Ho$ë`m OmVmV. 

_mÝ`Vm H$m`m©V (VnmgUr) Imbrb KQ>H$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. CXm. g§gmYZm§Mr VnmgUr, à{H«$`m VnmgUr, 

A§{V_ _mb VnmgUr, JoO VnmgUr, Zm ng§V _mbmMr {dëhodmQ>, X¡Z§{XZ g_ñ`m R>a{dUo. B. 

2. à{V~§YmË_H$ H$m`© : H$ƒm_mb, BVa KQ>H$, `m§{ÌH$ à{H«$`m qH$dm _mUgo `m§À`mVrb Xmofm§Mr 

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O~m~Xmar {ZpíMV H$aÊ`mgmR>r Ë`m_Yrb Xmof emoYUo. `m_wio dma§dma CX²^dUmao Xmof Q>miVm òVmV. JwUdÎmoMo 

à{V~§YmË_H$ H$m`© åhUOo JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU hmo`. `m_Üò Imbrb KQ>H$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. CXm. à{H«$`m 

j_VoMm Aä`mg, Anèm§Mo g§»`mË_H$ {díbofU, {Z[ajH$m§Mo à{ejU, Xmof Xya H$aUmè`m nÕVtMm Aä`mg 

B. 

3. h_r H$m`© (Assurance Function) : h_r H$m`© åhUOo àËòH$ JwUdÎmm JwUd¡{eï>çmMr VnmgUr 

H$aUo qH$dm CËnmXZ MH«$mVrb àËòH$ AdñWoV nwZ©{ZpíMV _mZH$m§Mr nyV©Vm CËnmXZ H$aVo H$m ho VnmgUo hmo`. 

h_r H$m`m©V AZoH$ KQ>H$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. CXm. J«mhH$ VH«$mar, JwUdÎmm n[ajU, JwUdÎmm {ZpíMVr, 

VnmgUrV AMwH$Vm, JwUdÎmo~m~V A{YH$mè`m§Mo Ahdmb B. 

VnmgUr d JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌUmMo \$m`Xo : 

1. J«mhH$ g_mYmZ d ñnY©H$m§er ñnYm© H$aÊ`mgmR>r A§{V_ _mbmMr JwUdÎmm `mo½` nmVirg amIbr 

OmVo. 

2. dñVy_Üò dmnabo OmUmao gwQ>o ^mJ Xmofa{hV AmhoV H$m d OwiUr à{H«$ògmR>r `mo½` AmhoV H$m `mMr 

H$miOr KoVbr OmVo. 

3. CËnmXZ godm d _Zwî`~i `m§Mm _hÎm_ dmna, gXmof H$m_mÀ`m à_mUmV KQ> d {H$_mZ IMm©V CËnmXZ 

`m Jmoï>r gmÜ` hmoVmV. 

4. gXmof _mbmda nwT>rb à{H«$`m Q>mië`m_wio l_doioV, `§ÌdoioV VgoM O_m IMm©V, `§ÌIMm©V ~MV 

hmoVo. 

5. Cƒ XOm©À`m dñVy {Z{_©Vr_wio J«mhH$m§Zm nyU© Cn^moJ g_mYmZ {_iVo. J«mhH$ dñVy{Zð>, g§KQ>Zm {Zð> 

~ZVmV. `m_wio dñVybm XrK©H$mbrZ ~mOmanoR> àmá hmoVo. 

3. JwUdÎmm h_r (Quality Assurance) : 

4. g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ (Total Quality Management) : 

20 ì`m eVH$m_Üò "JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ' `m g§H$ënZoMm CÚmoJjoÌmda _moR>m à^md hmoVm. na§Vw 21 ì`m 

eVH$mÀ`m àma§^mnmgyZ AW©ì`dñWoVrb gd© joÌm§da "g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmMm' à^md Amho. gÚ:pñWVrV 

àËòH$ ì`dgm`mZo "g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ' H$m`©H«$_mMm ñdrH$ma Ho$bobm {XgyZ òVmo. OmJ{VH$sH$aUmÀ`m 

à{H«$ò_Üò `m H$m`©H«$_mg n`m©` Zmhr Ago åhQ>bo OmVo. 

J«mhH$m§Zm gdm}ƒ g_mYmZ XoÊ`mgmR>r ì`dgm`mVrb àËòH$ KQ>H$mbm gdm}ƒ H$m_{JarMo àXe©Z 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r `mo½` dmVmdaU {Z_m©U H$ê$Z àd¥Îm d ào[aV H$aUo åhUOo g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ hmo`. 

ES>dS>© S>oq_J `m§Zm g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ g§H$ënZoMo _w»` Jwê$ Ago AmXamZo g§~moYbo OmVo. Ë`m§Zr 

`m ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m 14 VÎdm§Mr _m§S>Ur H$ê$Z Ë`mMr gmd©{ÌH$Vm dmT>{dbr. Omogo\$ Owa°Z `m {dMmad§VmZo 

"JwUdÎmm {ÌgyÌr' d JwUdÎmm gwYmaUoÀ`m Xhm AdñWm§Mr _m§S>Ur H$ê$Z `m ì`dñWmnZmMr bmoH${à`Vm d 

Cn`wŠVVm dmT>{dbr Amho. 

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g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmbm OmJ{VH$ _mÝ`Vm {_idyZ XoÊ`mMo _mobmMo H$m`© H$mAmoê$ B{eH$mdm `m§Zr 

Ho$bo Amho. OmJ{VH$sH$aUmÀ`m `wJmV g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmMm {dH$mg doJmZo hmoV Amho. H$mhr {dMmad§Vm§À`m 

_Vo, 21 ì`m eVH$mVrb J{V_mZ OmJ{VH$ n`m©daUm_Üò èñdr hmoÊ`mMm EH$_od AmXe© _mJ© åhUOo g_J« 

JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmMm CnH«$_m_Üò gImob d à^mdr Adb§~ H$aUo hmo`. 

ì`m»`m - 

1. ""g§nyU© JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo ì`dgm` ì`dñWmnZmMo VÎdkmZ hmo`. Oo J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm d 

CnH«$_mMr C{Ôï>o `m§À`mV K{Zð> g§~§Y Agë`mMo _mÝ` H$aVo. CÚmoJ d dm{UÁ` `m XmoÝhr joÌm§V Vo `mo½` 

AgVo.'' 

("TQM is a corporate business management philosophy which recognises that customer 

needs and business goals are inseparable. It is appropriate within both industry and commerce." 

- By British Quality, Association) 

2. Om°Z {Jb~Q>© `m§À`m _Vo, ""J«mhH$ g_mYmZmg gdm©{YH$ _hÎd XoUo, Ë`m§À`m VH«$matMo {ZagZ H$aUo, 

JwUdÎmm dmT>{dUo d Iwbr {ZU©` à{H«$`m A§JrH$maUo åhUOo g§nyU© JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ hmo`.'' 

3. _m`Ho$b ñQ>°hb `m§À`m _Vo, ""gmYZgm_J«r d à{H«$`m `m ñVam§da JwUdÎmm {Q>H${dUo åhUOo g§nyU© 

JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ hmo`.'' 

4. ^maVr` gm§p»`H$s` g§ñWm, h¡Xam~mX `m§À`m _Vo, ""g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo EH$mpË_H$ 

g§KQ>ZmË_H$ Ñ{ï>H$moU hmo`. `mÛmao J«mhH$m§Zm g_mYmZr R>odÊ`mgmR>r Ë`m§À`m BÀN>m gmVË`nyU© VÎdmda nyU© 

Ho$ë`m OmVmV d Oo `mo½` g_ñ`m {ZagZ H$m`©nÕVrgh dñVy, godm d à{H«$`m gmVË`mZo gwYmaÊ`m~m~V àËòH$ 

OU gVV g§KQ>ZoA§VJ©V H$m`©_¾ AgVmV.'' 

g§nyU© JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmMr _ybVÎdo (Fundamentals of TQM) : 

{d{dY {dMmad§Vm§Zr g§nyU© JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmMr _ybVÎdo Imbrbà_mUo gm§{JVbr AmhoV. 

1. _hÎdmMo VÎdkmZ : AmYw{ZH$ `wJmV g§nyU© JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ EH$ AË`§V _hÎdmMo VÎdkmZ åhUyZ 

gd©_mÝ`Vm {_imbobr Amho. H$maU ho VÎdkmZ ì`dgm`mVrb gd© KQ>H$m§À`m JwUdÎmmdmT>rMm AmJ«h YaVo. 

2. nr. S>r. gr. E. VÎd : g§nyU© JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmV "`moOZm A§_b~OmdUr-VnmgUr-Cnm`mË_H$ 

H¥$Vr (Plan-do-check-Action-PDCA Principle) `m VÎdm§Mm A{Ve` gImobnUo A§JrH$ma Ho$bm OmVmo. 

3. J«mhH$m§Mm gh^mJ : g§nyU© JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m èpñdVogmR>r J«mhH$m§Mm àË`j d g{H«$` 

gh^mJ AË`§V Amdí`H$ AgVmo. dñVyMm AmamIS>m {ZpíMVrnmgyZ Vo {dH«$`moÎma godmn`ªV J«mhH$m§À`m Anojm, 

Ë`m§À`m Ñï>rZo _hÎdmMr d¡{eï>ço OmUyZ KoD$Z `m Anojm d d¡{eï>çm§Mm A§V^m©d dñVy_Üò H$amdm bmJVmo. 

4. Cƒ ì`dñWmnZ : g§nyU© JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m H$m`©H«$_mbm Cƒ ì`dñWmnZmMm nyU© nmqR>~m 

Agbm nm{hOo. Ë`m§Zr H$_©Mmè`m§Zm gVV H$m`©àoaUm XoD$Z `m H$m`©H«$_m_Üò g{H«$` Ho$bo nm{hOo. `m H$m`©H«$_mMm 

nmR>nwamdm H$aÊ`mgmR>r `mo½` Ë`m `moOZm d YmoaUm§Mr AmIUr Ëd[aV d AMyH$ Ho$br nm{hOo. 

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5. H$_©Mmè`m§Mm gh^mJ : g§KQ>ZoVrb gd© _mZdr KQ>H$m§Mm CËñ\y$V© nmqR>~m d g{H«$` ghH$m`© `m 

H$m`©H«$_mg Agbo nm{hOo. `mgmR>r ì`dñWmnZmZo H$_©Mmè`m§À`mV OmUrd OmJ¥Vr Ho$br nm{hOo. g§KQ>ZoV 

AZwHy$b dmVmdaU{Z{_©Vr Ho$br nm{hOo. 

6. nwadR>mXmam§er K{Zð> g§~§Y : ì`dñWmnZmZo àW_ àm_m{UH$ d gj_ nwadR>mXmam§Mr {ZdS> Ho$br 

nm{hOo d Z§Va Ë`m§À`m {dH$mgmgmR>r à`ËZ Ho$bm nm{hOo. nwadR>mXmam§er AË`§V ghH$m`m©Mo d gbmo»`mMo g§~§Y 

àñWm{nV Ho$ë`mg XO}Xma gmYZgm_J«rMm nwadR>m {Z`{_V, Amdí`H$ Ë`m à_mUmV àmá hmoVmo. 

7. J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm : J«mhH$m§À`m Anojm, JaOm d g_mYmZ `mg g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmV AË`§V 

_hÎdmMo ñWmZ Amho. J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm {dMmamV KoD$Z dñVy§À`m aMZoV, JwUY_m©V, {dVaU d {dH«$`moÎma godoV 

AZwê$n ~Xb Ho$bo OmVmV. 

8. X¡{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ (Daily Management) : g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ H$m`©H«$_mV X¡{ZH$ 

ì`dñWmnZ VÎdmMm H$m`©j_nUo Cn`moJ Ho$bm OmVmo. X¡{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmV amoOÀ`m H$m_mMo {Z`moOZ d {Z`§ÌU 

amoOÀ`m amoO Ho$bo OmVo. VgoM g_ñ`m§{déÕ Ë`mM {Xder Cnm`mË_H$ `moOZm AmIbr OmVo. 

9. CËnmXZ ì`dñWmnZ : AMyH$ CËnmXZ ì`dñWmnZ hm `m H$m`©H«$_m§Mm _w»` AmYma Amho. CËnmXZ 

{Z`moOZ d {Z`§ÌU hr H$m`} H$m`©j_VoZo Ho$ë`mg gXa H$m`©H«$_mMr AMyH$Vm C§MmdVo. 

10. JwUdÎmogmR>r dñVy AmamIS>m : J«mhH$m§À`m Anojm d JaOm§Zwga dñVyMm AmamIS>m {ZpíMV Ho$bm 

OmVmo. `m A§VJ©V dñVyMr A§VJ©V d ~møaMZm a§J, ê$n, Md, AmamIS>m, Cn`mo{JVm, {Q>H$mD$nUm Aem {d{dY 

KQ>H$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

11. CËnmXZ IM© : CËnmXZ IMm©V ~MV H$aUo ho àËòH$ CÚmoJg§ñWoMo _w»` Üò` AgVo. na§Vw `m 

H$m`©H«$_m§VJ©V dñVyÀ`m JwUdÎmoer H$moUVrhr VS>OmoS> Z H$aVm CËnmXZ IMm©V ~MV H$aÊ`mMm à`ËZ Ho$bm 

OmVmo. 

12. gdmªer g§~§{YV : ì`dgm`mVrb gd© {d^mJ, Cn{d^mJ, H$m`}, {H«$`m, KQ>H$, CnKQ>H$, à{H«$`m, 

ì`ŠVr, ì`{ŠVg_yh BË`mXtMm `m H$m`©H«$_mV g_mdoe hmoVmo. gdmªÀ`m nyU© `moJXmZm{edm` hm H$m`©H«$_ èñdr 

hmoD$ eH$V Zmhr. 

13. à{V~§YmË_H$ H$m`m©g _hÎd : g_ñ`m, àíZ, AS>MUr {Z_m©U hmoD$ ZòV åhUyZ à{V~§YmË_H$ 

Cnm``moOZm Ho$br OmVo. `m_wio g_ñ`m§Mr Vrd«Vm H$_r hmoVo. 

14. dñVwpñWVr KQ>H$ : g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmV dñVwpñWVrbm gdm©{YH$ _hÎd {Xbo OmVo. `mMmM 

AW© ì`{ŠVJV _Vo, gyMZm, {dMma, à{V{H«$`m `m§Zm Xwæ`_ g_Obo OmVo. 

g§nyU© JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZmMr gmYZo (Tools of TQM) : 

1. ~|M_mH$sªJ - Bench Markeing 

2. gwYmaUm g§YrMm emoY - Identification of Improvements Opportuniting 

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3. H$m`©_mZ _mnZ - Measurement of Performance 

4. gdmªMm gh^mJ - Total Participation 

5. ~Xbm§Mr A§_b~OmdUr - Implementation of Changes 

6. Üò` d CÔoem§Mo g§XoedhZ - Communication of Missions & Aims 

7. J«mhH$ H|$ÐñWmZ - Customer Focus 

8. ì`dñWmnZmMr dMZ~ÕVm - Management Commitment 

9. g_J« JwUdÎmm ì`dñWmnZ H$m`©H«$_m§_Üò g_Ýd` - Co-ordination of TQM Programme 

10. g_ñ`m {ZagZmMr nÕVera à{H«$`m - Systematic Problem Solving 

11. gm§p»`H$s` JwU {Z`§ÌU - Statistical Quality Control 

12. JwUdÎmm _§S>io - Quality Circles 

13. dmXir MMm© - Brain Storming 

14. H$maH$sX© _mJ© {ZpíMVr - Career Path Map 

15. ì`yhaMZmË_H$ {Z`moOZ - Strategic Plan 

16. gmVË`nyU© {ejU à{H«$`m - Countinuous Leaarning Process 

17. _yë`_mnZ à{H«$`m - Evaluation Process. 

JwUdÎmm n[ajU (Quality Audit) : 

ì`dgm` g§KQ>ZoÀ`m JwUdÎmm nÕVrÀ`m ì`dñWmnZmVrb EH$ _yb^yV KQ>H$ åhUOo JwUdÎmm n[ajU hmo`. 

JwUdÎmm nÕVrMr n[aUm_H$maH$Vm dmT>Ê`mgmR>r d _yë`_mnZmgmR>r _m{hVr d AmH$S>odmar nwa{dUo JwUdÎmm 

n[ajUmV A{^àoV Amho. JwUdÎmm n[ajU ho ì`dñWmnZmMo EH$ Ago gmYZ Amho H$s Á`mV JwUdÎmoer g§~§{YV 

_yë`_mnZ, nS>VmiUr B. H$m`mªMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

JwUdÎmm n[ajU åhUOo EH$ Aer nÕVera Am{U ñdV§Ì Aä`mg nÕVr Á`mÀ`m AmYmao Mm§Jë`m H¥$Vr 

Am{U Ë`m§À`m g§b¾ n[aUm_ Ë`mM~amo~a R>adbobr _m§S>Ur Am{U R>adboë`m g§ñWoÀ`m _m§S>UrÀ`m `mo½` dmnamZo 

CÔoenyVu hmody eH$Vo ho _mÝ` H$aUo. 

A Systematic and independent examination to determine whether quality activities and 

related results comply with planned arrangements and whether these arrangements and implemented 

effectively and are suitable to achieves objectivs. 

JwUdÎmm n[ajUmMr C{Ôï>o : 

1. JwUdÎmm nÕVrMo KQ>H$ {ZX}{eV Amdí`H$Vmer AZwê$n AmhoV H$s ZmhrV ho R>a{dUo. VgoM XwéñVr 

d gwYmaUogmR>rMr joÌo emoYUo. 

2. ~|M_mH©$ R>a{dUo d Ë`mAmYmao nÕVrMr gwYmaUm {dH${gV H$aUo d {VMo _yë`_mnZ. 

3. ì`dñWmnZmbm JwUdÎmm nÕVrÀ`m {d{dY KQ>H$m§Mr AZwê$n à^mdrnUm, `mo½`Vo~m~V {ZpíMV nwamdm 

19

gmXa H$aUo. 

4. {d{eï> JwUdÎmm C{Ôï>o gmÜ` hmoÊ`mgmR>r A§_b~OmdUr H$amd`mÀ`m JwUdÎmm nÕVrMm à^mdrnUm 

R>a{dUo. 

5. JwUdÎmm nÕVr_Yrb Xmof, C{Udm emoYUo. 

6. JwUdÎmm `moOZm§Mr A§_b~OmdUr H$aUmè`m H$_©Mmè`m§Mr `mo½`Vm d H$m¡eë`m§Mo _yë`_mnZ H$aUo. 

7. {d{dY {d^mJm_Yrb gwg§dmX, ghH$m`©d¥Îmr dmT>{dUo. 

2. CnH«$_ g§gmYZ {Z`moOZ (Enterprise Resource Planning - ERP) : 

CnH«$_ g§gmYZ {Z`moOZ åhUOo CnH«$_ ì`dñWmnZmMr H$m`©j_Vm C§MmdÊ`mgmR>r ì`dñWmnZ g§gmYZm§Mm 

à^mdr Cn`moJ d g§nyU© ì`dgm`mMo gd©g_mdoeH$ ì`dñWmnZ H$aÊ`mMo EH$ V§Ì d g§H$ënZm Amho. ERP JÇ>m 

(Package) åhUOo gd©g_mdoeH$ gm°âQ>doAa n°Ho$Og hmo` H$s Á`m_Üò gd© ì`md`m{`Z H$m`mªer g§~§{YV 

Software Packages Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. àma§{^À`m H$mimV ERP n°Ho$OMm CÔoe {Z_m©U CÚmoJ d Ë`m_Yrb 

_w»` {dH«$s ì`dñWmnZ, CËnmXZ ì`dñWmnZ, {heo~ boIZ d Am{W©H$ àH$aUo B. H$m`mªMo {Z`moOZ d 

ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo, Agm hmoVm. na§Vw gÚpñWVrV gd© àH$maÀ`m CÚmoJ ì`dgm`m_Üò d {d{dY àH$maÀ`m 

H$m`mªMo d {H«$`m§Mo {Z`moOZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r `m g§H$ënZoMm gd©Ì _moR>çm à_mUmV Adb§~ Ho$bm OmVmo. 

ERP àUmbrMr à{VH¥$Vr Aer V`ma Ho$br OmVo H$s, Á`m_Üò ì`dgm`mVrb gd© _wb^yV à{H«$`m 

g_m{dîQ> AgVmV. 

ì`dgm`mÀ`m à_wI ì`mdgm{`Z à{H«$`m§Mm ERP Software ho EH$ Amagm / à{V_m AgVo. Cƒ 

XOm©À`m J«mhH$ godm, CËnmXH$Vm, IM© H$nmV, _mbgmR>çmMr `mo½` nmVir B. _wb^yV C{Ôï>m§À`m nyV©VogmR>r 

ERP VÎdm§Mo ghmæ` KoVbo OmVo. ERP _wio E - H$m°_g© d dmQ>n gmIirÀ`m à^mdr ì`dñWmnZmgmR>r Mm§Jbm 

nm`m KmVbm OmVmo. ERP ho `moOZm d doimnÌH$ {dH${gV H$aVo. `m_wio `mo½` g§gmYZo, `mo½` doir, {H$_mZ 

_mo~Xë`mV g§nmXZ H$aVm òVmV. CXm. _Zwî`~i, gmYZ gm_J«r, `§Ìgm_J«r, ^m§S>db B. 

ERP ~m~V H$mhr MwH$sMo _Vàdmh : 

1. ERP åhUOo OmñV H$m_ d nÕVr. 

2. ERP _wio AZoH$ H$_©Mmar H$m`©_wŠV hmoD$ eH$VmV. 

3. ERP hr nyU©V: ì`dñWmnZmMr O~m~Xmar Amho. 

4. ERP \$ŠV ì`dñWmnH$ / {ZU©` H$Ë`mªgmR>r Amho. 

5. ERP \$ŠV {Z_m©U g§KQ>ZmgmR>r Amho. 

6. ERP \$ŠV ERP A§_b~OmdUr g§KmgmR>r Amho. 

7. ERP _wio g§KQ>Zm g§W ~ZVo. 

8. ERP n°Ho$O gdmªMr H$miOr KoVo. 

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9. ERP n°Ho$O àËòH$mg Cn`wŠV R>aVo. 

10. ERP \$ma I{M©H$ Amho. 

11. ERP {edm` g§KQ>Zm èñdr hmoD$ eH$Vo. 

ERP Mr CËH«$m§Vr Evolution of ERP : 

H$mi nÕV dU©Z 

1960 _mbgmR>m ì`dñWmnZ JwXm_m_Üò _mb `mo½` nmVirg R>odÊ`mMr ì`mdd 

{Z`§ÌU (Inventory gm{`Z {H«$`m d _m{hVr V§ÌkmZ `m§Mo EH${ÌH$aU 

Management & åhUOo _mbgmR>m ì`dñWmnZ d {Z`§ÌU hmo`. 

Control) 

1970 gm_J«r JaO {Z`moOZ CËnmXZ à{H«$`m§Mo doimnÌH$ V`ma H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

(Material Require- gm_J«r JaO {Z`moOZ ho Software Application 

ment Planning) Mm dmna H$aVo. 

1980 {Z_m©U JaO {Z`moOZ CËnmXZmÀ`m à{H«$`m§_Üò g_Ýd` gmYÊ`mgmR>r 

(Manufacturing {Z_m©U JaO {Z`moOZ Software Application Mm 

Requirement Planning) dmna H$aVo. 

1990 CnH«$_ gmYZ {Z`moOZ ì`dgm`m§VJ©V à{H«$`m§Mr H$m_{Jar C§Mm{dÊ`mgmR>r 

(ERP) ERP Multi - Module Application 

ERP hr EH$ Computer System (g§JUH$ àUmbr) Amho. ì`dgm` g§KQ>ZoV doJdoJio {d^mJ H$m`©aV 

AgVmV. Ë`m§Mr H$m`}hr doJdoJù`m ñdê$nmMr AgVmV. Aem gd© H$m`m©g§~§YrV _m{hVr, Ë`m§Mr XodmU- 

KodmU, EH${ÌVnUo EH$mM g§JUmH$m_YyZ hmoV AgVo. `mg ghmæ` H$aUmè`m gd© gmYZm§Zm, doJdoJù`m 

à{H«$`m§Zm ERP g§M åhUbo OmVo. Á`m_Üò EH$M Database (EH$_oH$m§er g§~§{YV _m{hVrMm gmR>m) AgVmo. 

`mM Database À`m gh^mJm_wio doJdoJù`m {d^mJm§Mr _m{hVr, Ë`m§Mo XiUdiU EH$_oH§$er hmoV AgVo. 

ERP _Üò {d{eï> àH$maMo Module (Programme JQ>) g_m{dï> AgVmV. 

WmoS>Š`mV, ERP _Üò EH${ÌVnUo CnH«$_mVrb gd© {d^mJ Am{U Ë`m§Mr H$m`©o hmoV AgVmV. hr gd© 

H$m`} EH$mM g§JUH$ àUmbr_Üò AgyZ gd© {d^mJm§À`m d¡{eï>çnyU© JaOm `m_wio nyU© hmoVmV. 

_mJUr d nwadR>çmMm A§XmO d Ë`mV g_Vmob ERP _wio gmYbm OmVmo. J«mhH$ d nwadR>mXmam§er g§~§{YV 

AZw_mZ, {Z`moOZ, doimnÌH$ V§Ì `m§Mm CnH«$_ {Zhm` g§M åhUOo ERP hmo`. `m{edm` `mA§VJ©V {dH«$s, 

{dnUZ, à{H$`m, IaoXr, AW©nwadRm, dñVy {dH$mg d _Zwî`~i B. _Üò g_Ýd` gmYbm OmVmo. 

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ERP Mo \$m`Xo Benefits of ERP : 

ERP nÕVrMr àñWmnZm Ho$ë`m_wio g§KQ>Zog AZoH$ àË`j, AàË`j bm^ àmá hmoVmV. àË`j 

bm^m§_Üò H$m`©j_VoV dmT>, AMyH$ {ZU©` à{H«$ògmR>r _m{hVrMo EH${ÌH$aU, J«mhH$m§Mm ËdarV à{VgmX B. 

bm^m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. AàË`j \$m`Úm_Üò H§$nZrMr Mm§Jbr à{V_m, Zmdbm¡{H$H$mV dmT>, J«mhH$ g_mYmZ 

Aem AZoH$ \$m`Úm§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. ERP nÕVr_wio ì`dgm` g§KQ>Zog AZoH$ Ñî` d AÑî` ñdê$nmMo \$m`Xo 

{_iVmV. 

ERP nÕVrMo \$m`Xo Imbrbà_mUo ñnï> Ho$bo OmVmV. 

1. _m{hVrMo EH${ÌH$aU 

7. bd{MH$VoV dmT> 

2. C{Ôï>nyVu doioV KQ> 

8. JwUdÎmm IMm©V KQ> 

3. `mo½` doioV AmXoe nyV©Vm 

9. g§gmYZmMm n[anyU© Cn`moJ 

4. H$m`©nyVu doioV KQ> 

10. AMyH$ {díbofU d {Z`moOZ j_Vm 

5. J«mhH$m§Zm nyU© g_mYmZ 

11. _m{hVrÀ`m AMwH$VoV dmT> d {ZU©`j_VoV 

6. nwadR>mXmam§À`m H$m_{JarV gwYmaUm dmT> 

J«mhH$mH$Sy>Z 

AmXoe 

Amho 

{dH«$s d dmQ>n 

JwXm_ 

{d^mJ 

gm_wJ«r ì`dñWmnZ 

AW© {d^mJ 

ERP System _Üò AmXoe nyV©VoMr nÕVr 

22 

12. AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌkmZmMm dmna. 

CËnmXZ 

n¸$m 

_mbgmR>m 

Zmhr 

CËnmXZ {Z`moOZ 

`§Ìgm_J«r 

XoI^mb XwéñVr 

{~b {Z_[Vr

ERP gm°âQ>doAaMo H$m`m©Ë_H$ _moS>çwbg : 

ERP nÕVrÛmao _m{hVrMo g§H$bZ 

ERP Software A§VJ©V AZoH$ Software _moS>çwbg ApñVËdmV Amho. àËòH$ ERP Soft- 

ware Module ho g§KQ>ZoVrb à_wI H$m`m©Ë_H$ H$m`©joÌmMr Z¸$b AgVo. H$mhr gd©gmYmaU _moS>çwbg 

Imbrbà_mUo- 

1. Am{W©H$ _moS>çyb 

2. CËnmXZ _moS>çyb 

3. _Zwî`~i _moS>çyb 

4. gm_J«r ì`dñWmnZ _moS>çyb 

5. CËnmXZ {Z`moOZ _moS>çyb 

6. `§ÌñWi XoI^mb _moS>çyb 

7. IaoXr XoI^mb _moS>çyb 

8. {dnUZ XoI^mb _moS>çyb 

9. {dH«$s d dmQ>n _moS>çyb. 

ì`yhaMZmË_H$ 

d {H«$`mË_H$ 

ì`dñWmnZ 

CËnmXZ 

AW©nwadR>m 

gm_J«r 

ì`dñWmnZ 

JwUdÎmm 

ì`dñWmnZ 

23 

ERP 

nÕVr 

_mZd 

g§gmYZ 

dmhVyH$ 

ì`dñWmnZ 

XoI^mb 

ì`dñWmnZ 

{dH«$s d 

{dVaU

ERP Mo VmoQ>o : 

AmYw{ZH$ `wJm_Üò ERP V§Ì A{Ve` Cn`wŠV g_Obo OmV Agbo Var `m V§ÌmMo gwÕm H$mhr VmoQ>o AmhoV. 

Vo {dMmamV KoD$Z ho V§Ì ñdrH$mam`Mo H$m Zmhr `m{df`r {ZU©` KoVbm OmVmo. 

1. I{M©H$. 

2. ERP A§_b~OmdUrg XrK© H$mbmdYr. 

3. H$_©Mmè`m§_Üò Vm§{ÌH$ kmZ, H$m¡eë`m§Mm A^md. 

4. H$_©Mmè`m§Zm à{ejUmMr JaO. 

5. Cƒ ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m nmR>tã`mMr JaO. 

6. VÁkm§À`m _XVrMr gVV JaO. 

7. {eñVrMr JaO. 

8. H$_©Mmè`m§Mm ~Xbmg {damoY. 

9. ì`dgm` à{H«$`m§À`m nwZ©A{^`m§{ÌH$sMr JaO. 

10. V§ÌkmV ~Xbm§Mr eŠ`Vm. 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`Xm 

(Competitive advantages) 

24 

�� 

~mOmanoR>o_Üò AZoH$ ì`dgm`g§ñWm ì`mdgm{`Z H$m`} H$aV AgVmV. `mn¡H$s AZoH$ g§ñWm EH$mM 

àH$maMo H$m`© H$aV AgVmV. àËòH$ g§ñWoH$S>o Oar gmYZgm_J«r, _Zwî`~i, Vm§{ÌH$ j_Vm Odinmg 

EH$gmaIr Agbr Var àËòH$ g§ñWobm {_iUmao è Ag_mZ ñdê$nmMo AgVo. EImXr g§ñWm AË`wƒ è, 

gÝ_mZ g§nmXZ H$aVo. `mCbQ> AZoH$ g§ñWm gd©gmYmaU è g§nmXZ H$aVmV. `m {dg§JVr_mJrb _w»` H$maU 

åhUOo àËòH$ ì`dgm` g§ñWoMr gmYZg§nÎmrMm H$_mb Cn`moJ H$aÊ`mMr j_Vm H$m¡eë` H$_r OmñV AgVo. 

Or ì`dgm`g§ñWm ñdV:Mr Jm^mgj_Vm AmoiIVo, {dH$grV H$aVo {VMm H$_mb Cn`moJ H$aVo. Aer g§ñWm 

ñnYm©H$m§À`m VwbZoV CÎmw§J è d bm^ g§nmXZ H$aVo. AmOÀ`m OmJ{VH$sH$aUmÀ`m `wJmV èñdr hmoÊ`mgmR>r, 

OmJ{VH$ ñnY}V ñdV:Mo doJionU {gÕ H$aÊ`mgmR>r àËòH$ ì`dñWmnZmZo Amnë`m Jm^m j_Vm A{YH$ gj_ 

H$aÊ`mMm d ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ {_i{dÊ`mMo Üò` R>odbo nm{hOo. 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ g§H$ënZm (Concept of Competitive Advantage) : 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ hr ì`yhaMZmË_H$ ì`dñWmnZmVrb EH$ _yb^yV d _hÎdnyU© g§H$ënZm Amho. ñnYm©Ë_H$ 

bm^ `m g§H$ënZoÀ`m {d{dY {dMmad§VmZr Ho$boë`m ì`m»`m Imbrbà_mUo AmhoV.

1) "Competitive advantage grows fundamentally out of the value a firm is able take the 

form of prices lower than competition for equivalent benefits or the provision of unique benefits 

that more than offset a premium price." - Michael Porter. 

""EImXr ì`dgm` g§ñWm {VÀ`m J«mhH$m§gmR>r Oo _yë` {Z_m©U H$ê$ eH$Vo Ë`mVyZ _ybV: ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ 

{Z_m©U hmoVmo. g_mZ bm^mgmR>r ñnY©H$m§nojm H$_r qH$_V AmH$maUo qH$dm dmT>rd (A{YŠ`) qH$_Vrnojm OmñV 

Agm_mÝ` \$m`Xo XoÊ`mMr ì`dñWm H$aUo `mn¡H$s EImXoê$n Vmo YmaU H$aVmo.'' 

2) "Competitive advantage is any feature of a business firm that enables into earn a high 

return on investment despite counter pressure from competitors. - Pits and Snow 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ åhUOo EImÚm ì`dgm`mMo Ago H$moUVohr d¡{eï>ç hmo` H$s Oo Ë`mg ñnY©H$m§H$Sy>Z àVrX 

~md Agbm Var Jw§VdUwH$sda Cƒ _mo~Xbm {_idyZ XoVo.'' 

3) "Competitive advantage is what sets an organization apart, that is its distinctedge. That 

distinct edge comes from the organisation core competencies, which might be in the form of 

organizational capabities the organization does something that others cannot do or does it better 

than others can do it." - Stifan Robins, Merry Colter 

""ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`Xm hr ì`dgm` g§ñWoMo doJionU Xe©{dUmar ~m~ Amho. Ë`mVyZ ì`dgm`g§ñWm {deof 

daMT> Agë`mMo {XgVo. Ago {deof {ZdS>rÀ`m à{H«$ò_wio Mm§Jbo-dmB©Q> loð>Ëd g§ñWobm {VÀ`m Jm^m j_VoVyZ 

àmá hmoV AgVo. BVa g§KQ>Zm§Zm H$aVm Z òUmè`m {deof {H«$`m EImXr g§KQ>Zm H$aVo qH$dm BVam§nojm \$ma 

Mm§Jë`m nÕVrZo Ë`m {H«$`m H$aVm òVmV. `m ~m~r_wio ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`Xm {dH${gV hmoVmo. 

4) "A capability of circumstance that enables a corporation to earn higher than the averatxge 

profits in a particular industry" - Stoner, Freeman, Gilbert 

{d{eï> CÚmoJjoÌmV EImXr g§ñWm gamgarnojm OmñV Z\$m Á`m j_Vo_wio qH$dm n[apñWVr_wio {_idy 

eH$Vo Ë`mg ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ Ago åhUVmV. 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`ÚmMr d¡{eï>ço (Characteristics of Competitive Advantage) : 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`Xm `m g§H$ënZoÀ`m {d{dY {dMmad§Vm§Zr doJdoJù`m ñdê$nmV ì`m»`m Ho$boë`m AmhoV. 

`m ì`m»`m§À`m AmYmao gnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`ÚmMr d¡{eï>ço Imbrbà_mUo gm§JVm òVmV. 

1. ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ hr ì`dgm` g§KQ>ZoMr ì`yhaMZm AgVo. 

2. ì`dgm`g§ñWoÀ`m dñVy d godm ~mOmamVrb BVa ñnY©H$ dñVy d godm§À`m VwbZoV gdm}ËH¥$ð> Agë`m 

nm{hOoV. J«mhH$m§Mr àW_ ng§Vr g§ñWoÀ`m dñVy d godm§Zm Agmdr. 

3. ~mOmanoR>oVrb ñnY}V gdm©V nwT>o åhUOo àW_ H«$_m§H$mg amhÿZ ñnY}Mo gd© bm^ {_i{dUo, ñnYm©Ë_H$ 

bm^ g§H$ënZoV A§V^y©V Amho. 

4. ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ hr {XK©H$mbrZ ì`yhaMZm Amho. 

5. ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`ÚmgmR>r CËnmXZ d {dnUZ `m XmoÝhr {H«$`m AVrCËH¥$ð>nUo nma nmS>Uo Amdí`H$ Amho. 

25

6. ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ ì`whaMZoÀ`m ghmæ`mZo g§KQ>ZoZo ~mOmanoR>o_Üò A{Ve` _hÎdmMo d à^mdr ñWmZ 

g§nmXZ H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho. 

7. ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ àmárgmR>r g§KQ>ZoZo g§~§{YV ñnY}Mm EH$ IoimSy> åhUyZ ñdV: doJdmZ Ioi H$ê$Z 

ñnY}da _mV H$amd`mMr AgVo. 

8. ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ Ioim_Üò g§ñWoZo ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m gd© {H«$`m ñnYm©Ë_H$ ñdê$nmV nma nmS>ë`m 

nm{hOoV. 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`ÚmMo _hÎd (Importance of competitive Advantage) : 

OmJ{VH$sH$aUmÀ`m à^mdm_wio ~mOmanooR>oVrb ñnYm© {Xdg|{Xdg doJmZo dmT>V Amho. ñnYm©`wŠV ~mOmanoR>o_Üò 

èñdr hmoÊ`mgmR>r ì`dgm` g§ñWobm Amnë`m ñnY©H$m§nojm AmJir doJir, Cƒ àVrMr H¥$Vr H$amdr bmJVo. 

CXm. dñVy/godoMm XOm© `mo½` amIV {VMr qH$_V ñnY©H$m§nojm H$_r amIUo qH$dm ñnY©H$ dñVy/godmnojm Amnbr 

dñVy/godm AmJir doJir d¡{eï>çnyU© Amho. ho J«mhH$m§Zm nQ>dyZ XoUo. `m_wio ì`dgm` g§ñWoÀ`m CËnmXZm§Zm, 

godm§Zm J«mhH$m§Mm _moR>m à{VgmX àmá hmoVmo. n`m©`mZo Aem g§ñWobm _moR>çm à_mUmV ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ àmá hmoVmo. 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`Xm {Z_m©U H$aÊ`mMo d {Q>H$dÊ`mMo _hÎd Imbrb _wÔçm§À`m AmYmao {deX H$aVm òVo. 

1) IM© dV©Z g_OVo : ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^mgmR>r IM© ZoV¥Ëd ì`whaMZm pñdH$maë`mZ§Va d Ë`mZwgma _yë` 

gmIir {díbofU Ho$ë`m_wio H$moUH$moUË`m H$m`©ñWimda d {H«$`m Cn{H«$`m_Üò IM© dmM{dVm òB©b ho g_OVo 

d `mà_mUo `mo½` Ë`m {R>H$mUr IM© dmM{dÊ`mgmR>r à^mdr Cnm``moOZm Ho$ë`mg ì`dgm`g§ñWoMr ì`whaMZm 

èñdr hmoD$Z {Vbm ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ àmá hmoVmo. 

2) {dôXZmMm AmYma : J«mhH$m§Zm dñVy qH$dm godoÀ`m qH$_VrÀ`m VwbZoV A{YH$ _yë` àmá hmoV 

Agob Va Ë`m§Mm _moR>m à{VgmX g§~§{YV ì`dgm` g§ñWobm àmá hmoVmo. J«mhH$m§Zm A{YH$ _yë` H$go {_idyZ 

XoVm òB©b. `m àíZmMo CVa emoYVmZm {dôXrH$aUmMo _mJ© gwMV OmVmV. CXm. dñVyMm a§J, ê$n, Md, A§VJ©V, 

~møaMZm, XOm© `mn¡H$s H$moUVm AmYma {ZdS>ë`mg J«mhH$m§Zm A{YH$ _yë` àmá hmoB©b ho g_OVo. WmoS>Š`mV, 

{dôXZmgmR>r AMyH$ AmYma {ZdS>Uo eŠ` hmoVo. 

3) ñnYm©Ë_H$ n[apñWVrMo _yë`_mnZ : ñnYm©Ë_H$ n[apñWVrMo _yë`_mnZ H$em nÕVrZo H$amdo d 

Vr AZwHy$b ~ZÊ`mgmR>r H$moUVr {deof H¥$Vr H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho. `m{df`rMo _mJ©Xe©Z ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^m_wio 

hmoVo. CnH«$_m§VJ©V Ho$ë`m OmUmè`m {d{dY {H«$`m§Mo gImob gyú_ {díbofU H$ê$Z H$moUË`m {H«$`m§Mm IM© 

{H$_mZ amIUo eŠ` Amho d H$moUË`m {H«$`m, dñVy doJio nU {_idyZ Xody eH$VmV. CXm. CËnmXZ, {dnUZ, 

aMZm, n|Q>tJ B. 

4) Vm§{ÌH$ ~Xbm§Mo ì`dñWmnZ : 21 ì`m eVH$m_Üò dñVw_Yrb Vm§{ÌH$ KQ>H$mbm A{Ve` _hÎd 

àmá Pmbo Amho. OmJ{VH$ J«mhH$ dñVy_Yrb Vm§{ÌH$ AmYw{ZH$Vog àW_ ng§Vr XoVmV. AmYw{ZH$ Zd{dH$grV 

V§ÌkmZ dñVy_Üò A§V^©yV Agmdo Aer Z{dZ {nT>rMr Anojm AgVo. ì`dñWmnZmMo V§ÌkmZ joÌmda gVV bm^ 

R>odyZ H$moUVo Z{dZ V§ÌkmZ g§emo{YV {dH$grV Pmbo Amho, Vo Amnë`m CËnmXZmMr JwUdÎmm dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r 

{H$VnV Cn`wŠV Amho. Ë`mMr ì`dhm`©Vm d Am`wî` {H$VnV Amho VgoM Vm§{ÌH$ ~XbmMo ñnYm©Ë_H$ _hÎd 

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{H$Vr Amho. CËnmXZmMo Vm§{ÌH$ KQ>H$mÀ`m AmYmao H$amdo H$m? Aem {d{dY àíZm§Mr CÎmao ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^mMr 

ì`yhaMZm {ZpíMV Ho$ë`mg àmá hmoV OmVmV. 

5) n`m©`r dñVy§~m~V ì`yhaMZm : gÚ:pñWVrV gd©M CnH«$_m§Zm n`m©`r H$aUmÀ`m g§H$Q>mMm gm_Zm 

H$amdm bmJV Amho. H$moUË`mhr dñVy / godobm ~mOmanoR>oV AZoH$ n`m©` CnbãY Agë`mZo ~mOmanoR>oVrb ñnYm© 

{Xdg|{Xdg Vrd« ~ZV Amho. `mMm à{VHy$b n[aUm_ CËnmXZmÀ`m _mJUrda hmoV AgVmo. Aem doir n`m©`r 

H$aUmMo {díbofU H$go H$amdo? n`m©`r H$aUmnmgyZ CËnmXZm§Mo g§ajU H$go H$amdo? n`m©H$aUmda H$moUË`m 

_mJmªZr _mV H$amdr? `m{df`rÀ`m ì`yhaMZm AmIÊ`mg ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ ì`yhaMZm pñdH$maë`mZo _XV hmoVo. 

6) ñnY©H$m§À`m {ZpíMVrg ghmæ` : OmJ{VH$sH$aUmÀ`m n[a{ñWVr_wio ~mOmamVrb ñnYm© {Xdg|{Xdg 

dmT>V Amho. `m_wio ñnY©H$m§À`m g§»òV gVV dmT> hmoV Amho. `mo½` ñnYm© JwUdÎmm dmT>rg d emídV 

{dH$mgmgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgVo. ñnY}_wio J«mhH$m§Zmhr {ZdS>rMr g§Yr d XO}Xma dñVy§Mr h_r {_iVo. `m_wio 

CËnmXZm§Zm EH$/XmoZ Mm§Jbo ñnY©H$ AgUo Amdí`H$ AgVmV. Mm§Jë`m ñnY}_wio g§~§{YV CÚmoJjoÌmÀ`m 

{dH$mgmbm MmbZm {_iVo. ñnY©H$ {ZdS>rÀ`m à{H«$ò_wio Mm§Jbo dmB©Q> ñnY©H$ g_OÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. Aem 

àËòH$ ñnY©H$mer H$go g§~§Y, dV©Z R>odmdo `m{df`r {ZU©` KoUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

7) g§~§{YV CÚmoJmVrb A§mVag§~§YmMm Cn`moJ d {Z`§ÌU : ì`dgm` joÌmVrb AZoH$ CÚmoJ nañna 

g§~§{YV, nañnam§da Adb§~yZ AgVmV. CXm. dmhZ CÚmoJm§Mm g§~§Y a~a, a§J, bmoI§S>o, nmobmX, H$mM Aem 

{d{dY CÚmoJm§er òV AgVmo. CÚmoJmVrb Am§Vag§~§YmMo {díbofU Ho$ë`mg H$moUË`m Am§Vag§~§Ym_wio ñnYm©Ë_H$ 

bm^ {_iy eH$Vmo ho g_OVo. Ñí` Am§Vag§~§Y gmYÊ`mgmR>r EH$m KQ>H$mZo Xwgè`m KQ>H$m~amo~a _yë`gmIirVrb 

{H«$`m dmQy>Z KoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. WmoS>Š`mV, EH$m CÚmoJmZo Amnë`mH$S>rb gd©loð> {H«$`m§Mo ghmæ` g§~§{YV 

CÚmoJmg Ho$ë`mg `m CÚmoJmVrb {H«$`m§Mr JwUdÎmm dmT>rg _XV hmoVo. 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`ÚmMo KQ>H$ (Elements of Competitive Advantage) 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ (\$m`Xm) hm EH$ àH$maMm Ioi, {H«$S>m AgyZ g§ñWoZo Ë`m~m~V à^mdr ì`yhaMZm Ho$br 

nm{hOo. ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ ì`yhaMZo_Üò Imbrb KQ>H$ A§V^y©V AmhoV. 

1. ñnYm©Ë_H$ JwádmVm© (Competitive Intelligence) : ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ {_i{dÊ`mgmR>r g§ñWoH$S>o 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ JwádmVm© Agmì`m bmJVmV. H§$nZrZo ñnY©H$m§À`m g§emoYZ d {dH$mg H$m`©H«$_, {H«$`m, CËnmXZ V§Ì, 

{dnUZ V§Ì, {dH«$s ì`yhaMZm, Om{hamV V§Ì, qH$_V YmoaUo, AmXmZo àmárMo _mJ© B. KQ>H$m~m~V Jmon{Z` _m{hVr 

d AmH$S>odmar g§H${bV Ho$br nm{hOo. `mgmR>r H§$nZrZo EH$ ñnYm©Ë_H$ JwádmVm© g§K (Competitive Intelligence 

Team) ñWmnZ Ho$bm nm{hOo. `mg§KmV Hw$eb, AZw^dr, à^mdr ì`{ŠV_Îd Agboë`m bmoH$m§Mr {ZdS> 

Ho$br nm{hOo. `m g§Kmg `mo½` Vo gd© A{YH$ma XoD$Z Cƒ ì`dñWmnZmg H|$ìhmhr ôQ>Ê`mMr Ë`m§Zm nadmZJr 

Agmdr. `m g§KmVrb Jwáhoam§Zr ñnY©H$, _`m©`r g§ñWmVrb darb KQ>H$m§~m~V Jmon{Z` _m{hVr {_idyZ 

{VÀ`mda g§ñH$aU H$ê$Z Vr Cƒ ì`dñWmnZmbm gmXa H$amd`mMr AgVo. `m Jmon{Z` _m{hVrÀ`m AmYmao Cƒ 

ì`dñWmnZ Amnbr _hÎdmMr YmoaUo, `moOZm, ì`yhaMZm {ZpíMV H$aV AgVmV. `m {d^mJmÀ`m H$m`©j_Voda 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^mMo à_mU Adb§~yZ AgVo. 

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2. ñnYm©Ë_H$ ~i (Competitive Strenth) : ñnYm©Ë_H$ JwádmVm©Mm bm^ CR>{dÊ`mgmR>r CnH«$_mH$S>o 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ ~i AgUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. `mgmR>r Om{Udnyd©H$ d H$m`©j_VoMo à`ËZ H$amdo bmJVmV. H§$nZrMo 

_Zwî`~i ñnYm©Ë_H$ Agbo nm{hOo. `mgmR>r _Zwî`~i âVr d {ZdS>rMo H$m`© A{Ve` H$m¡eë`nyd©H$ d 

emóewÕ nÕVrZo nma nmS>mdo bmJVo. `mo½` d nmÌ ì`ŠVtMr {ZdS>, {dMma ñdmV§Í` d A{YH$ma àXmZ, gVV 

d gImob à{ejU, H$m`©~hþ_mZ, AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌmMr, `§ÌmMr {ZdS>, {MÝhm§H$ZmMo X¥T>rH$aU B. _mJmªMm Adb§~ 

H$ê$Z ñnYm©Ë_H$ ~i dmT>{dVm òVo. 

3. ñnYm©Ë_H$ _m{hVr (Competitive Information) : ñnYm©Ë_H$ JwádmV}BVH$sM ñnYm©Ë_H$ _m{hVr 

{_i{dUo _hÎdnyU© AgVo. ì`dgmÀ§VJ©V Ho$ë`m OmUmè`m gd© ì`mdgm{`Z {H«$`m-Cn{H«$`m, ì`dñWmnZ 

{H«$`m§{df`r gImob, n[anyU©, AMyH$ _m{hVr CnbãY Agbr nm{hOo. `mM~amo~a g§ñWm~mø, KQ>H$m~m~V 

g§nyU© d gImob _m{hVr d AmH$S>odmar g§H${bV Ho$br OmVo. ñnYm©Ë_H$ _m{hVr H$er {_idmdr, {VMo 

{díbofU H$go H$amdo, Ë`mVyZ {ZîH$f© H$go H$mT>mdoV d Ë`m§Mm àË`j Cn`moJ H$gm H$amdm `m{df`r gImob 

_m{hVr, AZw^d, H$m¡eë` g§~§{YV A{YH$mè`mH$S>o Agmdo. ñnYm©ËH$ _m{hVr hr CnH«$_mMr _hÎdmMr 

kmZg§nÎmr g_Obr OmVo. 

4. ñnYm©Ë_H$ OmoIr_ (Competitive Risk) : ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ àmárgmR>r ì`dgm` g§ñWobm ñnYm©Ë_H$ 

OmoIr_ pñdH$mamdr bmJVo. H$moUË`mhr ñnY}À`m IoimV YmoH$m, OmoIr_hr AgVoM. g§ñWoZo Amnë`m j_Vm, 

~bñWmZo {dH${gV H$ê$Z, A{YH$ OmoIr_ pñdH$maÊ`mMr V`mar Ho$br nm{hOo. OmoIr_rMr Xwgar ~mOy åhUOo 

Z\$m hmo`. åhUOoM OmoI_rMo \$i Z\$m AgVo Va {OWo OmoIr_ Zmhr {VWo Z\$m Aën AgVmo. ñnYm©Ë_H$ 

OmoI_rÀ`m AMyH$ A§XmO, Aä`mg, {díbofU, {ZîH$f© H$mTy>Z {VÀ`m{déÕ à^mdr Cnm``moOZm Ho$ë`mg 

OmoIr_ g§nyZ {VMo n[adV©Z ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^mV hmoVo. 

5. ñnYm©Ë_H$ ~Xb (Competitive Change) : ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ àmárgmR>r ì`dñWmnZmZo gd© {H«$`m_Üò 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ ~Xb Ho$bm nm{hOo. ñnYm©Ë_H$ ~Xb _w»`V: Imbrb joÌmV Ho$bo OmVmV. CXm. V§ÌkmZ, {dnUZ, 

dñVy§Mm XOm©, CËnmXZ IM©, _Zwî`~i d ZoV¥Ëd B. CnH«$_m_Üò ñnYm©Ë_H$ V§ÌkmZ, ñnYm©Ë_H$ {dnUZ, 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ dñVy XOm©, ñnYm©Ë_H$ CËnmXZ IM©, ñnYm©Ë_H$ _Zwî`~i d ñnYm©Ë_H$ ZoV¥Ëd {Z_m©U Ho$bo nm{hOo. 

WmoS>Š`mV, g§ñWoVrb gd© KQ>H$, {H«$`m, Cn{H«$`m B. joÌm_Üò ñnYm©Ë_H$Vm AmUbr nm{hOo d Ë`m§Mr 

H$m`©j_Vm, JwUdÎmm dmT>{dÊ`mMm gVV à`ËZ Ho$bm nm{hOo. ñnYm©Ë_H$ ~Xbm_wio ñnY©oda _mV H$aUo d 

èñdr hmoUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

6. ñnYm©Ë_H$ Q>moH$ (Competitive Edge) : OmñVrV OmñV ñnYm©Ë_H$ àmárgmR>r "ñnYm©Ë_H$ Q>moH$' 

{Z_m©U H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho. ñnYm©Ë_H$ Q>moH$ àmárgmR>r ì`dñWmnZ Imbrb _mJmªMm Adb§~ H$ê$ eH$Vo. 

CXm. ñnYm©Ë_H$ g§ñH¥$Vr {Z_m©U H$aUo, kmZ ì`dñWmnZ A§{JH$maUo, gdmªMm ñnYm©Ë_H$ gh^mJ dmT>{dUo, 

{Z`§ÌUmEodOr ghmæ`H$mar gh^mJmMr ^w{_H$m pñdH$maUo, A{YH$ma àXmZ, {dMma ñdmV§Í` B. ñnYm©Ë_H$ Q>moH$ 

H§$nZrZo gmÜ` Ho$bo VaM H§$nZr ñnY}V AJ«oga amhÿZ ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ {_idy eH$Vo. 

WmoS>Š`mV, ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ àmárgmR>r àËòH$ H§$nZrZo darb ghm KQ>H$ AmË_gmV H$aUo Amdí`H$ 

Amho. ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ `m g§H$ënZoMo ñdê$n d ì`már darb KQ>H$mdê$Z ñnï> homVo. ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ hr _mohr_, 

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Midi ZgyZ Vr gVV MmbUmar à{H«$`m Amho. _mohr_ hr AënH$mbrZ AgVo. Va à{H«$`m hr gVV, 

{XK©H$mbrZ AgVo. WmoS>Š`mV, ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^mbm gVV à{H«$òMo ê$n {Xë`mg ì`dgm` g§ñWm {XK©H$min`ªV 

~mOmanoR>oV AJ«^mJr amhÿZ _moR>çm à_mUmV ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ {_i{dVo. 

_m`Ho$b nmoQ>©a `m§Zr ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`Úm§À`m àmárgmR>r Imbrb VrZ ì`yhaMZm gwM{dë`m AmhoV. 

1. IM© ZoV¥Ëd (Cost Leadership) : 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ 

IM© ZoV¥Ëd bú` H|${ÐV {dôXZ 

IM© bú` H|$Ð {dôXZ bú` H|$Ð 

dñVy qH$dm godoMo CËnmXZ d {dVaU H$aÊ`mgmR>r EImXr g§ñWm à{VZJm_mJo Omo IM© H$aVo Vmo 

ñnY©H$m§À`m IMm©nojm H$_r Agob Va {Vbm IM© ZoV¥Ëd H$aVm òVo. `m_Üò H$_r JwUdÎmoÀ`m dñVy/godm V`ma 

H$ê$Z IM© H$_r H$aUo A{^àoV Zmhr Va dñVy/godoMm XOm© ñnY©H$m§À`m dñVy/godm§BVHo$M amIyZ IM© H$_r H$aUo 

`mV A{^àoV Amho. 

Ooìhm H§$nZrMm ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`Xm ñnY©H$m§À`m VwbZoV dñVy/godm§À`m H$_r CËnmXZ IMm©V AgVmo Voìhm 

Ë`mg IM© ZoV¥Ëd Ago åhUVmV. 

WmoS>Š`mV, dñVy/godm§Mr JwUdÎmm ñnY©H$m§À`m dñVy/godm§BVH$s amIyZ dñVy/godm§Mm EHy$U IM© ñnY©H$m§À`m 

IM© VwbZoV H$_r amIUo IM© ZoV¥ËdmV A{^àoV Amho. 

CËnmXZ/{dVaU IM© H$_r H$aÊ`mMo AZoH$ _mJ© ApñVËdmV AmhoV. CXm. _moR>çm à_mUmV CËnmXZ, 

AmYw{ZH$ V§Ì, `§ÌmMr {ZdS>, AmYw{ZH$ CËnmXZ, {dnUZ nÕVr, AmH«$_H$ {dH«$s ì`yhaMZm, Hw$eb _Zwî`~i 

B. `mn¡H$s `mo½` d ì`dhm`© _mJmªMm Adb§~ IM© ZoV¥Ëd H$ê$ BpÀN>Umar H§$nZr H$aVo. `m_wio dñVy§À`m àËòH$ 

ZJm_mJo òUmam IM© H$_r hmoD$ eH$Vmo. ì`dgm`mVrb gd© H$m`mªMr H$m`©j_Vm d JwUdÎmm Cƒ nmVirda 

amIë`mg EHy$U IM© H$_r amhVmo. ~mOmanoR>oVrb Jar~ / gm_mÝ` J«mhH$dJ© qH$_Vr~m~V A{YH$ g§doXZerb 

AgVmo. Aem J«mhH$dJm©bm AmH${f©V H$aÊ`mgmR>r IM© ZoV¥Ëd Cn`wŠV R>aVo. CÚmoJmVrb dñVy d godm§À`m 

qH$_Vr gmYmaUnUo gma»`mM AgVrb Va IM© ZoV¥Ëd H$aUmè`m H§$nZrbm A{YH$ Z\$m {_iVmo. ñnYm© A{YH$ 

Vrd« Pmbr Var Aem H§$nZrH$S>o qH$_V WmoS>r H$_r H$aÊ`mMr bd{MH$Vm amhVo. CXm. JwOamV H$mo-Am°nao{Q>ìh 

{_ëH$ _mH}$qQ>J \o$S>aoeZ (A_yb CËnmXZ), Q>mQ>m _moQ>g©, aZ~Šgr b°~, [abm`Ýg B§S>ñQ´>rO, ~OmO A°Q>mo B. 

AJ«JÊ` H§$nÝ`m§Zr IM© ZoV¥Ëd ì`yhaMZoÛmao _moR>çm n«_mUmV Z\$m {_i{dbobm {XgVmo. 

IM© ZoV¥Ëd g§nmXZ H$aÊ`mMo _mJ© : 

1. _moR>çm n«_mUmV ì`dhma d CËnmXZmÛmao. 

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2. gd© H$m`}, {H«$`mV Cƒ H$m`©j_Vm AmUyZ. 

3. H$_©Mmè`m§Zm H$_r doVZ XoD$Z. 

4. CËnmXZmMo OmñVrV OmñV à_m{UH$aU H$ê$Z. 

5. CËnmXZ, {dnUZ IMm©V KQ> H$aUmao V§ÌkmZ dmnê$Z. 

6. H$ƒm_mb, gmYZgm_J«r {H$_mZ qH$_VrV {_idyZ. 

7. H$_r qH$_Vrg àmYmÝ` XoUmè`m gamgar J«mhH$m§Mo g_mYmZ H$ê$Z. 

8. _mJUrMm AMyH$ A§XmO d CËnmXZj_VoMm _hÎm_ dmna. 

9. ôXH$aU Wmon{dUo. 

IM© ZoV¥Ëd dmnaÊ`mg `mo½` n[apñWVr : 

1. dñVyÀ`m qH$_Vrda AmYm[aV ñnYm© _moR>çm n«_mUmV Agob Va. 

2. à_m{UH$aU A{YH$ à_mUmV d ôXH$aU AgboM Va Vo dadaMo Agob Va. 

3. IaoXrXmam§Mr gm¡XmeŠVr _moR>r Agob d qH$_V H$_r H$aÊ`mgmR>r Ë`m§Mm X~md Agob Va. 

4. J«mhH$m§Mr dñVy qH$dm CËnmXH$mda EH${Zð>Vm Zgob Va. 

5. ôXH$aU H$aÊ`mg \$maer g§Yr Zgob Va. 

IM© ZoV¥ËdmMo \$m`Xo : 

hmoVo. 

1. dñVy/godoMm EHy$U IM© H$_r Agë`mZo ñnY}nmgyZ g§ajU hmoVo. 

2. AmXmZm§À`m (H$ƒm_mb, gmYZgm_J«r B.) qH$_VrV dmT> Pmbr Var Vr ghZ H$aÊ`mMr j_Vm AgVo. 

3. A§{V_ dñVy / godm§À`m qH$_Vr H$_r Pmë`m Var ì`dgm`mV {Q>Hy$Z amhUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

4. n`m©`r dñVy§À`m ñnY}g g_W©nUo Vm|S> XoVm òVo. 

5. H$_r IMm©V CËnmXZ d {dVaU H$ê$ Z eH$aUmè`m Z{dZ ñnY©H$mnmgyZ hmoUmè`m ñnY}nmgyZ g§ajU 

6. _moR>m J«mhH$dJ© d ~mOmanoR> àmá hmoVo. 

IM© ZoV¥ËdmVrb YmoHo$ : 

1. IM© H$_r Agë`mZo {_iUmam \$m`Xm {XK©H$mbrZ ZgVmo Va AënH$mbrZ Agy eH$Vmo. ñnY©H$hr IM© 

H$_r H$aÊ`mMo V§Ì AmË_gmV H$ê$ eH$VmV. 

2. \$ŠV IM© H$nmVrda bj H|$ÐrV Ho$ë`mZo J«mhH$ {hVmH$S>o Xwb©j hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. dñVyÀ`m 

JwUdÎmoer VS>OmoS> H$ê$Z qH$_V H$_r H$aUo `mo½` ZgVo. 

30

3. Amnbo V§ÌkmZ ñnY©H$m§Zr AmË_gmV Ho$ë`mg qH$dm AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌkmZ pñdH$maë`mg IM© ZoV¥Ëd 

g§nwï>mV òVo. 

4. lr_§V J«mhH$dJ© IM© ZoV¥Ëd H$aUmè`m H§$nZrH$S>o Xwb©j H$aVmV. 

darb {ddoMZmdê$Z Agm {ZîH$f© {ZKVmo H$s, IM© ZoV¥Ëd ho H$m`m©Ë_H$ à^mdrnUmVyZ {Z_m©U hmoUo d 

Q>rHy$Z amhUo Ano{jV AgVo. ñnY©H$ ghO Z¸$b H$ê$ eH$Vrb Ago IM© ZoV¥Ëd Agob Va Vo Aën{Odr R>aVo. 

2. {dôXZ / ôXH$aU (Differentition) : 

J«mhH$ Á`mgmR>r OmñV qH$_V XoÊ`g V`ma AmhoV. Aer {deof d¡{eï>ço dñVy/godo_Üò A§V^y©V H$aUo 

åhUOo {dôXZ ì`yhaMZm hmo`. dñVy qH$dm godo_Üò g_m{dï> Ho$boë`m Img AmJù`mdoJù`m d¡{eï>çm§À`m 

Omoamda ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ {_i{dUo åhUOo ôXH$aU hmo`. 

Aer d¡{eï>ço dñVy/godo_Üò AgmdrV Aer J«mhH$m§Mr Anojm AgVo qH$dm Aem d¡{eï>çm_wio J«mhH$m§Zm 

_moR>o, {deof g_mYmZ bm^V AgVo d `m OmñVrÀ`m g_mYmZmnmoQ>r J«mhH$ Aem dñVy/godobm OmñV qH$_V 

XoÊ`mg V`ma AgVmV. EImXr H§$nZr J«mhH$m§Zm Img d¡{eï>ço ~hmb H$aV Agob d ñnY©H$m§Zm Ago H$aUo eŠ` 

Zgob Va Aer H§$nZr {ZpíMVnUo ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`Xm àmá H$aVo. 

lr_§V J«mhH$ dJ© ôXH$aUmg àmYmÝ` XoVmV. dñVy/godo_Üò AgUmè`m {deof, Img, AmJù`m doJù`m 

d¡{eï>çm_wio {VMo Cn`wŠVVm _yë`, AmH$f©H$Vm, JwUdÎmm, doJionU dmT>V AgVo. dñVy/godonmgyZ hmoUmè`m `m 

bm^mnmoQ>r J«mhH$ Aem dñVy§Zm OmñV qH$_V XoÊ`mg V`ma AgVmV. Img d¡{eï>ço dñVy_Üò g_m{dï> 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r òUmè`m IMm©nojm dñVyMr qH$_V A{YH$ Agob Va g§ñWobm \$m`Xm hmoVmo. AÝ`Wm `mCbQ> 

n[apñWVr Agob Va ZwH$gmZ hmoVo. 

CXm. {hamohm|S>m H§$nZrZo gd©àW_ Qy> {ìhba JmS>çm§Mo BVa ñnY©H$ H§$nÝ`mÀ`m (~OmO, `m_mhm, gwPyH$s) 

VwbZoV A{YH$ _m`boOMo ôXH$aU H$ê$Z ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ _moR>çm à_mUmV {_idbm. 

{dôXZ gmÜ` H$aÊ`mMo _mJ© : 

1. J«mhH$m§Mr AmdS>, Anojm, BÀN>m d ~XbVr \°$eZ Zwgma dñVy/godo_Üò `mo½` ~Xb H$ê$Z Ë`m§Mo 

Cn`mo{JVm _yë` dmT>{dUo. 

2. Cƒ JwUdÎm¡Mr h_r XoUo. 

3. _yV© d A_yV© ñdê$nmV J«mhH$m§Zm A{YH$ g_mYmZ XoUo. 

4. {d{eï> H§$nZrÀ`m J«mhH$m§Mr Am{W©H$ nV, gm_m{OH$ n«{Vð>m BVa J«mhH$m§À`m VwbZoZo A{YH$ Amho. 

Aer dmVmdaU {Z{_©Vr H$aUo CXm. ñH$moS>m, hm|S>m, B.M.W., _{g©S>rO ~|P `m H§$nÝ`m§Mr dmhZo dmnaUmao J«mhH$ 

Am{W©H$ d gm_m{OH$ÑîQ>çm à{V{ð>V g_Obo OmVmV. 

5. J«mhH$mbm dñVy/godoMo Oo _hÎd dmQ>Vo (_yë`) Vo dñVyÀ`m qH$_Vrnojm A{YH$ Amho. Aer J«mhH$m§À`m 

_ZmV ^mdZm {Z_m©U H$aUo. 

31

6. Cƒ JwUdÎmm, {dH«$`moÎma godm, AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌkmZ, Zd{Z{_©Vr, g§ñWoMr nV B. _YyZ ôXH$aU {Z_m©U 

Ho$bo OmVo. 

7. dñVy/godo_Üò nyU© doJionU, Agm_mÝ`Vm, AmYw{ZH$Vm AmUUo. 

ôXH$aU H$aÊ`mg `mo½` n[apñWVr : 

1. ~mOmanoR> {dñV¥V AgVo na§Vw ApñVËdmVrb H§$nÝ`m à_m{UV dñVy§Mr {Z{_©Vr H$aVmV. 

2. J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm, Anojm, ê$Mr, ng§Vr_Üò Iyn {d{dYVm AgVo. 

3. OmñV qH$_V AmH$maÊ`mg n[apñWVr AZwHy$b AgVo. 

4. {MÝhm§H$Zm{df`r EH${Zð>Vm {Z_m©U H$aUo d {Q>H${dUo eŠ` AgVo. 

5. {dH«$` dmT> H$aUo eŠ` Agob Va. 

ôXH$aUmMo bm^ : 

1. {d{eð> ~«±S>~m~V J«mhH$m§À`m _ZmV EH${Zð>Vm {Z_m©U hmoVo. `m_wio ñnY}nmgyZ g§ñWoMo g§ajU hmoVo. 

VgoM J«mhH$ dñVyÀ`m qH$_VdmT>rMr \$maer qMVm H$arV ZmhrV. 

2. nwadR>mXmam§Zr gmYZgm_wJ«rÀ`m qH$_VrV dmT> Ho$br Var hr dmT> ghZ H$aÊ`mMr j_Vm g§~§{YV 

CnH«$_mg àmá hmoVo. 

3. Z{dZ ñnY©H$m§nmgyZ g§ajU hmoVo. 

4. n`m©`r dñVy/godmnmgyZ ñnY}Mm YmoH$m H$_r amhVmo. 

5. _moR>çm à_mUmV bm^, ~mOmanoR>oMm {dñVma, J«mhH$ g§»òV dmT>, {dH«$s C{Ôï>nyVu B. bm^ {_iVmV. 

ôXH$aUmMo YmoHo$ : 

1. ñnY©H$m§Zr CËnmXZ JwnrVo, g§~§{YV j_Vm, V§ÌkmZ AmË_gmV Ho$ë`mg dñVy/god|Mo doJionU, 

ImgnUm g§nwï>mV òVmo. Ago ôXH$aU H§$nZrbm {XK©H$mb \$m`Xoera R>aV Zmhr. 

2. dadaMo, gm_mÝ` ôXH$aU Aën{Odr R>aVo. 

3. \$ma A{YH$ dñVyMo _yë`, doJionU nQ>dyZ XoÊ`mgmR>r à^mdr OmhramV V§ÌmMm Adb§~ H$amdm 

bmJVmo. `m_wio Om{hamV IM© dmT>Vmo. 

5. Ooìhm AZoH$ H§$nÝ`m g_mZ {dôXZ S>mdnoM dmnê$ bmJmV. Voìhm {dôXZmMm AmYma hiyhiy H$_r 

hmoV AgVmo d eodQ>r Zï> hmoVmo. 

6. {dôXZ IM© A{YH$ Agob d OmñV qH$_V AmH$maUr_wio hmoUmam bm^ H$_r Agob Va {dôXZ 

ì`dhm`© R>aV Zmhr. 

32

dñVw_Yrb _yV© ñdê$nmVrb d¡{eï>çm§Mo AZwH$aU H$aUo ñnY©H$m§Zm eŠ` AgVo. na§Vw {d{eð> CnH«$_mdarb 

{dídmg EH${Zð>Vm Aer A_yV© d¡{eï>ço {dH$grV Ho$ë`mg Ë`mMo AZwH$aU H$aUo ñnY©H$m§Zm eŠ` ZgVo. `m_wio 

{dôXZ ì`yhaMZm èñdr hmoÊ`mg d {XK©H$mi bm^Xm`H$ R>aÊ`mg ghmæ` hmoVo. 

3. bú`H|${ÐV ì`yhaMZm (Focused strategy) : 

bjH|$[ÐV ì`yhaMZm åhUOo ~mOmanoR>oÀ`m {d{eï> ^mJmda bj H|${ÐV H$aUo qH$dm à`ËZ EH$dQ>Uo hmo`. 

Vm§{ÌH$ n[a^mfoV ~mOmamVrb {d{eï> ^mJmbm H$moZmS>m (Nice) Ago åhUVmV. J«mhH$m§Mr {d{eï> KQ>H$m§À`mAmYmao 

dJ©dmar Ho$br OmVo qH$dm Ë`m§Mo g_yh V`ma Ho$bo OmVmV `mg ~mOmanoR>oMo I§S>H$aU (Segmentation) åhUVmV. 

Aem {d{eï> I§S>mda IM© ZoV¥Ëd qH$dm ôXH$aU H$aUo åhUOo bú`H|${ÐV ì`yhaMZm Adb§~Uo hmo`. 

~mOmanoR>oMo ^mJ, I§S> nmS>Ê`mgmR>r {d{eï> AmYma KoVbo OmVmV. CXm. d`mZwgma, qbJôXmZwgma, 

CËnÞmZwgma, ì`dgm`mZwgma J«mhH$m§Mo JQ> nmS>Uo. ^m¡Jmo{bH$ KQ>H$mÀ`m AmYmao nyd©, npíM_, X{jU, CÎma 

{d^mJ, eha d J«m_rU {d^mJ B. 

bú`H|${ÐV ì`yhaMZm H$er gmÜ` hmoVo ? : 

IM© ZoV¥Ëd qH$dm ôXH$aU _moR>çm à_mUmV H$aUmè`m g§ñWoH$Sy>Z ~mOmanoR>oVrb {d{eï> H$moZmS>o (N>moQ>o 

N>moQ>o ^mJ, {d^mJ) Xwb©{jV amhVmV qH$dm Ë`m§À`mH$S>o \$mago, Om{Udnyd©H$ bj {Xbo OmV Zmhr. Aem \$Q>r 

(Gaps) ~mOmamV VemM amhÿZ OmVmV. na§Vw ho MwH$sMo Amho. ~mOmamVrb àËòH$ H$moZmS>çmH$S>o {d{eof bj XoUo 

Amdí`H$ Amho. CXm. _moQ>magm`H$bgmR>r ñnoAa nmQ>©g², Q>mà CËnmXZ H$aUmè`m H§$nZrZo ñHw$Q>a, _monoS>ogmR>r 

bmJUmè`m ñnoAa nmQ>©, Q>màÀ`m CËnmXZmda bj H|$ÐrV Ho$bo nm{hOo. AÝ`Wm hr ì`dgm`g§Yr Xygar EImXr 

ñnY©H$ H§$nZr CMbÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. lr_§V, Am{W©H$, gm_m{OH$Ñï>çm à{Vð>rV J«mhH$ dJ© Ë`m§Zm 

{_iUmè`m Img godogmR>r, dmJUwH$sgmR>r OmXm n¡go _moOÊ`mg V`ma AgVmV. `mCbQ>, ~mOmamV Agmhr 

J«mhH$dJ© AgVmo H$s Omo dñVy§Mr JwUdÎmm, Img d¡{eï>ço, Img godm `mnojm dñVy§À`m qH$_Vrbm àmYmÝ` XoVmo. 

CXm. Jar~, gm_mÝ` J«mhH$dJ© H$_r qH$_Vrg AJ«H«$_ XoVmV. 

bú`H|${ÐV ì`yhaMZm H$moUË`m n[apñWVrV `mo½` R>aVo ? : 

1. ~mOmanoR>oMm {d{eï> ^mJ / I§S> (segment) d¡{eï>çnyU©, AZÝ` ñdê$nmMm AgVmo. Aem ^mJmda 

{deof bj XoÊ`mMr Amdí`H$Vm AgVo. 

2. ~mOmanoR>oV I§S> BVH$m _moR>m Agmdm H$s, {VWo {deof godm {Xë`mg bm^ {_iy eHo$b. 

3. CÚmoJjoÌmVrb _moR>çm H§$nÝ`m§Zm `m bhmZ I§S>mda bj Ho§$ÐrV H$aÊ`mg doi, ag ZgVmo. 

4. ~mOmamVrb `m {deof I§S>mV ^{dî`mV dmT> hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm Agmdr. 

5. hr ì`yhaMZm pñdH$maUmè`m H§$nZrH$S>o {d{eï> ^mJmH$S>o {deof godm XoÊ`mMo H$m¡eë`, j_Vm Agmdr. 

6. J«mhH$ g§~§Y d dñVw{Zð>m `m KQ>H$m§À`m Omoamda bú`H|$ÐrV H§$nZr ñnY©H$m§nmgyZ Amnbo g§ajU H$ê$ 

eH$Vo. 

33

ú`H|${ÐV ì`yhaMZoMo \$m`Xo : 

1. ñnY}nmgyZ g§ajU àmá hmoVo. 

2. _`m©{XV {d{eï> ^mJmbm {deof godm {Xë`m_wio n`m©`r dñVy§À`m ñnY}nmgyZ g§ajU hmoVo. 

3. Z{dZ ñnY©H$mnmgyZ g§ñWoMo g§ajU hmoVo. 

4. J«mhH$m§À`m g§ñWm dñVy {Zð>o_wio WmoS>çm qH$_VdmT>r_wio {dH«$s à_mUmda à{VHy$b n[aUm_ hmoV ZmhrV. 

5. bú`Ho§${ÐV g§ñWoÀ`m {deofrH$aUm_wio J«mhH$ n`m©`r dñVyH$S>o AmH${f©V hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm ZgVo. 

6. à~i J«mhH$ BVa ñnY©H$ H§$nÝ`mH$S>o OmV ZmhrV. H$maU Aem H§$nÝ`m J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm ^mJ{dÊ`mg 

CËgwH$ ZgVmV. 

bú`H|${ÐV ì`yhaMZoMo YmoHo$ : 

1. `m ì`yhaMZogmR>r {deof j_Vm d àm{dÊ`mMr JaO AgVo d ho àm{dÊ` {_i{dUo AdKS> d 

{XK©H$mbrZ à{H«$`m AgVo. 

2. ~mOmanoR>oVrb BVa ^mJmH$S>o diÊ`mMr bd{MH$Vm H$_r amhVo. 

3. ~mOmanoR>oMm I§S> AënH$mbrZ Agob Va H§$nZrMo Am{W©H$ ZwH$gmZ hmoVo. 

4. _moR>çm ñnY©H$ H§$nÝ`m ^{dî`mV ~mOmamVrb {d{eï> I§S>mda bú` H|$ÐrV H$aÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm Agy 

eH$Vo. 

5. bú`H|$ÐrV H§$nZrMo CËnmXZmMo d {dH«$sMo à_mU bhmZ Agob Va IM© OmñV òVmo. 

_m`Ho$b nmoQ>©a `m§Zr ñnYm©Ë_H$ bm^ {_i{dÊ`mÀ`m IM© ZoV¥Ëd, {dôXZ d bú`H|$Ð `m VrZ ì`yhaMZm 

gm§{JVë`m AmhoV. `m àËòH$ ì`yhaMZoMo \$m`Xo-VmoQ>o gmnoj d bd{MH$ AmhoV. ~mOmamVrb ~XbË`m 

n[apñWVrMm A§XmO KoD$Z `mo½` ì`yhaMZm {ZdS>Uo `mo½` R>aVo. IM© ZoV¥Ëd d {dôXZ `m ì`yhaMZm g§nyU© 

CÚmoJmgmR>r dmnaVm òVmV. na§Vw bú`H|$Ð ì`yhaMZm ~mOmanoR>oÀ`m {d{eï> ^mJmgmR>r dmnaVm òVo. `m{R>H$mUr 

ì`dgm`g§ñWm bhmZ ~mOmanoR> I§S>mg EH$Va IM© H$_r H$ê$Z qH$dm {deof d¡{eï>ço dñVy_Üò g_m{dï> H$ê$Z 

H$m`© H$aV AgVo. WmoS>Š`mV, IM© ZoV¥Ëd d ôXH$aU `m§Mr ñnYm©Ë_H$ ì`már _moR>r Amho. Va bú`H|$ÐrV 

ì`yhaMZoMr ì`már _`m©{XV Amho. 

34 

��




gm_J«r ñdrH¥$Vr Am{U {ZJ©_Z 

(Receipt and Issue of Material) 

CÚmoJY§Úm_Üò gm_J«r ñdrH¥$Vr Am{U {ZJ©_Z `mbm \$ma _hÎd Amho. gm_J«rÀ`m XodmUKodmUr_wioM 

CÚmoJY§ÚmMo H$m`© gwairVnUo MmbVo. CÚmoJY§Úm_Üò qH$dm CËnmXZ CÚmoJm_Üò O|ìhm gd© àH$maÀ`m gm_J«rMr 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$m`m©gmR>r (Job) JaO AgVo Voìhm Vr gm_J«r doioda CnbãY H$ê$Z KoUo _hÎdmMo Amho. 

^m§S>manmbbm gm_J«rMr JaO {H$Vr Amho, {H$Vr _mb {e„H$ Amho ho nmhÊ`mgmR>r gm_J«rMr nmVir nhmdr 

bmJVo. hr _mbgmR>m nmVir Imbrbà_mUo AgVo. 

1. Ý`yZV_ _mbgmR>m nmVir (Minimum Level) 

2. _hÎm_ _mbgmR>m nmVir (Maximum Level) 

3. nwZamXoe _mbgmR>m nmVir (Re-order Level) 

4. YmoH$mXm`H$ nmVir (Dauger Level) 

5. nwZ_m©JUr gmR>m (Am{W©H$ _mJUr gmR>m) 

_mbgmbm nmVir R>a{dÊ`mMr C{Ôï>ço : 

(A) ^m§S>manmbbm _mbgmR>m nmVir nm{hë`mZo {H$Vr _mb {e„H$ Amho d {H$Vr _mbmMr _mJUr 

H$amd`mMr ho R>a{dVm òVo. 

(~) \$ma OmXm _mbgmR>m amhÿ Zò qH$dm \$ma H$_r nU _mbmMm gmR>m amhÿ Zò `mMr H$miOr KodyZ CËnmXZ 

{d^mJmg nwaogm hmoB©b BVH$m gmR>m H$aVm òVmo. 

_mbgmR>m nmVirMo doJdoJio àH$ma Am{U Ë`mMr _m{hVr nwT>rbà_mUo KoVm òB©b. 

1. Ý`yZV_ _mbgmR>m nmVir (Minimum Level) : CËnmXZ à{H«$`m H$aVmZm Ë`m_Üò I§S> nSy> Zò 

åhUyZ R>am{dH$ BVŠ`m H$ƒm _mbmMm gmR>m H$amdm bmJVmo. `mgmR>r dñVygmR>çmMr EH$ R>am{dH$ nmVir 

{ZpíMV H$amdr bmJVo. {Vbm Ý`yZV_ dñVygmR>m nmVir Ago åhUVmV. `mbm {H$_mZ dñVygmR>m nmVir Ago 

XoIrb åhUVmV. `m nmVirnojm _mbgmR>m H$_r hmoUma Zmhr `mMr XjVm ¿`mdr bmJVo. 

Ý`yZV_ gmR>m nmVir AmoiIÊ`mgmR>r Imbrb KQ>H$ bjmV ¿`mdo bmJVmV. 

(i) dñVy dmnamMm gamgar Xa. 

35

gyÌ - 

(ii) ZdrZ _mb {_iÊ`mgmR>r gamgar {H$Vr doi bmJob. 

(`mbmM nwZamXoe H$mbmdYr d dñVy nwadR>çmMr doi AgoXoIrb åhUVmV.) 

Minimum Stock = Re-order level - Average consumption during normal delivery time. 

2. _hÎm_ _mbgmR>m nmVir (Maximum Stock Level) : JmoXm_m_Üò dñVyMm OmñVrV OmñV {H$Vr 

gmR>m H$aVm òB©b `mMo à_mU R>a{dUo åhUOo _hÎm_ dñVygmR>m nmVir hmo`. _hÎm_ dñVygmR>m hr EH$ 

dñVygmR>çmMr _`m©Xm doi hmo`. `m _`m©Xonojm A{YH$ dñVygmR>m H$aVm H$m_m Zò. _hÎm_ dñVygmR>çm_wio 

^m§S>db AS>Hy$Z amhmVo, gmR>dUyH$ IMm©V dmT> hmoVo `mMm {dMma Ho$bm nm{hOo. AWm©V Imbrb n[apñWVr_wio 

_hÎm_ dñVwgmR>m H$amdm bmJVmo. 

gyÌ - 

(i) ^{dî`mV H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr Vrd« Q>§MmB© ^mgUma Agob Va. 

(ii) H$ÀÀ`m _mbmÀ`m qH$_VrV â_gmR> dmT> hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm Agob Va. 

(iii) ^{dî`mV CËnmXZmV I§S> nSy> Zò Ago dmQ>V Agob Va. 

(iv) J«mhH$m§Zm dñVyMr H$_VaVm ^mgy Zò. 

_hÎm_ dñVygmR>m nmVir {ZpíMV H$aUmao KQ>H$ : 

(A) dñVygmR>çmMm dmna Am{U dmnamMr JVr 

(~) ^m§S>dbmMr CnbãYVm 

(H$) qH$_VrV hmoUmao MT>CVma 

(S>) _mb Iam~ hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm 

(B) _mb {_iÊ`mg bmJUmam doi 

(B©) gmR>dUyH$sMr j_Vm d gmo`. 

_hÎm_ dñVygmR>m nmVirnojm A{YH$ _mbmMr gmR>dUyH$ Z Ho$ë`mZo hmoUmao \$m`Xo - 

(A) ^m§S>db H$_r Jw§VyZ amhVo. 

(~) gmR>dUyH$ IMm©V KQ> hmoVo. 

(H$) Mmoar, _mbmMr JiVr, VyQ> \y$Q> B. Mo n«_mU H$_r hmoVo. 

Minimum Stock = Re-order level + Re-ordering quantity - (minimum consumption x minimum 

delivery time) 

36

3. nwZamXoe nmVir / q~Xy (Re-order Level / Point) : _mbgmR>m Ý`yZV_ nmVirbm nmohmoMÊ`mnydu 

ZdrZ _mbgmR>m IaoXrgmR>r AmXoe Úmdm bmJVmo. Á`m nmVirbm ZdrZ _mbgmR>m IaoXrMo AmXoe {Xbo OmVmV 

{Vbm nwZamXoe nmVir/q~Xy åhQ>bo OmVo. 

nwZamXoe nmVir {ZpíMV H$aUmao KQ>H$ - 

(A) AmXoe {Xë`mZ§Va _mb {_iÊ`mg {H$Vr doi bmJob d Ë`mXaå`mZ CËnmXZmgmR>r bmJUmam _mb 

(~) Ý`yZV_ AmXoe n[a_mU 

(H$) Ý`yZV_ gmR>m nmVir 

(S>) _mbmMr A{YH$m{YH$ {H$Vr JaO Amho 

(B) AmXoe àmárg AZno{jV H$maUm_wio {H$Vr doi bmJob B. 

H$moUË`mhr CÚmoJmbm _mbgmR>çmMr Ý`yZV_ nmVir amIUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. _hÎm_ dñVygmR>m nmVir 

d Ý`yZV_ dñVygmR>m nmVir `mÀ`m _Yrb nmVir åhUOo nwZamXoe nmVir Ago åhUVm òB©b. 

gyÌ - 

(A) Re-ordering level = Maximum Consumption x Maximum delivery 

(~) Re-ordering level = Minimum Stock + Average Consumption during normal delivery 

time. 

4. dñVygmR>m YmoH$m nmVir (Danger level) : Ý`yZV_ nmVirnojm Imbr Agboë`m _mbgmR>m 

nmVirg YmoH$m nmVir Ago g§~moYbo OmVo. H$moUVrhr CÚmoJg§ñWm Amnë`m _mbgmR>çmMr Ý`yZV_ nmVir 

JmR>ë`mZ§Va Vm~S>Vmo~ ZdrZ IaoXrMo AmXoe XoV AgVo. na§Vw H$mhr doim Am{W©H$ AS>MUr_wio qH$dm _mbmMm 

AmXoe XoD$Z XoIrb _mb doioV àmá Z Pmë`mZo dñVygmR>m nmVir YmoH$m nmVirn`ªV nmohmoMVo. dñVygmR>m YmoH$m 

nmVirn`ªV Joë`mZ§Va CÚmoJg§ñWobm Vm~S>Vmo~ JVrZo hmbMmb H$ê$Z ZdrZ IaoXr H$amdr bmJVo AÝ`Wm 

CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb CËnmXZmMm doJ H$_r hmoVmo. Ë`mMm n[aUm_ ~è`mMdoim CËnmXZ ~§X H$aÊ`mda hmoVmo. hr 

n[apñWVr òD$ Zò `mgmR>r `wÕnmVirda IaoXr H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho Am{U {deof åhUOo dñVygmR>m YmoH$m 

nmVirÀ`m Imbr OmUma Zmhr `mMr nwaonya XjVm ¿`mdr bmJVo. 

gyÌ - 

Danger Level = Average rate of consumption x Emergency supply time. 

5. gamgar dñVygmR>m nmVir (Average stock level) : CÚmoJg§ñWobm AMyH$ Ý`yZV_ AmXoe n[a_mU 

d AMyH$ dñVygmR>m nmVù`m {ZpíMV H$aÊ`m_Üò H$mhr AS>MUr òV AgVrb Va Aemdoir ~è`mM g§ñWm 

gamgar dñVygmR>m nmVir {ZpíMV H$aVmV. 

gyÌ - 

Average Stock level = Minimum stock level x 1/2 Re-order Quantity 

37

6. Ý`yZV_ AmXoe n[a_mU (Economic order Quantity) : H$moUË`mhr CÚmoJg§ñWobm Amnë`m 

CÚmoJmVrb CËnmXZ à{H«$`m AI§{S>V amhmdr Ago dmQ>V AgVo. H$maU IaoXr AmXoe à_mU AmXe© Agob Va 

{ZpíMVM g§ñWobm \$m`Xm hmoVmo. nU IaoXr à_mU OmñV Agob Va g§ñWobm IM© A{YH$ H$amdm bmJVmo. Ë`mMm 

n[aUm_ IM© dmT>Uo, hmVmiUr IM©, _mb Iam~r_wio ZwH$gmZ, g§J«hZ IM© dmT>Uo B. da hmoVmo. `mCbQ> IaoXrMo 

à_mU H$_r Agob Va AmXoe IM© dmT>Vmo. CXm. {Z{dXm _mJUr IM©, XyaÜdZr IM©, Q>nmb IM©, àdmg IM© 

B. 

_mbgmR>m IaoXrMo AmXe© à_mU R>a{dÊ`mgmR>r Imbrb XmoZ KQ>H$ {dMmamV ¿`mdo bmJVmV. 

(A) _mb dmhUo / gm§^miUo IM© (Cost of carrying stock) 

(~) _mb àmár / AmXoe IM© (Cost of acquisition / ordering) 

Ý`yZV_ AmXoe n[a_mU åhUOo IaoXrMo Ago à_mU H$r Á`m à_mUmg _mb dmhUo d _mb àmár `m§Mo IM© 

g_mZ AgVmV. àËòH$ CÚmoJg§ñWoZo Ago Ý`yZV_ AmXoe n[a_mU {ZpíMV/ R>admdo bmJVo. H$maU Ago Ho$ë`mZo 

_mbmÀ`m gmR>çmV {dZmH$maU ^m§S>db Jw§VyZ amhmV Zmhr Am{U Xwgao åhUOo CËnmXZ H$m`m©V I§S> nS>V Zmhr. 

gyÌ - Ý`yZV_ AmXoe n[a_mU = 

S = AmXoe XoÊ`mMm IM© 

SAI 

A = df©âmV bmJUmè`m _mbmMr n¡emVrb qH$_V 

I = dñVygmR>m _yë`mer dñVygmR>m R>odÊ`mÀ`m IMm©Mr eoH$S>odmar. 

_mbgmR>çmMo dmQ>n (Issue of Material) 

2 

_mbgmR>çmMo dmQ>n H$aÊ`mMr AmXe© H$m`©nÕVr {dH${gV H$aÊ`mgmR>r Imbrb _wÔo {dMmamV ¿`mdo 

bmJVmV. 

1. _mbgmR>m Aem nÕVrZo R>odmdm H$s Ë`mMo dmQ>n ËdarV H$aVm òD$ eHo$b. 

2. MwH$sÀ`m nÕVrZo _mbmMo dmQ>n hmoD$ Zò åhUyZ _mbgmR>çmMo `mo½` Vo dJuH$aU H$aUo Amdí`H$ 

Amho. 

3. `mo½` Ë`m A{YH$mè`mÀ`m nadmZJrZoM dmQ>n H$amdo. 

CXm. _mbmMo {d{eï> Aem A{YH$mè`mMo ghrZwgma Ambobo _mJUrnÌ. 

4. Or ì`ŠVr _mb KoD$Z OmÊ`mgmR>r òVo {VMr `mo½` Vr AmoiI nQ>dyZ KoD$ZM _mb Úmdm. 

5. _mbmMo dmQ>n H$aVmZm Vo H$_rV H$_r doioV d bdH$a ìhmdo AÝ`Wm CËnmXZ H$m`© ~§X nS>Ê`mMr 

^rVr AgVo. 

38

6. _mbmMo dmQ>n Ho$ë`mZ§Va Vm~S>Vmo~ Ë`mMr {~ZH$mS>© qH$dm _mbgmR>m {H$Xu_Üò Zm|X H$amdr. 

7. dmQ>n Ho$boë`m _mbmMr _mbgmR>m {d^mJmZo qH$_Vrgh _mbgmR>m a{OñQ>a_Üò Zm|X H$amdr ho Zm|XrMo 

H$m_ _mbgmR>m H$aUmè`m ì`{ŠVH$S>o gmonyd Zò. 

8. A{YH$ma Zgboë`m ì`{ŠVbm _mbmÀ`m gmR>çm_Üò hñVjon H$aÊ`mg nadmZJr H§$nZrZo XoD$ Zò. 

_mbgmR>m Zm|XUr (Stok Records) : _mbgmR>m Zm|XUr Imbrb VrZ àH$mamZo Ho$br OmVo. 

1. {~Z H$mS>© 

2. ñH§$Y H$sX© 

3. _mbgmR>m IVmdUr. 

1. {~Z H$mS>© (Bin Card) : {~Z H$mS>© Ago {R>H$mU, a°H$ qH$dm H$nmQ> hmo` H$s {OWo _mb/ gm_J«rMm 

gmR>m Ho$bm OmVmo. àËòH$ {~Zbm ñdV§Ì Ago H$mS>© AgVo. `mMm Cn`moJ {~Z_Üò _mbmMm {H$Vr gmR>m Amho 

ho nmhÊ`mgmR>r hmoVmo. `mbm gmR>m H$mS>© Agohr åhQ>bo OmVo. `m H$mS>©_Üò _mbmMm Vnerb, H$moS> Z§~a, {~Z 

Z§~a, gmR>çmMr {H$_mZ nmVir, H$_mb nmVir, nwZamXoe q~Xy d AmXoe g§»`m `m§Mr _m{hVr AgVo. 

{~ZH$mS©_Üò aH$mZo nmS>bo OmVmV. `m aH$mÝ`m§_Üò _mbmMr ñdrH¥$Vr, _mb ñdrH$maboMr Zm|X, H«$_m§H$, _mb 

{Xbm, _mb _mJUr Z§~a, {e„H$ _mb, eoam EdT>çm _m{hVrMo aH$mZo AgVmV. H$mhr doim Á`mXmMo aH$mZo 

{Z_m©U Ho$bo OmVmV Am{U Ë`m_Üò H$mhr {d{eï> H$m_mgmR>r "amIrd _mb' d "AmXoemà_mUo _mb' Ago aH$mZo 

KmVbo OmVmV. {~Z_Üò _mb R>odë`mMr Vm~S>Vmo~ Zm|X Ho$br OmVo hr Zm|X {~Z H$mS>© _Üò _mbmMr ñdrH¥$Vr 

(Receipt) `m aH$mÝ`mV Ho$br OmVo. `mbmM Zm§do (Debit) {~Z H$mS>© åhUVmV. gd© {Xboë`m / nmR>{dboë`m 

_mbmMr Zm|X _mb {Xbm (Issue) `m aH$mÝ`mV Ho$br OmVo. `mbmM O_m (Credit) {~ZH$mS>© åhUVmV. 

{~ZH$mS>©_Üò _mbmMr AmdH$ d OmdH$ `mMr Zm|X d¡`{ŠVH$nUo (Personally) Ho$br OmVo. àËòH$ `w{ZQ>Mr 

Zm|Xhr Ho$br OmVo _mÌ qH$_VrMm / XamMm Vnerb `m_Üò {bhrbm OmV Zmhr. _mbmMm {e„H$ gmR>m 

H$moUË`mhr jUr g_OÊ`mgmR>r _mbmMr Zm|X, _mb {e„H$ aH$mÝ`m_Üò Ho$br OmVo. åhUyZM {~Z H$mS>© hr 

{d{eï> Aer OmJm / {R>H$mU hmo` H$s Á`m nÕVrÛmao AmnUmg _mbmMr H$m`_ñdê$nr Zm|X nhmd`mg {_iVo. 

Oa _mbmMr ñdrH¥$Vr Am{U {ZJ©_Z Am{U {e„H$ gmR>m `m_Üò V\$mdV Agë`mMo {XgyZ Amë`mg {~ZH$mS>©_Yrb 

gÜ`mMm gmR>m d IamoIarMm (actual) gmR>m `mMr _moOXmX Ho$br OmVo Am{U IamoIarÀ`m gmR>çmà_mUo 

{~ZH$mS>©_Üò _mbmMr OwidUr (adjustment) Ho$br OmVo. 

{~Z H$mS>©Mm hoVy : 

(A) {~Z H$mS>© _mbmMo dhZ {H$Vr Pmbo Amho Am{U IamoIa (actual) {H$Vr _mb {e„H$ Amho ho Xe©{dVo. 

(~) {~ZH$mS>©_wio A§VJ©V Z\$m-VmoQ>m nÌH$ V`ma H$aUo Am{U Vmio~§X V`ma H$aUo gmono OmVo. `mgmR>r 

_mb àË`j _moOÊ`mMr JaO ^mgV Zmhr. 

(H$) {~ZH$mS©_wio {Z`{_V _mbmMr `mXr H$aUo gwc^ hmoVo. 

39

{~Z H$mS>©Mm Z_yZm 

gm_J«r / _mb : ......................... {~Z Z§~a : ......................... 

H$moS> Z§. : ......................... _hÎm_ nmVir : ......................... 

Eg. Eb. \$mo{bAmo : ......................... Ý`yZV_ nmVir : ......................... 

AmXoe nmVir : ......................... 

{XZm§H$ 

_mbmMr ñdrH¥$Vr _mbmMo {ZJ©_Z {e„H$ _mb 

MbZ Z§. {H$.J«°. _mJUr {H$.J«°. {H$.J«°. 

{~Z H$mS>©Mo \$m`Xo : 

1. {~Z H$mS>© _mbgmR>m {Z`§ÌUmMo g§nyU© MH«$ (cycle) XmI{dVo. 

2. {~Z H$mS>© _mbmMm g§nyU© Vnerb `m_Üò _mb AmXoe, amIrd _mb, AmXoemà_mUo _mbmMo {ZJ©_Z 

Am{U _mbmMm {e„H$ gmR>m `m gd© ~m~r XmI{dVo. 

3. _mbmMm VwQ>dS>m hmoD$ Zò `mgmR>r {~Z H$mS>© Vem àH$maMr VaVyX H$aVo. Ë`m_wio ^{dî`mV H$moUVmhr 

AS>Wim òV Zmhr. 

4. EH$Xm _mbmMr _mJUr Amë`mZ§Va Vmo Vm~S>Vmo~ XoD$Z Ver Zm|X Ho$br OmV Agë`mZo {ÛéŠVr 

hmoÊ`mMm g§^d Q>iVmo. 

5. {e„H$ Agbobm _mb H$_r hmoV Agë`mg doioV ZdrZ _mbmMr _mJUr / IaoXr H$aVm òVo qH$dm 

AmXoe XoVm òVmo. 

_mbgmR>m IVmdUr (Store Ledger) : 

_mb {Z`§ÌU nÕVr_Yrb hr EH$ _hÎdmMr Zm|X Agbobr IVmdUr hmo`. `m IVmdUr_wio _mbmMr 

{ZpíMV Aer g§nyU© `mXr V`ma H$aVm òVo. `m IVmdUrV {~Z H$mS>©à_mUoM aH$mZo AgVmV. `m ì`{V[aŠV 

Á`mXmMm EH$ aH$mZm Ë`m_Üò AgVmo Vmo åhUOo aH$_oMm aH$mZm hmo`. _mbmÀ`m ñdrH¥¥$VrMr qH$dm {Xboë`m 

_mbmMr qH$_V `m_Üò Zm|X Ho$br OmVo. _mbgmR>m IVmdUr gÜ`m Agboë`m dñVyMr qH$_V H$moUË`mhr doir 

XmIdy eH$Vo. 

hr _mbgmR>m IVmdUr IM© H$m`m©b`mV (cost office) gm§^mibr OmVo. _mbgmR>m {d^mJmV qH$dm 

g§J«hU {d^mJmV Zmhr. H$maU - 

1. _mbgmR>m {d^mJmVrb H$_©Mmè`m§H$Sy>Z _mbmMr VnmgUr Ho$br OmVo. {~Z H$mS>©dê$Z qH$dm _mbgmR>m 

40 

eoam

IVmdUrdê$Z Ver ImoQ>r Zm|X Ho$br OmV Zmhr. 

2. IM© H$maHy$Z (cost clerk) nojm H$_r nmVirÀ`m ì`{ŠVH$Sy>Z _mbmMo _yë`_mnZ Ho$bo OmV Zmhr. 

3. `m H$maHy$Zr H$m_mVyZ _mbgmR>m {d^mJmVrb ì`ŠVtZm WmoS>r gyQ> {_iVo. 

_mbgmR>m IVmdUr g§X^m©V Imbrb _wÔo {dMmamV ¿`mdo bmJVmV. 

(A) gmYmaUV: ho gwQ>çm nmZm§Mo nwñVH$ AgVo Am{U àËòH$ nmZ ho _mbmÀ`m KQ>H$mgmR>r (unit) 

ñd§VÌnUo Zmo§XrgmR>r AgVo. 

(~) `m_Üò "_mbmMr ñdrH¥$Vr', "_mbmMo {ZJ©_Z' d "{e„H$ _mb' ho aH$mZo AgVmV. àËòH$ aH$mÝ`mV 

naV CnaH$mZo AgVmV Ë`m_Üò _mbmMr g§»`m, nwï>Ï`© H$mJXnÌ H«$, _mbmMm Xa d a¸$_ `m _m{hVtMm g_mdoe 

Ho$bm OmVmo. 

(H$) _mb ñdrH¥$VrZ§Va "[agrQ>' _Üò Ë`mMr Zm|X Ho$br OmVo. _mb nmR>{dë`mZ§Va "_mb {Xbm' `m 

aH$mÝ`mV Zm|X Ho$br OmVo. àËòH$ aH$mÝ`mVrb Zm|XrZ§Va eodQ>r _mbmMr {e„H$ Xe©{dbr OmVo. 

(S>) `m IVmdUrV "AmXoemZwgma _mb' Am{U H$mhr H$m_m{Z{_Îm "amIrd _mb' ho OmXmMo aH$mZo XoIrb 

H$Yr H$Yr R>odbo OmVmV. 

(B) gd© _mbmMr ñdrH¥$Vr, {ZJ©_Z d {e„H$ _mbgmR>m `mMr H$mhr KQ>H$m§À`m AmYmao qH$_V {ZpíMV 

Ho$br OmVo Am{U H$mhr H$mbmdYrZ§Va Vr aH$_oÀ`m aH$mÝ`mV Xe©{dbr OmVo. 

_mbgmR>m IVmdUr-Z_wZm 

\$mo{bAmo/nmZ Z§. : ......................... dñVygmR>m _hÎm_ `mXr : ..................... 

_mbmMo dU©Z : ......................... nwZamXoe nmVir : ......................... 

_mbgmR>m H$moS> Z§. : ......................... Ý`yZV_ nmVir : ......................... 

{~Z H$mS>© Z§. ......................... AmXoe H$mbmdYr : ......................... 

Ý`yZV_ AmXoe g§»`m : ..................... 

{XZm§H$ 

_mbmMr ñdrH¥$Vr _mbmMo {ZJ©_Z {e„H$ 

Or.Ama. `w{ZQ> Xa a¸$_ E_.Ama. `w{ZQ> Xa a¸$_ `w{ZQ> Xa a¸$_ 

ZmoQ> é. é. ZmoQ> é. é. é. é. 

41

{~Z H$mS>© d _mbgmR>m IVmdUr `mVrb \$aH$ : 

{~Z H$mS© _mbgmR>m IVmdUr 

1. _mbgmR>çmVrb {~Z H$mS>©er {MH$Q>dyZ R>odbo OmVo. 1. IM© Am°{\$g_Üò gm§^mibo OmVo. 

2. ^m¡{VH$ `w{ZQ>~m~V _m{hVr nwa{dbr OmVo. 2. `m_Üò `w{ZQ>À`m g§»ò~m~V VgoM Ë`mÀ`m 

én`mVrb _yë`m~m~V _m{hVr nwa{dbr OmVo. 

3. `m_Üò Zm|Xr _mbgmR>m {d^mJmVrb ì`{ŠV_m\©$V 3. `m_Üò Zm|Xr IM© H$maHy$ZmH$Sy>Z Ho$ë`m OmVmV. 

Ho$ë`m OmVmV. 

4. n«Ë`jmV {H$Vr _mb ñdrH$mabm qH$dm {Xbm 4. "_mb ñdrH$maboMr ZmoQ>' _mbmMr _mJUr `mÀ`m 

`mÀ`mdê$Z Zm|Xr Ho$ë`m OmVmV. AmYmao Zm|Xr Ho$ë`m OmVmV. 

5. A§VJ©V {d^mJmVrb XodmU KodmU {~Z H$mS>©_Üò 5. XmoZ {d^mJmVrb _mbmMr XodmU KodmU IM© 

{XgyZ òV Zmhr. CÔoemgmR>r {bhÿZ Zm|Xr Ho$ë`m OmV Agë`mZo 

Ë`m {XgyZ òVmV. 

6. ì`dhma hmoV AgVmZm Ë`mMr _m{hVr KoVbr OmVo. 6. ì`dhma Pmë`mZ§Va \$ma H$mimZo Ë`mMr _m{hVr 

KoVbr OmVo. 

7. àËòH$ ì`dhmamMr ñdV§Ì _m{hVr KoVbr OmVo. 7. ì`dhma hm gmam§e énmV _{hÝ`mVyZ EH$XmM 

{bhrbm OmVmo. 

dñVygmR>m {ZJ©_UmVrb dñVyMr qH$_V {ZpíMV H$aUo (Pricing of Material Issues) : 

g§J«hrV Ho$bobm H$ƒm _mb, dñVygmR>m CËnmXZ {d^mJmbm Ë`mÀ`m _mJUrà_mUo nmR>{dbm OmVmo. CËnmXZ 

{d^mJmbm dñVygmR>m nmR>{dÊ`mnydu Ë`mMr qH$_V {ZpíMV H$amdr bmJVo. dñVyMr IaoXr H$aVmZm H$amdm bmJbobm 

IM©, dmhVyH$ ^mS>o, h_mbr BVa IM© ho gd© J¥hrV Yê$Z _JM H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr qH$_V {ZpíMV H$amdr bmJVo. 

A§{V_ CËnm{XV dñVyMr qH$_V {ZpíMV H$amd`mMr Agë`mg H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr qH$_V AJmoXa {ZpíMV H$amdr 

bmJVo. 

JmoXm_mVyZ nmR>{dë`m OmUmè`m _mbmMr qH$_V {ZpíMV H$aÊ`mÀ`m {d{dY nÕVr ApñVËdmV AmhoV. 

g§J«hZ {d^mJ à_wImZo àËòH$ nÕVrÀ`m JwU-Xmofm§Mm Aä`mg H$ê$Z Mm§Jbr nÕVr H$moUVr `mMm {dMma 

H$ê$Z Vr nÕV Amnë`m CÚmoJm_Üò _mbmMr qH$_V {ZpíMV H$aVmZm dmnamdr. _mbmÀ`m qH$_Vr {ZpíMV 

H$aÊ`mÀ`m Imbrb nÕVr gm§JVm òVrb. 

(A) IM© qH$_V nÕVr (Cost Price Method) : 

`m nÕVrbm àË`j qH$_V nÕV (Actual Price Method) Agohr åhUVmV. Á`mdoir H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr 

42

IaoXr Ho$br OmVo Ë`mdoir àË`jmV Úmdr bmJbobr Ë`mMr qH$_V d g§~§{YV BVa IM© {dMmamV KodyZ dñVyMr 

qH$_V {ZpíMV Ho$br OmVo. `m_Üò Imbrb nÕVtMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

1. àW_ AmV àW_ ~mhoa nÕVr (First in First Out Method-FIFO) : `m nÕVrV JmoXm__Üò 

VmarIdma àW_ Amboë`m _mbmMm àW_ {dMma Ho$bm OmVmo. JmoXm_m_Üò àW_ Ambobm _mb àW_ nmR>{dbm 

OmVmo. _mbmMr qH$_V {ZpíMV H$aVmZm Ë`mMr IaoXr qH$_V J¥hrV Yê$Z Ë`mM qH$_Vrbm _mb nmR>{dbm 

OmVmo. JmoXm_mVyZ _mb nmR>{dVmZm àW_ Ambobm _mb àW_ nmR>{dbm OmVmo Z§Va {ÛVr` IaoXrMm, V¥Vr` 

IaoXrMm _mb nmR>{dbm OmVmo. 

CXm. àW_ IaoXr 200 ZJ é. 20 à{VZJ 

{ÛVr` IaoXr 100 ZJ é. 15 à{VZJ 

V¥Vr` IaoXr 250 ZJ é. 18 à{VZJ 

darbà_mUo IaoXr Ho$br Agob Va CËnmXZ {d^mJmH$S>o _mb nmR>{dVmZm àW_ _mbmMr qH$_V é. 20 

à{VZJ à_mUo, {ÛVr` _mbmMr qH$_V é. 15 à{VZJ à_mUo d V¥Vr` _mbmMr qH$_V é. 18 à{VZJ à_mUo 

nmR>dmdo. àW_ IaoXr Ho$bobm _mb g§në`mZ§VaM Xwgam _mb nmR>dmdm Aem arVrZo _mb CËnmXZ {d^mJmH$S>o 

nmR>{dbm OmVmo. 

~mOmanoR>oV H$ÀÀ`m _mbmÀ`m qH$_VrV {Xdg|{Xdg KQ> hmoV Agob Va hr nÕV dmnaUo \$m`Xoera R>aVo. 

VgoM H$ƒm _mb dmnamMr JVr H$_r Agob d qH$_V A{YH$ Agob Va `m nÕVrMm Adb§~ H$aUo `mo½` R>aVo. 

àW_ Ambobm _mb àW_ nmR>{dë`mZo Ë`mMm XOm©, JwUY_© {Q>Hy$Z amhmVmo. Vgo Z Ho$ë`mg JwUY_© qH$dm XOm© 

H$_r H$_r hmoV OmVmo. 

JwU :- 

1. hr nÕVr g_OyZ KoÊ`mg VgoM dmnaÊ`mg A{Ve` gmonr Amho. 

2. H$ÀÀ`m _mbmÀ`m qH$_Vr CVaV AgVmZm Aem doir øm nÕVrMm dmna H$aUo `mo½` R>aVo. 

3. A{YH$ qH$_VrÀ`m d H$_r JVrZo dmnaë`m OmUmè`m dñVygmR>r hr nÕV Cn`wŠV Amho. 

4. VmpÎdH$Ñï>çm XoIrb hr nÕV ~amo~a Amho H$maU `m_Üò àW_ Ambobm _mb àW_ nmR>{dbm OmVmo. 

5. `m nÕVrV {e„H$ _mbmÀ`m qH$_VrMr {ZpíMVr ~mOma^mdmà_mUo Ho$br OmVo. `m_Üò àW_ 

_mbmnmgyZ ZwH$Ë`mM IaoXr Ho$boë`m _mbmMm XoIrb g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

6. _mbmMr IaoXr qH$_V _mb nmR>{dVmZm AmH$mabr OmV Agë`mZo V`ma hmoUmè`m dñVyMr qH$_V 

AMyH$nUo {ZpíMV hmoVo. Ë`m_wio H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr IaoXr qH$_V dgyb hmoVo. 

7. ì`dhmam§Mr g§»`m H$_r Agob d _mbmÀ`m qH$_Vr ñWra AgVrb Va hr nÕV `mo½` R>aVo. 

43

Xmof :- 

1. EH$mdoir nmR>{dboë`m _mbmÀ`m qH$_Vr doJdoJù`m {XgVmV. 

2. H$ÀÀ`m _mbmÀ`m qH$_VrV dma§dma ~Xb hmoV Agob Va CËnmXZ {d^mJmbm nmR>{dboë`m _mbmÀ`m 

XamV {heo~r` qH$dm boIZr` MyH$m hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm ZmH$maVm òV Zmhr. Aemdoir qH$_V {ZpíMV H$aVmZm 

{deof H$miOr ¿`mdr bmJVo. 

3. H$ÀÀ`m _mbmÀ`m qH$_Vr JVrZo ~XbV AgVrb Va Ë`mà_mUo _mb nmR>{dVmZm qH$_VrV ~Xb hmoV 

AgVmV. Ë`m_wio EH$mdoir CËnm{XV Pmboë`m dñVyMr doJdoJir qH$_V {ZpíMV hmoV AgVo. 

4. H$ÀÀ`m _mbmÀ`m qH$_Vr JVrZo dmT>V AgVrb Va hr nÕVr Cn`moJr R>aV Zmhr. H$maU ~mOma 

qH$_Vrnojm H$_r qH$_VrV _mb nmR>{dbm OmVmo. 

2. eodQ>r AmV àW_ ~mhoa nÕV (Last In First Out Method - LIFO) : àW_ AmV àW_ ~mhoa 

nÕVrÀ`m ~amo~a {déÕ Aer hr nÕV Amho. `m nÕVrV eodQ>r IaoXr Ho$bobm _mb àW_ nmR>{dbm OmVmo. Vmo 

_mb g§në`mZ§VaM Ë`mÀ`m AJmoXa IaoXr Ho$bobm _mb nmR>{dbm OmVmo. Aem arVrZo gdm©V eodQ>r IaoXr 

Ho$boë`m _mbmMr àW_ CMb Ho$br OmVo d gdm©V àW_ IaoXr Ho$bobm _mb gdm©V eodQ>r nmR>{dbm OmVmo. 

CXm. 1 OyZ 200 ZJ é. 25 à_mUo 

15 OyZ 150 ZJ é. 30 à_mUo 

25 OyZ 300 ZJ é. 35 à_mUo. 

darbà_mUo H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr IaoXr Pmbr Agob Va CËnmXZ {d^mJmMr _mJUr nyU© H$aVmZm àW_ 25 

OyZ amoOr IaoXr Ho$bobm _mb nmR>{dbm OmVmo. Z§Va 15 OyZMm _mb nmR>{dbm OmVmo Am{U gdmªV eodQ>r 1 OyZMm 

_mb nmR>{dbm OmVmo. hm _mb nmR>{dVmZm Ë`mÀ`m qH$_Vr Vmo H$ƒm _mb IaoXr H$aVmZm Or hmoVr VrM {ZpíMV 

R>odbr OmVo. 

`m nÕVrMm Adb§~ àW_ Xwgè`m _hm`wÕmÀ`m H$mimV A_o[aHo$V H$aÊ`mV Ambm. H$mVS>r Am°B©b, Vm§~o 

BË`mXr CÚmoJm§_Üò `m nÕVrMm Adb§~ _w»`ËdoH$ê$Z Ho$bm OmVmo. 

JwU :- 

1. H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr àË`j d Iar qH$_V _mb nmR>{dVmZm {dMmamV KoVbr OmV Agë`mZo CËnmXZmVyZM 

{VMr dgybr hmoV AgVo. 

2. `m nÕVrV eodQ>Mr IaoXr àW_ ~mhoa Aem nÕVrZo eodQ>r IaoXr Ho$bobr dñVy n«W_ ~mhoa H$mT>br 

OmV Agë`mZo ~mOmamV Agboë`m qH$_Vrer hr qH$_V {_iVr OwiVr amhmVo. 

3. ì`dhmam§Mr g§»`m H$_r Agob Am{U qH$_V nmVir pñWa Agë`mg `m nÕVrMm Adb§~ H$aUo gmono 

OmVo. 

4. H$ƒm _mb _moR>çm n«_mUmV Amdí`H$ Agob Am{U n«ËòH$ ZJmMr qH$_V XoIrb A{YH$ Agob Va 

hr nÕV Cn`wŠV Amho. 

44

5. H$À`m _mbmMr qH$_V nmVir dmT>V AgVmZm hr nÕV Cn`wŠV R>aVo. Ë`m_wio V`ma Pmboë`m dñVybm 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ qH$_V R>odVm òVo. Ë`mMà_mUo Z\$m H$_r XmIdyZ Am`H$amMm ^md H$_r H$aVm òVmo. 

6. _mJrb H$m§hr _{hÝ`mV _mbmMr qH$_VdmT> d qH$_VKQ> hmoV Agob Va `m nÕVrMm dmna H$ê$Z Z\$m 

VmoQ>çmMo à_mU pñWa R>odVm òVo. 

Xmof :- 

1. {\$bmo (FIFO) nÕVrà_mUo `m nÕVrVhr {heo~mÀ`m, boIZr` MwH$m hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm ZmH$maVm òV 

Zmhr. 

2. Am`H$a {d^mJmg hr nÕV _mÝ` Zmhr. 

3. {e„H$ _mbmMr qH$_V Mmby ~mOma qH$_Vrà_mUo hmoV Zmhr. hr qH$_V Vmio~§Xm_Üò \w$Jbobr {XgVo 

_mÌ àË`jmV Vr dmñVdmnojm H$_r {XgVo. 

4. `m nÕVrV _mb IaoXrMr qH$_V _mb nmR>{dVmZm AmH$mabr OmVo. `m_wio EH$mM doir CËnm{XV 

Pmboë`m dñVyMr qH$_V EH$M R>odbr OmVo. 

(~) gamgar {H§$_V nÕV (Average Cost Method) : 

H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr IaoXr H$aVmZm Vr EH$X_ IaoXr Z H$aVm doJdoJù`m doir Ho$br OmVo. Aemdoir hm 

_mb ñdV§Ì d doJim R>odUo eŠ` Zmhr. Vmo EH$_oH$m§V {_gimdm bmJVmo qH$dm {_gibm OmVmo. {d{eð> doir 

IaoXr Ho$bobm _mb {d{eð> doir CËnmXZ {d^mJmH$S>o nmR>{dbm OmB©b ho gm§JVm òV Zmhr. H$mhr doim CËnmXZ 

{d^mJ JaO Agë`m{edm` _mbmMr _mJUr H$aV Zmhr åhUyZ `m n[apñWVrV {\$\$mo (FIFO) qH$dm {b\$mo 

(LIFO) hr nÕV Cn`moJr R>aV Zmhr. BWo gamgar qH$_V nÕVrà_mUo qH$_V {ZpíMV H$aUo `mo½` R>aVo. `m 

gamgar nÕVrV Imbrb H$mhr nÕVr gm§JVm òVrb. 

1. gmYr gamgar nÕV (Simple Average Method) : doJdoJù`m doir IaoXr Ho$boë`m _mbmMr 

à{VZJ qH$_V {dMmamV KodyZ Ë`m AmYmao gamgar qH$_V {ZpíMV Ho$br OmVo {Vbm gmYr gamgar nÕV 

åhUVmV. 

CXm. 500 ZJ é. 20 à{VZJ 

1000 ZJ é. 25 à{VZJ 

1500 ZJ é. 30 à{VZJ 

gmYr gamgar qH$_V = 20 + 25 + 30 = 75 = 25 

3 3 

darb nÕVrV IaoXrMo à_mU {dMmamV Z KoVm \$ŠV doim bjmV KoVë`m OmVmV. `m nÕVrMm 

CÚmoJg§ñWoZo Adb§~ Ho$ë`mg VmoQ>m hmoVmo. darb CXmhaUmV EHy$U IaoXr IM© énò 80,000 òVmo. na§Vw _mbmMr 

EHy$U qH$_V é. 75000 (3000 x 25) AmH$mabr OmVo. 

2. ^mam§{H$V gamgar qH$_V nÕV (Weighted Average Method) : `m nÕVrV _mbmMr qH$_V 

45

{dMmamV KoD$Z nmR>dmd`mÀ`m _mbmMr qH$_V {ZpíMV Ho$br OmVo. H$maU ~è`mM doim H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr 

qH$_V H$_r qH$dm OmñV dgyb hmoD$ eH$Vo. 

CXm. 500 ZJ x é. 20 à{VZJ 

1000 ZJ x é. 25 à{VZJ 

1500 ZJ x é. 30 à{VZJ 

^mam§{H$V gamgar qH$_V = 

(500 x 20) + (1000 x 25) + (1500 x 30) 

500 + 1000 + 1500 

= é. 26.67 

`m nÕVrV H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr nwaonya qH$_V dgyb hmoVo. H$ÀÀ`m _mbmÀ`m qH$_VrV _moR>çm à_mUmV ~Xb 

hmoV AgVrb Va hr nÕV \$m`Xoera R>aVo. 

JwU :- 

1. hr nÕV dñVw{Zð> Am{U nÕVera Amho Ë`m_wio A\$amV\$arbm g§Yr Zmhr. 

2. H$ÀÀ`m _mbmÀ`m qH$_VrV JVrZo ~Xb hmoV AgVrb Va hr nÕV Cn`wŠV R>aVo. 

3. H$À`m _mbmÀ`m IaoXrMr g§nyU© a¸$_ dgyb hmoVo. 

4. `m nÕVrZo {ZpíMV Ho$bobr qH$_V Iar AgVo H$maU Á`m qH$_Vrbm _mbmMr IaoXr Ho$br. Ë`mM 

qH$_Vrbm dñVy {Xbr OmVo. 

5. àËòH$ doir _mb nmR>{dVmZm qH$_V {ZpíMV H$amdr bmJV Zmhr. Oa ZdrZ IaoXr Ho$br Agob Va 

`m Jmoï>rMm {dMma Ho$bm OmVmo. 

6. gamgar qH$_V ~mOma qH$_VrÀ`m Odinmg AgVo. 

7. Am`H$a {d^mJmMr `m nÕVrbm _mÝ`Vm Amho. 

Xmof :- 

1. CËnmXZ {d^mJmH$S>o _mb nmR>{dÊ`mMo à_mU, g§»`m A{YH$ Agob Va hr nÕV Adb§~Uo AdKS> 

Amho. 

2. {e„H$ am{hboë`m _mbmMr qH$_V {ZpíMVr Mmby ~mOma qH$_Vrà_mUo hmoV Zmhr. 

3. àËòH$ ZdrZ IaoXrZ§Va ^mam§{H$V gamgar qH$_VrV ~Xb H$aUo ^mJ nS>Vo. 

darb XmoZ nÕVtì`{V[aŠV gamgar qH$_V nÕVrV Imbrb Mma nÕVtMmhr g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

1. R>am{dH$ _wXVrMr gmYr gamgar qH$_V nÕVr (Periodic Simple Average Price Method) 

2. R>am{dH$ _wXVrMr ^mam§{H$V gamgar qH$_V nÕVr (Periodic weighted Average Price Method) 

3. ~XbVr gmYr gamgar qH$_V nÕVr (Moving Simple Average Price Method) 

4. ~XbVr ^mam§{H$V gamgar qH$_V nÕVr (Moving Weighted Average Price Method) 

46

(H$) BVa nÕVr (Other Methods) : 

1. dmT>rd qH$_V nÕVr (Inflated Price Method) 

2. {d{eï> qH$_V nÕVr (Specific Price Method) 

3. AmYma gmR>m nÕVr (Base stock Method) 

4. _hÎm_ / gdm}ƒ AmV àW_ ~mhoa nÕVr (Highest in first out Method - HIFO) 

5. ~mOmanoR> qH$_V nÕVr (Market Price Method) 

6. à_mU^yV qH$_V nÕVr (Standard Price Method) 

(i) _yb^yV à_mU qH$_V 

(ii) Mmby n«_mU qH$_V. 

7. nwZdm©na qH$_V nÕVr (Re-use Price Method) 

dñVyÀ`m qH$_VrR>a{dVm§Zm darb gd© nÕVtMm CÚmoJg§ñWm Amnmnë`m gmo`rZwgma bmJy hmoUmè`m nÕVtMr 

{ZdS> H$aVmV. 

References : 

1. Industrial Management : M. E. Tukaram Rao 

2. Cost Accounting : Pattanshetti P. T. & Palekar D. R. 

3. Cost Accountancy Principles : Jain and Narang 

and Practice 

4. Basics of cost Accounting : U. K. Saxena & C. D. Vashistha 

5. Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZ : E_. Or. nmVH$a d S>m°. EZ. ~r. ^mJdV 

47 

��



KQ>H$ 4 

ì`yhemñÌ ì`dñWmnZ 

(Logistics Management) 

àñVmdZm : 

ì`dñWmnZ hr gd© KQ>H$m§Mr EH$ JaO åhUyZ AmoiIÊ`mV òVo. ì`dñWmnZA^mdr H$moUVohr H$m`© 

nyU©Ëdmg ZoD$ eH$V Zmhr. {d{dY àH$maÀ`m H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr {Z{_©Vr, dmhVyH$ d JwXm_ H$m`© VgoM dñVw d 

godm§Mo CËnmXZ B. H$m`m©g IynM dmd àmá hmoV Amho, n[aUm_r Ë`mÛmao {d{dY ì`dgm` d amoOJmag§Yr {Z_m©U 

hmoV AmhoV, qH$~hþZm Aem H$m`mªMm {dñVma {Xdg|{Xdg dmT>V Amho, `m gdmªer g§~§YrV AWdm Ë`mMm EH$ 

A{d^mÁ` ^mJ åhUyZ ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ _hÎdmMo ~Zbobo Amho. Joë`m Mma XeH$mV g§emoYZ, {ejU d 

OmJ{VH$sH$aUm_wio dmhVyH$, JwXm_ d VËg_ H$m`m©_wio ì`dgm` ì`yhemómMm {dH$mg hmoV Amho. ì`yhemó 

ì`dñWmnZ hr ì`dñWmnZmMr EH$ A{^Zd emIm åhUyZ Zmdménmbm Ambobr Amho. ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMm 

{dH$mg àmW{_H$ VgoM ^{dî`H$mimÀ`m Ñï>rZo OUy EH$ Ñï>r åhUyZ ~Zbobo Amho. CËnmXZ d {dnUZ {df`H$ 

gd© H$m`} ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ A^mdr Xe©{dVm òV ZmhrV. 

Xwgè`m _hm`wÕmÀ`m H$mimV \«|$M g¡Ý`mZr ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMm àW_ Adb§~ Ho$bm, Ë`mZ§Va 

A_o[aH$Z g¡Ý` XbmZo hr g§H$ënZm àË`j dmnaÊ`mg gwê$dmV Ho$br, H$mbmÀ`m AmoKmV {d{dY joÌmVrb 

Am_ybmJ« ~Xbm§_wio ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmg AZÝ`gmYmaU _hÎd àmá Pmbo. 

AW© : 

ì`yhemó (logistics) `m B§J«Or eãXmMr CËnÎmr J«rH$ eãX logistikos bmo{OpñQ>H$m°g `m eãXmnmgyZ 

Pmbr. b°{Q>Z ^mfoV logisticcus bmo{OpñQ>H$g² hm eãX àM{bV hmoVm. AË`§V ì`mnH$ AWm©Zo ì`yhemó 

ì`dñWmnZ hr g§ënZm dmnamV Amho. àmMrZ H$mimV g¡Ý`m§Mr hmbMmb H$aUmar H$bm AWdm g¡Ý` bT>mB©gmR>r 

gwg‚m R>odUo, bT>mB©Mr V`mar H$aUo, g¡{ZH$m§Zm ImÚ, agX d Amdí`H$ gm{hË` nwa{dUo `m H$m`mªer ì`yhemó 

ì`dñWmnZ {ZJS>rV hmoVo. 

H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr {Z{_©Vr H$aUo, {d{dY Am¡Úmo{JH$ d Cn^mo½` {df`H$ dñVy§Mr {Z{_©Vr H$aÊ`mnmgyZ Vo 

A§{V_ Cn^moJmn`ªVÀ`m gd© hmbMmbr, H$m`}, {H«$`m d Cn{H«$`m Am{U nwadR>m H$m`} Aem ì`mnH$ AWm©Zo 

ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ hr g§H$ënZm ê$T> hmoV Jobr. {d{dY àH$maÀ`m OS> dñVw{df`rMo {dVaU ì`yhemñÌ 

ì`dñWmnZm_wio gwb^ ~Zbobo Amho. ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMo H$m`© {d{dY H$m`m©er nyaH$ ñdê$nmMo H$m`© hmo`, 

`mÛmao g§nyU© JwUdÎmm {Z`§ÌU, qH$_V d IMm©Mo n¥ÏWH$aU VgoM g§nyU© {dVaUmMm IM© H$_r H$aUo Ae ñdê$nmZo 

hr g§H$ënZm CÚmoJ d ì`dgm`mV dmnamV Amho. ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmV aMZm, àemgZ nÕVr Am{U {dVaU 

gmIir Cnm` BË`mXtMm {dMma Ho$bm OmVmo. `m_Üò gd© ^mJ EH$Ì H$ê$Z nyU©Ëd _m{hVr XoUo, dmhVwH$sH$aU, 

48

_mbmMr `mXr H$aUo (Inventory) VgoM _mb hmVmiUr d doð>Z gma»`m H$m`mªMm `m_Üò g_mdoe hmoV AgVmo. 

ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ ho AI§{S>V ñdê$nmMo H$m`© hmo`, ho H$m`© H$Yrhr Z Wm§~Umao VgoM g§nyU© OJâ 

MmbUmao EH$ ì`dñWmnH$s` H$m`© hmo`. EH$ A{ÛVr` H$m`© åhUyZ ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ AmoiIÊ`mV òVo. 

WmoS>Š`mV ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo {d{dY àH$maÀ`m dñVw§Mm nwadR>m, H$ƒm _mb, à{H«$`m _mb, _mb 

gmR>m, _m{hVr V§ÌkmZ VgoM _mb hmVmiUr B. H$m`} nyU©Ëdmg nmohM{dUo Aem AWm©Zo ì`dñWmnZ emómV hr 

g§H$ënZm àM{bV Amho. 

ì`m»`m : 

1. {\$brn H$moQ>ba `m§À`m _Vo, ""J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r ^m¡{VH$Ñï>çm H$ƒm _mb, {d{dY 

àH$maÀ`m dñVy d A§{V_ _mbmÀ`m àdmhmMo {Z`moOZ, A§_b~OmdUr d {Z`§ÌU B. Z\$m àmárÛmao H$aUo hmo`.'' 

2. A_o[aH$Z H$m¢pÝgb Am°\$ bmo{OpñQ>Šg _°ZoO_|Q>, ""ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ hr {Z`moOZ, A§_b~OmdUr 

d {Z`§ÌUmMr Aer à{H«$`m hmo` H$s Á`mÛmao AË`§V H$m`©j_, H$_r IMm©V H$ƒm _mb gmR>{dUo, à{H«$`m`wŠV 

_mb d A§{V_ dñVy VgoM VËg_ _m{hVr d godm Cn^moŠË`m§À`m JaOmZwgma àXmZ H$aUo hmo`.'' 

ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMo hoVy (Objectives) : 

H$ƒm _mb, à{H«$`m`wŠV _mb, dñVy, g§nyU© _mbmMr `mXr nwadR>m gmIirÛmao à^mdrnUo d H$m`©j_nUo 

àXmZ H$aUo, dñVy§Mr hmbMmb H$aUo hm ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMm àmW{_H$ hoVy hmo`. H$_r IMm©V J«mhH$m§Zm 

Ano{jV godm nwa{dÊ`mÀ`m hoVyZo ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ _hÎdmMo ~Zbobo Amho. ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMo hoVy 

nwT>rbà_mUo - 

1) `mo½` n«_mUmV H$ƒm _mb R>odUo : CËnmXZ H$m`m©gmR>r H$ƒm _mb, à{H«$`m`wŠV _mb `mo½` Ë`m 

à_mUmV V`ma R>odmdm bmJVmo, àg§Jr Ë`mgmR>r `mo½` Vr Jw§VdUyH$ H$amdr bmJVo, Ë`mMm A§{V_ n[aUm_ Z\$m 

àmárda hmoV AgVmo. CËnmXZmgmR>r OmXm _mb V`ma R>odë`mg, OmXm _mbgmR>çmÛmao Jw§VdUwH$sV d IaoXr 

H$m`m©V dmT> hmoVo, Ë`m{déÕ CËnmXZmgmR>r _mbmMr H$_VaVm d VwQ>dS>m {Z_m©U Pmë`mg CËnmXZ H$m`© ~§X 

nS>Ê`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo, `m Xmohm|Mm {dMma H$ê$Z ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmÛmao CËnmXZ H$m`m©gmR>r `mo½` 

à_mUmV H$ƒm _mb R>odbm OmVmo, Ë`mMm IM© H$_r H$aUo hm ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMm EH$ hoVy hmo`. 

2) _mb nmohmoM H$aÊ`mV {dídmgmh©Vm d gmVË`Vm {Z_m©U H$aUo : hm ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMm 

_w»` hoVy hmo`. CÚmoJ d ì`dgm`mV dñVy d godm doimnÌH$mZwgma, `moOZoZwgma CnbãY H$aUo _hÎdmMo Amho. 

CËnmXZ d {dH«$s H$m`m©V `mo½` Vmo g_Ýd` amhÊ`mgmR>r ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMo `moJXmZ _hÎdmMo Amho. 

{d{dY gmYZm§Ûmam dmhVyH$ H$m`© d _mb nmohmoM H$aVmZm `mo½` {Z`moOZ H$amdo bmJVo, VgoM CËnmXZ d 

Cn^moJmgmR>r dñVy nwadR>m H$m`m©V gmVË`Vm amIUo JaOoMo Amho, Ë`m hoVy§Zr ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMo H$m`© hmoV 

AgVo, `m_wio J«mhH$m§Mr {dídmgmh©Vm VgoM J«mhH$m§~amo~a XrK©H$mbrZ g§~§Y R>odÊ`mg _XV hmoB©b. 

3) dmhVyH$ ^mS>o aH$_oV H$mQ>H$ga {Z_m©U H$aUo : dmhVyH$sMo ^mS>o hm ì`yhemó IMm©Vrb _w»` 

KQ>H$ hmo`. dmhVyH$sMm IM© ì`dñWmnZmÛmao doJdoJù`m nÕVrZo H$_r R>odVm òVmo. dmhVyH$ ^mS>o aH$_oV 

H$mQ>H$ga H$aUo hm Ë`m_mJrb EH$ hoVy hmo`, Ë`mgmR>r {d{dY _mJmªMm Adb§~ H$amdm bmJVmo. ^mS>o EH$ÌrH$aU, 

49

dmhVyH$sÀ`m gmYZmMr {ZdS>, _mJm©Mo {Z`moOZ, dmhVyH$ ^ma EH$Ì H$aUo, bm§~ A§VamgmR>r OhmOmÛmao _mbmMr 

dmhVyH$ B. _mJ© ñdrH$mamdo bmJVmV. 

4) dñVy§Mo H$_rV H$_r ZwH$gmZ : dmhVyH$ H$m`m©Vrb ZwH$gmZr_wio EHy$U IMm©V dmT> hmoVo. dñVy§Mo 

A`mo½` d MyH$sMo doðZ, nmR>{dboë`m _mbmMr A`mo½` hmVmiUr, Ag§VwbrV ^ma B. H$maUmZo dñVy§Mo dmhVyH$ 

H$m`m©V ZwH$gmZ hmoV AgVo, Vo Q>miÊ`mgmR>r _mb hmVmiUrgmR>r `m§{ÌH$s gmYZm§Mm dmna, g§VwbrV ^ma Am{U 

dñVy§Mo `mo½` doð>Z B. Ûmao dñVy§Mo ZwH$gmZ H$_rV H$_r R>odVm òVo. WmoS>Š`mV H$_rV H$_r ZwH$gmZ R>odUo ho 

ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMo EH$ C{Ôï> hmo`. 

5) ObX à{VH«$s`m XoUo : hm ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMm EH$ hoVy hmo`. hm KQ>H$ ì`dgm` j_Voer 

g§~§YrV AgyZ ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmÛmao J«mhH$m§Zm H$_r doioV `mo½` Vmo à{VgmX d godm nwadmdr bmJVo, 

Ë`mgmR>r AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌkmZ, _m{hVr V§ÌkmZ d XiUdiU VgoM g§nH©$ _mÜ`_ B. Mm Adb§~ H$ê$Z 

{ZU©`j_VoV `mo½` Vr gwYmaUm H$amdr bmJVo, n[aUm_r AMyH$Vm d g_`gyMH$Vm eŠ` hmooVo. 

6) nwadR>m gmIir {Z_m©U H$aUo : CËnmXZmnmgyZ Vo A§{V_ Cn^moJmn`ªVÀ`m {d{dY {H«$`m, H$m`} nma 

nmS>VmZm dñVy, H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMm nwadR>m H$amdm bmJVmo. Ë`mgmR>r `mo½` Vr nwadR>m gmIir {Z_m©U H$aUo ho 

ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMo EH$ C{Ôï> hmo`. 

ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd (Importance of Logistics Management) : 

ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMm OwZm Ñ{ï>H$moZ g¡Ý` XbmnwaVm _`m©{XV hmoVm, na§Vw AmVm ì`yhemómg ì`dgm` 

g§ñWm§_Üò _mÝ`Vm àmá hmoD$Z, ho _hÎdmMo ì`dgm{`H$ H$m`© ~Zbobo Amho. ì`dgm` g§ñWm§À`m X¥ï>rZo ì`yhemó 

ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd {Xdg|{Xdg dmT>V Amho, ñnYm© {Z{_©VrMo ho OUy EH$ gmYZ ~Zbobo Amho. ì`yhemó 

ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd H$mhr _wÔçm§À`m AmYmao :- 

1) Cn^moŠË`m§n`ªV dñVy d godm§Mr CnbãYVm : H$moUË`mhr ñdê$nmÀ`m Ñí` d AÑí` dñVy d 

godm§Mr CnbãYVm ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZm_wio eŠ` Pmbobr Amho. CËnmXZ, dmhVyH$, _mbgmR>m, {d_m, {dÎm 

B. H$m`mª_wio A§{V_ Cn^moŠË`m§n`ªV dñVy d godm nmohM{dUo eŠ` Pmbobo Amho. 

2) à^mdr d H$m`©j_nUo dñVy§Mr hmbMmb : ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZm_wio CËnmXZ H|$ÐmnmgyZ Vo 

Cn^moJ H|$Ðmn`ªV dñVy§Mr hmbMmb eŠ` Pmbobr Amho, CËnmXZ H$m`m©gmR>r bmJUmè`m H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMr 

CnbãYVm, {dVaU Ho$di ì`yhemómÀ`m AmYmaoM eŠ` hmoVo. dñVy `mo½` {R>H$mUr `mo½` doiog {dVarV, 

CnbãY Ho$ë`mZo Ë`mVyZ JwUdÎmm gmYZo eŠ` Pmbobo Amho. 

3) XoemVrb ì`mnma d dm{UÁ` H$m`m©Mm {dH$mg : ì`mnma d dm{UÁ`mÀ`m {dH$mgmV ì`yhemó 

ì`dñWmnZmMo `moJXmZ AË`§V _hÎdmMo Amho. ì`mnma H$m`m©V {d{dY {R>H$mUr dñVy§Mr dmhVyH$, {dVaU, 

J«mhH$m{^_yI godm nwa{dUo, CËnmXZ àdmh pñWa amIUo B. Ho$di ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZm_wio eŠ` Pmbobo Amho. 

WmoS>Š`mV, ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZm_wio XoemVrb ì`mnma d dm{UÁ`mÀ`m {dH$mgmg _moR>r _XV Pmbobr Amho. 

4) nm`m^yV godm gw{dYm§Mm {dH$mg : `m Ñï>rZo ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ AË`§V à^mdr d n[aUm_H$maH$ 

R>abobo Amho. `m_wio godm gw{dYm§Mm {dñVma Pmbobm Amho. dmhVwH$sMr {d{dY gmYZo, dmhVyH$ `§Ì gm_J«r, 

50

_mb gmR>{dÊ`mMr gmo`, g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$aUo Am{U _m{hVr à{H«$`mH$aU {deofV: CËnmXZ, ImU d eoVr joÌmV 

eŠ` Pmbobo Amho. 

5) Xoem§VJ©V d {dXoemVrb ì`mnma H$m`m©Mm {dH$mg : CËnmXZ H|$ÐmnmgyZ Vo Cn^moJ H|$Ðmn`ªV 

{dVaU H$m`m©V ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmÛmao JVr d {dídgZr`Vm {Z_m©U hmoVo, n[aUm_r Xoem§VJ©V VgoM 

{dXoemVrb ì`mnma H$m`m©g JVr {_iVo. ì`mnma H$m`m©À`m Ñï>rZo ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ AË`§V _hÎdmMo, à^mdr 

d n[aUm_H$maH$ R>abobo Amho. 

6) XaS>moB© CËnÞmV dmT> : `m ÑîQ>rZo ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ AË`§V n[aUm_H$maH$ R>aboobo Amho. XaS>moB© 

CËnÞmV ì`yhemómMr qH$_V d à_mU dmT>V Amho. dmhVyH$, {dVaU, CËnmXZ, JwXm_ B. Mm XaS>moB© CËnÞmda 

AZwHy$b n[aUm_ hmoV Amho. WmoS>Š`mV XoemÀ`m XaS>moB© CËnÞ dmT>{dÊ`mV ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMo `moJXmZ 

{dMmamV KoÊ`mgmaIo Amho. 

7) gmd©O{ZH$ {dVaU nÕVrg AmYma : XoemVrb gmd©O{ZH$ {dVaU H$m`m©g ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMm 

_moR>m AmYma àmá Pmbobm Amho. `mo½` {R>H$mUr, `mo½` doioV d H$_rV H$_r IMm©V dñVy§Mo {dVaU, CnbãYVm 

eŠ` Pmbobr Amho. ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZm_wio gmd©O{ZH$ {dVaU H$m`© AI§S>rVnUo d gwairVnUo gwê$ Amho. 

8) XO}Xma J«mhH$ godm§Mm nwadR>m : gyú_ nÕVrZo ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZm_wio {dVaU _yë`mV d¥Õr hmoV 

Amho. J«mhH$m§Zm CÚmoJ d ì`dgm` g§ñWm§H$Sy>Z XO}Xma godm nwa{dUo eŠ` Pmbobo Amho. J«mhH$ hm H|$Ðq~Xy _mZyZ 

dmhVyH$, {dVaU, CËnmXZ d g§~§{YV H$m`} hmoV AgVmV. n[aUm_r XO}Xma godmnwadR>m eŠ` hmoVmo. 

9) dñVy§Mo {dVaU : ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmÛmao CËnmXZmgmR>r H$ÀÀ`m _mbmMo, Amdí`H$ gm{hË`m§Mo 

EH${ÌH$aU, CËnmXH$ Am{U Cn^moŠË`m§n`ªV {d{dY dñVy§Mo {dVaU ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZm_wio H$m`©j_[aË`m 

eŠ` Pmbobo Amho. 

10) CËnmXH$VoV gwYmaUm, IMm©V H$mQ>H$ga, amï´>r` gmYZm§Mm CËnmXZmgmR>r dmna B. ~m~r ì`yhemó 

ì`dñWmnZm_wio eŠ` Pmbobo Amho. 

ì`yhemó H$m`m©Vrb {d{dY {H«$`m/ KQ>H$ : 

gd©gmYmaUnUo {d{dY KQ>H$m§À`m AmYmao ì`yhemómVrb H$m`©j_Vm {gÕ hmoVo. dmhVwH$sH$aU, H$ÀÀ`m 

_mbmMo CËnmXZ d {dnUZ, JwXm_ H$m`}, _mb hmVmiUr VgoM dñVy§darb Amdoð>Z Aem H$m`m©VyZ ì`yhemómÀ`m 

JaOm ñnï> hmoV AgVmV. CÚmoJ d ì`dgm`mVrb JaOm nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r g§~§{YV àËòH$ KQ>H$mMo ghH$m`© d 

JaO AnojV Amho. _w»` KQ>H$ hm ì`yhemó H$m`m©Mm EH$ Jm^m hmo`, Ë`m A^mdr ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ 

CnamoŠV R>aVo. ì`yhemó H$m`m©Vrb {d{dY {H«$`m AWdm KQ>H$ nwT>rbà_mUo. 

(A) dmhVwH$sH$aU : H$moUË`mhr XoemMr Am{W©H$, gm_m{OH$ d ì`mdgm{`H$ àJVr _moOÊ`mMo 

dm`w^ma_mnH$ åhUOo dmhVwH$sH$aU hmo`. ho g§nyU© OJ EH$m g§ñWoV énm§Va H$aUo Ho$di dmhVwH$sH$aUm_wio eŠ` 

Pmbobo Amho. àËòH$ XoemVrb g§ñH¥$VrMm {dH$mg H$aÊ`mV dmhVwH$sH$aUmMo `moJXmZ Amho. ì`yhemó H¥$Vr_Üò 

dmhVwH$sH$aU hm _w»` KQ>H$ hmo`. dñVy d godm§Mr qH$_V IMm©À`m Ñï>rZo ì`yhemómZo AW©nyU© {hñgm Xe©dyZ, 

{Z`§ÌUmÀ`m Ñ{ï>Zohr dmhVwH$sH$aU à^mdr R>abobo Amho. dñVy d godm nwadR>m gmIirVrb hm Ii~iOZH$ 

51

d {H«$`merb ^mJ hmo`, `mVyZ amoOJma, ì`dgm`mÀ`m AZoH$ g§Yr d AmìhmZo {Z_m©U Pmbobr AmhoV. 

dmhVwH$sÀ`m godm gw{dYm/gmYZo (Transportion Infrastructure) : H$ƒm _mb, dñVy§Mr CËnmXZ 

H|$ÐmnmgyZ Vo Cn^moJ H|$Ðmn`ªV hmbMmb H$aÊ`mV ì`yhemó nÕVr gdmªhÿZ _hÎdmÀ`m AmhoV. dmhVwH$sH$aU, 

dñVy§Mr Zo-AmU d àdmg H$mimV dñVy§Mr gwa{jVVm VgoM gmR>m H$aVo. dmhVyH$sÛmao dñVy§À`m hmbMmbr 

{d{dY nÕVrZo Ogo añVo dmhVyH$, aoëdo, hdmB© d gm_wÐrH$ àdmgmÛmao gwb^ hmoD$Z nm`m^yV godmgw{dYm§Mr 

CnbãYVm eŠ` Pmbobr Amho. ^maVmV añVo dmhVwH$sMm {hñgm 39%, aoëdodmhVwH$sMm {hñgm 35% Va 

Cd©[aV {hñgm hdmB© dmhVyH$ d gm_wÐrH$ àdmg dmhVwH$sÛmao Amho. dmhVwH$sH$aUmÀ`m gmYZm§Mr MMm© AWdm 

_w»` KQ>H$ nwT>rbà_mUo :- 

1) añVo dmhVyH$ : XoemÀ`m H¥$fr d Am¡Úmo{JH$ àJVrV gdm©V gmoB©Mo gmYZ åhUyZ añVo dmhVyH$sH$S>o 

nmhÊ`mV òVo. H$_r d _Ü`_ A§VamÀ`m {R>H$mUr VgoM Á`m {R>H$mUr BVa gmYZo nmohMy eH$V ZmhrV, Aem 

{R>H$mUr añVo dmhVyH$ AË`§V gmoB©Mo Amho. añVo dmhVwH$s_wio dñVy§Mr KanmoM godm {_iVo H$s Or BVa gmYZm§Ûmao 

eŠ` Zmhr. dmhVwH$sH$aUm_wio J«m_rU ^mJmVrb XyadaÀ`m A§Vamda VgoM J«m_rU Vo ehar d CbQ> nÕVrZo 

{d{dY nm`m^yV godm gw{dYm nwa{dUo eŠ` Pmbobo Amho. dmhVwH$sH$aUm_wio XyadaMr IoS>r amï´>r` OrdZmÀ`m 

_w»` àdmhmV AmUyZ dmhVwH$sMo Omio {dñVmabo Amho. dmhVyH$s_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ d H¥$fr H$m`m©~m~V ~hþ{dY 

H$m`m©g d CËnmXZmg MmbZm {_imbobr Amho. Cn^moŠË`m§À`m dmT>Ë`m _mJUr_wio `mo½` dñVy§Mr `mo½` {R>H$mUr 

Zo-AmU, dmhVyH$ eŠ` Pmbobr Amho. AmO g§nyU© Xoeâ dmhVwH$sMo Omio (network) {dñVmabo Amho. añVo 

dmhVwH$sÛmao Ag§»` \$m`Xo eŠ` Pmbobo AmhoV. Vo WmoS>Š`mV nwT>rbà_mUo :- 

(A) KanmoM godm : añVo dmhVwH$sVrb {d{dY gmYZm§_wio nwadR>m gmIirVrb {d{dY KQ>H$m§Ûmao {d{dY 

dñVy§Mr KanmoM godm eŠ` Pmbobr Amho. añVo dmhVwH$s_wio dñVy§Mr KanmoM godm hm AË`§V _hÎdmMm \$m`Xm 

hmo`. 

(~) bd{MH$Vm : añVo dmhVyH$sVyZ `m Ñï>rZo {d{dY bm^ eŠ` Pmbobo AmhoV. dñVy§Mr Zo-AmU H$aUo, 

A§{V_ Cn^moŠË`m§n`ªV dñVy CnbãY H$aÊ`mV añVo dmhVwH$sÛmao ~Xb eŠ` hmoV AgVmo. 

(H$) {dídgZr`Vm 

(S>) XyadaÀ`m A§Vamda dñVy nmohM{dUo 

(B) JVr (\$) gmVË`Vm (J) IM© H$_r B. 

2) aoëdo dmhVyH$ : àdmgr, dñVy d gm{hË` dmhVwH$sMo aoëdo ho _w»` gmYZ hmo`. XoemVrb ì`mnma d 

dm{UÁ`{df`H$ H$m`m©V aoëdo dmhVyH$ _hÎdmMr ^y{_H$m ñdrH$maVo. Amdí`H$ dñVy§À`m nwadR>çm~m~V hm _w»` 

_mJ© åhUyZ AmoiIÊ`mV òVmo, H$s Oo eodQ>À`m Q>moH$mn`ªV d ídmgmn`ªV n[aUm_H$maH$ R>abobo Amho. g§nyU© 

OJâmV Am¡Úmo{JH$aUmV d amï´>mÀ`m {dH$mgmV aoëdo dmhVwH$sZo _hÎdmMr ^y{_H$m ñdrH$mabr Amho. OJmVrb 

gd© Xoe OmñVrV OmñV aoëdo dmhVyH$ gmYZmda Adb§~yZ AmhoV. H$ƒm _mb, AY©{Z{_©V _mb, IVo VgoM 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ _mb, V`ma dñVy B. À`m dmhVwH$sgmR>r aoëdo dmhVyH$ ho àmW{_H$ gmYZ åhUyZ AmoiIÊ`mV òVo. 

52

^maVr` aoëdoMm H$m`©{dñVma 62,800 {H$._r. Mm AgyZ Ë`mgmR>r XoemV EHy$U 6896 aoëdo ñQ>oeÝg 

AmhoV. dñVy§À`m EHy$U dmhVwH$sn¡H$s 85% {hñgm aoëdoMm Amho. ^maVr` aoëdoH$S>o EHy$U 2,53,186 _mbS>~o 

(d°JZ) AgyZ Ë`m§Mr j_Vm 10.6 AãO Q>Z BVH$s Amho. ^maVr` aoëdoÛmam _w»`V: H$moigm, nmobmX, {g_|Q>, 

IVo, H$ƒm _mb, bmoI§S>r _mb, YmÝ` VgoM noQ´>mo{b`_ dñVy B. Mr dmhVyH$ hmoVo. 

3) Ob_mJ© dmhVyH$ gmYZo : Amnë`m XoemV Ob_mJ©, gm_wÐrH$ àdmgmÛmao àdmgr d dñVy§Mr dmhVyH$ 

ho dmhVyH$sMo EH$ à^mdr gmYZ hmo`. gd©gmYmaUnUo AdOS>, _moR>m A{Y^ma Agboë`m dñVy H$_r IMm©V 

nmohM{dÊ`mgmR>r Ob_mJ© dmhVyH$ AmXe© _mZbr OmVo, VWm{n Ob_mJ© dmhVyH$ gmYZ ho g§W J{VMo AgyZ 

Ë`m_wio ~§Xam§À`m {R>H$mUr _mb nmohM{dÊ`mg {db§~ hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. H$_r A§VamdaÀ`m {R>H$mUr ho 

gmYZ J¡agmoB©Mo VgoM H$m`m©À`m Ñï>rZo AdKS> ~ZVo. 

OhmO CÚmoJm§_Üò ~moQ> H§$nZtMr _moR>r OhmOo, {ZpíMV doimnÌH$ ZgUmar dmhVyH$ H$aUmar ~moQ> AWdm 

OhmOo, Am¡Úmo{JH$ godm nwa{dUmar OhmOo d Q±H$a gw{dYm (H$ÝQ>oZg©) B. Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. ^maV Am{e`m 

I§S>mV Ob_mJ© dmhVyH$s~m~V ghmì`m H«$_m§H$mda Amho. Va g§nyU© OJmV n§Yamì`m H«$_m§H$mda Amho. ^maVr` 

OhmO CÚmoJmV EHy$U 510 OhmOo n¡H$s 240 naXoemVrb Am`mV-{Z`m©Vrer H$m`©aV AmhoV. EHy$U Am§Vaamï´>r` 

ì`mnmamn¡H$s 95% _mbdmhVyH$ Ob_mJm©Ûmao hmoVo, Ë`mgmR>r ^maVmV _w»` ~§Xam§Mr g§»`m 11 BVH$s Amho. 

Ob_mJ© dmhVyH$s_wio ^maVmÀ`m {Z`m©VrV 15% Zr A{YH$ dmT> Pmbobr Amho. VgoM Am`mV 14%Zr 

dmT>bobr Amho. Ob_mJm©Ûmao AmnU noQ´>mo{b`_ nXmW©, Am°B©b, Z¡g{J©H$ d noQ´>mo{b`_ J°g (Eb.EZ.Or. d 

Eb.nr.Or.) B. Am`mV H$aVmo. Va H$moigm, AÞYmÝ`, ñQ>rb, _moQ>mar, H$nS>o B. Mr dmhVyH$ Ob_mJm©Ûmao hmoVo. 

4) hdmB© dmhVyH$ : àdmgr d dñVy§gmR>r dmhVyH$sMr hr gw{dYm \$ma ObX d I{M©H$ ñdê$nmMr Amho. 

dmhVyH$sÀ`m BVa gd© gmYZm§Mr VwbZm H$aVm hdmB© dmhVyH$sV gdm©V H$_r YmoH$m _mZbm OmVmo. _w»`V: hdmB© 

dmhVyH$ I{M©H$ AgyZ Zmed§V dñVy§gmR>r d Á`m dñVy§Mo Am`w_m©Z H$_r H$mimMo d Á`m§Mr [H§$_V OmñV AgVo, 

Aem dñVy§gmR>r `m dmhVyH$ gmYZmMm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo, Ago AgyZhr ^maVmVrb hdmB© dmhVyH$sV 15-16% 

Zr dmT> hmoV Amho. 

^maVmVrb AmR> Am§Vaamï´>r` {d_mZVimdê$Z dñVy§gmR>r hdmB© dmhVyH$sMo H$m`© hmoVo Va 87 ñWm{ZH$ 

{d_mZVio d 28 _wbH$s {d_mZVio H$m`©aV AmhoV. `m dmhVyH$ gmYZm~m~V _w§~B©, MoÞB©, {X„r, H$mobH$Îmm, 

~|Jbmoa d H$mo{MZ {d_mZVimda A{YH$ bj H|${ÐV H$aÊ`mV Ambobo Amho. {d_mZVimdê$Z gmYmaU 87% 

dñVy§Mr Am`mV-{Z`m©V hmoV AgVo. 

`m dmhVyH$ gmYZmg ^{dî`mV IynM dmd Agë`mZo emgZ ImOJr gh^mJrÛmao g§ñWm§Zm {Z_§{ÌV H$arV 

Amho, Ë`mgmR>r nm`m^yV gw{dYm dmT>{dÊ`mMr Amdí`H$Vm Amho. 

5) Zi_mJ© (nmB©nbmB©Z) : noQ´>mo{b`_ nXmW© d Z¡g{J©H$ dm`y dmhVwH$sgmR>r _w»`V: `m gmYZmMm 

dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. H$ƒo Vob ewÕrH$aUmÀ`m H$maImÝ`mn`ªV dmhVyH$ H$aÊ`mgmR>r hm AË`§V à^mdr _mJ© R>aVmo. 

H$m`m©Ë_H$ IM© H$_r bmJUo hm `m dmhVyH$ gmYZmMm \$m`Xm hmo`, Ho$di Ama§^rg H$amdr bmJUmar Jw§VdUyH$ 

OmñV AgVo. ^maVmV `m dmhVyH$ gmYZmMm dmna ImOJr d gmd©O{ZH$ joÌmVrb g§ñWm noQ´>mo{b`_ ewÕrH$aUmgmR>r 

H$arV AmhoV. ^maVmVrb bîH$ar ^yàXoemV, npíM_ KmQ>mV H$ƒo bmoI§S> dmhVyH$sgmR>r gmYmaU 67 {H$._r. 

53

Ûmao Z¡g{J©H$ dñVy§Mr dmhVyH$ hmoVo. ho dmhVyH$sMo gmYZ Z¡g{J©H$ àXwfU{da{hV (BH$mo \«|$S>br) ñdê$nmMo AgVo. 

añVo d aoëdoÛmam Vob dmhVyH$sMm IM© dfm©Zwdf} dmT>V Amho. na§Vw CbQ> pñWVr Zi_mJ© dmhVyH$s~m~V Amho. 

gd©gmYmaUnUo Zi_mJ© nÕVrZo dmhVyH$sMm IM© é. 1.15 à{VQ>Z, à{V {H$._r. Agm Amho. gÜ`m añVo 

dmhVyH$sMm IM© à{V Q>Z, à{V {H$._r. é. 2.50 Agm Amho. ^maVmV df© 2010 AIoarg 80 AãO Q>Z Vob 

dmhVyH$sMo C{Ôï> hmoVo. 

6) XmoaI§S> _mJ© (amondo) : ^maVmV gmYmaU 16% ^m¡Jmo{bH$ joÌ\$i S>m|Jami, C§M gIb àXoem§Zr 

ì`mnbobo Amho. Aem {R>H$mUr d {VWyZ Amdí`H$ dñVy§Mr dmhVyH$ H$aÊ`mgmR>r `m _mJm©Mm Adb§~ Ho$bm 

OmVmo. C§M {R>H$mUr, S>m|Jami àXoemV dñVy§À`m dmhVyH$sMm hm _mJ© ObX VgoM Am{W©H$ Ñï>çm {H$\$m`Vera 

_mZbm OmVmo. `m dmhVyH$ gmYZmMo \$m`Xo :- 

(A) ho dmhVyH$ gmYZ n`m©daUmg YmoH$m H$arV Zmhr. 

(~) XwJ©_, S>m|Jami d C§M {R>H$mUr H$_r A§VamÛmao dmhVyH$ eŠ` hmoV AgVo. 

(H$) dmhVyH$sMr BVa gmYZo Am{W©H$Ñï>çm A{H$\$m`Vera Agë`mZo hr nÕV VwbZoZo {H$\$m`Vera R>aVo. 

(S>) A{VdOZmÀ`m dñVy H$_r doioV dmhÿZ ZoUo eŠ` hmooVo. 

`m dmhVyH$ gmYZmMm dmna ^maVmV {g{¸$_, _oKmb`, {_Pmoam_, {h_mMb àXoe d CÎmaàXoe Aem 

{R>H$mUr Ho$bm OmVmo. gÜ`m XmoaI§S>_mJ} 175 {H$. _r. A§Va àdmgr d _mb_Îmm dmhVyH$sgmR>r CnbãY Amho. 

Aem nÕVrZo dmhVyH$sH$aUmV darbà_mUo añVo, aoëdo, gm_wÐrH$àdmg, hdmB© dmhVyH$, Zi_mJ© d XmoaI§S> 

_mJ© B. Mm Adb§~ Ho$bm OmVmo. 

(B) JwXm_ H$m`© (Warehousing) : ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMo ho _hÎdmMo H$m`© åhUyZ AmoiIÊ`mV 

òVo. Am_ybmJ« ~Xbm§Mr à{H«$`m H$ê$Z AmYw{ZH$ JwXm_ H$m`© AË`§V à^mdr d n[aUm_H$maH$ R>abobo Amho. 

{d{dY dñVy d godm§À`m nwadR>m gmIirV n[aUm_H$maH$Vm dmT>{dÊ`mV VgoM {ZU©` H$m`m©À`mÑï>rZo JwXm_o 

_hÎdmMr R>abobr AmhoV. ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmV JwXm_o AmYmamMo H$m`© åhUyZ H$m`© H$aVmV. JwXm_ H$m`m©_wio 

{d{dY C{Ôï>ço gmÜ` hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. JwXm_o H$ƒm _mb, à{H«$`m`wŠV _mb, V`ma dñVy B.À`m CbmT>mbrV 

dmT> hmoÊ`mg à_wI ^y{_H$m åhUyZ n[aUm_H$maH$ R>aVmV. JwXm_mMr H$m`} CËnmXH$Vm d qH$_V `m XmoZ 

KQ>H$m§Ûmao R>a{dbr OmVmV. VgoM J«mhH$m§Mo g_mYmZ d JwXm_ H$m`m©Mm H$_r IM© hr C{Ôï>ço gmÜ` H$aÊ`mMm 

à`ËZ Ho$bm OmVmo. ì`yhemó H$m`© OmioMr (ZoQ>dH©$) {ZdS> H$aVmZm Ho§$ÐrV qH$dm {dH|$ÐrV JwXm_ nÕVrMm 

{dMma Ho$bm OmVmo. H|$ÐrV JwXm_ nÕVrV H$ƒm _mb {dVaUmda n«^mdr {Z`§ÌU R>odyZ H$m`m©darb IM© H$_r 

R>odVm òVmo, VWm{n {dH|$ÐrV JwXm_ nÕVrV {d{dY {R>H$mUr {dVaU H|$ÐmÛmam J«mhH$m§Zm CËH¥$ï> godm nwa{dUo 

eŠ` Pmbobo Amho. JwXm_ H$m`m©Ûmam Z\$m d¥Õr, IMm©V H$mQ>H$ga, J«mhH$m§À`m godm nmVirV dmT>, ñnY}V 

{Q>H$Uo B.gmR>r nwT>rb JaOm H$miOrnyd©H$ {dMmamV KoVë`m nm{hOoV. 

(A) _mbgmR>m OmJoMm OmñVrV OmñV dmna H$aUo. 

(~) CnbãY l_ d _Zwî`~imMr CËnmXH$Vm dmT>{dUo. 

54

(H$) _mb_ÎmoMm H$_mb dmna H$aUo. 

(S>) _mb hmVmiUr H$nmVrÛmao IM© H$_r H$aUo. 

(B) dñVy d godm§À`m CbmT>mbrV dmT> H$aUo B. 

AbrH$S>o _m{hVr V§ÌmkmZ d XiUdiUmMr àJV gmYZo d gw{dYm§_wio JwXm_ H$m`m©V n[aUm_H$maH$Vm 

d H$m`©j_Vm {Z_m©U H$aUo eŠ` Pmbobo Amho. JwXm_ H$m`m©~m~V ObX _m{hVr nwa{dUo eŠ` Pmbobo Amho, na§Vw 

ho gd© J«mhH$m§À`m Anojm, ì`dñWmnZmMo YmoaU, dñVy§Mm àH$ma, ~mOmanoR> ñnYm© B.da Adb§~yZ Amho. 

ì`yhemó nÕVrV JwXm_ H$m`© hm A§VJ©V ^mJ hmo`. ñWybÑï>rZo {dMma H$aVm, JwXm_ H$m`© ho godm H$m`© 

AgyZ nwadRm gmIirV Ë`mÛmao nwT>rb H$m`} nma nmS>br OmVmV. 

(A) _mbgmR>m H$m`© : JwXm_ H$m`m©Mo ho àmW{_H$ d _w»` H$m`© hmo`. CËnmXZ d Cn^moJ MH«$mV 

_mbgmR>m H$m`© AË`§V _hÎdmMo Amho. _mJUr {Z{_©VrV hm _hÎdmMm Xwdm hmo`. _mbgmR>m H$m`m©V {d{dY H$m`© 

hmVr KoVbr OmVmV. 

(~) _mb V`ma R>odUo : ~mOmanoR>mV dñVy, _mb {dVarV H$aÊ`mgmR>r JwXm_mV V`ma R>odmdm bmJVmo, 

Ë`mÑï>rZo ho JwXm_mMo _w»` H$m`© R>aVo. Zm|XUr, AmXoe Zm|X{dUo d _mJUrZwgma JwXm_mVyZ _mb, dñVy J«mhH$m§n`ªV 

nmR>{dbm OmVmo. 

(H$) EH$ÌrH$aU : Ooìhm dñVy§Mm nwadR>m bhmZ à_mUmV {d{dY {R>H$mUr AgVmo, Ë`m n[apñWVrV EImÚm 

{R>H$mUr _mbmMo EH$ÌrH$aU H$amdo bmJVo. KmD$H$ à_mUmVrb Am`mV-{Z`m©V H$m`mªgmR>r dñVy§Mo EH$ÌrH$aU 

H$aUo AË`mdí`H$ R>aVo, Ë`mgmR>r `mo½` {Z`moOZmMr JaO {Z_m©U hmoVo. 

(S>) _mbmMr {d^mJUr : darb C„o{Iboë`m EH$ÌrH$aU H$m`m©À`m nañna {damoYr ñdê$nmMo ho H$m`© hmo`. 

_moR>çm à_mUmV Ambobm _mb, dñVy J«mhH$m§n`ªV {dVarV Ho$bm OmVmo. 

(B) JmoXrVyZ _mb âUo : AZoH$Xm JwXm_mMm H$_rVH$_r dmna H$ê$Z JmoXrVyZ {d{eîR> {R>H$mUmnmgyZ 

Cn^moJ H|$ÐmH$S>o dñVy, _mb nmR>{dbm OmVmo. Ë`mgmR>r AË`§V H$_r H$mimgmR>r JwXm_mV _mb R>odbm OmVmo. 

(\$) {_lU : {d{dY dñVy CËnmXZ d {dVaU H$m`© hmVr KoUmè`m ì`dgm` g§ñWm§~m~V JwXm_mV dñVy 

{_lUmMo H$m`© hmVr ¿`mdr bmJVo, Ë`mgmR>r gmoB©Mo {R>H$mUr {ZdS>bo OmVo. 

(J) doï>Z : JwXm_ H$m`m©Vrb ho EH$ à^mdr H$m`© hmo`. AZoH$Xm JwXm_m_Üò doï>Z, nwZ: doï>Z H$m`© 

Oê$arà_mUo hmVr KoÊ`mV òVo. 

(_) _mb CVa{dUo d CT>{dUo : JwXm_mMo ho A§{V_ H$m`© åhUyZ AmoiIÊ`mV òVo. _mb Amë`mZ§Va Vmo 

CVa{dbm OmVmo. VgoM Cn^moJ d {dH«$s H|$ÐmH$S>o _mb dmhZm§Ûmao nmR>{dbm OmVmo. 

WmoS>Š`mV ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmV JwXm_ H$m`© A{d^mÁ` ñdê$nmZo EH$ _hÎdmMo d à^mdr H$m`© R>aVo. 

(C) _mbhmVmiUr H$m`© (Material Handling) : ì`yhemó H$m`m©V ho Q>miVm Z òÊ`mgmaIo H$m`© 

hmo`. dmhVwH$sH$aUmer g§~§{YV ñdê$nmMo ho H$m`© hmo`. CÚmoJ, ì`dgm`, JwXm_ H$m`m©V dñVy§Mr _mbhmVmiUr 

55

H$m`© _hÎdmMr R>aVo. _mbhmVmiUr H$m`m©gmR>r {d{dY àH$maÀ`m gmYZm§Mm, gm{hË`m§Mm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. 

_mbhmVmiUr gm{hË`m§Mr {ZdS> H$aVmZm JwXm_ nÕVrMm {dMma ìhmdm bmJVmo. JwXm_mMr aMZm, CnbãY 

OmJm, A§Va B.Mm {dMma H$ê$Z dñVy§Mr ghO hmbMmb {dZmAS>Wim hmoÊ`mÀ`m ÑîQ>rZo _mbhmVmiUr H$m`© 

_hÎdmMo R>aVo. gd©gmYmaUnUo dñVy§Mm àH$ma d AmH$ma `mÛmao _mbhmVmiUr nÕV {ZpíMV H$amdr bmJVo. 

JwXm_m§_Üò _mbhmVmiUr nwT>rb pñWVrV {Z_m©U hmoV AgVo. 

(A) dmhZmVyZ _mb CVa{dUo. 

(~) JwXm_mVrb {d{eï> {R>H$mUr _mb R>odUo d gaH${dUo B. 

(H$) AmXoemZwgma _mb {dVarV H$aVmZm _mb MT>{dUo. 

(S>) VnmgUr d doï>Z H$m`m©gmR>r _mbhmVmiUr. 

(B) JÇ>o, ~m°Šg, nwR>çmMo ImoHo$ B. dmhZmV âUo. 

_mb hmVmiUr H$m`m©V H$m`©j_Vm AgUo AË`§V Amdí`H$ Amho. _mbhmVmiUr hm l_CËnmXH$VoÀ`m 

X¥ï>rZo EH$ g§doXZerb H$m`© åhUyZ AmoiIÊ`mV òVo. _mbhmVmiUrÀ`m Mm§Jë`m nÕVrZo hmbMmbrV JVr d 

nwadR>m gmIir, {dVaU H$m`© AË`§V gwb^ d gmoB©Mo hmoV AgVo. 

_mb hmVmiUrÀ`m nÕVr : 

_mb hmVmiUr nÕVtMo dJuH$aU doJdoJù`m nÕVrZo hmoVo. JwXm_mV, CÚmoJ d ì`dgm`mV _mbhmVmiUrgmR>r 

_mZdr l_mÀ`m, `m§{ÌH$s gmYZm§Mm, gm{hË`m§Mm d ñd`§M{bV `§Ìm§Mm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. _mb hmVmiUrÀ`m 

nÕVr nwT>rbà_mUo :- 

(A) l_ nÕVr (Manual system) : JwXm_m_Üò, H$maImÝ`mV dmhVwH$sH$aUmdoir dñVy§À`m _mb 

hmVmiUrgmR>r dmnabm OmUmam hm gd©gmYmaU àH$ma hmo`. _mb hmVmiUrMr hr nÕV ñdñV nÕV åhUyZ 

AmoiIÊ`mV òVo. AmH$mamZo H$_r Agboë`m dñVy§gmR>r hr nÕV AZwgabr OmVo. gd©gmYmaUnUo 20 {H$bmoÀ`m 

AmVrb JÇ>o, ImoHo$ B.gmR>r JwXm_mV l_nÕVrMm Adb§~ Ho$bm OmVmo. dmhZmV _mb MT>{dUo d CVa{dUo 

`mgmR>r `m nÕVrZo _mb hmVmiUr H$m`© hmoV AgVo. àJV XoemV hr nÕV H$_r dmnamV Amho. 

(~) `§ÌmÛmao _mb hmVmiUr : `m nÕVrZo _mb hmVmiUr H$aVmZm {d{dY `§Ìm§Mm, gm{hË`m§Mm Adb§~ 

Ho$bm OmVmo. JwXm_mVrb aMZoZwgma _mb hmVmiUr gmR>r `mo½` `§ÌmMr {ZdS> H$aUo H«$_àmá R>aVo. _mb 

hmVmiUrÀ`m `m nÕVr_wio l_, WH$dm, H§$Q>mim Xya H$aVm òVmo. VgoM dñVy§Mr hmbMmb ObX, dñVy 

hmbMmbrV {dídgZr`Vm amIyZ CËnmXH$Vm {Z_m©U H$aUo eŠ` hmoVo. `m_wio doioMr ~MV hmoV AgVo. dñVyMm 

`mo½` àdmh amIVm òVmo VgoM gwa{jVVoMr h_r XoD$Z _mb hmVmiUr H$m`m©V dñVy§Mo hmoUmao ZwH$gmZ H$_r H$aVm 

òVo, Ë`mgmR>r nwT>rb `§Ìm§Mm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo - MmH$mMr Q´>m°br, \$moH©$ {bâQ> Q´>H$, XmoaI§S> AWdm gmIirZo 

AmoTy>Z ZoUo, gmo`rÀ`m MmH$mMr JmS>r, amoba, nÅ>m, gmIir, H«o$Z B. 

WmoS>Š`mV ì`yhemó nÕVrV _mb hmVmiUr _hÎdmMr {H«$`m hmo`. _mb hmVmiUr H$m`m©Zwgma nwadR>m 

gmIir H$m`© H$aVo. JwXm_mVrb aMZm d àmá n[apñWVrZwgma `mo½` Ë`m _mb hmVmiUr H$m`m©Mr {ZdS> H$amdr 

56

mJVo. 

(D) doï>Z H$m`© (Packaging) : doï>Z ho {dnUZmMo à^mdr gmYZ AgyZ Ë`mMm g§~§Y {dnUZ H$m`m©À`m 

H¥¥$Vrer Amho. ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmV doï>ZmMm {dMma Ho$bm OmVmo. dñVy§À`m {H$_VrV doï>Z hm _hÎdmMm KQ>H$ 

åhUyZ AmoiIÊ`mV òVmo. gd©gmYmaUnUo 5 Vo 30% IM© doï>Zmda hmoV AgVmo. dooï>Z H$m`m©Mr J«mhH$ / 

Cn^mo½`{df`H$ dñVy d Am¡Úmo{JH$ dñVy doï>Z Ago d{J©H$aU Ho$bo OmVo. 

dñVy doï>ZmÛmao {dnUmZmMo hoVy gmÜ` Ho$bo OmVmV. _mbgmR>m, _mb hmVmiUr d dmhVwH$sH$aU H$m`m©V 

dñVy§Mo ZwH$gmZ Q>miUo hm doï>ZmMm _w»` hoVÿ hmo`. dñVy§Zm OmñVrV OmñV g§ajU Úmdo, J«mhH$m§Zm dñVy 

dmnaÊ`mg `mo½` Agmdr `m Ñï>rZo doï>Z H$m`© AË`§V à^mdr d n[aUm_H$maH$ R>aVo. `m H$m`m©_wio CËnmXH$VoV 

dmT> hmoVo. doï>Z H$m`m©da hmoUmam IM© hm KQ>H$ {dMmamV KoUo H«$_àmßV R>aVo. doï>Zm_wio dñVy§Mr H$m`©j_Vm 

dmT>Vo, Ë`mMm EHy$U n[aUm_ åhUyZ H$m`m©darb IM© H$mhr à_mUmV H$_r hmoV AgVmo. 

dñVy doï>ZmgmR>r bmHy$S>, ßb°pñQ>H$, KS>çm Ho$bobo nwÇ>o, YmVy, JdVmMm {~NmZm B. Mm dmna hmoV AgVmo. 

dñVyÀ`m àH$mamZwgma (Zmed§VnUm, YmoH$mXm`H$, ^m§S>dbr dñVy, gwQ>o ^mJ, ZmOyH$ dñVy, KQ>H$ dñVy B.) 

dñVy§Mo doï>Z R>admdo bmJVo. 

ñdmÜ`m` : 

1) ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo H$m`? Ë`mMo _hÎd WmoS>Š`mV {deX H$am. 

2) ì`yhemó ì`dñWmnZmMr C{Ôï>ço ñnï> H$am. 

3) ì`yhemó H$m`m©Vrb {d{dY KQ>H$ WmoS>Š`mV ñnï> H$am. 

g§X^© J«§W : 

1. Vinod V. Sople (2004) - Logistics Management, Pearson Education 

2. S. K. Bhattacharyya (2008) - Logistics Management, S. Chand Pub; 

3. Donald J. Bowersox & - Logistical Management, Tata Megraw Hill Edition. 

David J. Closs (2002) 

57 

��




_Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmMr JaO/Amdí`H$Vm 

(Need for Human Resource Planning) 

_Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmV _Zwî`~imMr àmár, Cn`moJ, {dH$mg d Vo XrK©H$min`ªV ì`dgm`mV amhVrb 

`m{df`r EH$ {ZpíMV `moOZm, ì`yhaMZm AmIUo A{^àoV Amho. ì`dgm`mVrb XrK©H$mbrZ H$m`©`moOZm 

{dMmamV KoD$Z Ë`m ì`dpñWV nyU© hmoVrb ho Üò` S>moù`mg_moa R>oD$Z _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmMr AmIUr H$br 

OmVo. _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZ ho _Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnZmMo EH$ àmW{_H$, nm`m^yV d AË`§V _hÎdmMo H$m`© Amho. 

_Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmMo H$m`© {dMmanyd©H$, H$m`©j_VoZo, Aä`mgnyd©H$ nma nmS>ë`mg Ë`mMo AZoH$ bm^ {d{dY 

ì`dgm` KQ>H$m§Zm àmá hmoVmV. _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmMr JaO Imbrb nÕVrZo {deX H$aVm òVo. 

1. ì`mdgm{`Z H$m`} H$m`©j_VoZo, {Z`moOZmZwgma `mo½` {XeoZo, JVrZo, AI§S>nUo H$m`©aV amhÊ`mgmR>r 

AMwH$ _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmMr JaO ^mgVo. 

2. `mo½` g§»òV, `mo½` j_VoMo, `mo½`VoMo, H$m`©Hw$eb, emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$X¥ï>çm gj_ _Zwî`~i 

g§nmXZ H$aUo. 

hmoVo. 

3. ì`mdgm{`Z Üòò, C{Ôï>ço Ano{jV doioV, {H$_mZ IMmV gmÜ` H$aUo. 

4. CËnmXZ g§gmYZmMm _hÎm_ dmna H$aUo. 

5. EHy$U IM© {H$_mZ amIyZ {_iH$V l_Vm dmT>dyZ ì`dgm` g§KQ>Zobm Am{W©H$ ñW¡`© àmá H$ê$Z XoUo. 

6. A§{V_ godm d CËnmXZmMr JwUdÎmm Cƒ amIyZ J«mhH$m§Zm g_mYmZ {_idyZ XoUo. 

7. OmñV qH$dm H$_r g§»òV H$_©Mmar âVrMo VmoQ>o, Xmof Q>miUo. 

8. g§KQ>ZoV H$m`© H$arV Agboë`m H$_©Mmè`m~m~V ~T>Vr, ~Xbr, à{ejU {df`H$ {ZU©` KoUo gwb^ 

9. H$_©Mmè`m§Zm `mo½`VoZwgma, H$m`© dmQ>n, A{YH$ma àXmZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r Ë`m§Zm H$m`©g_mYmZ {_idyZ 

XoÊ`mgmR>r, Ë`m§Mr g§KQ>Zodarb {dídmg, {Zð>m dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZ Cn`wŠV R>aVo. 

10. H$_©Mmar d ì`dñWmnZ `m§À`mV AË`§V gbmo»`mMo g§~§Y {Z_m©U Pmë`mZo Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh, 

nañnam§{df`r A{dídmg {Z_m©U hmoV Zmhr. `m_wio Ë`mMo Xwîn[aUm_ Q>mibo OmVmV. 

11. _¥V, {Zd¥Îm, ~T>Vr, nXmdZVr Pmboë`m H$_©Mmè`m§À`m OmJr ZdrZ `mo½` H$_©Mmar {Z`wŠV H$aUo 

eŠ` hmoVo. 

58

12. H$_©Mmar J¡ahOoar, AXbm~Xb, {Z`§{ÌV R>odbr OmVo. 

13. AmYw{ZH$sH$aU, {dñVmarH$aUmÀ`m `moOZm èñdr H$aVm òVmV. 

14. H$_©Mmar âVrMm IM© {H$_mZ amIbm OmVmo. 

15. ^{dî`H$mbrZ JaO, Vm§{ÌH$ kmZ, \°$eZ, Vm§{ÌH$ ~Xb, g§emoYZ `m§Mm A§XmO H$ê$Z Ë`mZwgma 

`mo½`, gj_ H$_©Mmè`m§Mr âVr d {ZdS> H$aUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

16. ì`dgm` g§KQ>ZoV A`mo½`, AnmÌ, AH$m`©j_, ~o{eñV, Aàm_m{UH$ H$_©Mmar KoVbo OmV ZmhrV. 

Ë`m_wio Ë`m§À`mnmgyZ hmody eH$Umao gd© n«H$maMo ZwH$gmZ, Xwîn[aUm_ Q>mibo OmVmV. 

_Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmda n[aUm_ H$aUmao KQ>H$ : 

(Factors affecting Human Resource Planning) : 

_Zwî`~i {Z`moOZ åhUOo ì`dgm` g§ñWoÀ`m EH${ÌV `moOZm§Mr A_§b~OmdUr H$aÊ`mgmR>r _Zwî` 

~imMr Amdí`H$Vm {ZpíMV d nyU© H$aÊ`mMr à{H«$`m hmo`. _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZ ho _Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m 

à{H«$òVrb EH$ AË`§V _hÎdmMo, àmW{_H$ d nm`m^yV ñdê$nmMo H$m`© Amho. `m_wio ho H$m`© AË`§V {dMmanyd©H$ 

d Cƒ H$m¡eë`mZo nyU© H$amdo bmJVo. AMyH$ _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmMo AZoH$ bm^ ì`dgm` g§KQ>Zobm àmá hmoVmV. 

CXm. Hw$eb, AZw^dr, à{e{jV, àm_m{UH$ _Zwî`~imMr àmár, H$m`© CÔoem§Mr nyV©Vm, H$m`©àdmhmV gmVË`, 

gmYZgm_J«rMm H$_mb dmna, Z\$m àmár, darð>-H${ZîR> gbmo»`mMo g§~§Y B. `m_wio _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZ `m 

_hÎdnyU© H$m`m©da à^md Q>mH$Umao KQ>H$ {dMmamV ¿`mdo bmJVmV. ho KQ>H$ Imbrbà_mUo - 

1) _Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnH$mMr {Z`moOZj_Vm : 

_Zwî`~i {Z`moOZ ho _Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnH$mMo EH$ AË`§V _hÎdmMo d àmW{_H$ ñdê$nmMo H$m`© Amho. 

AMyH$ _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmgmR>r ì`dñWmnH$mH$S>o {d{dY JwU d¡{eï>çm§Mr, j_Vm§Mr Amdí`H$Vm AgVo. CXm. 

XyaX¥ï>r, AZw_mZ j_Vm, {díbofUj_Vm, AMyH$ {ZîH$f© j_Vm, ~m¡{ÕH$ j_Vm, KQ>H$m§Mr à^mdembr _mnZ 

j_Vm, H$ënH$Vm B. WmoS>Š`mV _Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnH$mH$S>o gXa JwUd¡{eï>çm§Mm A^md Agob Va Vmo AMyH$ 

_Zwî`~i {Z`moOZ H$ê$ eH$V Zmhr. Ë`mZo Ho$boë`m _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmV H$mhr C{Udm, ÌwQ>r amhVmV d Ë`mMo 

AZoH$ {XK©H$mbrZ Xyîn[aUm_ ì`dgm` g§ñWobm ghZ H$amdo bmJVmV. CXm. A`mo½`, AnmÌ ì`ŠVtMr {ZdS>, 

H$_©Mmar-darð> gVV g§Kf©, H$m`©à_mU, JVr, JwUdÎmm H$_r, C{Ôï> nwVug {db§~ B. 

2) ì`dgm`mA§VJ©V KQ>H$m§{df`r ñnï> _m{hVrMm A^md : 

_Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnH$mH$S>o ì`dgm`mA§VJ©V KQ>H$m~m~V gË`, ñnï>, nw[anyU©, {dídg{Z` _m{hVr d 

AmH$S>odmar CnbãY AgUo Amdí`H$ Amho. CXm. H$moUË`m {d^mJmV H$moUVr d {H$Vr nXo [aŠV AmhoV, `m 

nXm§À`m emar[aH$, _mZ{gH$, e¡j{UH$, Vm§{ÌH$ nmÌVm, EHy$U nXg§»`m, Z{OH$À`m ^{dî`mV Z{dZ {Z_m©U 

hmoUmè`m nXm§Mr eŠ`Vm, nXm§À`m JaOoMm H$mbmdYr B. hr _m{hVr {OVH$s AMyH$ d n[anyU© Agob {VVH$s 

AMyH$Vm _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmbm àmá hmoVo. AMyH$ _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZm_wio CnH«$_mbm Amdí`H$VoBVHo$M d 

Amdí`H$ `mo½`VoMo H$_©Mmar n«má H$aVm òVmV. 

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3) ì`dgm`~mø KQ>H$m§~m~V A§XmO d Ë`m§Mo ghH$m`© : 

_Zwî`~i {Z`moOZ èñdr H$aÊ`mgmR>r AZoH$ ì`dgm`~mø KQ>H$m§Mo ghH$m`© ¿`mdo bmJVo. CXm. 

à{gÕr _mÜ`_o, _Ü`ñV dJ©, amoOJma {d{Z_` H|$Ðo, gm_m{OH$ d H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm, ~oamoOJma dJ©, e¡j{UH$ 

g§ñWm B. `m KQ>H$m§Mr H$m`©nÕVr, ghH$m`m©Mr d¥Îmr, H$m`©j_Vm d àm_m{UH$nUm `mda CnH«$_mÀ`m _Zwî`~i 

{Z`moOZ H$m`m©Mr n[aUm_H$maH$Vm AmYm[aV AgVo. `mM~amo~a l_~mOmamVrb n[apñWVr Hw$eb, AHw$eb 

_Zwî`~imÀ`m CnbãYVoMo à_mU, Ë`m§À`m JaOm, Anojm, _mZ{gH$Vm, _Ü`ñVm§Mr d AZwf§{JH$ godm nwa{dUmè`m§Mr 

H$m`©nÕVr d _mZ{gH$Vm B. KQ>H$m§~m~V _Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnZmZo Ho$bobo AZw_mZ {OVHo$ AMyH$, ì`dhm`©, 

dñVy{Zð> Agob {VVHo$ è _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmbm àmá hmoVo. 

4) CnH«$_mMr ^{dî`H$mbrZ {Xem : 

_Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnZmbm _Zwî`~imMo {Z`moOZ H$aVmZm CnH«$_mMm ^{dî`H$mbrZ {dH$mg, Ë`mMr JVr 

qH$dm {dH$mgmVrb AS>Wio `m{df`r AMyH$ A§XmO H$amdm bmJVmo. `m_wio ^{dî`H$mbrZ _Zwî`~imMr JaO 

^mJ{dÊ`mgmR>r dV©_mZH$mimVM `mo½` Vr nmD$bo CMbVm òVmV. ì`dgm` joÌmVrb VoOr-_§XrMo ñdê$n, 

{Xem, g§ñWonwT>rb g§Ü`m d AmìhmZo, Z{dZ V§ÌkmZ `m KQ>H$m§À`m AmYmao, ì`dgm` g§ñWoÀ`m {dñVmamMr qH$dm 

AYmoJVrMr {Xem, doJ `m§Mr H$ënZm H$aVm òVo. `m_wio CnH«$_mMr ^{dî`H$mbrZ {Xem AO_mdyZ _Zwî`~imMo 

{Z`moOZ H$aUo `mo½` R>aVo. 

5) ~XbVo n`m©daU : 

OmJ{VH$sH$aUmÀ`m à^mdm_wio ì`dgm` n`m©daU gVV doJmZo ~XbV AgVo. `m_wio _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmbm 

Ano{jV è àmá hmoV Zmhr. l_~mOmamVrb n[apñWVr, ~oamoOJmarMo à_mU, Vm§{ÌH$, AVm§{ÌH$ _Zwî`~i, 

~oamoOJmam§À`m JaOm, Anojm, _Ü`ñVm§Mr H$m`©nÕVr, BVa joÌmVyZ _Zwî`~img Agbobr _mJUr B. KQ>H$m§_Üò 

~XbË`m n`m©daUm_wio gVV ~Xb hmoV AgVmV. `m_wio ho ~Xb {dMmamV KoD$Z Ho$bobo _Zwî`~h {Z`moOZ 

A{YH$ ì`dhm`© d AMyH$ R>aVo. 

6) emgH$s` {Z`_ d H$m`Xo : 

H|$Ð d amÁ` emgZ H$_©Mmar âVr, {ZdS>, doVZ, H$m`©pñWVr, H$ë`mUH$mar gw{dYm B. ~m~V {Z`_, 

ñWm`r AmXoe, H$m`Xo g§_V H$aV AgVo. `m gdmªMo H$mQ>oH$moa nmbZ H$aUo, gd© ì`mdgm{`H$m§da ~§YZH$maH$ 

AgVo. `m_wio _Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnZmbmhr _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZ H$aVmZm g§~§{YV emg{H$` AmXoe, {Z`_ 

{dMmamV ¿`mdo bmJVmV. AÝ`Wm emgH$s` H$madmB©bm gm_moao Omdo bmJVo. 

7) gj_ H$_©Mmè`m§Mr CnbãYVm : 

_Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmV àËòH$ nXmgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmè`m H$_©Mmè`m§À`m `mo½`Vm nmÌVm, EHy$U g§»`m 

d Ë`m§À`m âVrMo _mJ© {ZpíMV Ho$bo OmVmV. na§Vw {ZdS>boë`m âVrÀ`m _mJm©Ûmao Ano{jV j_VoMo, JwUdÎmoMo, 

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H$m¡eë`mMo nwago H$_©Mmar CnbãY Pmbo Zmhr Va _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmg Ano{jV è àmá Pmbo Ago åhQ>bo OmV 

Zmhr. 

8) _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmMr A§_b~OmdUr H$aUmam A{YH$mar dJ© : 

H$moUË`mhr {Z`moOZmMo è ho Ë`m {Z`moOZmÀ`m à^mdr A§_b~OmdUrda AmYm[aV AgVo. åhUyZ 

_Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnZmZo _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZmÀ`m A§_b~OmdUrMr O~m~Xmar gj_, àm_m{UH$, H$m`©j_ 

A{YH$mar dJm©da gmondmdr. VgoM A{YH$mar dJm©Zohr àË`j A§_b~OmdUr H$aVmZm Amnë`m j_Vm§Mm, 

H$ënH$VoMm, {M{H$ËgH$ d¥ÎmrMm nwaonya Cn`moJ H$amdm. `m_wio _Zwî`~i {Z`moOZ èñdr hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. 

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_Owar, doVZ aMZm d àemgZ `mda n[aUm_ H$aUmao KQ>H$ : 

(Factors Influencing Wages and Salary Structure and Administration) : 

_Owar, doVZ aMZm d àemgZ `mda n[aUm_ H$aUmao AZoH$ KQ>H$ AmhoV. Ë`m§Mr WmoS>Š`mV _m{hVr 

Imbrbà_mUo : 

1. doVZ, qH$_V d Z\$m `mVrb g§~§Y : doVZ, CËnmXZ qH$_V d Z\$m `m§Mo nañna {damoYr g§~§Y 

Agë`mZo `m {VÝht_Üò g_Ýd` H$gm gmYmd`mMm hm àemgZmnwT>o àíZ C^m amhVmo. H$_©Mmè`m§Zm Amnë`m 

H$m_m~Ôb OmñVrV OmñV _mo~Xbm {_imdm hr Anojm AgVo. Y§Úmbm hmoUmam Z\$m hm Amnë`m emar[aH$ d 

~m¡{ÕH$ l_m_wio hmoVmo. Ë`m_wio doVZdmT>rÀ`m ñdê$nmV Ë`m Zâ`mVrb {hñgm AmnUmg {_imbm nm{hOo Ago 

Ë`m§Mo _V AgVo. Ë`m_wioM doVZdmT>rMr _mJUr gVV hmoV AgVo. doVZdmT>r_wio CËnmXZIMm©V dmT> hmoVo. 

CËnmXZIM© dmT>ë`mZo CÚmoJKQ>H$m§À`m Zâ`m_Üò KQ> hmoVo. ^mJYmaH$m§Zr CÚmoJKQ>H$mgmR>r ^m§S>db nwa{dbobo 

AgVo d OmoIr_ ñdrH$mabobr AgVo Voìhm `m ñdrH$maboë`m OmoI_rMm bm^m§emÀ`m ê$nmV `mo½` _mo~Xbm 

{_imbm nm{hOo; Aer Ë`m§Mr amñV Anojm AgVo. Oa doVZdmT>r_wio CËnmXZIM© dmT>bm d Zâ`mMo à_mU 

KQ>bo Va Ë`m§Mr amñV Anojm nyU© H$aUo AeŠ` hmoVo. CËnmXZIM© d n[aUm_r CËnmXZ qH$_V dmT>ë`mZo dñVy§Mr 

qH$_V/ {dH«$s dmT>dmdr bmJVo. `m_wio J«mhH$m§Zm Vr dñVy _hmJ nS>Vo. J«mhH$m§À`m VH«$mar d {damoY gwê$ hmoVmo. 

g_mOmÀ`m {hVmH$S>o Xwb©j hmoVo. Voìhm `m {VÝhr dJmªZm g_mYmZ H$go bmôb `m àíZmMm àemgZmbm gVV 

{dMma H$amdm bmJVmo d Ë`m Ñï>rZo à`ËZerb amhmdo bmJVo. 

2. CÚmoOH$, H$_©Mmar g§KQ>Zm d H$_©Mmar `m§Mr d¥Îmr : CÚmoOH$, H$_©Mmar g§KQ>Zm d H$_©Mmar 

`m§À`m doVZ aMZoH$S>o nmhÊ`mÀ`m d¥Îmr_Üò d Ñ{ï>H$moUm_Üò \$aH$ AgVmo. H$_©Mmar dJm©Mr AmnUmg Anwao 

doVZ {_iVo, Amnë`m l_mMm `mo½`, Ý`mæ` _mo~Xbm {_iV Zmhr AerM Zoh_r ^mdZm AgVo. Va ì`dñWmnH$m§Zm 

qH$dm CÚmoOH$m§Zm AmnU H$_©Mmè`m§Zm Ë`m§À`m l_mMm nyU© _mo~Xbm XoVmo d Ë`m§Zr VH«$ma H$aÊ`mMo H$maU Zmhr 

Ago dmQ>V AgVo. H$_©Mmar g§KQ>Zm§Mr AmnU H$_©Mmè`m§Mo {hVH$V} AgyZ H$_©Mmè`m§Zm doVZdmT> {_idyZ XoUo 

ho Amnbo H$V©ì` Amho Aer YmaUm AgVo d Ë`mÑï>rZo Ë`m§Mo à`ËZ Mmby AgVmV. `m VrZ Ñ{ï>H$moUm§Mm doVZ 

aMZoda d àemgZmda n[aUm_ hmoV AgVmo. gm_y{hH$ gm¡Xo~mOr hm _Owar/doVZ g_ñòda n[aUm_ H$aUmam 

_hÎdmMm KQ>H$ Amho. 

3. H$_©Mmè`mÀ`m JaOm d Am{W©H$ gwa{jVVm : CÚmoOH$, g_mO, H$_©Mmar g§KQ>Zm d H$_©Mmar `m 

gdmªZmM ho VÎdV: _mÝ` AgVo H$s H$_©Mmè`m§À`m Am{W©H$ JaOm nyU© H$aÊ`mBVnV d Ë`m§Zm Am{W©H$ gwa{jVVm 

bmôb BVnV _Owar/ doVZ {_imbo nm{hOo. na§Vw àË`jmV ì`dhmamV H$_©Mmè`m§À`m Am{W©H$ JaOm§Mo _yë`m§H$Z 

H$aUo, Am{W©H$ gwa{jVVm R>a{dUo d amhUr_mZ {ZX}em§H$mer _Owar / doVZ {ZJ{S>V H$aUo `m ~m~r \$ma H$R>rU 

AmhoV. 

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4. H$_©Mmè`m§Mr CËnmXH$Vm : VÎdV: H$_©Mmè`m§À`m CËnmXH$VoZwgma Ë`mbm _Owar / doVZ XoUo ho 

`mo½` YmoaU Amho d Ë`mà_mUo {Xbr OmUmar _Owar / doVZ hm Ý`mæ` _mo~Xbm AgVmo. H$_©Mmè`mMo H$m_ AWdm 

CËnmXZ d _Owar `m§Mm AÝ`moÝ` g§~§Y AgVmo. OmñV CËnmXZmgmR>r OmñV _Owar, H$_r CËnmXZmgmR>r H$_r 

_Owar. na§Vw àË`j ì`dhmamV àËòH$ H$_©Mmè`m§Mo H$m_ ho _moOVm òÊ`mgmaIo AgV Zmhr. CXmhaUmW©, 

H$maHw$Zr H$m_. `m{edm` H$m`Xoera VaVwXr d H$_©Mmar g§KQ>Zm§Mm `m nÕVrbm {damoY AgVmo. 

5. l_~mOmamVrb n[apñWVr d doVZXma : AW©emómMo "_mJUr d nwadR>m' (Demand ans Supply) 

ho VÎd l{_H$m§À`m ~m~VrVhr bmJy nS>Vo. l{_H$m§Mr _mJUr OmñV Agob d Ë`m_mZmZo l{_H$ CnbãY ZgVrb 

Va _Owar / doVZ OmñV Úmdo bmJVo. `mCbQ> _mJUr H$_r Agob d l{_H$ _moR>çm à_mUmda CnbãY AgVrb 

Va H$_r _Owar / doVZmda H$_©Mmar {_iy eH$VmV. åhUOoM _Owam§À`m _mJUr nwadR>çmMm doVZ aMZoda n[aUm_ 

hmoVmo d àemgZmbm doVZ / _Owar {ZpíMV H$aVmZm hr ~m~ {dMmamV ¿`mdr bmJVo. 

VgoM Amnë`m CÚmoJKQ>H$mÀ`m joÌmV nydu ñWmnZ Pmbobo CÚmoJKQ>H$ H$m` XamZo _Owar / doVZ XoVmV 

`mMmhr {dMma H$aUo Oê$Z AgVo. BVa {R>H$mUr Or _Owar / doVZ {Xbo OmVo, {ZXmZ VodT>r _Owar / doVZ 

H$_©Mmè`m§Zm XoUo H«$_àmá AgVo. 

6. gm¡XmeŠVr (Collective Bargaining Power) : CÚmoJKQ>H$mVrb H$_©Mmar g§KQ>ZoMr gm¡XmeŠVr 

{H$Vr Amho `mMmhr _Owar d doVZ aMZoda n[aUm_ hmoVmo. H$_©Mmar g§KQ>Zm à~b, à^mdr Agob Va 

H$_©Mmè`m§Zm {VÀ`m _mJUrZwgma OmñV XamZo _Owar / doVZ Úmdo bmJVo. na§Vw H$_©Mmar g§KQ>Zm Xw~©b Agob 

Va {VÀ`m _mJUrH$S>o bj XoÊ`mMr ì`dñWmnZmg JaO AgV Zmhr. `m_wio H$_©Mmar g§KQ>ZoZo OmñV XamZo 

_mJUr Ho$br Var H$_r XamZo l{_H$ {_iy eH$VmV. 

7. gaH$mar YmoaU d \$m`Xo : H$_©Mmè`m§À`m g_ñ`m§À`m ~m~VrV gaH$ma Ho$di ~¿`mMr ^y{_H$m KoD$ 

eH$V Zmhr. H$_©Mmè`m§Zm `mo½` doVZ {_imdo. Ë`m§Mr H$m`© n[apñWVr Mm§Jbr Agmdr. Ë`m§Zm CÚmoJmÀ`m 

{R>H$mUr Amdí`H$ Ë`m godm-gw{dYm CnbãY ìhmì`mV. Ë`m§Mo H$m_mMo Vmg R>amdrH$ Vmgm§nojm OmñV Agy 

ZòV. Ë`m§Zm H$m_ H$aVmZm `mo½` doir `mo½` VodT>r {dlm§Vr {_imdr. Ë`m§À`m Amamo½`mMo g§ajU ìhmdo. Ë`m§Zm 

ZwH$gmZânmB© {_imdr ÑîQ>tZo gaH$ma YmoaU R>a{dVo d Ë`mMr A§_b~OmdUr ìhmdr `mgmR>r H$m`Xo H$aVo. `m 

gdmªMm n[aUm_ _Owar / doVZ aMZoda hmoV AgVmo. _Owar d doVZ àemgZmbm _Owar / doVZ {ZpíMV H$aVmZm 

`m gd© ~m~r ZOaog_moa R>odmì`m bmJVmV. 

8. _mZ{gH$ d gm_m{OH$ KQ>H$ : _mZdmMo g_mYmZ, gwI ho Ho$di Am{W©H$ ~m~tÀ`mdaM Adb§~yZ 

AgV Zmhr. _Owar d doVZ aMZoda n[aUm_ H$aUmao AZoH$ _mZ{gH$ d gm_m{OH$ KQ>H$ AmhoV. H$_©Mmè`mbm 

{_iUmè`m _Owarda qH$dm doVZmda Ë`mMm g_mOmVrb XOm© R>aV AgVmo. Ë`mÀ`m VwbZmË_H$ èpñdVoMo Vo 

_moO_mn Amho. EImÚm H$_©Mmè`mbm Xwgè`m {R>H$mUr H$m_ H$aUmè`m H$m_JmamÀ`m doVZmEdT>o qH$dm WmoS>o OmñV 

doVZ Oar {_iV Agbo Var Ë`mbm ì`dñWmnZmH$Sy>Z Oa `mo½` qH$_V {_iV Zgob, Ë`mMm XOm© BVa 

{R>H$mUmÀ`m H$m_Jmam§nojm ImbMm Agob Va Ë`mbm _mZ{gH$ g_mYmZ bm^V Zmhr d Vmo ZmoH$ar gmoSy>Z 

OmÊ`mMm {dMma H$aVmo. gmYo CXmhaU Úmd`mMo Pmbo Va amÁ` dmhVyH$ _§S>imV H$maHw$Zmbm {_iUmè`m 

nJmamnojm S´>m`ìhaMm nJma OmñV AgVmo. na§Vw g_mOmV H$maHw$Zmbm Or à{Vð>m AgVo, Vr S´>m`ìhabm AgV 

63

Zmhr. VgoM EH$m g§KQ>Zonojm Xwgè`m g§KQ>ZoV Ë`mM H$m`m©gmR>r, nXmgmR>r, O~m~XmargmR>r H$_r doVZ Agob 

qH$dm XOm©, à{Vð>m H$_r Agob VargwÕm H$_©Mmar Ag_mYmZr amhVmo. H$_©Mmè`m§À`m _mZ{gH$ d gm_m{OH$ 

{dMmam§Mm n[aUm_ _Owar d doVZ aMZoda hmoV AgVmo. 

9. ñnYm© : Hw$eb H$_©Mmè`m§Zm AZoH$m§À`mH$Sy>Z ZmoH$argmR>r ~mobmdUo òVo. Amnë`mbm Mm§Jbo, Hw$eb 

H$_©Mmar {_imdoV Ë`m Ñï>rZo doJdoJù`m CÚmoJm§V ñnYm© {Z_m©U hmoVo. `m ñnY}_wio Hw$eb H$_©Mmè`m§Mm ^md 

dYmaVmo d Ë`m§Zm OmñV doVZ Úmdo bmJVo. `mCbQ> EImÚm CÚmoJm_Üò H$m_ H$aUo ho gd© Ñï>tZr {hVmdh, 

^yfUmdh Agob Ë`m {R>H$mUr ZmoH$ar {_imdr åhUyZ H$_©Mmè`m§_Üò ñnYm© {Z_m©U hmoVo. Aem doir H$_r 

doVZmda H$_©Mmar {_iy eH$VmV. `mn«_mUo _mbH$m§Vrb qH$dm H$_©Mmè`m§Vrb ñnY}Mm _Owar d doVZ aMZoda 

n[aUm_ hmoVmo. 

10. CÚmoJKQ>H$mMr nJma XoÊ`mMr j_Vm : l{_H$m§Mr _Owar / doVZmMr _mJUr amñV Agob na§Vw 

{VVH$s _Owar / doVZ XoUo EImÚm CÚmoJmbm Ë`mÀ`m Am{W©H$ Xw~©bVo_wio eŠ` AgV Zmhr d H$_r XamZo l{_H$ 

¿`mdo bmJVmV. Voìhm CÚmoJKQ>H$mÀ`m Am{W©H$ n[apñWVrMmgwÕm Ho$ìhm Ho$ìhm _Owar d doVZ aMZoda n[aUm_ 

hmoVmo. 

64 

��




Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh 

(Industrial Disputes) 

àñVm{dH$ : 

XoemÀ`m Am{W©H$ d Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mgmgmR>r CÚmoJjoÌm_Üò "Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm' Zm§XUo Amdí`H$ 

AgVo. `mgmR>r H$m_Jma, _mbH$, ì`dñWmnZ `m§À`mV gbmo»`mMo, _¡{ÌnyU© g§~§Y Agmdo bmJVmV. na§Vw 

_mbH$, ì`dñWmnZ `m§À`m VwbZoV H$m_Jma dJ© Am{W©H$ d gm_m{OH$Ñï>çm H$_Hw$dV AgVmo. _mbH$m§À`m 

hmVmV gÎmm, g§nÎmr d A{YH$mam§Mo H|$ÐrH$aU Pmbobo AgVo. H$m_Jmam§H$S>o AkmZ, Xm[aÐç, Ag§K{Q>VnUm, 

Aën{ejU B. AdJwUm§Mo H|$ÐrH$aU Pmbobo AgVo. `m_wio H$mhr ñdmWu, AmË_H|$Ðr, bmo^r _mbH$m§Zm 

H$m_Jmam§Mr \$gdUyH$ H$aÊ`mV AmZ§X dmQ>Vmo. H$m_Jmam§À`m AkmZm_wio Ë`m§À`m Am{W©H$ \$gdUwH$sMr g§Yr 

ì`dñWmnZmg {_iVo. na§Vw Á`mdoir H$m_Jmam§À`m \$gdUwH$sMr, {nidUwH$sMr n[agr_m JmR>br OmVo, 

H$m_Jmam§À`m ghZeŠVrMm A§V hmoVmo, Ë`mdoir H$m_Jmam§Mm g§Vmn, Ag§Vmof ^S>Hy$ bmJVmo d `mg g§KQ>ZoÀ`m 

_mÜ`_mVyZ IVnmUr {_imë`mg H$m_Jma Ag§Vmof CJ« ê$n YmaU H$aVmo d Ë`mMo ê$nm§Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmV 

hmoVo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh hm Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVog d {dH$mgmg bmJbobm EH$ emn Amho Ago åhUVmV. Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

H$bhmMo Xwîn[aUm_ BVHo$ ^`mZH$, CJ« AgVmV H$s, `m_wi§ g§nyU© CÚmoJjoÌmMo ApñVËdM YmoŠ`mV òVo. 

CÚmoJjoÌmMm {dH$mg R>ßn hmoVmo. Ë`mMo Xwîn[aUm_ CÚmoJjoÌmer g§~§{YV gd© KQ>H$m§Zm ^moJmdo bmJVmV. CXm. 

CÚmoOH$, ^mJYmaH$, H$m_Jma, J«mhH$, g_mO, N>moQ>o ì`mdgm{`H$, nwadR>mXma, _Ü`ñW, emgZ, amï´>, AW©ì`dñWm 

B. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo Xwîn[aUm_ nmhVm, Vmo CX²^dUmaM Zmhr qH$dm CX²^dë`mg Ë`mMo Ëd[aV, `mo½` 

nÕVrZo {ZamH$aU hmoB©b `mgmR>r gd© g§~§{YV KQ>H$m§Zr H$m`©j_VoZo d àm_m{UH$nUo à`ËZ Ho$bo nm{hOoV. CXm. 

H$m_Jma, _mbH$, ì`dñWmnZ, emgZ, H$m_Jma H$ë`mU A{YH$mar B. _mbH$ d H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm `m XmoÝhr 

njm§Zr Amnbm Ah§H$ma ~mOybm R>odyZ H$m_Jma d g_mO {hVmgmR>r EH$m nmVirda òD$Z, Iwë`m dmVmdaUmV 

_Z_moH$ionUmZo EH$_oH$m§À`m AS>rAS>MUr {dMmamV KoD$Z Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo {ZamH$aU H$amdo. H$m_Jma, 

_mbH$, ì`dñWmnZmZo nañnam§V Ago {dídmgmMo, gbmo»`mMo, ghH$m`m©Mo g§~§Y àñWm{nV H$amdoV H$s, 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhM CX²^dUma Zmhr. WmoS>Š`mV, XmoÝhr njm§Zr g§KQ>ZoÀ`m {hVmbm àYmÝ` XoD$Z, ñd{hVm~amo~a 

Xwgè`m§À`m {hVmMm {dMma Ho$bm Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh hr g§kmM CÚmoJjoÌmVyZ Zmhrer hmoB©b. 

ì`m»`m : 

1. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`Xm 1947 _Yrb H$b_ 2 à_mUo, ""Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh åhUOo H$moUË`mhr 

H$m_JmamMr ZmoH$ar, ~oH$mar qH$dm ZmoH$arÀ`m AQ>r qH$dm eVu qH$dm l_mÀ`m n[apñWVrer g§~§Y Agbobm 

65

_mbH$ Am{U _mbH$ qH$dm H$m_Jma Am{U H$m_Jma qH$dm H$m_Jma Am{U H$m_Jma `m§À`mVrb H$bh qH$dm 

_VôX.'' 

("Industrial dispute means any dispute or difference between employers and employers or 

between employers and workmen or between workmen and workmen, which is connected with 

the employment or non employment or the terms of employment or with the conditions of labour 

of any person.") 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo ñdê$n : 

H$m_Jma d _mbH$ `m§À`mV H$m_mg§~§Yr H$moUË`mhr H$maUm_wio dmX, _VôX Pmë`mg d dmXmMo, 

_VôXmMo doioV d g_mYmZH$maH$[aË`m {ZagZ Z Pmë`mg Ë`mMo ê$nm§Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmV hmoVo. H$m_Jmam§Mm 

Ag§Vmof g§K{Q>V ñdê$nmV Agob Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CJ« ñdê$n YmaU H$aVmo d `m_YyZ g§n, Q>mio~§Xr, H$m_ 

~§X, Koamd, _moMm©, Vi R>moH$Uo, ~{hîH$ma, {ZXe©Zo, AghH$ma, _§XJVrZo H$m_ B. J¡aàH$ma CX²^dVmV. 

1. g§n (Strike) : H$m_Jmam§À`m _mJÊ`m _mÝ` H$ê$Z KoÊ`mgmR>r g§n ho H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm§À`m hmVmVrb 

à_wI eñÌ Amho. ñdV:À`m _mJÊ`m ì`dñWmnZmZo _mÝ` H$aÊ`mgmR>r Ë`m§À`mda X~md Q>mH$Ê`mgmR>r H$m_Jma 

g_yhmZo H$m_ ~§X R>odÊ`mMr Ho$bobr H¥$Vr åhUOo g§n hmo`. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`Xm 1947 Zwgma ""g§n åhUOo H$moUË`mhr CÚmoJmVrb H$m_ Mmby R>odÊ`mgmR>r qH$dm 

H$m_ ñdrH$maÊ`mgmR>r qH$dm H$aÊ`mgmR>r Zo_boë`m H$m_Jmam§Zr gm_y{hH$ {dMmamZo H$m_ H$aÊ`mMo Wm§~{dUo 

qH$dm ~§X H$aUo qH$dm H$m_ H$aÊ`mg gVV ZH$ma XoUo qH$dm gm_y{hH$ {dMmamZo H$m_ Z H$aUo.'' 

g§nmMo àH$ma : g§nmMo à_wI àH$ma Imbrbà_mUo. 

(1) Am{W©H$ g§n : Am{W©H$ _mJÊ`m _mÝ` H$ê$Z KoÊ`mgmR>r Ho$boë`m g§nmg Am{W©H$ g§n Ago 

åhUVmV. CXm .doVZ dmT>, ~moZg, Am{W©H$ ^Îmo, gdbVr B. 

(2) ghmZw^yVrdOm g§n : EH$m CÚmoJ g§KQ>Zo_Yrb H$m_Jmam§Zr nwH$maboë`m g§nmg nmqR>~m ì`ŠV 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r Xwgè`m CÚmoJ g§KQ>ZoVrb H$m_Jma gm_y{hH$Uo H$m_ ~§X H$aVmV. Ë`mdoir Ë`mg ghmZw^yVrXe©H$ 

g§n åhUVmV. 

(3) gd©gmYmaU g§n : Á`mdoir {d{eï> àXoemVrb qH$dm CÚmoJmVrb OmñVrV OmñV qH$dm gd© 

g^mgX g§nmV CVaVmV Ë`mdoir Ë`mg gd©gmYmaU g§n Ago åhUVmV. gd© H$m_Jma dJm©er g§~§{YV Agboë`m 

gd©gmYmaU _mJÊ`m~m~V hm g§n Ho$bm OmVmo. 

(4) ~¡R>m g§n : Á`mdoir H$m_Jma H$m_mMo {R>H$mU gmoS>Vhr ZmhrV VgoM H$m_hr H$aV ZmhrV Ë`mdoir 

Ë`mg H$m_Jmam§Mm ~¡R>m g§n Ago åhUVmV. `mbmM hË`ma R>odUo, boIUr R>odUo (~§X) g§n Agohr åhUVmV. 

(5) _§XJVr g§n : `m nÕVrV H$m_Jma H$m_mÀ`m {R>H$mUr CnpñWV AgVmV. H$m_ H$arV AgVmV. 

na§Vw H$m_mMm doJ à_m{UV / {Z`{_V doJmnojm H$_r AgVmo. 

2. Q>mio~§Xr (Lock Out) : H$m_Jmam§da XS>nU, X~md Q>mH$Ê`mgmR>r _mbH$ Q>mio~§Xr Omhra H$aVmo. 

66

ì`dñWmnZmZo {ZpíMV Ho$boë`m AQ>r d eVu H$m_Jma Omon`ªV _mÝ` H$ê$Z H$m_mda hOa amhV ZmhrV Vmon`ªV 

ì`dñWmnZmZo H$m_mMo {R>H$mU ~§X R>odÊ`mMr Ho$bobr H¥$Vr åhUOo Q>mio~§Xr hmo`. H$m_Jma g§KQ>ZoÀ`m eŠVrMm 

A§XmO KoÊ`mgmR>r d A{VaoH$s H$m_Jmam§À`m A{VaoH$s H¥$Ë`mg à{V~§Y H$aÊ`mgmR>r Q>mio~§Xr Ho$br OmVo. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`Xm 1947 Zwgma, ""Q>mio~§Xr åhUOo Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§ñWoÀ`m _mbH$mZo H$m_mMr OmJm qH$dm 

{R>H$mU VmËnwaVo ~§X H$aUo qH$dm H$m_ ñW{JV H$aUo qH$dm Ë`m Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§ñWoda H$m_mda R>odboë`m 

ì`ŠVtn¡H$s gd© qH$dm {H$Vrhr ì`ŠVtZm H$m_mda R>odÊ`mg ZH$ma XoUo.'' 

3. Koamd (Gherao) : Koamd hr H$m_Jmam§Mr gm_y{hH$ H¥$Vr AgVo. `m_Üò _mbH$mg, _mbH$ 

à{V{ZYrg _mZdr gmIir_Üò ~§{XñV Ho$bo OmVo. Ë`mbm H$m_mMo, amhÊ`mMo {R>H$mU gmoS>Ê`mg à{V~§Y Ho$bm 

OmVmo. Ë`mMo ~mhoa OmÊ`mMo _mJ© _mZdr H$S>o (Jmob) H$ê$Z ~§X Ho$bo OmVmV. _mbH$mg _mZdr Vwé§JmV ~§{XñV 

Ho$bo OmVo. Koamd KmVboë`m ì`ŠVrg ~mhoa OmÊ`mg, H$moUVohr H$m_ H$aÊ`mg ñdmV§Í` {Xbo OmV Zmhr. 

H$m`XoeraÑï>çm VgoM Z¡{VH$Ñï>çm Koamd A`mo½` AgVmV. H$maU Koamdm_wio ì`ŠVrÀ`m hmbMmb ñdmV§Í`mda 

JXm òVo. KoamdmÛmao ì`ŠVrda X~md, XS>nU Q>mHy$Z Ë`mbm A`mo½` _mJÊ`m _mÝ` H$aÊ`mg ^mJ nmS>bo OmVo. 

4. Vi R>moH$Uo (Picketing) : Á`mdoir H$mhr H$m_Jma H$maImÝ`mÀ`m XadmOmOdi Cô amhÿZ BVa 

H$m_Jmam§Zr H$m_mda hOa amhÿ Zò åhUyZ Ë`m§Mo _Vn[adV©Z H$aV AgVrb Va Ë`mg Vi R>moH$Uo Ago åhUVmV. 

Vi R>moH$Uo H¥$Vr_Üò Oa H$moUË`mhr n«H$maÀ`m qhgoMm A§V^m©d Zgob Va Vr nyU©V: H$m`Xoera g_Obr OmVo. 

Amnbr ^y{_H$m, _mJÊ`m, AÝ`m` bmoH$m§Zm gm§JUo, Ë`m§Mm nmqR>~m {_i{dUo d Ë`mÛmao ì`dñWmnZmda X~md 

Q>mH$Uo hm Vi R>moH$Uo H¥$VrMm _w»` CÔoe Amho. 

5. ~{hîH$ma (Boy cott) : `m_Üò H$m_Jma H$maImÝ`mÀ`m CËnmXZmda ~{hîH$ma Q>mH$VmV. CËnm{XV 

dñVy d godm§Mr IaoXr, dmna H$arV ZmhrV. g§nyU© g_mOmbmhr g§~§{YV H$maImÝ`mÀ`m CËnmXZmda ~{hîH$ma 

Q>mH$Ê`mgmR>r AmdmhZ Ho$bo OmVo. ì`dñWmnZmg Amnë`m Ý`mæ` _mJÊ`m _mÝ` H$aÊ`mg àdÎm H$aÊ`mMm hm 

Mm§Jbm _mJ© Amho. dñVy d godm§À`m {dH«$s_Üò IamoIaM KQ> Pmë`mg H$m_Jmam§À`m _mJÊ`m _mZ H$aUo 

ì`dñWmnZmg ^mJ nS>Vo. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMr H$maUo (Causes of Industrial Disputes) 

_mbH$ dJ© d H$m_Jma dJ© `m§À`m_Üò AZoH$ H$maUm§_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dy eH$VmV. Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

H$bhm_mJrb H$maUmMo àm_w»`mZo VrZ àH$mam§_Üò dJr©H$aU Ho$bo OmVo. CXm. Am{W©H$, Am{W©Ho$Va d amOH$s`. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo Xwîn[aUm_ ^`mZH$ AgVmV. Ë`m_Üò CÚmoJjoÌmer g§~§{YV gd© KQ>H$ hmoaniyZ {ZKVmV. 

`m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm_mJrb H$maUo emoYUo, Aä`mgUo, {díbo{fV H$aUo AË`mdí`H$ R>aVo. 

(A) Am{W©H$ H$maUo : 

H$m_Jma Ag§Vmofm_mJrb _w»` H$maU åhUOo Am{W©H$ KQ>H$ hmo`. H$m_Jmam§Zm Ë`m§À`m emar[aH$ H$ï>mMm, 

godoMm, H$m¡eë`mMm `mo½` _mo~Xbm XoUo ho ì`dñWmnZmMo AmÚ H$V©ì` Amho. na§Vw `m H$V©ì`mV ì`dñWmnZmZo 

Hw$MamB© Ho$ë`mg Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dÊ`mMr XmQ> eŠ`Vm AgVo. Am{W©H$ H$maUm_Üò Imbrb à_wI 

H$maUm§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

67

1. doVZ : H$m_Jmam§Zm Ë`m§À`m H$m_mMm, H$ï>mMm `mo½` _mo~Xbm {_i{dÊ`mMm _yb^yV A{YH$ma Amho. 

H$m_Jmamg `mo½` doVZ {_imë`mg Ë`mÀ`m Hw$Qw>§~mÀ`m gd© JaOm ^mJyZ Ë`mbm H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ ñdmñÏ` àmá hmoVo. 

Am{W©H$ {dd§MZoVyZ Vmo _wŠV hmoVmo. `m_wio H$m_Jma dJ© gVV A{YH$ doVZmgmR>r PJS>V AgVmo. doVZàíZr 

XmoKm§Zrhr åhUOoM _mbH$ d H$m_Jma `m§Zr Q>moH$mMr ^y{_H$m ñdrH$maë`mg Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh dmT>V OmVmo. 

dmT>Vr _hmJmB©, amhUr_mZmMm IM© `m_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm nwaogo doVZ XoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. _yi doVZmda BVa 

^Î`m§Mr a¸$_ Adb§~yZ Agë`mZo H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm§Mm _yi doVZ dmT>{dÊ`mda â AgVmo. CXm. _hmJmB© ^Îmm, 

eha ^Îmm, Ka^mS>o ^Îmm, {Zd¥Îmr doVZ, CËnmXZ B. WmoS>Š`mV, doVZdmT> ho Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo à_wI H$maU 

Amho. 

2. {d{dY ^Îmo : H$m_Jmam§Zm _yi doVZm~amo~a BVahr ^Îmo {Xbo OmVmV. CXm. _hmJmB© ^Îmm, eha ^Îmm, 

dmhVyH$ ^Îmm, Ka^mS>o ^Îmm, YwbmB© ^Îmm B. `m ^Î`m§Mo à_mU _yi doVZmda Adb§~yZ AgVo. H$m_Jmam§Zm 

H$m_mer g§~§{YV Agboë`m IMmªMr ânmB© XoÊ`mgmR>r Ë`m§Zm `mo½` amhUr_mZmZo OJVm òÊ`mgmR>r Ago ^Îmo 

{Xbo OmVmV. ^Îmm hm doVZmMmM EH$ ^mJ Amho. na§Vw H$moUVo ^Îmo Úmd`mMo? d {H$Vr Úmd`mMo? hm dmXmMm 

_wÔm AgVmo. ^Î`m§~m~V H$m_Jma AdmñVd _mJUr H$aV AgVrb Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo àg§J CX²^dVmV. 

3. ~moZg d OmXm H$m_mMm _mo~Xbm : AmYw{ZH$ AW©ì`dñWoV "~moZg' hm H$m_Jmam§Mm Ý`mæ` h¸$ 

g_Obm OmVmo. ~moZg ho {db§{~V doVZ g_Obo OmVo. ~moZgÀ`m A[^bmfoZo H$m_Jma df©â àm_m{UH$nUo, 

H$m`©j_VoZo H$m_ H$aVmV. Aem doir ì`dñWmnZmZo H$m_Jmam§Zm `mo½` XamZo ~moZg XoD$Z Ë`m§À`m Xrnmdbr 

AmZ§XmV gh^mJr Pmbo nm{hOo. na§Vw H$mhr _mbH$ H$m_Jmam§Zm `mo½` XamZo ~moZg XoÊ`mg ZmIwe AgVmV. Aem 

n[apñWVrV H$m_Jmam§À`m ^mdZm§Mm CÐoH$ hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. `m_YyZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kfm©g Vm|S> \w$Q>Vo. 

H$maImÝ`mH$S>o J«mhH$m§À`m AmXoemMr g§»`m OmñV Agob d Vo bdH$a nyU© H$aUo Amdí`H$ Agob Va 

H$m_Jmam§Zm {Z`{_V H$m_mÀ`m doionojm OmXm doi H$m_ H$aÊ`mg gm§{JVbo OmVo. gm_mÝ`V: {Z`{_V doioÀ`m 

doVZXamÀ`m XwßnQ> doVZXa OmXm doiogmR>r {Xbm OmVmo. CXm. {Z`{_V H$m_mÀ`m doioMm doVZXa Vmgmbm é. 

20 Agob d H$m_JmamZo {Z`{_V doioZ§Va AmUIr EH$ Vmg OmXm H$m_ Ho$bo Va H$m_Jmamg `m OmXm VmgmMo 

doVZ é.40 {Xbo OmB©b. OmñVrMo H$m_ d OmñVrÀ`m H$m_mMm doVZXa `m H$maUm_wio H$m_Jma d ì`dñWmnZ 

`m§Mm g§Kf© hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

4. nJmar aOm : H$m_Jmam§Zm AZoH$ H$maUm§_wio aOm KoÊ`mMr JaO AgVo. CXm. ñdV:Mm AmOma, 

Hw$Qw>§~mVrb ì`ŠVtMm AmOma, _mZ{gH$ AñdmñÏ`, Ym{_©H$ CËgd, gU, gm_m{OH$, gmd©O{ZH$ g_ma§^, 

H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ AS>MUr, b¾, _w§O, dmT>{Xdg B. `mo½` H$maUm§gmR>r H$m_Jmam§Zm nJmar aOm XoUo C{MV R>aVo. 

H$m_Jmam§Zm df©âmV {H$_mZ 12 Vo 15 nJmar aOm XoÊ`mMr gmo` Agmdr. na§Vw H$m_Jmam§Zm `mo½` H$maUm§gmR>r 

nJmar aOm Z {Xë`mg Vo Ag_mYmZr, Ag§Vwï> ~ZVmV. `m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

5. nJmar gwÅ>r : EH$mM àH$maMo H$m_ gVV Ho$ë`mZo H$m_Jmam§Mm emar[aH$ WH$dm, H§$Q>mim, {ZéËgmh 

dmT>V OmVmo. `mMm à{VHy$b n[aUm_ Ë`m§À`m H$m`©j_Voda hmoVmo. `mgmR>r H$m_Jmam§Zm H$mhr {Xdg {dlm§VrgmR>r 

gwÅ>r XoUo `mo½` R>aVo. `m_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm emar[aH$, _mZ{gH$ ñdmñÏ` bm^yZ Vo VmOoVdmZo hmoD$Z, Omo_mZo H$m`© 

68

H$aÊ`mg V`ma hmoVmV. na§Vw H$mhr _mbH$ nJmar gwÅ>r XoÊ`mg V`ma ZgVmV. n[aUm_V: H$m_Jma d _mbH$ 

`m§À`mVrb Xar é§XmdV OmVo. 

6. Zâ`mV {hñgm : CËnmXZ gmYZm§_Yrb H$m_Jma hm EH$_od KQ>H$ gOrd Amho. Vmo Amnë`m 

~wÕrÀ`m, H$m¡eë`mMm Cn`moJ H$ê$Z CËnmXZmÀ`m BVa gmYZm§H$Sy>Z H$m`© H$ê$Z KoV AgVmo. åhUOo g§KQ>ZoMo 

è, Z\$m, ~è`mM A§er H$m_Jma dJm©À`m ghH$m`m©da, à{VgmXmda Adb§~yZ AgVmo. Ë`m_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm 

Zâ`mVrb `mo½` {hñgm XoUo Amdí`H$ R>aVo. na§Vw ì`dñWmnZ H$m_Jmam§Mm hm Ý`mæ` A{YH$ma _mJUr S>mdbV 

Agob Va H$m_Jma Ag§Vmof dmTy>Z Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dy eH$Vmo. 

7. H$m_mÀ`m doim : H$m_Jmam§À`m H$m_mÀ`m doim `mo½` Agmì`mV. H$m_Jmam§Zm EH$mM doir AmR> 

Vmgm§nojm OmñV H$m_ H$amdo bmJy Zò. H$m_mÀ`m doioV {dlm§VrMr doi A§V^y©V Agmdr. H$m_mÀ`m nmirV 

AmR>dS>çmZo ~Xb H$amdm. gVV amÌnmir XoD$ Zò. `m_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm H$m`©g_mYmZ bm^Vo. na§Vw ì`dñWmnZmZo 

H$m_mMo doio~m~V A`mo½`, AÝ`m`H$maH$ YmoaU ñdrH$mabo Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh dmT>rg bmJVmo. 

8. amhUr_mZmÀ`m IMm©V dmT> : ~mOmamVrb _hmJmB© H$_r Z hmoVm {Xdg|{Xdg dmT>V Agbobr 

{XgVo. JJZmbm {^S>boë`m _hmJmB©_Üò gd©gm_mÝ` _mUgmbm OrdZ H§$R>Uo _wíH$sb Pmbo Amho. amhUr_mZmMm 

IM© dmT>ë`mZo X¡Z§{XZ IMm©Mr Vm|S>{_idUr H$aUohr AdKS> Pmbo Amho. Aem n[apñWVrV H$m_Jmam§Zm `mo½` 

amhUr_mZmZo OJVm òB©b d Vo Am{W©H$ {dd§MZoVyZ _wŠV hmoVrb BVHo$ doVZ XoUo ì`dñWmnZmMo H$V©ì` R>aVo. 

na§Vw ì`dñWmnZmZo `m H$V©ì`nyVuMr Q>mimQ>mi Ho$br Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh {Z_m©U hmoVmV. 

9. doVZ _§S>imÀ`m {e\$maer~m~V Q>mimQ>mi : H$m_Jmam§Mo doVZ, doVZXa, doVZloÊ`m {ZpíMV 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r d Ë`m_Üò doimodoir gwYmaUm H$aÊ`mgmR>r doVZ_§S>io ñWmnZ Ho$br OmVmV. doVZ _§S>imZo Ho$boë`m 

{e\$maer ì`dñWmnZmZo bJoM _mÝ` H$ê$Z A§_bmV AmUë`m nm{hOoV. na§Vw doVZ_§S>imÀ`m {e\$maer bmJy 

H$aÊ`mg ì`dñWmnZ Q>mimQ>mi, {Xa§JmB© H$aV Agob Va H$m_Jmam§Mm g§Vmn dmT>V OmVmo. H$mhr doiog 

doVZ_§S>imÀ`m {e\$maer H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zog _mÝ` ZgVmV d `m {e\$maer ì`dñWmnZ A§_bmV AmUÊ`mMm 

à`ËZ H$arV Agob Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kfm©g gwédmV hmoVo. 

10. H$m_Jma âVr-~T>Vr~m~V MwH$sMo YmoaU : H$m_Jma âVr ~T>Vr~m~V ì`dñWmnZ MwH$sMo, 

njnmVr, AÝ`m`H$maH$, d{ebo~mOrMo YmoaU Adb§~V Agob Va àm_m{UH$, JwUdmZ H$m_Jmam§Mo ZwH$gmZ hmoVo. 

Ë`m§À`mda AÝ`m` hmoVmo. `m_wio H$m_Jma dJm©V ì`dñWmnZm~m~V MrS>, g§Vmn {Z_m©U hmoVmo. g§VmnmMm A{VaoH$ 

Pmë`mg Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kfm©g Vm|S> \w$Q>Vo. 

11. H$m_Jma H$nmV : ì`dñWmnZmZo H$m_Jmam§Zm godoMr nyU© emídVr/h_r {Xbr nm{hOo. `m_wio 

H$m_Jmam§Zm H$m`© d _mZ{gH$ g_mYmZ bm^Vo. `mCbQ> H$m_Jmam§À`m S>moŠ`mda H$nmVrMr gVV Q>m§JVr Vbdma 

Agob Va Ë`m§Mo emar[aH$, _mZ{gH$ ñdmñÏ` {~KS>Vo. _mZ{gH$ Ag§VwbZm_wio H$m_Jma ^S>H$VmV d `mVyZ 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kf© noQ>Ê`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

12. AÚ`mdV d ñd`§M{bV `§ÌmMm dmna d g§JUH$sH$aU : àËòH$ CÚmoOH$ ì`dgm` {dñVmamMo, 

{dH$mgmMo ñdßZ ~KV AgVmo. OmñV Z\$m {_i{dUo ho Va àËòH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo _yb^yV Üò` AgVo. `mgmR>r 

69

ì`dñWmnZ ZdZdrZ `moOZm§Mr AmUIr H$arV AgVo. CXm. AmYw{ZH$sH$aU, `m§{ÌH$sH$aU, dmOdrH$aU, 

ñd`§MbZ, g§JUH$sH$aU B. Aem AÚ`mdV `§ÌmMm, V§ÌkmZmMm Adb§~ Ho$ë`m_wio _moR>çm à_mUmda CËnmXZ, 

CËnmXZmÀ`m XOm©V dmT>, CËnmXZ IMm©V ~MV n`m©`mZo A{YH$ Z\$m hr Üòò g\$b hmoVmV. `m_wio ì`dñWmnZ 

gVV `m `moOZm§Mm nwañH$ma, nmR>nwamdm H$aV AgVmo. na§Vw `m `moOZm_wio H$m_Jma g§»òV KQ> hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm 

AgVo. H$mhr H$m_Jma godoVyZ H$_r, ~oH$ma hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. `m_wio H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm Aem `moOZm§Zm 

H$S>mSy>Z {damoY H$aVmV. n[aUm_V: Am¡Úmo{JH$ Ag§Vmof C\$miyZ òVmo. 

13. Am{W©H$ {df_Vm d Zâ`mMr A`mo½` {d^mJUr : ^maVmbm ñdmV§Í` {_imë`mZ§Va Am¡Úmo{JH$s- 

H$aUmÀ`m à{H«$òg JVr {_imbr. emgZmZo CÚmoJY§ÚmÀ`m {dH$mgmgmR>r CXma, ghH$m`m©Mo, gdbVrMo YmoaU 

ñdrH$mabo. CÚmoOH$m§Zr `m YmoaUmMm bm^ CR>dyZ Amnë`m CÚmoJjoÌmMo Omio {dñVmabo. H$mhr CÚmoOH$m§Zr 

ñdV:Mo Am¡Úmo{JH$ gm_«mÁ` àñWm{nV Ho$bo. na§Vw {dH$mgmMr \$io H$m_Jmam§Zm {_imbr ZmhrV. Zâ`mVrb WmoS>m 

{hñgm H$m_Jmam§À`m doVZmda IM© H$aÊ`mV Ambm. `m_wio CÚmoOH$ d H$m_Jma `m§À`mVrb Am{W©H$ {df_VoMr 

Xar é§XmdV Jobr. n[aUm_V: H$m_Jmam§Mm Ag§Vmof dmTy> bmJbm. Ë`m_wioM ^maVr` CÚmoJjoÌmV gVV 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dV Agbobo {XgyZ òVmV. 

(~) Am{W©Ho$Va H$maUo : 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh Oar _w»`V: Am{W©H$ H$maUm_wio CX²^dV Agbo Var, Am{W©Ho$Va H$maUm_wio CX²^dUmè`m 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo à_mU Xwb©j H$aÊ`mBVHo$ H$_r Zmhr. Am{W©Ho$Va H$maUm§_Üòhr H$m_Jmam§Mo {hVg§~§Y Jw§Vbo 

Agë`mZo Vo Am{W©H$ KQ>H$mBVHo$M Am{W©Ho$Va KQ>H$m§Zm _hÎd XoVmV. `m_wio ì`dñWmnZmg Am{W©Ho$Va 

H$maUm§Mmhr ghmZw^yVrZo {dMma H$amdm bmJVmo. AÝ`Wm Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

1. Ag_mYmZH$maH$ H$m`©pñWVr : H$m_Jma H$maImÝ`m_Üò Á`m{R>H$mUr H$m_ H$aVmV VoWrb 

dmVmdaU, H$m`©n[apñWVr hr CËgmhdY©H$, Amamo½`Xm`H$ AgUo Amdí`H$ R>aVo. Ë`m_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm H$m`©g_mYmZ, 

emar[aH$ ñdmñÏ`, _mZ{gH$ ñdmñÏ` bm^Vo. `mbCQ> H$m`©pñWVr {ZéËgmhr, H§$Q>midmUr d Amamo½`mg 

hmZrH$maH$ Agob Va Ë`mMo à{VHy$b n[aUm_ H$m_Jmam§À`m earamda, _Zmda hmoVmV. Ë`m§Mm {MS>{MS>onUm, 

g§Vmn dmT>V OmVmo. `mVyZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh dmT>V OmVmo. 

2. H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm§Zm _mÝ`Vm : CÚmoOH$m§Mm H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm§H$S>o ~KÊ`mMm Ñ{ï>H$moU nyd©J«hXy{fV, 

g§Hw${MV Agob Va `mVyZ AZoH$ g_ñ`m CX²^dVmV. CÚmoOH$ H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zog _mÝ`Vm XoV ZmhrV. g§KQ>Zm 

ñWmnZog {damoY H$aVmV. ZdrZ, ñdV:À`m à^mdmImbr AgUmè`m g§KQ>Zog _mÝ`Vm, {VÀ`m {dñVmamgmR>r 

à`ËZ, H$m_Jma ZoVo {dH$V KoUo, H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm§_Üò ^m§CUo bmdUo, g§n \$moS>Uo, g§KQ>ZoMo IƒrH$aU H$aUo 

B. CÚmoOH$m§À`m Aem AZ¡{VH$ ~oH$m`Xoera, {d¿Zg§Vmofr d¥Îmr d H¥$Vr_wio H$m_Jma dJ© g§VßV hmoVmo. Ë`m§Mr 

_mbH$ {damoYr ^mdZm Vrd« hmoVo. H$m_Jmam§Mm Ag§Vmof dmT>rg bmJVmo. 

3. ~oH$m`XoeranUo H$m_Jmam§Zm godoVyZ H$_r H$aUo : AH$m`©j_, ~o{eñV, Mmoar, _mam_mar Ho$boë`m, 

CÕQ> H$m_Jmam§Zm godoVyZ H$_r Ho$bo Va g§KQ>Zm Ë`m§À`m nm{R>er amhV Zmhr. na§Vw CÚmoOH$mZo ~oH$m`XoeranUo, 

nyd©J«hXy{fVnUmZo, AÝ`m`mZo àm_m{UH$, JwUdmZ H$m_Jmam§Zm godoVyZ H$_r Ho$bo Va H$m_Jma {~WaVmV. g§Vá 

70

hmoVmV. H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm _mbH$m§À`m `m H¥$Vrg {damoY H$aÊ`mgmR>r Am§XmobZ N>oS>VmV. `m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh 

CX²^dVmo. 

4. H$m_Jmam§Mr \$gdUyH$ : H$mhr CÚmoOH$ H$m_Jmam§Mr \$gdUyH$ H$aÊ`mgmR>r gVV ZdZdrZ _mJ© 

emoYV AgVmV. H$m_Jmam§À`m \$gdUwH$s_Üò Ë`m§Mm ñdmW© XS>bobm AgVmo. na§Vw Á`mdoir AÝ`m`mMm A{VaoH$ 

hmoVmo. Ë`mdoir H$m_JmadJ© EH$Ì òD$Z _mbH$mÀ`m \$gdUwH$sÀ`m YmoaUm{déÕ bT>m C^maVmV. `m_wio 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kf© noQ>V OmVmo. H$m_Jmam§Zm H$_r doVZ, OmXm H$m_, OmñV doi H$m_, ^Îmo, ~moZg XoÊ`mg ZH$ma, 

A`mo½` H$m`©pñWVr, ~T>Vr, ~XbrMo Am{_f, H$ë`mUH$mar `moOZm§~m~V ImoQ>r AmídmgZo, àbmo^Zo XmIdyZ 

H$m_Jmam§Mr \$gdUyH$ d {nidUyH$ Ho$br OmVo. 

5. _mbH$-H$m_Jma d¡_Zñ` : H$m_Jma-_mbH$, H$m_Jma-ì`dñWmnZ, H$m_Jma-H$m_Jma `m§À`mVrb 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y ghH$m`m©Mo, {dídmgmMo, gm_§Oñ`mMo AgVrb Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mgmbm MmbZm {_iVo. 

`mCbQ> `m KQ>H$m§Vrb g§~§Y H$Qw>VoMo, A{dídmgmMo, J¡ag_OmMo, ÛofmMo, _ËgamMo AgVrb Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

g§~§Y {~KSy>Z Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh dmTy>Z Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm ^§J nmdVo. 

6. g§KQ>Zm§Mo nañna {damoYr YmoaU : amOH$s` nwT>mar, H$m_Jma ZoVo ñdV:À`m ñdmWm©gmR>r, ApñVËdmgmR>r 

ñdV§Ì H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm ñWmnZ H$aVmV. `m_wio EH$mM H$maImÝ`mV, CÚmoJmV XmoZ-VrZ H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm 

ApñVËdmV Agboë`m {XgVmV. àËòH$ ZoVm ñdV:À`m g§KQ>ZoMo H$m`©joÌ d g^mgX dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r à`ËZerb 

AgVmo. àËòH$ g§KQ>Zm H$moUË`mVar amOH$s` njmÀ`m n«^mdmImbr AgVo. `m_wio àËòH$ g§KQ>ZoMr {dMmagaUr, 

H$m`©nÕVr {^Þ Agbobr {XgVo. H$mhr g§KQ>Zm Ohmb_VdmXr AgVmV Va H$mhr _dmi_VdmXr AgVmV. 

Ë`m_wio Ë`m§À`mV bhmZghmZ H$maUmdê$Z g§Kf© hmoV AgVmo d Ë`mMo ê$nm§Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmV hmoV AgVo. 

H$mhr g§KQ>Zm§_Üò BVHo$ eÌwËd AgVmo H$s, Vo ñdV:À`m {hVmgmR>r H$m_Jma {hVmH$S>ohr Xwb©j H$aVmV. 

7. d¡`{ŠVH$ H$maUo : H$m_Jmam§À`m d¡`{ŠVH$ H$maUm§_wiohr Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kfm©g dmMm \w$Q>bobr {XgVo. 

CXm. aOm, J¡ahOoar, {ejm, X§S>, {eñV^§J H$madmB©, d¡`{ŠVH$ Ûof, _mZhmZr B. {H$aH$moi na§Vw d¡`{ŠVH$ 

ñdê$nmÀ`m H$maUm§_wio H$m_Jmam§_Yrb Ag§Vmof dmT>V OmVmo. d[aîR>m§H$Sy>Z An_mZ, njnmVr dmJUyH$, AÝ`m`, 

~Xbr, nXmdZVr, doVZ H$nmV, ~T>Vr ZmH$maUo, à{ejUmMr g§Yr, BVa gw{dYm Z nwa{dUo B. d¡`{ŠVH$ 

H$maUm§Zmhr H$mhr doiog gmd©O{ZH$ ñdê$n àmá hmoD$Z Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kf© CX²^dy eH$Vmo. 

8. emgH$s` YmoaUo : H|$Ð d amÁ` emgZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$m_Jmam~m~V {d{dY H$m`Xo, YmoaUo, {Z`_, 

`moOZm Omhra H$aV AgVo. _w»`V: H$m_Jma {hVajUmgmR>r, g§dY©ZmgmR>r hr YmoaUo AmIbr OmVmV. na§Vw 

YmoaUm§Mr g§{X½YVm, _mbH$Ym{O©Ur YmoaUo, YmoaUm{df`r J¡ag_O, Anwao AmH$bZ, ^rVr B. H$maUm§_wio 

H$m_Jma emgH$s` YmoaUm§Zm {damoY H$aVmV. YmoaUm{déÕ Am§XmobZo, {ZXe©Zo H$aVmV. 

9. ghmZw^yVr XmI{dÊ`mgmR>r g§n : H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm nañnam_Yrb gbmoIm, EoŠ` {Q>H${dÊ`mgmR>r 

d Xe©{dÊ`mgmR>r EH$m g§KQ>ZoZo nwH$maboë`m g§nmg nmqR>~m XoÊ`mgmR>r BVa g§KQ>Zmhr g§nmV CVaVmV. CXm. 

àmW{_H$ {ejH$m§À`m g§nmV _mÜ`{_H$, H${Zð> d d[að> _hm{dÚmb`rZ {ejH$, {ejHo$Îma H$_©Mmar nmqR>~m 

Omhra H$aVmV. 

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10. g§XoedhZmMm A^md : ì`dñWmnZ d H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm `m§À`m_Üò àË`j, gVV g§XoedhZmMm 

A^md Agob Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh {_Q>Ê`mEodOr dmT>rg bmJVmV. `m XmoÝhr KQ>H$m§Zm EH$Ì AmUÊ`mgmR>r 

Ë`m§À`mV g_PmoVm KS>{dÊ`mgmR>r àm_m{UH$ Hw$eb _Ü`ñWm§Mr JaO AgVo. na§Vw XmoÝhr KQ>H$m§Mm nañnam§H$S>o 

nmhÊ`mMm Ñ{ï>H$moU nyd©J«hXy{fV, g§Hw${MV Agob, _Ü`ñW Aàm_m{UH$ AgVrb, g§XoedhZ `§ÌUm AH$m`©j_ 

Agob Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh dmT>V amhVmV. 

11. H$m_Jmam§Mm ì`dñWmnZmV gh^mJ : H$m_Jmam§Zm ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m à{H«$òV gh^mJr H$ê$Z 

Ë`m§À`m kmZmMm, H$m¡eë`mMm Cn`moJ g§KQ>ZoÀ`m {dH$mgmgmR>r H$ê$Z KoUo ho AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo V§Ì Amho. 

na§Vw H$mhr CÚmoOH$ H$m_Jmam§Zm {Z`moOZmÀ`m, {ZU©`mÀ`m à{H«$òV gh^mJr H$ê$Z KoÊ`mg CËgwH$ ZgVmV. 

`m_wio H$m_Jma ZmamO, CXmgrZ hmoVmV. 

12. ~o{eñV d qhgm : H$mhr H$m_Jma ~o{eñV, qhgH$ d¥ÎmrMo AgVmV. ~o{eñV H$m_Jmam§À`m 

{dÜd§gH$d¥Îmr_wio H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm ~XZm_ hmoVmV. Ago H$m_Jma ñd{hVm~amo~a BVa H$m_Jmam§Mo {hVhr YmoŠ`mV 

AmUVmV. ~o{eñV H$m_Jmam§À`m dV©Zmbm H§$Q>miyZ ì`dñWmnZ Q>mio~§Xr bmJy H$aVo. 

(H$) amOH$s` YmoaUo : 

H$m_Jma g§KQ>ZmMr {Z{_©Vr H$m_Jma Midir_YyZ Pmbr nm{hOo. na§Vw XwX£dmZo ^maVmVrb AZoH$ 

g§KQ>Zm§Mr {Z{_©Vr amOH$s` nj, amOH$s` ZoVo `m§À`m nwT>mH$mamZo Pmbobr {XgyZ òVo. amOH$s` nj ñdV:À`m 

ñdmWm©gmR>r H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm§Mm Cn`moJ H$ê$Z KoVmV. amOH$s` H$maUm§gmR>r H$m_Jmam§da Am§XmobZo H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

XS>nU Q>mH$bo OmVo. na§Vw Aem Am§XmobZmnmgyZ H$m_Jmam§Mo H$mhrhr {hV gmYbo OmV Zmhr. `mCbQ> H$m_Jmam§Mo 

AZoH$ àH$mao ZwH$gmZ hmoVo. Á`mdoir H$m_Jmam§Zm OmUrd hmoVo H$s, Amnbm Cn`moJ amOH$s` ZoË`m§Zr ñd{hVmgmR>r 

Ho$bm Ë`mdoir Vo AñdñW hmoVmV. g§VßV hmoVmV. Aem doir Ë`m§À`m hmVyZ AZw{MV àH$ma, KQ>Zm KS>Ê`mMr 

eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

1. gmå`dmXr {dMmagaUr : a{e`mZo gmå`dmXr {dMmagaUrMm Ë`mJ Ho$bm AgVm Var ^maVmVrb 

H$m_Jma ZoVo d H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm§da `m {dMmagaUrMm AOyZ ~amM à^md Amho. `m {dMmagaUrZo H$m_Jmam§Zm 

Am{W©H$, gm_m{OH$ à{VîR>m àmá H$ê$Z {Xbr. H$m_Jmam§À`m Km_mVyZ, aŠVmVyZ Zâ`mMr {Z{_©Vr hmoVo. na§Vw 

Zâ`mVrb Aën {hñgm H$m_Jmam§Zm doVZ ê$nmZo {Xbm OmVmo. `m_wio H$m_Jmam§À`m _ZmV _mbH$m{df`r K¥Um, 

MrS> {Z_m©U hmoVo. Amnë`m H$ï>mVyZ, Km_mVyZ {Z_m©U Pmboë`m n¡emVyZ _mbH$dJ© EofAmam_r, M¡ZrMo OrdZ 

H§$R>V Amho. Aer ^mdZm H$m_Jmam§À`m _ZmV {Z_m©U Pmë`m_wio Ë`m§Mm g§Vmn CJ« hmoVmo. WmoS>Š`mV, gmå`dmXr 

{dMmagaUrMm à^md H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zmda Agë`mZo _mbH$m§À`m H$m_Jma{hV{damoYr YmoaUm{déÕ àIa Am§XmobZ 

N>oS>bo OmVo d _mbH$m§Zm Ë`m§À`m AÝ`m`r YmoaUmV ~Xb H$aÊ`mg ^mJ nmS>bo OmVo. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo n[aUm_ : 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMm CX²^d AZoH$ H$maUm§_wio hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$moUË`mhr 

H$maUm_wio {Z_m©U Pmbm Var, Ë`mMo ^`mZH$ Xwîn[aUm_ Q>miVm òV ZmhrV. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmer àË`j g§~§Y 

Agboë`m CXm. H$m_Jma, _mbH$, H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm B. VgoM àË`j g§~§Y Zgboë`m CXm. J«mhH$, g_mO, amï´>, 

72

N>moQ>o, Xwæ`_, nyaH$ CÚmoJ B. Aem gd© KQ>H$m§Zm Ë`mMo Xwîn[aUm_ ghZ H$amdo bmJVmV. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo 

à_wI Xwîn[aUm_ Imbrbà_mUo AmhoV. 

1. l_{Xdgm§Mr hmZr : Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dë`m_wio _moR>çm à_mUmda l_{Xdgm§Mr hmZr hmoVo. 

g§n, Q>mio~§Xr, Koamd `m H$maUm§_wio EH$Xm dm`m Jobobo l_{Xdg naV H$Yrhr ^ê$Z H$mT>Vm òV ZmhrV. 

l_{Xdg dm`m OmVmo, åhUOo `m {Xder CËnmXZH$m`© hmoV Zmhr. Ë`m_wio amï´>r` CËnmXZ KQ>Vo. VgoM Ë`m 

{XdgmMr l_, `§Ì, D$Om© eŠVr dm`m OmVo. `m_wio amï´>mMo, AW©ì`dñWoMo _moR>çm à_mUmda ZwH$gmZ hmoVo. 

2. amï´>r` CËnÞmV KQ> : H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm d _mbH$ `m§À`mV g§Kf© CX²^dë`mg CÚmoJg§ñWm ~§X amhVo. 

CËnmXZ H$m`© ~§X hmoVo. `m_wio amï´>r` CËnmXZmV, n`m©`mZo amï´>r` CËnÞmV KQ> hmoVo. XaS>moB© CËnÞ KQ>Vo. 

AW©ì`dñWoda à{VHy$b n{aUm_ hmoVmV. eoAa ~mOmamV _§Xr òVo. Am§Vaamï´>r` ~mOmamVrb nV H$_r hmoVo. 

3. CÚmoJY§Úmda Xwîn[aUm_ : Á`m CÚmoJY§ÚmV Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh gwê$ AgVmo. Ë`m CÚmoJY§ÚmZm AZoH$ 

Xwîn[aUm_ ghZ H$amdo bmJVo. CÚmoJY§Xo ~§X Pmë`mZo ì`mdgm`rZ {H«$`m ApñVËdmV òD$ eH$V ZmhrV. 

CËnmXZmMo à_mU KQ>ë`mZo CËnmXZ IM© dmT>Vmo. pñWa IM© H$_r hmoV Zmhr, Z\$m H$_r hmoVmo. J«mhH$ 

XwamdÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm, ñnY©H$ g§ñWm ~mOmanoR> H$m~rO H$aÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm, Zmdbm¡{H$H$, nV T>mgiVo, CËnmXZ 

H$m`© OmñV H$mi ~§X am{hë`mg `§Ìo, CnH$aUo, H$ƒm _mb, AY©n¸$m _mb Iam~ hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm. 

^m§S>dbmMm dmna hmoV Zmhr na§Vw Ë`mda ì`mO Úmdo bmJVo. `m gdmªMm n[aUm_ ì`dgm`mMm VmoQ>m dmT>V OmVmo. 

ì`dgm` AmOmar nS>VmV. CÚmoJY§ÚmMr {dgO©ZmÀ`m {XeoZo dmQ>Mmb gwê$ hmoVo. 

4. J«mhH$m§Mo ZwH$gmZ : Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMr CËnÎmr d J«mhH$ `m§Mm XwamÝdòhr g§~§Y ZgVmZm Ë`mMo 

Xwîn[aUm_ V_m_ J«mhH$m§Zm ghZ H$amdo bmJVmV. H$maImZo ~§X Pmë`mZo CËnmXZ H$m`© W§S>mdVo. _mJUrÀ`m 

à_mUmV nwadR>m H$aVm òV Zgë`mZo _Ü`ñWm§À`m J¡aàH$mam§Zm D$V òVmo. CXm. H¥${Ì_ Q>§MmB©, H$mim~mOma, 

ôgi, BVa dñVy IaoXrMr gŠVr, qH$_V dmT> BË`mXr. dñVy d godm§Mm nwadR>m _`m©{XV Agë`mZo J«mhH$m§Mr 

\$gdUyH$, {nidUyH$ Ho$br OmVo. OrdZmdí`H$ dñVy, gmd©O{ZH$ CnH«$_ Aem CÚmoJm§V g§n, Q>mio~§Xr Ago 

àH$ma CX²^dbo Va gd©gm_mÝ` OZVoÀ`m hmbAnoï>m§Zm gr_m amhV Zmhr. g§n {_Q>ë`mdahr n[apñWVrV gwYmaUm 

hmoÊ`mg ~amM H$mi bmJVmo. g§nH$mimVrb VmoQ>m ^ê$Z H$mT>Ê`mgmR>r, H$m_Jmam§Zm Úmì`m bmJUmè`m OmXm 

doVZmMr ânmB© H$aÊ`mgmR>r ì`dñWmnZ dñVyÀ`m qH$_VrV dmT> H$aÊ`mMm _mJ© AZwgaVo. `m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

H$bhmMo Xwîn[aUm_ J«mhH$dJm©g XrK©H$mb ^moJmdo bmJVmV Ago åhQ>bo OmVo. 

5. H$m_JmamMo ZwH$gmZ : Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm_wio gdm©{YH$ ZwH$gmZ H$m_Jma dJm©Mo hmoVo. g§nH$mimV 

H$m_Jmam§Zm doVZ {_iV Zmhr. Vo AmYrM Jar~ Agë`mZo Ë`m§Mo Xm[aÐç dmT>V OmVo. Ë`m§À`m Hw$Qw>§~mda 

Cnmg_marMr, AY©nmoQ>r amhÊ`mMr doi òVo. Ë`m_wio H$m_Jma ì`gZm{YZ d H$O©~mOmar hmoVmV. Ë`m§Mo _mZ{gH$ 

g§VwbZ T>iVo. Ë`m§À`m hmVyZ AZw{MV KQ>Zm KS>VmV. Ë`m§Mo H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ ñdmñÏ` b`mg OmVo. H$maImZm OmñV 

H$mi ~§X am{hë`mg Ë`m§Mo H$m`©H$m¡eë` KQ>V OmVo. g§nmV gh^mJr Pmboë`m H$m_Jmam§Zm ì`dñWmnZmH$Sy>Z 

njnmVr dmJUyH$ {_iVo. Ë`m§Zm ~T>Vr, à{ejUg§Yr, BVa gw{dYm ZmH$maë`m OmVmV. g§n Aèñdr Pmbm Va 

ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m AÝ`m`H$maH$ AQ>tZm A{ZÀN>oZo g§_Vr XoD$Z H$m_mda hOa ìhmdo bmJVo. `mdoir H$m_Jmam§Mo 

Am{W©H$ ZwH$gmZ hmoVo. gm_m{OH$ à{VîR>m Ywirg {_iVo. ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m X~md d XS>nUmImbr H$m`_ H$m_ 

H$amdo bmJVo. 

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6. CÚmoOH$mMo ZwH$gmZ : H$m_Jma-_mbH$ g§Kfm©Mo Xwîn[aUm_ _mbH$ dJm©ghr ghZ H$amdo bmJVmV. 

H$maImZm ~§X am{hë`mZo VmoQ>m dmT>V OmVmo. CÚmoOH$mZo Ho$boë`m Jw§VdUwH$sg Agwa{jVVm àmá hmoVo. ^m§S>db 

Jw§VdUwH$sda {Z`{_V, Mm§Jë`m XamZo bm^m§e {_iV Zmhr. gm_mÝ` ^mJm§Mo ^mJ_yë` KQ>Vo. CÚmoOH$m§Mm 

Zmdbm¡{H$H$ H$_r hmoVmo. g_mOmMm CÚmoOH$mdarb {dídmg H$_r hmoV OmVmo. OZ_mZgmMm nmqR>~m H$_r hmoV 

OmVmo. `mMm bm^ ñnY©H$, n`m©`r CÚmoOH$ KoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. CÚmoOH$mZo Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kf© {_Q>{dÊ`mgmR>r 

àm_m{UH$ à`ËZ Ho$bo ZmhrV Va Ë`mMm VmoQ>m dmT>V OmD$Z Ë`mÀ`mda EH$ {Xdg H$maImZm ~§X H$aÊ`mMr nmir 

òVo. 

7. Am¡Úmo{JH$ Aem§VVm : Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmZo CJ«ê$n YmaU Ho$ë`mg Ë`m_YyZ g§n, Q>mio~§Xr, Koamd, 

_moMm©, ~{hîH$ma, {R>æ`m Am§XmobZ Ago J¡aàH$ma CX²^dVmV. Ë`m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm ^§J nmdVo. n[aUm_V: 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ Aem§VVoMo Xwîn[aUm_ CÚmoJmer g§~§{YV gd© KQ>H$m§Zm gmogmdo bmJVmV. CXm. CÚmoOH$, H$m_Jma, 

H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm, J«mhH$, nwadR>mXma, {dVaH$, g_mO, CÚmoJjoÌ, AW©ì`dñWm, Jw§VdUyH$Xma, amï´> B. Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

Aem§VVo_wio CÚmoJjoÌmV ZdrZ Jw§VdUwH$sMo à_mU KQ>Vo. `mMm {dnarV n[aUm_ amï´>mÀ`m Am{W©H$ d Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

{dH$mgmda hmoVmo. naH$s` Jw§VdUwH$sMo à_mUhr H$_r hmoVo. 

8. H$m_Jmam§À`m H$m`©joÌmV KQ> : Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm_wio H$m_Jmam§Mo emar[aH$, _mZ{gH$ ñdmñÏ` 

{~KS>Vo. g§nH$mimV H$maImZm ~§X Agë`mZo H$m_Jmam§Zm H$m_ ZgVo Ë`m_wio doVZ {_iV Zmhr. H$m_Jmam§nwT>o 

Am{W©H$, H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ g_ñ`m {Z_m©U hmoVmV. `mo½` amhUr_mZmA^mdr H$m_Jmam§Mr emar[aH$eŠVr, _mZ{gH$ 

j_Vm d Amamo½`mda à{VHy$b n[aUm_ hmoVmo. `m gdmªMm n[aUm_ H$m_Jmam§À`m H$m`©H$m¡eë`mda, H$m`©j_Voda, 

AmË_{dídmgmda d _ZmoY¡`m©da hmoVmo. `m_wio H$m_Jma g§nmZ§Va godm {Q>H${dÊ`mg, doVZdmT>rg, ~T>Vrg 

Ag_W© R>aÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

9. amï´>r` g§nÎmrMr hmZr : Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm_wio amï´>r` g§nÎmrMr An[a_rV hmZr hmoVo. l_{Xdg, 

l_eŠVr, `§ÌeŠVr, D$Om©eŠVr dm`m OmVo. Z¡g{J©H$ gmYZg§nÎmr, CËnmXZmMr gmYZgm_J«r `m§Mm Anì``, 

Anwam dmna hmoVmo. `m_wio amï´>r` CËnmXZ KQy>Z amï´>r` CËnÞmV KQ> hmoVo. amï´>mÀ`m Am{W©H$ d Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

{dH$mgmbm {Ii ~gVo. amï´>mÀ`m gdmªJrU {dH$mgmMm doJ _§XmdVmo. 

10. BVa CÚmoJm§da n[aUm_ : Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh Oar EH$m CÚmoJjoÌmV CX²^dbm Var Ë`mMo nS>gmX 

BVa CÚmoJjoÌm§V C_Q>VmV. CXm. ImU CÚmoJmV H$bh CX²^dë`mg Ë`mMo Xwîn[aUm_ bmoI§S>/nmobmX CÚmoJ, 

`§ÌmoÚmoJ B. CÚmoJm§da hmoVmV. VgoM _moR>çm H$maImÝ`mVrb H$bhmMo n[aUm_ Xwæ`_, nyaH$, bhmZ CÚmoJ 

g§ñWm§da hmoVmV. Ë`m§Mo ApñVËd YmoŠ`mV òVo. H$maU N>moQ>çm CÚmoOH$m§Mr ZwH$gmZ ghZ H$aÊ`mMr j_Vm H$_r 

AgVo. WmoS>Š`mV, _w»` CÚmoJmVrb Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm_wio g§~§{YV CÚmoJm§Zmhr Am{W©H$ A[aï>m§Zm Vm|S> Úmdo 

bmJVo. 

11. AW©ì`dñWoMr hmZr : Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMr ì`mßVr _moR>r Agob Va g§nyU© AW©ì`dñWm YmoŠ`mV 

òVo. AW©ì`dñWo_wio A{ZpíMVVoMo g§H$Q> Cô amhVo. AW©ì`dñWoVrb BVa joÌm§nwT>ohr Am{W©H$ g§H$Q>o, A{ZpíMVVoMo 

dmVmdaU {Z_m©U hmoVo. CXm. ~±qH$J, {d_m, dmhVyH$, Am`mV-{Z`m©V, dm{UÁ`, ^mJ~mOma, hþ§S>r ~mOma, 

_wÐm~mOma, _Ü`ñW dJ© B. Jw§VdUyH$Xma A{ZpíMVVo_wio AW©ì`dñWoH$S>o nmR> {\$a{dVmV. naH$s` Jw§VdUwH$sMm 

AmoK Wm§~Vmo. CÚmoOH$ ZdrZ ì`dgm` ñWmnZoMo YmS>g H$arV ZmhrV. 

74

12. gmd©O{ZH$ _mb_ÎmoMo ZwH$gmZ : g§n, Q>mio~§Xr Aem n[apñWVr_wio H$m_Jmam§Mo _mZ{gH$ g§VwbZ 

{~KS>Vo. Am{W©H$ {dd§MZm, Cnmg_ma, Hw$Qw>§~mMo hmb, ì`dñWmnZmMr _J«war B. H$maUm§Zr H$m_Jmam§Mm g§Vmn dmT>V 

OmVmo. Aem doir Ë`m§À`m hmVyZ qhgH$H¥$Ë` KS>Ê`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. CXm. Eg.Q>r. ~g, aoëdo, emgH$s` 

H$m`m©bò, H$maImÝ`mda XJS>\o$H$, Ominmoi, _mbH$, A{YH$mè`m§Zm _mahmU B. H$m_Jmam§Mr gmamgma {dMmaeŠVr 

{ddoH$ ~Yra Pmë`mZo Ë`m§À`m hmVyZ gmd©O{ZH$ _mb_ÎmoMo ZwH$gmZ hmoVo. Ë`m_wio g_mOmMo, amï´>mMo Am{W©H$ ZwH$gmZ 

hmoVo. 

13. gm_m{OH$ Aem§VVm : Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm_wio gm_m{OH$ em§VVm YmoŠ`mV òVo. H$m_Jma hm 

g_mOmMm EH$ KQ>H$ Amho. Vmo Aem§V, Ag§Vwï> Pmë`mg gm_m{OH$ em§VVog ~mYm nmohmoMVo. g§n, Q>mio~§Xr, 

Koamd, _moM}, CnmofU, ~§X `m_wio X¡Z§{XZ OZOrdZ {dñH$irV hmoVo. H$m_Jma g§Kfm©Zo CJ«ê$n YmaU Ho$ë`mg 

Ë`m_YyZ XJS>\o$H$, Ominmoi, OmVr` X§Jbr, _mam_mar, IyZ Ago J¡aàH$ma CX²^dy eH$VmV. `m_wio gm_m{OH$ 

ñdmñÏ` {~KSy>Z gm_m{OH$ em§VVm ^§J nmdVo. g_mO {dH$mgmMr à{H«$`m R>ßn hmoVo. 

14. Am{W©H$ d Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mgmbm Iri : Am{W©H$ d Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mgmMr JVr d doJ hm 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ ñW¡`© d em§VVoda Adb§~yZ AgVmo. na§Vw Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMm _w»` Xwîn[aUm_ åhUOo Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

em§VVm ^§J nmdVo. H$maImZo, CËnmXZmÀ`m {H«$`m ~§X Pmë`mZo CÚmoJg§ñWm§Mm VmoQ>m dmT>V OmVmo. EHy$U CËnmXZ 

KQ>Vo. ZdrZ Jw§VdUwH$sMm doJ H$_r hmoVmo. ZdrZ ì`dgm` ñWmnZoMo à_mU KQ>Vo. AW©ì`dñWog e¡{Wë` òVo. 

n[aUm_V: amï´>mÀ`m Am{W©H$, Am¡Úmo{JH$ àJVrMm _mJ© Iw§Q>Vmo. 

15. Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y g§Kf©_` : g§n, Q>mio~§Xr, Koamd Aem àH$mam_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y H$bw{fV 

hmoVmV. H$m_Jma d ì`dñWmnZ `m_Yrb H$Qw>Vm, Ûof, _Ëga, J¡ag_O dmT>V OmVmV. `m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh 

{ZdiÊ`mEodOr {MKiV amhVmo. n[aUm_V: H$m_Jmam§Mo emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ ñdmñÏ` hadVo. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo Xwî`n[aUm_ A{Ve` Vrd« / CJ« AgVmV. CÚmoJjoÌmer g§~§{YV gd© KQ>H$m§Zm Vo 

XrK©H$mi ^moJmdo bmJVmV. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm_wio gm_m{OH$ ñdmñÏ` YmoŠ`mV òVo. amï´>mÀ`m gdmªJrU {dH$mgmV 

AS>ga {Z_m©U hmoVmo. `m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo bdH$amV bdH$a g_yi {ZamH$aU lo`ñH$a R>aVo. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh {Z_y©bZmMo Cnm`/_mJ© : 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh hm ^maVr` CÚmoJ joÌmbm bmJbobm EH$ H$b§H$ Amho. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo Xwîn[aUm_ 

XrK©H$mb CÚmoJjoÌmg d g§~§{YV KQ>H$m§Zm ghZ H$amdo bmJVmV. `m_wio Am¡ÚmoJH$ H$bh CX²^dUmaM ZmhrV 

d CX²^dbo Var Ë`m§Mr Vrd«Vm H$_r amhrb d Ë`m§Mo bdH$a {ZagZ hmoB©b `mMr H$miOr H$m_Jma, _mbH$, 

H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm `m§Zr KoVbr nm{hOo. `m gd© KQ>H$m§er {demb, {ZînjnmVr, Ñ{ï>H$moU, XyaÑï>r, g§KQ>Zm, 

g_mO, amï´>{hV S>moù`mg_moa R>odyZ H$m`© d dV©UyH$ Ho$br, {ZU©` KoVbo Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dÊ`mMm 

àíZM {Z_m©U hmoV Zmhr. na§Vw hmVmMr gd© ~moQ>o g_mZ ZgVmV. Ë`mMà_mUo `mn¡H$s EImXm KQ>H$ ñdmWu, 

Amn_Vb~r, g§Hw${MV d¥ÎmrMm Agob Va Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh {Z_m©U hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. Aem doir 

g_mO{hVmgmR>r emgZmbm Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmV hñVjon H$ê$Z Vmo gmoS>{dÊ`mMm à`ËZ H$amdm bmJVmo. ^maVr` 

CÚmoJjoÌmV Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh Q>miÊ`mMo d {_Q>{dÊ`mMo {d{dY _mJ© Imbrbà_mUo AmhoV. 

75

(A) Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh Q>miUo (Prevention of Industrial Dispute) : 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm§Mo Xwîn[aUm_ nmhVm Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dUmaM ZmhrV `m§Mr XjVm KoUo AË`§V 

_hÎdmMo R>aVo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dë`mZ§Va Ë`m§À`m {ZamH$aUmgmR>r Cnm``moOZm H$aUo MwH$sMo R>aVo. H$maU 

Aem n[apñWVrV Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo Xwîn[aUm_ ghZ H$amdo bmJVmV. `m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dyM ZòV 

åhUyZ à{V~§YmË_H$ Cnm``moOZm H$aUo lo`ñH$a R>aVo. CXm. amoJ Pmë`mZ§Va Vmo Xya H$aÊ`mgmR>r Am¡fYo 

KoÊ`mEodOr, amoJ hmoD$M Zò åhUyZ à{V~§YmË_H$ bg KoUo ehmUnUmMo R>aVo. `mgmR>r ì`dñWmnZmZo àW_ 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$moUH$moUË`m H$maUm§_wio {Z_m©U hmoD$ eH$Vmo Ë`m H$maUm§Mm emoY KoD$Z Vr H$maUo Xya 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r à^mdr Cnm` `moOUo g§`w{ŠVH$ R>aVo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kfm©_mJrb H$maUmMo CƒmQ>Z Ho$ë`mZo 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y ÑT> hmoD$Z Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dV ZmhrV. n[aUm_V: Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo Xwîn[aUm_ 

g_mOmVrb H$moUË`mM KQ>H$mbm ^moJmdo bmJV ZmhrV. CXm. CÚmoOH$, ^mJYmaH$, nwadR>mXma, H$m_Jma, _Ü`_ 

dJ©, J«mhH$, g_mO, amï´>, emgZ B. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh Q>miÊ`mgmR>r H$m_Jma-_mbH$ `m§Zr EH$Ì Ambo nm{hOo. 

nañnam§Mo àíZ/ g_ñ`m g_OmdyZ KoVë`m nm{hOoV. {demb d ghmZw^yVrMm Ñ{ï>H$moU R>odyZ nañnam§Mo àíZ 

gmoS>{dbo nm{hOoV. nañnam§_Üò ghH$m`m©Mo, {dídmgmMo dmVmdaU {Z_m©U hmoÊ`mgmR>r àm_m{UH$ à`ËZ Ho$bo 

nm{hOoV. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh Q>miÊ`mMo à{V~§YmË_H$ _mJ© Imbrbà_mUo AmhoV. 

1. H$m`©g{_Vr (Works Committee) : Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`Xm 1947 _Yrb H$b_ 3 Zwgma Á`m 

CÚmoJg§ñWo_Üò 100 qH$dm Ë`mnojm A{YH$ H$m_Jma ZmoH$arda AmhoV qH$dm _mJrb 12 _{hÝ`mV ZmoH$arda 

hmoVo. Aem H$moUË`mhr CÚmoJg§ñWoÀ`m _mbH$mbm H$m`©g{_VrMr ñWmnZm H$amdr Agm AmXoe emgZ XoD$ 

eH$Vo. Ë`mgmR>r emgZmbm gm_mÝ` qH$dm {deof ñdê$nmMm AmXoe H$mT>mdm bmJVmo. H$m`©g{_Vr_Üò _mbH$ 

d H$m_Jmam§Mo g_mZ à{V{ZYr AgVmV. H$m_Jma n«{V{ZYtMr {ZdS> {Z{X©ï> nÕVrZo H$amdr bmJVo. CÚmoJg§ñWoV 

H$m_Jmam§Mr ^maVr` H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm H$m`Xm 1926 Imbr Zm|Xbobr H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm Agob Va Aem 

g§KQ>ZoMm g„m Aem H$m`©g{_Vrda H$m_Jmam§Mo à{V{ZYr {ZdS>VmZm KoVbm nm{hOo. na§Vw ApñVËdmV Agboë`m 

H$moUË`mhr H$m`ÚmImbr A{YH¥$V _mÝ`Vm {_imbobr CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm H$m`©g{_Vrda Amnbo 

à{V{ZYr Zo_y eH$Vo. H$m_Jma-_mbH$ `m§À`mV ñZoh^mdmMo, ghH$m`m©Mo g§~§Y àñWm{nV H$aUo, Vo {Q>H${dUo, 

XmoKm§_Yrb g_mZ {hVmÀ`m Jmoï>tda MMm© H$aUo, _V ì`ŠV H$aUo VgoM XmoKm§V H$moUË`mhr ~m~rg§~§Yr _VôX 

{Z_m©U Pmë`mg Vo {_Q>{dÊ`mgmR>r à`ËZ H$aUo hr H$m`©g{_VrMr H$V©ìò AmhoV. H$m_Jma-_mbH$ `m XmoÝhr 

KQ>H$m§Zm nañnam§À`m àíZm§Mr OmUrd ìhmdr d Ë`m§Zr EH$_oH$m§À`m ghH$m`m©Zo àíZm§Mr gmoS>dUyH$ H$amdr hm 

`m g{_Vr ñWmnZo_mJrb _w»` CÔoe Amho. `m g{_VrMo H$m`© _`m©{XV Amho. g{_Vrbm H$m_Jmam§Mo doVZ, 

ZmoH$arÀ`m AQ>r Aem {df`mda MMm© H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma ZgVmo. 

2. ñWm`r AmXoe (Standing Order) : H$m_Jma d _mbH$ `m§À`mV {H$aH$moi H$maUm§dê$Z _VôX 

{Z_m©U hmoD$ ZòV d Ë`m_YyZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dy ZòV åhUyZ CÚmoJg§ñWoMo {Z`_ V`ma H$aUo Amdí`H$ 

R>aVo. `m {Z`_m§À`m AmYmao XmoÝhr KQ>H$m§Zm nañnam§À`m h¸$m§Mr, A{YH$mam§Mr, H$V©ì`m§Mr, O~m~Xmè`m§Mr 

OmUrd H$ê$Z {Xbr OmVo. ñWm`r AmXoem_Üò XmoÝhr KQ>H$m§Mo A{YH$ma, h¸$, H$V©ìò, O~m~Xmè`m Z_yX 

Ho$boë`m AgVmV. `m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh Q>miyZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ ghH$m`© dmT>{dUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

76

1946 À`m Am¡Úmo{JH$ amoOJma ñWm`r AmXoe H$m`ÚmZwgma Á`m H$maImÝ`mV 100 nojm OmñV H$m_Jma 

AmhoV Ë`m H$maImÝ`mÀ`m _mbH$mZo H$m_Jmam§À`m gëë`mZo g§ñWoV ñWm`r AmXoe V`ma H$ê$Z Ë`mbm gaH$maMr 

_mÝ`Vm ¿`mdr bmJVo. ñWm`r AmXoem_YyZ nwT>rb ~m~t~m~V {Z`_ Ho$bo OmVmV. (1) H$m_mMo Vmg, 

H$m_Jmam§Zm H$i{dÊ`mMr nÕV (2) H$m_Jmam§Mo dJuH$aU (3) gwÅ>çm (4) nJmamMr VmarI d {Xdg (5) 

doVZXa (6) godoVyZ H$_r H$aÊ`mMr d {eñV^§J H$madmB© nÕV. 1963 À`m XwéñVrà_mUo gaH$mabm AmXe© 

ñWm`r AmXoemMo {Z`_ H$aÊ`mMm A{YH$ma àmá Pmbm Amho. Omon`ªV EImXr g§ñWm ñdV:Mo ñWm`r AmXoe 

emgZmH$Sy>Z _mÝ` H$ê$Z KoV Zmhr Vmon`ªV Ë`m g§ñWog emgZmMo AmXe© ñWm`r AmXoe bmJy hmoVmV. 

ì`dñWmnZmZo ñWm`r AmXoe l{_H$m§Zm g_OUmè`m ^mfoV V`ma H$ê$Z Vo H$m_mMo {R>H$mUr bmdbo nm{hOoV. 

ñWm`r AmXoem§Mo nmbZ H$aUo XmoÝhr KQ>H$m§da ~§YZH$maH$ AgVo. 

3. g§`wŠV g„mJma _§S>io (Joint Consultation Councils) : g§`wŠV g„mJma _§S>i hr `§ÌUm àW_ 

B§½b§S>_Üò ApñVËdmV Ambr. H$m_Jma d g§ñWmMmbH$ `m§À`m_Üò gbmo»`mMo g§~§Y àñWm{nV hmoÊ`mÀ`m 

CÔoemZo g§`wŠV g„mJma _§S>imMr ñWmnZm H$aÊ`mV Ambr. 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§ñWoV {Za{Zamù`m {df`m§gmR>r ñdV§Ì d g§`wŠV g„mJma _§S>io ñWmnZ Ho$br OmVmV. `m 

g§`wŠV g„mJma _§S>im_Üò H$m_Jma d ì`dñWmnZmMo g_mZ à{V{ZYr AgVmV. `m g{_Ë`m§_YyZ H$maImÝ`mg§~§Yr 

AZoH$ àíZm§da gImob MMm©, {dMma{d{Z_` Ho$bm OmVmo d àíZmdarb Amnë`m {e\$maer ì`dñWmnZmg gmXa 

Ho$ë`m OmVmV. g„mJma _§S>imÀ`m {e\$maer ñdrH$maUo ì`dñWmnZmda ~§YZH$maH$ ZgVo. na§Vw {e\$maer 

_mJ©Xe©H$ ñdê$nmÀ`m Agë`mZo Ë`m eŠ`Vmo ZmH$maë`m OmV ZmhrV. g§`wŠV g„mJma _§S>i Imbrb àíZmda 

{dMma{d{Z_` H$ê$Z Amnë`m {e\$maer ì`dñWmnZmg gmXa H$aVo. CXm. H$m_Jmam§Mr gwa{jVVm, H$m_mg§~§YrÀ`m 

{Z`_mV ~Xb, doioMr ~MV B. na§Vw `m _§S>imMo H$m`©joÌ _`m©{XV AgVo. hr _§S>io nwT>rb {df`mda MMm©, 

g„m_gbV H$ê$ eH$V ZmhrV. CXm. H$m_Jmam§Mo doVZ, aOoMo {Z`_, OmXm H$m_mMo Xa B. 

^maVm_Üò _moR>çm H$maImÝ`m§_Üò g§`wŠV g„mJma _§S>im§Mr ñWmnZm H$aÊ`mÀ`m CÔoemZo 1957 gmbr 

EH$ Cng{_Vr Zo_Ê`mV Ambr. `m g{_VrÀ`m {e\$maerZwgma H$mnS>, Á`yQ>, agm`Zo, H$mJX, gmIa, B§{O{ZA[a¨J, 

{g_|Q>, MhmMo _io, drO H§$nZr, ~§Xa, dmhVyH$, nmoñQ> d VmaImVo, ImUr, aoëdo B. CÚmoJY§ÚmVyZ g§`wŠV g„mJma 

_§S>io ñWmnÊ`mV `mdrV. Imbrb AQ>r ho CÚmoJY§Xo nyU© H$aV AgVrb VaM g§`wŠV g„mJma _§S>im§Mr ñWmnZm 

H$aVm òVo. 

1. H$m_Jmam§Mr g§»`m 500 nojm OmñV Agmdr. 

2. CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb H$m_Jmam§Mr g§KQ>Zm H$m`©j_ d _O~yV Agmdr. 

4. {Ìnjr` `§ÌUm (Tripartiate Machinery) : 1941 À`m H$m_Jma n[afXoZo H$m_Jma, gaH$ma d 

_mbH$ `m§Mo à{V{ZYr Agbobr H$m`_ ñdê$nmMr {Ìnjr` `§ÌUm ñWmnZ H$aÊ`mMr {e\$mag Ho$br. `m 

{e\$maerà_mUo gaH$maZo ñWm`r H$m_Jma g{_Vr ñWmnZ Ho$br. hr g{_Vr H$m_Jmam§Mo àíZ gmoS>{dÊ`mg§~§Yr 

H$m_Jma H$m`Úm§VyZ EH$dmŠ`Vm KS>dyZ AmUÊ`mÀ`m X¥ï>rZo gaH$mabm g„m XoD$ eH$Vo. Ë`mMà_mUo Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

H$bh Q>miÊ`mÀ`m Ñï>rZo H$m_Jmam§À`m _hÎdmÀ`m àíZm§da H$m_Jma, _mbH$ d gaH$ma `m§À`mV MMm© KS>dyZ 

77

AmUVo. _VôX {_Q>{dÊ`mMm à`ËZ H$aVo. hr g{_Vr {dMma{d{Z_` H$ê$Z gm_monMmamZo àíZ gmoS>{dÊ`mMm 

à`ËZ H$aVo. na§Vw `m g{_Vrbm \$mago A{YH$ma ZmhrV d hr g{_Vr Ho$di g„m XoÊ`mMo H$m`© H$aVo. 

5. VH«$ma {ZdmaU nÕVr (Grievances Procedure) : ì`dñWmnZmZo H$m_Jmam§~m~V AmIboë`m 

`moOZm, YmoaUo, KoVbobo {ZU©` `m~m~V H$m_Jmam§Mo, H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm§Mo H$mhr Amjon, VH«$mar Agy eH$VmV. 

CXm. H$m`©pñWVr, doVZ, ~moZg, ~T>Vr, Am{W©H$, Am{W©Ho$Va gdbVr B.~m~V VgoM _mbH$ qH$dm H$m_Jmam§Zr 

ñWm`r AmXoe, gaH$mar AmXoe, _mbH$-H$m_Jma H$ama `m§Mo C„§KZ Ho$bo Agob Va `m~m~Vhr Xwgè`m njmV\}$ 

VH«$ma Ho$br OmVo. ì`{ŠVJV H$m_Jma, H$m_Jma g_yh, H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm VH«$ma H$ê$ eH$VmV. àËòH$ 

CÚmoJg§ñWoV H$m_Jmam§À`m VH«$matMo Ëd[aV, `mo½` nÕVrZo {ZamH$aU H$aÊ`mgmR>r ñdV§Ì, {d{eï> nÕV, `§ÌUm 

ñWmnZ Ho$bobr AgVo. hr `§ÌUm H$m_Jma VH«$marMr Ëd[aV XIb KoD$Z Ë`mda g_mYmZH$maH$ VmoS>Jo H$mT>V 

AgVo. `m_wio VH«$matÀ`m _wimVyZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dV ZmhrV. `mCbQ> VH«$matMo {ZagZ Ëd[aV d `mo½` 

nÕVrZo Ho$ë`m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y K{Zï> ~ZVmV. 

H$m_Jmam§À`m VH«$matMo {ZdmaU H$aÊ`mÀ`m à_wI XmoZ nÕVr ApñVËdm_Üò AmhoV. 

(1) _wŠVÛma nÕVr : `m nÕVr_Üò H$m_Jma ì`dñWmnZmMr àË`j ôQ> KoD$Z Ë`m§À`mnwT>o ñdV:Mr 

VH«$ma boIr qH$dm Vm|S>r ñdê$nmV _m§S>Vmo. `m nÕVr_Üò H$m_Jmambm bdH$a Ý`m` {_iVmo. bhmZ ì`dgm`m_Üò 

hr nÕV `mo½` R>aVo. `m nÕVr_wio VH«$marMo ñdê$n d Jm§^r`© ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m bdH$a bjmV òVo. 

(2) Q>ßß`mQ>ßß`mMr nÕV : `m nÕVr_Üò H$m_Jmam§À`m VH«$marMo {ZamH$aU Q>ßß`mQ>ßß`mZo d[að> 

A{YH$mè`m§À`m gmIir_Üò Ho$bo OmVo. `m nÕVrMm CÔoe H$m_Jmam§Zm bdH$a Ý`m` {_imdm, A{YH$mè`m§_Üò 

{ZU©`j_Vm `mdr, Cƒ A{YH$mè`m§Zm _hÎdmÀ`m àíZmda bj H|${ÐV H$aVm `mdo. _moR>çm ì`dgm`mV hr nÕV 

Cn`wŠV R>aVo. `m nÕVrV VH«$matMo {ZamH$aU Imbrb Q>ßß`mVyZ Ho$bo OmVo. 

n{hbm Q>ßnm : H$m_JmamZo àW_ Amnbr VH«$ma {d^mJr` nmVir_Yrb A{YH$mè`mH$S>o H$amd`mMr 

AgVo. H$m_Jmam§À`m VH«$matMo àmW{_H$ AdñWoV {ZamH$aU H$aÊ`mgmR>r ì`dñWmnZmZo `m A{YH$mè`mMr 

{Z`wŠVr Ho$bobr AgVo. `m A{YH$mè`mZo VH«$ma XmIb Pmë`mnmgyZ 48 Vmgm§À`m AmV Amnbm {ZU©` 

H$m_Jmamg H$idm`Mm AgVmo. 

Xwgam Q>ßnm : {d^mJr` nmVir_Yrb A{YH$mè`mZo {Xboë`m {ZU©`m_wio H$m_JmamMo g_mYmZ Pmbo Zmhr 

Va Vmo {d^mJ n«_wImH$S>o VH«$ma H$ê$ eH$Vmo. {d^mJ à_wImbm H$m_JmamÀ`m VH«$marda VrZ {XdgmV {ZU©` 

¿`mdm bmJVmo. 

{Vgam Qßnm : {d^mJ à_wImZo VH«$mar~m~V KoVbobm {ZU©` H$m_Jmamg _mÝ` Zgob Va Vmo VH«$ma {ZdmaU 

g{_VrH$S>o Amnbr VH«$ma XmIb H$ê$ eH$Vmo. VH«$ma {ZdmaU g{_Vr_Üò H$m_Jma d ì`dñWmnZmMo g_mZ 

à{V{ZYr AgVmV. g{_VrZo gmV {XdgmV Amnbm {ZU©` Úmd`mMm AgVmo. 

Mm¡Wm Q>ßnm : VH«$ma {ZdmaU g{_VrMm {ZU©` H$m_Jmamg _mÝ` Zgob qH$dm g{_VrMm {ZU©` H$m_Jmamg 

{_imbm Zmhr Va Vmo Amnbr VH«$ma ì`dñWmnH$mH$S>o H$aVmo. ì`dñWmnH$mZo H$m_JmamÀ`m VH«$marda VrZ 

{XdgmÀ`m AmV {ZU©` ¿`md`mMm AgVmo. 

78

nmMdm Q>ßnm : ì`dñWmnH$mZo {Xboë`m {ZU©`mZo H$m_JmamMo g_mYmZ Pmbo Zgob Va Vmo _w»` 

ì`dñWmnH$ qH$dm g§MmbH$ _§S>imH$Co VH«$ma H$ê$ eH$Vmo. 

6. CÚmoJY§ÚmVrb {eñVrMo {Z`_ (Code of Discipline in Industries) : ~o{eñVnUm hm ^maVr` 

H$m_Jmam§Mm ñWm`r^md g_Obm OmVmo. ~o{eñV amhÊ`mV, dmJÊ`mV, H$m_ H$aÊ`mV H$mhr H$m_Jmam§Zm AmZ§X 

d _moR>onUm dmQ>Vmo. `m_wio H$m_Jmam§_Üò {eñVrMo dmVmdaU {Z_m©U H$aUo hr àËòH$ CÚmoJmnwT>rb J§^ra g_ñ`m 

Amho. H$m_Jmam§_Üò {eñV {Z_m©U H$aÊ`mMm ì`dñWmnZmZo à`ËZ Ho$ë`mg H$m_Jma, H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm Ë`mg 

{damoY H$aVmV. 

H$maImÝ`m_Üò {eñVrMo dmVmdaU Agob Va H$m`©àdmhmg `mo½` JVr, ì`dpñWVnUm àmá hmoD$Z 

CËnmXZmMo Üò` g\$b hmoVo. `mMr OmUrd emgZ, H$m_Jma, H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm, CÚmoOH$ `m§Zm Pmë`m_wio, 

CÚmoJjoÌmV {eñVrMo dmVmdaU {Z_m©U hmoÊ`mgmR>r {eñVrMo {Z`_ V`ma H$aÊ`mV Ambo. 1957 _Üò âboë`m 

{Ìnj n[afXoV H$m_mJam§À`m {eñVrMm àíZ àW_ CnpñWV H$aÊ`mV Ambm. H$m_Jma d CÚmoOH$ `m XmoÝhr 

njm§H$Sy>Z {eñV^§J hmoUma Zmhr Aem nÕVrZo {eñVrMo {Z`_ V`ma H$aÊ`mgmR>r EH$ Cng{_Vr ñWmnZ Ho$br. 

`m Cng{_VrZo XoemVrb gd© CÚmoOH$m§Zm d H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm§Zm _mÝ` hmoVrb Aem nÕVrZo {eñVrMo {Z`_ V`ma 

Ho$bo. `m Cng{_VrZo V`ma Ho$boë`m {eñVrÀ`m {Z`_m§V `mo½` Ë`m gwYmaUm H$ê$Z ho {Z`_ OyZ, 1958 nmgyZ 

gd© gmd©O{ZH$ d ImOJr joÌmVrb CÚmoJY§Úm§Zm bmJy Ho$bo. `m {eñVrÀ`m {Z`_mV H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm d 

CÚmoOH$m§Zr n[apñWVrZwê$n `mo½` Vo ~Xb H$ê$Z Ë`m§Mm A§_b Amnmnë`m CÚmoJg§ñWmV gwê$ Ho$bm. {eñVrÀ`m 

{Z`_m§Mo g§{já ñdê$n Imbrbà_mUo Amho. 

1. g§n d Q>mio~§Xr gyMZm XoD$Z H$amdr. H$m_Jmam§Zm XheV KmbUo d \$g{dUo `mg à{V~§Y H$aÊ`mV 

Ambm Amho. H$m_Jmam§À`m hiyhiy H$m_ H$aÊ`mÀ`m àd¥Îmrg {damoY Ho$bm Amho. 

2. H$moUË`mhr Jmoï>rMm EH$mM ~mOyZo {ZU©` XmoÝhr njm§Zm KoVm òUma Zmhr. 

3. gd© H$bh, VH«$mar eŠ`Vmo gaH$maZo C^maboë`m `§ÌUo_m\©$V gmoS>{dÊ`mMm à`ËZ H$amdm. 

4. H$moUVrhr VH«$ma XmIb Pmë`mZ§Va {VMr gImob Mm¡H$er H$ê$Z gdmªZm _mÝ` hmoB©b Agm VmoS>Jm 

H$mT>Uo. 

5. H$m_Jmam§À`m nyd©g§_Vr{edm` H$m_mMo à_mU dm Vmg dmT>dy ZòV. 

6. CÚmoOH$m§Zr H$m_Jma g§KQ>ZoÀ`m {dH$mgmbm _XV H$amdr. H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm d H$m_Jma `m§À`mV \y$Q> 

nmS>Ê`mMm à`ËZ H$ê$ Zò. 

7. Á`m A{YH$mè`m§À`m dV©Zm_who d H¥$Vr_wio H$m_Jma ~o{eñV dmJÊ`mg àd¥Îm hmoVmV. Aem A{YH$mè`m§da 

H$R>moa H$madmB© H$amdr. 

8. H$m_mÀ`m doioV H$m_Jmam§Zr H$m_Jma g§KQ>ZoMo H$m_ H$ê$ Zò. Am¡Úmo{JH$ Aem§VVm CX²^dob Aem 

H¥$Ë`mV gh^mJr hmoD$ Zò. 

9. CËnmXZ H$m`m©da n[aUm_ hmoB©b Ago H$moUVohr dV©Z XmoÝhr njm§Zr H$ê$ Zò. 

79

10. H$moUVmhr {ZU©`/H$ama Ëd[aV A§_bmV AmUmdm. 

11. H$m_Jma g§KQ>ZoZo H$maImÝ`mÀ`m _mb_Îmog ZwH$gmZ nmohmoMob Ago H$moUVohr H¥$Ë` H$aÊ`mg 

H$m_Jmam§Zm _‚mmd H$amdm. 

darb {eñVrÀ`m {Z`_m§Mm A§_b Ho$ë`m_wio CÚmoJg§ñWm§_Üò {eñVrMo dmVmdaU {Z_m©U hmoÊ`mg _XV 

Pmbr Amho. H$m_Jma-ì`dñWmnZ, _mbH$-H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm `m§À`m_Yrb Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y gbmo»`mMo, 

gm_§Oñ`mMo ~ZyZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm§Mo à_mU KQ>bobo {XgyZ òVo. {eñVrMo {Z`_ \$bXm`r hmoÊ`mgmR>r XmoÝhr 

njm§Zr _ZmnmgyZ, n«m_m{UH$nUo, H$m`©j_VoZo {Z`_m§Mo nmbZ H$aUo JaOoMo R>aVo. 

7. H$m_Jma H$ë`mU A{YH$mar (Labour Welfare Officer) : 1948 À`m H$maImZm H$m`ÚmZwgma 

Á`m H$maImÝ`mV 500 qH$dm Ë`mnojm A{YH$ H$m_Jma H$m_ H$arV AmhoV. Aem H$maImÝ`mV H$m_Jma H$ë`mU 

A{YH$mar Zo_Uo gŠVrMo Amho. 

H$m_Jma H$ë`mU A{YH$mè`mMr H$m`} Imbrbà_mUo AmhoV. 

1. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm§Mm à{V~§Y H$aUo, H$m_Jma d _mbH$ `m§À`mV Mm§Jbo g§§~§Y {Z_m©U H$aUo. 

H$m_Jmam§À`m VH«$matMo {ZagZ H$aUo. 

2. H$m_Jma H$ë`mUm~m~V ì`dñWmnZmg g„m, _mJ©Xe©Z H$aUo. 

3. H$maImÝ`mVrb H$m`©pñWVr, dmVmdaU d H$m_Jmam§Mr {ZdmgmMr n[apñWVr gwYmaÊ`mMm à`ËZ H$aUo. 

4. H$m_Jmam§Mr _Vo, Anojm, _mZgemó OmUyZ H$m_Jma H$bh Q>miÊ`mgmR>r ì`dñWmnZmg `mo½` Ë`m 

gyMZm XoUo. 

5. H$m_Jma d ì`dñWmnZ `m§À`mVrb àm_m{UH$ d à^mdr _Ü`ñW åhUyZ H$m`© H$aUo. 

(~) Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh gmoS>{dUo - {_Q>{dUo (Settlement of Industrial Dispute) : 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh CX²^dy ZòV åhUyZ {H$Vrhr H$miOr, I~aXmar KoVbr Var H$mhr {Z`§ÌU~mø, Ah§H$mar 

H$maUm_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kf© CX²^dVmV. H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm qH$dm ì`dñWmnZ `m§À`m A{VaoH$s, ñdmWu, nyd©Xy{fV, 

Q>moH$mÀ`m ^y{_Ho$_wio H$m_Jma Ag§Vmof dmT>rg bmJVmo d `mMr n[aUVr g§n, Q>mio~§Xr_Üò hmoVo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

H$bhmMo Xwîn[aUm_ A{Ve` ^`mZH$ AgVmV d CÚmoJjoÌmer g§~§{YV gd© KQ>H$m§Zm Vo ghZ H$amdoM bmJVmV. 

`m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo Ëd[aV d nyU©V: {ZamH$aU H$aUo AË`§V Amdí`H$ AgVo. ^maVm_Üò Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

g§Kf© gmoS>{dÊ`mgmR>r {ÌñVar` `§ÌUm {Z_m©U Ho$br Amho. 

1. VS>OmoS> (Conciliation) : 

CÚmoOH$ d H$m_Jma `m§À`mV Ag§Vmof {Z_m©U hmoÊ`mMr {MÝho Ooìhm {Xgy bmJVmV qH$dm hm g§Kf© 

àmW{_H$ AdñWo_Üò AgVmo qH$dm Ë`m g§Kfm©À`m gwédmVrÀ`m AdñWoV AgVmo Voìhm Vmo g§Kf© gmoS>{dÊ`mgmR>r 

H$m_Jma d CÚmoOH$ `m§Zr EH$Ì òD$Z Vmo VS>OmoS>rÀ`m _mJm©Zo gmoS>dmdm Aer gaH$maMr ^y{_H$m AgVo. 

H$m_Jma d H$maImZXma `m§Zr EH$Ì òD$Z nañnam§À`m AS>MUr, àíZ g_OmdyZ KoD$Z Vo VS>OmoS>rÀ`m _mJm©Zo 

80

Xya H$amdo Aer `moOZm g§Kf© gmoS>{dÊ`mÀ`m `§ÌUoVrb n{hbr nmàr Amho. H$m_Jma d H$maImZXma `m§Zr 

VS>OmoS> H$amdr åhUyZ Imbrb `§ÌUm d A{YH$ma nXm§Mr {Z{_©Vr Ho$br OmVo. 

(A) H$m_Jma d H$maImZXma `m§Mr g{_Vr (Works Committee) : 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`Xm 1947 Zwgma Á`m H$maImÝ`mV _Owam§Mr g§»`m 100 nojm OmñV Amho Ë`m 

H$maImÝ`mV H$m_Jma d CÚmoOH$ `m§Mo g_mZ à{V{ZYr Agbobr g§`wŠV g{_Vr ñWmnZ H$aUo gŠVrMo Amho. 

Aer g{_Vr ñWmnZ H$aÊ`mMo CÔoe H$m_Jma d CÚmoOH$ `m§À`mV ghH$m`© {Z_m©U ìhmdo. H$m_Jmam§À`m 

d¡`{ŠVH$ AS>MUr Xya ìhmì`mV. nañna {hVg§~§YmÀ`m {df`mda MMm© H$ê$Z {ZU©` KoUo ho AmhoV. `m g{_VrMr 

H$m`©j_Vm, Cn`wŠVVm d è CÚmoOH$ `m g{_Vrbm {H$Vr _hÎd XoVmo, g{_Vrbm {H$Vr A{YH$ma {XboV d 

{H$Vr à_mUmV g{_VrÀ`m {e\$maer àË`j A§_bmV AmUë`m OmVmV `mda Adb§~yZ AgVo. 

(~) VS>OmoS> A{YH$mar (Conciliation Officer) : 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`Xm 1947 H$b_ 4 Zwgma Am¡Úmo{JH$ joÌmVrb CÚmoJg§ñWo_Üò _mbH$ d H$m_Jma 

`m§À`m_Üò {Z_m©U Pmboë`m Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm~m~V _Ü`ñWr H$ê$Z Ë`m§À`mV VS>OmoS> qH$dm g_oQ> KS>dyZ 

AmUÊ`mgmR>r g§~§{Y gaH$ma Amdí`H$ {VVŠ`m VS>OmoS> A{YH$mè`m§Mr gaH$mar A{YnÌH$mÝdò gyMZm XoD$Z 

Zo_UyH$ H$ê$ eH$Vo. g§~§{YV gaH$ma VS>OmoS> A{YH$mè`mMr Zo_UyH$ {d{eï> joÌmgmR>r qH$dm {d{eï> joÌmVrb 

{d{eï> CÚmoJmgmR>r qH$dm EH$ qH$dm A{YH$ CÚmoJm§gmR>r VgoM H$m`_À`m qH$dm VmËnwaË`m H$mb_`m©XogmR>r 

H$ê$ eH$Vo. 

B VS>OmoS> A{YH$mè`m§Mr H$V©ìò (H$b_ 12) 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`ÚmVrb H$b_ 12 _Üò VS>OmoS> A{YH$mè`mMr H$V©ìò Z_yX Ho$br AmhoV. 

1. Á`mdoir EImÚm CÚmoJg§ñWoV AWdm g_mOmon`moJr godm g§ñWoV Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh ApñVËdmV AgVmo 

qH$dm Ver eŠ`Vm AgVo d Ë`mMr H$m`ÚmVrb H$b_ 22 Zwgma gyMZm {Xbobr AgVo Voìhm VS>OmoS> 

A{YH$mè`mZo {Z{X©ï> Ho$boë`m nÕVrZo VS>OmoS>rMr H$madmB© gwê$ H$amdr. 

2. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm~m~VrV _mbH$ d H$m_Jmam§V Ý`m` d gm¡hmX©nyU© VS>OmoS> KS>dyZ AmUÊ`mgmR>r 

VS>OmoS> A{YH$mar {dZm{db§~ H$bhmMr VnmgUr H$aVrb d VS>OmoS> hmoÊ`mgmR>r gd© ~m~tMm {dMma H$aVrb. 

C{MV VS>OmoS> hmoÊ`mgmR>r C^` njm§Zm àd¥Îm H$aÊ`mgmR>r Amdí`H$ Vo gd© à`ËZ A{YH$mè`mZo Ho$bo nm{hOoV. 

3. VS>OmoS>rÀ`m H$madmB©V Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMr qH$dm Ë`mVrb H$moUË`mhr ~m~tMr VS>OmoS> Pmbr 

Agë`mg, VS>OmoS> A{YH$mè`mZo Ë`mg§~§YrMm Ahdmb XmoÝhr njm§À`m gøm Agboë`m VS>OmoS> nÌH$mgh 

g§~§{YV gaH$maH$S>o qH$dm Ë`mg A{YH$ma {Xboë`m A{YH$mè`mH$S>o nmR>{dbm nm{hOo. 

4. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmÀ`m VS>OmoS>rÀ`m H$madmB©V VS>OmoS> hmoD$ Z eH$ë`mg, VS>OmoS>r {df`rÀ`m gd© 

à`ËZm§Mr H$madmB© nyU© Pmë`mZ§Va eŠ` {VVŠ`m bdH$a, VS>OmoS> H$moUË`m H$maUm§_wio hmoD$ eH$br Zmhr Am{U 

VS>OmoS> hmoÊ`mgmR>r H$moUVo à`ËZ Ho$bo, `m~Ôb dñVwpñWVrMr g§nyU© _m{hVr XoUmam Ahdmb gaH$maH$S>o 

nmR>{dbm nm{hOo. 

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5. VS>OmoS>rMr H$madmB© gwê$ Pmë`mZ§Va 14 {Xdgm§À`m _wXVrV qH$dm gaH$maZo R>adyZ {Xboë`m _wXVrV 

VS>OmoS> A{YH$mè`mZo Amnbm Ahdmb gaH$maH$S>o nmR>{dbm nm{hOo. 

(H$) VS>OmoS> _§S>i (H$b_ 5) (Conciliation Board) : 

VS>OmoS> A{YH$mè`mg Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh {_Q>{dÊ`mV Anè Amë`mg, emgZ, Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh 

H$m`ÚmVrb H$b_ 5 Zwgma gaH$mar A{YnÌH$mÝdò gyMZm XoD$Z VS>OmoS> _§S>imMr ñWmnZm H$ê$ eH$Vo. 

VS>OmoS> _§S>imV EH$ AÜ`j d JaOoZwgma XmoZ qH$dm Mma gXñ` AgVmV. _§S>imMm AÜ`j hr ñdV§Ì ì`ŠVr 

AgVo. Va gXñ` ho Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmer g§~§{YV XmoÝhr njm§Mo g_mZ à{V{ZYr AgVmV. à{V{ZYtMr {Z`wŠVr 

g§~§{YV njm§À`m {e\$maerZo Ho$br OmVo. VS>OmoS> _§S>imMm AÜ`j {Oëhm qH$dm hm`H$moQ>m©Mm godm{Zd¥Îm 

Ý`m`mYre AgVmo. 

B VS>OmoS> _§S>imMr H$V©ìò 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`ÚmVrb H$b_ 13 _Üò VS>OmoS> _§S>imMr H$V©ìò Z_yX Ho$br AmhoV. 

1. EImXm H$bh Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh VS>OmoS> _§S>imH$S>o gmon{dë`mZ§Va, Ë`mda VS>OmoS> hmoÊ`mgmR>r 

{dZm{db§~, Ý`m` VS>OmoS>rda n[aUm_ H$aUmè`m gd© KQ>H$m§Mr VnmgUr H$amdr. Ý`mæ` d gm¡hmX©nyU© VS>OmoS>rgmR>r 

g§~§{YV njm§Zm àd¥Îm H$amdo. 

2. VS>OmoS>rÀ`m H$madmB©V Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh qH$dm H$bhmg§~§{YV H$mhr ~m~tda VS>OmoS> Pmë`mg 

_§S>imZo Ë`mg§~§YrMm Ahdmb, g§~§{YV njm§À`m gøm{Zer VS>OmoS> nÌH$mgh gaH$maH$S>o nmR>{dbm nm{hOo. 

3. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmda VS>OmoS> Z Pmë`mg, VnmgUr nyU© Pmë`mZ§Va, VS>OmoS>rgmR>r _§S>imZo Ho$bobo 

à`ËZ d C^` njmV VS>OmoS> H$moUË`m H$maUm§Zr Pmbr Zmhr `mg§~§YrMm g§nyU© Ahdmb gaH$maH$S>o nmR>{dbm 

nm{hOo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMr n[apñWVr, dñVwpñWVr, Ho$bobr Cnm``moOZm, _§S>imMo {ZîH$f©, VS>OmoS> Z 

hmoÊ`mMr H$maUo, H$bh {_Q>Ê`mgmR>r {e\$maer B. ~m~r AhdmbmV Z_yX H$amì`mV. 

4. VS>OmoS> _§S>imH$S>o Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh gmon{dë`mnmgyZ XmoZ _{hÝ`mÀ`m AmV qH$dm gaH$maZo {Xboë`m 

_wXVrV Ë`mZo Amnbm Ahdmb gaH$maH$S>o nmR>{dbm nm{hOo. 

(S>) Mm¡H$er _§S>i (Court of Enquiry) : 

Á`m g§ñWm gmd©O{ZH$ {hV g§ñWm ZmhrV Ë`m§À`mVrb dmX {_Q>{dÊ`mgmR>r gaH$ma Mm¡H$er _§S>i Zo_y 

eH$Vo. ho Mm¡H$er _§S>i EImXm dmX gmoS>{dÊ`mgmR>r Zo_bo OmD$ eH$Vo. `m _§S>imbm EImÚm dmXmMo qH$dm 

g_ñòMo g§emoYZ H$ê$Z Ë`mg§~§YrMm Ahdmb gaH$mabm gmXa H$amdm bmJVmo. ho _§S>i EH$m ì`ŠVrMo qH$dm 

AZoH$ ì`ŠVtMo Agy eH$Vo. `m _§S>imbm Amnbm {ZU©` C^` njm§da bmXVm òV Zmhr. 

2. bdmX qH$dm _Ü`ñWr (Arbitration) (H$b_ 10 A) : 

_hmË_m Jm§YtZr Ah_Xm~mX òWrb H$m_Jma d H$mnS>{JaUr _mbH$ `m§À`mVrb Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh 

èñdrnUo {_Q>{dë`mZ§Va `m nÕVrg A{YH$ _hÎd àmá Pmbo. 1947 À`m Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`ÚmV `m 

nÕVrZo ñdoÀN>oZo bdmXm_m\©$V H$bh {_Q>{dÊ`m~m~V H$moUVrhr VaVyX ZìhVr. na§Vw 1956 À`m XwéñVr_Üò 

82

H$b_ 10 A à_mUo bdmXm_m\©$V Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh {_Q>{dÊ`mÀ`m _mJm©bm g§_Vr XoÊ`mV Ambr. `m XwéñVr 

H$m`Úmà_mUo, bdmX qH$dm _Ü`ñW Ho$di H$m_Jma H$moQ>m©Mm Ý`m`mYre, amÁ` Ý`m` _§S>imMm Ý`m`mYre, 

_Ü`dVu Ý`m` _§S>imMm Ý`m`mYre Agy eHo$b. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh ApñVËdmV AgVmZm qH$dm {Z_m©U hmoÊ`mMr 

eŠ`Vm Agob Va Vmo H$m_Jma Ý`m`mb`, Am¡Úmo{JH$ Ý`m`mb`, amï´>r` Am¡Úmo{JH$ Ý`m`mb`mH$S>o ZoÊ`mnydu 

_mbH$ d H$m_Jma qH$dm H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm AmnmngmV boIr H$ama H$ê$Z Vmo bdmXmH$S>o ZoD$ eH$VmV. hm H$ama 

{d{eï> Z_wÝ`mV Agmdm. Ë`mda gd© njm§À`m gøm Agmì`mV. `m H$amamÀ`m àVr gaH$ma d VS>OmoS> 

A{YH$mè`mH$S>o gmXa Ho$ë`m nm{hOoV. gaH$ma hm H$ama EH$ _{hÝ`mÀ`m _wXVrV gaH$mar A{YnÌH$mV à{gÕ 

H$aVo. bdmXm_Yrb gXñ`m§Mr g§»`m g_mZ Agob Va bdmX H$amam_Üò AmUIr EH$m ì`ŠVrMr "A§nmà' 

åhUyZ Zo_UyH$ H$aÊ`mMr VaVyX Agmdr. Á`mdoir bdmXm_Yrb gXñ`m§Mr _Vo g_mZ hmoVmV Ë`mdoir "A§nmà' 

bdmXmÀ`m H$m_H$mOmV ^mJ KoVmo. ñdV: {ZdmS>m XoVmo d hm {ZdmS>m ({ZU©`) bdmXmMm {ZdmS>m g_Obm OmVmo. 

bdmXmZo Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMr VnmgUr H$ê$Z Amnbm {ZdmS>m gaH$mabm gmXa Ho$bm nm{hOo. `m 

{ZdmS>çmda bdmXmÀ`m gd© gXñ`m§À`m gøm Agmì`mV. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh bdmXmH$S>o gmon{dë`mZ§Va Ë`m 

VmaoIg ApñVËdmV Agbobm d H$bhmer g§~§{YV Agbobm H$moUVmhr g§n qH$dm Q>mio~§Xrg _ZmB© H$aÊ`mMm 

A{YH$ma gaH$mabm AgVmo. _Ü`ñW, bdmX XmoÝhr njm§Mr ~mOy EoHy$Z KoD$Z Amnbo _V XmoÝhr qH$dm EH$m 

njmda bmXy eH$Vmo. bdmXmMm {ZdmS>m H$moQ>m©À`m {ZU©`mà_mUo AgVmo d Vmo XmoÝhr njm§da ~§YZH$maH$ AgVmo. 

3. Ý`m`mb`m_m\©$V g_PmoVm (Adjudication) : 

H$m_Jma d _mbH$ `m§À`mV Oa VS>OmoS> A{YH$mar qH$dm bdmX `m§À`m_m\©$V g_PmoVm hmoD$ eH$bm Zmhr 

Va Ë`m§À`mVrb H$bh {_Q>dyZ g_PmoVm H$aÊ`mgmR>r Vmo H$bh Ý`m`mb`mV XmIb H$ê$Z Ë`m§À`mda Ý`m`mb`mMm 

{ZU©` bmXÊ`mMm A{YH$ma H$m`ÚmZo emgZmbm {Xbm Amho. 1947 À`m Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`ÚmV `mo½` Ë`m 

XwéñË`m 1956 gmbr H$aÊ`mV Amë`m. 1956 À`m XwéñVrà_mUo H$m_Jma d H$maImZXma `m§À`mV g_PmoVm 

KS>dyZ AmUÊ`mgmR>r Imbrb Ý`m`mbò ñWmnZ Ho$br AmhoV. 

B H$m_Jma Ý`m`mb` 

B amÁ` Am¡Úmo{JH$ _§S>i / Ý`m`mb` 

B amï´>r` Am¡Úmo{JH$ _§S>i / Ý`m`mb` 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmMo Xwîn[aUm_ Q>miÊ`mgmR>r gaH$ma H$m`ÚmÀ`m AmYmao H$bhmV hñVjon H$ê$Z Vmo 

H$bh Ý`m`mb`mV XmIb H$aVo. Ý`m`mb`mÀ`m {ZU©`mda H$moUË`mhr njmMo Xw_V Agy eH$V Zmhr. Ý`m`mb`mMm 

{ZU©` XmoÝhr njm§da ~§YZH$maH$ AgVmo. Ý`m`mb`mZo {Xboë`m {ZU©`mMr A§_b~OmdUr gaH$maZo H$amd`mMr 

AgVo. 

B H$m_Jma Ý`m`mb` (Labour Court) (H$b_ 7) 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`ÚmÀ`m Xwgè`m n[a{eï>mV {Xboë`m ~m~tda {dMma H$ê$Z {ZU©` XoÊ`mgmR>r d 

H$m`ÚmVrb VaVwXrZwgma Ë`m§À`mda Q>mH$bobr H$V©ìò nma nmS>Ê`mgmR>r gaH$ma A{YnÌH$m_Üò gyMZm XoD$Z 

EH$ qH$dm A{YH$ H$m_Jma Ý`m`mb`m§Mr ñWmnZm H$ê$ eH$Vo. 

83

n[a{eï> XmoZ_Yrb Imbrb {df`mg§~§Yr H$m_Jma Ý`m`mb` {ZU©` XoD$ eH$Vo. 

1. CÚmoJg§ñWoÀ`m ñWm`r {Z`_mZwgma _mbH$m§Zr H$m_Jmam§Zm {Xboë`m AmXoemMm `mo½`nUm d H$m`XoeranUm. 

2. ñWm`r {Z`_m§Mm AW© d Ë`m§Mr A§_b~OmdUr. 

3. H$m_mdê$Z H$_r Ho$boë`m, ~S>V\©$ Ho$boë`m H$m_Jmamg H$m`ÚmVrb VaVwXrZwgma Ý`m` XoUo. 

4. H$m_Jmam§Zm ê$T>rZwgma {_iUmè`m gdbVr, {deof h¸$ _mbH$mZo H$mTy>Z KoVë`mg. 

5. g§n, Q>mio~§Xr H$m`Xoera Amho H$m`? 

6. n[a{eï> VrZ_Üò Z_yX Ho$bobo {df` gmoSy>Z BVa {df`. 

H$m_Jma Ý`m`mb`mda \$ŠV EH$M ì`ŠVr H$m_ H$arb Am{U {VMr {Z`wŠVr g§~§{YV gaH$ma H$aob. 

H$m_Jma Ý`m`mb`mÀ`m Ý`m`m{YemÀ`m nmÌVm Imbrbà_mUo AmhoV. 

1. Cƒ Ý`m`mb`mMm AmOr, _mOr Ý`m`mYre qH$dm 

2. {Oëhm Ý`m`mYre nXmMm qH$dm gh {Oëhm Ý`m`mYre nXmMm 3 dfmªMm AZw^d. qH$dm 

3. 7 df} Ý`m`mYre nXmMm AZw^d. qH$dm 

4. H$m_Jma Ý`m`nrR>mdarb H$m_mMm 5 df} AZw^d. qH$dm 

5. Cƒ Ý`m`mb`, Am¡Úmo{JH$ Ý`m`mb`, H$m_Jma Ý`m`mb`mV 7 df} dH$sb åhUyZ H$m`© Ho$bo Agob. 

qH$dm 

6. H$m`ÚmMr nXdr d Am¡Úmo{JH$ Ý`m`mb`mV Cnà~§YH$ qH$dm H$m_Jma Cnm`wŠV åhUyZ 5 df} H$m_mMm 

AZw^d. 

B amÁ` Am¡Úmo{JH$ Ý`m`mb` (State Industrial Tribunal) (H$b_ 7 A) 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$m`ÚmVrb Xwgè`m qH$dm {Vgè`m n[a{eï>m_Üò Z_yX Ho$boë`m H$moUË`mhr ~m~tMm 

VgoM `m H$m`ÚmZo gmon{dboë`m BVa H$moUË`mhr ~m~tda {dMma H$ê$Z {ZU©` XoÊ`mgmR>r gaH$ma A{YnÌH$m_Üò 

gyMZm XoD$Z EH$ qH$dm A{YH$ Ý`m`mb`m§Mr ñWmnZm H$ê$ eH$Vo. 

n[a{eï> VrZ_Üò g_m{dï> Agboë`m ~m~r Imbrbn«_mUo, 

1. doVZ, doVZ XoÊ`mMm H$mbmdYr, doVZ XoÊ`mMr nÕVr. 

2. _mbH$m§Zr H$m_Jmam§À`m ^{dî` {Zdm©h {ZYrg qH$dm {Zd¥Îm doVZ {ZYrg Úmd`mMr dJ©Ur. 

3. AZwJ«hmMr a¸$_, ZwH$gmZânmB© ^Îmm d BVa ^Îmo. 

4. H$m_mMo Vmg d {dlm§VrMm H$mbmdYr. 

5. nJmar aOm d gwÅ>çm. 

6. ñWm`r AmXoemì`{V[aŠV H$m_Jmam§À`m H$m_mÀ`m nmù`m. 

7. loUrZwgma H$m_Jmam§Mo dJuH$aU. 

8. ê$T>rZwgma {_iUmè`m gdbVr d {deof gdbVr H$mTy>Z KoUo. 

84

9. {eñVrMo {Z`_, {Z`_mV ~Xb d ZdrZ {Z`_ bmJy H$aUo. 

10. H$m_Jma g§»òV H$nmV hmoB©b Ago H$maImÝ`mMo dmOdrH$aU, à_mUrH$aU, `§Ìgm_J«r d V§Ìm_Yrb 

~Xb. 

11. H$m_Jmam§Zm godoVyZ H$_r H$aUo qH$dm CÚmoJg§ñWm ~§X H$aUo. 

`m Ý`m`mb`mV Ý`m`mYrenXr EH$M ì`ŠVr AgVo d {VMr {Z`wŠVr g§~§{YV amÁ` emgZ H$aVo. Cƒ 

Ý`m`mb`mMm Ý`m`mYre qH$dm 3 df} {Oëhm / gh{Oëhm / Cn Ý`m`mYre nXmMm AZw^d qH$dm 5 dfo© H$m_Jma 

Ý`m`mb`mMm Ý`m`mYre åhUyZ AZw^d qH$dm H$m`ÚmMr nXdr d 10 df} H$m_Jma Am`wŠV åhUyZ H$m`© Ho$bobr 

ì`ŠVr `m Ý`m`mb`mMr Ý`m`mYre hmoÊ`mg nmÌ g_Obr OmVo. `m Ý`m`mb`mg H$m_m~m~V g„m XoÊ`mgmR>r 

gaH$mabm Amdí`H$ dmQ>ë`mg gaH$ma XmoZ ì`ŠVtMr "Agogg©' åhUyZ {Z`wŠVr H$aVo. 

B amï´>r` Am¡Úmo{JH$ Ý`m`mb` (National Industrial Tribunal) (H$b_ 7) 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhm_Üò amï´>r` _hÎdmMo àíZ A§V^y©V AmhoV qH$dm Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmÀ`m ñdê$nm_Üò 

EH$mnojm A{YH$ amÁ`m§V AgUmè`m Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§ñWm§Mo {hVg§~§Y Jw§Vbo AmhoV qH$dm Ë`m§À`mda Aem 

H$bhmMm n[aUm_ hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm Amho, Ago _Ü`dVu gaH$mabm dmQ>ë`mg, Aem Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bhmg§~§Yr 

{ZU©` XoÊ`mgmR>r _Ü`dVu gaH$ma, gaH$mar A{YnÌH$m_Üò gyMZm XoD$Z EH$ qH$dm A{YH$ amï´>r` Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

Ý`m`mb`m§Mr ñWmnZm H$ê$ eH$Vo. 

amï´>r` Am¡Úmo{JH$ Ý`m`mb`mda EH$M ì`ŠVr H$m_ H$arb d {VMr _Ü`dVu gaH$ma_m\©$V Zo_UyH$ H$obr 

OmB©b. Cƒ Ý`m`mb`mÀ`m Ý`m`mYrenXmMm AZw^d AgUmè`m ì`ŠVrM qH$dm Cƒ Ý`m`mb`mMm Ý`m`mYre 

AgUmè`m ì`ŠVtMrM Zo_UyH$ `m Ý`m`mb`mda H$aVm òVo. 

_Ü`dVu gaH$mabm Amdí`H$ dmQ>ë`mg `m Ý`m`m{Yem§Zm g„m XoÊ`mgmR>r XmoZ "Agogg©' Mr {Z`wŠVr 

Ho$br OmVo. 

`m Ý`m`mb`mnwT>o gmXa Ho$boë`m H$bhmda H$m_Jma qH$dm amÁ` Am¡Úmo{JH$ Ý`m`mb` Ý`m` XoD$ eH$V 

Zmhr. `m Ý`m`mb`mZo {Xbobm {ZU©` XmoÝhr njm§da EH$ dfm©n`ªV Var ~§YZH$maH$ AgVmo. na§Vw gaH$ma hr _wXV 

àËòH$ doir EH$ df© `mà_mUo dmT>dy eH$Vo. hr _wXV OmñVrV OmñV EHy$U 3 df}n`ªV dmT>{dVm òVo. `m 

Ý`m`mb`mZo {Xbo`m {ZU©`mMr A§_b~OmdUr 30 {Xdgm§À`m AmV H$amdr bmJVo. H|$Ð gaH$ma `m Ý`m`mb`mZo 

{Xbobm {ZU©` \o$Q>miy eH$Vo qH$dm Ë`mV ~Xb H$ê$ eH$Vo. H|$Ð gaH$ma `m Ý`m`mb`mMm {ZU©` gmd©O{ZH$ 

{hVmÀ`m Ñ{ï>Zo ñdrH$maÊ`mg ZH$ma XoD$ eH$Vo. emgZmZo {ZU©` \o$Q>mië`mg qH$dm Ë`mV ~Xb Ho$ë`mg 

emgZmg Ë`m_mJrb H$maUo d ñdV:Mm {ZU©` bmoH$gôV gmXa H$amdm bmJVmo. 

gmd©O{ZH$ {hVmon`moJr g§ñWmVrb gd© H$bh gaH$maZo Ý`m`mb`m_m\©$V gmoS>{dbo nm{hOoV. gaH$ma 

EImÚm ImOJr CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb H$bh ñdV:À`m _ZmZo Ý`m`mb`mH$S>o gmXa H$aÊ`m{df`r AmXoe XoD$ eH$Vo. 

VgoM ImOJr CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb H$moUË`mhr EH$m njmZo emgZmH$S>o {dZ§Vr Ho$ë`mg emgZ Ë`m§À`mVrb H$bh 

Ý`m`mb`mH$S>o gwnyX© H$aVo. 

85 

��




H$_©Mmar gwa{jVVm, Amamo½` Am{U _ZmoY¡`© 

(Employee Safety, Health and Morale) 

H$moUË`mhr g§ñWoMr, g§KQ>ZoMr qH$dm amîQ´>mMr {ZYm©[aV C{Ôï>ço gmÜ` H$aÊ`mgmR>r ì`dñWmnZmbm O_rZ, 

^m§S>db, `§Ìgm_J«r, H$ƒm_mb, l_ BË`mXr KQ>H$m§Mr Amdí`H$Vm AgVo. `m gd© KQ>H$m§n¡H$s l_ / H$_©Mmar 

/ _Zwî`~i hm KQ>H$ A{Ve` _m¡ë`dmZ d _hÎdmMm g_Obm OmVmo. H$maU CËnmXZmÀ`m C{Ôï>m§Mr nyV©Vm 

àm_w»`mZo _mZdr KQ>H$mda Adb§~yZ AgVo. BVa gd© KQ>H$ {ZOud Agë`mZo Vo ñdV: {H«$`merb hmoD$ eH$V 

ZmhrV. ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m {d{dY nmVù`mda doJdoJù`m H$m`m©Mr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mgmR>r Zo_bobm A{YH$mar dJ© 

Am{U Ë`m§Mo ghmæ`H$ åhUOoM Am¡Úmo{JH$ ì`dñWmnZmVrb _mZdr KQ>H$ hmo`. H$_©Mmar dJm©Mm _mZdr 

Ñ{ï>H$moZmVyZ {dMma H$amdm bmJV Agë`mZo Ë`mg _mZdr KQ>H$ Ago åhQ>bo OmVo. CËnmXZmMr gd© g§gmYZo CXm. 

H$ƒm_mb, ^m§S>db, `§Ìgm_wJ«r, CnH$aUo BË`mXr H$m`©j_nUo hmVmiÊ`mMo Am{U JVrerb ~Z{dÊ`mMo à^mdr 

H$m`© H$_©Mmar dJm©g H$amdo bmJVo. H$_©Mmar hmM CËnmXZmVrb {H«$`merb d gOrd KQ>H$ Amho. Vmo 

CËnmXZmÀ`m BVa KQ>H$mhÿZ {^Þ AgyZ Ë`mbm ^mdZm, BÀN>m, AmH$m§jm, ~wÕr, _Z, {dMma, AmdS> BË`mXr 

AgVmV. Ë`m_wio H$_©Mmè`m§H$S>o _mZdVoÀ`m ^y{_Ho$VyZ nmhÊ`mdaM Ë`m KQ>H$mMo ì`dñWmnZmVrb ghH$m`© 

Adb§~yZ AgVo. _mZdr KQ>H$mMo Ano{jV `moJXmZ-ghH$m`© {_imbo Zmhr Va g§ñWobm Amnë`m C{Ôï>m§Mr nyV©Vm 

H$aÊ`mV AS>MUr òVmV. AWm©V CËnmXZmMo BVa gd© KQ>H$ `mo½` Ë`m XOm©Mo, `mo½` Ë`m à_mUmV CnbãY 

AgVrb, CËnmXZ H$m`m©Mo {Z`moOZ d H$m`©doimnÌH$ {H$Vrhr ì`dpñWV Ho$bobo Agbo Var Oa _mZdr KQ>H$mMo 

ghH$m`© Zgob Va CËnmXZ H$m`© gwê$M hmoUma Zmhr d CËnmXZ hmoUmaM Zmhr. åhUyZ AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV CËnmXZ 

H$m`m©V `§ÌmMm d d¡km{ZH$ V§ÌmMm {H$Vrhr _moR>çm à_mUmda dmna hmoV AgbmVar CËnmXZ H$m`m©Vrb _mZdmMo 

ñWmZ A~m{YV Amho d Vo A~m{YVM amhUma Amho. _mZdr hmVm{edm` d ~wÕr{edm` `§ÌmMr MmHo$ {\$ê$ 

eH$Uma ZmhrV Ago åhQ>ë`mg A{Ve`moŠVr hmoUma Zmhr. Ë`m_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm {_iUmam _mo~Xbm, ì`dñWmnZm~amo~aMo 

g§~§Y, H$m_Jma H$ë`mU, H$m`©dmVmdaU, H$_©Mmar gwa{jVVm, Amamo½`, _ZmoY¡`© BË`mXr KQ>H$m§Mm Ë`m§À`m 

H$m`m©da n[aUm_ hmoV Agë`mZo `m~m~V ì`dñWmnZmbm Xj Agmdo bmJVo. H$_©Mmè`m§Zr Amnë`m ~wÕrMm, 

H$ënZmeŠVrMm, {dMma d {ZU©` j_VoMm, gO©Z{ebVoMm Cn`moJ H$ê$Z H$_rV H$_r g§gmYZmV OmñVrVOmñV 

CËnmXH$Vm {_i{dÊ`mgmR>r ì`dñWmnZmZo AZwHy$b H$m`©n[apñWVr {Z_m©U H$ê$Z, Ë`m§À`m emar[aH$, Am{W©H$, 

gm_m{OH$ d Ah§H$ma OmonmgUmè`m JaOm ^mJ{dUo Amdí`H$ Amho. 

86

_mZdr KQ>H$mMo _hÎd (Importance of Human Factor) : 

àËòH$ g§ñWoMr H$m`©o hr Ë`m g§ñWoVrb ì`ŠVrdaM Adb§~yZ AgVmV. _mZdmMm à`ËZm{edm` d 

_mJ©Xe©Zm{edm` Ë`m g§ñWoVrb gd© àH$maMr gmYZ gm_J«r hr AZwËnmXH$ AdñWoVM amhVo. H$_©Mmar ho 

g§ñWoMr g§nÎmr qH$dm _mZdr ^m§S>db AgyZ _Zwî`~imMo ì`dñWmnZ ho ì`dñWmnZ H$m`m©Vrb AË`§V _hÎdmMo 

d _Ü`dVu H$m`© _mZbo OmVo. CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb _mZdr KQ>H$mMo _hÎd Imbrb ~m~rdê$Z ñnîQ> hmoB©b. 

1) A_`m©{XV j_Vm : CÚmoJ g§ñWoVrb {d{dY H$m`m©gmR>r dmnamV òUmè`m doJdoJù`m KQ>H$mn¡H$s 

_Zwî`~i hm A_`m©{XV j_Vm AgUmam KQ>H$ Amho. åhUyZ Ë`mbm _mZdr g§gmYZ (Human Resource) Ago 

åhQ>bo OmVo. V|ìhm BVa H$mhr C{Udm AgVmZmhr qH$dm _`m©{XV ^m¡{VH$ KQ>H$mVyZ Ano{jV C{Ôï>ço àmá H$aUo 

eŠ` hmoVo. 

2) BVa KQ>H$m§Mm Cn`moJ : CËnmXZmgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmè`m ^m§S>db, ^y_r, H$ƒm_mb, `§Ìgm_wJ«r 

`m KQ>H$m§Mm `mo½` Am{U H$m`©j_ dmna H$aÊ`mgmR>r _mZdr KQ>H$mbm CÚmoJg§ñWoV A{Ve` _hÎd Amho. 

CËnmXZmÀ`m gd© KQ>H$m§Mr OwidmOwid H$aUo, Ë`mV g_Ýd` gmYZo Am{U Ë`m§Mm CËnmXZmgmR>r H$m`©j_VoZo 

Cn`moJ H$ê$Z g§ñWoÀ`m C{Ôï>m§Mr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mV _mZdr KQ>H$mMo _moR>o `moJXmZ AgVo. qH$~hþZm _mZdr 

KQ>H$m{edm` CËnmXZmÀ`m BVa KQ>H$m§Mm CËnmXZmgmR>r dmna H$aUo eŠ`M Zmhr. 

3) CËnmXZ dmT> : CÚmoJ g§ñWoÀ`m Ano{jV C{Ôï> nyV©VogmR>r, Ë`m g§ñWoÀ`m CËnmXZmV dmT> hmoUo JaOoMo 

AgVo. Ë`mgmR>r CËnmXZmÀ`m BVa KQ>H$mZm EH$Ì AmUyZ Am{U Ë`m§Mm _hÎm_ dmna H$ê$Z CËnmXZmV dmT> 

KS>dyZ AmUÊ`mgmR>r _mZdr KQ>H$ Amdí`H$ R>aVmo. CËnmXZmÀ`m gd© KQ>H$mZm `mo½` {XeoZo, `mo½` Vr JVr 

XoD$Z CËnmXZmV dmT> KS>dyZ AmUÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar _mZdr KQ>H$ nma nmS>Vmo. _mZdr KQ>H$m{edm` CËnmXZmMo 

H$m`© eŠ` Zmhr. åhUyZ `mo½` _mZdr g§gmYZ {Z`moOZ H$ê$Z, Ë`mH$Co _mZdVoÀ`m Ñ{ï>H$moUmVyZ nmhÿZ, Ë`m§À`m 

Amdí`H$ JaOm§Mr nyV©Vm Ho$ë`mg CÚmoJg§ñWoÀ`m CËnmXZ j_VoV dmT> hmoVo. 

4) _yb^yV KQ>H$ : _mZdr KQ>H$mÀ`m àJë^VodaM ì`dgm{`H$ qH$dm AÝ` g§ñWmMo è Ad§~yZ Amho. 

H$maU _Zwî`~i / H$_©Mmar hmM g§KQ>Zobm JVrerb OrdZ àmá H$ê$Z XoUmam KQ>H$ Amho. VmoM CËnmXZmVrb 

_yb^yV KQ>H$ Amho. CËnmXZmÀ`m BVa KQ>H$m§Mm dmna H$gm H$amdm ho _mZdr KQ>H$mdaM Adb§~yZ Agë`mZo 

_mZdr KQ>H$m{edm` BVa KQ>H$ H$m`©aV hmoD$M eH$Uma ZmhrV. åhUyZM _mZdr KQ>H$mH$S>o _mZdVoÀ`m 

^y{_Ho$VyZ nm{hë`m{edm` g§ñWobm Amnë`m C{Ôï>m§Mr nyV©Vmhr H$aVm òV Zmhr. 

5) dmT> Am{U {dH$mg : H$_©Mmar hmM EH$ CËnmXZmMm Agm EH$_od KQ>H$ Amho H$s Á`mMm {dH$mg 

H$aVm òVmo. Ë`mbm `mo½` _mJ©Xe©Z H$ê$Z, à{ejU XoD$Z, àoaUm XoD$Z, godmgw{dYm CnbãY H$ê$Z Ë`mÀ`m 

emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ j_VoV dmT> H$aVm òVo Am{U CÚmoJg§ñWoMm {dH$mg gmYVm òVmo. _mZdr KQ>H$mMm 

{dH$mg Pmbm VaM BVa KQ>H$m§Mm {dH$mg hmoÊ`mg IynM _XV hmoVo. H$_©Mmar hoM CËnmXZ KQ>H$m§Mm 

H$miOrnyd©H$ d H$m`©j_VoZo dmna H$ê$ eH$VmV. ghm{OH$M Ë`m KQ>H$m§Mm {dH$mg hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. 

WmoS>Š`mV _mZdr KQ>H$mÀ`m {dH$mgm{edm` BVa KQ>H$m§Mm {dH$mg eŠ` Zmhr. 

6) IMm©V H$nmV d Z\$m d¥Õr : AmOÀ`m ñnYm©Ë_H$ n[apñWVrV àËòH$ g§ñWm§Zm {H$_mZ IMm©V d 

87

g§gmYZmV H$_mb g§nÎmr d \$bàmár {_i{dUo H«$_àmá Pmbo Amho. ho Ho$di _Zwî`~imÀ`m ghH$m`m©ZoM eŠ` 

hmoVo. `mgmR>r g§ñWoVrb H$_©Mmè`m§Zm Amdí`H$ Vo {ejU d à{ejU XoD$Z Ë`m§Mr j_Vm Am{U H$m`m©{df`rMm 

AmË_{dídmg dmT>{dë`mg EHy$Z H$m`©j_VoV dmT> hmoD$Z IMm©V H$nmV H$aV òVo. n`m©`mZo Zâ`mV dmT> hmoVo. 

WmoS>Š`mV, AmYw{ZH$ CÚmoJ g§ñW§mMo "IMm©V H$nmV d Zâ`mV dmT>' ho C{Ôï> gmÜ` H$aÊ`mgmR>r g§ñWoÀ`m EHy$U 

H$m`©j_VoV dmT> hmoUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. Ë`mgmR>r _mZdr KQ>H$mMr ^y{_H$m _hÎdmMr R>aVo. 

7) ì`dñWmnZ H$m`© : CÚmoJ g§ñWoÀ`m {ZYm©[aV C{Ôï>m§Mr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mgmR>r {Z`moOZ, g§KQ>Z, AmXoe 

XoUo, g_Ýd`, {Z`§ÌU BË`mXr ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m H$m`m©~amo~aM _mZdr g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZ ho ì`dñWmnZmMo EH$ 

_hÎdmMo H$m`© Amho. ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m gd© H$m`m©Mo è _mZdr g§gmYZ (_mZdr KQ>H$mÀ`m) ì`dñWmnZmda 

Adb§~yZ AgVo. H$maU Oa _mZdr KQ>H$mH$S>o _mZdVoÀ`m ^y{_Ho$VyZ nm{hbo Zmhr Va ì`dñWmnZmMr gd© H$m`} 

Anèr R>aVmV. Ë`m_wioM CÚmoJg§ñWoV _mZdr KQ>H$mMo (_Zwî`~imMo) ì`dñWmnZ A{YH$ à^mdr Pmë`mg 

Ë`m g§ñWoMo ì`dñWmnZ AmXe© R>aVo. 

8) Zd{Z{_©Vr : AmOÀ`m ~XbË`m n[apñWVrV Zd{Z{_©Vr hm àËòH$ g§ñWoMm A{d^mÁ` KQ>H$ ~Zbm 

Amho. g§ñWm§Zm ~XbË`m ì`mdgm{`H$ n`m©daUmer Amnbm H$ma^ma AÜ``mdV R>oD$Z {ZYm©[aV C{Ôï>ço gmÜ` 

H$aÊ`mMo H$m`© ho _mZdr g§gmYZmH$Sy>Z Ho$bo OmVo. `mV ZdrZ g§H$ënZm§Mm emoY, ZdrZ CËnmXZ, ZdrZ {dVaU 

nÕVr d V§Ìo `m§Mm {dH$mg Ho$bm OmVmo. ZdrZ Vm§ÌrH$ Am{U `m§{ÌH$ joÌmVrb AZoH$ {dH$mgmË_H$ gmYZm§Mm 

gVV Adb§~ H$ê$Z g§ñWoMr EHy$U H$m`©j_Vm dmT>{dÊ`mV _mZdr KQ>H$mbm A{Ve` _hÎdmMo ñWmZ Amho. 

àËòH$ joÌmV Pmbobr d hmoV Agbobr Zd{Z{_©Vr hr _mZdr g§gmYZmMo (_mZrd KQ>H$mMo) `moJXmZ qH$dm 

\$bàmár hmo`. 

H$_©Mmar gwajm (Employee Safety) 

_mZdmÀ`m Am`wî`mV H$mhr AH$pënV qH$dm AZmhÿV KQ>Zm {Z`{_VnUo KS>V AgVmV. gmh{OH$M 

_mUgmÀ`m gwajoÀ`m AmoT>mVmUrbm gwadmV hmoVo. AmOmanU, AnKmV, AmnÎmr, dmT>Vr O~m~Xmar `m_wio 

ì`ŠVrda AgwajoMm VmU nS>Vmo. Ë`mà_mUoM CÚmoJg§ñWoV doimodoir AZoH$ H$maUm_wio AnKmV CX²^dÊ`mMr 

eŠ`Vm AgVo. AnKmVm_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm emar[aH$, _mZ{gH$ BOm nmohmoMÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. H$m_Jmam§À`m 

Or{dVmbm YmoH$m d _mb_ÎmoMr ZwH$gmZ hmoD$Z gd© >Hw$Qw>§~M Xw:ImV hmoaniVo, Ë`m§Zm Am`wî`mV {Zamem 

Am{U hVmenUm òVmo. EdT>oM Zìho Va Ë`m§Mm ^{dî`H$mimV nyU© H$amd`mÀ`m `moOZm Am{U ñdßZo `m§Mm 

AJXr MwamS>m hmoD$Z OmVmo. CÚmoJg§ñWoMohr Am{W©H$ ZwH$gmZ hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo, CËnmXZ amoS>mdVo, 

g§ñWoMr àJVr _§XmdVo, J«mhH$m§Mm amof nËH$amdm bmJVmo. CÚmoJmVrb YmoHo$ qH$dm AnKmVm_wio H$m_Jmam§À`m 

_ZmV Agwa{jVVoMr ^mdZm {Z_m©U hmoD$Z Ë`mMo n[aUm_ Ë`m§À`m emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ Amamo½`mda hmoVmV. 

Ë`m_wio H$m_Jmam§Mr AZwnpñWVr dmT>Vo qH$dm H$m_Jma ZmoH$ar gmoS>yZ XwgarH$S>o OmÊ`mMm à`ËZ H$aVmV, 

Aem Agwa{jVVo_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Yhr {~KS>VmV, Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm YmoŠ`mV òVo Am{U amï´>mdahr J§^ra 

n[aUm_ hmoVmV. åhUyZ g§ñWoÀ`m _Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnZmZo H$m`©ñWimda gwa{jVVm, AnKmV_wŠV, ^`_wŠV 

dmVmdaU {Z_m©U Ho$bo nm{hOo. VaM H$_©Mmar dJ© {Zð>oZo, AmË_{dídmgmZo, H$m`©j_VoZo, AmnbonUmZo 

H$m_mV ag KoD$Z C{Ôï>ço nwV©VogmR>r `moJXmZ XoVrb. 

88

AW© / g§H$ënZm : 

gwa{jVVm åhUOo Aer EH$ gVV am~dmdr bmJUmar à{H«$`m hmo` H$s, {OÀ`m_wio H$_©Mmar dJm©Mr YmoH$m 

qH$dm g§H$Q> `mnmgyZ _wŠVVm hmoVo. 

gmYmaUV: CÚmoJ g§ñWoV doimodoir KS>Umao g§^mì` AnKmV qH$dm YmoHo$ H$moR>o, H$m Am{U H$em àH$mao 

KS>VmV `mMm {dMma H$ê$Z, Ë`m§À`m H$maUm§Mm emoY KoD$Z AnKmVmMo/YmoŠ`mMo à_mU H$_r H$ê$Z H$m_JmamV 

gwa{jVVoMr ^mdZm {Z_m©U H$aÊ`mgmR>r H$aÊ`mV Amboë`m Cnm``moOZobm gwajm Ago åhUVmV. `mV H$m_mMo 

{Z`_ H$aUo, `§ÌmMr XoI^mb d Xwê$ñVr, OwZmQ> `§Ìo ~XbUo, Amdí`H$ g§ajH$ gmYZm§Mm dmna, H$m_Jmam§Zm 

AnKmV à{V~§YH$ gwa{jVVoMo à{ejU XoD$Z AnKmVm_wio _mb_Îmm d Or{dVmÀ`m hmoUmè`m ZwH$gmZrMo n«_mU 

H$_r H$ê$Z H$m_JmamV gwa{jVVoMr ^mdZm {Z_m©U Ho$br OmVo. 

Am§Vaamï´>r` H$m_Jma _§S>imZo H$_©Mmar gwa{jVVo~m~V Ago ñnï> Ho$bo Amho, ""CÚmoJg§ñWoZo 

Amnë`m H$_©Mmè`m§À`m AmnÎmr {déÕ `mo½` g§KQ>ZmÛmao CnbãY H$ê$Z {Xbobr gwa{jVVm åhUOo H$_©Mmar 

gwa{jVVm hmo`. `m AmnÎmr _w»`ÎdoH$ê$Z AmH$pñ_H$nUo {Z_m©U hmoUmè`m AgVmV.'' 

H$_©Mmar gwa{jVVm hr J{Verb g§H$ënZm Amho. H$m_Jma OrdZmV òUmè`m AH$pënV nU An[ahm`© 

AS>MUrda _mV H$aÊ`mgmR>r _mZdr g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmZo H$_©Mmar gwajm `moOZm am~dmdr bmJVo. `mÛmao 

CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb AnKmVm§Mr qH$dm g§^mì` YmoŠ`m§Mr H$maUo emoYyZ Vr Xya H$aÊ`mMm à`ËZ H$aUo Am{U CÚmoJ 

g§ñWoV A{YH$m{YH$ gwa{jVVoMo dmVmdaU {Z_m©U H$aUo hm hoVy AgVmo. 

CÚmoJ g§ñWoVrb _mZdr g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m gwa{jVVm {d^mJmbm H$_©Mmar gwa{jVVo~m~V AZoH$ 

H$m`} nma nmS>mdr bmJVmV. Ë`m_Üò AnKmVm§Mr qH$dm YmoŠ`m§Mr H$maUo d {R>H$mUo emoYUo, AnKmV à{V~§YmË_H$ 

`moOZm {ZpíMV H$aUo H$m_Jmam_Üò gwa{jVVoMr OmUrd-OmJ¥Vr {Z_m©U H$aUo, AnKmV à{V~§YmË_H$ gmYZo 

H$m`©ñWimda CnbãY H$aUo, Ë`mMm dmna H$aÊ`mg H$_©Mmè`m§Zm àd¥Îm H$aUo, AnKmV Q>miUo~m~V _mJ©Xe©Z 

à{ejU XoUo, AnKmV CX²^dë`mg H$_©Mmè`mg d¡ÚH$s` godm-gw{dYm nwa{dUo, Am{W©H$ ghmæ` {_idyZ XoUo, 

gwa{jVVoÀ`m {Z`_m§Mo H$mQ>oH$moa nmbZ H$am`bm ^mJ nmS>Uo, VgoM AnKmVJ«ñV H$_©Mmè`m§Zm gd© Ë`m godmgw{dYm, 

ZwH$gmZânmB© {_idyZ XoUo, Am{W©H$ d _mZ{gH$ AmYma XoD$Z nyduMo H$m_ H$aUo eŠ` Zgob Va 

Ë`mÀ`m j_VoZwgma ZdrZ H$m_o gmon{dUo BË`mXr. WmoS>Š`mV, darb {ddoMZmdê$Z Ago ñnï> hmoVo H$s, CÚmMr 

H$miOr, Agwa{jVVoMr ^mdZm Am{U AmOMr qMVm `m_wio ì`mHw$i Pmboë`m qH$dm hmoUmè`m H$m_Jma dJm©Mr 

H$m`©j_Vm {Z:g§e`nUo {VVH$sM {ZH¥$ï> XOm©Mr AgUma Amho `m Ñï>MH«$mVyZ H$m_Jmambm H$mT>md`mMo 

Agë`mg H$_©Mmar gwa{jVVoMr H$mg Yabr nm{hOo. 

H$_©Mmar gwa{jVVoMr JaO (Need of Employee Safety) : 

gwa{jVVoMr JaO {hM OrdZmMr JaO Agë`m_wio gwa{jVVm {h OrdZmer {ZJS>rV Amho `mV e§H$m 

Zmhr. gwa{jVVm H$emgmR>r? hm àíZ åhUOo, OrdZ H$emgmR>r? Agm àíZ H$aÊ`mgmaIo Amho d `m Xwgè`m 

àíZmMo CÎma VoM n{hë`m àíZmMo CÎma Amho. CÚmoJg§ñWm§Zm AË`mdí`H$ AgUmar gwa{jVVoMr JaO nwT>rbà_mUo 

gm§JVm òB©b. 

89

1) H$m`©j_VoV dmT> : CÚmoJg§ñWoV {Z_m©U Pmboë`m AnKmV _wŠV d ^`_wŠV dmVmdaUm_wio 

H$m_Jmam§À`m H$m_mVrb CËgmh dmT>Vmo. Ë`mÀ`m darb emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ VmU H$_r hmoD$Z Vo Amnbo H$m_ 

A{YH$ O~m~XmarZo Am{U H$V©ì` ^mdZoZo nma nmS>VmV. Ë`m_wio CÚmoJg§ñWoÀ`m CËnmXZj_VoV d EHy$U 

H$m`©j_VoV dmT> hmoVo. 

2) CËnmXZmÀ`m à_mUmV d JwUdÎmoV dmT> : gwa{jV H$maImZo ho ""H$m`©j_ H$maImZo'' AgVmV. 

gwa{jV CÚmoJ g§ñWoVrb H$_©Mmè`m§Mr _mZ{gH$Vm hr ^`_wŠV AgVo d Vo Amnbo H$m_ _Z bmdyZ 

H$m`©j_VoZo H$ê$ eH$VmV. `m_wio CËnmXZmÀ`m à_mUmV dmT> hmoVo d CËnmXZmMm XOm©hr gwYmaVmo. AWm©V 

CÚmoJmVrb gwa{jV H$m`©pñWVr_wio doioMr ~MV, g§gmYZm§Mm n`m©á Cn`moJ d H$m_mgmR>r H$_©Mmè`m§Mr 

emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ V`mar AgVo. Ë`m_wio H$m_mVrb KmB©-JS>~S>, Jm|Yi, AnKmV H$_r hmoVmV, n[aUm_r 

CËnmXZmV d JwUdÎmoV dmT> hmoVo. 

3) _mbH$-H$_©Mmar g§~YmV gwYmaUm : Am¡Úmo{JH$ gwa{jVVo_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm godm emídVrMr ImÌr 

{_iVo. Ë`m§À`m J¡ahOoarMr Am{U AXbm~XbrMo à_mUhr H$_r hmoVo, Ë`m§Mo _Zmo~b C§MmdVo, CÚmoJg§ñWodarb 

H$m`©{Zð>m dmTy>Z Ë`m§À`mV O~m~XmarMr ^mdZm {Z_m©U hmoVo. Ë`m_wio _mbH$ d H$_©Mmar `m§Mo g§~§Y gbmo»`mMo 

amhVmV. 

4) H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ ñdmñÏ` d gwI : CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb dmB©Q> d Agwa{jV H$m`©n[apñWVrMo Am{U AnKmVmMo 

n[aUm_ H$m_Jmam§À`m H$m`©j_Voda hmoD$Z Ë`m§Mo H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ ñdmñÏ` {~KS>Vo. Ë`m_wio H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ gwI d 

ñdmñÏ`mgmR>r Am¡Úmo{JH$ gwa{jVVm A{Ve` _hÎdmMr AgVo. H$_©Mmar hm H$maImÝ`mV ZmoH$a Agbm Var Vmo 

Kar Amnë`m Hw$Qw>§~mMm nmbZH$Vm© AgVmo. Ë`mÀ`m Hw$Q>§~r`m§Mo ñdmñÏ` d gwI ho Ë`m H$_©Mmè`mÀ`m gwa{jVVoda 

Adb§~yZ AgVo. 

5) H$_©Mmar amhUr_mZmV gwYmaUm : H$m_Jmam§Mr H$m`©j_Vm, Ë`m§Mr emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$pñWVr, 

Hw$Qy>§~m{df`r dmQ>Umar H$miOr `m gdmªMm Ë`mÀ`m amhUr_mZmer g§~§Y AgVmo. CÚmoJ g§ñWoVrb gwajm Am{U 

_mZ{gH$ pñWVr gwYmaë`mg, H$m_Jmam§Mr H$m`©j_Vm d CËnmXH$Vm dmT>Vo. Ë`m_wio Ë`m§À`m doVZmV dmT> hmoVo, 

Ë`m§Zm ñdV:Mr àJVr d {dH$mg H$aÊ`mMr g§Yr {_iVo. `m gdmªMm n[aUm_ åhUOo H$m_Jmam§Mo amhUr_mZ 

C§MmdÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. 

6) H$_©Mmè`m§Mm {dH$mg : H$m_Jmam§Mm CÚmoJg§ñWoV {dH$mg hmoÊ`mgmR>r Ë`m§Mr emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ 

j_Vm CÎm_ AgUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. gwajm d ñdmñÏ` {df`H$ H$m`©H«$_m_wio H$m_Jmamg gwa{jVVoÀ`m 

dmVmdaUmV H$m_ H$aUo eŠ` hmoVo. VgoM emar[aH$ j_Vm dmT>Ê`mg _XV hmoVo. `mVyZ H$m_Jma Amnbr 

H$m`©j_Vm, H$m`©n[aUm_H$maH$Vm, H$m`©H$m¡eë` BË`mXrV dmT> H$ê$ eH$Vmo. Ë`m_wio Ë`mg {dH$mgmMr g§Yr 

CnbãY hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. 

7) IMm©_Üò \$ma _moR>r ~MV : Am¡Úmo{JH$ AnKmV Pmë`mg g§~§YrV CÚmoJg§ñWobm XmoZ àH$maMo IM© 

H$amdo bmJVmV. (A) àË`j IM© (~) AàË`j IM©. 

àË`j IMm©V Oa AnKmV àmUKmVH$ Agob Va H$_©Mmè`m§À`m dmagm§Zm Úmdr bmJUmar ZwH$gmZânmB© 

{H§$dm Oa AnKmV àmUKmVH$ Zgob Va H$_©Mmè`m§bm Úmdm bmJUmam d¡ÚH$s` IMm©Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

90

AàË`j IM© hm àË`j IMm©À`m {VßnQ> qH$dm Mm¡nQ> òV AgVmo. `m AàË`j IMm©V Imbrb ~m~tMm 

g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

1. CËnmXZ doioMm Anì`` hmoVmo. AnKmVJ«ñVmÀ`m _XVrbm YmD$Z Amboë`m H$_©Mmè`m§Mo CËnmXZ H$m`© 

Wm§~Vo. AnKmVmMr Mm¡H$er, Ahdmb d MMm© H$aÊ`mVhr doi dm`m OmVmo. 

2. AnKmVJ«ñW H$_©Mmè`mÀ`m OmJr Xwgam H$_©Mmar H$m_ H$aVmo. Vmo AZw^dr AgobM Ago Zmhr, Ë`mMm 

CËnmXZ à_mUmda d XOm©da n[aUm_ hmoVmo. Ë`mbm à{ejU XoÊ`mgmR>r doi d n¡emMm Anì`` hmoVmo. 

3. AnKmVmV gmnS>bobm H$_©Mmar ~am hmoD$Z H$m_mda Amë`mZ§Va Vmo nyduÀ`m H$m`©j_VoZo H$mhr H$mi 

H$m_ H$ê$ eH$V Zmhr. 

4. BVa ghH$mar H$_©Mmè`mÀ`m _ZmV AnKmVmMr ^rVr {Z_m©U hmoVo. Ë`m_wio Ë`m§Mr H$mhr à_mUmV 

J¡ahOoar d AXbm~Xbr hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. `m_wio CËnmXZ à_mUmda d XOm©da n[aUm_ hmoVmo. 

5. B_maV, `§Ìo d AY©dQ> V`ma Pmbobm _mb `m§Zm hmZr nmohmoMÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

6. CËnmXZmÀ`m à_mUmda n[aUm_ Pmë`mZo J«mhH$m§Mr _mJUr doioda nwa{dVm òV Zmhr Ë`m_wio J«mhH$ 

H$_r hmoVmV. 

darbà_mUo CÚmoJg§ñWoda àË`j d AàË`j nS>Umam AdmOdr IMm©Mm ~moOm Q>miÊ`mgmR>r qH$dm H$_r 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r gwa{jVVoMr à^mdr ì`dñWm H$aUo JaOoMo Amho. 

{deofV: \$mD§$S´>r_Üò (Foundry) H$m_ H$aUmè`m H$m_Jmam§Zm {d{dY H$m`m©Zwgma Amnë`m gwa{jVVogmR>r 

H$moUË`m g§ajH$ Cnm``moOZm H$amì`m bJmVmV. Vo CXmhaU XmIb nwT>rbà_mUo nmhVm òB©b. 

H$m_mMm àH$ma g§ajH$ Cnm` 

1. ^§Jma Am{U YmVyMm H$Mam hmVmiUo ~wQ> Am{U hmV_moOo 

2. ^Å>r Am{U ^Å>rÀ`m Kw_Q>mMo H$m_ a§JrV H$mMm§Mm Mî_m, {eaómU, hmV_moOo Am{U 

gwVr H$nS>o. 

3. ^Å>rV ^§Jma Am{U BVa YmVy H$Mam âUo. ~wQ>, hmV_moOo, a§JrV H$mMm§Mm Mî_m Am{U 

gwVr H$nS>o. 

4. {dVibobm YmVy hmVmiUo ~wQ>, hmV_moOo, a§JrV H$mMm§Mm Mî_m, 

gwVr H$nS>o B. 

5. hË`mamZo Rm>oR>mdUo (Knock out) Ywi à{V~§YH$ AmdaU, _mñH$, ~wQ>, hmV_moOo, 

a§JrV H$mMm§Mm Mî_m B. 

6. J«m`qS>J H$aUo H$U© g§ajH$, hmV_moOo, a§JrV H$mMm§Mm Mî_m, 

Ywi à{V~§YH$ AmdaU Am{U ~wQ>. 

7. gmÀ`mV dñVy AmoVUo (Casting) Mî_m, ~wQ> Am{U hmV_moOo. 

91

gwa{jVVm H$m`©H«$_mVrb KQ>H$ (Factors in Safety Programme) : 

gwa{jVVm hm _Zwî`~imÀ`m Ñï>rZo EH$ _hÎdmMm KQ>H$ Agë`mZo H$m_Jmam§Zm gwa{jVVm {_iÊ`mgmR>r 

H$m`©ñWimda Mm§Jbr n[apñWVr {Z_m©U H$aUo _hÎdmMo AgVo. Á`m CÚmoJKQ>H$mV H$m_Jma H$m_ H$aVmo VoWo 

Ë`mbm gwb^ d gwa{jVnUo H$m_ H$aVm Ambo nm{hOo. YmoH$mXm`H$ ñdê$nmMr H$m`©n[apñWVr Agë`mg 

H$m_JmamÀ`m§_Zmda Amem YmoŠ`m§Mo gX¡d XS>nU AgVo. Ë`m_wio Ë`m§Mo H$m_mH$S>o bj bmJV Zmhr. Ë`mÀ`m 

hmVyZ MwH$m hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo d AnKmV KS>VmV. Ë`m_wio H$m_Jmam§À`m emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ 

ñdmñÏ`mda, H$m`©j_Voda d n`m©`mZo CËnmXZj_Vodahr J§^ra n[aUm_ hmoVmV. H$m_JmamV H$m_mda AZwnpñWV 

amhÊ`mMr VgoM ZmoH$ar gmoSy>Z BVaÌ OmÊ`mMr àd¥Îmr dmT>Vo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y {~KS>VmV Am{U amï´>mdahr J§^ra 

n[aUm_ hmoVmV. 

CÚmoJKQ>H$mV AnKmV H$moR>o, H$m Am{U H$em àH$mao KS>VmV qH$dm KSy> eH$Vrb `mMm {dMma H$ê$Z 

Am{U Ë`m§À`m H$maUmMm emoY KoD$Z AnKmVmMo à_mU H$_r H$aÊ`mÀ`m ÑîQ>rZo Cnm``moOZm A§_bmV AmUUo 

åhUOoM gwajm H$m`©H«$_ am~{dUo hmo`. gwajm H$m`©H«$_ hr EH$ gmVË`mZo MmbUmar à{H«$`m AgyZ Ë`mÛmao 

H$m_Jmam§Zm gwa{jVVoMr Amdí`H$ gw{dYm CnbãY H$aUo, AnKmV à{V~§YH$ gwa{jVVoMo à{ejU XoD$Z 

AnKmVm_wio _mb_Îmm d Or{dVmÀ`m hmoUmè`m ZwH$gmZrMo à_mU H$_r H$aÊ`mMm hoVy gwa{jVVm H$m`©H«$_mMm 

AgVmo. gmYmaUnUo gwa{jVVm H$m`©H«$_mV nwT>rb KQ>H$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

1) OmJm d B_maV : H$maImÝ`mVrb `§Ìo, CnH$aUo, A§VJ©V _mb, \${Z©Ma, g§J«hU ì`dñWm d BVa 

dñVy `m§Zm H$maImÝ`mVrb B_maV d OmJoMr `mo½` {d^mJUr H$amdr bmJVo. JaOoÀ`m à_mUmV _O~yV B_maVrMm 

A^md Am{U Anyar OmJm Agë`mg, H$m_mV dma§dma AS>Wio d {db§~, JXu, AnKmV, Amamo½`mbm ~mYm, 

doi, n¡gm d eŠVrMm Anì`` hmoVmo. VgoM Agwa{jVVm {Z_m©U hmoVo. H$maImÝ`mVrb `§Ìo, H$m_Jma Am{U 

CnH$aUm§Mo g§ajU ìhmdo d CËnmXZmMo H$m`© AI§S> MmbV amhmdo VgoM Z¡g{J©H$ d _mZdr g§H$Q>mnmgyZ gd© 

KQ>H$m§Mo g§ajU ìhmdo AerM H$maImZm B_maVrMr aMZm Agmdr bmJVo. 

2) `§Ìgm_wJ«rMr _m§S>Ur d aMZm : H$m_Jmam§Zm Amnbo H$m`© A{YH$ H$m`©j_VoZo H$aVm `mdo, `mgmR>r 

H$m_Jmam§Zm gwa{jVVoMo dmVmdaU {Z_m©U H$aUo hm Mm§Jë`m `§ÌaMZoMm CÔoe AgVmo. åhUyZ H$m_Jmam§Zm H$_rV 

H$_r WH$dm òB©b d A{YH$m{YH$ gwa{jVVm bmôb Aer `§Ìgm_wJ«rMr _m§S>Ur d aMZm Ho$br nm{hOo. `§ÌaMZm 

gXmof Agë`mg Agwa{jVVm dmT>Vo. 

3) àH$me ì`dñWm : H$m_Jmambm Amnbo H$m_ ZrQ>, ì`dpñWVnUo, AMyH$ H$amd`mMo Pmë`mg Ë`mbm 

Mm§Jë`m àH$memMr Amdí`H$Vm AgVo. {deofV: ZmOyH$, gyú_ H$m¡eë`mÀ`m H$m_mgmR>r ânya àH$me AgUo 

\$maM Amdí`H$ AgVo. àIa àH$mem_wio H$m_Jmam§À`m S>moù`mda n[aUm_ hmoVmo Am{U _§X/Anwè`m àH$mem_wio 

H$m_mV AS>MUr òVmV, doiàg§Jr AnKmV hmoÊ`mMm YmoH$mhr AgVmo. WmoS>Š`mV, H$m_Jmam§À`m S>moù`m§Zm Ìmg 

hmoD$ Zò Am{U Ë`m§Zm Amnbo H$m_ A{YH$ àgÞVoZo H$aVm `mdo `mgmR>r H$maImÝ`mV àH$memMr nwaonya gmo` 

AgUo _hÎdmMr AgVo. 

4) Jm|JQ> {Z`§ÌU : CÚmoJmVrb Jm|JmQ> hm EH$ ZdrZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ YmoH$m ~Zbm Amho. AmdmOmMo à_mU, 

92

doi Am{U Ë`mMr Vrd«Vm `m_wio AmdmOmMo Jm|JmQ>mV ê$nm§Va hmoV AgVo. Jm|JmQ>mMm H$m_JmamÀ`m _‚mmV§Vyda 

A{Zð> n[aUm_ hmoVmo. Ë`m§Mr EoH$Ê`mMr j_Vm H$_r hmoVo. Ë`mVyZ ~{haonUm òVmo, WH$dm dmT>V OmVmo, 

H$m_Jmam§Mo aŠVm{^gaU dmTy>Z Ë`m§Zm aŠVXm~mMm {dH$ma {Z_m©U hmoVmo. `mVyZM H$mhr doioV _moR>o AnKmV 

KS>Ê`mMm YmoH$m AgVmo. Aemdoir Jmo§JmQ>mMm H$m_Jmam§Zm Ìmg hmoD$ Zò, `mgmR>r Ë`m§Zm H$U©g§ajU gmYZm§Mr 

VaVyX H$ê$Z Jm|JmQ> {Z`§ÌU H$aUo _hÎdmMo Amho. 

5) dm`w{dOZ (Ventilating) : ewÕ hdm _mZdr KQ>H$mMr àmUeŠVr g_Obr OmVo. H$m`©ñWimda 

nwaoer ewÕ, IoiVr d VmOr hdm Agob Va H$m`© dmVmdaU CËgmhdY©H$, gwa{jV d Amamo½`Xm`H$ ~ZVo. 

CÚmoJKQ>H$mVrb dm`wdrOZ `§ÌUm AH$m`©j_ Agob Va VoWrb H$m~©Z S>m°` Am°ŠgmB©S>, AmÐ©Vm d Vn_mZ `m§Mo 

à_mU dmT>Vo. Ë`m_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm WH$dm, AñdñW, H§$Q>mim d {Zê$Ëgmh dmQy> bmJVo. n[aUm_r ídgZmMo 

AmOma d ËdMmamoJ hmoVmo. åhUyZ g§ñWoVrb à^mdr dm`wdrOZ KQ>H$m_wio {d{dY AmOma d amoJmnmgyZ 

H$m_Jmam§Mr gwQ>H$m hmoD$Z Ë`m§Zm gwa{jVVm àmá hmoVo. 

6) dmVmZwHy$bZ (Air-conditioning) : CÚmoJg§ñWo_Üò AZoH$ àH$maÀ`m {H«$`m-à{H«$`m Ho$ë`m OmVmV 

Ë`m_wio H$m`©ñWimda CîU d X_Q> hdm_mZm~amo~aM KmVH$ dm`y, Yya, CJ« J§Y, H$Mam, H$mOir, O§Vy BË`mXr 

Amamo½`mg d gwa{jVVog KmVH$ KQ>H$ {Z_m©U hmoVmV. Ë`m§À`m nyU© CƒmQ>ZmgmR>r dmVmZwHy$bZ `§ÌUoMr JaO 

AgVo. H$m`©j_ dmVmZwHy$b `§ÌUoMm A^md Agob Va H$m_Jmam§Mo emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ Amamo½` YmoŠ`mV òVo. 

Va H$mhr H$m_Jmam§Zm emar[aH$-_mZ{gH$ ì`mYr, AmOma OS>Ê`mMm YmoH$m AgVmo. n`m©`mZo H$m_Jmam§V 

Agwa{jVVoMr ^mdZm dmT>rg bmJVo. 

7) {nÊ`mMo ewÕ nmUr nwa{dUo : àËòH$ CÚmoJm_Üò {d{dY H$maUmgmR>r nmÊ`mMm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. 

CXm. {nÊ`mgmR>r, Am¡Úmo{JH$ {H«$`mgmR>r, ñdÀN>VogmR>r, AmJà{V~§Y `§ÌUogmR>r, ñZmZmgmR>r, Cnhma J¥hmV, 

H$nS>o YwÊ`mgmR>r B. H$m_Jmam§Zm ewÕ, {ZOªVwH$ d nwaoeo nmUr nwa{dbo nm{hOo. AÝ`Wm AewÕ d Xy{fV nmÊ`m_wio 

{d{dY àH$maMo AmOma CXm. hJdU, J°ñQ´>mo, H$mdri B. hmoD$ eH$VmV. åhUyZ H$m_Jmam§À`m Amamo½` d 

gwa{jVoH$[aVm nmÊ`mda ewÕrH$aUmÀ`m, {ZOªVwH$sH$aUmÀ`m à{H«$`m H$ê$Z Z§Va Ë`mMo {dVaU H$aÊ`mV `mdo. 

8) H$Mè`mMr {dëhodmQ> : ì`dgm`rZ H$m`©à{H«$òVyZ ~mhoa nS>Umam H$Mam, KmU, Xw{fVo _mZdr 

earambm d gwa{jVVobm Anm`H$maH$ AgVmV. Aem H$Mè`mÀ`m gm{ÞÜ`mV H$m`© H$aUmè`m H$m_Jmam§Zm 

{d{eï> AmOma, amoJ OS>Ê`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. CXm. ídgZmMo AmOma, ËdMmamoJ BË`mXr Ë`m_wio Aem 

H$Mè`mMr ì`dpñWV, H$miOrnyd©H$, nyU©V: {dëhodmQ> bmdbr nm{hOo. 

9) ì`{ŠVJV gw{dYm§Mr VaVyX : CÚmoJ KQ>H$mV H$m_ H$arV Agboë`m H$m_Jmam§Zm `mo½` Ë`m godm 

gw{dYm nwa{dë`mg Ë`m§Zm CËgmhr d gwa{jV H$m`©dmVmdaU dmQ>Vo. Ë`m_Üò {dlm§VrJ¥ho, CnhmaJ¥ho, nwaoer 

ñdÀN>VmJ¥ho, `mo½` {R>H$mUr nwaoer Ww§H$s nmÌo, Amamo½`dY©H$ ImÚm§Mm nwadR>m, àW_monMma gw{dYm BË`mXr 

H$m_Jmam§Zm {_iUmè`m {d{dY godmgw{dYm_wio Ë`m§Mr gwa{jVVoMr ^mdZm OmJ¥V hmoVo. 

10) AmJ à{V~§YH$ godm : g§^mì` AmJrÀ`m g§H$Q>mnmgyZ _mZdr d ^m¡{VH$ ZwH$gmZ Q>miÊ`mgmR>r 

ì`dgm`m_Üò AmJ à{V~§Y godm Amdí`H$ R>aVo. AmJrMo g§H$Q> H|$ìhm CX²^dob `mMr {ZpíMVr Zgë`mZo 

93

H$m_JmamV Agwa{jVVoMo dmVmdaU {Z_m©U hmoVo. åhUyZ A{¾em_H$ dmhZo, agm`Zo Am{U AmJ{dP{dÊ`mÀ`m 

ñd`§M{bV `§ÌUoMm g_mdoe AmJà{V~§YH$ gmYZmV H$amdm bmJVmo. 

H$_©Mmar Amamo½` (Employee Health) 

Amamo½` hm Ia§ åhQ>b§ Va àËòH$mÀ`m {Oìhmù`mMm nU Oamgm Xwb©{jV {df` Amho. JVr_mZ hmoV 

Mmbboë`m gm_m{OH$-Am{W©H$ n[adV©Z à{H«$òda AmnU Zoh_rM ~mobV AgVmo. _mÌ _mZdr ^m§S>db g§M`mda 

H$_r ~mobyZ "Health is above wealth" hr àMbrV åhU {dgaë`mMo ñnï> hmoVo. "Sound mind in a Sound 

body" hr åhU ì`ŠVrÀ`m gX¥¥T> Amamo½` d ñdmñÏ`mer {ZJS>rV AgyZ ""eara {ZamoJr Va _Z {ZamoJr'' Agm 

AW© hmoVmo. H$m_Jmam§Mo eara {ZamoJr Agob Va Ë`mbm H$m_ H$aÊ`mV CËgmh AgVmo. Ë`mbm bdH$a H§$Q>mim 

AWdm WH$dm òV Zmhr d Ë`mMo _Zmo~b C§Mmdbobo AgVo. gmYmaUV: àËòH$ CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb H$m_Jma 

{XdgmVrb ~amM doi H$m`©ñWimda AgVmo. V|ìhm H$m_JmamMo Amamo½` {Q>Hy$Z amhÊ`mgmR>r H$maImÝ`mVrb 

H$m`©n[apñWVr {ZH$mon d {ZamoJr AgUo _hÎdmMo AgVo. 

H$maImÝ`mVrb dmVmdaUmV AgUmè`m {d{dY àH$maMo Xw{fV dm`y, {dfmar agm`Zo, Ywi, Yya, ~mîn, 

CËnmXZmVyZ ~mhoa nS>Umao V§Vy, ~marH$ H$U, H$_r qH$dm OmñV Vmn_mZ BË`mXr_wio VgoM {d{dY àH$maMo YmVy 

AJa _mb `m§Mr hmVmiUr BË`mXtMm H$m_Jmam§À`m Amamo½`mda à{VHy$b n[aUm_ hmoV AgVmo. Ë`m_wio 

H$m_Jmam§Mr emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ H$m`©j_Vm KQ>Vo, AnKmVmMo d J¡ahOoarMo à_mU dmT>Vo. `mCbQ> {ZamoJr 

H$m_Jmam§Mr CËnmXZj_Vm OmñV AgVo, Vo gwa{jVVoÀ`m {Z`_m§Mo nmbZ H$aVmV d eŠ`Vmo J¡ahOa amhÊ`mMo 

Q>miVmV. Ago AmZ§Xr d AmË_{dídmgr H$m_Jma åhUOo g§KQ>ZoMm _m¡brH$ R>odm AgVmo. H$m_Jmam§Mo Amamo½` 

{hM Ë`mMr d Vmo OoWo H$m_ H$aVmo Ë`m g§ñWoMr Iar g§nÎmr AgVo. åhUyZ {ZamoJr H$_©Mmè`m_wio CÚmoJg§ñWobm 

Oo \$m`Xo {_iVmV Ë`mMm {dMma H$ê$Z g§ñWoÀ`m _mZdr g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmZo H$m_Jmam§Mo Amamo½` Mm§Jbo 

amhÊ`mgmR>r {d{dY godm-gw{dYm nwa{dÊ`mMm à`ËZ Ho$bm nm{hOo. 

Amamo½` : AW© d g§H$ënZm : 

Amamo½` åhUOo ZwgVmM AmOmam§Mm A^md Zìho. ""Amamo½`'' `m eãXmV ""amoJ'' hm eãX Agë`m_wio 

~è`mMXm Amamo½` eãXmMm AW© g_OÊ`mV J„V hmoVo. B§J«OrVrb "Health" `m eãXmMm CJ_ J«rH$ ^mfoVyZ 

Pmbobm Amho. `mV n[anyU©VoMm AZw^d A{^àoV Amho. g§ñH¥$V d _amR>r_Üò ""ñdmñÏ`'' hm eãX ""Amamo½`'' 

`m eãXmbm n`m©`dmMH$ åhUyZ dmnabm OmVmo. ñdñW _mUgmÀ`m AdñWobm ""ñdmñÏ`'' qH$dm ""Amamo½`'' 

Ago åhUVm òB©b. g§nyU© ñdñWVm hmM Mm§Jë`m Amamo½`mMm AmYma Amho. Hw$R>ë`mhr àH$maMr AñdñWVm hr 

^{dî`, ^yV qH$dm dV©_mZmVë`m ì`mYrMo {ZXe©H$ Amho. åhUyZM CÎm_ ñdñÏ` qH$dm Amamo½` {Q>H${dUo 

àËòH$mgmR>r Amdí`H$ Amho. 

1) OmJ{VH$ Amamo½` g§KQ>ZoZo (World Health Orginzation : WHO) Ho$bobr Amamo½`mMr ì`m»`m : 

""Ho$di amoJm§Mm A^md åhUOo Amamo½` ZgyZ Ë`m_Üò g§nyU© emar[aH$, _mZ{gH$ Am{U gm_m{OH$ 

ñVamdarb gwpñWVr A{^àoV Amho.'' 

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"Health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the 

absence of disease or infirmity." 

95 

- by The World Health Orginazation (WHO) 

`mdê$Z Ago ñnï> H$aVm òVo H$s, OmJ{VH$ Amamo½` g§KQ>ZoZo (WHO) Amamo½`mMr ì`m»`m Ho$di 

amoJmMm A^md Aer ZH$mamË_H$ Z R>odVm Vr gH$mamË_H$ Ho$br Amho. åhUOoM ""Amamo½` åhUOo emar[aH$, 

_mZ{gH$ Am{U gm_m{OH$ ñVamdarb gwpñWVr `mda â {Xbm Amho.'' 

2) OmJ{VH$ H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm (ILO) Am{U OmJ{VH$ Amamo½` g§KQ>Zm (WHO) `m§À`m g§KQ>ZmË_H$ 

Amamo½` `m g§`wŠV g{_VrZo (The Joint ILO and WHO Committee an Organizational Health) Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

Amamo½`m~m~V nwT>rb ì`m»`m ñnï> Ho$br Amho. 

(A) gd© CÚmoJg§ñWmVrb H$m_Jmam§À`m Mm§Jë`m emar[aH$, _mZ{gH$ Am{U gm_m{OH$ Amamo½`mMr 

XoI^mb d g§dY©Z H$aUo. 

(~) H$m`© n[apñWVrVrb {d{dY H$maUm_wio hmoUmè`m H$m_Jmam§À`m AmOmamda/Amamo½`mda à{V~§YH$ 

Cnm` H$aUo. 

(H$) H$m`©ñWimdarb Amamo½`mÀ`m à{VHy$bVo_wio {Z_m©U hmoUmè`m YmoŠ`mnmgyZ / OmoI_rnmgyZ H$m_Jmam§Mo 

g§ajU H$aUo. 

(S>) H$m`© dmVmdaUmZwgma Amamo½` ajUmgmR>r H$m_Jmam§Mr `mo½` OmJoda {Z`wŠVr H$ê$Z Ë`m§Zm Amdí`H$ 

Ë`m ^m¡{VH$ d _mZ{gH$ godm-gw{dYmMr VaVyX H$aUo. 

gmYmaUV: Amamo½` hr gH$mamË_H$ Am{U J{_mZ g§H$ënZm AgyZ ì`ŠVr Am{U n`m©daU `m§À`m 

nañnamVrb n[aUm_mVyZ Amamo½`mda à^md nS>Vmo. {ZamoJr H$_©Mmè`m_wio CÚmoJg§ñWobm Oo bm^ hmoVmV Ë`m§Mm 

{dMma H$ê$Z CÚmoJ g§ñWoMo _Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnZ H$m_Jmam§Zm Amamo½`{df`H$ {d{dY godm-gw{dYm nwa{dVo. 

V|ìhm H$m_Jmam§Mo Amamo½` {Q>H${dÊ`mgmR>r CÚmoJg§ñWm Á`m Cnm``moOZm§Mm Adb§~ H$aVo Ë`m§ZmM Amamo½`{df`H$ 

H$m`©H«$_ åhQ>bo OmVo. H$mhr _moR>o CÚmoJ KQ>H$ Amnbo ñdV:Mo XdmImZo gwê$ H$ê$Z Amdí`H$ Ë`m à_mUmV 

nyU©doi qH$dm AY©doi S>m°ŠQ>g©, Zg}g d H§$nmD§$S>g© Zo_VmV. Va H$mhr bhmZ CÚmoJ g§ñWm ~mhoarb d¡Ú{H$` 

gw{dYm§Mr VaVyX H$aVmV. H$m_Jmam§À`m Amamo½`mMo ajU H$aUo hr CÚmoJg§ñWmMr H$m`Xoera O~m~Xmar Amho. 

åhUyZ àËòH$ g§ñWm§Zm Amnë`m Amamo½`{df`H$ H$m`©H«$_m_Üò nwT>rb Amamo½`{df`H$ ~m~tMm g_mdoe H$amdm 

bmJVmo. 

1. CÚmoJg§ñWoV Amamo½` ImË`mMr {Z{_©Vr H$ê$Z d¡Ú{H$` VÁkm§Mr d n[aMm[aH$m§Mr godm CnbãY H$aUo. 

2. H$_©Mmar âVr H$aÊ`mnydu gd© H$_©Mmè`m§Mr d¡Ú{H$` VnmgUr H$aUo. 

3. {d{eï> H$mbmdYrZ§Va gd© H$_©Mmè`m§Mr d¡Ú{H$` VnmgUr H$aUo. 

4. H$_©Mmè`m§Zm àW_monMmamMo à{ejU XoUo d AnKmVmZ§Va àW_monMmamMr gmo` H$aUo.

5. H$m_Jmam§Zm OS>boë`m ì`dgmÒÝ` amoJmda BbmO H$aUo. 

6. J§^ra XwImnVrVyZ ~ao Pmboë`m H$m_Jmam§Zm gmoono H$m_ XoUo qH$dm VmËnwaVr AZwHy$b ~Xbr H$aUo. 

7. CÚmoJmVrb H$m_m_wio Oo amoJ OS>VmV Ë`mda {Z`§ÌU R>odÊ`mÀ`m Ñ{ï>Zo Cnm``moOZm H$aUo. 

8. H$maImÝ`mVrb H$m`©dmVmdaU Amamo½`Xm`r ~Z{dZo. 

9. S>moio, H$mZ, XmV BË`mXtMr Vk S>m°ŠQ>g©H$Sy>Z VnmgUr H$aUo. 

10. Amamo½` ajUmgmR>r Amdí`H$ Ë`m BVa gw{dYm§Mr VaVyX H$aUo. 

11. n|{Q>½O, dopëS>¨J d \$m¡D§$S´>r {d^mJmV H$m_ H$aUmè`m H$m_Jmam§Mo Amamo½` {~KS>Ê`mMm YmoH$m OmñV 

Agë`mZo Ë`m§Mr {deof H$miOr KoUo. 

H$_©Mmar Amamo½`mMo _hÎd (Importance of Employee Health) : 

Mm§Jbo Amamo½` hr g§nÎmr Amho. CÚmoJmVrb H$m_Jmam§Mo emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ Amamo½` Mm§Jbo Agob VaM 

CÚmoJmMo Amamo½`hr Mm§Jbo amhVo. åhUyZ H$_©Mmar Amamo½`mMo _hÎd H$_©Mmar Am{U ì`dñWmnZ `m XmoÝhr 

~mOy§Zr nmhVm òB©b. 

(A) H$m_Jmam§À`m Ñ{ï>Zo Amamo½`mMo _hÎd : 

1) _Z:ñdmñÏ` : Mm§Jë`m Amamo½`m_wio H$m_Jma AmOmar nS>V ZmhrV. Ë`m_wio g_mYmZr H$m_Jma 

em§V_ZmZo d g§`_mZo Amnbo H$m_ nyU© H$aVmV. Mm§Jë`m _Z:ñdmñÏ`m_wio H$m_Jmam§Mo _ZmoY¡`© dmT>Vo. Ë`m_wio 

{Zð>mdmZ H$m_Jma V`ma hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoVo, n[aUm_r Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm ApñVËdmV òVo. 

2) H$m_Jmam§Mr H$m`©j_Vm dmT>Vo : Amamo½`{df`H$ gw{dYo_wio H$m_Jmam§Mo emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ 

Amamo½` gwYmê$Z Ë`§mMr H$m`©j_Vm dmT>Ê`mg _XV hmoVo. gwajm d Amamo½`mÀ`m gmo`r_wio H$m_Jma Amnbo bj 

Amnë`m H$m_mda H|$ÐrV H$aVmV. Ë`m§Mr J¡ahOoar KQ>Vo, Ë`m§Mo AmOma H$_r hmoVmV Am{U `m gdmª_wio Ë`m§Mr 

H$m`©j_Vm dmT>Vo. 

3) Am{W©H$ gwa{jVVm : `mo½` H$m`©dmVmdaUmV Amamo½`mMr H$miOr KoVbr Joë`mg H$m_Jmam§Mr 

H$m`©j_Vm {Q>H$Vo. Ë`m§Zm AZwnpñWV amhUo qH$dm ZmoH$ar gmoSy>Z BVaÌ OmÊ`mMr JaO ^mgV Zmhr Am{U Ë`m§À`m 

CËnÞmV I§S> nS>Ê`mMm YmoH$m ZgVmo. VgoM AnKmVmMo à_mUhr H$_r hmoV Agë`mZo Ë`m§Mr J¡ahOoar H$_r 

hmoD$Z Ë`mMo Am{W©H$ CËnÞ dmT>Vo. 

4) amhUr_mZ C§MmdVo : H$m_Jmam§Mr H$m`©j_Vm, Ë`m§Mr emar[aH$ Am{U _mZ{gH$ pñWVr, Hw$Qy>§~m{df`r 

dmQ>Umar H$miOr `m gdmªMm Ë`mÀ`m amhUr_mZmer g§~§Y AgVmo. H$m`©j_Vm dmT>r_wio Ë`m§À`m doVZmVhr dmT> 

hmoV Agë`mZo amhUr_mZ gwYmaVo. dmT>Ë`m H$m`©j_Vo_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm ~T>VrMr g§Yr {Z_m©U hmoD$Z Ë`m§À`m 

doVZmV dmT> KSy>Z òVo. 

5) H$m_Jmam§Mm {dH$mg : CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb H$m_Jmam§Mm {dH$mg hmoÊ`mgmR>r Ë`m§Mr emar[aH$ d 

_mZ{gH$ pñWVr CÎm_ AgUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. H$m_Jmam§Zm Amamo½`Xm`r Am{U gwa{jVVoÀ`m dmVmdaUmV H$m_ 

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H$aÊ`mMr g§Yr {_iV Agë`mZo Ë`m§Mr H$m`©j_Vm, H$m¡eë`, H$m`© n[aUm_H$maH$Vm BË`mXr dmTy>Z Ë`m§Mm 

{dH$mg KSy>Z òVmo. 

6) H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ ñdmñÏ` : H$maImÝ`mVrb CX²^dUmè`m dmB©Q> H$m`©n[apñWVrMo Am{U AnKmVmMo n[aUm_ 

H$m_Jmam§À`m Amamo½`mda d H$m`©j_Voda hmoD$Z Ë`m§Mo H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ ñdmñÏ` {~KS>Vo. Ë`m_wio H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ ñdmñÏ`mgmR>r 

Amamo½` d gwa{jVVm A{Ve` _hÎdmMo AgVo. Amamo½` g§nÞ H$_©Mmar {Z`{_VnUo H$m_mda hOa hmoD$Z 

{_iUmè`m doVZmÀ`m _mÜ`_mVyZ Hw$Qy>§~mMr Am{W©H$ AmoT>mVmU Q>miVmo. H$m_Jmam§Mo H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ OrdZ gwIr 

g_mYmZr ~ZVo. Ë`m_wio H$m_Jmam§Mm H$m`©CËgmh {XK©H$min`ªV {Q>Hy$Z amhVmo. 

(~) ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m Ñï>rZo Amamo½`mMo _hÎd : 

1) _mb_ÎmoMo ZwH$gmZ Q>iVo : H$moUË`mhr CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb H$_©Mmè`m§À`m H$m`©j_Vo~amo~aM H$m`©{Zð>oda 

VoWrb g§gmYZo d _mb_ÎmoMr Cn`mo{JVm Adb§~yZ AgVo. gwa{jV d Amamo½`g§nÞ H$_©Mmar AnKmV Q>miVmV. 

`§Ìgm_J«r, H$ƒm_mb, KQ>H$ dñVy d gwÅ>o ^mJ `m§Mo ZwH$gmZ Q>miyZ Ë`m§Mm n`m©á dmna H$aVmV. doimodoir 

XoI^mb d XwéñVrgmR>r H$amdm bmJUmam IM© dmMVmo. 

2) CËnmXH$VoV dmT> : Mm§Jë`m Amamo½`m_wio CÚmoJg§ñWoVrb H$m_Jmam§Mr H$m`©j_Vm dmT>Vo. AnKmV 

d J¡ahOoar H$_r hmoVo. g§gmYZm§Mm n`m©á Cn`moJ H$ê$Z Am{W©H$ ZwH$gmZ Q>mibo OmVo. n[aUm_r g§ñWoÀ`m EHy$U 

CËnmXH$VoV dmT> hmoVo. CËnmXH$Vm dmT>r_wio _mbH$ dJm©Mm Z\$m dmT>Vmo Ë`m_wio H$m_Jmam§À`m doVZmV dmT> 

hmoD$Z CËnmXZ dmT>rg MmbZm {_iVo. 

3) âVr d n«{ejU IMm©V H$nmV : CÚmoJg§ñWoV H$m_Jmam§Mr âVr d {ZdS> H$aVmZm d¡ÚH$s` 

VnmgUr H$ê$Z `mo½` emar[aH$ j_Vm AgUmè`m {ZamoJr ì`ŠVrMr {ZdS> Ho$br OmVo. Ë`mMà_mUo Aem 

H$m_Jmam§Zm à{ejU {Xë`mda Vo ghgm H$m_mda AZwnpñWVrV amhÊ`mMm Am{U ZmoH$ar gmoSy>Z XwgarH$S>o 

OmÊ`mMm YmoH$m ZgVmo. Ë`m_wio nwZ:nwÝhm H$amì`m bmJUmè`m âVr d à{ejU IMm©V H$nmV hmoVo. 

4) Am[W©H$ d H$m`Xoera O~m~Xmar KQ>Vo : CÚmoJg§ñWoV gwajm Am{U Amamo½`{df`H$ H$m`©H«$_m§À`m 

A§_b~OmdUr_wio H$maImÝ`mVrb AnKmVm§Mo à_mU H$_r hmoVo. n[aUm_r H$m_Jmam§Zm Úmì`m bmJUmè`m 

ZwH$gmZ ânmB©Mr Am{U d¡ÚH$s` IMm©Mr a¸$_ H$_r hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. VgoM AnKmV Am{U Amamo½` 

H$m`©dmVmdaUm~m~V CÚmoJg§ñWoda hmoUmar H$m`Xoera H$madmB© Am{U X§S> Q>miVm òVmV. 

5) CËnmXZ à_mU d XOm© gwYmaVmo : CËnmXZmMo à_mU Am{U CËnm{XV _mbmMm XOm© dmT>Ê`mg 

H$maImÝ`mVrb gwa{jVVm d Amamo½`Xm`r dmVmdaU A{Ve` Cn`wŠV R>aVo. H$m`©j_VoV dmT>, AnKmVmV KQ>, 

AI§S> CËnmXZ, H$m_mam§À`m emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ Amamo½`mV gwYmaUm, _ZmoY¡`m©V dmT> BË`mXr H$maUm_wio 

CËnmXZmMo à_mU dmT>VoM. {edm` CËnmXZmMm XOm©hr gwYmaVmo. AWm©V Amamo½` g§nÞ H$_©Mmar Amnë`m 

j_VoMm OmñVrVOmñV Cn`moJ H$aVmV. Ë`m_wio CËnmXZ à_mU dmT>rg MmbZm {_iVo. 

6) Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~YmV d¥Õr : {ZamoJr H$_©Mmè`m§Mo ñdmñÏ` {Q>Hy$Z amhVo, Ë`m§Mm CËgmh dmT>Vmo, 

H$m`©{Zð>m dmT>Vo d Ë`m§À`mV O~m~XmarMr ^mdZm {Z_m©U hmoVo. `m_wio Vo CÚmoJ g§ñWoH$S>o AmnwbH$sÀ`m 

^mdZoVyZ nmhÿ bmJVmV. `mCbQ> _mbH$mH$Sy>Zhr gH$mamË_H$ à{VgmX {_iVo. n[aUm_r Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§YmV 

97

gwYmaUm hmoVo. åhUyZ H$_©Mmar Amamo½` d gwa{jVVm ho Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y gwYmaÊ`mMo _hÎdmMo _mÜ`_ Amho. 

7) Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm : CÚmoJ g§ñWoVrb gÑT> _mZdr Amamo½`m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§YmV gwYmaUm hmoVo. 

_mbH$ d H$m_Jma `m§À`mV doimodoir Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§Kf© qH$dm H$bh {Z_m©U hmoÊ`mMm YmoH$m ZgVmo. Ë`m§À`mV 

nañnam~Ôb ghH$m`m©Mr ^mdZm dmT>rg bmJVo. Ë`m_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm d Am¡Úmo{JH$ bmoH$emhr ApñVËdmV 

òVo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVo_wio g§ñWoMm {dH$mg KSy>Z òVmo. 

ì`dgm`mVrb (H$m_Y§ÚmVrb) YmoHo$ Am{U OmoIr_ : 

(Occupational Hazards and Risk) : 

H$moUË`mhr H$m_Y§ÚmVrb H$m_Jmam§À`m OrdZmV nyU© qH$dm A§eV: YmoH$m d OmoIr_ AgVo. H$maImZm, 

ImZ CÚmoJ, aoëdo, OhmO JmoXr, ~§Xa BË`mXr {d{dY {R>H$mUr H$m_ H$aUmè`m H$m_Jmamn¡H$s Xadfu bmImo 

H$m_Jmam§Zm gyú_ AmOma d H$m`_ An§JËd òVo. {d{dY àH$maÀ`m H$m_Y§ÚmVrb YmoŠ`m_YyZM AnKmV KS>V 

AgVmV. åhUOoM AnKmVmMo _yi H$maU CÚmoJ KQ>H$mV AgUmao YmoHo$ d OmoIr_ hmo`. ho YmoHo$ d OmoIr_ 

CÚmoJ KQ>H$mV AgUmao ÁdmbmJ«mhr nXmW©, {dfmar dm`y, {dÚwV `§Ìgm_J«r, H$m_mdarb Agwa{jVVm, gXmof 

`§ÌaMZm, Anwar àH$me ì`dñWm, ahXmarÀ`m _mJm©V `§ÌmMm qH$dm _mbmMm AS>Wim, hË`mam§Mr JXu, 

Agwa{jV H$m`© dmVmdaU, OwZo ~m§YH$m_ BË`mXrnmgyZ CX²^dVmV. ho YmoHo$ H|$ìhm {Z_m©U hmoVrb Vo gm§JVm òV 

Zmhr. ì`dgm`rZ YmoŠ`mMr eŠ`Vm qH$dm YmoHo$ OmUdUmar n[apñWVr ApñVËdmV AgUo hr AnKmVmMr 

nyd©pñWVr AgVo. åhUyZ AnKmV hm H$m_Y§ÚmVrb YmoŠ`mMm qH$dm OmoI_rMm g§^mì` n[aUm_ hmo`. H$m_Jmam§Zm 

OmoIr_ d YmoŠ`mÀ`m n[apñWVrV H$m_ H$amdo bmJë`mg Ë`m§Zm emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$ ñdmñÏ` bm^V Zmhr. 

n[aUm_r, H$m`©j_Vm H$_r hmoD$Z CËnmXH$Vm KQ>Vo. n`m©`mZo H$m_Jma, CÚmoJ, g_mO d amï´>mMo ZwH$gmZ hmoVo. 

YmoŠ`m§Mo g§^mì` YmoHo$ d àË`j YmoHo$ Ago XmoZ àH$ma Agy eH$VmV. 

g§^mì` YmoHo$ : 

CÚmoJ KQ>H$mV Ooìhm `§Ìgm_J«r, nXmW©, gm{hË` qH$dm n[apñWVr ^{dî`H$mimV YmoH$m {Z_m©U hmoD$ 

eHo$b Aem ñdê$nmV AmT>iVo V|ìhm Ë`mbm g§^mì` YmoH$m åhUVmV. `mMmM AW© YmoŠ`mMo à{V~§Y Cnm` Z 

`moOë`mZo YmoH$m qH$dm OmoIr_ {Z_m©U hmoÊ`mMm g§^d AgVmo, eŠ`Vm AgVo, Vmo hmoB©bM Ago Zmhr. 

ÁdmbmJ«mhr nXmW© CKS>o R>odUo qH$dm {dfmar dm`y H$maImÝ`mV ngaUma Zmhr, `mMr XjVm Z KoUo, {dÚwV Vmam 

OwÝ`m Pmboë`m AgUo, Ë`mdarb AmdaU Jobobo AgUo, {dÚwV ^ma OmñV AgUo, `§Ìm§Zm AmdaU ZgUo d 

H$m_Jmam§Zr YmoH$m à{V~§YH$ Cnm`m§Mm Adb§~ Z H$aUo Aer n[apñWVr Agob Va YmoH$m H|$ìhm {Z_m©U hmoB©b 

ho gm§JVm òV Zmhr. 

àË`j YmoHo$ : 

darbà_mUo g§^mì` YmoŠ`mMr n[apñWVr Agë`mg `mo½` Vr I~aXmar KoVbr Z Joë`mg qH$dm n[apñWVr 

hmVm~mhoa Joë`mZo Ë`mVyZ àË`j YmoHo$ KSy>Z òVmV. Ë`m_wio _mb_ÎmoMr d Or{dVmMr qH$dm emar[aH$ hmZr hmoVo. 

ÁdmbmJ«mhr nXmW© CKS>çmda Agë`mg H|$ìhmhr noQ> YoD$Z ñ\$moQ> hmoUo, {dOoMo PQ>Ho$ ~gUo, Vmam§Zm {MH$Q>Uo 

98

d OiyZ OmUo, em°Q>© g{H©$Q> hmoUo, B_maVrMm ^mJ XwéñVr Z Ho$ë`mZo H$mogiUo d Ë`mImbr _mb_Îmm, _mUgo 

gmnS>Uo, {dfmar dm`yMm {ZMam Z hmoUo d Vmo H$maImÝ`mV ngady Zò `m~m~V XjVm Z KoUo BË`mXr n[aUm_ 

hmoVmV. 

g§ñWoÀ`m H$m_mg§~§YrV {Z_m©U hmoÊ`mÀ`m XwImnVr qH$dm AnKmVmZm à{V~§Y qH$dm AQ>H$md H$aUo hm 

àËòH$ g§ñWoÀ`m à^mdr gwa{jVVm H$m`©H«$_mMm _w»` CÔoe AgVmo. Mm§Jë`m ì`dñWmnH$s` H$maImÝ`m_Üò 

H$moUVmhr emar[aH$ YmoH$m CX²^dy Z XoÊ`mMo AQ>moH$mQ> à`ËZ Ho$bo OmVmV. gmYmaUnUo CÚmoJ g§ñWm_Üò 

emar[aH$ YmoHo$ qH$dm OmoIr_ nwT>rbà_mUo V`ma hmoVmV. 

1) O{_Zrdarb {ZgaS>r_wio nS>Ê`mMm YmoH$m : H$m`©ñWimÀ`m gnmQ> O{_Zrda qH$dm H$maImZm 

n[agamVrb O_rZrMo joÌ, añVo, {OZo, ìham§S>çmda {Z`{_V nmUr, gm~Z, Vob, d§JU BË`mXr ~m~r gm§Sy>Z EH$ 

àH$maMr XbXb qH$dm {ZgaS> V`ma Pmbobr AgVo. Ë`m_wio VoWo H$m_ H$aUmè`m H$m_Jmam§Zm Ë`m {ZgaS> 

Pmboë`m O{_Zrda nS>Ê`mMm YmoH$m AgVmo. 

2) AS>Wim Am{U AmXiÊ`mMm (Q>¸$a) YmoH$m : Anwao Ag_mYmZH$maH$ H$maImZm, aMZm Am{U 

OmJm ì`dñWmnZ Agob Va A`mo½` {R>H$mUr \${Z©Ma, CnH$aUo, _mbgmR>m Ho$bm OmVmo. n[aUm_r H$m_Jma- 

CnH$aUo-`§Ìgm_wJ«r-\${Z©Ma BË`mXr_Üò AS>Wim qH$dm nañnam§Zm AmXiÊ`mMm (Q>¸$a) YmoH$m {Z_m©U hmoVmo. 

VgoM Anwè`m d Aê§$X OmJo_wio H$m_Jmam_Üò AmXiAmnQ> qH$dm AnKmV hmoVmV. 

3) CnH$aUr` YmoHo$ : `§ÌmÀ`m {\$aË`m ^mJmda AdaU qH$dm Hw§$nZ ZgUo, {dOoÀ`m CKS>çm Vmam, 

Agwa{jV pñdMog, YmVyMr YmaXma hË`mao BË`mXr CnH$aUmZr gwÕm H$m_ H$aUmè`m H$m_Jmam§Zm Xw:ImnV hmoD$ 

eH$Vo. VgoM Q>mH$mD$ H$mJX, ~mñHo$Q>, nmB©nMo d H$mMm§Mo VwH$S>o, H$mnS>r ~moio Aem ~m~rhr H$m_Jmamg_moa 

OmoIr_ V`ma H$aVmV. 

4) dñVy A§Jmda nS>Ê`mMm YmoH$m : H$maImÝ`mVrb Oa {d{dY àH$maMo gm{hË` qH$dm dñVy `mo½` 

{R>H$mUr R>odë`m ZgVrb Va YmoH$m CX²^dVmo. AWm©V da R>odboë`m dñVy qH$dm Iw§Q>rbm/ {Iù`m§Zm AS>H$dboë`m 

dñVy Imbr nS>Ê`mMm qH$dm H$m_Jmam§À`m A§Jmda nS>Ê`mMm YmoH$m AgVmo. 

5) AmJrMm YmoH$m : H$maImÝ`m_Üò D$Om©eŠVr {Z_m©U H$aUmè`m ñnmoQ>H$ gmYZmda à{V~§YmË_H$ 

Cnm``moOZm Z Ho$ë`mg qH$dm gwa{jV gmYZm§À`m VaVyXr A^mdr qH$dm A¾rem_H$ `§ÌmMm-gmYZm§Mm Cn`moJ 

Z Ho$ë`m_wio AmJrMm YmoH$m CX²^dÊ`mMr OmñV eŠ`Vm Amho. 

am°b°S> ãboH$ (Roland Blake) `m VkmZo gd©gmYmaU H$m_Y§ÚmVrb Amamo½` YmoŠ`m§Mo amgm`{ZH$, 

{Odemór`, n`m©daUmË_H$ Am{U _mZgemór` Ago d{J©H$aU gm§{JVbo Amho. Ë`mZwgma YmoH$m qH$dm OmoIr_ 

~m~VMo {ddoMZ Imbrbà_mUo nmhVm òB©b. 

(A) amgm`{ZH$ nXmW©, dm`y, Yya, Yyi B. _wio YmoHo$ 

(Chemical Substances, Gas, Fumes and dust Huzards) : 

L H$m~©Z _moZmŠgmB©S> : hm dm`y Amamo½`mg AË`§V KmVH$ d {dfmar Amho. dmhZ B§YZmÀ`m _§X 

99

ÁdbZmZo hm dm`y V`ma hmoVmo. `m dm`y_wio aŠVXm~, öX`{dH$ma, S>moHo$XwIr, hmS>m§Mr PrO BË`mXr {dH$mam§Mo 

à_mU dmT>Ê`mMm YmoH$m AgVmo. `m H$m~©Z _moZmŠgmB©S>Mo à_mU 100 nr.nr.E_. Pmë`mg VmgmâmV S>moHo$XwIr 

d ^modi òVo, `m a§J{hZ d J§Y{hZ dm`yMm aŠVmVrb {h_mo½bmo{~Zda n[aUm_ hmoVmo. _ZñdmñÏ` {~KS>Vo, 

earamMr H$m`©eŠVr KQ>Vo Am{U _Zwî` ~oewÕ nSy>Z _aÊ`mMmhr YmoH$m AgVmo. 

L gë\$a S>m` Am°ŠgmB©S> : J§YH$ d noQ´>mo{b`_ nXmW© {Z{_©Vr Am{U Vob ewÕrH$aU CÚmoJmVyZ gë\$a 

S>mÀm°ŠgmBS> `m {dfmar dm`yMr CËnÎmr hmoVo. `m dm`yMm ñne© Pmë`mg qH$dm hþ§Jë`mg g§~§YrV ì`ŠVrMm Ord 

JwX_aVmo, KemMr IdId, S>moù`m§Mr MyaMya, ídgZ|{Ð`m§Mo amoJ BË`mXr YmoH$m {Z_m©U hmoVmo. 

L H$m~©Z S>m` Am°ŠgmB©S> : H$maImZm Mmby amhÊ`mgmR>r gVV B§YZmMo ÁdbZ H$amdo bmJVo. 

D$Om©{Z{_©Vr à{H«$`mgmR>r, YmVy {dVidÊ`mgmR>r gVV I{ZO VobmMo ÁdbZ H$amdo bmJVo, `m_wio H$m~©Z 

S>mÀm°ŠgmB©S> `m dm`yMr {Z{_©Vr hmoVo. hm dm`y hdoV gmoS>ë`mg Ë`mMm à{VHy$b n[aUm_ _mZdmÀ`m, 

dZñnVrÀ`m Amamo½`mda hmoVmo. AWm©V {df~mYm, öXàmoJ, ídgZmMo amoJ BË`mXr YmoHo$ AgVmV. 

L hm`S´>moOZ gë\$mB©S> : H¥${Ì_ Ym½`mMo H$maImZo, H$mVS>r H$_{dÊ`mMo H$maImZo, noQ´>mo{b`_ 

H$maImZo, a§JÐì` H$maImZo, VobewÕrH$aUmMo H$maImZo, H$mJX H$maImZo B. CÚmoJmVyZ `m agm`ZmMr CËnÎmr 

hmoVo. `m agm`ZmÀ`m gm{ZÜ`m_Üò Agboë`m H$m_Jmam§Zm ídgZ _mJm©Mm Xmh, Xw~ionUm, ËdMmamoJ B. YmoH$m 

CX²^dVmo. 

L Zm`Q´>moOZ Am°ŠgmB©S> : _moQ>ma B§YZ ÁdbZ, Am¡Úmo{JH$ `§Ìo, {dO M_H$Zo, ñd`§M{bV dmhZm§Mm 

Yya, ñ\$moQ>H$ Ðì`m§Mo H$maImZo, Amåb CÚmoJ BË`mXr_wio hm dm`y {Z_m©U hmoV AgyZ, Ý`y_mo{Z`m, \w$ß\w$gmda gyO, 

Amåb nmD$g, àH$meH$s` amgm`{ZH$ YwHo$, ídgZg§ñWoda dmB©Q> n[aUm_ Ago YmoHo$ V`ma hmoVmV. 

L hm`S´>moOZ âë`wamB©S> : IV H$maImZo, {H$Q>H$ZmeHo$, amgm`{ZH$ H$maImZo, Aë`w{_{Z`_ CÚmoJ B. 

{R>H$mUr `m dm`yMm CJ_ hmoV AgyZ Ë`mnmgyZ hmS>m§Mo amoJ, XmV {R>gyinUm, ídgZ_mJ© {dH$ma, àmÊ`m§Zm amoJ 

AmXr YmoHo$ CX²^dVmV. 

L hm`S´>moH$m~©Z : H$m~©Z d amgm`{ZH$ H$maImZo VgoM ñd`§M{bV dmhZo `mnmgyZ V`ma hmoUmè`m 

hm`S´>moH$m~©Z_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm H°$Ýga hmoÊ`mMm d _‚mm g§ñWoda n[aUm_ hmoÊ`mMm YmoH$m AgVmo. 

L Šbmo[aZ, A_mo{Z`m, hm`S´>moŠbmo[aH$, gëâ`y[aH$ A°{gS>, AmåbmÀ`m dm\$m, YmVyÀ`m dm\$m, 

{g_|Q->MwÝ`mMr Yyi B. : {Za{Zamù`m H$maImÝ`m_YyZ {Z_m©U hmoUmè`m `m {dfmar dm`w_wio AZoH$ àH$maMo 

AmOma amoJ _Zwî`mg OS>Ê`mMm YmoH$m AgVmo. CXm. {df~mYm, ídgZ_mJm©Mo amoJ, KemMr IdId, ImoH$bm, 

Ý`y_mo{Z`m, hmS>m§Mo amoJ, H°$Ýga, Q>m`\$mB©S> B. 

L {H$aUmoËgJu Ywi : D$Om©/ {dO{Z{_©VrgmR>r AUy ^Å>rVyZ V`ma hmoUmè`m {H$aUmoËgJu Ywir_wio 

emar[aH$ ì`§JËd òUmMm YmoH$m CX²^dVmo. 

L Yya, Yyi {df`mar dm`y, ~mîn B. : IS>r _{eZ, H$moigm ImZ, {ggo-OñV {dVidUmao 

H$maImZo `m_wio hdm Xy{fV hmoD$Z n«mUdm`yMo à_mU H$_r H$_r hmoVo. n[aUm_r gOrdg¥ï>rMo Am`wî` 

100

YmoŠ`mV òÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. AWm©V {dfmar dm`y d Xw{fV hdo_wio ídgZ|{Ð` d _‚mm g§ñWoda 

(àm_w»`mZo ZmH$, H$mZ, Kgm, S>moio `m§Mo) amoJ hmoVmV. VgoM öX`{dH$ma, j`, X_m, H$H©$amoJ, 

\w$ß\w$gm§Mo AmOma B. amoJm§Mo à_mU dmT>Vo. 

(~) O¡{dH$ YmoHo$ : 

Oo YmoHo$ {OdmUy, {dfmUy, ~waer, {H$Q>H$, Hw$nmofU BË`mXr AmOmamVyZ V`ma hmoVmV Ë`m§Zm O¡{dH$ YmoH$m 

åhUVmV. ì`dgm`-CÚmoJmVrb gm§S>nmUr, _ir, à{H«$`m`wŠV nmUr, Ho$aH$Mam, _b_yÌ, _¡bm, Hw$OŠ`m dñVy 

O{_Zrda d nmÊ`mV Q>mH$ë`mZo àXyfU hmoVo. XbXb d XwJªYr ngaVo, gmWrMo amoJm§Mm àmXw^m©d hmoVmo. {OdmUy, 

{dfmUy, ~waer, {H$Q>H$ d OrdO§VyMm àgma hmoVmo. Ë`m_wio J°ñQ´>mo, H$m°bam, H$m{di, hJdU, {df_Áda, Zmê$, 

Iê$O, j`, M_©amoJm§Mm \¡$bmd, _bo[a`m, S>|Jy B. AmOma hmoÊ`mMm YmoH$m AgVmo. VgoM Hw$nmofU, Ag§VwbrV 

Amhma, A{V_ÚnmZ, dmdS> (A°bOu), ^md{ZH$ VUmd, H$miOr, ^rVr, qMVm B. gd© YmoHo$ H$_©Mmar 

Amamo½`mda n[aUm_ H$aVmV. 

(H$) n`m©daUmË_H$ d _mZgemór` YmoHo$ : 

n`m©daUmË_H$ YmoŠ`m_Üò {H$aUmoËgJu nXmW©, Jm|JmQ>, H§$ßnZo, Y¸o$ (em°Šg) Am{U A`mo½` dmVmdaU 

pñWVrMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

L {H$aUmoËgJu nXmW© : AUy COo©Mm _moR>çm à_mUmV Adb§~ H$ê$Z AZoH$ {R>H$mUr AUy^Å>r C^maUr 

d Ë`mdarb {d{dY à{H«$`m `m_wio {H$aUmoËgO©Z hmoD$Z J§^ra YmoHo$ CX²^dVmV. CXm. H$H©$amoJ, S>moù`m§Mo 

AmOma, d§YËd, AZwd§{eH$ Xmof qH$dm _¥Ë`yMm YmoH$m AgVmo. 

L Jm|JmQ> : CÚmoJ g§ñWoV Jm|JmQ> hm EH$ ZdrZ YmoH$m ~Zbm Amho. `§ÌmMm IS>IS>mQ>, dñVy hmVmiUrMm 

AmdmO, `§ÌmMr JVr, dmhVyH$ `m gdmªVyZ Jm|JmQ> {Z_m©U hmoVmo. AmdmOmMr Vrd«Vm 90 S>o{g~bnojm OmñV 

Agob Va ÜdZr n«XwfUmÀ`m à_mUmV Ñîn[aUm_ dmT>V OmVmV. CXm. H$m_mJmam§Mm aŠVXm~ dmT>Vmo, _mZ{gH$ 

g§VwbZ T>iVo, ~{YanUm, {MS>{MS>nUm, ~{haonUm òVmo, {ZÐmZme, _Z ApñWa, AnMZ, H$m`©j_Vm _§XmdVo, 

AnKmVmMr eŠ`Vm, ~wÕr^«§e, {dñ_aU, amo½` à{VH$maH$ eŠVr KQ>Vo B. YmoHo$ CX²^dVmV. 

L H§$ßnZo d Y¸o$ : H$m`©ñWimdarb doJdmZ `§Ì hbMmb d JVr_wio H§$ßnZo d Y¸o$ (Vibration & 

Shocks) V`ma hmoVmV. Ë`mMm aŠVXm~ d MoVZmg§ñWoda n[aUm_ hmoVmo. {deof {dÚwV Vmam d CnH$aUm§Zm 

H$_©Mmè`m§Zm Z H$iV ñne© Pmë`mg {dOoMm J§^ra Y¸$m (Shocks) ~gVmo. earamÀ`m g§~§YrV ^mJmbm gyO 

òVo Ë`mVyZ ì`ŠVrMm _¥Ë`y hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

L dmVmdaU n[apñWVr : dmVmdaU pñWVr_YwZ Anwao dm`y {dOZ, A`mo½` àH$me, H$_r-OmñV 

Vmn_mZ Ago YmoHo$ V`ma hmoVmV. Ë`m_wio S>moù`mda VmU nSy>Z Ñ{ï>Xmof {Z_m©U hmoVmo. H$m`©j_Voda n[aUm_ hmoVmo. 

Vmn_mZmVrb ~Xb H$m_Jmam§Zm nyaH$ ZgVmo. Ë`m_wio S>moHo$XwIr, aŠVXm~, H$m_mMm WH$dm, Amig, erU, 

H§$Q>mim, {Zê$Ëgmh Am{U AnKmV à_mUmV dmT> Ago YmoHo$ CX²^dVmV. 

101

ì`mdgm{`H$ (H$m_Y§ÚmVrb) AmOma (Occupational Disease) : 

ì`dgm{`Z AmOma hm ^m¡{VH$ n[apñWVr Am{U CÚmoJY§ÚmVyZ ApñVËdmV Ambobo {dfmar d {~Z{dfmar 

dm`y, Yya, Myi, ~mîn, amgm`{ZH$, H$U, gm§S>nmUr, amgm`{ZH$ Ðìò, _ir, Ho$aH$Mam, _moR>o AmdmO 

BË`mXr_wio ~Zboë`m dmVmdaUmVyZ V`ma hmoVmo. H$ƒm_mb, CËnmXZo, OmoS> CËnmXZo, Q>mH$mD$ nXmW© `mda 

hmoUmè`m à{H«$òVyZ qH$dm Ë`mÀ`m hmVmiUrÛmao H$m_Jmam§À`m Amamo½`mg ~mYm {Z_m©U hmoVmo. CXm. Oo H$m_Jma 

{eí`mgma»`m YmVyer {ZJS>rV Ho$~b-nmB©n {Z{_©Vr, Ho$~b d nmB©n OmoS>Ur, a§J CÚmoJ, n|Q>t½O BË`mXr H$m_o 

H$aVmV Ë`m§Zm ^yH$ _§XmdUo, {H$ig òUo, _i_iUo, CbQ>r, nmoQ>XwIr, ñZm`y d gm§Yo XwIr d emaramVrb 

AmVS>çm§Mm amoJ Aem àH$maMo AmOma hmoVmV. EdT>oM Zìho Va H$mhtZm _¥Ë`w òVmo. Ë`mà_mUoM ^ma_mnH$ 

(Borometer), CîUVm_mnH$ (Thermometer) d à`moJemioVrb H$m_Jma, BboŠQ´>rer`Z, gmoZo-Mm§Xr YmVy 

ewÕrH$aU H$aUmao `m§Zm nmè`mMm (Mercury) {df~mYm hmoD$Z {Z`{_V ídgZmMm {dH$ma hmoVmo. _°J{ZO, bmoh 

_°J{ZO ImUr_Üò H$m_ H$aUmao, ~°Q>ar ~Z{dUmè`m H$m_Jmam§ZmgwÕm _°J{ZO YmVyÀ`m YwamZo d YwirZo 

ídmgmoÀN>²modmgmMm AmOma hmoVmo. 

Oo H$m_Jma {ga°{_H$ \$aer, _mVrMr ^m§S>r, _mVrÀ`m Hw§$S>çm, YmVyH$m_, XJS>rImZ, XJS>r nmQ>rda 

H$bmHw$ga, añVo ~m§YUr, ~m§YH$m_ CÚmoJ BË`mXr {R>H$mUr H$m_o H$aVmV. Ë`m§Zm ídgZmMm AmOma hmoD$Z 

Ww§H$sdmQ>o aŠV ~mhoa OmVo Am{U àg§Jr {gbrH$mo{gg (Silicosis) Ûmao Xw:IX {ZYZ hmoVo. Oo bmoH$ bmoH$a CÚmoJ, 

H$mVS>r H$_mdÊ`mMm CÚmoJ, amR>Ho$g qH$dm _¥V OZmdamer g§~§YrV H$m_H$mOmV Jw§Vbobo AgVmV Ë`m§Zm 

A±Ïàm}dg (Anthrax) gma»`m Jwam§À`m ^`§H$a amoJmer gm_Zm H$amdm bmJVmo. 

ao{e_ d gyV {dUZo `mgma»`m dñÌmoÚmoJm_Üò H$m_ H$aUmè`m H$m_Jmam§Zm H$mnyg {_lrV YwirV 

ídmgmoÀN>dmg H$amdo bmJV Agë`mZo Ë`m§Zm ídgZmMm AmOma, _‚mmV§Vybm gyO, Cƒ aŠVXm~, X_m, öX` 

amoJ, _Yw_oh, nmoQ>mMo {dH$ma BË`mXr AmOmam§Zm Vm|S> Úmdo bmJVo. 

gmYmaUnUo ì`dgm{`Z AmOma ho Zoh_r XrK© H$mbmdYrVyZ V`ma hmoVmV d gVV dmT>V OmVmV. Ë`m_Üò 

\$magm ~Xb hmoV Zmhr. _mÌ Amamo½`mMr A{YH$ {~H$Q> n[apñWVr {Z_m©U hmoÊ`mg H$maUr^yV R>aVmV. {deofV: 

AÞ à{H«$`m CÚmoJ, dómoÚmoJ, H$mJX CÚmoJ, amgm`{ZH$ CÚmoJ, noQ´>mo{b`_ CÚmoJ, ImU CÚmoJ, a~a d ßb°pñQ>H$ 

CÚmoJ, YmVyH$m_ CÚmoJ, IV H$maImZo, a§J CÚmoJ, {g_|Q> CÚmoJ, H$mVS>r H$_mdÊ`mMm CÚmoJ, Am¡fYr CÚmoJ, 

\$mD§$S´>r CÚmoJ BË`mXr ì`dgm{`Z H$m_H$mOmVyZ _mZdr Amamo½`mda d Am`wî`mda Xwîn[aUm_ hmoVmo. 

H$mamIZm H$m`Xm 1948 _Yrb H$b_ 89 Am{U 90 À`m OmoS> n[a{eï> Zwgma nwT>rb ì`dgm{`H$ 

AmOmam§Mr {dfoe Zm|X H$ê$Z gXa H$m`Úm_Üò A{YH¥$V[aË`m Om{ha Ho$bo Amho. 

1. {ego Am{U {eñ`mÀ`m n[aUm_mVyZ {Z_m©U Pmboë`m YmVyMm {df~mYm. 

2. ñnyaX (\$m°ñ\$a) `wŠV {df~mYm. 

3. _°J{ZO d Ë`mÀ`m n[aUm_mVyZ V`ma Pmboë`m YmVyMm {df~mYm. 

4. nmam`wŠV {df~mYm. 

102

5. eómJma (Ag}{ZH$) `wŠV {df~mYm. 

6. Zm`Q´>gÀ`m YwamnmgyZ {df~mYm. 

7. H$m~©Z ~m`gë\$mB©S>Zwgma {df~mYm. 

8. ~|{PZ `wŠV {df~mYm. 

9. a§JmnmgyZ hmoUmao {dH$ma / OI_m 

10. gm§YoXwIr d Vm|S>mMo AmOma. 

11. {gbrH$m{gg (dmiy) nmgyZMo {dH$ma. 

12. h°bmoOZ d h°bmoOZ g§~§YrV dm`yÛmao {df~mYm. 

13. n°Wm°bm°OrVrb {H$aUmoËgmar nXmWm©nmgyZ {dH$ma. 

14. ËdMoMm àmW{_H$ H$H©$amoJ. 

15. {dfmar agm`Zm_wio hmoUmar KmVH$ H$m{di. 

16. I{ZO d I{ZO VobmnmgyZ ËdMmamoJ. 

17. g{X©Mm Ìmg. 

18. KmVH$ AmZo{_`m. 

19. amgm`{ZH$ nXmW© d a§JmÀ`m ñnem©VyZ / gm{ZÜ`mVyZ hmoUmao ËdMmamoJ. 

20. Jm|JmQ>m_wio hmoUmam ~{haonUm / ldU`§ÌmMo ZwH$gmZ. 

21. BZ\«$maoS> (Intrared) {H$aUm_wio earamVrb noer AS>Hy$Z / AMHy$Z òVmV. 

22. ~J°gog (Bagases) _wio ídgZmMm, ËdMoMm d dmè`mMm Ìmg hmoVmo. 

Amamo½`mÀ`m YmoŠ`mnmgyZ g§ajU (Protection Against Health Hazards) : 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ joÌmVrb daModa CX²^dUmao YmoHo$ qH$dm AnKmV Am{U AZmamo½` nyU©nUo Q>miVm òUo H$YrM 

eŠ` Zmhr. VarnU g§~§{YV g§ñWoÀ`m _mZdr g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmH$Sy>Z à^mdr Cnm``moOZm H$ê$Z YmoŠ`m§Mo 

qH$dm AnKmVm§Mo à_mU d Jm§^r`© H$_r H$aVm òVo. n[aUm_r H$m_Jmam§À`m Amamo½`mda hmoUmam à{VHy$b n[aUm_ 

H$_r H$aVm òVmo. CÚmoJg§ñWoV H$_©Mmè`m§À`m Amamo½`mMo YmoŠ`mnmgyZ qH$dm AnKmVmnmgyZ g§ajU H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

nwT>rb Cnm``moOZm A§_bmV AmUmì`m bmJVmV. 

1) emar[aH$ d `m§{ÌH$ gwa{jVVm : H$maImÝ`mÀ`m B_maVrMm AmH$ma d aMZm {ZpíMV H$aVmZm 

VoWrb H$m_Jmam§À`m d _mb_ÎmoÀ`m gwa{jVVoMmhr {dMma Ho$bm Jobm nm{hOo. H$m_Jmam§Zm {ZXm}f d gwa{jV 

Aer hË`mao Am{U CnH$aUo {Xbr nm{hOo. gd© `§ÌmMr gwa{jV _m§S>Ur H$ê$Z Ë`mÀ`m ImbMr O_rZ H$R>rU, 

Q>UH$ Am{U g_Vb d gnmQ> Agë`mMr ImÌr H$ê$Z KoVbr nm{hOo. `§Ìm^modVr AmdaU Agbo nm{hOo. AWm©V 

103

`§ÌmMr Mm§Jë`m àH$mao _m§S>Ur H$amdr H$s Á`m_wio `§Ìo nS>Ê`mMm qH$dm KgaÊ`mMm YmoH$m H$_r hmoB©b. 

H$m_Jmam§Zm `§Ìmda _moH$ionUmZo H$m_ H$aVm òB©b EdT>r àËòH$ `§ÌmÀ`m g^modma OmJm Agbr nm{hOo. 

YmoH$mXm`H$ `§Ìo BVa `§ÌmnmgyZ ñdV§Ì {R>H$mUr R>oD$Z Ë`mMr OmñVrV OmñV XjVm KoVbr nm{hOo. 

2) `§ÌmMr {Z`{_V XoI^mb d XwéñVr : H$maImÝ`mVrb OwZmQ> Am{U H$mb~mø R>abobr `§Ìo ~Xbbr 

nm{hOo qH$dm doimnÌH$mà_mUo àËòH$ `§ÌmMr {Z`_rV VnmgUr d XoI^mb Ho$br nm{hOo. Oa H$mhr XwéñVr 

H$amd`mMr Agob Va Vr {H$aH$moi Amho åhUyZ Xwb©j H$ê$Z bm§~Urda Z Q>mH$Vm Vm~S>Vmo~ Ho$br Jobr nm{hOo. 

`§ÌmMo {PObobo qH$dm Iam~ Pmbobo ^mJ Vm~S>Vmo~ ~Xbbo nm{hOoV. `§Ìm§Zm {Z`{_VnUo, doiÀ`mdoir Vob 

d nmUr KmbyZ Vr H$m`©j_ AmhoV `mMr ImÌr H$ê$Z ¿`mdr bmJVo. 

3) ZdrZ `§Ìgm_wJ«rMr IaoXr : ZdrZ `§Ìo IaoXr H$aVmZm Ë`m§À`m gwa{jVVoÀ`m gm{hË`mgh Vr IaoXr 

Ho$br nm{hOoV. `§Ìm~amo~a gwa{jVVooMo gm{hË` IaoXr H$amd`mMo qH$dm Zmhr ho EopÀN>H$ Z R>odVm, Vo àËòH$ Zì`m 

`§Ìm~amo~a KoVboM nm{hOo Aer gŠVr hdr. `mgmR>r Zì`m `§ÌmMr qH$_V Ë`m gm{hË`mgh AmH$mabr Jobr 

nm{hOo. 

4) _m{hVrnÌH$ qH$dm \$cH$ : àËòH$ `§ÌmOdi `§ÌmMm doJ, j_Vm, Vmn_mZ, g§ajUmË_H$ Cnm` 

BË`mXr ~m~V Vn{ebdma _m{hVr XoUmao \$bH$ bmdbo nm{hOo. \$bH$mdarb _m{hVrÀ`m Cn`moJmZo gd© 

H$_©Mmè`m§Zm gVH©$VoMr OmUrd hmoVo Am{U `§ÌmnmgyZ hmoUmao g§^mì` YmoHo$ Q>miVm òVmV. `§ÌmOdirb 

_m{hVrnÌH$ ~è`mM Ñ{ï>Zo Cn`moJr nS>Vo. CXm. CËnmXZj_Vm, {dÚwV àdmh d Ë`mVrb ~Xb, H$_©Mmar j_Vm 

B. 

5) {dÚwV Vmam d CnH$aUo : {dÚwV Vmam d CnH$aUo `m§Zm H$_©Mmè`m§Mm H$iV, ZH$iV ñne© hmoUma 

Zmhr VgoM {dÚwV Vmam§Mo Omio V`ma hmoUma Zmhr `mMr XjVm KoVbr nm{hOo. `mgmR>r Ë`m§À`mda Amdí`H$ 

AmdaUmgh Vr ~§{XñV Agbr nm{hOoV. gd© {dÚwV CnH$aUo H$m`©j_ R>oD$Z H$_©Mmar dmdaÊ`mÀ`m OmJonmgyZ 

Xya AgmdrV. 

6) Amamo½`Xm`H$ H$m`©n[apñWVr : H$maImÝ`mVrb H$m`©n[apñWVr Zoh_r AmXe©, Mm§Jbr d Amamo½`Xm`H$ 

Agbr nm{hOo. ânya àH$me, IoiVr hdm, `mgmR>r B_maVrbm Amdí`H$ VodT>o PamoHo$, {IS>Š`m R>odUo, àËòH$ 

H$_©Mmè`mgmR>r H$maImZm H$m`ÚmZwgma Amdí`H$ (500 K. \y$) OmJm CnbãY H$aUo, a§Jg§JVr gmYZo, gd©Ì 

ñdÀN>Vm R>odUo, Ywi, Yya, {dfmar dm`y, gm§S>nmUr `m§À`m {dgO©ZmMr gmo` H$aUo, H$_©Mmè`m§À`m g§»òZwgma 

_wVmè`m d em¡Mmbò R>oD$Z Vo XaamoO ñdÀN> H$aUo, ñdÀN> {nÊ`mMo nmUr nwa{dUo, Jm|JmQ> d BVa àXwfUo V`ma 

hmoD$ ZòV `mgmR>r Amdí`H$ Vr Cnm``moOZm H$aUo. 

7) g§ajUmMr gmYZo qH$dm CnH$aUo : `§Ìmda H$m_ H$aUmè`m H$m_Jmam§Zm Mm§Jë`m XOm©Mr d `mo½` 

AmH$mamMr g§ajU gmYZo qH$dm CnH$aUo nwa{dÊ`mV `mdr. `m_Üò g§ajU Mî_o, hmV _moOo, J_~wQ>g², {eaómUo, 

AmdmOmMm Ìmg Q>miÊ`mgmR>r H$mZmMr gmYZo BË`mXrMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. `m gmYZm§Mm dmna H$em àH$mao 

H$amd`mMm `mMrhr H$_©Mmè`m§Zm _m{hVr XoÊ`mV `mdr. 

8) g§H$Q>H$mir ~mhoa nS>Ê`mMm _mJ© : H$m`©ñWimda H$m_Jmam§Zm OmÊ`m-òÊ`mMo _mJ© _moR>o d ñdÀN> 

AgmdoV. AmJrgma»`m g§H$Q>mÀ`mdoir daÀ`m _Oë`mdê$Z ËdarV ~mhoa OmUogmR>r _moR>o {OUo qH$dm nmiÊ`mMr 

104

ì`dñWm H$amdr. ""g§H$Q>H$mir ~mhoa OmÊ`mMm _mJ©'' ñdV§Ì R>odÊ`mV `mdm d Ë`m {R>H$mUr Vgm \$bH$ 

bmdbobm Agmdm. YmoŠ`mMr gwMZm XoUmar gmYZo H$m`©j_ gwpñWVrV Agbr nm{hOo. 

9) gwa{jV ÁdmbmJ«mhr nXmW© : H$maImÝ`m_Üò B§YZgma»`m ÁdmbmJ«mhr nXmWmªMr ñdV§Ì d nyU© 

~§{XñV ì`dñWm H$aÊ`mV Ambr nm{hOo. Ë`m§À`mda `mo½` Vo AmdaU KmbyZ ""YmoH$m joÌ'' (Danger Zone) 

Agm \$bH$hr bmdÊ`mV `mdm. 

10) H$maImÝ`mMr {Z`{_V VnmgUr : Am¡Úmo{JH$ Amamo½` d gwa{jVVoMm Cnm` åhUyZ H$maImÝ`mMr 

{Z`{_V VnmgUr A{Zdm`© AgVo. Vk d à{e{jV A{YH$mè`mZo H$maImÝ`mMr H$miOrnyd©H$ VnmgUr Ho$ë`mg 

_§X àH$me, Ag§a{jV `§Ìo, {ZgaS>çm O_rZr, Agwa{jV nmiUo, {OÝ`mÀ`m doS>çm-dmH$S>çm d Aê§$X nm`è`m, 

Anwè`m gmo`r B. ~m~r Vm~S>Vmo~ bjmV òVmV d Ë`m_Üò gËda gwYmaUm H$ê$Z KoVm òVo. 

11) _mb gmR>çmMr `mo½` nÕVr d nwaoer OmJm : CËnmXZmgmR>r bmJUmam H$ƒm _mb, AY©n¸$m 

Am{U n¸$m _mb `m~amo~aM BVa gm{hË`mÀ`m g§J«hUmMr `mo½` ì`dñWm Ho$br nm{hOo. `mo½` nÕVr A^mdr 

_mbmMm VwQ>dS>m hmoD$Z CËnmXZmV I§S> nS>Vmo qH$dm A{V[aŠV _mb gmR>m hmoD$Z IM© dmT>Vmo, OmñV doi 

gmR>dUyH$sZo _mb Iam~ hmoVmo, VgoM OmJoA^mdr _mb doS>mdmH$S>m aMyZ R>odë`mg Vmo H$mogiyZ A§Jmda 

nS>Ê`mMm YmoH$m AgVmo. 

12) H$m`©gwa{jVVoMo {díbofU : Am¡Úmo{JH$ Amamo½` d gwa{jVVogmR>r H$m`© {díbofZ Amdí`H$ Amho. 

Ë`m_wio {d{eï> H$m`© H$aÊ`mgmR>r H$_©Mmè`m_Üò H$moUVr nmÌVm, {ejU d JwUdÎmm Amdí`H$ Amho Vo R>a{dVm 

òVo. VgoM H$m`m©Vrb YmoHo$ d OmoIr_ g_Oy eH$VmV. Vo Q>miÊ`mgmR>r H$m`m©Mm H«$_, aMZ, à{ejU, H$m`© 

hmbMmbr BË`mXr~m~V _mJ©Xe©Z XoVm òVo. 

13) `mo½` H$_©Mmè`mMr {ZdS> : ì`dgm`rZ YmoHo$ qH$dm AnKmV H$_r H$aÊ`mgmR>r _mZdr g§gmYZ 

ì`dñWmnZmZo ""`mo½` OmJr `mo½` H$_©Mmar {ZdS>'' {H§$dm ""`mo½` ì`ŠVrbm `mo½` H$m_'' `m VÎdmMm Adb§~ 

H$am`bm nm{hOo. C_oXdmamMm AZw^d, JwUdÎmm, {ejU, AmdS>, j_Vm B. {dMmamV KoD$Z Ë`mbm `mo½` R>aob 

Aem OmJr {Z`wŠVr Ho$ë`mg AnKmVmMo à_mU H$_r hmoD$Z H$m`©j_Vm d CËnmXH$Vm dmT>Vo. 

14) Amamo½` gwa{jVVm à{ejU : g§ñWoÀ`m {d{dY H$m`m©Mr d gwa{jVVm gmYZm§Mr H$_©Mmè`m§Zm 

_m{hVr Zgë`m_wio ~aoMgo AnKmV KS>VmV. V|ìhm H$m_Jmam§Zm Amamo½` d gwajm Cnm``moOZm Am{U gmYZo H$er 

dmnamd`mMr `mg§~§Yr à{ejU H$m`©H«$_mMo Am`moOZ Ho$bo nm{hOo. 

15) _mbmMr hmVmiUr : H$m`©ñWimda _mb hmVmiUrMr gmYZo `mo½` àH$maMr ZgVrb Am{U 

A`mo½` _mb hmVmiUr Agob Va H$m_JmamÀ`m emar[aH$ Ad`dmZm (hmV qH$dm nm`) XwImnV hmoVo. V|ìhm _mb 

hmVmiUrMr gmYZo KoVbr nm{hOoV Am{U Vr dmnaÊ`mÀ`m `mo½` nÕVr H$moUË`m ho R>admdo bmJVo. 

16) à_mUrV CnH$aUo d hË`mao : H$m`©ñWimdarb hË`mao d CnH$aUo `mo½` àH$maMr ZgVrb qH$dm 

Vr A`mo½` nÕVrZo dmnabr OmV AgVrb Va H$m_JmamZm bhmZ-ghmZ XwImnVr hmoÊ`mMm g§^d AgVmo. åhUyZ 

A`mo½`, _moS>H$s-VmoS>H$s, hË`mao qH$dm gw_ma XOm©Mr CnH$aUo {Xbr OmUma ZmhrV `mMr XjVm KoVbr nm{hOo. 

à_mUrV CnH$aUo d hË`mao hr H$m`©j_Vm dmT>rgmR>r d Amamo½` g§ajUmgmR>r _hÎdmMr AgVmV. 

105

17) H$_©Mmar Amamo½` d gwa{jVVoMm àMma : Am¡Úmo{JH$ gbmoIm d em§VVogmR>r Amamo½` g§nÞ 

H$_©Mmar Am{U Ë`m§Mr gwa{jVVm _hÎdmMr AgVo. `mgmR>r àMma _mÜ`_mMm Cn`moJ H$ê$Z H$_©Mmè`m§À`m 

_Zmda Amamo½` d gwa{jVVm {df` q~~{dbm nm{hOo. H$m_mÀ`m {R>H$mUr gwa{jVVoMr H$ënZm XoUmar qH$dm 

YmoH$m/AnKmVmMr gwMZm XoUmar {MÌo-KmofdmŠò Agbobr {^ÎmrnÌHo$ bmdUo, AnKmV d YmoŠ`m~m~V {MÌnQ> 

qH$dm àg§J XmI{dUo, gwajm ñnY}Mo Am`moOZ, gwajm gámh nmiUo, MMm©gÌo, H$m`©emim BË`mXr Cnm`m§Mm 

Adb§~ Ho$bm nm{hOo. 

18) AnKmVmÀ`m H$maUm§Mm emoY : CÚmoJ g§ñWoV EImXm AnKmV Pmbm Va Vgm nwÝhm hmoD$ Zò 

`mgmR>r Vmo AnKmV H$m d H$gm Pmbm `mMm emoY KoD$Z {díbofUmA§Vr _yë`_mnZ Ho$bo nm{hOo. AnKmVmMr 

H$maUo d O~m~Xmar {ZpíMV Ho$br nm{hOo d Vgm AnKmV nwÝhm hmoD$ Zò `mgmR>r Cnm``moOZm Ho$br nm{hOo. 

19) AmJ à{V~§YH$ Cnm` : H$maImZm B_maV aMZm H$aVmZmM YmoŠ`mMm {dMma H$ê$Z Á`m {R>H$mUr 

Am¾rMm g§~§Y òVmo Vmo {d^mJ ñdV§Ì R>odUo, AmJamoYH$ q^Vr ~m§YUo, nmÊ`mÀ`m Q>mŠ`m ~m§YUo, AmJ n«{V~§YH$ 

CnH$aUo R>odUo, A{¾em_H$ XbmMr VaVyH$ H$aUo B. AmJ bmJy Zò åhUyZ H$miOr KoVbr Jobr nm{hOo. VgoM 

AmJ à{V~§YH$ {Z`_m§Mo H$mQ>oH$moanUo nmbZ Ho$bo nm{hOo. CXm. Yw_«nmZ ~§Xr. 

20) _Zwî`~im~m~V XjVm : 

(A) H$_©Mmar {ZdS> H$aVmZm d¡ÚH$s` VnmgUrZwgma Vo {ZamoJr (emar[aH$ d _mZ{gH$) Agë`mMr ImÌr 

H$ê$Z KoUo. 

(~) A_br nXmW© godZ H$ê$Z H$m_mda òÊ`mg à{V~§Y. 

(H$) gwajm {Z`_m§Mo nmbZ d gwajm gmYZm§Mm dmna Z H$aUmè`m H$m_Jmam{dê$Õ H$S>H$ H$madmB© H$aUo. 

(S>) H$m_Jmam§Zm Ë`m§À`m H$m`m©Mr, `§Ìo d hË`mam§Mr g§nyU© _m{hVr XoÊ`mMo n«{ejU KoUo. 

(B) H$m_mMo Vmg, {dlm§VrMr doi R>a{dUo, OmñV doi-OmñV H$m_ H$ê$Z KoÊ`mMo Q>miUo. 

H$maImZm H$m`Xm 1948 _Yrb H$m`Xoera VaVwXr : 

CÚmoJ g§ñWoVrb H$m`©n[apñWVrV gwYmaUm H$ê$Z H$m_Jmam§À`m {hVmMo ajU H$aUo Am{U Ë`m§Mo H$ë`mU 

gmYÊ`mgmR>r H$maImZm H$m`Xm 1948 g_§V H$aÊ`mV Ambm. Á`m H$maImÝ`mV Xhm qH$dm Xhmnojm OmñV 

H$m_Jma drO qH$dm BVa àH$maÀ`m eŠVrÀ`m gmhmæ`mZo H$m_ H$aVmV, Aem gd© H$maImÝ`m§Zm hm H$m`Xm bmJy 

Amho. H$m`©n[apñWVr, H$m_Jmam§Mo Amamo½` d gwa{jVVm, H$m_Jma H$ë`mU, H$m_mMo Vmg, H$m_Jmam§À`m gwÅ>çm 

BË`mXr~m~V `m H$m`ÚmV \$ma _hÎdmÀ`m VaVwXr H$aÊ`mV Amë`m AmhoV. `m H$m`ÚmVrb VaVwXtMo nmbZ 

H$aUo _mbH$mda ~§YZH$maH$ Agë`mZo H$m`© n[apñWVrV gwYmaUm H$aÊ`mg VgoM H$m_Jmam§Zm H$m_mÀ`m 

{R>H$mUr gwa{jVVm {_iÊ`mg d n`m©`mZo Ë`m§Mo Amamo½` Mm§Jbo amhÊ`mg `m H$m`Úm§Mm Iyn Cn`moJ PmbmAmho. 

åhUyZ gXa KQ>H$m_Üò H$m_Jma Amamo½` Am{U gwa{jVVo~m~V H$maImZm H$m`Xm 1948 _Yrb H$m`Xoera 

VaVwXr nwT>rbà_mUo _m§S>ë`m AmhoV. 

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(A) H$m_Jma Amamo½`m~m~V H$m`Xoera VaVyXr (H$b_ 11 Vo 20) : 

H$maImZm H$m`Xm 1948 H$b_ 11 Vo 20 _Üò H$m_Jma Amamo½`mÀ`m Ñï>rZo H$m`Xoera VaVwXtMm 

nwT>rbà_mUo g_mdoe Amho. 

1) ñdÀN>Vm (Cleanliness) (H$b_-11) : CÚmoJ KQ>H$mVrb H$m_Jmam§Mo Amamo½` Mm§Jbo amIÊ`mgmR>r 

àËòH$ H$maImZm ñdÀN> R>odbm nm{hOo. g§S>mg, _moar, Ww§H$s nmÌo d BVa àH$maÀ`m {Z_m©U hmoUmè`m XwJªYrnmgyZ 

H$maImZm _wŠV R>odbm nm{hOo. H$maImÝ`mVrb {OZo, òÊ`mOmUoMm _mJ©, H$m`©ñWio BË`mXr {R>H$mUo XaamoO 

ñdÀN> Ho$br nm{hOo. Imoë`m, q^Vr, {OZo, XadmOo, {IS>Š`m, N>V, _mJ© `m§Zm a§J {Xbm nm{hOo. 

2) Ho$aH$Mè`mMr {dëhodmQ> (Disposal of wastes) (H$b_-12) : àËòH$ H$maImÝ`mÀ`m CËnmXZ 

à{H«$òVyZ {Z_m©U hmoUmè`m Ho$aH$Mè`mMr `mo½` àH$mao {dëhodmQ> bmdÊ`mMr ì`dñWm Ho$br nm{hOo. H$Mè`mÀ`m 

gm{ÞÜ`mV H$m_Jmam§Zm H$m`© H$amdo bmJV Agob Va H$m_Jmam§Zm {d{eï> AmOma, amoJ OS>Ê`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

3) dm`w{dOZ Am{U Vmn_mZ (Ventilation and Temperature) (H$b_-13) : H$maImÝ`mVrb 

àËòH$ H$m`©ñWimOdi nwaoer IoiVr hdm Agbr nm{hOo. VgoM H$m_Jmam§À`m Amamo½`mg Anm` hmoUma Zmhr 

BVnV Vmn_mZ R>odÊ`mMr ì`dñWm Agmdr. H$maImÊ`mÀ`m q^Vr, N>ßna `m§À`mgmR>r `mo½` Vmn_mZ am{hb Ago 

gm{hË` dmnamdo. WmoS>Š`mV H$m_Jma Amamo½`mÀ`m Ñ{ï>Zo d Ë`m§Zm JwX_aë`mgmaIo hmoD$ Zò åhUyZ IoiVr hdm 

d `mo½` Vmn_mZ AgUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

4) Ywi d Yya (Dust and Fumes) (H$b_-14) : H$maImÝ`mÀ`m CËnmXZ H$m`m©Zo qH$dm AÝ` 

H$m_H$mOmZo {Z_m©U hmoUmam Ywaim d Yya ~mhao dmhÿZ ZoÊ`mMr à^mdr ì`dñWm Agmdr. AewÕ hdm Imobr ~mhoa 

ZoÊ`mMr d ~mhoarb ewÕ hdm AmV AmUÊ`mMr ì`dñWm Agmdr. 

5) H¥${Ì_ AmÐ©Vm (Artificial Humidification) (H$b_-15) : gwV{JaÊ`m§Zm {H$d§m {gJmaoQ> CËnmXZ 

g§ñWm§Zm AmÐ©Vm OmñV bmJVo. H$maImÝ`mVrb AmÐ©VoMo à_mU JaOoZwgma H$_r-OmñV Ho$bo nm{hOo. AmÐ©Vm 

OmñV nm{hOo Agë`mg hdoV ~mîn gmoS>Ê`mgmR>r d AmÐ©Vm H$_r nm{hOo Agë`mg ~mîn emofyZ KoÊ`mgmR>r 

`§ÌmMm (H¥${Ì_ AmÐ©VmMm) `mo½` à_mUmV Cn`moJ H$amdm. 

6) ~ogw_ma J{X© (Overcrowding)(H$b_-16) : H$maImÝ`mVrb qH$dm H$maImÝ`mÀ`m H$m`©ñWimdarb 

~ogw_ma JXu Q>miÊ`mgmR>r àËòH$ H$m_Jma_mJo {H$_mZ 14.2 KZ {_. OmJm AgUo Amdí`H$ Amho. EH$m 

ImobrV {H$Vr H$m_Jma AgmdoV `m~m~Vhr gyMZm bmdÊ`mV `mdr. 

7) àH$me (Lighting) (H$b_-17) : H$maImÝ`mVrb _mJ© d H$m`©ñWio òWo nwaogm Z¡g{J©H$ qH$dm 

H¥${Ì_ àH$me Agmdm. àËòH$ H$m_Jmambm Amnbo H$m_ ZrQ>, ì`dpñWVnUo H$amd`mMo Pmë`mg Ë`mbm Mm§Jë`m 

àH$memMr Amdí`H$Vm hr H$m`Xoera VaVyX Amho. VWm{n A{V àIa qH$dm _§X àH$mehr Zgmdm. 

8) {nÊ`mMo nmUr (Drinking Water) (H$b_-18) : àËòH$ CÚmoJ KQ>H$mV H$m_Jmam§Zm `mo½` d 

gmoB©À`m {R>H$mUr nwaogo {nÊ`mMo nmUr nwa{dÊ`mMr ì`dpñWV gmo` Ho$br nm{hOo. H$m_Jmam§Zm g_Oob Aem ^mfoV 

nmUr ì`dñWoÀ`m {R>H$mUr ""{nÊ`mMo nmUr'' Ago R>iH$ AjamV {bhbo nm{hOo. ñdÀN>VmJ¥ho, YwÊ`mMr OmJm 

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`mnmgyZ {nÊ`mÀ`m nmÊ`mMr ì`dñWm {H$_mZ 20 \y$Q> cm§~ Agmdr. Á`m H$maImÝ`m_Üò 250 nojm A{YH$ 

H$m_Jma AgVrb VoWo CÝhmù`mV {nÊ`mMo W§S> nmUr nwa{dÊ`mMr ì`dñWm Agmdr. 

9) g§S>mg d _wVmar (ñdÀN>VmJ¥h) (Latrines & Urinals) (H$b_-19) : H$maImÝ`mVrb H$m_Jmam§Zm 

H$moUË`mhr doir Cn`moJ H$aVm òB©b Aem {R>H$mUr nwaoem g§S>mg d _wVmè`m§Mr ì`dñWm Ho$br nm{hOo. ór d 

nwéf H$m_Jmam§gmR>r ñdV§Ì g§S>mg d _wVmè`m (ñdÀN>VmJ¥ho) Agmì`mV. gd© ñdÀN>VmJ¥ho gd©H$mi ñdÀN> R>oD$Z 

Ë`m§Mr Amamo½`Ñï>çm gm\$g\$mB© Ho$br nm{hOo. Ë`mH$[aVm ñdV§Ì g\$mB© H$m_Jmam§Mr {Z`wŠVr H$amdr. 

10) W§wH$s nmÌo (Spittoons) (H$b_-20) : àËòH$ H$maImÝ`m_Üò `mo½` {R>H$mUr nwaoer Ww§H$snmÌo 

R>odbr nm{hOoV d Vr {Z`{_V Amamo½`mÀ`m Ñ{ï>H$moUmVyZ ñdÀN> Ho$br nm{hOoV. gdmªZr \$ŠV Ww§H$s nmÌm_ÜòM 

Ww§H$bo nm{hOo, Oa H$moUr BVaÌ Ww§Ho$b Va Ë`mg `mo½` Vmo X§S> AmH$mamdm d gdmªÀ`m _m{hVrgmR>r {h KQ>Zm 

n«X{e©V H$amdr. 

(~) H$m_Jma gwa{jVVo~m~V H$m`Xoera VaVwXr (H$b_ 21 Vo 40) : 

H$maImZm H$m`Xm 1948 _Üò gwa{jVVo~m~V H$m`Xoera VaVyXtMm Imbrbn«_mUo g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

1) `§Ìgm_wJ«rbm Hw§$nZ (Fencing of Machinery) (H$b_ 21) : H$maImÝ`mVrb JVrMH«o$, 

ObMH«o$ `m§Mo ^mJ, boW `§ÌmMo ^mJ, {dÚwV OZH$ J{VMH«$mMo ^mJ Am{U BVa `§ÌmMo YmoŠ`mMo ^mJ BË`mXtZm 

g^modVmbr ~m§YH$m_ H$ê$Z AJa AmdaU KmbyZ Ë`m§À`m nmgyZ H$m_Jmam§Zm gwa{jVVm {Z_m©U Ho$br nm{hOo. 

2) J{Verb / Mmby pñWVrdarb `§Ìmda H$m_ (Workon or near machinery in motion) 

(H$b_-22) : H$m_Jma gwa{jVVoÀ`m X¥ï>rZo H$maImÝ`mVrb H$moUË`mhr Mmby pñWVrVrb `§ÌmMr qH$dm 

`§ÌmÀ`m ^mJmMr VnmgUr H$aVmZm qH$dm `§Ìmbm d§JU / Vob KmbVmZm AZw^dr H$m_JmamZo A§Jmgaer H$nS>o 

KmVbo nm{hOoV. YmoH$m`Xm`H$ `§ÌmMr ñdÀN>Vm qH$dm `§ÌmÀ`m ^mJm§Mr \o$aOmoS>Ur H$aÊ`mMr nadmZJr ór 

AJa VéU H$m_Jmam§Zm XoD$ Zò. 

3) YmoH$mXm`H$ `§Ìmda VéU ì`ŠVrMr {Z`wŠVr Zgmdr (H$b_-23) (No employment of 

young person on Dangerous Machines) : H$maImÝ`m_Üò g§^mì` YmoHo$ Am{U ~miJmd`mMr gmdYmZVm 

`mg§~§Yr nwU©nUo à{ejU àmá ì`ŠVrgM YmoH$mXm`H$ `§Ìgm_wJ«r hmVmim`Mr qH$dm dmnaÊ`mMr nadmZJr 

Úmdr. Aà{e{jV VéU ì`ŠVrMr {Z`wŠVr YmoH$mXm`H$ H$m_mda Zgmdr. 

4) YmdË`m nÅ>çmg nyaH$ JoAa (Xm§S>m) d AnËH$mbrZ n[apñWVrV {dOnwadR>m I§S>rV H$aÊ`mMr 

ì`dñWm - (H$b_-24) (Striking Gear and Devices for cutting off power) : H$maImÝ`mV eŠVr 

àojnU H$aUmè`m YmdË`m `§Ìmda nÅ>o ~g{dÊ`mgmR>r Amdí`H$ JoAa (Xm§S>m) ì`dñWm Agmdr {H$ Á`m_wio Ë`m 

{R>H$mUr H$m_ H$aUmè`m H$m_Jmam§Zm gwa{jVnUo `§Ìgm_wJ«r hmVmiVm òVo. VgoM Am{U~mUrÀ`m qH$dm AmnËH$mbrZ 

n[apñWVrV `§Ìmbm hmoUmam {dÚwVnwadR>m ~§X H$aÊ`mMr VaVyX Agmdr. 

5) ñd`§MbrV `§Ìm§Zm nwaoer OmJm (H$b_-25) (Self acting Machine) : H$maImÝ`mV Agboë`m 

ñd`§MbrV `§Ìgm_wJ«rOdiyZ bhmZ-_moR>çm dñVyMr dmhVyH$ qH$dm òÊ`m-OmÊ`mMr dX©i amhÿ Zò. ñd`§M{bV 

`§Ìm§Zm Amdí`H$ AgUmè`m nwaoem OmJoMr VaVyX Agmdr H$s Á`m_wio AnKmV Q>mibo OmVrb. 

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6) Zì`m `§Ìgm_wJ«rbm AmdaU / doñQ>Z (H$b_-26) (Casing of new machinery) : H$m_Jma 

gwa{jVVoÀ`m X¥{ï>Zo H$maImÝ`mVrb gd© OwÝ`m `§Ìgm_J«r~amo~a ZdrZ ~g{dboë`m `§Ìgm_wJ«rbm nwaogo AmdaU 

Agmdo. `§Ìo qH$dm `§ÌmMo ^mJ CKS>o Agë`mg AnKmV hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

7) H$mnyg \w$b{dUmè`m H$m`©ñWimda _wb§ qH$dm _{hbm H$m_Jmam§Zm à{V~§Y (H$b_-27) 

(Prohibition of employment of women & children near cotton openers) : CÚmoJ KQ>H$mV H$mngmMo 

JÇ>o V`ma H$aUmar d H$mnyg \w$b{dUmar `§Ìo `m§Mr H$m`©ñWio ñdV§Ì H$ê$Z XmoÝhr `§ÌmÀ`m _Üò q^V 

Agë`mIoarO VoWo {ó`m AJa _wbm§Mr H$m_Jma åhUyZ Zo_UyH$ H$ê$ Zò. AWm©V _{hbm d _wbm§Zm YmoH$mXm`H$ 

`§Ìgm_wJ«rOdi H$m_ H$aÊ`mg _‚mmd H$amdm. 

8) `m§{ÌH$ {OZo d nmiUo ({bâQ>) (H$b_-28) (Hoists and lifts) : n«ËòH$ H$maImÝ`m_Üò 

H$m_Jma qH$dm _mbmMr ImbÀ`m _Oë`mdê$Z daÀ`m _Oë`mda dmhVyH$ H$aÊ`mgmR>r _O~yV d ñdV§Ì 

~m§YH$m_ Agbobo `m§{ÌH$ {OZo d {bâQ> (nmiUo) Mr ì`dñWm Agmdr. VgoM {bâQ>À`m AmoPo dmhÿZ ZoÊ`mÀ`m 

j_VoMm `mo½` {R>H$mUr {ZX}e XoD$Z Vk ì`ŠVrH$Sy>Z Ë`mMr ghm _{hÝ`mVyZ EH$Xm VnmgUr H$amdr. 

9) AmoPo CMbÊ`mMo `m§{ÌH$ nmiUo ({bâQ>), gmIù`m d XmoaI§S> (H$b_-29) (Lifting 

Machines, chains and ropes) : H$maImÝ`mV dOZ, _mb qH$dm _mUgo da CMbÊ`mgmR>r `m§{ÌH$ nmiUo 

({bâQ>), gmIù`m Am{U Xmoa dmnabo OmV Agë`mg Vo _O~yV AgmdoV Am{U Ë`mÀ`m AmYmao {d{eï> 

dOZmn`ªV _mbmMr dmhVyH$ H$amdr. VgoM {H$_mZ dfm©VyZ EH$Xm Vk ì`ŠVrH$Sy>Z Ë`mMr VnmgUr H$ê$Z 

¿`mdr. 

10) {\$aVr `§ÌUm (H$b_-30) (Revolving Machinery) : àËòH$ H$maImÝ`mVrb {\$aË`m `§ÌmMo 

H$_mb d {H$_mZ \o$ao Am{U Xm~ {Z_m©U H$aUmè`m `§ÌmÀ`m ~m~VrV Ano{jV Xm~m~m~V gwMZm `§ÌmeoOmar 

bmdmdr. AWm©V àËòH$ `§ÌmeoOmar Ë`mÀ`m AË`wƒ doJ j_VoMm C„oI Agmdm. 

11) `§Ìg§M Xm~ (H$b_-31) (Pressure Plant) : H$moUË`mhr H$maImÝ`mVrb `§Ìg§MmMm Xm~ hm 

dmVmdaUmVrb Xm~mnojm OmñV Agë`mg `mo½` H¥$Vr `moOZoMm Adb§~ H$ê$Z gwa{jV d n`m©á Xm~mMm Cn`moJ 

H$amdm. 

12) B_maV _Obo, {OZm Am{U _mJ© _mÜ`_ (H$b_-32) (Floors, stairs of means of 

access) : CÚmoJ KQ>H$mVrb gd© XadmOo, nm`è`m, {OZo, ìham§S>m d _mJ© `m§Mr _O~yV ~m§YUr, g§dY©Z doioda 

XwéñVr H$aUo gŠVrMo AgyZ Vo AS>Wim_wŠV Agmdo. H$m`©ñWimH$S>o OmUoMo _mJ© gwa{jV am{hë`mg {ZgaS>rÛmao 

hmoUmao AnKmV Q>mibo OmVmV. 

13) O_rZrdarb IÈ>o, S>~H$s d Q>mH$s (H$b_-33) (Pits, sumps opening in floors) : 

H$maImZm n[agamVrb O{_Zrda Agbobo IÈ>o, ^moHo$, S>~H$s, Q>mH$s BË`mXr ~m~t_wio H$m_Jmam§Zm AnKmV 

hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo åhUyZ Ë`mda `mo½` PmH$Z qH$dm gwa{jV AdaU Kmbmdo. 

14) A{V[aŠV dOZ (H$b_-34) (Excessive weights) : H$maImÝ`mVrb àËòH$ H$m_Jmamg 

nobVm òUma Zmhr Ago AmoPo CMbÊ`mg qH$dm dmhVyH$ H$aÊ`mg _ZmB© Amho. VgoM OmñV AmoPo CMbÊ`mg 

d dmhÿZ ZoÊ`mgmR>r ì`ŠVrMr H$m_Jma åhUyZ Zo_UyH$ H$aUo A`mo½` Amho. 

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15) S>moù`m§Mo g§ajU (H$b_-35) (Protection of eyes) : CËnmXZ H$m`© Mmby AgVmZm H$m_Jmam§Zm 

S>moù`m§À`m g§ajUmgmR>r Mî_o qH$dm `mo½` nS>Xo nwadmdoV. AWm©V S>moù`m§Zm Xw:ImnV hmoÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm 

Agboë`m {R>H$mUr H$m_Jmam§gmR>r gwa{jV Omù`m qH$dm `mo½` Jm°JëgMr gw{dYm nwadmdr. 

16) YmoH$mXm`H$ YwamMr qH$dm dm`wMr XjVm (H$b_-36) (Precaution against dangerous 

fums) : CÚmoJ KQ>H$mÀ`m CËnmXZ à{H«$òVrb ñ\$moQ>H$m_wio {Z_m©U hmoUmam Yya, dm`y d dm\$ {Z_m©U hmoUmè`m 

OmJm ~§{XñV Agmì`mV d Ë`mMm {ZMam hmoÊ`mMr ì`dñWm Agmdr. AWm©V YmoH$mXm`H$ dm`y JiVrnmgyZ 

g§ajU {_iÊ`mgmR>r d ídgZmÀ`m Amamo½`mgmR>r nwaoer gw{dYm CnbãY H$amdr. 

17) {dÚwV CnH$aUo (~ë~) dmnamVrb gmdYmZVm (H$b_-36 A) (Precautions regarding 

the use of portable electric lights) : H$moUË`mhr H$maImÝ`mV n§Mdrg hmoëQ>nojm OmñV hmoëQ>oOMo {dÚwV 

CnH$aU dmnaÊ`mg qH$dm BH$Sy>Z {VH$S>o ZoÊ`mg _ZmB© Amho. {deofV: H$maImÝ`mVrb A§VJ©V ^mJmV {dOoMm 

~ë~ qH$dm {dÚwV CnH$aUo dmnaÊ`mg ~§Xr Amho. 

18) ñ\$moQ>H$ dm`y qH$dm Ywi (H$b_-37) (Explosive or inflammable gas or dust) : 

H$maImÝ`mÀ`m CËnmXZ à{H«$òV {Z_m©U hmoUmam ñ\$moQ>H$ dm`y qH$dm Ádmbm¾rMr OmJm hr ~§XrñV Agmdr. 

ñ\$moQ>H$ dm`y qH$dm Ywi, Ywam nmgyZ `§Ìgm_J«rMo g§ajU ìhmdo. 

19) AmJrÀ`m àg§Jm~m~V gmdYmZVm (H$b_-38) (Precautions in case of fire) : 

H$maImÝ`m_Üò AMmZH$nUo bmJUmè`m AmJrÀ`m n«g§JmnmgyZ g§ajU {_i{dÊ`mgmR>r gd© H¥$Vr`moOZm§Mm 

Adb§~ H$ê$Z Ë`mgmR>r nwaoer A¾r e_Z `§ÌUoMr ì`dñWm H$amdr. AmJrÀ`m àg§Jr ~mhoa nS>Ê`mgmR>r 

H$maImÝ`mV nwaoer Xmao Agm{dV d YmoŠ`mMr gwMZm XoÊ`mMr ì`dñWm Agmdr. 

20) B_maV d `§Ìgm_wJ«rnmgyZ g§ajU (H$b_-40) (Safety of Building and Machinery) : 

H$maImÝ`mVrb EImXr B_maV qH$dm `§Ìgm_wJ«r _moS>H$irbm òD$Z VoWrb H$m_Jmam§Zm YmoH$m {Z_m©U hmoV Agob 

Va g§~§YrV B_maV qH$dm `§Ìgm_wJ«rMr `mo½` Xwê$ñVr qH$dm ~XbmZ§VaM dmna H$amdm. 

21) gwajm A{YH$mar (H$b_-40 ~) (Safety Officers) : Á`m H$maImÝ`m_Üò 1000 qH$dm 

Ë`mnojm OmñV H$m_Jma AgVrb VoWo gwajm A{YH$mè`mMr {Z`wŠVr Agmdr. ho A{YH$mar gwa{jVVoMr YmoaUo 

R>adVrb, AnKmVmMr n[apñWVr d Xw:ImnVrMr H$maUo emoYVrb, {d{dY ñVamda gwajm {ejU, à{ejU d 

à{gÕrMo Am`moOZ H$aVrb VgoM Vo gwajo~m~V, V§Ìk {Z`moOH$, Am`moOH$ d àoaH$ åhUyZ ^y{_H$m dQ>dVrb. 

H$_©Mmar _ZmoY¡`© (Employee Morale) 

`wÕH$mbrZ n[apñWVrV g¡{ZH$m§À`m d ZmJ[aH$m§À`m g§~§YmV "_ZmoY¡`©' `m g§koMm gm_mÝ`V: Cn`moJ Ho$bm 

OmVmo. `wÕmVrb {dO`lr ~è`mM A§er g¡Ý`mÀ`m _ZmoY¡`m©da Adb§~yZ AgVo Ago åhQ>bo OmVo. CXm. H$ma{Jb 

`wÕmV ^maVr` OdmZm§Zr à{VHy$b n[apñWVrV {_i{dbobm {dO`. `wÕmV eÌyÀ`m {déÕ {OÔrZo bT>Ê`mMr 

BÀN>m d "{dO`r AmnUM hmoUma' hr AmË_{dídmgmMr ^mdZm `m JwUd¡{eï>çm§Mm A§V^m©d `m g§X^m©V 

"_ZmoY¡`©' `m eãXmV hmoVmo. Am°bnmoQ>© `m§Zr "gm_y{hH$ à`ËZm{df`r ì`ŠVrMr A{^d¥Îmr' Aer _ZmoY¡`© g§koMr 

ì`m»`m Ho$br Amho. hr ì`m»`m H«$sS>m joÌmVrb IoimSy>§À`m _mZ{gH$ pñWVrbm bmJy nS>Vo, VgoM CÚmoJ 

110

joÌmVrb H$_©Mmar dV©ZmMm {dMma `m Ñ{ï>H$moUmVyZ H$aVm òVmo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$_©Mmè`m§À`m g§X^m©V ñdV:Mr 

H$m`©{df`H$ O~m~Xmar Mm§Jë`m àH$mao d `mo½` Vo l_ KoD$Z nma nmS>Ê`mÀ`m H$_©Mmè`m§À`m BÀN>oMm A§V^m©d 

_ZmoY¡`© g§koV hmoVmo, VgoM BVa H$_©Mmè`m§er ghH$m`© H$ê$Z d g§KQ>Zo{df`r {Zð>m R>odyZ g§KQ>ZoMr C{Ôï>o nyU© 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r _Z:nyd©H$, H$m`©j_VoZo H$m`© H$aÊ`mMm g_mdoe Am¡Úmo{JH$ _ZmoY¡`© `m g§H$ënZoV hmoVmo. ì`ŠVrMr 

H$m`©{Zð>m d JQ>{Zð>m `m XmoÝhr {Zð>m§Mm g_mdoe _ZmoY¡`m©V hmoVmo. 

MmBëS> `m {dMmad§VmÀ`m _Vo, _ZmoY¡`© g§koV Imbrb VrZ KQ>H$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

1. _ZmoY¡`m©Mo ì`ŠVr{df`H$ _hÎd : `m Ñï>rZo _ZmoY¡`m©Mm g§~§Y ì`ŠVrÀ`m emar[aH$ d g§doJmË_H$ 

ñdmñÏ`mer AgVmo. H$maU H$m`© H$aÊ`mMo {VMo gm_Ï`©, eŠVr d CËgmh `mda Adb§~yZ AgVmV. VgoM 

{VÀ`m ì`{ŠVJV d gm_m{OH$ AmXem©darb {VMr lÕmhr `mda Adb§~yZ AgVo. 

2. _ZmoY¡`m©Mo g_yh{df`H$ _hÎd : {OWo JQ>mMr C{Ôï>o ñnï> d {ZpíMV AgVmV d ì`ŠVrbm Ë`m§Mo 

_hÎd OmUdë`m_wio {VÀ`m ì`{ŠVJV C{Ôï>m§MoM EH$ A{d^mÁ` A§J ~Zbobr AgVmV Aem JQ>{df`H$ 

AdñWoMm A§V^m©d _ZmoY¡`m©V hmoVmo. `m AdñWoV C{Ôï>nyVu{df`r AmË_{dídmg AgVmo d Ë`m Ñï>rZo JQ>mVrb 

{H«$`m§Mo g§KQ>Z hmoV AgVo. 

3. _ZmoY¡`m©Mo g_yhm§VJ©V ì`ŠVr{df`H$ _hÎd : g_yhmÛmao nyU© H$amd`mÀ`m H$m`m©gmR>r CËgmhnyU© 

ghH$m`© H$ê$Z ì`ŠVrÀ`m à`ËZm§Zr g_yhH$m`m©Mr n[aUm_H$maH$Vm dmT>br nm{hOo. Ë`mgmR>r H$m`m©pÝdV 

hmoUmè`m ì`ŠVr OrdZmVrb gd© KQ>H$m§À`m g§X^m©V _ZmoY¡`© g§km dmnabr OmVo. 

ì`m»`m 

1. {J`Z `m§À`m _Vo, "ì`ŠVrÀ`m JaOm§Mo Á`m à_mUmV g_mYmZ hmoVo Am{U ho g_mYmZ Ë`mÀ`m EHy$U 

H$m`m©dñWoVyZ {Z_m©U hmoV Amho, Ago Á`m à_mUmV ì`ŠVr g_OVo Ë`mbm _ZmoY¡`© Ago åhUVmV.' 

('Morale is the extent to which an individual's needs are satisfied and the extent to which 

the individual perceives that satisfaction as stemming from his total job situation') 

2. ãb_ d Zobmoa `m§À`m _Vo, "g_mZ C{Ôï>m§_wio d Ë`m C{Ôï>m§À`m dm§N>{Z`Vo{df`r {dídmg Agë`m_wio 

H$_©Mmè`mV JQ>ñdrH$m`©VoMr d JQ>gXñ`ËdmMr Or ^mdZm {Z_m©U hmoVo, Ë`m ^mdZmdñWobm _ZmoY¡`© Ago 

åhUVmV.' 

('Moral may be defined as the possession of a feeling on the part of the employee of being 

accepted and belonging to a group of employee through adherence to common goals and confidence 

in the desirability of these goals.') 

3. àmo. {_Mob OwB©g `m§À`m _Vo, "_ZmoY¡`m©À`m AZoH$ ì`m»`m AmhoV. Ë`m gd© ì`m»`m§Mo narjU Ho$bo 

AgVm, _ZmoY¡`© åhUOo H$m`? Vo H$m` H$aVo? Vo H$moR>o AgVo? Vo H$moUmda n[aUm_ H$aVo? Vo H$m` n[aUm_ 

H$aVo? ho ñnï> H$aVmV.' àmo. OwB©g `m§ZrM darb àíZm§Mr CÎmao {Xbr AmhoV. 

1. _ZmoY¡`© åhUOo H$m`? _ZmMm H$b, EH$s hoM ~i, H$ë`mUmMm qH$dm AH$ë`mUmMm {dMma, 

^md{ZH$ Omoa. 

111

2. Vo H$m` H$aVo? CËnmXZ, JwUdÎmm, IM©, ghH$m`©, {eñV, CËgmh, nwT>mH$ma, èmÀ`m {d{dY n¡by§da 

n[aUm_ H$aVo. 

3. Vo H$moR>o AgVo? ì`ŠVrÀ`m _ZmV, dmJUwH$sV, ^mdZoV d g_yhmÀ`m CbQ> à{V{H«$òV. 

4. Vo H$moUmda n[aUm_ H$aVo? H$_©Mmar d d[aîR>m§À`m nañna {H«$`m§da Ëd[aV Va J«mhH$ d g_mOmda 

A§{V_V. 

5. Vo H$m` n[aUm_ H$aVo? H$_©Mmar d g_yhmÀ`m H$m`©AmZ§Xmda, g_yhmbm d g§KQ>Zobm _ZmnmgyZ, 

AmdS>rZo ghH$m`© H$aÊ`mda. 

ãb_ d Zobmoa `m§À`m _Vo, _ZmoY¡`m©À`m g§H$ënZoMo VrZ ^mJ AmhoV. 

1. JQ>mZo Amnbm ñdrH$ma Ho$ë`mMr ^mdZm. 

2. JQ>mMr C{Ôï>o d ñdV:Mr C{Ôï>o `mVrb g_mZVm. 

3. `m C{Ôï>m§À`m Amdí`H$Vo{df`r {dídmg. 

_ZmoY¡`m©Mo KQ>H$ {díbofU 

_ZmoY¡`© hm EH${OZgr KQ>H$ Zmhr Va, {d{dY àH$maÀ`m A{^d¥ÎmtMm Vmo EH$Ord g_yh Amho. `m_wio 

KQ>H$ {díbofU V§ÌmÛmao _ZmoY¡`mªVJ©V KQ>H$m§Mm emoY KoUo Amdí`H$ R>aVo. 

Jm°S>©Z `m§À`m _Vo, "Á`m doir ì`ŠVrÀ`m JaOm§Mo nyU©V: g_mYmZ hmoVo, Ë`mdoir ì`ŠVr Á`m "ñdñWVoÀ`m 

^mdZoMm' AZw^d KoVo Ë`mg _ZmoY¡`© åhUVmV. Jm°S>©Z `m§À`m _Vo, _ZmoY¡`m©V Mma KQ>H$ A§V^y©V AgVmV. 

1. gm_mÝ` JaOm§Mr nyVu 

2. _mÝ`Vm d XOm© 

3. AmË_à{Vð>oMr JaO 

4. AmË_m{^ì`ŠVrMr JaO 

qgK, ìhoar d hþAm§J `m§À`m _Vo, _ZmoY¡`m©V Imbrb KQ>H$ AgVmV. 

1. g_yh d XOm© qH$dm à{Vð>m `m{df`r A{^_mZ 

2. ghH$mar H|${ÐVVm {déÕ H$m`©XoeH$ H|${ÐVVm 

3. H$m`©XoeH$ {dMmar d X`miy Amho, `m{df`r {dídmg 

4. ñdV:À`m `moJXmZm{df`r d Ë`mbm {_imboë`m _mÝ`Vo{df`r qH$dm H$m¡VwH$m{df`r A{^_mZmMr 

^mdZm 

5. {dH$mg d àJVr `m{df`r A{^_mZ 

6. gwa{jVVm d {Z`{_V H$m`© `m{df`r A{^_mZ 

Jm§Jwbr `m§À`m _Vo, _ZmoY¡`m©V H$m`© g_mYmZ hm EH$ _hÎdmMm KQ>H$ AgVmo. 

112

H$_©Mmè`m§À`m _ZmoY¡`m©Mo _hÎd 

H$_©Mmè`m§Mr dV©UyH$, d¥Îmr d g_mYmZ H$_©Mmè`m§Vrb _ZmoY¡`© RadrV AgVo. `m _ZmoY¡`m©da H$m_mMm 

CËgmh, ghH$mamMr d¥Îmr, g§KQ>ZoÀ`m {Z`_m§Mo d YmoaUm§Mo nmbZ d g§KQ>ZoMr C{Ôï>nyVu Adb§~yZ Agë`mZo 

_ZmoY¡`m©Mo _hÎd {H$Vr AZÝ`gmYmaU Amho ho ñnï> hmoVo. g§KQ>ZoMo H$m`© èñdrnUo MmbÊ`mgmR>r Cƒ XOm©À`m 

_ZmoY¡`m©Mr Amdí`H$Vm AgVo. Cƒ XOm©Mo _ZmoY¡`© Agob Va Ama. gr. S>opìhg `m§À`m åhUÊ`mà_mUo nwT>rb 

Jmoï>r KS>VmV. 

1. g§KQ>ZoÀ`m C{Ôï>nyVugmR>r H$_©Mmè`m§Mo _ZmnmgyZ ghH$m`© bm^Vo. 

2. g§KQ>Zm d {VMo ZoV¥Ëd `mda {Zð>m. 

3. g§KQ>ZoMo {Z`_ d AmXoem§Mo ñdoÀN>oZo nmbZ. 

4. H$_©Mmè`m§Mo Amnë`m H$m_mV nyU© bj. 

5. H$_©Mmè`m§V nwT>mH$mamMr d¥Îmr. 

6. g§KQ>Zo~Ôb A{^_mZ. 

H$_©Mmè`m§_Üò darb JwU AgVrb Va g§KQ>ZoMo è {ZpíMV hmoVo. CËnmXZmÀ`m à_mUmV d XOm©V 

_moR>çm à_mUmV dmT> hmoVo. CËnmXZ gm_J«rMm, H$_©Mmè`m§À`m doioMm Anì`` Q>mibm OmVmo. H$ƒm _mb, 

`§Ìgm_J«r, hË`mao d BVa dñVy `m§Mr hmVmiUr H$miOrnyd©H$ hmoVo d Ë`m_wio Ë`m§Mr ZmgYyg AWdm _moS>VmoS> 

hmoV Zmhr. AnKmVm§Mo à_mU \$ma H$_r amhVo. CËnmXZ IMm©V ~arM ~MV hmoVo d Ë`m_wio CËnmXZ qH$_V H$_r 

hmoVo. CËnmXZmMm XOm© Mm§Jbm d qH$_V H$_r `m_wio {dH«$s_Üò d Zâ`m_Üò dmT> hmoVo. Z\$m dmT>rMm 

H$m_Jmam§Zm bm^ {_iVmo. H$m_Jmam§Mr H$m`©j_Vm dmT>Vo. Ë`m§Zm Amnbm {dH$mg H$ê$Z KoVmo òVmo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

g§~§Y Mm§Jbo amhÿZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ em§VVm bm^Vo. 

Oa H$_©Mmè`m§Mo _ZmoY¡`© {ZH¥$ï> XOm©Mo Agob Va Vo g§KQ>Zobm d H$_©Mmè`m§Zm KmVH$ R>aVo. H$_©Mmè`m§Mr 

^m§S>Imoa d¥Îmr, H$m_mH$S>o bj ZgUo, AmXoem§Mo nmbZ Z H$aUo, {Z`_m§Mo C„§KZ H$aUo, {XdmñdßZ nmhUo, 

Amig, J¡ahOoarMo n«_mU OmñV, gma»`m VH«$mar H$aUo, gmd©O{ZH$ {R>H$mUr Amnë`m CÚmoJ KQ>H$m~Ôb, 

ì`dñWmnH$m~Ôb AneãX dmnaUo, ~o{eñVnUm, Z¡amí` Agë`m Anàd¥Îmtdê$Z H$m_Jmam§Mo _ZmoY¡`© {ZH¥$ï> 

Agë`mMo ñnï> hmoVo. {ZH¥$ï> _ZmoY¡`m©_wio Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y {~KS>VmV, Am¡Úmo{JH$ Aem§VVm {Z_m©U hmoVo d 

g§KQ>ZoVrb EHy$U dmVmdaUM Xy{fV ~ZVo. {ZH¥$ï> _ZmoY¡`m©_wio H$_©Mmè`m§_Üò _mZ{gH$ VmU, Z¡amí`, g_mYmZ 

{Z_m©U hmoVo d Ë`m§Mr gd© eŠVr, gm_Ï`© ho {dYm`H$ H$m`m©EodOr {dKmVH$ H$m`m©H$S>o bmdbo OmVo. CËnmXZmMm 

XOm© KgaVmo, CËnmXZmV KQ> hmoVo, CËnmXZ IMm©V dmT> hmoVo, Z\$m H$_r hmoVmo d CÚmoJ KQ>H$mV EH§$XarV 

{ZameOZH$ n[apñWVr {Z_m©U hmoVo. H$_©Mmè`m§À`m Ñï>rZo {dMma H$aVm {ZH¥$ï> _ZmoY¡`© åhUOo _mZ{gH$ VmU, 

Ag_mYmZ, A{dídmg, AH$m`©j_Vm, {_iH$VrV KQ>, H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ AñdmñW, ì`gZmYrZVm, _mZ{gH$ AñdmñÏ`mMm 

emar[aH$ ñdmñÏ`mda n[aUm_. 

darb gd© Xwîn[aUm_ Q>miÊ`mgmR>r CƒñVar` ì`dñWmnZmZo H$_©Mmè`m§Mo _ZmoY¡`© C§MmdÊ`mMo gVV 

à`ËZ Ho$bo nm{hOoV. 

113 

��

CÔoe : 



KQ>H$ H«$. 8 

_mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmVrb A{bH$S>Mo àdmh 

(Recent Trends in HRM) 

1. _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmVrb A{bH$S>Mo àdmh OmUyZ KoUo. 

2. _mZd g§gmYZ ~«°S> hr g§H$ënZm g_OmdyZ KoUo. 

3. ~møm ñÌmoV (AmD$Q> gmo{gªJ) _mZdg§gmYZ H$m`mªMm Aä`mg H$aUo. 

4. H$m`© Am{U OrdZ `m§À`m_Yrb VmaVå`mMm Aä`mg H$aUo. 

5. ^md{ZH$ ~wÕr_Îmm g_OmdyZ KoUo. 

6. ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ OmUyZ KoUo. 

àñVmdZm : 

AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmbm AÞÝ` gmYmaU _hÎd àmá Pmbobo Amho. 

CËnmXZmMr gd© gmYZo H$m`©aV H$aÊ`mgmR>r Am{U CÚmoJ-ì`dgm`mbm {Xem XoÊ`mgmR>r H$_©Mmar g§gmYZ 

ì`dñWmnZ AV§Ë` _hÎdmMo Amho. CËnmXZ gmYZm§Zm JVr XoÊ`mgmR>r, H$ƒm _mbmMo nŠŠ`m _mbmV 

énm§VaU H$aÊ`mgmR>r, _yë` {Z{_©Vr H$aÊ`mgmR>r, ~wÕrMm dmna H$ê$Z hmVmÛmao H$m_ H$adyZ KoÊ`mgmR>r, 

_mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZ _hÎdmMo Amho. AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò H$ƒm_mb, ^m§S>db, `§Ìgm_wJ«r, BË`mXr 

g§gmYZmnojm _mZd g§gmYZ AË`§V _hÎdmMo _mZbo OmVo. CÚmoJ joÌm_Üò {Z{_©Vr H$aÊ`mgmR>r _mZd 

g§gmYZ _hÎdmMo R>aVo. _mZd hm ~wÕrOrdr àmUr Agë`m_wio Vmo ñdV:Mr godm XoV AgVmZm Ë`mÀ`m XmoZ 

hmVm~amo~a Vmo Ë`mMr ~wÕr Am{U {dMmahr KodyZ òV AgVmo. Aem n[apñWVr_Üò _mZd g§gmYZmMo 

ì`dñWmnZ AË`§V _hÎdmMo AgVo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ H«$m§VrZ§Va Am{U àm_w»`mZo OmJ{VH$sH$aU, IwboH$aU Am{U 

CXm[aH$aU `mZ§Va _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmbm \$maM _hÎd àmá Pmbobo {XgyZ òVo. gd©M CËnmXZ 

gmYZo H$m`©j_nUo H$m`©aV R>odÊ`mgmR>r _mZd g§gmYZ _hÎdmMo Amho. _mZd g§gmYZ BVa g§gmYZmnojm 

doJio Amho. `m g§gmYZmMo g_mYmZ, ghH$m`©, H$m`©Hw$ebVm, {Zð>m, H$m_ H$aÊ`mMr AmdS>, ghH$m`m©Mr 

d¥Îmr BË`mXrMm {dMma H$éZM _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZ nma nmS>bo OmVo. H$m_Jma g§KQ>Zm, gm_w{hH$ 

gm¡XmeŠVr, g§n-~§X BË`mXr _mZd g§gmYZ {df`H$ g§H$ënZm PnmQ>çmZo ~Xby bmJë`m AmhoV. 1991 

114

Z§Va _mZd g§gmYZmMm ì`dñWmnZmVrb gh^mJ dmT>bobm Amho. g§nyU© OJ hr _mZd g§gmYZmMr ~mOmanoR> 

~Zë`m_wio Am§Vaamï´>r` ~mOmanoR>oVyZ _mZd g§gmYZmbm _mJUr Ambobr Amho. _mZd g§gmYZ H$m`Úm_Üò 

~Xb hmoV Amho. nonabog H$m_, ßbog bog H$m_, {dZm {Z`§ÌU H$m_, àË`j {Z`§ÌUm{edm` H$m_ BË`mXr 

Zd ZdrZ H$ënZm _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò Amboë`m AmhoV. 

_mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò ñdmV§Í`nyd© H$mimVrb H$ënZm, ñdmV§Í`moÎma H$mimVrb H$ënZm 

Am{U 1991 À`m J°Q> H$amamZ§VaÀ`m g§H$ënZm `m_Üò àM§S> \$aH$ Pmbobm Amho. AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò 

"hoS> h§qQ>J' hr g§H$ënZm _moR>çm à_mUmV CX`mg Ambobr Amho. hoS> h§qQ>J_Üò ZmoH$ar XoUmam "Mm§Jbr 

S>moH$s' emoYV AgVmo. åhUOoM Mm§Jbo H$_©Mmar emoYV AgVmV. H$maU BVa g§gmYZm§Zm {Xem XoÊ`mMo 

H$m_ _mZd g§gmYZ H$aV Agë`m_wio Mm§Jbr S>moH$s (hþema H$_©Mmar) Zo_Uo AË`§V Amdí`H$ AgVo 

Am{U AmYw{ZH$ H$m`©H$mim_Üò ho AË`§V _hÎdmMo Amho. AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò ZmoH$ar XoUmè`m§Mm ~°«S> 

åhUOoM Zmd bm¡{H$H$ _hÎdmMm AgVmo. _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmgmR>r "Eåbm°à ~«°S>' H$gm Amho ho 

_hÎdmMo Amho. ZmoH$ar nwa{dUmè`mMr Z¡{VH$Vm, Üò`-YmoaUo, Ë`m§Mr ~mOmanoR>oVrb nV, H$m_mÀ`m 

{R>H$mUrb godm-gw{dYm, gw`mo½` H$_©Mmè`m§Mr {ZdS> H$aÊ`mMr _mZ{gH$Vm BË`mXr KQ>H$m§Mm {dMma 

AmYw{ZH$ _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò Ho$bm OmVmo. `mo½` {ZdS> Am{U `mo½` âVr hr A{bH$S>À`m 

_mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZ àdmhm_Üò AË`§V Amdí`H$ Amho. 

AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò _mZd g§gmYZmMr {Z`wŠVr h§Jm_r qH$dm VmËnwaË`m ñdê$nmMr Ho$br OmVo. `m 

_mZd g§gmYZmMr Zo_UyH$ "AmD$Q> gmo{gªJ' nÕVrZo Ho$br OmVo. _mZd g§gmYZ nwa{dUmè`m _Ü`ñWmH$Sy>Z 

qH$dm R>oHo$XmamH$Sy>Z _mZd g§gmYZ KoVbo OmVo Am{U Aemdoir g§~§{YV H$m_ nyU© PmboZ§Va g§~§{YV _mZd 

g§gmYZmMr H$moUVrhr O~m~Xmar gXa ì`mdgm{`H$mda ahmV Zmhr. _mZd g§gmYZ AmD$Q>gmog© H$aÊ`mnmR>r_mJrb 

_hÎdmMo H$maU Amho H$s, _mZd g§gmYZmMm H$m`_ñdê$nr ~moOm/ O~m~Xmar g§ñWoda òVm H$m_m Zò. 

WmoS>Š`mV H$m`©j_Voda AmYm[aV H$m_mnwaVo _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZ AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò Ho$bo OmVo. hm 

A{bH$S>À`m H$mimVrc ~Xccocm àdmh Amho. 

AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò "H$m_' Am{U "_mZd g§gmYZmMo OrdZ' `m§À`m_Üò VmaVå` àñWm{nV Ho$bo 

OmVo. _mZd g§gmYZmMr H$m`©j_Vm dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r H$m`© Am{U OrdZ `m§À`m_Üò g_Vmob R>odUo 

Amdí`H$ AgVo Am{U Vo AmYw{ZH$ _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò H$gmo{gZo nma nmS>bo OmVo. _mZd 

g§gmYZoÀ`m H$m`m©~amo~aM Ë`m§Mo H$m_mMo Vmg, H$ë`mU, godmgw{dYm, gdbVr, gwI-gmoB© BË`mXtMm 

g_mdoe hmoVmo. ^maV gaH$maÀ`m 1969 À`m H$m_Jma H$ë`mU g{_VrÀ`m _Vo, {dlm§VrJ¥ho, CnhmaJ¥ho, 

_Zmoa§OZmÀ`m gmoB©, d¡ÚH$s` gw{dYm, ñdÀN>VmJ¥h gw{dYm, dmhVwH$sÀ`m gmo`r, gm_m{OH$ gwa{jVVm 

BË`mXtMm g_mdoe Ho$bobm Amho. 1991 Z§Va CÚmoOH$m§Zr _mZd g§gmYZmMo "AmXe© H$m`© OrdZ' 

~Z{dÊ`mMm à`ËZ Mmby Ho$bobo AmhoV. _mZd g§gmYZ {XK© _wXVrgmR>r Ë`mM H§$nZr_Üò /g§ñWo_Üò 

{Q>H$Ê`mgmR>r `m g§gmYZmMm H$miOrnyd©H$ {dMma Ho$bm OmVmo. _mZd g§gmYZmMo OrdZ_mZ C§MmdÊ`mMm 

à`ËZ gVV Ho$bm OmVmo. AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò _Zwî` g§gmYZ hr ì`dñWmnZmMr "_mb_Îmm' Agë`m_wio 

_mZd g§gmYZmMo "H$m_' Am{U "OrdZ' `m§À`m_Üò n[aUm_H$maH$ g_Ýd` gmYbm OmVmo. 

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AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò ^md{ZH$ ~wÕçm§H$ (Emotional Intelligence) Am{U ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ (Talant 

Management) `m§Mm {dMma Ho$bm OmVmo. _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò àËòH$ H$_©Mmè`mMm "~wÕçm§H$' 

Am{U "hþemar' Aä`mgZo Amdí`H$ AgVo. CÚmoJmMr àJVr hr _mZd g§gmYZmÀ`m ~wÕçm§H$mda Am{U 

hþemarda Adb§~yZ AgVo ho g§emoYZmA§Vr {gÕ Pmbobo Amho. _mZd g§gmYZ \$ŠV XmoZ hmV d XmoZ nm` 

KodyZ H§$nZr_Üò H$m_mbm òV Zmhr Va `mMo gmo~V "~wÕr' Am{U "hþemar' KodyZ òVmo Am{U `m XmoÝhr 

gmYZm§Mm {dMma d dmna hmoUo AË`§V JaOoMo AgVo Am{U Vo AbrH$S>À`m _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò 

nma nmS>bo OmV Agë`mMo {XgyZ òVo. 

1. Eånbm°`g© ~«±S> (Employer's Brand) : AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò "~«±S>' hr EH$ _hÎdmMr 

g§H$ënZm CX`mg Ambobr Amho. _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò Mm§Jbo H$_©Mmar {_i{dÊ`mgmR>r Am{U 

Vo XrK© _wXVrgmR>r {Q>H${dÊ`mgmR>r "Eånbm°à ~«±S>' {Z_m©U H$aUo AË`§V Amdí`H$ Amho. ~«±S> ~m§YUrgmR>r 

g§ñWoMr _mZ{gH$Vm _hÎdmMr AgVo, Zmdbm¡{H$H$ _hÎdmMm AgVmo. AmYw{ZH$ H$mim_Üò "~«±S> {~ëS>tJ' 

_hÎdmMo Pmbobo Amho. _Zwî` g§gmYZmMo _ZmoY¡`© C§Mm{dÊ`mgmR>r g§ñWoMr B_oO/à{VîQ>m Mm§Jbr H$aUo 

Amdí`H$ AgVo. Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y Mm§Jbo ahmÊ`mgmR>r, ZmoH$arVrb AXbm-~XbrMo à_mU H$_r 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r, H$m_Jma Am{U _mbH$ `m§À`mVrb g§~§Y gwYmaÊ`mgmR>r Eåßbm°à ~«±S> _hÎdmMm Amho. 

Eåßbm°à ~°«§S> åhUOo g§ñWoMm/H§$nZrMo Zmdbm¡{H$H$ hmo`. gÜ`mÀ`m OmJVr{H$H$aU, IwboH$aU Am{U 

CXm[aH$aUmè`m H$m`©H$mim_Üò amï´>r` Am{U Am§Vaamï´>r` nmVirda {Q>H$Ê`mgmR>r, ñnY}bm Vm|S> XoÊ`mgmR>r 

Am{U Zâ`m_Üò ì`dgm` H$aÊ`mgmR>r Eåßbm°à ~«±S> _hÎdmMm Amho. _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmVrb 

AbrH$S>À`m àdmhm_Üò XoemÀ`m {d{dY {d^mJmVrb Am{U OJmVrb {d{dY XoemVrb H$_©Mmar EImÚm 

H§$nZr_Üò H$m`© H$arV AgVmV. `m§À`m_Üò Mm§Jbo H«$m°g H$ëMa (Cross Culture) g§~§Y àñWm{nV 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r "Eåßbm°à ~«±S>' {Z_m©U Ho$bm OmVmo. 

Eånbm°`g© ~«±S>Mo \$m`Xo : 

1. _mZd g§gmYZmMo _ZmoY¡`© C§MmdÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. 

2. Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§~§Y Mm§Jbo amhÿZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ H$bh H$_r hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. 

3. _mZdr g§gmYZmVrb nañna g§~§Y gwYmaÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. 

4. Eåßbm°àbm AmË_à{Vð>m d AmË_gÝ_mZ àmá hmoVo. 

5. Eåßbm°à ~±S>_wio _mZd g§gmYZ emoYUo gwb^ OmVo. 

6. Eåßbm°à ~«±S>_wio Mm§Jbo H$_©Mmar {_iV Agë`m_wio ì`dgm`mMr EHy$U CËnmXH$Vm dmT>rg 

bmJVo. 

7. g§KQ>ZoMo {Z`_, AQ>r, AmXoe d H$m`©àUmbr gd© _mZd g§gmYZmH$Sy>Z ñdÀN>oZo nmibo OmVmV. 

8. Eånbmà ~«±S>_wio _Zwî` g§gmYZm_Üò g§KQ>Zo~Ôb A{^_mZ {Z_m©U hmoVmo. 

9. Eånbmà ~«±S>_wio CËnmXH$Vm dmT>rg _XV hmoVo. 

10. _Zwî` g§gmYZmÀ`m J¡ahOoarMo à_mU H$_r hmoVo. 

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11. Am¡Úmo{JH$ joÌm_Üò em§VVm {Z_m©U hmoVo. 

12. _mZd g§gmYZm_m\©$V òUmè`m VH«$matMo à_mU H$_r hmodyZ dmB©Q> gdB© H$_r hmoVmV. 

13. _mZd g§gmYZmVrb CXmgrZVm, WH$dm, {ZéËgmh, Aem§VVm, hodoXmdo, VUmd BË`mXr H$_r 

hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. 

14. _mZd g§gmYZobm H$m_ d nXmMr emídVr {Z_m©U hmoVo. 

15. Eånbmà ~«±S>_wio _Zwî` g§gmYZm_Üò H$m`©{Zð>m, g§KQ>Z {Zð>m, AmË_{dídmg, _mZ{gH$ 

g_mYmZ H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ ñdmñÏ`, ì`{ŠV_Îd {dH$mg, Cƒ OrdZ_mZ B. {Z_m©U hmoVo. 

2. _mZd g§gmYZmMr AmD$Q>gmo{gªJ A°pŠQ>pìhQ>rO (Outsourcing HR Activities) : 

_mZd g§gmYZ ho EH$ _hÎdmMo g§gmYZ Agë`m_wio `m gmYZm§Mm n`m©á dmna Amdí`H$ AgVmo. 

A{V[aŠV qH$dm Ý`yZV_ _mZd g§gmYZmMr CnbãYVm ì`dgm`mbm _maH$ R>aVo. _mZdg§gmYZmMo l_ 

AË`§V Zmed§V Agë`m_wio, l_ hñVm§VaU H$aVm òV Zgë`m_wio Am{U l_ gmR>dyZ R>odVm òV 

Zgë`m_wio _mZd g§gmYZmMm `mo½` dmna H$aUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. _mZd g§gmYZmVrb AS>MUr Xya 

H$aÊ`mgmR>r _mZd g§gmYZmMo _moR>çm à_mUmV AmD$Q>gmo{gªJ Ho$bo OmVo. 

_mZd g§gmYZ AmD$Q>gmo{gªJ åhUOo JaOoZwgma h§Jm_r ñdénmMo, VmËnwaË`m ñdê$nmMo Am{U H$ama 

nÕVrZo R>am{dH$ H$m`© nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r {Z`wŠV Ho$bobo _mZd g§gmYZ hmo`. `m AmD$Q>gmo{gªJ Ho$boë`m 

_mZd g§gmYZmMm A{V[aŠV ~moOm qH$dm O~m~Xmar g§~§{YV ì`dgm` g§KQ>Zoda nS>V Zmhr. Aem _mZd 

g§gmYZoMo ñdê$n H$ama nÕVrMo Agë`m_wio H$amamZwgma Am{U H$m_mÀ`m CnbãYVoZwgma Aem _Zwî` 

g§gmYZmMr Zo_UyH$ Ho$br OmVo. _mZd g§gmYZ AmD$Q>gmo{gªJ_Üò {deof àH$maÀ`m H$_©Mmè`m§Mr Zo_UyH$ 

Ho$bobr AgVo Am{U Vo gXa H$m_ nyU© PmboZ§Va AmD$Q> gmo{gªJMm H$ama aÔ hmoVmo. {XK©H$mbrZ _mZd 

g§gmYZmMo ~S>©Z / ~moOm ¿`md`mMm Zgë`mg qH$dm {d{eï> ñdê$nmMo H$m`© H$adyZ KoÊ`mgmR>r _mZd 

g§gmYZ AmD$Q>gmog© Ho$bo OmVo. AmD$Q>gmo{gªJ_Üò EImXo {d{eï> H$m_ gmondyZ Vo nyU© H$aÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar 

gmon{dbr OmVo Vo H$m`© nyU© hmoVmjUr` AmD$Q>gmo{gªJ H$ama g§nwï>mV òVmo. H$_©Mmar ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m 

AmYw{ZH$ H$m`©àdmhm_Üò _moR>çm à_mUmV gÜ`m AmD$Q> gmo{gªJ Ho$bo OmVo. _mZd g§gmYZ AmD$Q> gmo{gªJ 

H$_r à{VÀ`m Am{U l_mÀ`m H$m_mgmR>r gm_mÝ`nUo dmnabo OmVo. EImXo {Z`{_V (éQ>rZ) ñdénmÀ`m 

H$m_mgmR>r _moR>çm à_mUmV AmD$Q> gmo{gªJ Ho$bo OmVo. Á`m {R>H$mUr H$m_mMr CËnmXH$Vm _moOVm òVo qH$dm 

EImÚmZo Ho$bobo H$m_ à_m{UV (Quantify) H$aVm òVo VoWo AmD$Q> gmo{gªJ Ho$bo OmVo. AmD$Q>gmo{gªJ 

h§Jm_r ñdénmÀ`m A{YH$ emar[aH$ l_mÀ`m H$m`m©gmR>r dmnabo OmVo. H$mhr doiog A{V{deof (Specialized) 

Aem ñdénmÀ`m H$m`m©gmR>r AmD$Q> gmo{gªJ dmnabo OmVo. 

_mZd g§gmYZ AmD$Q>gmo{gªJ H$m`©o (Activities) : 

1. _mZd g§gmYZ nwa{dUmè`m _wH$mX_mMr {ZdS> H$aUo. 

2. AmD$Q>gmo{gªJ _Yrb AQ>r, {Z`_, eVu BË`mXrMm Chmnmoh H$aUo. 

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3. _wH$mX_m_m\©$V qH$dm ñdV§Ì H$ama H$éZ VéU H$_©Mmè`m§Zm AmD$Q> gmo{gªJgmR>r {Z`wŠVr H$aUo. 

4. MT>-CVma, _moOVmO, R>am{dH$ ñdénmMo Xwgè`m {d^mJmda / H$_©Mmè`mda H$_r Adb§~yZ 

AgUmao ì`dgm` gwê$ H$aÊ`mg _mÝ`Vm Agmdr.,> Am`. Q>r. BË`mXr joÌmVrb OmUH$ma d 

AZw^dr bmoH$m§Mm {dMma AmD$Q> gmo{gªJgmR>r H$éZ KoUo. 

5. AmD$Q> gmo{gªJ Zwgma H$m_Mm _mo~Xbm XoUo. 

6. g§ñWm ~mø _mZd g§gmYZmH$S>o H$m_ gmondyZ Ë`m§Mr nyV©Vm H$éZ KoUo. 

7. g§ñWo_Üò AgUmè`m A{V[aŠV _mZd g§gmYZmMm nwaonya dmna H$aUo. 

8. ñdV:À`m g§ñWoVrb _mZdr l_ XoUo qH$dm KoUo. 

9. _mZd g§gmYZoÀ`m _mJUr nwadR>çm_Üò g_Ýd` gmYZo. 

10. {deof n«H$maMr _mZd g§gmYZ H$m¡eëò R>am{dH$ H$mbmdYrgmR>r Am{U {d{eï> CËnmXZmgmR>r 

VmËnwaË`m ñdénm_Üò IaoXr H$aUo. 

3. "H$m`©' Am{U "OrdZ' g_Ýd` : 

_mZd g§gmYZ nma nmS>V Agbobo H$m_ Am{U Ë`m§Mr OrdZ `m§À`m_Üò VmaVå` (Balance) AgUo 

Amdí`H$ Amho. CÎm_ àH$maÀ`m H$m_mgmR>r H$_©Mmè`m§_Üò OrdZ_mZ Mm§Jbo Agmdo bmJVo. _mZd 

g§gmYZoÀ`m OrdZ_mZdaM H$_©Mmè`m§Mo H$m`©OrdZ Adb§~yZ AgVo. _mZd g§gmYZmÀ`m "H$m`©OrdZmbm', 

"AmXe© H$m`©OrdZ' Ago XoIrb åhQ>bo OmVo. AmXe© H$m`©OrdZ åhUOo Á`m {R>H$mUr H$m_ H$aVmo Ë`m 

{R>H$mUr g_mYmZmZ§, AmZ§XmZ§ Am{U {dMmamZ§ H$m`© H$aUo hmo`. AmXe© H$m`© OrdZm_Üò amÌ{Xdg bhmZ- 

_moR>o n[al_ H$aV ahmUo AnojrV AgVo. `m_Üò _ZmZo Am{U e[aamZo ñdV:Mo H$_© (H$m`©) H$aUo A{^àoV 

AgVo. AmXe© H$m`© OrdZmgmR>r `mo½` ì`ŠVr `mo½` {R>H$mUr Zo_Uo Amdí`H$ AgVo. `m_Üò àoaUm, g_wh 

~m§YUr, Mm§Jë`m gd`r Am{U nañna ì`{ŠVg§~§Y `m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. H$_©Mmè`m§Zm Ë`m§À`m ñdV:bm 

Am{U Hw$Qw>§~mbm XoÊ`mgmR>r doi Zgob Va Ë`m H$_©Mmè`m§Mo "H$m_' Am{U "OrdZ' `m_Üò g_Vmoc Zmhr 

Ago åhUmdo bmJob. H$_©Mmè`m§À`m AmXe© H$m`© OrdZmgmR>r n[aUm_H$maH$ doioMo ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo 

Amdí`H$ Amho. H$_©Mmè`m§Mo H$m_ Am{U OrdZ `m§À`mVrb g_Ýd`mgmR>r Imbrb VÎdmMm Adb§~ H$aUo 

Amdí`H$ Amho. 

1. H$m_H$mOmÀ`m _hÎdmMm H«$_ bmdUo Amdí`H$. H$m_mÀ`m _hÎdmZwgma H$m`© Ho$ë`m_wio H$m_ Am{U 

OrdZ g_Vmoc amIÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. 

2. H$moUVo H$m_ H$amdo Am{U H$moUVo H$m_ H$ê$ Zò `mMr {bñQ> V`ma H$amdr d AZmdí`H$ H$m_o H$ê$ 

ZòV. 

3. H$m_ nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r {d{eð> Üò` qH$dm Jmob {ZpíMV H$aUo Amdí`H$ AgVo Am{U Ë`mZwgma H$m`© 

Ho$ë`mg H$_©Mmè`m§Mo OrdZ g_Vmoc hmoVo. 

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4. ì`dgm`mVrb H$m_ Am{U H$_©Mmè`mMo OrdZ `m_Üò g_Ýd` gmYÊ`mgmR>r ñdV:Mo XOm© {ZYm©aUmMo 

KQ>H$ {ZpíMV H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho. 

5. H$_©Mmè`m§Zr gm_m{OH$, gm§ñH¥${VH$ VÎdo OmonmgyZ ñdV:Mr H$m`© g§ñH¥$Vr d _yëò {Z_m©U H$aUo 

Amdí`H$ Amho. 

6. H$m`©j_ Am{U g_Vmoc H$m_H$mOmgmR>r A{YH$mam§Mo hñVm§VaU H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho. 

7. gd©M H$m_o Am{U H$m`©H«$_mg ñdV: hOa Z ahmVm BVam§À`mH$S>o H$m_o gmon{dUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

8. H$m`©j_ doioÀ`m ì`dñWmnZmgmR>r "Zmhr' åhUm`bm nm{hOoV H$s OoUoH$ê$Z H$m`© Am{U OrdZ 

`m§_Üò g_Vmoc {Z_m©U hmoB©b. 

9. H$m`m©b`rZ d H$maImÝ`mVrb H$m_ Kar AmUy Zò VgoM H$m`m©b`rZ H$m_H$mOmMr Kam_Üò gVV 

MMm© H$ê$ Zò. 

10. H$m`m©b`rZ H$m_H$mO Am{U d¡`{ŠVH$ OrdZ `m§À`m_Üò g_Vmoc Zgob Va H$m¡Q>w>§{~H$ H$bh {Z_m©U 

hmoVmV. VgoM H$m¡Qw>§{~H$ H$bhmMm dmB©Q> n[aUm_ H$m`© OrdZmda hmoVmo åhUyZ H$m`m©b`rZ H$m_H$mO 

Am{U d¡`{ŠVH$ OrdZ `m_Üò g_Vmoc AgUo Amdí`H$ Amho. 

2. H$m`©-OrdZ g_Ýd`mgmR>rMo KQ>H$ : 

1. H$_©Mmè`m§Vrb ñnYm© gH$mamË_H$ Agmdr. 

2. gwa{jV Am{U AmëhmXXm`r H$m`© pñWVr Agmdr. 

3. CnbãY _mZd g§gmYZ dmnaÊ`mgmR>r g§Yr Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

4. gm_m{OH$ EH$monm Am{U H$_©Mmè`m§Mm amhUr_mZmMm Mm§Jbm XOm© Amdí`H$ Amho. 

5. gH$mamË_H$ àdÎmr Am{U {dMma Amdí`H$ Amho. 

6. H$_©Mmè`mdarb VmU-VUmd H$_r AgUo Amdí`H$ Amho. 

7. C{Ôï>m§Zwgma ì`dñWmnZ d H$m`© H$mim_Üò VabVm H$m`©-OrdZmÀ`m g_Ýd`mgmR>r _hÎdmMr 

Amho. 

8. _`m©{XV gmYZm§Mm A_`m©{XV ñdénmMo dmna H$aUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

9. H$R>moa n[al_ Am{U gmVË` Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

10. Am{W©H$, _mZ{gH$ Am{U emar[aH$ gj_Vm H$m`©-OrdZmda n[aUm_ H$aVo. 

H$m_ Am{U OrdZ `m§À`m_Üò g_Ýd` gmYÊ`mgmR>r n[aUm_H$maH$ doioMo ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo 

Amdí`H$ Amho. _mZgemóm_Üò nr. EM. S>r. Agboë`m nw§S>oa - `m°H©$ `m§Zr åhQ>bo Amho H$s 

Vw_À`mgmo~V H$m_mMm Iwn _moR>m gmR>m ~amo~a KodyZ Joë`m_wio Vw_Mo H$[aAa hmoV Zmhr. à`ËZnyd©H$ H$m`© 

119

H$ê$Z H$_rV H$_r doio_Üò H$m_ nyU© H$aUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. d¡`ŠVrH$ \$moZ, gmoeb _o{S>`m, AZmdí`H$ 

Jßnm BË`mXr Jmoï>r Amnë`mbm AH$m`©j_ ~ZdVmV. doioMo ^mZ R>odyZ H$m`© Ho$ë`mg "H$m_' Am{U "OrdZ' 

`m§À`m_Üò g_Vmoc H$aVm òVo. gj_ H$m_H$mOmgmR>r gVV AZmdí`H$ ì`ñV qH$dm ì`J« ahmUo `mo½` 

ZgVo. AmXe© H$m`© OrdZmgmR>r A{YH$ ^mamMo H$m`© doimnÌH$ V`ma H$aUo `mo½` ZgVo. Cg§VrgmR>r 

nwagVrMm doi ~mOybm H$mTy>Z R>odUo, g_Vmoc H$m_ Am{U OrdZmgmR>r Amdí`H$ Amho. H$_rV H$_r 

doio_Üò A{YH$m{YH$ H$m_ H$aÊ`mmgR>r Am{U AmëhmXXm`H$ H$m`© dmVmdaUmgmR>r H$m_ Am{U OrdZ 

`m§À`m_Üò VmaVå` gmYZo _hÎdmMo Amho. 

"H$m`©-{OdZ g_Ýd`' `mmM n{hë`m§Xm dmna 1970 _Üò B§½b§S>_Üò H$aÊ`mV Ambm. Ë`mZ§Va 

1986 _Üò A_o[aHo$_Üò d¡`{ŠVH$ H$m_ Am{U d¡`{ŠV Am`wî` `m§À`m_Üò g_Ýd` hr g§H$ënZm 

_m§S>Ê`mV Ambr hmoVr. g§emoYZm_Üò Ago {XgyZ Ambo Amho H$s H$_©Mmè`m§Mm H$m_mVrb ^y{_H$m hr 

Ë`mÀ`m d¡`{ŠVH$ OrdZmdaVr n[aUm_ H$aV AgVo. Ë`m_wio H$m`m©b`rZ H$m_ Am{U OrdZ `m§À`m_Üò 

g_Ýd` qH$dm g_Vmoc AgUo Amdí`H$ Amho. g_Vmoc H$m`© OrdZm_wio na§namJV H$m_mMo {Xdg Am{U 

H$m_mMo {R>H$mU `m§À`m nbrH$S>o OmdyZ H$m`© H$aVm òVo. gÜ`mÀ`m OmJ{VH$sH$aUm_Üò H$_©Mmè`m§Mo 

H$m_mMo Vmg dmT>bobo AmhoV Am{U `mMm dmB©Q> n[aUm_ H$_©Mmè`m§À`m AmXe© OrdZ nÕVrda Pmbobm 

Amho. H$_©Mmar H$m`© Am{U OrdZ Mm§Jbo R>odÊ`mgmR>r ZmoH$ar XoUmè`mMr O~m~Xmar A{YH$ Amho. 

H$_©Mmè`m§Zm Mm§Jë`m godm-gw{dYm, g§Yr, ZoV¥Ëd BË`mXr nwa{dë`mg H$_©Mmè`m§Mo H$m`© Am{U OrdZ 

`m§À`m_Üò Mm§Jë`m àH$mao g_Vmoc amIVm òVmo. g_Vmoc H$m`© OrdZ åhUOo è gmÜ` H$aUo Am{U 

AmZ§X {_i{dUo hmo`. `m_Üò H$m_, Hw$Qw>§~, {_Ì Am{U ñdV: `m§À`m_Üò XaamoO H$mhrVar bm^ d AmZ§X 

{_i{dUo hmo`. `mMm n[aUm_ H$_©Mmè`m§À`m H$m`©j_Voda hmoV AgVmo. 

H$m`© Am{U OrdZ `m§Vrb VmaVå`mgmR>r VÎdo : 

1. H$m`© Am{U OrdZ `m§À`mVrb g_Ýd`mgmR>r VUmdmMo ì`dñWmnZ Ho$bo OmVo. 

2. `mgmR>r CËH¥$ï> H$_©Mmar Am{U qbJôX, _VôX {dMmamV KoVbo OmdoV. 

3. H$m`© Am{U OrdZ VmaVå`mgmR>r VéU dJm©Mm _Vàdmh {dMmamV ¿`mdm. 

4. H$m_mVyZ AmoiI {Z_m©U Pmbr Amho H$m? ho VÎd nm{hbo OmVo. 

5. H$m`© - OrdZ VmaVå`mgmR>r _mZd g§gmYZmMo Üò` {ZpíMV Agmdo bmJVo. 

6. `m VmaVå`mgmR>r ñdV:Mo JwU_mU / à_mU {ZpíMV H$amdo bmJVo. 

7. A{YH$mamMo {d^mOZ H$éZ AeŠ` H$m`m©~m~V Zmhr åhUm`bm {eH$md`mg hdo. 

8. H$m`© - OrdZ g_VmocmgmR>r _hÎdmZwgma H$m`© H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho. 

4. ^md{ZH$ ~wÕr_Îmm (Emotional Intelligence) : 

^mdZrH$ ~wÕr_Îmm åhUOo ñdV:À`m, BVam§À`m Am{U g_whm§À`m ^mdZm emoYUo, AmoiIUo Am{U 

{Z`§ÌU {_i{dUo hmo`. ^mdZrH$ ~wÕçm§H$m_Üò H$m`©j_Vm _moO_mn MmMUr KoVbr OmVo Am{U _O~yV 

nañna g§~§Ymda ^mdZrH$ ~wÕr_Îmm Adb§~yZ AgVo. Mmb©g S>m{d©Z `m§À`m {gÕVmÀ`m _Vo ApñVËdmgmR>r 

120

Am{U pñdH¥$VrgmR>r ^mdZrH$ A{^ì`ŠVr Ho$br OmVo. g_OÊ`mMo H$m¡eëò AmË_gmW H$aÊ`mgmR>r Am{U 

BVa bmoH$m§Mo ì`dñWmnZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r ^mdZrH$ ~wÕr_Îmm _hÎdmMr Amho. ~wÕr_Îmo_Üò ~hþ{dYVm AgVo. 

BÀN>m, hoVy, àoaUm BË`mXrdaVr ~wÕr_Îmm Adb§~yZ AgVo. _mZd qH$dm H$_©Mmar {H$Vr Mm¡H$g Amho. 

Ë`mÀ`mdaVr Ë`mMm {dH$mg Adb§~yZ AgVmo. ^mdZrH$ ~wÕr_ÎmogmR>r ñdV:bm AmoiIUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

`mM ~amo~a Xwgè`m§À`m ^mdZm AmoiIUo, ^rVr Am{U n«oaUm AmoiIUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. 

d¡`{ŠVH$ {dH$mgmgmR>r ^mdZm {dH$mgmMr Hw$dV AgUo, ^mdZm§Mo EH$ÌrH$aU H$aUo, ^mdZm g_OyZ 

KoUo Am{U ^mdZm§Mo {Z`_Z H$aUo `mMm g_mdoe ^mdZrH$ ~wÕr_Îmm `m_Üò hmoVmo. `m ^mdZrH$ 

~wÕr_Îmo_Üò j_Vm _m°S>ob, {_l _m°S>ob Am{U JwU _m°S>ob Ago _m°S>oëg _m§S>bobo AmhoV. j_Vm _°S>oëg_Üò 

H$_©Mmè`m§Mr Hw$dV {dMmamV KoVbr OmVo Va {_l nÕVr_Üò ñd-OmJ¥H$Vm, ñd-{Z`§ÌU, gm_m{OH$ 

H$m¡eëò, lÕm Am{U àoaUm `m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo Va JwU _m°S>ob_Üò H$_©Mmè`m§Mo ñdV:Mo JwU Am{U 

ñdV:Mm X¥ï>rH$moZ {dMmamV KoVbm OmVmo. AZoH$ {dMmad§Vm§Zr 1998 Z§Va _moR>çm à_mUm_Üò ^mdZrH$ 

~wÕr_Îmm `m§À`mda {dMma {d{Z_` Pmbobm Amho. 

^mdZrH$ ~wÕr_Îmodarb Q>rH$m : 

^mdZrH$ ~wÕr_Îmm hr gj_ Aem emór` {gÕm§Vmda AmYmabobr Zmhr. _mZdr OrdZmVrb ^mdZm 

`m§ZmM doJi§ bo~b bmdyZ "^md{ZH$ ~wÕr_Îmm' Ago Zmd {Xbobo Amho. Hw$dV Am{U gmÜ`, H$m¡eëò 

Am{U gd`r, àd¥Îmr Am{U _yëò, ì`{ŠVJV JwU Am{U ^md{ZH$ ñWa BË`mXr {dMma _m§S>bobo AmhoV. 

Ë`m_wio H$mhr Vk Ago åhUVmV H$s, _VôX hmVmiUo åhUOo ^md{ZH$ ~wÕr_Îmm hmo`. WmoS>Š`mV ^md{ZH$ 

~wÕr_Îmm åhUOoM d¡`{ŠVH$ JwU Jmoim H$aUo hmo`. 

* ^mdZrH$ ~wÕr_Îmo_Üò eŠ`Vm _moOë`m OmVmV. 

* `m_Üò kmZ Vnmgbo OmVo, Hw$dV Zmhr. 

* d¡`{ŠVH$ Am{U gd©gmYmaU ~wÕr_Îmm Vnmgbr OmVo. 

* ñdV: KmofrV Ahdmc Agë`m_wio ImoQ>o AgÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. 

* J¥{hV eŠVr~m~V \$maM Q>moH$mMr ^y{_H$m KoVbobr Amho. 

* \$ŠV ^mdZrH$ ñdê$nmÀ`m H$m_mgmR>rM ^mdZrH$ ~wÕr_Îmm Cn`moJr R>ê$ eH$Vo. 

5. ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ (Talent Management) : 

~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ hm AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMm _yb^yV nm`m Amho. `m ì`dñWmnZm_Üò ~wÕrMo, 

CnOV JwUm§Mo, {deof H$m¡eë`m§Mo, {deof A¸$boMo ì`dñWmnZ g_m{dð> Amho. Mm§Jë`m kmZr _mUgm§Mr 

Hw$dV, Ñ{ï>H$moZ, H$m`©j_Vm `m§À`m ì`dñWmnZmMm g_mdoe ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò Ho$bm OmVmo. ~m¡{ÕH$ 

ì`dñWmnZm_wio d¡`{ŠVH$ Am{U g§KQ>ZoMm {dH$mg hmoÊ`mg _XV hmoVo. g§KQ>ZoVrb H$m`© dmVmdaU Mm§Jbo 

R>odÊ`mgmR>r ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZmMr AË`§V JaO Amho. ì`dgm`mgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmè`m gd© g§gmYZmMo 

ì`dñWmnZ H$aV AgVmZm _mZd g§gmYZm ì`{V[aŠV BVa g§gmYZm§Mo ì`dñWmnZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r H$mhr 

121

{Z`_, {gÕm§V Am{U nÕVr _m§S>boë`m AmhoV Am{U Ago {gÕm§V WmoS>çm\$ma \$aH$mZo gd© CÚm§JmoZm Am{U 

gd©M {R>H$mUr bmJy H$aVm òVmV nU _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò Aem {ZpíMV ñdénmMo {gÕm§V 

ApñVËdmV ZmhrV. gd©M _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmgmR>r EH$M {gÕm§V bmdVm òV Zmhr H$maU _mZd 

g§gmYZ EH$ gOrd g§gmYZ Amho Va BVa gd© g§gmYZo {Z{O©d g§gmYZo AmhoV. Aem gOrd g§gmYZmÀ`m 

ì`dñWmnZmgmR>r ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ AË`§V _hÎdmMo Amho. _mZd g§gmYZ EH$ {dMma H$aUmao g§gmYZ 

AgyZ Vo g§gmYZ EH$mdoir H$moUË`m àH$maMm Am{U H$gm {dMma H$aob `m{df`r H$mhrM A§XmO ~m§YVm 

òV Zgë`m_wio ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZmMr AË`§V Amdí`H$Vm Amho. 

~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ ho _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZ `mVrb EH$ A{d^mÁ` ^mJ ~Zbobm AgyZ `mMr 

àm_w»`mZo 1990 Z§Va, `mMm _moR>çm à_mUmV Aä`mg d dmna Ho$bm Omdy bmJbm. 1998 _Üò S>o{ìhS> 

d°Q>{H$Ýg `m boIH$mZo {b{hboë`m boIm_Üò ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ (Talent Management) hm eãX _m§S>bm 

Jobm Am{U Ë`mZ§Va 2004 _Yrb "~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ nÕVr' `m nwñVH$mV _m§S>bm Jobm. 

~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZmÛmao H$m¡eë`mMr H$_VaVm H$_r H$aVm òVo. ñdV§Ì Am{U ~mø C_oXdmam§_YyZ 

_mZd g§gmYZmMr Zo_UyH$ H$aÊ`mEodOr g§ñWm A§VJ©V_` _mZd g§gmYZm§Mm {dH$mg Ho$bm OmVmo. _mZd 

g§mgYZmbm AmH$fy©Z KoUo, Ë`m§Zm Amnë`mM g§ñWo_Üò H$m`_ amIUo BË`mXrMm g_mdoe ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò 

hmoVmo. A{bH$S>À`m H$mim_Üò "~m¡{ÕH$ ñdm_rËdmgmR>r `wÕOÝ` n[apñWVr' Agë`mMo {XgyZ òVo. ~m¡{ÕH$ 

ì`dñWmnZmbm "_mZdr ^m§S>db ì`dñWmnZ' Ago XoIrb åhQ>bo OmVo. WmoS>Š`mV "ì`ŠVrJV _yë`' 

ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ hmo`. `m ì`dñWmnZm_Üò bmoH$m§À`mH$S>o Oo kmZ AgVo Vo emoYUo 

Am{U Ë`m§Mm dmna H$ê$Z KoUo `mMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. ñnYm©Ë_H$ H$m`©pñWVr_Üò H$_©Mmar emoYUo, 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ nJma {ZpíMV H$aUo, g§Yr {Z_m©U H$aUo, H$m`©j_Vm ì`dñWmnZ, à{H«$`m, ~T>Vr BË`mXrgmR>r 

~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ _hÎdmMo AgVo. ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò _mZd g§gmYZ _m{hVr V§ÌkmZ, _mZd 

g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZ nÕVr, AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌkmZ, gj_Voda AmYm[aV ì`dñWmnZ, gj_Vm emoYUo Am{U 

dmnaUo, nÕVr BË`mXrMm g_mdoe Ho$bm OmVmo. 

~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZmgmR>r _mZdr ^m§S>db ì`dñWmnZ H$amdo bmJVo. _mZd g§gmYZ {ZdS>rMm _mJ© 

emoYUo, _mZd g§gmYZ AmH$fy©Z KoUo, {ZdS> H$aUo, à{ejU XoUo, {dH$mg H$aUo, ~T>Vr XoUo, H$_©Mmè`m§Zm 

g§ñWo-g§ñWo_YyZ hñVm§VaU H$aUo BË`mXrMm g_mdoe _mZdr ^m§S>db ì`dñWmnZm_Üò Ho$bm OmVmo. ~m¡{ÕH$ 

ì`dñWmnZm_wio CËnÞmV dmT>, J«mhH$m§Mo g_mYmZ, CËnmXH$VoV dmT>, XOm©_Üò gwYmaUm, IMm©_Üò H$nmV 

BË`mXr \$m`Xo hmoVmV. 

~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ_Üò H$m`©Hw$ebVm ì`dñWmnZ, ZoV¥Ëd {dH$mg, H$_©Mmar {Z`moOZ, ~m¡{ÕH$ 

H$_VaVm emoY, Zo_UyH$ BË`mXr H$m`m©Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò _mZd g§gmYZ j_VoMo 

_moO_mn Ho$bo OmVo. ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò j_Vm{Yð>rV ì`dñWmnZ Ho$bo OmVo. ~m¡{ÕH$ j_Vm {dH${gV 

H$aÊ`mMr {R>H$mUo {ZpíMV Ho$br OmVmV. H$m`© {díbofU Ho$bo OmVo. ~m¡{ÕH$ jo_VoMr nS>VmiUr Ho$br 

OmVo. 

122

~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd : 

1. AZoH$ qH$dm {d{dY ~wÕr_§VmZm EH$Ì AmUÊ`mgmR>r ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ Amdí`H$ Amho. 

2. _mZd g§gmYZ hr EH$ _mb_Îmm qH$dm g§nXm ~Zë`m_wio ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ _hÎdmMo Amho. 

3. _mZd g§gmYZ g§ñWo_Üò {Q>H$dyZ R>odÊ`mgmR>r ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ _hÎdmMo Amho. 

4. _mZd g§gmYZmÀ`m ì`whaMZmË_H$ ì`dñWmnZmgmR>r ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ Ho$bo OmVo. 

5. _mZd g§gmYZ Am{U BVa g§gmYZm_Yrb g_Ýd` gmYÊ`mgmR>r ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ Amdí`H$ 

Amho. 

6. ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZm_wio Mm§Jbo bmoH$ g§KQ>ZoH$S>o AmH${f©bo OmVmV. 

7. ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZm_wio H$m`©j_ H$_©Mmè`m§Zm `mo½` _mo~Xbm d ghH$m`© {_iy eH$Vo. 

8. Am¡nMm[aH$ d AZm¡nMm[aH$ nÕVrZo H$_©Mmar, ZoV¥Ëd, A{Vj_Vm H$_©Mmar BË`mXr_Üò {dH$mg 

hmoVmo. 

9. H$_©Mmè`m§Mo {Z`moOZ, H$m`©j_Vm ì`dñWmnZ, gm§ñH¥${VH$ {dH$mg BË`mXr_Üò ~m¡{ÕH$ 

ì`dñWmnZm_wio {dH$mg hmoVmo. 

10. ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZm_wio kmZmMo ì`dñWmnZ H$aVm òdyZ ^{dî` H$mimVrb H$m¡eë` nyU© _mZd 

g§gmYZmMr H$_VaVm Xya H$aVm òVo. 

ñdmÜ`m` : 

1. _mZd g§gmYZ ì`dñWmnZmVrb A{bH$S>Mo àdmh g{dñVa ñnï> H$am. 

2. _mZd g§gmYZmVrb ~°«§S> hr g§H$ënZm ñnï> H$éZ ~±«S> ~m§YUr H$er Ho$br OmVo Vo gm§Jm. 

3. "H$m`© Am{U OrdZ' hr g§H$ënZm ñnï> H$ê$Z Ë`mVrb KQ>H$ ñnï> H$am. 

4. Q>rnm {bhm. 

(A) h§Jm_r ñdénmMo _mZd g§gmYZ (Outsourcing HR) 

(~) ^md{ZH$ ~wÕr_Îmm 

(H$) ~m¡{ÕH$ ì`dñWmnZ. 

123 

��

~r. H$m°_. ^mJ-3 : {d_memñÌ nona-2 



{d_m à{V{ZYrMr ^y{_H$m 

(Role of an Insurance Agent) 

{d_m à{V{ZYrMr ^y{_H$m (Role of an Insurance Agent) 

1938 À`m {d_m H$m`ÚmZwgma ""Á`m ì`ŠVrg {d_m ì`dgm`mMm nadmZm {_imbobm Amho d {d_m 

ì`dgm` {_i{dÊ`mgmR>r {Obm H${_eZ qH$dm AÝ` àH$mao _mo~Xbm XoÊ`mV òVmo Vr ì`ŠVr åhUOo {d_m 

à{V{ZYr hmo`.'' åhUOoM {d_m à{V{ZYr åhUyZ H$m_ H$aÊ`mgmR>r ì`ŠVrbm {d_m H$m`ÚmZwgma nadmZm {_i{dUo 

~§YZH$maH$ Amho. Vmo Amnbo H$m¡eë` Am{U à`ËZmZo {d_m nm°{bgr {_idVmo. {d_m nm°{bgrda âë`m Joboë`m 

hßË`m§À`m AmYmao Ë`mbm H${_eZ {_iVo. 

Am`w{d©_m ì`dgm`mÀ`m {dVaU àUmbrV {d_mà{V{ZYrbm AZÝ` gmYmaU _hÎd Amho. Vmo {d_m 

ì`dgm`m_Üò à{V{ZYr, _mJ©Xe©H$, {dídñV, _Ü`ñV Am{U {dH«o$Vm Aem {d{dY ñdê$nmMr ^y{_H$m nma 

nmS>Vmo. Ë`mMo g{dñVa {ddoMZ nwT>rbà_mUo - 

1) à{V{ZYr (Representative) : 

{d_m à{V{ZYr hm {d_m H§$nZr Am{U {d_oXma `m Xmohm|Mm à{V{ZYr åhUyZ H$m_ H$aVmo. Oo§ìhm Vmo {d_m 

H§$nZrMm à{V{ZYr åhUyZ O~m~Xmar nma nmS>Vmo V|ìhm Ë`mZo OmñVrV OmñV {d_m ì`dgm` H$ê$Z åhUOoM {d_m 

J«mhH$ {_idyZ {d_m H§$nZrÀ`m CËnÞmg hmV^ma bmdmdm Aer Anojm AgVo. {d_m ì`dgm` H$aVmZm Ë`mZo 

{d_m H§$nZrMm bm^ {dMmamV ¿`mdm. AZoH$Xm g§^mì` {d_m J«mhH$ d`, ì`dgm`, emar[aH$ d ì`mdgm{`H$ 

YmoH$m `m~m~V {d_m H§$nZrMr \$gdUyH$ H$aÊ`mMr eŠ`Vm AgVo. `m~m~VMr g{dñVa _m{hVr à{V{ZYrZo {d_m 

H§$nZrg nwadmdr. Ë`mZo gmVË`mZo {d_oXmam§À`m g§nH$m©V ahmdo. `m_wio {d_m J«mhH$mÀ`m amhÊ`mMr OmJm, Ë`m§À`m 

gd`r, OrdZ_mZ BË`mXtMo {Z[ajU H$ê$Z OmoI_rMo ñdê$n {ZpíMV H$aUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

`m~amo~aM {d_m à{V{ZYrbm {d_oXmam§Mm à{V{ZYr åhUyZhr H$m_ H$amdo bmJVo. g§^mì` {d_m J«mhH$m§Zm 

ôQ>Uo, Ë`m§Zm {d{dY àH$maÀ`m {d_m `moOZm§Mr _m{hVr XoUo, Ë`m§À`m JaOm§Mm Aä`mg H$aUo Am{U Ë`m§Zm 

\$m`Xoera Aer {d_m `moOZm {ZdS>Ê`mg _XV H$aUo B. H$m_o à{V{ZYrg H$amdr bmJVmV. {d_m J«mhH$m§Mm 

à{V{ZYr `m ZmË`mZo Ë`mZo J«mhH$m§À`m {hVmMr OnUyH$ Ho$br nm{hOo. 

2) _mJ©Xe©H$ (Advisor) : 

{d_m à{V{ZYr hm {d_m H§$nZr ~amo~aM {d_m J«mhH$m§Mmhr à{V{ZYr AgVmo. {d_m J«mhH$m§Mm à{V{ZYr `m 

1

ZmË`mZo H$m_ H$aVmZm Ë`mbm {d_m J«mhH$m§Mm _mJ©Xe©H$ åhUyZ O~m~Xmar nma nmS>mdr bmJVo. ~hþVm§e bmoH$ 

Am`w{d©å`mH$S>o Am{W©H$ {Z`moOZmMm EH$ ^mJ åhUyZ nhmVmV. {d_m à{V{ZYrZo J«mhH$m§À`m d¡`{ŠVH$ n[apñWVrà_mUo 

Ë`m§Zm `mo½` d gdmo©Îm_ Am{W©H$ `moOZm gwMdmì`m bmJVmV. `mgmR>r {d_m à{V{ZYrbm {d{dY {d_m `moOZm§Mo 

bm^ Am{U _`m©Xm VgoM ~mOmamVrb BVa Am{W©H$ `moOZm§Mr _m{hVr AgUo Amdí`H$ Amho. WmoS>Š`mV CnbãY 

Agbobo ~MVrMo _mJ© Am{U Ë`mMo JwU Xmof Ë`mbm _m{hV AgmdoV. 

AZoH$Xm Am{W©H$ ~m~VrV Vk ì`ŠVrZm§hr {då`mÀ`m AQ>r, eVu, dJiboë`m ~m~r, H$a{df`H$ VaVyXr, 

{d_oXma d {d_m H§$nZrMo h¸$ BË`mXr {df`r g§nyU© _m{hVr AgVoM Ago Zmhr. `m~m~VMo `mo½` Vo _mJ©Xe©Z {d_m 

à{V{ZYrZo H$amdo bmJVo. H$maU Mm§Jbm à{V{ZYr hm Mm§Jbm Am{W©H$ {Z`moOH$hr AgVmo. 

3) {dídñV (Trustee) : 

{d_m à{V{ZYr hm {dídñVmgmaIm AgVmo. g§^mì` {d_m J«mhH$ Ë`mÀ`m eãXmda {dídmg R>odyZ Amnë`m 

OdiMr bhmZ bhmZ ~MV {d_m `moOZoV Jw§VdVmo. `m Jw§VdUyH$sVrb {ZYrMo ì`dñWmnZ Am{U ^{dî`H$mimV 

{d_oXmamda Adb§~yZ Agboë`m ì`ŠVtMr H$miOr KoUo hr H$m_o ì`dpñWVnUo Ho$br OmVrb Agm {d_oXmambm 

{dídmg AgVmo. `mo½` g„m XoÊ`mgmR>r Á`mÀ`mda {dídmg Q>mH$mdm Aer _m{hVJma ì`{ŠV åhUyZ {d_m 

à{V{ZYrH$S>o nm{hbo OmVo. `m Anojm§Mr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`mgmR>r {d_m à{V{ZYrbm {d{dY {d_m `moOZm, {d_m 

`moOZm§Mo bm^ d _`m©Xm, ~mOmamVrb CnbãY ~MVrMo _mJ©, H$a{df`H$ VaVyXr, {d_m AQ>r, eVu BË`mXr 

{d{dY ~m~tMo gImob kmZ Agmdo. 

{d_m àm{YH$aUmZo Ë`m§À`m A{Y{Z`_m_Üò à{V{ZYrgmR>r Z¡{VH$Vm {Z`_mdbr Z_yX Ho$br Amho. à{V{ZYrZo 

Am¡{MË` d {Z`_mdbrMo nmbZ H$ê$Z {d_m ì`dgm` H$amdm. J«mhH$m§Mo {hV gVV S>moù`mg_moa R>odyZ H$m_ H$amdo. 

{d_oXmamMr \$gdUyH$ AWdm {Xem^yb hmoUma Zmhr `mH$S>o H$Q>mjmZo bj Úmdo. VgoM ^{dî`H$mimV nm°{bgrYmaH$mMm 

_¥Ë`wXmdm ZmH$mambm OmD$ Zò `mgmR>r à{V{ZYrZo àñVmdnÌm_Üò Amdí`H$ Agbobr d _hÎdnyU© _m{hVr CKS> 

H$aUo ho {dídñV åhUyZ _hÎdmMo H$m_ Amho. 

4) _Ü`ñV (Mediator) : 

{d_m à{V{ZYr hm g§^mì` J«mhH$ d {d_m H§$nZr `m§À`m_Yrb _Ü`ñV qH$dm Xwdm åhUyZ _hÎdmMr ^y{_H$m 

nma nmS>Vmo. {d_m H§$nZrMm à{V{ZYr `m ZmË`mZo {d_m H§$nZrÀ`m {hVmMo ajU H$aUo Am{U {d_m ì`dgm` 

dmT>{dUo hr Ë`mÀ`mda O~m~Xmar AgVo. `m~amo~aM {d_m ì`dgm` H$aVmZm g§^mì` J«mhH$m§Mo {hVhr S>moù`mg_moa 

R>odmdo bmJVo. H$moUË`mhr n[apñWVrV Ë`mZo {d_m J«mhH$mMo {hV ajU Ho$bo nm{hOo. Ë`mZo g_mOmVrb {d{dY 

ñVamVrb ì`ŠVtÀ`m g§nH$m©V amhÿZ g§^mì` J«mhH$m§Mm emoY ¿`mdm, Ë`m§À`m JaOm§Mm Aä`mg H$ê$Z `mo½` {d_m 

nm°{bgr KoÊ`mg àd¥Îm H$amdo, {d_m g§ajUmMo _hÎd gm§Jmdo, {d{dY {d_m `moOZm d Ë`m§Mm bm^ Am{U _`m©Xm, 

H$agdbVr B. g_OmdyZ gm§Jmdo. VgoM J«mhH$m§À`m g§nH$m©V amhÿZ {Z[ajU d _m{hVrÀ`m AmYmao OmoI_rMo 

ñdê$n g_OmdyZ KoD$Z àñVmdnÌm_Üò _hÎdnyU© _m{hVr d OmoIr_ Z_yX H$amdr. `m_wio {d_m H§$nZrg g§~§YrV 

2

ì`ŠVrg {d_m Úmdm H$s XoD$ Zò ho R>a{dVm òB©b. VgoM ^{dî`H$mimV {eK« _¥Ë`wXmdm {Z_m©U Pmë`mg Vmo 

ZmH$mabm OmUma Zmhr. 

WmoS>Š`mV {d_m à{V{ZYrZo {d_m H§$nZr d {VÀ`m CËnmXZm§Mr gdªH$f _m{hVr J«mhH$m§Zm Úmdr. VgoM 

J«mhH$m§Mr gd© _m{hVr {d_m H§$nZrg Úmdr d `m XmoÝhr KQ>H$m§À`m {hVmMr OnUyH$ H$amdr. 

5) {dH«o$Vm$ (Salesman) : 

{d_m à{V{ZYr hm {d_m ì`dgm`mÀ`m {dVaUàUmbrMm EH$ _hÎdmMm KQ>H$ Amho. nm°{bgrYmaH$ Am{U 

{d_m H§$nZr `m Xmohm|À`m {hVg§~§Ymer AZwê$n Aem àH$mao à{V{ZYrZo {d_m ì`dgm` Ho$bm nm{hOo. Ë`mZo 

dV©_mZnÌo, Q>o{b\$moZ {S>aoŠQ>ar, [anmoQ>©g², g^m, MMm©gÌo, ~¡R>H$m `mÛmao g_mOmer gVV g§nH©$ R>odyZ g§^mì` 

J«mhH$m§Mr `mXr dmT>Vr R>odbr nm{hOo. Ë`mZo gmVË`mZo g§^mì` J«mhH$m§Mm emoY KoVbm nm{hOo. VgoM Ë`m§À`m 

JaOm§Mm Aä`mg H$ê$Z `mo½` Vo {d_mnÌ KoÊ`mg CÚwŠV Ho$bo nm{hOo. EH$ {dH«o$Vm åhUyZ {d_m ì`dgm`mÀ`m 

dmT>rgmR>r Ë`mZo {d_mYmaH$m§Zm àñVmd nÌ âUo, hám Jmoim H$aUo, d¡Ú{H$` VnmgUr H$ê$Z KoUo, d` d 

CËnÞmMr _m{hVr Am{U à_mUo Jmoim H$aUo BË`mXr Amdí`H$ ~m~tMr nyV©Vm H$aÊ`m_Üò _XV H$aUo Amdí`H$ 

Amho. 

VgoM ZdrZ {d_m nm°{bgr {dH$ë`mZ§Va Vr _wXV g§non`ªV AWdm Xmdm CËnÞ hmoB©n`ªV gwê$ amhrb `mMr 

Ë`mZo XjVm ¿`mdr. `mgmR>r nm°{bgrYmaH$mÀ`m g§nH$m©V amhÿZ ZwVZrH$aU háo doioda âbo OmVmV H$m ho nhmdo. 

~XbË`m n[apñWVrà_mUo Zm_m§H$Z H$aUo qH$dm ~XbUo VgoM Xmdm dmQ>nmV [d_oXmambm ghmæ` H$amdo, ho hr H$m_ 

EH$ {dH«o$Vm åhUyZ {d_m à{V{ZYrbm H$amdo bmJVo. 

3 

��

1. àmñVm{dH$ 

~r. H$m°_. ^mJ-3 : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ nÕVr 



(~) AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ (Modern Management) 

2. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ g§H$ënZm 

3. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo ñdê$n 

4. ~XbVo n`m©daU 

5. ~XbË`m n`m©daUm_Üò AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd 

1. àmñVm{dH$ : 

ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo ì`dgm`mV C{Ôï> nyVugmR>r BVam§H$Sy>Z H$m_ H$ê$Z KoÊ`mMr H$bm hmo`. `m_Üò 

H$ƒm_mb, `§Ìgm_J«r, _Zwî`~i B. CËnmXH$ KQ>H$m§Mm _hÎm_ dmna H$aÊ`mgmR>r {Z`moOZ H$amdo bmJVo. VgoM 

àË`j {Z`moOZmMr A§_b~OmdUr H$aVmZm g§KQ>Z, {ZXo©eZ, g_Ýd` d {Z`§ÌU Aem {d{dY H$m_mMr gmIir 

nma nmS>mdr bmJVo. _mZdmbm Amnë`m CXa{Zdm©hmgmR>r AZoH$ _mJm©Zo à`ËZ H$amdo bmJVo. `m à`ËZm_Üò 

ZmoH$ar, ì`dgm` d noem B. _mJmªMm Adb§~ Ho$bm OmVmo. CÚmoJ qH$dm ì`dgm`m_Üò Am{W©H$ \$m`Xm {_idÊ`mgmR>r 

gmYZgm_J«r d _Zwî`~i `m§Mm `mo½` dmna H$aUo JaOoMo AgVo. 

_mZdr CËH«$m§Vr~amo~aM ì`dñWmnZ hr g§H$ënZm {dH$grV hmoV Jobr Amho. _mZdmbm Ooìhm AÞ, dñÌ, 

{Zdmam `m JaOm§Mr Vrd« OmUrd Pmbr VoìhmM ì`dñWmnZ hr g§H$ënZm CX`mg Ambr. Am{X_mZd H$mimV d 

Ë`mZ§Va g_yh, Hw$Qy>§~, eoVr `m AdñWo_YyZ OmVmZm _mZdmbm {d{dY àH$mao EH$_oH$m§À`m _XVrZo d gm_w{hH$ 

{hVmgmR>r ì`dñWmnZ e¡brMm dmna H$amdm bmJbm. 

ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo B§J«Or eãX Management hmo`. B§J«Or eãX H$mofmà_mUo Management åhUOo 

AmXoe XoUo d {Z`§ÌU R>odUo hmo`. 

Ooåg² bw§S>r `m {dMmad§VmÀ`m _Vo, 

""{d{eï> CÔ{ï>m§À`m nyVugmR>r BVam§À`m à`ËZm§Zm {Z`mo{OV, g_ÝdrV, ào[aV d {Z`§{ÌV H$aÊ`mMo H$m_ 

åhUOo ì`dñWmnZ H$m`© hmo`.'' 

ì`dñWmnZ emñÌmMm B{Vhmg àËòH$ eVH$m_Üò {dH$grV hmoV Joë`mMo {XgyZ òVo. ^maVm_Üò MmUŠ`, 

1

H$m¡{Q>ë` `m§À`m H$mimV ì`dñWmnZmMo {dMma _m§S>bo Jobo AmhoV. àmMrZ H$mimV gw_o[a`Z, B{Opße`Z, 

~m°{~bmo{Z`Z, J«rH$, amo_Z, MrZ, {h~«w, ^maVr` B. g§ñH¥$Vr_Üò ì`dñWmnZ {dMmam§À`m CËH«$m§VrMo nwamdo {XgyZ 

òVmV. A°S>_ pñ_W, Bbr pìhQ>Zr, gZ Ëgw, H$m¡{Q>ë` ho ì`dñWmnZ {dMmam§Mo AmÚOZH$ AmhoV. na§Vw Iè`m 

AWm©Zo 1760 Z§VaÀ`m Am¡Úmo{JH$ H«$m§VrZ§Va ì`dñWmnZmMm Aä`mg {d{dY {dMmad§VmÛmao hmoV Jobm. 

19 ì`m eVH$mV am°~Q>©, AmodoZ, Mmb}g ~°~oO, hoÝar Q>m¡Zo, hoÝar nwAa, \o$S´>rH$ h°ëgo Va 20 ì`m eVH$mV 

\o$S´>rH$ Q>oba, hoÝar \o$`m°b, Am°{bda, eoëS>Z, AëQ>Z _oAmo, S>½bg² _°J«oJa, _°Šg do~a, {nQ>a S´>H$a B. AZoH$ 

{dMmad§VmZr ì`dñWmnZ emñÌmMm Aä`mg H$ê$Z ì`dñWmnZ A{YH$ à^mdr ~ZdÊ`mMo à`ËZ Ho$bo. 

2. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ g§H$ënZm : 

21 ì`m eVH$mÀ`m gwadmVrg d 20 ì`m eVH$mÀ`m CÎmamYm©V ì`dñWmnZ hr g§H$ënZm A{YH$ ì`mnH$ 

hmoV Joë`mMo {XgyZ òV Amho. ì`dñWmnZmMm dmna EH$ noem åhUyZ hmoD$ bmJbm. ì`dñWmnZm§_Üò A{YH$m{YH$ 

Aä`mg, à`moJ, {gÕm§V _m§S>bo Jobo. 19 ì`m eVH$mÀ`m AIo[ag A{ÔmV d ZdA{ÔmV Ñ{ï>H$moUmVyZ 

ì`dñWmnZ Ñ{ï>H$moU _m§S>Ê`mV Ambo. Ë`m_wio 1950 gmbmZ§Va ì`dñWmnZmer g§~§{YV _m§S>bobo {dMma ho 

AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo AmYma R>abo. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m g§H$ënZoMr _whwV©_oT> {d{dY {dMmad§Vm§À`m 

Ñ{ï>H$moUmVyZ amodbr Jobr. `m_Üò Imbrb Mma Ñ{ï>H$moUm§Mm A§V^m©d hmoVmo. 

1. g§»`mË_H$ Ñ{ï>H$moZ 

2. nÕVr Ñ{ï>H$moZ 

3. n[apñWVr gmnojm Ñ{ï>H$moZ 

4. {H«$`mË_H$ Ñ{ï>H$moZ 

darb Mmarhr Ñ{ï>H$mZm§Mm WmoS>Š`mV AmT>mdm KoVë`mg Ago bjmV òVo H$s, g§»`mË_H$ Ñ{ï>H$moZm§_Üò 

g§»`memñÌmMm AmYma KoD$Z, ^m¡{VH$emñÌ, d¡km{ZH$emñÌ B. EH${ÌVnUo g_ñ`m§Mo {dYmZ d g§emoYZ H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

Am{U g_ñ`mdarb Cnm` emoYyZ H$mT>Ê`mgmR>r dmnaÊ`mV Ambo. nÕVr Ñ{ï>H$moZm_Üò g_mZ hoVy gmÜ` H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

H$m`©aV Agboë`m d nañnam§da Adb§~yZ Agboë`m AZoH$ ^mJm§Mo EH${ÌV H$ê$Z nÕVr {Z_m©U H$aÊ`mV 

Amë`m. ì`dgm` ì`dñWmnZmVrb nÕVr Ñ{ï>H$moZm§_Üò AmXmZo, àXmZo énm§Va à{H«$`m, àdmh Aem Q>ßß`m§VyZ 

2

ì`dñWmnH$r` H$m`} H$aÊ`mV Ambr. n[apñWVr gmnoj Ñ{ï>H$moZ _m§S>VmZm \«o$S> bwWm§Ýg `m§Zr {d{eï> n[apñWVr_Üò 

H$moUVo ì`dñWmnH$s` H$m`© d V§Ì dmnamdo `mMm C„oI Ho$bm. {H«$`mË_H$ Ñ{ï>H$moZ _m§S>VmZm ì`dñWmnZ joÌmV 

dmnabo OmUmao AmYw{ZH$ emñÌr` V§Ì åhUOoM ì`dñWmnZmMr VÎdo, J{UVrH$ V§Ìo, ì`dñWmnH$s` _yë`_mnZ B. 

{d{dY Jmoï> EH${ÌVnUo {d{eï>ç H$m`m©gmR>r ì`dgm`mVrb gd© nmVù`m§da dmnabo OmVmV. 

darb Mma Ñ{ï>H$moZ {dMmamV KoVë`mg Ago bjmV òVo H$s, AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo H$mimÀ`m 

àdmhmV Joë`m 50 dfmªVrb {d{dY {dMmad§Vm§Zr ì`dñWmnZ emñÌmer g§~§{YV Ho$bobm Aä`mg d _m§S>bobo 

{dMma hmo`. 21 ì`m eVH$mÀ`m gwadmVrbm ì`dñWmnZemñÌmbm ì`mdgm{`H$ ì`dñWmnZ Agohr åhUbo OmV 

Amho. ì`mdgm{`H$ ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo ì`dñWmnZ emómMo {ejU d à{ejU KoD$Z ZdrZ V§ÌmMo dmna H$ê$Z 

noem/g„mJma `m ^y{_Ho$VyZ Ho$bo OmUmao ì`dñWmnZ H$m`© hmo`. 

WmoS>Š`mV ""AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV ~XbË`m n`m©daUm§_Üò ì`dgm`mVrb hmoUmao ~Xb bjmV KoD$Z Ë`mà_mUo 

{ZU©`, {Z`moOZ, g§KQ>Z, g_Ýd` d {Z`§ÌU B. ì`dñWmnH$s` H$m`} nma nmS>VmZm ì`dñWmnH$mZo nyU©nUo {e{jV 

d à{e{jV AgyZ Amnë`m gd© H$m¡eë`m§Mm dmna H$ê$Z _mZYZmgmR>r Ho$bo OmUmao C{Ôï>nyaH$ H$m`© hmo`.'' 

1950 gmbmZ§Va ì`dñWmnZmbm {d{dY {dMmad§Vm§Zr {Xbobo ñdê$n ho C{Ôï>nyaH$ d A{YH$ emór` 

ñdê$nmMo Agë`mMo {XgyZ òVo. 

CXm.- 

_m`H$b nmoQ>©a `m§Zr ñnYm©Ë_H$ \$m`Xm n[aì`` ZoV¥Ëd Ago {dMma _m§S>bo Va {g. Ho$. àëhmX `m§Zr Jm^m^yV 

gj_Vm d {nQ>a S´>H$a `m§Zr C{Ôï> nyaH$ ì`dñWmnZ ho {dMma _m§S>bo. ~XbË`m H$mimà_mUo ~XbUmar ñnYm©, 

ñnY}V {Q>Hy$Z amhÊ`mgmR>r g§ñWoZo ñdV:_Üò {Z_m©U H$amd`mÀ`m H$mhr JwUd¡{eï>ço Am{U CÔoe S>moù`mg_moa 

R>odyZ n[apñWVrà_mUo Ho$bo OmUmao ì`dñWmnZ hoM AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMm nm`m qH$dm Jm^m hmo`. 

3. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo ñdê$n : 

AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo emómoŠV ì`dñWmnZ qH$dm ì`mdgm{`H$ ì`dñWmnZ hmo`. AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV 

~XbË`m ì`dgm`mÀ`m ñdê$nmZwgma hmoV OmUmao ~Xb AmË_gmV H$aÊ`mgmR>r ì`dñWmnZmbm XoIrb ~Xbmdo 

bmJV Amho. g§ñWoMo C{Ôï> gmÜ` H$aÊ`mgmR>r åhUOoM WmoS>Š`mV Z\$m {_idÊ`mgmR>r CËnmXZmÀ`m gd© 

KQ>H$m§Mm dmna H$aVmZm nÕVr Ñ{ï>H$moZ, {H«$`mË_H$ Ñ{ï>H$moZ S>moù`mg_moa R>odyZ n[apñWVr gmnoj ~Xb pñdH$mê$Z 

ì`dñWmnZ Ho$bo OmV Amho. Ë`m_wio AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo ñdê$n H$mhr Img d¡{eîQ>çm§da Adb§~yZ Agë`mMo 

{XgyZ òVo. 

3

g§^mì`Vm 

_m{hVr 

AmYm[aV 

nÕVr 

Ñ{ï>H$moZmMm 

AmYma 

d¡pídH$ 

ñdê$n 

4 

ì`dñWmnZ 

ho EH$ 

noem 

~hþ{dÚmemIr` 

kmZ 

AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo ñdê$n 

J{V_mZ 

ñdê$nmMo 

ì`dñWmnZ 

~hþCÔoer 

ñdê$n 

1. nÕVr Ñ{ï>H$moZmMm AmYma : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ e¡br dmnaVmZm AZoH$ {d^mJ, Cn{d^mJ 

EH${ÌVnUo g_Ýd` gmYyZ nÕVr d CnnÕVrÀ`m AmYmao H$m_ H$aVmV. ì`dgm` g§ñWm ñdV: EH$ nÕVr AgVo 

Am{U Ë`mA§VJ©V AZoH$ CnnÕVr AgVmV. g§ñWobm H$ƒm_mb, B§YZgm{hË` Aem {d{dY gmYZgm_J«rMr 

AmXmZo {_iVmV d CËnm{XV _mb, godm `m§Mr àXmZo g_mOmbm {Xbr OmVmV. {d{dY {d^mJm§Ûmao åhUOoM 

CËnmXZ, gmR>m, ~m§YUr {d^mJmÛmao à{Vg§^jaUmMr à{H«$`m Ho$br OmVo. WmoS>Š`mV, ì`dgm`mMo ñdê$nhr Iwbr 

nÕVr hmo`. 

2. ì`dñWmnZ ho EH$ noem : ì`dñWmnZmbm AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV Amnbo H$m_ H$aÊ`mgmR>r {ejU 

à{ejU d AZw^d AgUo _hÎdmMo R>abo Amho. ZdZ{dZ g_ñ`m gmoS>dÊ`mgmR>r Z{dZ AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌmMm 

(g§JUH$) dmna H$aÊ`mgmR>r `mo½` {ejU d à{ejU ¿`mdo bmJVo. ì`dñWmnH$ hm {ejU d {d{dY H$m¡eë`m§À`m 

AmYmao ì`dgm`mVrb {Z`moOZ H$m`©, {Z`§ÌU H$m`© H$aVmZm {XgyZ òVmo. ZoV¥Ëde¡br, g§dmXH$bm, _mZdr 

dV©dUyH$ Aem {d{dY e¡btMm dmna H$ê$Z ì`dñWmnZmMo H$m`© EH$ noem åhUyZ H$amdo bmJVo. ì`dñWmnH$ hm 

g„mJma åhUyZ H$m_ H$aVmo d _mo~Xbm åhUyZ _mZYZ pñdH$maVmo. 

3. J{V_mZ ñdê$nmMo ì`dñWmnZ : ì`dgm`mMo ~mø n`m©daU {deof Mb ñdê$nmMo Pmbo Amho. Ë`mV 

hmoUmao ~Xb _hÎdmMo AmhoV d Vo doJmZo hmoV AmhoV. Ë`mZwgma ì`dñWmnZ hr J{V_mZ ñdê$nmMo Pmbo Amho. 

"pñWa ñdê$nmMo g§VwbZ' hr H$ënZm _mJo nSy>Z "~XbVo g§VwbZ' hr H$ënZm nwT>o Ambr Amho.

4. ~hþCÔoer` ñdê$n : Z\$m {_i{dUo hm ì`dgm`mMm EH$_od _hÎdmMm CÔoe AgUo ho AmVm H$mb~mø 

Pmbo Amho. g§ñWm ~hþCÔoer Pmë`m AmhoV. Ë`mV Am{W©H$ CÔoe d gm_m{OH$ CÔoe XmoÝhr _hÎdmMo ~Zbo Amho. 

CÔoem§À`m àmYmÝ` H«$_ R>oadUo VgoM Ë`m§À`mV g_Vmob amIUo ho AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmV Amdí`H$ Pmbo Amho. 

5. ~hþ-{dÚmemIr` kmZ : ì`dñWmnZ emó dmnaVmZm AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV _mZgemó, g_mOemó, 

AW©emó, J{UV, g§»`memó Aem AZoH$ {dÚmemIm§Mm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. ì`dñWmnZm_Üò Amdí`H$ AgUmao 

H$moUVohr kmZ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò g_m{dï> Ho$bo OmVo. AmOÀ`m H$mimV g§JUH$ V§ÌmMm dmnaXoIrb {Z`moOZ 

H$aVmZm, {ZU©` KoVmZm, {Z`§ÌU R>odÊ`mgmR>r Ho$bm OmV Amho. 

6. d¡pídH$ ñdê$n : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ emó gd© àH$maÀ`m joÌm_Üò, ì`dgm`m_Üò d CnH«$_mV 

dmnabo OmVo. Ë`m_wio `mMo ñdê$n d¡pídH$ Amho. na§Vw ~XbË`m n`m©daUmVrb KQ>H$m§_wio ì`dñWmnZmbm A{YH$ 

n[aUm_H$maH$ hmoÊ`mgmR>r A{YH$ Jw§VmJw§VrMo na§Vw AZoH$ KQ>H$m§da Adb§~yZ AgUmao ñdê$n àmá Pmbo Amho. 

7. _m{hVr AmYm[aV : AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV g§JUH$, B§Q>aZoQ>_wio _m{hVrMo Omio OJâ ngabo Amho. `m 

_m{hVrMm AmYma KoD$Z AZoH$ g_ñ`m gmoS>dë`m OmVmV. ì`dgm`mMr ~mOmanoR> Am§Vaamï´>r` ñdê$nmMr ~Zbr 

Amho. dñVy§Mm XOm© d qH$_Vrbm \$ma _hÎd àmá Pmbo Amho. `m gd© ~Xbm§_wio àËòH$ KQ>H$mMr _m{hVr g§H$brV 

H$éZ Ë`mAmYmao ì`dñWmnH$s` H$m`} nma nmS>br OmVmV. 

8. g§^mì`Vm : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò ^{dî`mer g§~§{YV AZoH$ Jmoï>rMo A§XmO ~m§Ybo OmVmV. 

CXm. A§XmOnÌH$ V`ma H$aVmZm gd© {d^mJm§À`m g§^mì` H¥$Vr bjmV KoD$Z IMm©Mo {Z`moOZ Ho$bo OmVo. na§Vw 

AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV ì`mdgm`rZ n`m©daUmVrb ~mø KQ>H$ gVV ~XbV Agë`m_wio AZw_mZ qH$dm A§XmOXoIrb 

bdMrH$ R>odmdo bmJVmV. 

darb {d{dY _wÔçm§dê$Z Ago bjmV òVo H$s, AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo 20 ì`m eVH$mÀ`m eodQ>r d 

21 ì`m eVH$mÀ`m gwadmVrbm {d{dY {dMmad§Vm§Zr ~XbË`m H$mimà_mUo ì`dgm`mVrb ~Xb d JaOm bjmV 

KoD$Z _m§S>bobo ì`dñWmnZmMo {dMma hmo`. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò ì`dñWmnZ H$m`© EH$ nÕVr ñdê$nmV, 

EH$ noem åhUyZ {d{dY C{Ôï>o gmÜ` H$aÊ`mgmR>r dmnabo OmUmao emó hmo`. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmÛmao AmYw{ZH$ 

ì`dgm`mMr JaO bjmV KoD$Z CËnmXZ gmYZgm_J«r d _Zwî`~i `m§Zm EH${ÌV H$ê$Z OmñVrVOmñV Cn`moJr 

~ZdÊ`mMo à`ËZ hmoV Amho. 

4. ~XbVo n`m©daU : 

^maVmVrb AW©ì`dñWm gZ 1991 Z§Va _moR>çm à_mUmV ~Xbbr Amho. gaH$maMo CXmarH$aU, ImOJrH$aU 

d OmJ{VH$sH$aU ho YmoaU Iwbr AW©ì`dñWoMo à_mU hmo`. gaH$maÀ`m ~Xbboë`m Am{W©H$ YmoaUm_wio OmJ{VH$ 

ñVamdarb ì`mnma, CÚmoJ ~XbV Jobo. ì`mdgm{`H$ joÌmV Pmboë`m ~Xbm§Mm n[aUm_ XoemÀ`m A§VJ©V Agboë`m 

gm_m{OH$ d gm§ñH¥${VH$ KQ>H$m§dahr {XgyZ òVmo. OmJ{VH$ ñVamdarb ñnYm©, Am`mV {Z`m©V dmT>, Am§Vaamï´>r` 

~mOmanoR> d J«mhH$ `m gd© Jmoï>t_wio EHy$U XoemÀ`m ì`mdgm{`H$ d Am¡Úmo{JH$ ñdénm_Üò A_ybmJ« ~Xb Pmbo 

`mMm n[aUm_ ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m ñdê$nmda XoIrb Pmbm. 

ì`mdgm{`H$ n`m©daUmMo ñdén d Ë`mVrb ~Xb bjmV KoÊ`mgmR>r n`m©daUmÀ`m A§VJ©V d ~mø Aem 

5

XmoÝhr KQ>H$m§Vrb Pmbobo AmYw{ZH$ H$mimVrb ~Xb bjmV KoUo JaOoMo Amho. ho ~Xb nwT>rbà_mUo - 

~XbVo n`m©daUmMo KQ>H$ 

(A) A§VJ©V KQ>H$ (~) ~mø KQ>H$ 

i) C{Ôï>ço d H$m`©nÕVrVrb ~Xb i) Z¡g{J©H$ KQ>H$ 

ii) V§ÌkmZmVrb ~Xb ii) gm_m{OH$ n`m©daU KQ>H$ 

iii) D$O}Mm VwQ>dS>m iii) Am{W©H$ n`m©daU KQ>H$ 

iv) n`m©daU OmJéH$Vm iv) V§ÌkmZ{df`H$ KQ>H$ 

v) _mZdr g§gmYZo v) H$m`Xo{df`H$ KQ>H$ 

vi) ^m¡{VH$ g§gmYZo vi) Am§VaamîQ´>r` KQ>H$ 

(A) A§VJ©V n`m©daU KQ>H$ d ~Xb : 

XoemÀ`m AW©ì`dñWoVrb hmoUmao ~Xb AZoH$ KQ>H$m§da Adb§~yZ AgVmV. ì`dgm`mÀ`m A§VJ©V hmoUmè`m 

KS>m_moS>r d Ë`mMo H$m`© {dMmamV KoVë`mg Ë`mMm n[aUm_ ì`dñWmnZm§da hmoVmZm {XgyZ òVmo. ì`dgm`mMo 

A§VJ©V n`m©daU KQ>H$ nwT>rbà_mUo - 

i) C{Ôï>o d H$m`©nÕVrVrb ~Xb : ^maVr` ì`dgm` joÌm_Üò AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV Zâ`m~amo~aM AZooH$ 

C{Ôï>ço {XgyZ òV AmhoV. g§ñWm ~hþCÔoer` Pmë`m_wio Ë`m§Mo Am{W©H$ CÔoe d gm_m{OH$ CÔoe S>moù`m§g_moa R>odyZ 

ì`dñWmnZmMo H$m_ H$amdo bmJVo. 

ii) V§ÌkmZmVrb ~Xb : AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV CËnmXZmMo V§Ì PnmQ>çmZo ~Xbco Amho. Ë`m_wio ^m§S>db, 

Jw§VdUyH$XoIrb dmT>V Amho. ZdrZ V§ÌkmZm_wio CËnmXH$VoV dmT>, dñVw JwUdÎmoV dmT> hmoV Amho. V§ÌkmZmÀ`m 

~Xbmà_mUo CËnmXZmV d {dH«$sV ~Xb H$aUo JaOoMo ~Zbo Amho. 

iii) D$O}Mm VwQ>dS>m : OmJ{VH$ ñVam§da gd© Xoem§_Üò CËnmXZmgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmao B§YZ qH$dm 

D$O}Mm gmR>m H$_r hmoV Amho. drO, nmUr, I{ZOo `m§À`m Z¡g{J©H$ gmR>çm§_Üò KQ> hmoV Amho. Ë`m_wio B§YZmÀ`m 

VwQ>dS>çmMr _moR>r Pi gd© CÚmoJm§Zm OmUdV Amho. 

iv) n`m©daU OmJéH$Vm : CËnmXZ à{H«$òVyZ {Z_m©U hmoUmao ÜdZr, dm`w d ObàXwfU `mg§~§Yr 

H$_©Mmè`m§_Üò OmJéH$Vm dmT>ë`m_wio ì`dñWmnZmbm {ZU©` KoVmZm H$_©Mmè`m§À`m _mZ{gH$ d em[aarH$ 

Amamo½`m{df`r {dMma H$amdm bmJVmo. n`m©daU ajUmgmR>r AZoH$ H$m`Xo d {Z`_ V`ma Ho$bo OmV Amho, `m§Mo 

6

nmbZ H$aVmZm CËnmXZ IMm©V dmT> Pmë`mg Vr CËnmXZ g§ñWm§Zm Am{W©H$ Pi XoUmar Agbr Var IMm©V dmT> 

pñdH$mamdr bmJVo. 

v) _mZdr g§gmYZo : A§VJ©V n`m©daUm§_Üò _mZdr g§gmYZ hm KQ>H$ \$ma _hÎdmMm R>aVmo. H$_©Mmè`m§Mr 

~m¡{ÕH$ j_Vm, H$m`©j_Vm, H$m`©{Zð>m, nwT>mH$ma ^mdZm, gm§{JH$ ^mdZm `mgd© Jmoï>tMm n[aUm_ ì`dgm`mda 

hmoVmo. AmYw{ZH$ {ejU d à{ejU V§Ìm_wio _mZdr g§gmYZmV d Ë`m§À`m H$m`©nÕVrV _moR>o ~Xb hmoVmZm {XgyZ 

òVmV. 

vi) ^m¡{VH$ g§gmYZo : ì`dgm`mA§VJ©V `§Ì, V§Ì, CnH$aUo, JmoXm_, H$m`© n[apñWVr Ë`mH$[aVm bmJUmao 

^m¡{VH$ gw{dYm BË`mXr KQ>H$m§Mmhr ì`dgm`mÀ`m A§VJ©V AgUmè`m dmVmdaUmda n[aUm_ hmoV AgVmo. 

(~) ~mø n`m©daU KQ>H$ 

i) Z¡g{J©H$ KQ>H$ : g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daUm§_Üò {ZgJm©Ûmao {Z_m©U hmoUmao Z¡g{J©H$ KQ>H$ _moR>o n[aUm_ 

H$aVmV. hdm_mZ, nO©Ý`_mZ, O{_ZrMr gwnrH$Vm, Vmn_mZ, Z¡g{J©H$ gmYZ g§nÎmr BË`mXr Z¡g{J©H$ KQ>H$m§Mm 

ì`dgm`mda n[aUm_ hmoVmo. 

ii) gm_m{OH$ n`m©daU KQ>H$ : àËòH$ XoemÀ`m g§ñH¥$Vr, éT>r, na§nam, Ym{_©H$ {dMma, gm_m{OH$ 

_yëò, e¡j{UH$ àJVr BË`mXr Jmoï>tMm bmoH$m§À`m amhUr_mZmda d {dMmam§da n[aUm_ hmoVmo. Ë`m_wio bmoH$m§À`m 

JaOm ~XbVmV d dñVy d godm Cn^moJÊ`mMr _mZ{gH$Vm hr ~XbV Amho. 

iii) Am{W©H$ n`m©daU KQ>H$ : XoemVrb Am{W©H$ YmoaU, Am{W©H$ joÌ, Am{W©H$ {Z`moOZ `m gdmª_wio 

eoVr, CÚmoJ, ì`mnma, H$a ì`dñWm BË`mXr Am{W©H$ KQ>H$m§da n[aUm_ hmoVmo. Ë`m_wio CËnmXZmMo ñdén d 

à_mUhr ~XbV OmVo. 

iv) V§ÌkmZ {df`H$ KQ>H$ : ZdZ{dZ emoYmÀ`m AmYmao `§Ìo, V§Ìo, CnH$aUo, hË`mao `m§À`mV ~Xb hmoV 

OmVmo. V§ÌkmZmÀ`m àJVr_wio CËnmXZ d godm nwa{dUo `mVhr AZwHy$b ~Xb hmoV OmVmV. ñd`§MbrV `§Ìo, 

g§JUH$mMm dmna 21 ì`m eVH$mV dmT>V Joë`mMo {XgyZ òVo. 

v) H$m`Xo{df`H$ KQ>H$ : àËòH$ Xoem§Vrb AW©ì`dñWoda {Z`§ÌU R>odÊ`mgmR>r AgUmao Am¡Úmo{JH$ 

H$m`Xo \$ma _hÎdmMo AgVmV. `m H$m`Úm§_Üò H$mimÀ`m n«dmhmV ~Xb H$aUo Amdí`H$ AgVo. H$m`ÚmV ~Xb 

hmoV Joë`mg ì`dgm`mÀ`m H$m`©nÕVrV XoIrb n[aUm_ hmoVmo. CËnmXZ, {dnUZ, ~mOmanoR>, H$m_Jma, ì`dhma 

nÕVr BË`mXrer g§~§YrV AZoH$ H$m`Xo AmhoV `m H$m`Úm§À`m Mm¡H$Q>rV amhÿZ gd© ì`dgm` H$m`© H$amdo bmJVmV. 

vi) Am§Vaamï´>r` KQ>H$ : Am§Vaamï´>r` n`m©daUm§_Üò {d{^Þ XoemMo EH$_oH$m§er Agbooobo g§~§Y {dMmamV 

¿`mdo bmJVmV. 21 ì`m eVH$mV Am§Vaamï´>r` g§~§Y OmJ{VH$ ì`mnma d Ë`mAmYmao Am{W©H$ àm~ë` Xe©dUmao 

Agë`m_wio àJV Xoe N>moQ>çm Xoemda _moR>o à^md nmS>VmV. OmJ{VH$ ì`mnma g§KQ>Z (WTO), noQ>|ÝQ> H$m`Xm 

`m§Mm {dMma H$éZ OmJ{VH$ ì`mnma YmoaU R>admdo bmJVo. 

darb {d{dY _wÔçm§dê$Z AmYw{ZH$ H$mimVrb Am¡Úmo{JH$ d ì`dgm{`H$ n`m©daUm_Üò n[aUm_ H$aUmao 

qH$dm ~Xb H$aUmao KQ>H$ bjmV KoD$Z Ë`mAmYmao ~XbË`m n`m©daUmMo ñdén d AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ e¡brV 

hmoV OmUmao ~Xb bjmV KoVm òVrb. 

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5. ~XbË`m n`m©daUm_Üò AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd : 

~XbË`m d J{V_mZ Am¡Úmo{JH$ n`m©daUm§_Üò AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd gVV dmT>V Amho. ^maVr` 

AW©ì`dñWm Iwbr Ho$ë`mZ§Va OmJ{VH$sH$aU, CXmarH$aU d ImOJrH$aU AmË_gmV Ho$ë`m_wio ^maV gaH$maZoXoIrb 

Am{W©H$ {Z`_Z d {Z`§ÌU {eWrb Ho$bo Amho. Am§Vaamï´>r` ñVamdarb ì`mnmamV dmT> Pmë`m_wio CËnmXZ IM©, 

{dnUZ IM©, dñVy§Mr qH$_V, dñVy§Mr JwUdÎmm, gmYZm§Mr CnbãYVm B. ~m~V ~Xb hmoD$Z EHy$UM CÚmoJ d 

ì`mnma ~Xbbo Amho. OmJ{VH$ ñVam§darb ñnY}_wio àËòH$ ì`dgm` joÌm§_Üò ZdZdrZ AmìhmZo gm_moao òV 

AmhoV. Aem ~XbË`m CËnmXZjoÌ, ì`mnmanoR>, àJV V§ÌkmZ `m {d{dY KQ>H$m§_wio ì`dgm`m§Zm d n`m©`mZo 

ì`dñWmnZmbmXoIrb ~Xb H$amdo bmJV Amho. darb C„oI Ho$ë`mà_mUo ~Xb hm An[ahm`© ~Zbm Amho. 

ì`dgm{`H$ n`m©daUmVrb ~Xb d Ë`m§À`mda n[aUm_ H$aUmao A§VJ©V d ~mø KQ>H$ {dMmamV KoVë`mZ§Va Ago 

bjmV òVo H$s, `m ~XbmZm gm_moao OmÊ`mgmR>r AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo V§Ì \$ma _hÎdmMo R>aUma Amho. 

AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò J{V_mZ ñdénmMo, ~hþCÔoer` ñdénmMo, A{YH$ emómoVa d nÕVr {Z_m©U 

H$ê$Z ì`dñWmnZ Ho$bo OmVo. nrQ>a S´>H$a `m§À`m_Vo, AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ ho YS>mS>rMo, M¡VÝ`Xm`r d ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m 

H$m¡eë`mda AmYm[aV AgUmao ì`dñWmnZ hmò . ~XbË`m n`m©daUm_Üò AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd nwT>rbà_mUo 

XmoZ ^mJm§V {d^mJVm òB©b. 

~Xbë`m n`m©daUm§_Üò AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd 

(A) Am{W©H$ _hÎd (~) amï´>r` _hÎd 

i) ~Xbm§Mo AmìhmZ nobUo i) amï´>r` gmYZ gm_J«rMm 

ii) gmYZm§Mm _hÎm_ Cn`moJ (g§nÎmrMm) `mo½` dmna 

iii) ñnY}bm Vm|S> XoUo ii) Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mg 

iv) àJV V§ÌkmZmMm bm^ iii) ObX amï´> {dH$mg 

v) _Zwî`~i d gmYZm§Mm iv) l_ g_ñ`m gmoS>dUo 

`mo½` g_Ýd` v) {Z`m©VrV dmT> 

vi) ì`dgm` ñW¡`© vi) amï´>r` gÝ_mZmV dmT> 

vii) J{V_mZ ZoV¥Îd 

viii) C{Ôï>nyV©Vm 

ix) gm_m{OH$ O~m~Xmar 

8

(A) Am{W©H$ _hÎd : 

AmYw{ZH$ H$mimVrb ~XbË`m n`m©daUm§_Üò AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo Am{W©H$ _hÎd nwT>rbà_mUo gm§JVm 

òVrb. 

i) ~Xbm§Mo AmìhmZ nobUo : OmJ{VH$sH$aUm§_wio ì`mnma d CÚmoJjoÌm§_Üò AZoH$ ZdrZ AmìhmZo {Z_m©U 

Pmbr AmhoV. g§JUH$mMm dmna H$m_mMo ~mø VÎdmda (out sourcing) I§Sy>Z XoUo. ~XbVr ñnYm©, Am§Vaamï´>r` 

ñVamdarb dñVy d godoMm XOm© B. AmìhmZo nobÊ`mgmR>r Hw$eb d Y§XodmB©H$ ì`dñWmnH$mMr JaO ^mgVo. 

AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnH$ {e{jV, à{e{jV d AZw^dr Agë`m_wio ZdrZ ~Xbm§à_mUo CX²^dUmao AmìhmZo nobÊ`mgmR>r 

H$m` Cnm` H$amdo d ^{dVì`mVrb YmoŠ`m§Zm gm_moao OmUogmR>r H$er ì`yhaMZm AmImdr ho {ZU©` AmYw{ZH$ 

ì`dñWmnZmg eŠ` Amho. `mMmM n[aUm_ åhUyZ AZoH$ _moR>çm H§$nÝ`m§Zr ñnY}bm Vm|S> XoÊ`mgmR>r EH$ÌrH$aU 

d {d{bZrH$aUmMr à{H«$`m H$ê$Z g§gmYZo EH${ÌV AmUyZ Amnbo ApñVËd {Q>H$dÊ`mMo àË`j à`ËZ Ho$bo. 

ii) gmYZm§Mm _hÎm_ Cn`moJ : CËnmXZmgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmar gmYZo åhUOoM ^y_r, l_, ^m§S>db, 

H$ƒm_mb, _Zwî`~i Aem gd© gmYZm§Mr amñV XamV OwiUr H$aUo _hÎdmMo AgVo. Aer gmYZo AmYw{ZH$ 

ì`dñWmnZm§_Üò CËnmXZmÀ`m gd© gmYZm§Mo `mo½` {Z`moOZ, {ZX}eZ d g_Ýd` gmYyZ _hÎm_ Cn`moJ H$aÊ`mMm 

à`ËZ ì`dñWmnZ H$arV AgVmo. {Z`§ÌUmgmR>r AmYw{ZH$ V§Ìo d H$m¡eëò dmnabr OmVmV. l_eŠVrMm _hÎm_ 

Cn`moJ H$aÊ`mgmR>r H$_©Mmè`m§À`m g_ñ`m gmoS>dUo, Ë`m§À`mer ñZohmMo d gbmo»`mMo g§~§Y àñWm{nV H$aUo, 

H$_©Mmè`m§Zm A{YH$m{YH$ H$m`© àoaUm XoD$Z Ë`m§Zm H$m_mgmR>r àmoËgm{hV H$aUo Aem AZoH$ O~m~Xmè`m AmYw{ZH$ 

ì`dñWmnZm_Üò nma nmS>ë`m OmVmV. 

iii) ñnY}bm Vm|S> XoUo : _mJUrnyd© CËnmXZm_wio d Am¡Úmo{JH$ H«$m§Vr_wio _moR>çm à_mUmda CËnmXZmg 

àma§^ Pmbm. Ë`m_wio àËòH$ Xoembm amîQ´>r` d Am§Vaamï´>r` nmVirn`ªV Amnbr ~mOmanoR> dmT>dUo JaOoMo ~Zbo. 

n[aUm_r, ~mOmanoR>oV {dXoer ì`mnmamdarb ~§YZo aÔ Pmbr d Am§Vaamï´>r` ñVamdarb ñnYm© {Z_m©U Pmbr. Aem 

Am§Vaamï´>r` ñnY}_Üò Amnë`m ì`dgm`mMo ApñVËd {Q>H$dyZ R>odÊ`mgmR>r ñnYm©Ë_H$ qH$_V Am{U CÎm_ XO}Mr 

dñVy {Z_m©U H$aUo JaOoMo ~Zbo. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmÛmao AMyH$ AZw_mZ, n[aUm_H$maH$ {Z`moOZ, H$m`©j_ 

{ZX}eZ d ZoV¥Ëd Am{U à^mdr {Z`§ÌU gmÜ` hmoV Agë`m_wio Vrd« ñnY}À`m dmVmdaUmV {Q>Hy$Z amhUo eŠ` 

Pmbo Amho. 

iv) àJV V§ÌkmZmMm bm^ : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmbm {d{dY C{Ôï>ço S>moù`mg_moa R>odyZ H$ënH$ `moOZm 

AmImì`m bmJVmV. AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV ZdZ{dZ emór` emoYm_wio ZdrZ `§ÌmMm d V§ÌmMm dmna H$amdm bmJV 

Amho. g§JUH$s` dmna, ñd`§M{bV `§ÌmMm dmna Ho$ë`mZo dñVyMo CËnmXZ IM© H$_r d JwUdÎmm OmñV Ago \$m`Xo 

{_iVmV. AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌmMm dmna H$aÊ`mgmR>r Z{dZ H$m`©nÕVr AmIUo Ë`mà_mUo {Z`moOZ, {ZX}eZ, {Z`§ÌU 

H$m`© H$aUo ho AmYw{ZH$ {e{jV d à{e{jV ì`dñWmnH$mbmM eŠ` Amho. 

v) _Zwî`~i d gmYZm§Mm `mo½` g_Ýd` : ì`dgm`mVrb {d{^Þ gmYZm§Mr `mo½` nÕVrZo OwidmOwid 

H$ê$Z gd© gmYZm§Mm `mo½` Vmi_oi ~gdUo JaOoMo AgVo. ^m§S>db, H$ƒm_mb, `§Ìgm_J«r d _Zwî`~i `m 

CËnmXZmÀ`m {d{dY KQ>H$m§n¡H$s _Zwî`~i ho EH$_od gOrd ñdê$nmMo KQ>H$ Amho. BVa KQ>H$m§Zm MmbZm 

XoÊ`mgmR>r _Zwî` eŠVr `mo½` {XeoZo dmnaUo JaOoMo AgVo. Ë`mgmR>r à^mdr ZoV¥Ëd, `mo½` {ZX}eZ d EH$_oH$m§_Üò 

9

g§XoedhZ {Z_m©U H$ê$Z g_Ýd` gmYÊ`mMo H$m_ H$amdo bmJVo. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò gd© H$m`} à^mdr 

nÕVrZo EH$ noem åhUyZ H$aUo eŠ` Agë`m_wio gd© gOrd d {ZOud KQ>H$m§_Üò `mo½` g_Ýd` gmYVm òVmo. 

vi) ì`dgm` ñW¡`© : ì`dgm`mMo ñW¡`© åhUOo XrK©H$mbrZ d gmVË`nyU© Z\$m {_idUo hmo`. AmYw{ZH$ 

ì`dñWmnZm§_wio AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌkmZ, H$m`©j_ _Zwî`~i `m§Mm dmna H$éZ gd© CËnmXZ gmYZm§_Üò `mo½` g_Ýd` 

gmYyZ CËnmXH$Vm d Z\$m dmT>dVm òVmo. n[aUm_r, ì`dgm`mMr Am{W©H$ j_Vm dmT>Vo. ì`dñWmnZm§_wio ì`dgm`mMo 

~mOmanoR>oVrb Zmdbm¡{H$H$ dmTy>Z ì`dgm`mMo Am{W©H$ ñW¡`© dmT>Vo. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZm_wio AmYw{ZH$ CËnmXZ 

d {dnUZ V§Ì AmË_gmV H$aUo eŠ` hmoVo. 

vii) J{V_mZ ZoV¥Îd : ~XbË`m H$mimÀ`m àdmhmV gVV hmoUmao ~Xb AmË_gmV H$aÊ`mgmR>r g{H«$` 

_Zwî`~i KQ>H$ `m§Zm A{YH$ H¥$Vrerb ~ZdUo d Ë`mMo ghH$m`© {_idUo JaOoMo AgVo. `mgmR>r JVr_mZ d 

à^mdr ZoV¥Îd JaOoMo AgVo. ~XbUmè`m n[apñWVrà_mUo H$_©Mmè`m§Zm à{ejU XoUo, H$m`© àoaUm XoUo `mgmR>r 

gVV ZoV¥Îd H$aÊ`mMo H$m_ AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ H$arV AgVmo. 

viii) C{Ôï>çnyV©Vm : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ ~hþCÔoer` ~Zbo Amho. Zâ`m~amo~aM gm_m{OH$ O~m~Xmè`m, 

Z{dZ V§ÌkmZmMm dmna Aem AZoH$ C{Ôï>m§Zm `mo½` àmYmÝ` XoD$Z ì`dgm`mMr O~m~Xmar nma nmS>mdr bmJVo. 

ì`dñWmnZ H$m`©H$Ë`mªZm {Z`moOZ d YmoaU R>a{dVmZm nmÌ A{YH$mè`m§Mr d H$_©Mmè`m§Mr JaO AgVo. Aem gd© 

KQ>H$m§À`m `mo½` g_Ýd`mVyZ ì`mdgm{`H$ C{Ôï>m§Mr nyV©Vm H$aUo AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMr _moR>r O~m~Xmar Amho. 

iv) gm_m{OH$ O~m~Xmar : ì`dgm`mMo H$m`©j_ ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo hr AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMr gm_m{OH$ 

O~m~Xmar g_Obr OmVo. `m gm_m{OH$ O~m~Xmar_Üò ^mJYmaH$m§Mo {hV OnUo. H$_©Mmè`m§Zm `mo½` _Oyar AWdm 

_mo~Xbm XoUo, dñVy§Mr qH$_V {H$\$m`Vera R>odUo, Cn^moŠË`m§Mo {hV gwa{jV R>odUo B. Jmoï>tMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. hr 

O~m~Xmar nma nmS>Ê`mgmR>r AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmbm Amnbr H$m`} Hw$ebVoZo d `mo½` àH$mao H$amdr bmJVmV. 

H$maU eodQ>r ì`dgm`m§_Üò g_mOmMo {hV Jw§Vbobo AgVo åhUyZ Hw$eb AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmÛmao EH$àH$mao 

gm_m{OH$ O~m~Xmar nma nmS>br OmVo. 

(~) amï´>r` _hÎd : 

Hw$eb d AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMm XoemVrb Am¡Úmo{JH$ d ì`dgm{`H$ {dH$mgm_Üò _moR>m dmQ>m AgVmo. 

CÚmoJjoÌmMo n[aUm_ amï´>mÀ`m {dH$mgmda hmoVmV. amï´>mMr àJVr hmoÊ`mgmR>r XoemVrb CÚmoJ d ì`dgm` ObXJVrZo 

{dH${gV hmoUo JaOoMo AgVo. CÚmoJ d ì`dgm`m§Mr àJVr Hw$eb ì`dñWmnZmda Adb§~yZ AgVo. `mMo dñVw{Zð> 

CXmhaU OnmZ d A_o[aH$m ho Xoe hmo`. `m XmoÝhrhr Xoem§_Üò AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m V§ÌmMm dmna Ho$ë`m_wio 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ àJVr Pmbr d Ë`m_wio XmoÝhrhr XoemMr amï´>r` g_¥Õr d àJVr ObXJVrZo Pmë`mMo {XgyZ òVo. 

AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo amï´>r` _hÎd nwT>rb _wÔçm§dê$Z ñnï> H$aVm òB©b - 

i) amï´>r` g§nÎmrMm `mo½` dmna : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmÛmao amï´>r` gmYZg§nÎmrMm A{YH$ à^mdrnUo 

emoY KoD$Z {d{Z`moJ H$aVm òVmo. ^maVmVrb Z¡g{J©H$ gmYZg§nÎmr åhUOoM ^yJ^m©Vrb I{ZOo, dZg§nÎmr d 

Obg§nÎmr `m§Mm emoY KoD$Z `m g§nÎmrMm `mo½` {Z`moOZmÛmao _hÎm_ dmna H$aUo ho XoemÀ`m {dH$mgmÀ`m ÑîQ>rZo 

\$ma _hÎdmMo Amho. Hw$eb d AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZm_wio Z¡g{J©H$ g§gmYZo, _Zwî` g§gmYZo `m§Mo à^mdr {Z`moOZ 

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d `mo½` g_Ýd` gmYyZ _hÎm_ Cn`moJ H$aUo eŠ` Amho. `m_wio XoemÀ`m _`m©{XV g§nÎmrMm H$miOrnyd©H$ dmna 

H$ê$Z A{YH$m{YH$ {dH$mgmgmR>r Cn`moJ hmoD$ eHo$b. 

ii) Am¡Úmo{JH$ {dH$mg : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZm_wio _moR>çm CÚmoJm§Zm A{YH$ H$m`©j_nUo MmbdUo eŠ` 

Pmbo Amho. CÚmoJ ñWmnZ H$aUo, Ë`mgmR>r bmJUmao gd© gmYZgm_J«r EH${ÌV AmUUo, CËnmXZ à{H«$`m doioV nyU© 

H$éZ CÚmoJ {dH$mg d ñW¡`© àmá H$aUo BË`mXr gd© KS>m_moS>r Ho$di H$ënH$ d àJV AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnH$s` 

H$m¡eë`mÛmao eŠ` Amho. _yb^yV CÚmoJ Y§ÚmÀ`m dmT>r_wio N>moQ>çm CÚmoJm§Zm XoIrb MmbZm {_iVo. XoemMr 

Am¡Úmo{JH$ àJVr N>moQ>çm-_moR>çm gd© CÚmoJm§À`m EH${ÌV {dH$mgmda Adb§~yZ Amho. ~XbË`m H$mimÀ`m 

àdmhmV CÚmoJm§À`m Amìhm§Zm§Zm nobÊ`mgmR>r AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZ _moR>o ghH$m`© H$aVo. 

iii) ObX amï´> {dH$mg : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m àJV V§Ìm_wio XoemVrb CÚmoJm§Zm MmbZm {_iVo. 

H$moUË`mhr XoemMr àJVr Ë`m XoemVrb CÚmoJ, ì`dgm` d godm joÌm§da Adb§~yZ AgVo. eoVr, ì`mnma, CÚmoJ 

d godm§gmR>r drO{Z{_©Vr, añVo ~m§YUr Aem ^m¡{VH$ gw{dYm àJV Agmì`m bmJVmV. Am{W©H$ joÌmVrb dmhVyH$, 

{d_m, ~±H$m, Xyag§Mma, Q>nmb godm XoUmè`m g§ñWm H$m`©j_ ì`dñWmnZm_wio A{YH$ à^mdr ~ZVmV. `m g§ñWm§À`m 

Am{W©H$ àJVrda XoemMm Am{W©H$ {dH$mgmMm Xa Adb§~yZ Amho. WmoS>Š`mV ObX amï´>r` {dH$mgmgmR>r AmYw{ZH$ 

ì`dñWmnZmMm dmna \$ma JaOoMm Amho. 

iv) l_ g_ñ`m gmoS>dUo : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMr JaO _Zwî`~i ì`dñWmnZm_Üò A{YH$ à^mdrnUo 

hmoVmZm {XgyZ òVo. àJV V§ÌkmZm_wio CËnmXZmÀ`m `m KQ>H$mbm XoIrb A{YH$m{YH$ H$m¡eë`nyU© hmoUo JaOoMo 

~Zbo Amho. ì`dñWmnZ d H$_©Mmar `m§À`mVrb gbmo»`mMo g§~§Y àñWm{nV H$aUo d H$_©Mmè`m§Zm g_mYmZr R>odUo 

hr H$mimMr JaO Amho. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmcm _mbH$ d H$_©Mmar `m§À`mVrb Xwdm åhUyZ H$m_ H$amdo bmJVo. 

ì`dñWmnZ ho H$_©Mmè`m§Zm àmoËgm{hV H$aUmao d Ë`m§À`m g_ñ`m à^mdrnUo hmVmiUmao Agmdo. XoemVrb _Zwî` 

g§gmYZm§Mm `mo½` àH$mao dmna H$aÊ`mgmR>r `mo½` {Z`moOZ d C{Ôï>nyaH$ H$_©Mmar YmoaU _hÎdmMo R>aVo. 

v) {Z`m©VrV dmT> : AmOÀ`m H$mimV ì`mnma Am§Vaamï´>r` ñdê$nmMm ~Zbm Amho. CXm[aH$aUmÀ`m 

YmoaUm_wio gd© Xoem§Mo Am`mV-{Z`m©V dmT>bo Amho. ^maVmV naXoer V§ÌkmZ, {dÎm nwadR>m `m§Mo Am`mV _moR>çm 

à_mUmV hmoV Amho. {Z`m©V ì`mnmamVrb Vrd« ñnYm© d Am§Vaamï´>r` ñVamdarb dñVy XOm© hr H$mimMr JaO ~Zbr 

Amho. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmÛmao dñVyMm XOm© CƒV_ R>odÊ`mMm à`ËZ Ho$bm OmVmo. Hw$eb {Z`moOZ, g§KQ>Z d 

{Z`§ÌUmÛmao A{YH$m{YH$ {H$\$m`Vera dñVy V`ma hmoVmV. åhUyZM AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo Am`mV d {Z`m©V 

dmT>r_Üò _mobmMo ghH$m`© bm^V Amho. 

vi) amï´>r` gÝ_mZmV dmT> : Am§Vaamï´>r` ~mOmanoR>o_Üò Aem Xoem§ZmM Am¡Úmo{JH$ gÝ_mZ {_iVmo. 

Á`m§À`m dñVy§Zm A{YH$ _mJUr Amho. dñVyMr ñnYm©Ë_H$ qH$_V, dñVyMr JwUdÎmm, VËna godm B. Jmoï>r 

Am§Vaamï´>r` ñVamda ì`mnmamgmR>r _hÎdmÀ`m R>aVmV. _m{hVr V§ÌkmZm_wio gd© XoemVrb àËòH$ dñVyMr g§nyU© 

_m{hVr OJâ CnbãY hmoUo ghO eŠ` Pmbo Amho. dñVy d godoÀ`m CËnmXZmgmR>r AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmbm 

A{YH$ H$ënH$ d OmJéH$ ìhmdo bmJVo. ^maVmV AZoH$ CÚmoJ g_yhm§Mo Zmdbm¡{H$H$ Am§Vaamï´>r` ñVamda 

R>iH$nUo d Cƒ H«$_dmar_Üò JUbo OmVo. `mMo H$maU Ë`m CÚmoJ g_yhmVrb à^mdr ì`dñWmnZ hmo`. 

CXm. Q>mQ>m CÚmoJ, [abm`Ýg B. 

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darb {d{dY _wÔçm§déZ AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo Am{W©H$ d amï´>r` _hÎd ñnï> hmoVo. 

{dÚm{nR>r` ñdénmMo àíZ 

1. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMr g§H$ënZm WmoS>Š`mV ñnï> H$am. 

2. AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo ñdê$n WmoS>Š`mV gm§Jm. 

3. ~XbË`m n`m©daUmVrb AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd ñnï> H$am. 

4. Q>rnm {bhm. 

A) AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo ñdê$n 

~) AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMr g§H$ënZm 

H$) AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZmMo amï´>r` _hÎd. 

12 

��




Jm^m^yV gj_VoMo KQ>H$ (Factors of Core Competencies) 

àm. gr. Ho$. àëhmX `m§Zr gd©àW_ 1990 _Üò Jm^m^yV gj_Vm hr g§H$ënZm _m§S>br. gr. Ho$. àëhmX 

d J°ar h°_ob `m§Zr Jm^m^yV gj_VoMr Ho$bobr ì`m»`m - ""Jm^m^yV gj_Vm hr H$m¡eëò d V§ÌkmZ `m§Mo 

EH$ÌrH$aU AgyZ Ë`mÛmao H§$nZr Amnë`m J«mhH$m§Zm {d{eï> \$m`Xo hmoD$ eH$Vo.'' `m ì`m»òZwgma `m {dMmad§VmZr 

AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV H$moUË`mhr Am¡Úmo{JH$ g§ñWoÀ`m èmgmR>r Amdí`H$ AgUmao EH$ _hÎdnyU© KQ>H$ åhUOoM 

g§ñWoMr Jm^m^yV gj_Vm AmoiIUo d dmT>dUo hmo`. hr gj_Vm g§ñWoVrb {deof gmYZgm_J«r, {deof H$m¡eëò, 

V§ÌkmZ, g§KQ>Z H$m¡eëò B. KQ>H$m§da Adb§~yZ AgVo. 

Jm^m^yV gj_VoMo KQ>H$ : 

àm. gr. Ho$. àëhmX Am{U h°_ob `m§Zr _m§S>boë`m "{dH$mgmgmR>r Jm^m^yV gj_VoMm g_Vmob' (Leverging 

the core Competence for Growth) hm {gÕm§V 1990 _Üò gd©_mÝ` Pmbm. Ë`m§Zr _m§S>boë`m `m {gÕm§VmMo 

åhUOoM Am^m^yV gj_VoMo KQ>H$ nwT>rbà_mUo - 

1. {dH$mgmgmR>r gVV à`ËZ : AmYw{ZH$ ñnY}À`m H$mimV H$moUË`mhr CÚmoJ g§ñWobm A{YH$m{YH$ è 

d Z\$m {_idÊ`mgmR>r ZdrZ V§ÌmMm d ZdrZ dñVyMm {dH$mg H$amdm bmJVmo. `mgmR>r {dÎmr` Jw§VdUyH$ dmT>dmdr 

bmJVo. g§ñWoVrb g§emoYZ d {dH$mg {d^mJmMo gmVË`nyU© à`moJ d gh^mJ Amdí`H$ AgVmV. 

2. j_VoMm Aä`mg : Jm^m^yV gj_Vm {Z_m©U H$éZ {dH${gV H$aÊ`mgmR>r H§$nZrMo C{Ôï> CnbãY 

j_Vm d H$_mb _`m©Xm `m§Mm Aä`mg H$éZ H§$nZrMr dV©_mZ j_Vm AmoiIbr OmVo. H§$nZrZo Ho$di dñVy 

CËnmXZ Z\$m d ~mOmanoR> `mdaM â Z XoVm EHy$U J«mhH$m§À`m d g_mOmÀ`m \$m`ÚmgmR>r d n`m©daUmÀ`m 

g_VmobmgmR>r Aä`mg H$éZ j_Vm dmT>{dÊ`mMm à`ËZ H$amdm. Amnë`m j_Vm emoYyZ Ë`m§Mm Aä`mg H$éZ 

Ë`m§À`m {dH$mgmgmR>r gd© Ñ{ï>H$moUmVyZ {dMma H$éZ ñnY©H$mnojm doJio d _hÎdnyU© KQ>H$ {Z_m©U H$aÊ`mMm 

à`ËZ H$amdm. 

3. ì`dñWmnZ H$m¡eë` : Jm^m^yV gj_Vm {Z_m©U H$aVmZm H$moUË`mhr H§$nZrVrb ì`dñWmnH$s` 

aMZm, H$m`© d H$m¡eëò _hÎdnyU© R>aVmV. d[að> ì`dñWmnZmbm ZdZdrZ V§ÌmMm dmna, Amnë`m YmoaUmMr ZdrZ 

{Xem R>a{dUo Aer {d{dY AmìhmZo ñdrH$mamdr bmJVmV. ZdrZ V§ÌkmZ d H$m¡eëò dmnaÊ`mgmR>r `mo½` 

{Z`moOZ, g§KQ>Z, g_Ýd` d {Z`§ÌU Amdí`H$ Amho. ZdrZ g§Yr d dmVmdaU ñdrH$ma H$aÊ`mgmR>r H${Zð> 

H$_©Mmè`m§Mr _mZ{gH$Vm ~XbUo ho _moR>o AmìhmZ d[að> ì`dñWmnZmg nma nmS>mdo bmJVo. g§JUH$mMm dmna, 

ZdrZ CËnmXZ `§Ì, V§Ìo dmnaÊ`mMr _mZ{gH$Vm {Z_m©U H$aVmZm AZoH$ AS>MUtZm Vm|S> Úmdo bmJVo. 

4. ì`dñWmnZmMr nwZa©MZm : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnH$s` V§ÌmZwgma ì`dñWmnZ nÕVr VrZ nmVù`m§da Z 

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amhVmV, Ë`mMr nwZa©MZm Ho$br OmV Amho. "nmVira{hV ì`dñWmnZ' hr ZdrZ g§H$ënZm A§_bmV AmUbr OmV 

Amho. ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m H$m`m©_Üò H$_©Mmè`m§Mm gh^mJ, J«mhH$ d nwadR>oXmam§Mr _Vo {dMmamV KoVbr OmV AmhoV. 

Ë`m_wio hiwhiw ì`dñWmnZ A{YH$ma gmIir d ñVa `m§À`mVrb nwZa©MZm hr ~XbË`m ì`mdgm{`H$ n`m©daUm_Üò 

JaOoMo ~Zbr Amho. 

5. ~XbVm H$mi : AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnZm_Üò ^{dî`H$mimer g§~§YrV AZw_mZ ~m§YVmZm {d{dY 

KQ>H$m§Mr _m{hVr {_i{dUo JaOoMo ~Zbo Amho. g§JUH$ d B§Q>aZoQ>Ûmao _m{hVr KoD$Z Z{dZ R>moH$Vmio ~m§Ybo OmV 

AmhoV. ^yVH$mimVrb ì`dñWmnZmMr AZoH$ VÎdo, {gÕm§V AmO H$mb~mø R>aV AmhoV. Amnë`m g§ñWoMr 

d¡{eï>ço Zì`mZo {Z_m©U H$aVmZm ^{dî`H$mbrZ ~Xbm§Mm AMyH$ A§XmO ~m§YÊ`mMm à`ËZ ì`dñWmnZmbm H$amdm 

bmJV Amho. 

6. {dH$mgmMm Jm^m : Jm^m^yV gj_Vo_Üò ZdrZ H$m¡eë`, V§ÌkmZ `m§Mm \$m`Xm J«mhH$m§Zm H$éZ 

XoÊ`mgmR>r à`ËZ hmoVmo. ~XbË`m H$mimÀ`m àdmhmV J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm, AmdS>r-{ZdS>r ~XbV AmhoV. VgoM 

J«mhH$ A{YH$ OmJ¥V d qH$_Vr{df`r A{YH$ AmJ«hr ~Zbm Amho. Ë`m_wio Zd{Z{_©Vr d JwUdÎmm `mbm àmYmÝ` 

XodyZ ZdZ{dZ dñVy d godm§Mr {Z{_©Vr H$aUo JaOoMo ~Zbo Amho. XyaÑîQ>r, H$ënH$Vm, Z{dZ emoY, g§emoYZ 

`mH$S>o A{YH$ bj H|${ÐV Ho$ë`mg H§$nZrMr Jm^m^yV gj_Vm {dH$grV hmoUo d {Q>Hy$Z amhUo eŠ` Amho. 

7. ~XbVr ñnYm©Ë_H$ n[apñWVr : 21 ì`m eVH$mVrb CÚmoJ ì`dgm`m§Zm ~XbË`m ñnYm©Ë_H$ 

n[apñWVrMo ^mZ R>odUo JaOoMo Amho Ago àm. gr. Ho$. àëhmX `m§Mo _V Amho. ì`dñWmnZmer g§~§YrV gd© 

H$m`m©_Üò ~Xb hmoVmZm {XgyZ òVmo. åhUOoM {Z`moOZ, g§KQ>Z, {ZX}eZ d {Z`§ÌU hr H$m`© H$aVmZm Z{dZ V§ÌmMm 

dmna H$éZ Am§Vaamï´>r` ñVamdarb ñnY}bm Vm|S> XoÊ`mgmR>r JwUdÎmm nyaH$ H$m`© H$aÊ`mMo à`ËZ hmoV AmhoV. 

V§ÌkmZmÀ`m EH${ÌH$aUm_wio, g§JUH$sH$aUm_wio, g§XoedhZm_wio CÚmoJm§À`m ñnYm©Ë_H$ n[apñWVrV A_ybmJ« 

ñdénmMo ~Xb hmoV AmhoV. 

ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m H$m`m©V nwT>rb ~Xb AmìhmZmË_H$ R>aVmV. 

(A) gm§ñH¥${VH$ d ~m¡{ÕH$ {d{dYVoMo ì`dñWmnZ. 

(~) ApñWa ~mOmanoR>oMo ì`dñWmnZ. 

(H$) B§Q>aZoQ>Mm ì`dñWmnZmda hmoUmam n[aUm_. 

(S>) Zì`m d ~XbË`m J«mhH$ àd¥ÎmrMo ì`dñWmnZ B. 

darb {d{dY ì`dñWmnZmÀ`m JaOm bjmV KodyZ Jm^m^yV gj_Vm dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r ì`dñWmnH$m§nwT>rb 

AmìhmZo A{YH$ H${R>U d _hÎdmMo Agë`mMo OmUdVo. Am§Vaamï´>r` ñVamdarb ì`mnma dmT>{dVmZm {d{dY 

XoemVrb g§ñH¥$Vr d ~m¡{ÕH$Vo_Üò {d{dYVm Agë`m_wio `m gd© Jmoï>r g_OmdyZ KodyZ H$ënH$ ~wÕrZo Zd{Z{_©Vr 

H$amdr bmJVo. ~XbVr ~mOmanoR> J«mhH$m§À`m ~XbË`m AmdS>r{ZdS>r, B§Q>aZoQ>À`m dmnamÛmao Q>o{bem°qnJ dm 

B§Q>aZoQ>em°qnJ Aem Z{dZ {dnZZmÀ`m g§H$ënZm B. gd© KQ>H$m§Mm {dMma H$éZ g§ñWoMr Jm^m^yV gj_Vm {Z_m©U 

d {dH$grV H$aÊ`mMm à`ËZ Ho$bm nm{hOo Ago {dMma AmYw{ZH$ ì`dñWmnH$s` {dMma åhUyZ àm. gr. Ho$. àëhmX 

`m§Zr _m§S>bo. 

14 

��



KQ>H$ H«$. 3 

H§$nZr emgZ Am{U J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ 

(A) H§$nZr emgZ : g§H$ënZm, ì`m»`m, H§$nZr emgZ_Üò g§MmbH$ _§S>i, 

^mJYmaH$ Am{U A§Ho$jH$ `m§Mr ^y{_H$m 

(~) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ : g§H$ënZm, AmYw{ZH$ `wJmV J«mhH$ g§~§Y 

ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd, B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ. 

3.0 C{Ôï>o : 

`m KQ>H$mMr C{Ôï>o nwT>rbà_mUo : 

1) H§$nZr emgZ hr g§H$ënZm g_OyZ KoUo. 

2) H§$nZr emgZmVrb g§MmbH$ _§S>i, ^mJYmaH$ d A§Ho$jH$ `m§Mr ^y{_H$m Aä`mgZo. 

3) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ hr g§H$ënZm g_OyZ KoUo. 

4) AmYw{ZH$ `wJmVrb J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd Aä`mgZo. 

5) B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ Aä`mgZo. 


H§$nZr emgZ `m g§H$ënZoMr ~rOo àm_w»`mZo Amnë`mbm A_o[aHo$Vrb "dm°Q>aJoQ>' `m KmoQ>mù`mVyZ nmhm`bm 

{_iVmV. Ë`mZ§Va 1990 _Üò B§½b§S>_Üò AZoH$ _moR>çm H§$nÝ`m AZno{jVnUo ~wS>më`m. `m H§$nÝ`m§Mr Am{W©H$ 

pñWVr BVH$s Imbmdbobr hmoVr `mMr H$ënZm Jw§VdUyH$YmaH$m§Zm Ambr Zmhr. `mVyZ B§½b§S>_Üò {dÎmr`joÌmV 

_moR>m Jm|Yi {Z_m©U Pmbm. åhUyZ `m H§$nÝ`m§À`m {dÎmr` ~m~tMr Mm¡H$er H$aÊ`mgmR>r ga A°{S´>`Z H°$S>~ar 

`m§À`m AÜ`jVoImbr EH$ H${_Q>r ñWmnZ H$aÊ`mV Ambr. {VMo Zmd H°$S>~ar H${_Q>r Ago hmoVo. `m H${_Q>rZo 

1992 _Üò Omo Ahdmb à{gÕ Ho$bm Ë`mVyZM H§$nZr OJVmV "H$mnm}aoQ> JìhZ©g' (Corporate Goverance) 

hm EH$ nadbrMm eãX ê$T> Pmbm. 

H§$nZr `m g§ñWoV ^mJYmaH$ cm^m§í`mgmR>r ^m§S>db Jw§VdVmV nU X¡Z§{XZ ì`dhmam~m~VMr O~m~Xmar 

ñdrH$maV ZmhrV. ì`dñWmnH$ ì`dgm` Mmb{dVmV na§Vw Jw§VdUyH$ H$aV ZmhrV. g§MmbH$ _§S>i Oo ^mJYmaH$m§Mo 

à{V{ZYr AgVmV Vo H§$nZrMr YmoaUo AmIyZ Ë`mà_mUo àemgZ Mmby Amho H$m Zmhr ho nmhVmV. `mVyZM H§$nZr 

emgZ hr g§H$ënZm ApñVËdmV Ambr. 

^maVmV H§$nZr emgZmMr Iar MMm© "gË`_ H§$nZrVrb' J¡aì`dhmamVyZ gwê$ Pmbr. Or gË`_ H§$nZr 

2008 _Üò Golden Peacock Global Award for Excellence in Corporate Governance Zo gÝ_m{ZV 

15

Ho$bobr hmoVr Ë`m H§$nZrV Pmboë`m J¡aì`dhmam_wio H§$nZr emgZì`dñWoVrb ÌyQ>r~Ôb {dMma H$aÊ`mMr n[apñWVr 

{Z_m©U Pmbr. `mVyZM H§$nZr emgZ hr g§H$ënZm g{dñVa Aä`mgZo Amdí`H$ ^mgy bmJbo. 

3.2 H§$nZr emgZ - g§H$ënZm : 

H§$nZr emgZ hr Aem àH$maMr à{H«$`m Amho H$s Á`m_Üò Amnë`m {hVKQ>H$m§À`m {hVmMr OnUyH$ Ho$br 

OmVo. H§$nZr emgZ- g§H$ënZm nwT>rbà_mUo ñnï> H$aVm òB©b. 

(A) H§$nZr emgZ hr H§$nZr Mmb{dÊ`mgmR>r V`ma Ho$bobr nÕV Amho : H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoV 

Amnbr C{Ôï>o d Ü`ò JmR>Ê`mgmR>r _mJ©Xe©H$ VÎdm§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. Ë`mÛmao H§$nZr Amnë`m {d{dY {hVKQ>H$m§À`m 

{hVmMo g§dY©Z H$aVo. H§$nZrÀ`m {hVKQ>H$m_Üò ^mJYmaH$, g§MmbH$ _§S>i, ì`dñWmnH$, Jw§VdUyH$YmaH$ VgoM 

J«mhH$, H$_©Mmar, g_mO BË`mXtMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

(~) H§$nZr emgZ-EH$ {dœñWmMr ^y{_H$m : H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoV g§MmbH$ _§S>i d ì`dñWmnH$ 

ho BVa {hVKQ>H$m§À`m {hVm§Mo ajU H$aÊ`mgmR>r {dœñWmMr ^y{_H$m nma nmS>VmV. 

(H$) H§$nZr emgZ åhUOo ì`dgm{`Z Amamo½` (Health of Enterprise) OnUmar ì`dñWm hmo` 

: H§$nZr emgZmV {hVKQ>H$m§À`m ^ë`mgmR>r àËòH$ H¥$Vr Ho$br OmVo. ~{hñW g§MmbH$m§Mm XOm© gwYmaUo, 

g_mOmVrb Jw§VdUyH$XmaH$m§À`m _ZmV {XK©H$mbrZ Jw§VdUwH$s~Ôb emœV dmVmdaU {Z_m©U H$aUo, Ë`m~m~V 

Amdí`H$ Vr Iar _m{hVr nwa{dUo Am{U X¡Z§{XZ ì`dhmamda H$m`©H$mar ì`dñWmnZm_m\©$V XoIaoI d àemgZ 

R>odUo `m nÕVrÛmao H§$nZr emgZ ì`dgm`mMo Amamo½` O_Vo. 

(S>) H§$nZr emgZ åhUOo H§$nZr àemgZmV nmaXe©H$Vm (Transparency) CÎmaXm{`Ëd (Accountability) 

d Mm§Jë`m H$m_mMr nÕV (Good Performance) hmo` : H§$nZr emgZmV nmaXe©H$Vobm 

A{YH$ _hÎd AgVo. àËòH$ ì`dñWmn{H$` KQ>H$mMr O~m~Xmar Ë`m§Zr Ho$boë`m àËòH$ H¥$VrMo CÎmaXm{`ËdmVyZ 

{Z{üV Ho$bobr AgVo. `mVyZM EH$ Mm§Jbr H$m_ H$aÊ`mMr nÕV {Z_m©U hmoVo. 

(B) H§$nZr emgZ EH$ VmH$Vdma A§VJ©V ì`dñWmnZ ì`dñWm hmo` : H§$nZrMr YmoaUo AemàH$maMr 

AgVmV H$s Á`m_wio gd© bm^YmaH$m§À`m \$m`ÚmgmR>r àËòH$ H¥$Vr Ho$br OmVo. Ë`mda H$mQ>oH$moa bj R>odUmar 

H§$nZr emgZ hr A§VJ©V ì`dñWmnZ ì`dñWm Amho. 

(\$) H§$nZr emgZ gm_m{OH$ O~m~Xmar nyU© H$aUmar ì`dñWm : H§$nZr emgZmÛmao àËòH$ {hVKQ>H$m§À`m 

{hVmMo ajU H$ê$Z gm_m{OH$ O~m~Xmar nyU© H$aUmar hr ì`dñWm Amho. 

3.3 H§$nZr emgZ - ì`m»`m : 

{d{dY {dMmad§VmZr H§$nZr emgZ `m g§H$ënZoMr ì`m»`m nwT>rbà_mUo Ho$bobr Amho. 

1) {_ëQ>Z \«$mBS>_Z : ""H$m`Xm d ê$T>tÀ`m AmYmao g_mOmVrb _yb^yV {Z`_mZm Yê$Z ^mJYmaH$m§À`m 

BÀN>oZwgma ì`dgm` Mmb{dUo åhUOo H§$nZr emgZ hmo`.'' 

(To conduct the business in accordance with schareholders' desires while confirming to 

the basic rules of the society embodied in law and local customs - Milton Friedman) 

16

2) H°$S>~ar H${_Q>r : ""H§$nZr emgZ åhUOo Aer nÕV hmo` H$s {OÀ`mÛmao H§$nÝ`m {ZX}{eV d {Z`§{ÌV 

Ho$ë`m OmVmV. H§$nZr g§MmbH$ _§S>img Ë`m_Üò _Ü`dVu ñWmZ AgVo.'' 

(Corporate Governance is the system by which companies are directed and controlled, 

thus placing the Board of Directors of the company in the centre of the governance system. - 

Cadbury Committee) 

3) Oo dmoë\o$ÝgmoZ, ào{gS>oÝQ> Am°\$ dëS>© ~±H$ : ""H§$nZr emgZ åhUOo H§$nZr ì`dhmamV C{MVnUm 

AmUUo, nmaXe©H$Vm R>odUo d àËòH$ ì`dhmam~m~VMo CÎmaXm{`Ëd {Z{üV H$aUo hmo`.'' 

(Corporate Governance is all about promoting corporate fairness, transparency and accountability. 

- J. Wolfensohn, President of World Bank). 

3.4 H§$nZr emgZ - d¡{eï>o : 

darb ì`m»`mdê$Z H§$nZr emgZ `m g§H$ënZoMr nwT>rb d¡{eï>o gm§JVm òVrb. 

1) ^mJYmaH$m§À`m gdm}Îm_ {hVmg àmYmÝ` : H§$nZr emgZmÛmao H§$nZrMm H$ma^ma {ZX}{eV d {Z`§{ÌV 

H$ê$Z ^mJYmaH$m§À`m gdm}Îm_ {hVmg àmYmÝ` XoUo Amdí`H$ Amho. Ë`mgmR>r ^mJYmaH$m§À`mdVrZo X¡Z§{XZ 

ì`dhmamV g§MmbH$ _§S>i bj KmbV AgVo. 

2) _Ü`dVu ñWmZ : H§$nZrMr Ano{jV C{Ôï>o gmÜ` H$aÊ`mgmR>r g§MmbH$ _§S>i ho O~m~Xma Amho. 

åhUyZ H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoV g§MmbH$ _§S>img _Ü`dVu ñWmZ Amho. 

3) BVa {hVKQ>H$m§À`m {hVmg àmYmÝ` : ^mJYmaH$mì`{V[aŠV BVa {hVKQ>H$m§À`m CXm. gaH$ma, 

H§$nZrMo J«mhH$, H$_©Mmar, nwadR>oXma BË`mXr {hVmMmhr {dMma H§$nZr emgZmV Ho$bm OmVmo. 

4) H§$nZr ì`dhmamV C{MVnUm, nmaXe©H$Vm d ~m§YrbH$s Amdí`H$ : H§$nZrÀ`m àËòH$ ì`dhmamV 

C{MVnUm, nmaXe©H$Vm d ~m§{YbH$s Amdí`H$ Amho. Ë`mgmR>r H§$nZrÀ`m dm{f©H$ AhdmbmVyZ gË`, `mo½` d 

AMyH$ _m{hVr {Xbr OmB©b, H$moUVrhr _m{hVr XS>dyZ R>odbr OmUmar Zmhr AWdm ImoQ>r _m{hVr {Xbr OmUma 

Zmhr `mMr H$miOr H§$nZr emgZmV KoVbr OmVo. 

5) H§$nZr emgZm_Üò A§Ho$jH$mMr ^y{_H$m : A§Ho$jH$mZo H§$nZrÀ`m g^mgXm§Zm {dÎmr` ì`dhmamMr 

C{MV _m{hVr XoUo ~§YZH$maH$ Amho. {dÎmr` ì`dhmamÀ`m gË`Vo~Ôb X~mda{hV _V XodyZ Ë`m§Zr gd© {hVKQ>H$m§À`m 

{hVmMo ajU H$aUo hr Ë`m§Mr H$m`Xo{ea O~m~Xmar Amho. 

3.5 H§$nZr emgZ - _hÎd : 

H§$nZr àemgZmV nmaXe©H$Vm, C{MVnUm d ~m§{YbH$s {Z_m©U hmoV Agë`mZo gd© {hVKQ>H$m§À`m {hVmMo 

ajU hmoVo. H§$nZr emgZmMo _hÎd nwT>rb _wÔçmVyZ ñnï> H$aVm òB©b. 

1) nmaXe©H$Vm d IwbonUm : H§$nZrÀ`m àËòH$ ì`dhmamV nmaXe©H$Vm d IwbonUm Agë`m_wio 

H$moUmMrhr \$gdUyH$ hmoV Zmhr. 

2) ^mJYmaH$m§Mm bm^ : H§$nZr g§KQ>ZoV ^mJYmaH$ (_mbH$) d ì`dñWmnH$ XmoZ doJio KQ>H$ AmhoV. 

17

^mJYmaH$ Oar ^m§S>db nwa{dV Agbo Var Ë`mMm dmna ì`dñWmnH$ H$aVmV. H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWo_wio H$m`Xm, 

{Z`_ `m§Mo H$mQ>oH$moa nmbZ hmoD$Z ^mJYmaH$m§À`m bm^mV dmT> hmoVo. 

3) J«mhH$ g_mYmZ : H§$nZr emgZ H$m`©j_ PmboZo dñVy d god|À`m {Z{_©Vr_Üò JwUmË_H$ dmT> hmoD$Z 

J«mhH$ g_mYmZmV dmT> hmoVo. 

4) Jw§VdUyH$Xmam§À`m {dídmgmV dmT> : H§$nZr emgZàUmbr_wio ì`dgm` d Zâ`mV àM§S> dmT> hmoVo. 

Ë`mMm n[aUm_ ^maVr` VgoM naXoer Jw§VdUyH$Xmam§À`m Jw§VdUwH$sV dmT> hmoVo. Ë`m_wio ^maVr` ^mJ^m§S>dbmV 

dmT> hmoV Amho. 

5) AMyH$ _m{hVr : H§$nZr emgZ àUmbr_wio H§$nÝ`m§Zm Amnë`m {dÎmr` ì`dhmam~m~V gd© Amdí`H$ 

d Iar _m{hVr àX{e©V H$amdr bmJVo. Ë`m_wio {hVKQ>H$m§Mr \$gdUyH$ hmoV Zmhr. 

6) H$moS> Am°\$ H§$S>ŠQ> (g§{hVm) : H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoV g§MmbH$, H$_©Mmar, A§Ho$jH$, gMrd 

BË`mXr gdmªÀ`m O~m~Xmè`m, H$V©ìò, CÎmaXm{`Ëd {Z{üV H$aUogmR>r AmMmag§{hVm V`ma Ho$bobr AgVo. 

Ë`mZwgma {Z`{_V d X¡Z§{XZ ì`dhmamV AMyH$Vm amhVo. 

7) {dXoer Jw§VUwH$sV dmT> : H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWo_wio H§$nZr H$ma^mamV IwbonUm, C{MVnUm d 

nmaXe©H$Vm amhVo. Ë`m_wio {dXoer J§wVdUyH$YmaH$m§À`m {dídmgmV dmT> hmoD$Z {dXoer Jw§VdUyH$ dmT>Vo. 

8) Am{W©H$ J¡aì`dhmamg à{V~§Y : H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoV g§MmbH$, A§Ho$jH$, g{Md BË`mXr gd© 

KQ>H$m§Mr H§$nZrÀ`m Am{W©H$ ì`dhmam~m~V O~m~Xmè`m {Z{üV AgVmV. Ë`m_wio Am{W©H$ J¡aì`dhmamZm à{V~§Y 

amhZog _XV hmoVo. 

9) ^m§S>db ~mOmamV H§$nÝ`m§Mr nV dmT>Vo : nmaXe©H$Vm, C{MV ì`dhma d gd© {hVKQ>H$m§À`m 

{hVm§Mm {dMma H$ê$Z Am{W©H$ ì`dhma Ho$bo OmVmV. Ë`m_wio ^m§S>db ~mOmamV H§$nÝ`m§Mr nV dmT>Vo. Ë`m_wio 

Aem H§$nÝ`m_Üò Mm§Jbo bmoH$ ZmoH$ar H$aÊ`mg àmYmÝ` XoVmV. J«mhH$m§Zm XO}Xma dñVy {_imë`mZo Ë`mÀ`m 

g_mYmZmV d {dídmgmV dmT> hmoVo. WmoS>Š`mV Aem H§$nÝ`m§Mr gm_m{OH$ à{Vð>m dmT>Vo. 

10) CËnÞmV dmT> : H$m`©j_ emgmZàUmbr_wio CËnmXZ IMm©V ~MV hmoD$Z Zâ`mV bjUr` dmT> hmoVo. 

Ë`m_wio Ë`m§À`m ^mJm§Zm ^m§S>db ~mOmamV Am{YŠ` àmá hmoVo. 

WmoS>Š`mV H§$nZr emgZm_wio H§$nÝ`m§À`m ì`dhmamV bjUr` gwYmaUm hmoD$Z Am{W©H$ {dH$mgmV dmT> hmoVo. 

3.6 Mm§Jë`m H§$nZr emgZmMo _yb^yV KQ>H$ (AmYma) : 

H$moUVmhr Jw§VdUyH$YmaH$ H§$nZr_Üò Jw§VdUyH$ H$aVmZm H§$nÝ`m§Mr emgZ ì`dñWm Aä`m{gV AgVmo. 

Mm§Jë`m H§$nZr emgZmMo à_wI VrZ AmYma (Pillars) nwT>rb AmH¥$VrV Xe©{dbobo AmhoV. 

18

Mm§Jbo H§$nZr emgZ 

Good Corporate Goverance 

ì`dhmamV {hVKQ>H$m§À`m H¥${VV 

nmaXe©H$Vm ~Ôb CÎmaXm{`Ëd C{MVnUm 

Transparancy Accountability Fairness 

(A) ì`dhmamV nmaXe©H$Vm (Transparancy) : H§$nZrZo {d{Îm` ì`dhmam~m~V gd© {hVKQ>H$m§Zm 

doimodoir nwaoer _m{hVr {Xbr nm{hOo. `mgmR>r \$ŠV H$m`Xm, {Z`_ `m§Mm {dMma Z H$aVm Amnë`m {d{Îm` 

ì`dhmam~Ôb doimodoir nwaogr _m{hVr g§~§{YVmZm {Xbr nm{hOo. `mdaM H§$nZrMr à{Vð>m Adb§~yZ AgVo. 

(~) {hVKQ>H$m§~Ôb CÎmaXm{`Ëd (Accountability) : H§$nZrVrb gd© {hVKQ>H$m§À`m {hVajUmMr 

O~m~Xmar g§MmbH$ _§S>imda AgVo. àËòH$ {hVKQ>H$m§À`m {hVmMm {dMma H$ê$Z Ë`m~m~VMr O~m~Xmar nyU© 

H$aUo, Ë`mMo CÎmaXm{`Ëd pñdH$maUo hr g§MmbH$ _§S>imda O~m~Xmar AgVo. {hVKQ>H$mMr g§H$ënZm A_o[aHo$V 

\$ŠV ^mJYmaH$ Aer Amho Va O_©Zr d nyd© E{e`Z AW©ì`dñWoV Ë`m_Üò ^mJYmaH$m~amo~a H$_©Mmar, 

nwadR>mXma qH$dm {dÎmnwadR>m H$aUmè`m KQ>H$m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

(H$) H¥$VrV CMrVnUm (Fairness) : `m_Üò H§$nZrÀ`m Z¡{VH$ dV©UwH$sMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. AënH$mimV 

_moR>m Am{W©H$ bm^ {_i{dUogmR>r H$a MwH${dUo, H$_©Mmè`m§Mo qH$dm nwadR>mH$mam§Mo emofU H$aUo, doioV H$O© 

naV\o$S> Z H$aUo BË`mXr J¡a_mJmªMm dmna H$ê$ Zò. `m_Üò Aëng§»`m§H$ ^mJYmaH$m§Mr \$gdUyH$ ~hþg§»` 

^mJYmaH$m§Zr H$ê$ Zò `mMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

3.6 H§$nZr emgZmV {d{dY KQ>H$m§Mr ^y{_H$m : 

(A) g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr ^y{_H$m 

H$moUË`mhr H§$nZr emgZmV g§MmbH$ _§S>i ho gdm}ƒnXr AgVo. ho g§MmbH$ _§S>i {d{dY {hVQ>H$m§Mo 

{hVajU H$aUo, ì`dgm`mbm J{V_mZ ZoV¥Ëd XoUo, aMZmË_H$ _mJ©Xe©Z H$aUo, AMyH$ nydm©Zw_mZ H$ê$Z H§$nZr 

H$m_H$mOmda à^mdr {Z`§ÌU R>odUo Aem {d{dY ^y{_H$m nma nmS>Vo. H§$nZr H$m`ÚmZwgma nwT>rb àH$maMo g§MmbH$ 

_§S>i JR>rV Ho$bo OmVo. 

19

g§MmbH$ _§S>i 

H$m`©H$mar AH$m`©H$mar àdV©H$ ñdV§Ì Zm°{_Zr 

g§MmbH$ g§MmbH$ g§MmbH$ AH$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$ g§MmbH$ 

(A) H$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$ (Executive Directors) : `m_Üò {d{dY {d^mJmÀ`m g§MmbH$m§Mm g_mdoe 

hmoVmo. CXm. {d{Îm` {d^mJmMm g§MmbH$, _Zwî`~i {d^mJmMm g§MmbH$ BË`mXr. 

(~) AH$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$ (Non-Executive Directors) : `m_Üò ~{hJ©V Vkm§Mr AH$m`©H$mar 

g§MmbH$ åhUyZ {Z`wŠVr Ho$br OmVo. 

{~bm© H${_Q>rÀ`m {e\$maerZwgma g§MmbH$ _§S>i JR>Zm_Üò H$m`©H$mar d AH$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$m§Mm g_mdoe 

Agmdm. Oa H$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$ AÜ`j AgVrb Va EHy$U g§MmbH$ _§S>imV qH$_mZ 50% g§MmbH$ ho 

AH$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$ AgmdoV Am{U Oa g§MmbH$ _§S>imMm AÜ`j H$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$ Zgob Va {H$_mZ 1/3 

g§MmbH$ ho AH$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$ AgmdoV. 

(H$) àdV©H$ g§MmbH$ (Promotor Director) : `m_Üò H§$nZrMr ñWmnZm H$aUmè`m g§MmbH$m§Mm 

g_mdeo hmoVmo. 

(S>) ñdV§Ì AH$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$ (Independent Non-executive Director) : {~bm© H${_Q>rÀ`m 

{e\$maerZwgma `m_Üò H$mhr Vkm§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. `m Vkm§Zm H§$nZrMr ì`yhaMZm AmIUo, g§Kfm©Mo ì`dñWmnZ 

H$aUo BË`mXr _hÎdmÀ`m H$m_mgmR>r A{YH$ d AmH$f©H$ _mZYZ XodyZ {Z`wŠV Ho$bo OmVo. 

(B) Zm°{_Zr g§MmbH$ (Nominee Directors) : {~bm© H${_Q>rÀ`m {e\$maerZwgma H§$nZrbm Á`m 

{d{Îm` g§ñWoZo H$O© {Xbobo Amho Vr g§ñWm H§$nZrÀ`m g§MmbH$ _§S>imda Amnbm Zm°{_Zr S>màoŠQ>a Zo_y eH$Vo. 

g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr ^y{_H$m : 

H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoV g§MmbH$ _§S>i nwT>rb àH$maÀ`m ^y{_H$m nma nmS>VmV. 

1) ^mJYmaH$m§Mo nmbH$ : H§$nZr g§KQ>ZoV ^mJYmaH$ ho Amnbr ~MV ^m§S>db ñdê$nmV Jw§V{dVmV 

Am{U g§MmbH$ _§S>i ì`dñWmnH$m§À`mÛmao Ë`mMm dmna H$ê$Z ì`dgm` Mmb{dVmV. `mdoir Vo ^mJYmaH$m§Mo 

nmbH$ åhUyZ ^mJYmaH$m§À`m ^m§S>dbmMr H$miOr KoVmV. 

2) {dídñWmMr ^y{_H$m : H§$nZr g§KQ>ZoV g_mOmVrb AZoH$ KQ>H$m§Mr Jw§VdUyH$ AgVo. `m Jw§VdUyH$ 

g§gmYZmMm dmna EH$ {dídñW åhUyZ g§MmbH$ _§S>i H$arV AgVmV. `mVyZ ì`mnma ì`dgm` d godm joÌmMm 

{dH$mg hmoD$Z gm_m{OH$ {dH$mg gmYbm OmVmo. 

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3) ì`yhaMZmË_H$ {ZX}eH$ : g§MmbH$ _§S>i ho ì`dgm{`H$ Vk AgVmV. Vo ^{dî`H$mbrZ n[apñWVrMm 

Aä`mg H$ê$Z {ZU©` KoVmV. Vo H§$nZrÀ`m ââmQ>rgmR>r ì`yhaMZmË_H$ {ZX}eH$ åhUyZ _m¡brH$ ^y{_H$m nma 

nmS>VmV. 

4) H$m`Xo{ea ~m~tMr nyV©Vm : g§MmbH$ _§S>i XoemVrb H$m`Úm§Mm Aä`mg H$ê$Z H$a âUo, nJma XoUo 

BË`mXr H$m`Xo{ea ~m~tMr nyV©Vm H$aVmV. H$m`Úm§À`m VaVyXtMo C„§KZ Ho$bo OmUma Zmhr `mMr H$miOr KoVmV. 

5) A§VJ©V {Z`§ÌU R>odUo : ^mJYmaH$m§À`m ^m§S>dbmMo d gmd©O{ZH$ _mb_ÎmoMo {dídñV åhUyZ H$m_ 

H$aV AgVmZm ì`dñWmnH$m§H$Sy>Z `mo½` Vr _m{hVr KoVmV. A§VJ©V {Z`§ÌU H$mQ>oH$moa R>odVmV. `mo½` A§Ho$jU 

nÕVrÛmao bmMbwMnVr d J¡aì`dhmamda {Z`§ÌU R>odVmV. 

6) ì`dhmamV C{MVnUm AmUUo : g§MmbH$ _§S>i g§nyU© g§KQ>Zo_Üò Z¡{VH$Vm éO{dVmV. àËòH$ 

H$_©Mmè`mZo Z¡{VH$VoZo H$m_ H$amdo `mda bj R>odVmV. Ë`m_wio H$_©Mmar BVam§~amo~a C{MV ì`dhma H$aVmV. `mVyZ 

g§nyU© g§KQ>Zo_Üò Z¡{VH$Vm d XO}XmanUm {Z_m©U hmoD$Z ì`dhmamV C{MVnUm òVmo. Ë`mÛmao g§MmbH$ _§S>i 

Amnë`m {hVKQ>H$m§~m~VMo CÎmaXm{`Ëd nyU© H$aVmV. 

7) g{_Vr {Z`wŠV H$aUo : g§MmbH$ _§S>i nwT>rb VrZ g{_Ë`m Zo_VmV : 

(A) ì`dñWmn{H$` _mo~Xbm g{_Vr - à_wI H$m`©H$mar A{YH$mar, H$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$, d[að> 

ì`dñWmnH$m§Mm ~moZgg{hV _mo~Xbm R>a{dÊ`mMo H$m_ hr g{_Vr H$aVo. _mo~Xbm R>a{dVmZm Vmo C{MV d 

ñnYm©Ë_H$ Agmdm `mMr H$miOr KoVmV. 

(~) {Z`wŠVr g{_Vr - hr g{_Vr H$m`©H$mar d AH$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$m§Mr Zo_UyH$ H$aVmV. Ë`mgmR>r 

`mo½` Ë`m à{H«$òMm dmna H$ê$Z Amdí`H$ Ë`m nmÌVoMo AmYw{ZH$ {dMmam§Mo d AZw^dr ì`{ŠV§Mr {ZdS> H$aVmV. 

(H$) A§Ho$jU g{_Vr - `m g{_Vr_Üò ñdV§Ì AH$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$m§Mm g_mdoe Ho$bm OmVmo. hr 

g{_Vr H§$nZrMm A§V[a_ d dm{f©H$ {d{Îm` nÌH$m§Mm AmT>mdm KoD$Z _JM g§nyU© Ahdmb g§MmbH$ _§S>img_moa 

R>odVo. 

(~) ^mJYmaH$m§Mr ^y{_H$m (Role of Shareholders) : 

^mJYmaH$ ho H§$nZrMo _mbH$ AgVmV. H§$nZr H$m`Xm 1956 Zwgma Ë`m§À`mda H$mhr O~m~Xmè`m {Z_m©U 

hmoVmV. Ë`m nma nmS>Ê`mgmR>r Ë`mZm nwT>rb ^y{_H$m nma nmS>mì`m bmJVmV. 

1) g§MmbH$m§Mr {ZdS> H$aUo : ñdV: ^mJYmaH$ H§$nZrÀ`m X¡Z§{XZ H$ma^mamda bj R>ody eH$V ZmhrV 

åhUyZ Vo Amnë`mVrb VÁk, Hw$eb d AZw^dr ì`{ŠV§Mr g§MmbH$ åhUyZ {ZdS> H$aVmV. 

2) H§$nZr A§Ho$jH$mMr Zo_UyH$ H$aUo : ^mJYmaH$ dm{f©H$ gôV H§$nZrÀ`m A§Ho$jH$mMr Zo_UyH$ H$ê$Z 

Ë`m§Mo _mZYZ R>a{dVmV. 

3) H§$nZrÀ`m O_mIMm©bm _mÝ`Vm XoUo : H§$nZrMm H$ma^ma g§MmbH$ _§S>imÀ`m hmVmV Agë`m_wio 

^mJYmaH$ Ë`mMm Aä`mg H$ê$Z dm{f©H$ gôV qH$dm {deof gôV g§MmcH$ _§S>imcm O_mIMm©~Ôb _m{hVr 

{dMmê$ eH$VmV d Vo ~amo~a AgVrb Va Ë`mbm _mÝ`Vm XoVmV. 

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4) bm^m§emMm Xa {Z{üV H$aUo : H§$nZrÀ`m Zâ`mMo {d^mOZ Aä`mmgyZ g§MmbH$ _§S>imZo gyM{dboë`m 

Zâ`mÀ`m {d^m{JH$aUmg _mÝ`Vm XoVmV d bm^m§emMm Xa {Z{üV H$aVmV. 

5) {deof R>amd H$aUo : g§MmbH$m§Mm J¡aH$ma^ma qH$dm A§Ho$jH$mMm \$g{dUmam A§Ho$jU Ahdmb 

`mdê$Z ^mJYmaH$ Aem g§MmbH$ qH$dm A§Ho$jH$mbm H$mTy>Z Q>mH$Ê`mgmR>r H§$nZr emgmZmg {deof g^m ~mob{dÊ`mg 

gm§JyZ Ë`m_Üò {deof R>amd _§Oya H$ê$Z Aem \$gdUyH$ H$aUmè`m§Zm H$mTy>Z Q>mHy$ eH$VmV. 

6) ñdV:À`m h¸$m~m~V OmJ¥V amhUo : ^mJYmaH$m§Zm nwT>rb h¸$ AgVmV - ^mJm§Mr Zm|XUr H$aUo, 

Ë`m§Mo hñVm§Va H$aUo, doimodoir d {Z`{_VnUo H§$nZr emgZmMr _m{hVr KoUo, dm{f©H$ gôV _VXmZ H$aUo, Zâ`mMo 

{d^mOZ H$aUo. 

7) H$§nZr emgZmVrb ~Xbm§da {Z`§ÌU R>odUo : ^mJYmaH$m§Zm H§$nZr emgZmZo KoVboë`m {ZU©`mMr 

_m{hVr KoÊ`mMm A{YH$ma Amho. Ë`m_Üò Xwgar H§$nZr Vmã`mV KoUo, _mb_Îmm {dH$Uo, H§$nZrÀ`m {d{dY 

{d^mJm§Mr _m{hVr KoUo, ^m§S>dbr aMZoVrb ~Xbm§da {Z`§ÌU R>odUo BË`mXtMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

8) _m{hVr àgmarH$aU : H§$nZrÀ`m H$ma^mamMr _m{hVr Xa VrZ _{hÝ`mZr à{gÕ Ho$br OmVo ho nmhUo. 

Ë`mdê$Z ^mJ~mOmamVrb n[apñWVrda bj R>odUo. VgoM Xa ghm_mhrV H§$nZrMr àJVr Xe©{dUmar _m{hVr KoUo. 

9) g§ñWmË_H$ ^mJYmaH$m§Mr ^y{_H$m : AZoH$ {H$aH$moi ^mJYmaH$m§À`mdVrZo H$mhr g§ñWm H§$nZr_Üò 

Jw§VdUyH$ H$aVmV. Aem g§ñWm Amnë`m EHy$U _VXmZmMm dmna H$ê$Z H§$nZr emgZmda n[aUm_H$maH$ {Z`§ÌU 

R>odVmV. 

(H$) A§Ho$jH$mMr ^y{_H$m (Role of Auditor) : 

H§$nZr emgZmg A§Ho$eH$mMr ^y{_H$m hr _hÎdmMr Jmoï> Amho H§$nZrMr _mbH$s d ì`dñWmnZ `m§À`mVrb 

\$maH$Vr_wio g§MmbH$m§Zm H§$nZrMm {dÎmr` Ahdmb g^mgXm§Zm Úmdm bmJVmo. Vmo V`ma H$aÊ`mgmR>r A§Ho$jH$mMr 

Zo_UyH$ Ho$br OmVo. H§$nZr emgZmda n[aUm_H$maH$ d H$m`Xoera XoIaoI R>odÊ`mgmR>r A§Ho$jUm~m~V nwT>rb VrZ 

àH$maMr ì`dñWm Ho$bobr Amho. 

A§Ho$jU àH$ma 

(I) A§VJ©V A§Ho$jU (II) A§Ho$jU g{_Vr (III) d¡Ym{ZH$ A§Ho$jU 

(I) A§VJ©V A§Ho$jH$mMr ^y{_H$m (Role of Internal Auditor) : H§$nZr emgZmV X¡Z§{XZ H$ma^mamda 

{Z`§ÌU R>odÊ`mgmR>r A§VJ©V A§Ho$jH$ Zo_Ê`mV òVmo. A§VJ©V A§Ho$jH$mMr ^y{_H$m nwT>rbà_mUo - 

1) H§$nZr H$ma^mamV A§VJ©V {Z`§ÌUmMr nwaoer ì`dñWm CnbãY Amho H$m ho nmhUo. 

2) H$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$mH$Sy>Z g§MmbH$ _§S>imbm gmXa Ho$bobr _m{hVr g§nyU© d ~amo~a Agë`mMr ImÌr 

H$ê$Z KoUo 

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3) ì`yhaMZmË_H$ A§Ho$jU (Strategy Audit) H$aUo 

~hþg§»` g§MmbH$m§Zm gm_mÝ`nUo CÚmoJmg§~§Yr d¡{eï>çnyU© _m{hVr ZgVo. Ë`m_wio Ë`mZm ì`yhaMZmË_H$ 

Ñ{ï>H$moU ZgVmo qH$dm H$mhr g§MmbH$m§Zm Ë`mgmR>r doi ZgVmo. åhUyZ H$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$ _§S>imZo _m§S>boë`m 

ì`yhaMZm§Mm AmT>mdm KoÊ`mMr O~m~Xmar A§VJ©V A§Ho$jH$mMr AgVo. 

4) A§VJ©V A§Ho$jU Ahdmb A§Ho$jU g{_VrH$S>o gmXa H$aUo. 

5) {hemo~mVrb MyH$m emoYÊ`mEodOr A§VJ©V A§Ho$jH$ H§$nZrÀ`m {dÎmr` H$ma^mam~m~V `mo½` {ZH$f 

R>a{dUo d gdm}ËH¥$ï> nÕVr {dH${gV H$aÊ`mH$S>o {deof bj XoVmV. 

(II) A§Ho$jU g{_VrMr ^y{_H$m (Role of Audit Committee) : AZoH$ H§$nÝ`m_Üò g§MmbH$ _§S>i 

A§Ho$jU g{_Vr {Z`wŠV H$aVmV. Ë`m_Üò AH$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$ d {d{dY joÌmVrb Vk ì`{ŠV§Mm g_mode 

AgVmo. A§Ho$jU g{_VrMr ^y{_H$m nwT>rbà_mUo - 

1) {ZagZ J¥h ^y{_H$m : ì`dgm`mV YmoHo$ d g§Yr `m§Mr VnmgUr H$ê$Z ì`dgm` H$m`m©da {Z`§ÌU 

R>odÊ`mÀ`m à{H«$òV A§Ho$jU g{_Vr EH$ {ZagZ J¥h åhUyZ ^y{_H$m nma nmS>VmV. 

2) _w»` Xwdm : hr g{_Vr d¡Ym{ZH$ A§Ho$jH$ d g§MmbH$ _§S>i `m§À`m_Yrb _w»` Xwdm åhUyZ H$m`©aV 

AgVo. d¡Ym{ZH$ A§Ho$jH$m§Mr Zo_UyH$, Ë`m§Mr \$s, Ë`mMm amOrZm_m qH$dm Ë`m§Zm H$mTy>Z Q>mH$Uo BË`mXr ~m~V 

{dMma H$aUo, A§Ho$jU H$m_ gwê$ H$aUonydu Ë`mMo ñdê$n d ì`már R>a{dUo BË`mXr~m~V ^y{_H$m nma nmS>VmV. 

3) A§Ho$jU H$m_m~Ôb g§MmbH$ _§S>img _m{hVr XoUo : boImH$_m©Vrb YmoaU d nÕVrV ~Xb, 

_w»` A§XmO, A§Ho$jUmVrb _w»` VaVwXr, boImH$_© _mnX§S>, ^mJ~mOmam~Ôb H$m`Xoera VaVyXtMr nyV©Vm B. 

~m~mV g§MmbH$ _§S>img _m{hVr XoÊ`mMr ^y{_H$m nma nmS>VmV. A§{V[a_ d dm{f©H$ AhdmbmV H$mhr ÌyQ>r 

AgVrb Va Ë`m~Ôb _m{hVr XoVmV. 

4) A§VJ©V {Z`§ÌU nÕVrMm _mJmodm KoUo : doimodoir H§$nZr emgZ àUmbrVrb A§VJ©V {Z`§ÌU 

nÕVrMm _mJmodm KoD$Z g§MmbH$ _§S>img {e\$maer H$aVmV. 

5) A§VJ©V A§Ho$jU ~m~V ^y{_H$m : A§VJ©V A§Ho$jU ì`dñWoMm doimodoir _mJmodm KoUo. A§VJ©V d 

~{hJ©V A§Ho$jUm_Üò g_Ýd` àñWm{nV H$aUo d Ë`mÀ`mVrb H$m_mV gwb^Vm {Z_m©U H$aUo. A§VJ©V A§Ho$jU 

VnmgUrVyZ H$mhr _yb^yV Jmoï>r AmT>iyZ Amë`m Va Ë`m~Ôb g§MmbH$ _§S>img _m{hVr XoUo. 

6) d¡Ym{ZH$ A§Ho$jH$m~m~VMr ^y{_H$m : d¡Ym{ZH$ A§Ho$jH$mMr Zo_UyH$ H$aUo, Ë`m§À`m H$m_mMo 

ñdê$n d ì`mßVr R>a{dUo, Ë`m§À`m {\$Mo _yë`_mnZ H$aUo, Ë`m§Mm A§Ho$jU n[aUm_m§Mr MMm© H$aUoMr O~m~Xmar 

A§Ho$jU g{_VrMr AgVo. 

(III) d¡Ym{ZH$ A§Ho$jH$mMr ^y{_H$m (Role of Statutory Auditor) : d¡Ym{ZH$ A§Ho$jH$mMr Zo_UyH$ 

g^mgXmH$Sy>Z dm{f©H$ gôV Ho$br OmVo. Ë`mnydu ì`dñWmnZ `m A§Ho$jH$mÀ`m Zo_UyH$s~m~VMm àñVmd àW_ 

g§MmbH$ _§S>imH$S>o _m§Sy>Z Z§Va Vmo dm{f©H$ gôV g^mgXmg_moa _m§S>bm OmVmo. d¡Ym{ZH$ A§Ho$jH$mMr ^y{_H$m 

nwT>rbà_mUo, 

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1) boImH$_m©À`m gm_mÝ`nUo ñdrH$maboë`m VÎdm§Mo d _mnX§S>mMo nmbZ (Generally Accepted Accountng 

Principles and Standards) H§$nZrÀ`m boImH$_m© (Audit Report) _Üò Ho$bo AmhoV ho nmhUo. 

2) YmoaUm§Mm Aä`mg, _mbgmR>çmÀ`m _yë`m§H$Z nÕVrV EH$dmŠ`Vm, à{gÕ AhdmbmV EH$dmŠ`Vm, 

AMyH$ {hemo~ `mda H$mQ>oH$moa bj R>odyZ boImH$_m©V AMyH$Vm AmUUo. 

3) {dÎmr` Ahdmb dŠVeranUo d gMmoQ>rZo gmXa Ho$bm Amho ho à_m{UV H$aUo. Ë`m_Üò H$moUVrhr ImoQ>r 

d MwH$sMr {dYmZo Ho$bobr AmhoV H$m ho nmhUo. 

4) boImH$_m©Vrb ÌwQ>r~Ôb H§$nZrÀ`m AH$m`©H$mar g§MmbH$m~amo~a IwbonUmZo MMm© H$aUo. 

5) àËòH$ {dÎmr` ì`dhmamMr A§Ho$jU~wÕrZwgma eh{Zem H$ê$Z Oa Ë`m_Üò KmoQ>mim qH$dm \$gdUyH$ 

Agob Va Vmo emoYyZ H$mTy>Z Ë`mda g§MmbH$ _§S>i qH$dm ^mJYmaH$m§Zm OmJ¥V H$aUo. 

6) ^mJYmaH$m§Zm Ahdmb gmXa H$aUo. Ë`m_Üò H§$nZrMo dm{f©H$ O_mIM© `mo½` àH$mao V`ma Ho$bobo 

AmhoV. Vo g§ñWoMr `mo½` d Iar _m{hVr XoVmV VgoM g§MmbH$m§Mo Ahdmb ho H§$nZrÀ`m O_mIMm©da AmYm[aV 

AmhoV BË`mXr~Ôb Iao _V _m§S>Uo. 

3.7 J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ (Customer Relationship Management (CRM) : 

àñVmdZm : 

J«mhH$ hm Oar ì`dgm`mMm H|$Ðq~Xy Agbm Var Ë`mMo~amo~a g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$ê$Z Vmo H$gm {Z_m©U hmoB©b, 

Vmo H$gm dmT>ob Am{U Vmo H$gm H$m`_Mm Amnbm amhrb `mMo ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo Amdí`H$ Amho. Ë`mgmR>r 

J«mhH$m~amo~a MMm© H$aUo, Ë`mÀ`m AS>MUr {dMmaUo, Ë`mÀ`m VH«$matMm Aä`mg H$aUo d Vmo H$gm g_mYmZr 

amhrb, Vmo H$gm AmZ§Xr hmoB©b `mgmR>r \$ŠV ì`dñWmnZM Zìho Va ì`yhaMZmË_H$ ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo Amdí`H$ 

R>aVo. ì`dgm`mVrb àËòH$ {H«$`m hr J«mhH$m{Yð>rV AgVo. Oa J«mhH$ Zgob Va CËnm{XV dñVy d Ë`m~amo~aÀ`m 

{H«$`mZm _hÎd amhV Zmhr. åhUyZ ZdrZ J«mhH$ emoYUo, Ë`mZm AmH${f©V H$ê$Z KoUo, Ë`m§Mo~amo~aMo g§~§Y ÑT> 

H$ê$Z Vo Amnbo H$m`_Mo H$go amhVrb `mH$S>o gdm©V OmñV bj XoUo Amdí`H$ ~Zbo Amho. `mVyZM "J«mhH$ g§~§Y 

ì`dñWmnZ' hr g§H$ënZm ApñVËdmV Ambr d `m 21 ì`m eVH$mV {Vbm doJio ñWmZ àmá Pmbo. 

3.8 J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ g§H$ënZm : 

J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ hr g§H$ënZm nwT>rbà_mUo Aä`mgVm òB©b. 

1) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV J«mhH$ ZmË`m§Mo {dnUZ H$ê$Z {Zð>mdmZ J«mhH$dJ© {Z_m©U Ho$bm OmVmo. 

2) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV J«mhH$m§er g§nH©$ R>odÊ`mgmR>r Q>ob\$moZ, B©-_ob, do~ BË`mXr AmYw{ZH$ 

gmYZm§Mm dmna H$ê$Z ñdV§Ì "g§nH©$ H|$Ð' (Contact-centre) {Z_m©U Ho$bo OmVo. 

3) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ EH$ Ago VÎdkmZ Amho H$s Á`mÛmao J«mhH$m§Zm AË`wƒ g_mYmZ XoVm òVo. 

4) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ EH$ g§JUH$s` nÕVr AgyZ Ë`m_Üò ZdrZ J«mhH$m§Zm emoYUo, Ë`mZm 

{_i{dÊ`mgmR>r {deof à`ËZ H$aUo Am{U Ë`mZm H$m`_Mo Amnbo H$aUo `mMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

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5) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV J«mhH$m§Zm gdm©V Cn`wŠV dñVy nwa{dUo, Ë`m§À`m godoV dmT> H$aUo Ë`m§À`m 

JaOm g_OmdyZ KoUo Am{U Ë`m§Mo~amo~a ZmVog§~§Y ÑT> H$aÊ`mMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

WmoS>Š`mV AmOÀ`m Vrd« ñnY}V J«mhH$ {_i{dUo, Vmo {Q>H${dUo d Ë`mV dmT> H$aUo `mgmR>r Oo ì`dñWmnZ 

Ho$bo OmVo Ë`mg J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ åhUVm òB©b. 

3.9 J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ - ì`m»`m : 

J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmZm{df`rÀ`m ì`m»`m nwT>rbà_mUo- 

1) {\${bn H$moQ>ba, ""J«mhH$m§Mr {Zð>m dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r J«mhH$mg§~§Yr g{dñVa _m{hVr {_i{dUo, Ë`m 

_m{hVrMo ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo Am{U Ë`m _m{hVrMm dmna H$ê$Z J«mhH$ g§~§Y d¥qÕJV H$aUo `m à{H«$òg J«mhH$ 

g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ Ago åhUVmV. 

"Customer Relation Management is the process of managing detailed information about 

individual customers and carefully managing all customer 'touch points' to maximize customer 

loyalty." - Philips Kotler. 

2) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV J«mhH$m§Zm emoYUo, Ë`mZm AmH${f©V H$ê$Z KoUo, Ë`m§À`mV {dôXrH$aU H$ê$Z 

Ë`mZm {Q>H${dUo `m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. Ë`mgmR>r J«mhH$m§Zm CÎm_ dñVy d godm nwa{dUo àËòH$ Q>ßß`mV J«mhH$ _yë` 

{Z_m©U H$aÊ`mgmR>r g§nyU© nwadR>m gmIirMm _oi KmbyZ J«mhH$m§Zm dmT>rd bm^ nwa{dUo qH$dm H$_r IMm©V dñVw 

nwa{dUo qH$dm XmoÝhtMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

"Customer Relation Management is a holistic process of indentifying attracting differentiating 

and retaining customer which involves providing, better product and secices, integrating 

a firms entirre supply chain to create customer value at every step, through increased benefits 

or lowered cost or both." - O. C. Ferell. 

J«mhH$ g~§Y ì`dñWmnZ hr EH$ ì`dgm{`Z ì`yhaMZm AgyZ Á`m_Üò J«mhH$m§Mr JaO g_OyZ KoUo, 

Ë`m~m~VMo AZw_mZ H$aUo Ë`mZwgma `moJ` Vmo à{VgmX XoUo d Ë`mVyZ J«mhH$ g§~§Y ÑT> H$aUo `m§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

J«mhH$ g~§Y ì`dñWmnZ- d¡{eï>ço : 

1) J«mhH$ {Q>H$dUo : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV J«mhH$m§Mr d¡`{ŠVH$ _m{hVr Jmoim H$ê$Z _mo~mB©b, B©- 

_ob, do~ BË`mXr AmYw{ZH$ gmYZm§Mm dmna H$ê$Z J«mhH$m§Zm {Q>H${dbo OmVo. 

2) {dôXmË_H$ ì`yhaMZm : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV J«mhH$m§Zm emoYUo, Ë`m§Zm AmH${f©V H$ê$Z KoUo 

d {dôXmË_H$ ì`yhaMZm H$ê$Z Ë`mZm {Q>H${dÊ`mMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

3) J«mhH$m{^_wI YmoaU : J«mhH$m§Zm Amnbr dñVy d godm CÎm_ àH$mao XoÊ`mgmR>r nwadR>m gmIirMm _oi 

KmbyZ J«mhH$m§Zm dmT>rd bm^ nwa{dbm OmVmo. 

4) J«mhH$ g~§Y {Z_m©U H$aUo : _mo~mB©b, B©-_ob, do~ BË`mXr AmYw{ZH$ gmYZm§Mm dmna H$ê$Z J«mhH$ 

g~§Y {Z_m©U H$aUo, Vo ÑT> H$aUo d H$m`_Mm J«mhH$dJ© {Z_m©U H$aUo `mMm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

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5) {dH«$` Q>r_ V`ma H$aUo : J«mhH$ g~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV H§$nZrMo H$_©Mmar, nwadR>mXma KQ>H$, J«mhH$ d 

BVa g§~§{YV KQ>H$m§Mr Q>r_ V`ma H$ê$Z Ë`mZm XOm©Ë_H$ ZoV¥Ëd nwa{dbo OmVo. 

6) {Zð>mdZ J«mhH$dJ© V`ma H$aUo : J«mhH$m§Mr g{dñVa _m{hVr Jmoim H$ê$Z J«mhH$ g~§Y d¥qÕJV H$aUo 

d Ë`mVyZ H$m`_Mm {Zð>mdmZ J«mhH$dJ© V`ma Ho$bm OmVmo. 

7) J«mhH$m§Zm gdm}ƒ godm XoUo : J«mhH$m§er d¡`{ŠVH$ g§~§Y {Z_m©U H$ê$Z Ë`m§À`m g_mYmZmV dmT> 

H$aUo d Ë`mZm gdm}Îm_ godm nwa{dUo hm CÔoe AgVmo. 

8) A{YH$m{YH$ Z\$m {_i{dUo : J«mhH$ g§»òV dmT> H$ê$Z ì`dgm`mÀ`m Zâ`mV dmT> H$aUo hm hoVy 

AgVmo. 

darb d¡{eï>çmdê$Z J«mhH$ g~§Y ì`dñWmnZ hr g§H$ënZm ñnï> hmoVo. 

3.10 AmYw{ZH$ H$mimV J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd 

(Importance of CRM in Modern Era) : 

OmJ{VH$sH$aUm_wio ñnYm© A{V Vrd« ~Zbr. Ë`m_Üò {Q>H$Ê`mgmR>r Am_ {dnUZ nÕVrVyZ {d{eï> 

{dnUZnÕVrH$S>o H§$nÝ`m bj Xody bmJë`m. Ë`mVyZM J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ hr g§H$ënZm nwT>o Ambr. {VMo 

_hÎd nwT>rb _wÔçmVyZ gm§JVm òB©b. 

1) J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm§Mm gyú_ Aä`mg : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ ho EH$ J«mhH$m§Zm godm XoUmao ZdrZ 

g§emoYZ Amho. `m_Üò J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm§Mm gyú_ Aä`mg H$ê$Z Ë`mZwgma Amnë`m dñVy d godm§Mm {dH$mg Ho$bm 

OmVmo. Ë`m_wio J«mhH$m§Zm Ë`m§À`m JaOoZwgma dñVy CnbãY hmoD$Z Vo g_mYmZr hmoVmV. 

2) J«mhH$m§Zm CÎm_ godm nwa{dë`m OmVmV : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmÛmao AmOÀ`m ñnYm©Ë_H$ 

~mOmanoR>oV _m{hVr V§ÌkmZmMm n[aUm_H$maH$ dmna H$ê$Z J«mhH$ godoV CÎm_Vm AmUbr OmVo. J«mhH$ godm VrZ 

àH$maÀ`m nwa{dë`m OmVmV - (i) {dH«$snyd© godm : dñVyMm dmna H$gm H$amdm `mMm S>o_mo XoUo. (ii) {dH«$sÀ`mdoir 

godm : dñVyMr g{dñVa _m{hVr XodyZ J«mhH$m§Zm dñVy IaoXrg àd¥Îm H$aUo. (iii) {dH«$`moÎma godm : {dH«$sZ§Va 

^{dî`H$mimV Ë`m dñVy~m~V H$mhr VH«$ma Agob Va Vr Xya Ho$br OmVo. 

darb nÕVrZo J«mhH$m§Zm CÎm_ godm nwadyZ Ë`mZm Amnbogo Ho$bo OmVo. 

3) J«mhH$m§À`m AmZ§XmV dmT> hmoVo : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmÛmao J«mhH$m§Mr H$miOr KoVbr OmVo, Ë`mZm 

CÎm_àH$mao godm nwadyZ Ë`m§À`m AmZ§XmV dmT> Ho$br OmVo. Ë`m§À`m Anojm A{YH$m{YH$ nyU© H$aÊ`mgmR>r 

Amdí`H$ Vo _mJ©Xe©Z Ho$bo OmVo. Ë`m§À`m~amo~a nmaXe©H$Vm R>odyZ Ë`m§Mm {dœmg g§nmXZ Ho$bm OmVmo. Ë`m_wio 

J«mhH$ \$ŠV g_mYmZrM hmoV ZmhrV Va Vo AmZ§Xr hmoVmV. 

4) _m{hVrMo CÎm_ ñÌmoV : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo J«mhH$m§À`m _m{hVrMo H|$Ð hmo`. `m_Üò 

nyduMm J«mhH$ Omo Amnbr dñVy gmoSy>Z Jobm. Ë`mMr H$maUo H$moUVr? ho Aä`mgyZ Ë`mZm naV Amnë`mH$S>o H$go 

AmUVm òB©b `mMm Aä`mg Ho$bm OmVmo. AmOMm J«mhH$ H$moU? `mMm Aä`mg H$ê$Z Vmo OmñVrVOmñV H$gm 

{_i{dVm òB©b `mgmR>r H$moUVo à`ËZ H$amdoV ho g_OVo. Ë`mZ§Va ^{dî`mVrb g§^mì` J«mhH$ H$moU? `mMr 

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_m{hVr KoD$Z Ë`mZm Amnë`m dñVy qH$dm godmH$S>o H$go di{dVm òB©b `mMr _m{hVr {_iVo. `m _m{hVrH|$ÐmÛmao 

J«mhH$mMr g§»`m dmT>{dÊ`mV è àmá hmoVo. 

5) ËdarV d H$m`©j_ à{VgmX : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmÛmao J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm d Anojm g_OmdyZ 

KoD$Z Ë`mZm ËdarV d H$m`©j_ à{VgmX {Xbm OmVmo. Ë`mgmR>r AmYw{ZH$ V§ÌmMm d gmYZm§Mm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. 

Ë`m§À`m _mo~mB©b d B©-_ob da Ëd[aV n«{VgmX XodyZ Ë`m§Zm Iyf Ho$bo OmVo. 

6) {ZU©`mg _XV : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmÛmao CnbãY _m{hVrÀ`m AmYmao CËnmXZ, {dnUZ d 

H$_©Mmar {df`H$ {ZU©` ËdarV KoVm òVmV. Ë`mgmR>r J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm, VH«$mar, gyMZm§Mm `mo½` Vmo Aä`mg 

H$ê$Z AMyH$ {ZU©` KoVm òVmo. Ë`m_wio J«mhH$m§Zm JwUmË_H$ godm {_iVmV. 

7) doioMm d l_m§Mm Anì`` Q>miVm òVmo : J«mhH$g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV _mo~mB©b, B©-_ob, do~ BË`mXr 

gmYZm§Mm dmna H$ê$Z doioMm, n¡emMm d l_m§Mm Anì`` Q>miVm òVmo. Ë`m_wio J«mhH$mZm doJmZo godm nwa{dVm 

òVmV. 

8) {dnUZ H$m`©j_Vm dmT>Vo : AmYw{ZH$ {dH«$s H$m`m©V {dnUZ H$m`© _hÎdmMo Amho. J«mhH$m§er àË`j 

d d¡`{ŠVH$ g§nH©$ gmYyZ Ë`m§MoH$Sy>Z dñVy{df`r _m{hVr KoVbr OmVo. Ë`mZwgma dñVyÀ`m JwU-d¡{eï>çm_Üò 

Amdí`H$ Vo ~Xb H$ê$Z H$m`©j_ {dnUZ H$m`© Ho$bo OmVo. 

9) ñnYm©Ë_H$ eŠVrV dmT> : ~mOmanoR>oV OmJ{VH$sH$aUm_wio J«mhH$ d ñnY©H$ dñVy§Mr g§»`m dmT>bobr 

Amho. J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV J«mhH$m§er d¡`{ŠVH$ g§~§Y {Z_m©U hmoVmV Ë`m_wio H$m`_Mm J«mhH$dJ© {Z_m©U 

hmoD$Z H§$nZrMr ñnYm©Ë_H$ VmH$X dmT>Vo. 

10) _m¡{IH$ Om{hamV : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmVyZ H$m`_Mm {Zð>mdmZ J«mhH$dJ© V`ma hmoVmo. Vmo 

Amnë`m dñVyMr Vm|S>r Om{hamV H$aVmo. EH$ n«H$mao H§$nZrMm à{V{ZYr åhUyZ Vmo BVam§Zm dñVy{df`r, Amnë`m 

H§$nZr{df`r Jm¡adCX²Jma H$mT>V AgVmo. `m _m¡{IH$ Om{hamVrMm H§$nZrbm {dnUZ H$m`m©V Iyn _XV hmoVo. 

11) H§$nZr bm¡{H$H$mV dmT> : {dnUZ H$m`m©Vrb gd©M KQ>H$m_Üò CXm. H$_©Mmar, nwadR>mXma g§ñWm, 

BVa g§~§{YV KQ>H$ `mgdmª_Üò H§$nZr~m~V, dñVy~m~V Mm§Jbo _V {Z_m©U hmoVo. Ë`m_wio H§$nZrÀ`m Zmdbm¡{H$H$mV 

dmT> hmoVo. 

12) ~mOmanoR>oMm {dñVma : J«mhH$g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmVrb {d{dY V§Ìm_wio d gmYZm_wio J«mhH$ g§nH$m©V 

dmT> hmoVo. OmJ{VH$ ~mOmanoR>oV OmÊ`mgmR>r gwb^Vm {Z_m©U hmoVo. Ë`m_wio ~mOmanoR>oMm {dñVma hmoD$Z {dH«$s dmT>Vo. 

13) {Zð>mdmZ J«mhH$ dJ© : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmVyZ J«mhH$m§Mr g§ñWo~ÔbMr {Zð>m dmT>{dbr OmVo. 

Ë`m§À`m _ZmV dñVy~Ôb d H§$nZr~Ôb {dœmgmMo dmVmdaU {Z_m©U Ho$bo OmVo. Ë`m_wio H§$nZrbm EH$ {Z{üV 

Agm J«mhH$dJ© àmá hmoVmo. 

14) Am{W©H$ pñWaVm : J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmVyZ {Zð>mdmZ J«mhH$dJ©, _m¡{IH$ Om{hamVrVyZ H§$nZrÀ`m 

Zmdbm¡{H$mV dmT>, {dH«$sV dmT>, Zâ`mV dmT> `m_wio H§$nZrbm Am{W©H$ pñWaVm àmá hmoVo. 

darb _wÔçmd§ê$Z J«mhH$ g~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd ñnï> hmoVo. 

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3.11 B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ (e.CRM) : 

21 ì`m eVH$mV _m{hVr V§ÌkmZm_wio Pmboë`m H«$m§Vr_wio g§XoedhZmMr Zdr d ObX _mÜ`_o CnbãY 

Pmbr AmhoV. AmO J«mhH$dJ© hm H$moR>ohr Agbm Var Ë`mMr gd© _m{hVr Jmoim H$aUo, Vr gmR>{dUo d Amdí`H$ 

Ë`mdoir Vr CnbãY H$ê$Z XoUo `mgmR>r g§JUH$s` àUmbrMm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. WmoS>Š`mV J«mhH$ g§~§Y 

ì`dñWmnZmgmR>r _m{hVr V§ÌkmZmMm dmna H$aUo åhUOo B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ hmo`. 

B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ-g§H$ënZm : 

B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmn hr g§H$ënZm B©-H$m°_g© _YyZ Ambobr Amho. `m_Üò A§VJ©V Omio (Intranet), 

~møOmio (Extranet) Am{U Am§VaOmio (Internet) `m§Mm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. 

_m{hVr V§ÌkmZmMm dmna H$ê$Z J«mhH$ g§~§YmMo ì`dñWmnZ H$aUo åhUOo B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ hmo`. 

`m_Üò J«mhH$m§À`m JaOm g_OyZ KoUo d Ë`m nyU© H$aUo `mgmR>r A§VJ©V g§KQ>ZoMr g§gmYZo d ~{hJ©V {dnUZ 

ì`yhaMZm `m§Mm EH${ÌV dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. 

B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV nma§nm[aH$ g§nH©$ gmYZm~amo~a (\$moZ, Q>nmb gw{dYm, àË`j ôQ>r, _Ü`ñWm_m\©$V 

J«mhH$ g§nH©$ BË`mXr) _m{hVr V§ÌkmZmMr gd© gmYZo (_m{hVrMo _hmOmio, B©-_ob, B©-S>o_mo, B-g§dmX, B©n[afX, 

{d{dY g§JUH$s` H$m`©àUmbr BË`mXr) dmnabr OmVmV. Ë`m_wio AmOÀ`m OmJ{VH$ ~mOmanoR>oVrb 

J«mhH$ d ì`mnmar `m§À`mVrb A§Va H$_r Pmbobo Amho. 

B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ-ì`m»`m : 

B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmV B§Q>aZoQ>, do~~«mD$Pg© qH$dm BVa BboŠQ´>m°{ZH$ Q>M nm°B©ÝQ>Mm dmna H$ê$Z 

J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ Ho$bo OmVo. `m_Üò J«mhH$m§Zm `mo½` {df`r, `mo½` àH$maMr, `mo½` doioV _m{hVrMo 

g§XoedhZ H$ê$Z J«mhH$m§À`m {d{eï> JaOm nyU© Ho$ë`m OmVmV. 

darb ì`m»òdê$Z B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMo VrZ ^mJ òVmV. 

Three Dimensions in e CRM 

VrZ ^mJ 

(A) (~) (H$) 

Acquisition getting Expansion Relation 

ZdrZ J«mhH$ dmT>{dUo Zâ`mV dmT >H$m`_ J«mhH$dJ© 

(A) ZdrZ J«mhH$ dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMr gmYZo dmnaUo. 

(~) J«mhH$m§Zm dñVy d godm nwadyZ {dH«$sV dmT>-n`m©`mZo Zâ`mV dmT> H$aUo. 

(H$) AmOMm J«mhH$ hm H$m`_Mm J«mhH$ ìhmdm `mgmR>r ZmVog§~§Y {Z_m©U H$aUo. 

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B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMr d¡{eï>ço : 

darb ì`m»òdê$Z B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMr d¡{eîQ>ço nwT>rbà_mUo gm§JVm òVrb. 

1) B©-j_Vm : `m_Üò J«mhH$m§Zr dñVy d godm {df`r _m{hVr H$ê$Z KoUo, Ë`m§À`m B©-_obZm ñd`§ g§nH©$ 

H$aUo, do~ g§nH$m©Ûmao ZmVo {Z_m©U H$aUo, Am°Z bmB©Z dñVy nmohM{dUo BË`mXr B©-j_Vm§Mm g_mdoe hmoVmo. 

2) B©-g§XoedhZ : B§Q>aZoQ>À`m Ûmao J«mhH$m§er g§XoedhZ H$ê$Z g§nH©$ gmYZo. 

3) B©-J«mhH$godm : V§ÌkmZmMm dmna H$ê$Z _m¡brH$ godm nwa{dUo. 

4) B©-J«mhH$ g_mYmZ : J«mhH$m§Zm H$_r IMm©V A{YH$ H$m`©j_VoZo godm nwadyZ Ë`m§À`m g_mYmZmV dmT> 

H$aUo. 

5) B©-_m{hVr : J«mhH$m§~m~VMr _m{hVr Jmoim H$ê$Z Ë`mMm {dH«$s dmT>{dÊ`mgmR>r dmna H$aUo. 

6) EH${ÌV à`ËZ : B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Ym_Üò A§VJ©V {dH«$` g§KQ>Zm d ~{hJ©V {dnUZ ì`yhaMZm `m§Mm 

EH${ÌV dmna Ho$bm OmVmo. 

B©-J«mhH$ g§~§YmMo \$m`Xo : 

1) J«mhH$m§er ObX g§nH©$ gmYVm òVmo. 

2) J«mhH$m§Zm ObX _m{hVr nmR>{dVm òVo. 

3) dñVy AWdm godm `m§À`m dmnam~m~V _m{hVr XoVm òVo. 

4) J«mhH$m§À`m e§H$m {ZagZ H$aUo, Ë`m§À`m VH«$ma {ZdmaU H$aUo `mV gwb^Vm AmUVm òVo. 

5) IMm©V d doioV ~MV H$aVm òVo. 

6) J«mhH$ _m{hVr gmR>çmMm dmna H$ê$Z H$m`©j_Vm dmT>{dVm òVo. 

7) nwadR>m gmIirMr H$m`©j_Vm dmT>{dVm òVo. 

8) J«mhH$g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMo \${bVo ËdarV H$iVmV. 

darb \$m`Úm_wio AmO B©-J«mhH$g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ A{YH$ Cn`wŠV R>aV Amho. 

3.12 ñd`§-AÜ``Z àý : 

à. 1 WmoS>Š`mV CÎmao Úm. 

1) H§$nZr emgZ hr g§H$ënZm ñnï> H$am. 

2) H§$nZr emgZmMo _hÎd gm§Jm. 

3) H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoMo _yb^yV AmYma H$moUVo Vo gm§Jm. 

4) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ hr g§H$ënZm ñnï> H$am. 

5) B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ hr g§H$ënZm ñnï> H$am. 

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à. 2 Imbrb àým§Mr CÎmao g{dñVa {bhm. 

1) H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoMr ì`m»`m Úm. H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoV ^mJYmaH$m§Mr ^y{_H$m ñnï> H$am. 

2) H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoV g§MmbH$ _§S>imMr ^y{_H$m g{dñVa _m§S>m. 

3) H§$nZr emgZ ì`dñWoVrb A§Ho$jH$mMr ^y{_H$m ñnï> H$am. 

4) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ åhUOo H$m`? J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMo AmYw{ZH$ `wJmVrb _hÎd 

ñnï> H$am. 

à. 3 WmoS>Š`mV Q>rnm {bhm. 

1) B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZ 

2) H§$nZr emgZ g§H$ënZm 

3) J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMo _hÎd 

4) B©-J«mhH$ g§~§Y ì`dñWmnZmMr d¡{eï>ço 

30 

��




g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daUmMr d¡{eï>ço (Characteristics of Organizational Environment) 

àñVmdZm : 

n`m©daU hr g§H$ënZm AmOn`ªV AmnU Z¡g{J©H$ KQ>H$m~m~V dmnaV hmoVmo. OmJ{VH$sH$aUmV n`m©daU hr 

g§km g^modVmbMr n[apñWVr d Ë`mVrb {d{dY KQ>H$m§Mm EH${ÌV g_yh `m AWm©Zo Vr dmnabr OmVo. `m 

n`m©daUmMm ì`dgm{`Z, gm_m{OH$ n[aUm_ hmoV AgVmo hm n[aUm_ Aä`mgZogmR>r g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daU `m 

g§koMm Aä`mg H$amdm bmJV Amho. 

g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daUmda A§VJ©V d ~{hJ©V KQ>H$m§Mm n[aUm_ hmoV AgVmo. Ë`mVrb H$mhr KQ>H$mda Amnbo 

{Z`§ÌU ZgVo Ë`m_wio Ë`m§À`m ApñVËdmMm Aä`mg H$aUo _hÎdmMo R>aVo. 

g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daU-AW© : 

ì`dgm`mda g^modVmbÀ`m n[apñWVrMm d {d{dY KQ>H$m§Mm-gm_m{OH$, Am{W©H$, gm§ñH¥${VH$, Ym{_©H$, 

amOH$s` Aem {d{dY {H«$`mda hmoUmam n[aUm_ Aä`mgZo åhUOo g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daU hmo`. 

`m g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daUmMm AZwHy$b d à{VHy$b n[aUm_ ì`dgm`mda hmoV AgVmo. AZwHy$b n[aUm_mMm 

bm^ (g§Yr) H$gm CR>dmdm d à{VHy$b n[aUm_ (YmoHo$) H$gm H$_r H$amdm `mMm Aä`mg H$aUo _hÎdmMo R>aVo. 

Ë`mgmR>r g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daUmMr d¡{eï>ço Aä`mgZo _hÎdmMo R>aVo. 

g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daUmMr d¡{eï>ço (Characteristics of Organizational Environment) : 

g^modVmbMr 

n[apñWVr 

ñdrH¥$Vr 

J{V_mZVm 

H$m_mMr Mm¡H$Q> 

J§wVmJw§VrMr 

g§KQ>ZmË_H$ 

n`m©daU 

31 

g§{_l 

~hþ{dY 

XrK©H$mbrZ 

n[aUm_/ à^md 

A{Z{üVVm

1) g^modVmbMr n[apñWVr (Surrounding Situation) : g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daU åhUOo AmOw~mOyMr 

n[apñWVr hmo`. H$moUVr{h g§KQ>Zm `m n`m©daUmì`{V[aŠV H$m_ H$ê$ eH$V Zmhr. g§KQ>Zobm Amnbr H$m`} d 

{d{dY {H«$`m `mM n`m©daUmV nma nmS>mì`m bmJVmV. g^modVmbÀ`m n[apñWVr_Üò Am{W©H$, gm_m{OH$, 

amO{H$`, gm§ñH¥${VH$, Vm§{ÌH$ KQ>H$ g_m{dï> hmoVmV. 

2) J{V_mZVm (Dynamic) : g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daU ho pñWa ZgyZ Vo ~XbUmao åhUOoM J{V_mZ AgVo. 

doimodoir {d{dY KQ>H$m§Mm n[aUm_ Ë`mda ~Xb KS>dyZ AmUV AgVmV. åhUyZ g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daU ho J{V_mZ 

Amho. 

3) Jw§VmJw§VrMr à{H«$`m (Complex) : g^modVmbÀ`m n[apñWVrda {d{dY KQ>H$, KQ>Zm, ~XbUmar 

n[apñWVr `m§Mm n[aUm_ hmoV AgVmo. `m gd© Jmoï>r EH$_oH$mda Adb§~yZ AgVmV. Ë`m§Mm EH$_oH$mda n[aUm_ 

hmoVmo. Ë`m_wio H$moUË`m KQ>H$m§Mm H$m` n[aUm_ hmoUma ho g_OZo Jw§VmJw§VrMo Amho. 

4) ~hþ{dY (Multi-faceted) : g^modVmbMr n[apñWVr hr ~hþ{dY d ~hþA§Jr Amho. EImÚm g§KQ>Zoda 

hmoUmam EImÚm KQ>H$mMm n[aUm_ hm Xwgè`m g§KQ>Zoda VgmM hmoB©b ho gm§JVm òV Zmhr. H$mhr g§KQ>Zoda Vmo 

ZH$mamË_H$ n[aUm_ H$aVmo Va H$mhrda Vmo hmoH$mamË_H$ n[aUm_ H$aVmo. hm ~Xb, hr {d{dYVm Aä`mgyZ {ZU©` 

¿`mdo bmJVmV. 

5) XrK©H$mbrZ n[aUm_ / à^md (Far-reaching Impact) : g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daUmVrb KQ>H$mV 

hmoUmam ~Xb hm ì`dgm`mda XrK©H$mbrZ à^md Q>mH$Umam AgVmo. g§KQ>ZmË_H$ gj_Vm hr Mm§§Jë`m g§KQ>ZogmR>r 

Amdí`H$ d _hÎdmMr AgVo. åhUyZ ì`dgm{`Z {Z`moOZ, YmoaUo, ì`yhaMZm, nÕVr n[apñWVrbm AZwHy$b Aem 

{dH$grV Ho$ë`m VaM ~mOmanoR>V ì`dgm`mMo ApñVËd {Q>Hy$ eH$Vo. 

6) A{Z{üVVm (Uncertamity) : g§KQ>ZmVåH$ n`m©daUmVrb KQ>H$ ho ~XbUmao AgVmV. na§Vw Ë`m 

~Xbm§Mo AMyH$ ndm©Zw_mZ H$aUo AdKS> AgVo. `m A{Z{üVVoVyZ ì`dgm{`H$Z g§Yr d YmoHo$ CX²^dV AgVmV. 

7) g§{_l (Mixed) : n`m©daU KQ>H$m§Mo ñdê$n ho g§{_l Amho. Ë`m_wio Am{W©H$, gm_m{OH$, amOH$s`, 

gm§ñH¥${VH$, H$m`Xoera, Z¡g{J©H$ d Vm§{ÌH$ KQ>H$m§Mm hmoUmam n[aUm_ hm d¡`{ŠVH$[aË`m Z Aä`mgVm gm_w{hH$[aË`m 

Aä`mgmdm bmJVmo H$maU Vo KQ>H$ EH$_oH$mda Amdb§~yZ AgVmV. ~è`mMdoim EH$ KQ>H$mVrb ~XbmMm n[aUm_ 

Xwgè`m KQ>H$mda hmoV AgVmo åhUyZ Ë`m§Mm n[aUm_ g§{_l Aä`mgZo _hÎdmMo R>aVo. 

8) H$m_mMr Mm¡H$Q> (Creation of Framework) : g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daUmMo KQ>H$ d Ë`mVrb ~Xb ho 

ì`dgm` H$m`m©gmR>r EH$ Mm¡H$Q> {Z_m©U H$aVmV `mVyZM ì`dgm`mÀ`m g§Yr d YmoHo$ ñnï> hmoVmV. `mM Mm¡H$Q>rV 

amhÿZ ì`dgm`mbm H$m`© H$amdo bmJVo. 

9) ñdrH¥$Vr (Adaptability) : n`m©daUmVrb H$mhr KQ>H$ ho {Z`§{ÌV AgVmV Va H$mhr ~mø n`m©daUmVrb 

KQ>H$m§da Amnbo {Z`§ÌU ZgVo. Ë`m_wio Ë`m ~XbmZwgma ì`dgm`mbm Amnbr {Xem ~Xbmdr bmJVo. Ë`mgmR>r 

g§KQ>Zobm ñdV: ~Xbmdo bmJVo qH$dm XwéñV ìhmdo bmJVo qH$dm OwZr YmoaUo _moS>rV H$mTy>Z ZdrZ nÕVrZo ~Xb 

ñdrH$mamdo bmJVmV. 

darb {ddoMZmdê$Z g§KQ>ZmË_H$ n`m©daUmMr d¡{eï>ço ñnï> hmoVmV. 

�� 

32

B. Com. Part-III : Modern Management Practice 




B) Modern Management 

(Concept and nature, importance of modern management in changing environment) 

“Management is art of getting things done through people.” 

Introduction : Management is that field of human behavior in which managers plan, 

organize, staff, direct, and control human, financial resources in an organized group effort in 

order to achieve desired individual and group objectives with optimum efficiency and 

effectiveness. 

In the past, management was not considered as an important part of development. With 

industrial revolution during 17th and 18th century, several economists expressed their ‘concepts 

and function of management’. Only in 19th century, management became the separate field 

of study because business organization faced various problems regarding labour efficiency 

and wage payment system. In search of solution of these problems, people began to recognize 

management as a separate field of study. 

Definition of Management : 

Management is the art, or science, of achieving goals through people. Since managers 

also supervise, management can be interpreted to mean literally “looking over” i.e., making 

sure people do what they are supposed to do. 

Managers are, therefore, expected to ensure greater productivity or, using the current 

jargon, ‘continuous improvement’. More broadly, management is the process of designing 

and maintaining an in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish 

selected aims (Koontz and Weihrich 1990, p. 4). In its expanded form, this basic definition 

means several things. First, as managers, people carry out the managerial functions of 

planning, organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling. Second, management applies to any 

kind of organization. Third, management applies to managers at all organizational levels. 

Fourth, the aim of all managers is the same to create surplus. Finally, managing is concerned 

with productivity this implies effectiveness and efficiency. 

Thus, management refers to the development of bureaucracy that derives its importance 

from the need for strategic planning, co-ordination, directing and controlling of large and 

complex decision-making process. Essentially, therefore, management entails the acquisition 

of managerial competence, and effectiveness in the following key areas: problem solving, 

administration, human resource management, and organizational leadership. 

Trends in Management : 

Trends in Management means movement of management thought in particular direction. 

33

Management thought developed gradually, from past to present and passed through various 

distinct phases. 

1. The classical theory. It mainly consists of 3 theories 

- Bureaucratic theory. 

- Scientific management theory 

- Administrative theory. 

These are concerned with production of efficiency and productivity through the one best 

way. Scientific method should be used to define the best way. There should be standardization. 

Classical Organizational Theory School 

In this category of management theory are the works of Max Weber’s bureaucratic 

theory and Henri Fayol’s administrative theory. Weber postulated that western civilization 

was shifting from “wertrational” (or value oriented) thinking, affective action (action derived 

from emotions), and traditional action (action derived from past precedent) to “zweckational” 

(or technocratic) thinking. He believed that civilization was changing to seek technically 

optimal results at the expense of emotional or humanistic content. 

Weber then developed a set of principles for an “ideal” bureaucracy as follows: fixed 

and official jurisdictional areas, a firmly ordered hierarchy of super and subordination, 

management based on written records, thorough and expert training, official activity taking 

priority over other activities and that management of a given organization follows stable, 

knowable rules. The bureaucracy was envisioned as a large machine for attaining its goals in 

the most efficient manner possible. 

However, Weber was cautious of bureaucracy when he observed that the more fully 

realized, the more bureaucracy “depersonalizes” itself i.e., the more completely it succeeds 

in achieving the exclusion of love, hatred, and every purely personal, especially irrational and 

incalculable, feeling from execution of official tasks. Hence, Weber predicted a completely 

impersonal organization with little human level interaction between its members. 

Henri Fayol’s administrative theory mainly focuses on the personal duties of management 

at a much more granular level. In other words, his work is more directed at the management 

layer. Fayol believed that management had five principle roles: to forecast and plan, to 

organize, to command, to co-ordinate, and to control. Forecasting and planning was the act of 

anticipating the future and acting accordingly. Organization was the development of the 

institution’s resources, both material and human. Commanding was keeping the institutions 

and harmonization of the group’s efforts. Finally, control meant that the above activities were 

performed in accordance with appropriate rules and procedures. Fayol developed fourteen 

principles of administration to go along with management’s five primary roles. These principles 

are: specialization/division of labor, authority with responsibility, discipline, unity of command, 

unity of direction, subordination of individual interest to the general interest, remuneration of 

staff, centralization, and scalar chain/line of authority, order, and equity, stability of tenure, 

initiative, and esprit de corps. Fayol clearly believed personal effort and team dynamics were 

part of an “ideal” organization. Fayol’s five principle roles Plan, Organize, Command, Co- 

34

ordinate, and actions and processes running. Co-ordination was the alignment and 

harmonization of the group’s efforts. Finally, control meant that the above activities were 

performed in accordance with appropriate rules and procedures. 

2. The neoclassical theory 

- Human classical theory 

- Behavioral theory. 

Concerned with importance of human element in management, the theory emphasizes 

importance of individual within the organization. According to human relation, theory 

productivity is not only technical but also a social phenomenon. Workers’ attitude governs 

productivity. Workers are motivated by social need. They respond to pressures of informal 

work groups. Money is not the only motivator. Workers are social and they advocated that 

people are different than machines. 

Behavioral School : 

The key scholar under this category is Elton Mayo. The origin of behavioralism is the 

human relations movement that was a result of the Hawthorne Works Experiment carried out 

at the Western Electric Company, in the United States of America that started in the early 

1920s (1927-32). Elton Mayo and his associates’ experiments disproved Taylor’s beliefs that 

science dictated that the highest productivity was found in ‘the one best way’ and that way 

could be obtained by controlled experiment. The Hawthorne studies attempted to determine 

the effects of lighting on worker productivity. When these experiments showed no clear 

correlation between light level and productivity the experiments then started looking at other 

factors. These factors that were considered when Mayo was working with a group of women 

included rest breaks, no rest breaks, no free meals, more hours in the work-day/work-week or 

fewer hours in the workday/ work-week. With each of these changes, productivity went up. 

When the women were put back to their original hours and conditions, they set a productivity 

record. 

3. Modern organizations theory (The system theory and contingency theory) 

The system theory- concerned with total picture of interdependence and environmental 

influences. 

Contingency theory concerned with inquires of each situation for managerial practice 

Modern organizational theory is regarded as recent development in management theory. 

They represent integrative approach to management. There is no one best way of doing things 

under all conditions. Methods and techniques which are highly effective in one situation may 

not work in other situations. Situation plays an important role in application of management 

function. Functions are universal but their application is situational. Management takes a 

situational approach. The systems theory has had a significant effect on management science 

and understanding organizations. A system is a collection of part unified to accomplish an 

overall goal. If one part of the system is removed, the nature of the system is changed as well. 

A system can be looked at as having inputs (e.g.,resources such as raw materials, money, 

technologies, people), processes (e.g., planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling), 

35

outputs (products or services) and outcomes (e.g., enhanced quality of life or productivity for 

customers/clients, productivity). Systems share feedback among each of these four aspects of 

the system. 

The Systems Theory may seem quite basic. Yet, decades of management training and 

practices in the workplace have not followed this theory. Only recently, with tremendous 

changes facing organizations and how they operate, have educator sand managers come to 

face this new way of looking at things. The effect of systems theory in management is that 

it helps managers to look at the organization more broadly. It has also enabled managers to 

interpret patterns and events in the workplace i.e., by enabling managers to recognize the 

various parts of the organization, and, in particular, the interrelations of the parts. The 

situational or contingency theory asserts that when managers make a decision, they must take 

into account all aspects of the current situation and act on those aspects that are keys to the 

situation at hand. Basically, it is the approach that “it depends”. For example, if one is leading 

troops in Iraq, an autocratic style is probably best. If one is leading a hospital or University, 

a more participative and facilitative leadership style is probably best. 

Other Management Theories : 

In this category are the works of Edward W. Deming and Douglas McGregor. 

Edward Deming is the founder of modern quality management and is regarded by the 

Japanese as the key influence in their postwar economic miracle. He postulated several 

assumptions: create constancy of purpose for continual improvement of products and service; 

adopt the new philosophy created in Japan; cease dependence on mass inspection; build 

quality along with price; improve constantly and forever every process planning, production, 

and service; institute modern methods of training on-the-job for including management; 

adopt and institute leadership aimed at helping people to do a better job; drive out fear, 

encourage effective two-way communication; break down barriers between departments and 

staff areas; eliminate exhortations for the workforce they only create adversarial relationships; 

eliminate quotas and numerical targets; remove barriers to pride of workmanship, including 

annual appraisals and Management by Objectives; encourage education and self-improvement 

for everyone; and define top management’s permanent commitment to ever improving quality 

and productivity and their obligation to implement all these principles. 

Douglas McGregor (1906-1964) postulated management ideas as contained in “Theory 

X” and “Theory Y”. Using human behavior research, he noted that the way an organization 

runs depends on the beliefs of its managers. 

“Theory X” gives a negative view of human behavior and management that he considered 

to have dominated management theory from Fayol onwards especially Taylorism. It also 

assumes that most people are basically immature, need direction and control, and are incapable 

of taking responsibility. They are viewed as lazy, dislike work and need a mixture of financial 

inducements and threat of loss of their job to make them work (‘carrot and stick’ mentality). 

“Theory Y”, the opposite of “Theory X”, argues that people want to fulfill themselves 

by seeking self-respect, self-development, and self-fulfillment at work as in life in general. 

The six basic assumptions for ‘Theory Y’ are: work is as play or rest the average human 

36

eing does not inherently dislike work, whether work is a source of pleasure or a punishment 

(to be avoided) depends on nature of the work and its management. Second, effort at work 

need not depend on threat of punishment if committed to objectives then self direction and 

self-control rather than external controls. Third, commitment to objectives is a function of the 

rewards associated with their achievement. Satisfaction of ego and self-actualization needs 

can be directed towards the objectives of the organization. Fourth, the average human being 

learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility. Fifth, high 

degrees of imagination, ingenuity and creativity are not restricted to a narrow group but are 

widely distributed in the population. Lastly, under the conditions of modern industrial life, 

the intellectual potentials of the average human being are being only partly utilized. There is, 

however, one theory or approach, the quantitative approach that is hardly used and known by 

managers. It emerges from operations research and management science. It is a mathematical 

and statistical solution to problems using optimization models, and computer simulations. It 

is most effective management decision-making rather than managerial behavior. The 

management theories that have been discussed, important as they are, have to be translated in 

practice by managers. To this discussion I now turn. 

Management as Practice : 

Managing, like all other practices whether medicine, music composition, engineering, 

accountancy, or even baseball is an art; it is know-how. It is doing things in the light of the 

realities of a situation. 

Yet managers can work better by using the organized knowledge about management. It 

is this knowledge that constitutes science. However, the science underlying managing is 

fairly crude and inexact. This is true because the many variables with which managers deal 

are extremely complex. Nevertheless, such management knowledge can certainly improve 

managerial practice. Managers who attempt to manage without management science must put 

their trust to luck, intuition, or what they did in the past. In managing, as in any other field, 

unless practitioners are to learn by trial and error, there is no place they can turn for 

meaningful guidance other than the accumulated knowledge underlying their practice; this 

accumulated knowledge is theory. 

For practical purposes, all managers must develop three sets of skills, namely; conceptual, 

technical, and human (see Fleet and Perterson 1994, p. 25).Conceptual skills allow the 

manager to develop relationships between factors that other people may not see. Managers 

who have well-developed conceptual skills are able to apply different management theories 

to the same situation. For a manager to be technical, it implies that he or she should act 

professionally. 

Professionalism demands that the manager performs his or her duties within established 

procedures, rules and regulations. Any behavior that compromises the manager’s professional 

etiquette is certainly bound to interfere adversely with the organization’s productivity. Lastly, 

a manager should be able to see members of the organization as human beings who have 

needs and psychological feelings and emotions. These needs and feelings must be positively 

harnessed for the good of the organization; motivation of the employees, therefore, becomes 

a critical factor in increasing productivity. 

37

According to Kreitner - Modern Management is the process of working with and 

through others to achieve organizational objectives in a changing environment. Central to this 

process is the effective and efficient use of limited resources.” 

Nature of Modern Management - The following are the some of the features of the 

concept of modern management. 

1. Base of system Approach : Management information systems provide the managers 

with adequate information about internal and external events of an organization to effective 

decision making. This is the set of conditions and forces that functions externally to the 

organization but affect anger’s capability to acquire and utilize resources. This clearly stresses 

on how important it is to study the environment. The open systems theory and contingency 

theory developed in 1960 ascertains the importance of studying the environment. The Open 

Systems View is a system where external resources are acquired and converted into goods 

and services then sent back to customers for purchasing. And the cycle carries on. This 

system is considered as an open system. Organizations which use a closed system are likely 

to experience entropy, the tendency of a system to lose its ability to control itself and thus to 

dissolve and collapse. Contigency Theory discloses that there is no best ways to organize 

therefore characteristics of the environment affect an organization’s ability to obtain resources. 

A type of structures describes the differences between the structures. In conclusion managers 

in a Mechanistic structure can obtain inputs at a lower cost preferably in a stable environment 

and managers in an organic environment can react more quickly in a rapidly changing 

environment. These contributions constructed the foundation of modern management theories. 

2. Management a profession : In this 21st century management is treated as 

profession. Managing, like all other practices whether medicine, music composition, 

engineering, accountancy, or even baseball is an art; it is know-how. It is doing things in the 

light of the realities of a situation. Management needs professional qualities like- special 

steam of knowledge, training, personal skills of leadership, communication which are applied 

in for the managing of modern large scale businesses. Here the managers are working as 

consultant to provide services by charging their fees. 

3. Dynamic in nature : Due to Globalization, evolution of product quality, 

environmentalism, ethical reawakening etc. the organizational conditions are changing very 

fast. Modern managers anticipate the probable changes in environment and prepare their 

organizations to adapt to these changes, in advance. In this today’s dynamic world, the 

manager is expected to take unfamiliar situations in stride. The business of today can be 

successfully handed only by those people who can build up an organization which will be 

adaptable to changing situations. Therefore, Harold Knootz and Heinz Weihrich feel that 

management is the process of designing and maintain an environment in which individuals 

working together in groups efficiently accomplish selected aim. 

4. Multi objectives : Modern management is not consist with only profit earning, it 

also related with social responsibility. Modern management views employees from the new 

social contract theory. In the changing environment, the traditional concept of lifetime 

employment in single organization has become out dated. Outsourcing of the work is another 

new trend in organizations, with this short term relationship management has to work for 

mutual benefits and convenience. 

38

5. Multi-disciplinary Modern management is concerned with multi : disciplinary 

areas. It is concerned with social, economical, cultural, and political environment of the 

country. It is related with medicine, law, music, engineering etc. Modern management practices 

are very close to psychological or behavioral aspect of the workers. It use quantitative 

techniques for measuring the output of decisions, it applies quantitative and qualitative 

approaches. In short management is an art, as well as science, a profession, which is concerned 

with many disciplines, and areas of knowledge as per the need of the time. 

6. Universal in natures : Modern management practices are of universal nature. 

These theories or approaches are useful in any country in any types of organization and of all 

business sectors. The employer- employee relationship, workers behavior, business problems 

of production, marketing, finance, human resource etc are of same nature and to tackle them 

modern management techniques are used everywhere in all with universal nature. 

7. Based on information : Today’s world is of information technology based. With 

the help of internet and computerized data base the modern managers can anticipate future 

problems in advance with accuracy. Management information system helps to management to 

have up-to-date record and data base for any decision, which helps for analysis and in depth 

study for any problem. Computerized accounting different computer base record keeping also 

helps to modern management to operate its different functions in more efficiently. 

8. Probabilistic Modern management is environmental based. It needs different types 

of estimates, anticipations and forecasting. Due to large number of production, increasing 

competition, changing trend of customer’s etc. probabilistic sale, production, market and 

targeted profits etc. are needed to be anticipated with the most scientific methods of statistics 

and computerized system. 

The above are some important features of modern management. Modern management is 

a management theory or concept which is related with changing organizational environment 

of this 21st century. It tries to help to modern business to cope up with limited resources and 

unlimited demands from the business. The managers have to face all unexpected & unforeseen 

problems with more efficient and successful manner. To study the importance of this modern 

management practices in the changing environment first we have to study the factors which 

effects on business organization. These factors are internal as well as external. Internal 

factors are controllable and can be anticipated, but external factors are uncontrollable in 

nature. Though these factors effects directly or indirectly on the goals of the business, these 

factors and their effects can be reduced with the help of modern management practices. 

Changing organizational Environment : 

(A) Internal Factors : The followings are some of the internal factors which affect the 

environmental changes in the business organizations in this modern era. 

a. Change in Objectives and work-culture : The work-culture of the business is changing 

very rapidly now-a-days. Employer-employee relationship, new technology in production, 

changing techniques of marketing and sale like- Net-marketing tele-shopping etc. have 

changed the basic objectives of the business. Customer satisfaction is more important 

than business profit. 

39

. Changing technology : Automatic machines, computerized machines are changing the 

trends of production, processing and marketing. The limited resources of power have 

forced to adopt new technology for new and emerging needs of the business. 

c. Limitations of power resources The natural resources like oil and fuel, gas, water etc 

have the limited stock. To make their consumption with regenerating technology is must. 

These resources are required to be used with very intensively in every field of business. 

d. Environmental consciousness Due to some health hazards and pollution problems the 

workers are becoming more conscious for environmental factors. The proper preventions 

should be taken while producing the different types of products. Air pollution, waterpollution, 

sound pollution from any type of business is harmful to whole human 

community. 

e. Human resources Human skill is the ability to work with people; it is cooperative effort; 

it is teamwork; it is the creation of an environment in which people feel secure and free 

to express their opinions. 

f. Other physical resources Some other resources like assets of the business like machines, 

loose tools, chemicals etc are also used with some new methods in this changing 

scenario of the business. 

(B) External Factors : 

Natural Resources : These resources are limited in nature. Their exploitation is not 

bearable for any nation. 

Social factors - Changing culture, educational level, standard of living and thinking etc 

are some social factors which also effects upon the trend of business. 

Economical factors - Cycle of the business, change in economic conditions, changing 

taxation policy, purchasing power of the business etc are some economic factors which affect 

the business trend and culture in this business world. 

Technological factors Technical skill is knowledge of and proficiency in activities 

involving methods, processes, and procedures. Thus, it involves working with tools and 

specific techniques. 

Regulatory factors The different economic laws are changing now days. Due to 

international business, global market and international standards of accounting etc. global 

rules are framed in this changing scenario. 

International environment Due to L.P.G policy of the government, the global recession, 

international competition, international market, e-marketing, e-banking changing level of 

customers demand etc. are some of the features of international business environment. 

The above are few factors of changing organizational environment. Considering all 

these internal and external factors the modern management has to play its role as a professional 

advisor, assistant, consultant etc. to survive and to sustain the business world in this changing 

situation. 

40

Importance of Modern Management : 

1) Acquisition and utilization of resources : Management performs efficient acquisition 

effective development and utilization and proper coordination of resources. Modern 

management helps in maintaining proper assets management, finance management, 

human resource management etc. 

2) Environmental adaptation : Management adopts organization to changing environmental 

forces. All the internal organizational factors like- Changing goals, changing workculture, 

pollution free environment, changing technology etc. and external factors like 

limitations of natural resources, natural calamities, global regulatory frame, International 

business etc. the adoption of environmental changes has become the challenges for the 

management of business. 

3) Goal achievement : Management achieves goals by balancing the requirement of jobs 

and people. Maximum profit with maximum customer satisfaction and maximum social 

responsibilities are the main and multiple goals of the businesses. 

4) Problem solving : Management solves organizational problems. It identifies and evaluates 

various alternatives and choose appropriate course of action. The information as a data 

base is collected to study in details all the types of problem. Few modern techniques are 

applied for evaluation and to search for the different options as a solution for such 

problems. 

5) Performance control : Management measures and evaluates the actual performance. 

The control techniques like PERT, CPM, SWOT analysis etc. are used in case of modern 

management. Proper performance control is essential and possible through modern 

management. 

6) Social responsibility : Management anticipates and acts before hand to social 

expectations. All the responsibilities towards all the stake-holders like-employees, 

customers, suppliers, Government etc. can be fulfilled by proper planning and organization 

of employees training, motivation, and welfare activities. The society should be assisted 

by creating job opportunities, welfare activities, charity funds etc. 

Importance of Modern Management in changing environment 

1. Technology: The new economy will base on digital revolution. The development 

in information technology will provide greater access to management. Management will need 

to manage changing technology effectively. New invented machines, automatic and 

computerized machines and technology are useful for best quality product and service. This 

is the need and demand of new era. 

2. Quality: Quality assurance is getting important. In the global market with 

international level of competition the high quality of product with reasonable cost and price 

is possible through modern management system. 

3. Social responsibility: Management will pursue long term goals that are good for 

society. Better quality product and services at reasonable price, better employer-employee 

relationship, better working conditions, social activities from the organizations etc. are the 

long term goals targeted by the modern management. 

41

4. Empowerment: To empower worker is a challenge to management. Proper training 

to cope up with changing technology, work motivation, better treatment by management, 

short term assignments etc. are important things done by the management. 

5. Human resource management: Management needs to deal with diversified work 

force, requires visionary leadership on the part of management. Proper salary, welfare activities, 

training, promotions, placements to new projects are few essential activities for the employees 

from the modern management. 

6. Organization design: Organization will be lean flat and less hierarchical 

7. Cultural sensitivity: Cultural value will change cross cultural influences. 

Organizations are emerging as cultural systems. 

8. Globalilization: Managers need to think globally and act locally. New trends of 

international markets are adopted and maintain by modern management. 

9. Change management : Manager will face the challenge of managing change. 

They will need to aware specific changes and their likely impact on the practice of management. 

10. Learning organization: Management needs to create learning environment. 

Organization of future will be predominantly knowledge based. 

11. Research and Development : Due to modern management practices the new 

research in product, innovative changes, as per the changing demand of customer is possible 

by R&D department of the organization. Proper budgeting for such funds is done in this 

modern system of management. 

The above are few points which indicates importance of modern management in this 

changing environment of the business world. 

42 

��





Factors of Core Competencies 

Core competencies are those capabilities that are critical to a business achieving 

competitive advantage. The starting point for analysing core competencies is recognising that 

competition between businesses is as much a race for competence mastery as it is for market 

position and market power. Senior management cannot focus on all activities of a business 

and the competencies required to undertake them. So the goal is for management to focus 

attention on competencies that really affect competitive advantage. 

1. Adding the values : These areas of expertise may be in any area but are most 

likely to develop in the critical, central areas of the company where the most value is added 

to its products. 

2. Changing Activity : Core Competencies are not seen as being fixed. Core 

Competencies should change in response to changes in the company’s environment. They are 

flexible and evolve over time. As a business evolves and adapts to new circumstances and 

opportunities, so its Core Competencies will have to adapt and change. 

3. Harmonization : Core competency does not relate to one special skill or competence 

of the firm. It is concerned with the co-ordination of multiple skills and multiple streams of 

technologies. 

4. New Business Opportunities : There are many new business opportunities always 

available in the market the organization has to search for them continuously and catch them 

in time. Any business which is always first to search new opportunities will be successful in 

the market and will be at the top position. 

5. Continuous Process : Developing the multiple production skills to add the values 

in product and make it of such a high quality product that the competitors can not imitate it 

easily is a continuous process in core competency system. 

6. Competitively unique : A core competence should be unique in itself. A competence 

should be something that other competitors wish they had within their own business. 

7. Overall- Restructuring : It is possible to develop a core competence with all 

integrated skills and activities by having suitable investment in equipments and special 

training to employees. It also needs the restructuring of management . 

The above are few factors which are considered properly in case of achieving the core 

competency for any organization. 

43 

��




Unit-3 

Corporate Governance and Customer Relationship Management 

(CRM) 

(A) Corporate Governance: Concept- Definitions- Role of Board of Directors in 

Corporate Governance, Role of Shareholders and Auditors in Corporate 

Governance. 

(B) Customer Relationship Management (CRM): Concept, Importance of CRM 

in modern era, e-CRM 

3.0 Learning objectives 


3.2 Concept of Corporate Governance 

3.3 Definitions of Corporate Governance 

3.4 Role of Board of Directors in Corporate Governance 

3.5 Role of Shareholders in Corporate Governance 

3.6 Role of Auditors in Corporate Governance 

3.7 Customer Relationship Management (CRM): The Concept 

3.8 Importance of CRM in modern era 

3.9 e-CRM 

3.10 Key Terms 

3.11 Self-study questions 

3.0 Learning Objectives : 

After studying this unit, the learner will understand ————— 

a) The concept of corporate governance 

b) The important roles played by Board of Directors, Shareholders and Auditors of the 

company in Corporate Governance 

c) The concept of Customer Relationship Management and its importance 

d) The concept of e-CRM 

44


The seeds of corporate governance were laid during the Watergate Scandal that shook the 

presidential House in the United States. However, the corporate governance has gained 

considerable attention over the last few years after the Asian Crisis of 1997 and the collapse of 

Enron in 2001. Both of these events were precipitated by a lack of corporate governance or 

simply control that protected shareholder’s value. Corporate governance is the process structure 

applied to organizations to help protect their stakeholder’s interest, such as government, 

managers, employees and shareholders. 

A corporation is a mechanism established to allow different parties to contribute capital, 

expertise, and labour, for their mutual benefit. The investors/shareholders participate in the 

profits of the enterprise without taking responsibility for the operations. Management runs the 

company without being responsible for personally providing the funds. Directors, as the 

representatives of the shareholders have both the authority and the responsibility to establish 

basic corporate policies and to ensure that they are strictly followed. The term ‘corporate 

governance’ refers to the relationship among these groups in determining the direction and 

performance of the corporation. 

The concept of corporate governance had gained momentum in India in the later half of 

1990s. With the introduction of LPG policy (i.e. Liberalization, Privatization and 

Globalization) on 24 th July 1991, the Government of India had formulated different measures 

to protect the diverse interest of shareholders and stakeholders in the companies. The report 

on Corporate Governance by the Cadbury Committee in the U.K. in 1992 has provoked intense 

consideration of the concept in our country. The report of Cadbury Committee was published 

in December 1992 and from July, 1993 all U.K. companies listed in London Stock Exchange 

were required to state in their annual report the extent of their compliance with the Code of 

Best Practices and the reasons for non-compliances. 

Corporate governance has most recently debated after the corporate fraud by Satyam 

founder and its chairman Mr. Ramlinga Raju. In fact, trouble started brewing at Satyam around 

December, 16 when Satyam announced its decision to buy stakes in Maytas Properties and 

Infrastructure for $ 1.3 billion. The deal was soon called off owing to major discontentment on 

the part of shareholders and plummeting share-price. However, in what has been seen as one 

of the largest corporate frauds in India, Raju confessed that the profits in the Satyam’s books 

of accounts had been inflated and that the cash reserve with the company was minimal. Ironically, 

Satyam had received the Golden Peacock Global Award for Excellence in Corporate Governance 

in 2008 

3.2 Concept of Corporate Governance : 

Good corporate governance of the company is expected by every stakeholder, especially 

by shareholders. Governance is related with the controlling of the activity and controlling of 

45

the corporate sector can be termed as corporate governance. Corporate governance is recently 

emerged concept and has caught the attention of each and every country, investors and corporate 

professional. 

Corporate governance refers to the set of systems, principles and processes by which a 

company is governed. They provide the guidelines as to how the company can be directed or 

controlled such that it can fulfill its goals and objectives in a manner that adds to the value of 

the company and is also beneficial for all stakeholders in the long term. Stakeholders in this 

case would include everyone ranging from the Board of directors, management, shareholders 

to customers, employees and society. Hence the management of the company assumes the role 

of a trustee for all the other stakeholders and operates on their behalf. 

Corporate Governance essentially covers the gamut of activities having direct or indirect 

effect on the health of the enterprise. According to some experts “Corporate governance means 

doing everything better, to improve relations between companies and their shareholders; to 

improve the quality of outside directors; to encourage people to think long-term; to ensure that 

information needs of all stakeholders are met and to ensure that executive management is 

monitored properly in the interest of shareholders.” 

Corporate governance is the practice, which requires transparency, accountability and 

good performance from the corporate executives. It has its strong base from the internal 

management of the company to the shareholders’ value as well as corporate social responsibility. 

3.3 Definitions of Corporate Governance : 

The concept of corporate governance is defined in several ways because it potentially 

covers the entire gamut of activities having direct or indirect influence on the financial health 

of the corporate entities. As a result, different people have come up with different definitions, 

which basically reflect their special interests in the field. Some of them are as follows: 

1) Economist and Noble laureate Milton Friedman defines the Corporate Governance as 

“to conduct the business in accordance with shareholders’ desires while confirming to 

the basic rules of the society embodied in law and local customs.” 

2) Experts of the OECD have defined corporate governance “as the system by which 

business corporations are directed and controlled.” According to them “the corporate 

governance structure specifies the distribution of rights and responsibilities among different 

participants in the corporation, such as, the Board, Managers, Shareholders and other 

stakeholders, and spells out the rules and procedures for making decisions on corporate 

set, and also provides the means of attaining those objectives and monitoring performance." 

3) More recently, in an article published in the June, 21, 1999 issue of the Financial Times, 

J. Wolfensohn, President, World Bank has made more contemporary definition of 

Corporate Governance as follows: 

46

“Corporate Governance is all about promoting corporate fairness, transparency and 

accountability.” 

3.3.1 Importance of corporate governance : 

From the above definitions, it can be understood that the corporate governance possess 

some unique features. It is important from following point of view. 

1) The corporate governance is needed to create a corporate culture of consciousness, 

transparency and openness. 

2) It refers to combination of laws, rules, regulations, procedures and voluntary practices to 

enable the companies to maximize the shareholders’ long-term value. 

3) It leads to increasing customer satisfaction, shareholders’ value and wealth. With increasing 

government awareness the focus is shifted from economic to the social sphere and an 

environment has been created to ensure greater transparency and accountability. It is 

integral to the very existence of a company. 

4) It strengthens investors’ trust and ensures a long-term partnership that helps in fulfilling 

the company’s quest for higher growth and profit. This would ensure that the Indian 

investors are in no way less informed and protected as compared to their counterparts in 

the best developed capital market. 

5) It controls the practices of insider trading by calling upon the companies to provide an 

adequate and timely disclosure, confidentiality norms etc. 

6) It also frames certain code of conduct and specific rules for the directors and employees 

of the company, their reporting requirement and rules to ensure that the material price 

sensitive information is made public and the insiders are abstained from transacting in 

the securities of the company on the basis of such information. 

Now, corporate governance has succeeded in attracting a good deal of public interest 

because of its importance for the economic health of corporations and the welfare of society, 

in general. 

3.3.2 Fundamentals of Good Corporate Governance : 

Many companies after successfully creating value for their shareholders satisfy themselves 

that they are observing good governance practices. Creating value for shareholder is a necessary 

but not the sufficient condition for good corporate governance practices. Good corporate 

governance is based on the three pillars. They are as follows. 

47

Good 

Corporate Governance 

Transparency Accountability Fairness 

of towards in 

Operations Stakeholders Dealings 

(I) Transparency of operations : This means adequate and timely dissemination of 

information by a company of its operations to its stakeholders. These disclosures need not 

necessarily be governed by the rules and regulations imposed by a stock exchange or a security 

market regulator. The company on its own has to come out with adequate and timely disclosures 

of honest anticipation or actual happening of material events affecting the value of the company. 

(II) Accountability towards stakeholders : This means the Board is responsible and 

accountable to its various stakeholders. The issue is: to which class of stakeholders the Board 

should primarily responsible? Good corporate governance practices warrant that the companies 

should adequately compensate and take care of the interests of each class of stakeholders. In 

United States, the Board’s primary responsibility is presumed towards the shareholders. In 

Germany and some of the East Asian economies, the favored stakeholders may be employees, 

suppliers, or lenders etc. 

(III) Fairness in dealing : This is essentially related to ethical behavior of the companies. 

In their attempt to achieve higher returns in the short term, companies often indulge in unethical 

or unfair practices, like tax-evasion, exploiting the labour or the supplier, willful default in 

servicing the debt etc. This is not restricted only at the company level, but is also applicable 

inter se to relationship among the shareholders. For example, a few promoter-management 

groups have been observed to indulge in siphoning off corporate resources to their private 

associates by awarding corporate contacts at artificially high prices, oppressing the minority 

shareholders. A well governed corporate cannot be built on the foundations of such unethical 

means. 

3.4 Role of Board of Directors in Corporate Governance : 

The Board of Directors is the highest governing authority with the management structure 

at any publicly traded company. The Board is the representative of the shareholders and has a 

very big role to play as far as the corporate governance is concerned. The Board’s key 

responsibility is to ensure company’s prosperity by directing its operations. 

48

The Board of Directors provides leadership, strategic guidance and objective judgment, 

independent of management to the company and exercises control over the company, while 

remaining at all times accountable to the shareholders. 

One of the pre-requisites of the good corporate governance system is the efficient 

functioning of the Board of directors. When the Board processes are efficient, they trend to 

lower the cost of capital resulting in higher value for the shareholders. Most of the investors 

(especially shareholders) regard good corporate governance practices as a key concern for 

their investments. Good corporate governance practices tend to reduce the cost of capital of 

the funds, increase the returns to the shareholders and satisfy the other classes of stakeholder. 

They ultimately build lasting investors’ confidence in the market institutions and thus contribute 

creating healthy and robust financial markets. 

3.4.1 Composition of the Board of Directors : 

To ensure the good corporate governance, the composition of the Board of Directors 

should be as mentioned here below. 

Executive, Non-Executive and Promoter Directors : While framing the structure and 

composition of the Board the committee was of the view that the composition of the Board of 

directors is critical to the independent functioning of the board. There should be an optimum 

composition of three classes of directors, the executive directors (like director of finance 

department, director for personnel department etc.) are involved in the day to day management 

of the companies; the non-executive directors bring external and wider perspective and 

independence to the decision making and the promoter directors (Note: Promoters being 

defined by the erstwhile Malegam Committee) 

Mandatory recommendations of Birla Committee regarding composition of Board of 

Directors state that there should be a combination of Executive and Non-Executive Directors. 

Further, the Board should consist of not less than 50% of Non- Executive Directors in case of 

an Executive Chairman and not less than 1/3 rd of Non-Executive Directors in case of a Non- 

Executive Chairman. 

Independent Directors : Additionally, there should be non-executive independent 

directors that would help bring an independent judgment to bear on board’s deliberations 

especially on issues of strategy, performance, management of conflicts and standards to conduct. 

The adequate compensation package should be given to the non-executive independent directors 

so that these positions become sufficiently financially attractive to attract talent and that the 

non executive directors are sufficiently compensated for undertaking this work. 

Nominee Directors : The Birla Committee has recommended that just by providing 

loans to the companies, the Financial Institutions should not be eligible to appoint a nominee 

on the Board of the company but in case of loan default or potential of loan default the financial 

49

institutions may appoint a nominee director on the Board where such appointment is pursuant 

to a right under loan agreements or where such appointment is considered necessary to protect 

the interest of the institution. The nominee of the institutions should assume the same 

responsibility as any other director of the board. 

Chairman of the Board : The Committee is of the view that the Chairman’s role should 

in principle be different from that of the chief executive, though the same individual may 

perform both roles. Given the importance of Chairman’s role, the Committee recommends 

that a Non-Executive Chairman should be entitled to maintain a Chairman’s office at the 

company’s expense and also allowed reimbursement of expenses incurred in performance of 

his duties. This will enable him to discharge the responsibilities effectively. This is however a 

non-mandatory recommendation. 

3.4.2 Alternative Approaches regarding the role of Board of Directors : 

The responsibility of the Board for good corporate governance can be viewed from two 

dimensions. They are 

Guardian of shareholders : One may assume a company to be an entity that raises funds 

and takes investment decisions. This means that the company exists for those who take business 

risk and provide initial capital for running it. Hence, the promoter and the shareholders assume 

the highest stake in the company and therefore the later should primarily be responsible for 

their welfare. This presumes that capital is more scarce or valuable than labour, consumer or 

any other factors of production. This presumes that if capital is utilized efficiently, other factors 

of production will be taken care of. But this is not true for a large number of emerging economies 

and markets. 

Trustee of public resources : Contrary to this, an alternate approach looks at the company 

from a boarder perspective as an entity whose aim is to optimally utilize the societal resources 

for the benefit of the people of the society. The company, through its Board of directors, is 

expected to behave as a trustee of these resources for the development of the society, rather 

than in the interests of particular class of stakeholders. A company and its Board is one of the 

means to achieve the orderly development of the society. The public corporations have made 

immense contribution in development of the trade, business and services in the economy. 

Survival and success of such companies vitally depend on investors’ (shareholders, in particular) 

confidence in these entities and the market in which securities of these entities are traded. It is 

here that the government needs to play a key role in creating the necessary mechanism to build 

and maintain investors’ confidence in corporate sector and financial markets. 

3.4.3 Board of Directors: Role and Responsibilities : 

A corporate has been defined as a nexus of contracts among the stakeholders. The vital 

link of this nexus is a Board of Directors. It is through this apparatus that the company acts. It 

is also known as the heart and mind of the company. Essential functions of the Board include, 

50

· providing strategic direction 

· ensuring compliance of laws 

· implementing adequate internal control and audit functions; and 

· maintaining the higher standards of fairness in its relationship with other stakeholders. 

· strategic direction 

The Board is expected to provide the strategic direction of the company. Members of the 

Board are expected to bring the necessary professional expertise to analyze and anticipate 

future directions of the business. If the company prospers or sinks, it is the Board that takes 

the credit or can be made accountable for the state of affairs of the company. Unfortunately, 

the board’s responsibility in providing strategic direction has been conspicuously missing in 

the current debate of corporate governance. All other functions of the Board mentioned above 

will be of no use, if a Board fails to provide strategic direction to the company. Accountability 

to all the stakeholders, for example, social responsibility, employee welfare, etc. are subservient 

to this function. 

Compliance : The Board should create the necessary systems and processes by which it 

can ensure the compliance with laws of the land. The company needs to pay taxes, levies, 

salaries, debt servicing, etc. as and when they are due. The Board also needs to be vigilant that 

the company is not damaging the environment and has all the necessary permissions for carrying 

out its given operations and activities. While doing so, the Board needs to ensure that the 

company does not violate any provisions of the law. This compliance needs to be observed in 

spirit and not merely in the letter. 

Internal control and systems : The Board generally does not involve itself in the daydo-day 

business. It normally gets periodic reports from the management about company’s 

routine operations. As a trustee of the shareholders’ funds and public resources, the Board is 

expected to put in place adequate internal control and audit systems to ensure fraud-free and 

corruptions. Negligence in discharging this responsibility might lead to holding all the directors 

responsible for the loss to the company and its stakeholders. The Companies Act casts onerous 

responsibility on the Board and the individual directors for not putting in place adequate and 

necessary internal controls and systems. 

Fairness in dealing : The Board is responsible for the dealings of the company with its 

stakeholders. Dealings of the company should be fair and should uphold the highest standards 

of ethical behavior. For ensuring fairness and ethical behaviour, the Board needs to clearly 

communicate up to the lowest level of the organization that only ethical means should be 

adopted to achieve the results and goals. The Board needs to reinforce periodically the corporate 

philosophy related to code of conduct of its employees. It has to ensure that people in the 

51

organization uphold highest level of ethical and fairness standards while dealing inside the 

organization with their fellow members as well as interacting outside the organization with the 

environment. 

The measure of the Board is not simply whether it fulfils its legal requirements but more 

importantly, the Boards’ attitude and the manner it translates its awareness and understanding 

of its responsibilities. An effective corporate governance system is one, which allows the 

Board to perform these dual functions efficiently. The Board of Directors of a company thus 

directs and controls the management of a company and is accountable to the shareholders. 

3.5 Role of Shareholders in Corporate Governance : 

In contemplation of Indian Companies Act, 1956, the shareholders are the owners of the 

company and as such they have certain rights and responsibilities. But in reality companies 

cannot be managed by shareholder referendum. The shareholders are not expected to assume 

responsibility for the management of corporate affairs. A company’s management must be 

able to take business decisions rapidly. Therefore, the shareholders have to necessarily delegate 

many of their responsibilities as owners of the company to the directors who then become 

responsible for corporate strategy and operations. The implementation of this strategy is done 

by a management team. This relationship therefore brings in the accountability of the Boards 

and the management to the shareholders of the company. A good corporate framework is one 

that provides adequate avenues to the shareholders for effective contribution in the governance 

of the company while insisting on a high standard of corporate behavior without getting involved 

in the day to day functioning of the company. 

3.5.1 Responsibilities of Shareholders : 

The General Body Meeting provide an opportunity to the shareholders to address their 

concerns to the Board of directors and comment on and demand any explanation on the annual 

report or on the overall functioning of the company. It is important that the shareholders use 

the forum of general body meetings for ensuring that the company is being properly stewarded 

for maximizing the interests of the shareholders. This is important especially in the Indian 

context. It follows from the above that for effective participation shareholders must maintain 

decorum during the General Body Meetings. The effectiveness of the Board is dependent to 

an extent on the efficiency with which the auditors carry on their duties. The shareholders 

must therefore show a greater degree of interest and involvement in the appointment of the 

directors and the auditors. Indeed, they should demand complete information about the directors 

before approving their directorship. In case of the appointment of a new director or reappointment 

of a director the shareholders must be provided with the following information. A 

brief resume of the director which must include the nature of his expertise in specific functional 

areas; and names of companies in which the person also holds the directorship and the 

membership of committees of the Board. 

52

3.5.2 Shareholders’ Right : 

1) The basic rights of the shareholders include right to transfer and registration of shares, 

obtaining relevant information on the company on a timely and regular basis, participating 

and voting in shareholder meetings, electing members of the Board and sharing in the 

residual profits of the corporation. 

2) The shareholders have a right to participate in, and be sufficiently informed on decisions 

concerning fundamental corporate changes, they should not only be provided information 

as under the Companies Act, but also in respect of other decisions relating to material 

changes such as takeovers, sale of assets or divisions of the company and changes in 

capital structure which will lead to change in control or may result in certain shareholders 

obtaining control disproportionate to the equity ownership. 

3) The information like quarterly results, presentation made by companies to analysts may 

be put on company’s web-site or may be sent in such a form so as to enable the stock 

exchange on which the company is listed to put it on its own we-site. 

4) The half yearly declaration of financial performance including summary of the significant 

events in last six months, should be sent to each household of shareholders. 

5) A company must have appropriate systems in place which will enable the shareholders to 

participate effectively and vote in the shareholders’ meetings. The company should also 

keep the shareholders informed of the rules and voting procedures, which govern the 

general shareholder meetings. The Annual General Meetings (AGM) of the company 

should not be deliberately held at venues or the timing should not be such which makes it 

difficult for most of the shareholders to attend. The company must also ensure that it is 

not inconvenient or expensive for shareholders to cast their vote. 

6) Currently, although the formality of holding the Annual General Meeting (AGM) is gone 

thorough, in actual practice only a small fraction of the shareholders of that company do 

or can really participate therein. This virtually makes the concept of corporate democracy 

illusory. It is imperative that this situation which has lasted too long needs an early 

correction. In this context, for shareholders who are unable to attend the meetings, there 

should be a requirement which will enable them to vote by postal ballot for key decisions. 

7) To speed up the process of share transfers the Board of the company should delegate 

the power of share transfer to an officer, or a committee or to the register and share 

transfer agents. The delegated authority should attend to share transfer formalities at 

least once in a fortnight. 

3.5.3 Institutional Shareholders : 

Institutional shareholders have acquired large stakes in the equity share capital of listed 

Indian companies. They have been in the process of becoming majority shareholders in many 

53

listed companies and own shares largely on behalf of the retail investors. They thus have a 

special responsibility given the weightage of their votes and have a bigger role to play in 

corporate governance as retail investors look upon them for positive use of their voting rights. 

Given the weight of their votes, the institutional shareholders can effectively use their powers 

of influence the standards of corporate governance. 

3.6 Role of Auditors in Corporate Governance : 

The three main areas of audit within a business environment are the Internal Audit function, 

the Audit Committee of the Board of Directors and the role of External Auditors. 

Statutory Audit : The requirement for companies to prepare and publish accounts is an 

important element of the framework of company la; it is often described as part of the price 

paid for the privilege of being a limited company. The audit is regarded as an internal parent 

of this arrangement because the reliability of accounts matters to shareholders, stakeholders 

and potential investors. 

The purpose of financial statements is to provide information about the financial position 

and performance of an enterprise that is useful to a wide range of users. It is used for assessing 

the stewardship role of management and as the basis for a range of economic decisions-whether 

to lend money, invest, or do business. Reliable accounts therefore facilitate dealings between 

businesses and help to reduce the cost of capital. 

It is important, however not to overstate the level of assurance which an audit offers. It 

is, for example, commonly thought that the (external) audit should guarantee detection of 

fraud. Whilst the (external) audit is undoubtedly a significant restriction against fraud, detecting 

organized fraud by management is not easy for the auditors as detecting fraud by employees 

may not be material to the accounts and may be incidental to the purpose of the audit. 

Role of External Auditors : The basic statutory duty of the (external) auditors is to 

report to the shareholders on whether the company’s annual accounts are properly prepared 

and give a true and fair view; and on whether the Director’s report is consistent with the 

accounts. 

The Listings Rules also require Directors to agree with auditors the content of preliminary 

announcement of financial results. 

Finally, auditors are required by auditing standards, to review other financial and nonfinancial 

information in the annual report and to report on any inconsistencies between these 

and the statutory financial statements; and to report privately to the Directors observations on 

internal controls resulting from the audit. 

Independence of External Auditors : Everyone concerned accepts the principle that 

auditors must be objective and thus remain independent from company’s management. Statutory 

provisions, auditing standards and professional guidance. 

54

Audit firms have very strong commercial reasons for preserving a clear reparation for 

independence but there be an attraction to compromise where an audit firm depends on a 

significant proportion of its income on a single client (for whom it conducts the audit). A 

company’s audit committee is an essential safeguard of auditor independence and objectivity. 

The audit committee (authorized by the company’s Board of Directors) should have a key role 

in the provision of financial and, in particular non-financial information to the auditors. 

Auditor’s Liability : The role of the auditors is clearly defined. The information, both 

financial and non-financial, is provided to them by the Board of Directors or the Audit 

Committee. Their liability is thus limited. 

It is clear, however, that while Boards of Directors often seek greater assurance about 

controls and other matters, (external) auditors are inhibited in going beyond their present 

functions because of concerns about the present law on professional liability. Any requirement 

for (external) auditors to undertake surveys of the substance of internal controls and risk 

valuations is neither in the company’s nor (external) auditor’s best interests. It will compromise 

the auditors’ independence potentially diminish the Board of Directors willingness to accept 

responsibility for the affairs of the company and open up the (external) auditor to significant 

liability issues. Finally, and stating the obvious, a company’s Board of Directors should always 

known in much greater detail the products, processes, organization and controls within a 

business. 

Role of Audit Committee : Many companies have an audit committee. This committee 

is appointed by the Board of Directors and, contains non-executive Directors and other functional 

representatives from key functions. 

The audit committee forms the main link with the (external) auditors and provides their 

main link with the Board of Directors. The audit committee acts as a ‘clearing house’ for all 

assessment the risks and opportunities facing the business and for monitoring all the control 

processes that exist within the business. 

Main duties of the audit committee are ……………………………… 

· To consider the appointment of the external auditor, the audit fee, and any question of 

resignation or dismissal of the external auditors. 

· To discuss and agree with the external auditor before the audit commences the nature and 

scope of the audit. 

· To review from time to time the cost effectiveness of the audit and the independence and 

objectivity of the external auditor. 

· To review the submissions to the Board in relation to any audited accounts, focusing 

particularly on: 

· Any changes in accounting policies and practices 

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· Major judgmental areas 

· Significant adjustments resulting from the audit 

· The going concern assumptions 

· Compliance with accounting standards 

· Compliance with Stock Exchange regulations 

· Compliance with legal requirements 

· To discuss problems and reservations arising from the interim and final audits, and any 

matters the auditors wish to discuss (in the absence of management where necessary) 

· To review the external auditor’s management letter and the company’s response. 

· To review, on behalf of the Board of Directors, the company’s system of internal control 

(including financial, operational compliance and risk management) and make 

recommendations to the Board. 

· To review any proposed statement on the Director’s review of the company’s system of 

internal control (including financial, operational compliance and risk management) prior 

to endorsement by the Board. 

· To review, from time to tome, the need for an internal audit function and, where such a 

function exists, review the internal audit programme. 

· To ensure co-ordination between internal and external auditors and to ensure that the 

internal audit function has adequate resources and maintains an appropriate standing 

within the company. 

· To consider the major findings of internal investigations and management’s response. 

· To review the company’s operating, financial and accounting policies and practices. 

· To consider other matters as defined by the Board of Directors. 

· To report on all of the above to the Board of Directors. 

Role of Internal Auditor : The main role of an internal audit function is to support the 

Directors in assessing the effectiveness of key internal controls through a programme of cyclical 

reviews. They also may, from time to time, make specific audits of areas of the business as 

directed by the audit committee or the Board of Directors. 

The main remit is to focus on areas of high risk in the company in order to. 

· Confirm that effective internal control procedures exist to prevent material error or fraud 

and ……. that such procedures are being adhered to. 

· Promote continuous improvements in standards of accounting and control. 

· Improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the company’s internal standards 

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· Enhance the reporting and reliability of financial non-financial information. 

· It is usual for internal audit to have an ‘independent’ remit to have access to all personnel, 

documents etc, that are relevant to the audit process. They are, in short, the policemen of the 

company. Internal Audit has passed through two dominant paradigms and is on the edge of its 

third. In the first paradigm, internal audit focused on observing and counting what was there 

and focused on what was, not what will be. In response to concepts of Corporate Governance, 

it has over the last 8 to 10 years moved on to developing enhanced concepts of controls, 

compliance and internal processes. 

The Board sets the organizational objectives to achieve the organizations strategy (longterm). 

In the last few years, a further shift is being made towards the audit of the total business 

process focusing on risk and opportunity with the Strategic Plan providing the audit universe. 

The audit function is now required to have a wide risk evaluation remit and utilize other 

functions. The origins of all risk evaluation techniques are in management strategic planning. 

Strategic planning tries to take into account the long-term view of operations, opportunities 

and risks and, the longer the view, the more uncertainly that has to be considered as the risk 

environment will change. 

Risk evaluation techniques allows the auditors to design an audit program that tests the 

most important controls or tests the controls at a greater depth or with more thoroughness. 

However, auditing with checklists, without an appreciation of why the auditor is doing some 

particular task is auditing without understanding the risks and possibly without an understanding 

of the business processes either. 

3.7 Customer Relationship Management (CRM) : 

Introduction : Customer Relationship Management, usually abbreviated as CRM, has 

become a strategic initiative in many companies now- a- days. CRM is a widely implemented 

strategy for managing a company’s interactions with customers, clients and sales prospects. It 

involves using technology to organize, automate and synchronize business processes principally 

sales activities but also there for marketing, customer service and technical support. The overall 

goals of CRM are to find, attract and win new clients, nurture and retain those the company 

already has, attract former clients back into the fold, and reduce the cost of marketing and 

client service. 

There are several reasons behind the emergence of CRM. However the following two are 

the most prominent. The first reason is the growth of services sector industries such as mobile 

phones, financial services and airlines which require the integration of pre-sales, sales and 

post-sale customer support. The second reason for the popularity of CRM is affordable advances 

of digital technology. The cost of data storage and processing has been sharply declining and 

the alternative devices like personal computers to communicate, interact and transact with 

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customers have been available. The mobile phones and the Internet emerged as the rich medium 

with enormous worldwide reach. It was further enhanced with the attachment of Internet to 

mobile phones and other wireless access devices. Today, for instance, it is possible to get full 

motion advertisements on mobile phones as well as use them at banks and retailers to do credit 

or debit transactions 

3.7.1 Customer Relationship Management (CRM): The Concept : 

The CRM has been understood in different perspectives. Some scholars and professionals 

regard CRM as ‘relationship’ marketing and customer ‘loyalty programs’ Some others regard 

it as ‘data mining and analytics’ or ‘contact center’ for managing relationship with consumers 

through telephone/e-mail/web etc., while some others view it as ‘a philosophy and the way of 

life for the company to deliver customer satisfaction’. Still some others consider it as ‘post 

sales management’ of customers. 

The concept of CRM is generally understood in the following ways. 

· CRM is a computerized system for identifying, targeting, acquiring and retaining the best 

mix of customers. 

· CRM helps in profiling prospects, understanding their needs, and in building relationships 

with them by providing the most suitable products and enhanced customer service. 

· CRM is specific software that allows a company to measure and control contacts with 

customers. CRM can be used for controlling contacts with a customer either by phones, 

fax, mail and e-mail. The data collected can be used for research and analysis of the 

customer relationship. 

Definition of CRM : There is no universally accepted single definition of CRM. As 

mentioned here above, the CRM can be understood in a variety of ways. However, it is defined 

as follows. 

“CRM is a business strategy directed to understand, anticipate and respond to needs of an 

enterprise and respond to the needs of an enterprise’s current and potential customers in order 

to grow the relationship value” 

Based on the above discussion, it can be understood that CRM consists of’—— 

1) Helping an enterprise to enable its marketing departments to identify and target their best 

customers, manage marketing campaign and generate quality leads for the sales team. 

2) Assisting the organization to improve telesales, account and sales management by 

optimizing information shared y multiple employers, and streamlining existing processes. 

(For example, taking orders using mobile devices) 

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3) Allowing the formation of individualized relationships with customers, with the aim of 

improving customer satisfaction and maximizing profits, identifying the most profitable 

customers and providing them the highest level of service. 

4) Providing employers with the information and processes necessary to know their customers 

understand and identify customer needs and effectively build relationships between the 

company, its customer bas, and distribution partners. 

3.8 Importance of CRM in modern era : 

In today’s highly competitive business world, CRM is becoming the ultimate solution for 

both- customers as well as organizations. The organization has to take pro-active and reactive 

measures to minimize or avoid the loss of customers. The organization must explore the causes 

responsible for losing customers. There may be some price- related, competitor – related and 

even personal causes behind loosing customers. Managing relationships with customers and 

making them delighted has become a necessity in the wake of globalizations, where customer 

delight is the only key to success and to the very existence of the company. 

In the view of the pierce competition, growing e-commerce and ever increasing consumer 

expectations, the CRM shows a company the right way to increase customer loyalty, earn 

higher margins and stronger branding. The CRM helps the business to use technology and 

human resources to gain insight into the behavior of customers and the value of these customers. 

The importance of CRM in the modern era can be understood with the help of following 

points. 

1) CRM helps in understanding customer needs quickly and directly : CRM is one of 

the newest innovations in customer service today. Excellent customer service is about 

being aware of customer needs and reacting to them effectively. CRM helps to understand, 

anticipate and respond to the customers needs in a consistent way, right across the 

organization. Further it leads to simplification of marketing and sales process by 

understanding customers needs 

2) CRM helps in customer data storage and its retrieval : CRM is the best way to collect 

vital data like customer details, customer preferences, order histories, grievances and 

their settlement etc. It helps the organization to create the detailed profiles of its customers. 

The customer database retrieved and delivered instantly to the concerned departments. It 

helps to have company-wide access to customer histories. 

3) Quick and efficient responses to customers’ deals : The CRM is helpful in attracting 

new customers and closing deals faster, through quicker and more efficient responses to 

customers’ deals and customer information. 

CRM is useful to have better and faster communication with existing as well as potential 

customers. 

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4) Increase in revenue : Identifying new selling opportunities using CRM applications can 

lead to increases in revenue from: 

(a) Reductions in operating costs- It cost around much more to handle a customer call 

via a call centre but only it costs much less to handle a customer via a website. 

(b) A higher percentage of cross-selling due to offering a single point of contract with 

the company. 

Through CRM integrated solution, the Sales Executives can access and share accounts 

of customers and contact management information throughout the enterprise, facilitating team 

selling that leads to closing more deals faster. It also allows Sales Executives to effectively 

target their selling efforts to focus on high-value deals and meet revenue targets. 

5) Better customer service : The IT based prompt service to customers has become inevitable 

for business due to intense competition. The contented customers are the true growth 

engines for the business. Broad cliental (customer) base can be created by providing 

prompt and accurate services to the customers. CRM helps to provide better customer 

service through improved responsible and understanding that build customer loyalty and 

decreases customers “churn” 

6) Decision Support : CRM technology allows firms to collect and manage large amounts 

of customer data and then carry out strategies based on that information. Data collected 

through focused CRM initiatives helps firms solve specific problems through their 

customer relationship cycle—the chain of activities from the initial targeting of customers 

to efforts to win them back. Because more data provide companies with important new 

insights into customers needs and behavior allowing them to tailor products to targeted 

customer segments. Information gathered through CRM programs often generates solutions 

to problems outside a company’s marketing functions such as supply chain management 

and new product development. In other words, the CRM supports the management in 

decision-making. 

7) Avoids wastage of time and energy : A strong CRM system helps the firms to avoid 

wastage of time and energy in building relationship with customers. There are plenty of 

web-based CRMs which help the companies in this connection. 

8) Speedy and effective customer service and support applications : The CRM 

applications have gained a major importance for effective customer retention. CRM helps 

in providing superior service to company’s customers. There are a number of applications 

which are typically deployed through a call centre environment or over the Web for selfservice. 

Customer care, incident, defect and order tracking, field service, problem and 

solution database, repair scheduling and dispatching, service request management are 

some of such applications. These CRM applications help organizations to support the 

unique requirements of their customers with greater speed, accuracy and efficiency. 

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9) Automation of marketing applications : CRM improves the marketing management of 

a firm. CRM offers a comprehensive marketing system that supports planning, campaign 

management, execution, Internet support and analysis. Marketing applications automates 

the entire marketing process from demand creation to revenue generation. These 

applications automatically collect campaign results, and track campaign effectiveness 

across different sales channels by market segments and even individual customer results. 

These details enable the marketers to reduce costs while increasing the effectiveness of 

their marketing efforts. 

10) Better Information for better management : The marketing applications are integrated 

with CRM suite as well as the ERP applications (i.e. Enterprise Resource Planning) This 

integration enables marketers to tap into the wealth of data collected through every 

customer ‘touch’ with their company whether through field sales, a call centre, or the 

Web. These data helps the marketers to serve the customers based on any number of 

criteria such as sales cycle, payment preference and purchase frequency and also to tailor 

messages and campaigns with better accuracy for highly focused, individualized marketing 

campaigns. 

11) Addition to customer delightness : The CRM helps the firm in providing enhanced 

customer care, services and customer information management across the organization 

which improves customer satisfaction and loyalty. 

With an end-to-end customer care and service solution, the firms can achieve a full 360 

degree view of their customer. This helps the firms to provide better response to customers 

needs and an ability to extend proactive customer management programs. 

Additionally, the service applications enable the firm’s customers to communicate with 

the firm through many different venues, webs, call centers and directly with field representatives. 

In other words, the CRM offers customers the flexibility in interacting with the company and 

transparency too. This ultimately, enhances the customer delightness. 

The CRM is also important for—— 

(a) Providing qualitative and efficient pre-sale, during sale and after-sale services to customers 

(b) Reducing the overall costs of nurturing and retaining the existing customers and finding 

new customers 

(c) Promptly attending the customers 

(d) Increasing the overall profitability of the firm 

(e) Building good image of the firm in society 

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3.9 e-CRM : 

The concept of eCRM is derived from e-commerce. It also uses net environment i.e. 

intranet, extranet and internet. Electronic CRM consists of all forms of managing relationships 

with customers making use of Information Technology. 

eCRM is enterprises using IT to integrate ‘internal organization resources’ and ‘external 

marketing strategies’ to understand and fulfill their customers’ needs. Comparing with 

traditional CRM, the integrated information for eCRM intra-orgnisational collaboration can 

be more efficient to communicate with customers. 

As the internet is becoming more and more important in business life, many companies 

consider it as an opportunity to reduce customer-service costs, tighten customer relationships 

and most important, further personalize marketing messages and enable mass customization. 

eCRM is being adopted by companies because it increases customer loyalty and customer 

retention by improving customer satisfaction, which is the important objective of eCRM. Eloyalty 

results in long-term profits for online retailers because they incur less costs of recruiting 

new customers, plus they have an increase in customer retention. 

Definition : Nenad Jukic “eCRM is the activities to manage customer relationships by 

using the Internet, Web browsers or other electronic touch points. The challenge hereby is to 

offer communication and information on the right topic, in the right amount and at the right 

time that fits the customers’ specific needs.” 

Three Dimensions in eCRM : Effective eCRM is always based on the following three 

dimensions. 

1) Acquisition getting (increasing number of new customers) 

2) Expansion (increasing profitability by encouraging customers to purchase more products 

and services) 

3) Relation (increasing the amount of time customers stay as customers) 

Features of eCRM 

eCRM has the following features. 

1) eCRM implies capabilities like self-service knowledge bases, automated email response, 

personalization of Web content, on-line product bundling and pricing 

2) eCRM gives internet users the ability to interact with the firm through their preferred 

communication channel 

3) eCRM allows business to offset expensive customer service agents with technology 

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4) eCRM puts much emphasis on the customer satisfaction and reduced cost through 

improved efficiency 

5) eCRM use customer data for personalization, cross-selling and up-selling 

6) Sales Force Automation (SFA) and Enterprise Marketing Automation (EMA) is integrated 

in eCRM 

Steps in the eCRM life cycle : 

1) Data Collection: About customers’ preference information via website, e-mail, and 

questionnaire etc. 

2) Data Aggregation: Filtering and analyzing the data for firm’s needs to meet their 

customers’ needs. 

3) Customer Interaction: According to customers needs, company provides the proper 

feedback to them. 

3.10 Key Terms : 

(1) Corporate: The industrial and commercial establishment in which the interest of public 

at large in involved and registered under Indian Companies Act as Public Limited Company 

(2) Governance: Regulation of activities/ operations of a Public Limited Company 

(3) Corporate Governance: A set of systems, principles and processes by which a company 

is governed. 

(4) CRM: Crating and maintaining relationship with customers 

(5) eCRM: Customer Relationship Management by using Information Technology (Web, 

Internet, email and so on) 

3.11 elf-study questions : 

Q 1 : Short Answer Type Questions 

1) Explain the concept of Corporate Governance 

2) Bring out the importance of Corporate Governance 

3) What are the fundamentals of Corporate Governance? 

4) Explain the concept of customer Relationship Management. 

Q. 2 : Broad Questions. 

1) Define corporate Governance. Explain the role of share holders in corporate 

governance. 

2) Explain in detail the role of Board of Directors in corporate governance. 

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3) Elucidate the role of Auditors in corporate governance. 

4) What do you mean by customer Relationship Management (CRM)? Explain the 

importance of CRM in modern times. 

Q. 3 : Short Notes. 

a) e-CRM 

b) Concept of Corporate Governance 

c) Importance of CRM 

d) Features of eCRM 

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Characteristics of Organizational Environment 

Characteristics of Organizational Environment : 

The important characteristics of environment are as follows. 

1. Surrounding Situation : The environment means surrounding situation around the 

organization. The organization is a part of this environment. No organization can function in 

isolation. Every organization has to work and to perform its functions and activities in this 

surrounding situation. The surrounding situation includes economic, social, political, cultural, 

technological factors. 

2. Dynamic : The organizational environment can never be static. It is always changing. 

As the regular changes are taken place in organizational environment it is called dynamic. The 

magnitude and degree of influences of different factors of environment undergo a change from 

time to time. Similarly the interaction of these components of environment also changes 

overtime. 

3. Complex : The environment consists of many factors, events, conditions, and 

influences arising from different factors or sources. All these factors/ sources do not exist in 

isolation, but they are interlinked. These factors always interact with each other. They are so 

intermingled with each other that it is difficult to say which factors constitute a given 

environment. Thus, environment is a complex phenomenon which is easier to understand in 

parts, but difficult to grasp in its totality. 

4. Multi-faceted : The organizational environment has many dimensions. The same 

change in the same environmental factor may have different effects for different organizations; 

negative to some organizations and at the same time positive to some other organizations. 

Further, the changes in environment are perceived differently by different people and 

organizations and therefore, the possible shape and character of environment depends on the 

perception of the observer of the environment. How environment appears may depend upon 

analysis and assumptions of the observer. Thus, what and how observer sees, analyses the 

influences of the environment decides the nature and form of environment. 

5. Far-reaching Impact : The change in environmental factors has a far-reaching 

impact on organizations. Environmental compatibility is an essential and important prerequisite 

of a good organization. Therefore, any organization which does not develop its plans and 

policies, strategies and practices suitable and appropriate to the environment may not succeed 

and survive in the market. 

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6. Uncertainty : All environmental factors change. But it can not be correctly predicted 

when and how a particular change would take place and how long would it persist. The changing 

events and conditions of environment can be forecasted to a certain limit, but there is an 

uncertainty in all these changing factors because accurate forecast is not possible about such 

changes. 

7. Mixed : The nature of environment factors is mixed. Therefore, the economic, social, 

political, cultural, legal, natural and technological etc. environment cannot be studied in isolation 

as many of these environment factors are mixed in each other. Many times, the change in one 

factor of environment stimulates the change in the other factor. There would be an unbroken 

chain of such stimulated changes. 

8. Creation of Framework : Environment factors and changes in them create a 

framework for a variety of activities of business. This framework clearly indicates the 

opportunities and threats for business. The organization has to work within that framework. 

9. Adaptability : Some environment factors are under control but some factors 

especially external environment factors are beyond the control of organization. Therefore, 

organization has to change its direction of business activities according to changes in the 

environment. Thus organization has to adapt its activities according to changing conditions. 

The organization has to modify or alter or sometime scrap its old policies in order to get 

adjusted with the changing environment. 

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B. Com. Part-III Advanced Accountancy Paper I ... - Shivaji University

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