ECOWAS and Conflict Prevention in West Africa - Center on ...
ECOWAS and Conflict Prevention in West Africa - Center on ...
ECOWAS and Conflict Prevention in West Africa - Center on ...
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However, c<strong>on</strong>siderably more work needs to be d<strong>on</strong>e to<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the complexities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> complementarities that<br />
are beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to emerge am<strong>on</strong>g different smuggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
networks.<br />
1.6 expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the resilience of salw & Drugs<br />
to C<strong>on</strong>trol Measures<br />
A useful start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t for underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the survivability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resilience of the sALw <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drugs trade across west<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g> despite c<strong>on</strong>sistent nati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sub-regi<strong>on</strong>al efforts,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al engagement, is by exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
networks of social capital that underp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these activities. we<br />
have chosen to use social capital an explanatory paradigm<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g a host of other possible reas<strong>on</strong>s as offer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
best prism through which to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developments<br />
relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to weap<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. while different<br />
def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s of social capital exist, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this paper, the term<br />
primarily means social relati<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> trust <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the development of norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> values that support<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are supported by such social relati<strong>on</strong>s. Thus, we<br />
def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e social capital as the number, diversity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strength<br />
of the social relati<strong>on</strong>s ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
complex processes of narcotics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sALw traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> its<br />
more general sense as applied by Robert Putnam, it means<br />
the pervasiveness of particular norms of reciprocity, the<br />
assurance of pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciples <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rules of practice. <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the end,<br />
Putnam ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, social capital denotes characteristics<br />
of social organizati<strong>on</strong> such as networks, norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
trust. 57 These facilitate coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
for mutual benefit, which are created over a l<strong>on</strong>g time.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a practical sense, therefore, traffickers with betterperform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
networks traffic more drugs than is presently<br />
known, as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> provided so far is <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicative<br />
of the general trends <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sub-regi<strong>on</strong>. These networks,<br />
we argue, should be understood as a substitute for formal<br />
market-support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Through such social capital, a sense of community<br />
closeness am<strong>on</strong>g traffickers is fostered which provides<br />
a protective mechanism with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the communities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which they operate. The apparent ability of sALw <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
drugs traffickers to operate, exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their operati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
while c<strong>on</strong>currently outwitt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the law can be expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
by a str<strong>on</strong>g sense of social capital that represents the<br />
norms of mutual engagement that ensures reciprocity,<br />
although not necessarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>alized forms of<br />
reciprocal expectati<strong>on</strong>s. this sense of social capital <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
reciprocity, we argue, is a major reas<strong>on</strong> why salw <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
drugs traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g has survived <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is protected by the<br />
communities with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they are located. Basically,<br />
the reality of the public discourse <strong>on</strong> drugs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sALw<br />
traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all ECowAs member states is that, while <strong>on</strong>e<br />
group see this as a threat, another sees it as an important<br />
part of their means of livelihood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> achiev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g societal<br />
status.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>ceptually, the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t is how to resolve such compet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> clash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g perceptual agendas.<br />
A sec<strong>on</strong>d major argument is that because a degree<br />
of social capital exists <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all the communities where<br />
such sALw <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drugs traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g occur, enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
‘closed’ world of traffickers is not <strong>on</strong>ly difficult but can<br />
be dangerous to outsiders. <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this particular bus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess,<br />
there tends to be some amount of mutual trust that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
turn promotes cooperati<strong>on</strong> between local communities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> societal ec<strong>on</strong>omic actors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process of shared<br />
knowledge, growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic sp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-offs. Thus, the<br />
levels of cooperati<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g different stakeholders<br />
that have been experienced throughout west <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>, is<br />
also aided by the frequency of social capital, which are<br />
‘features of social organizati<strong>on</strong> such as networks, norms,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trust that facilitate coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperati<strong>on</strong>.’ 58<br />
How <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> why have sALw <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drugs traffickers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
ECowAs sub-regi<strong>on</strong> managed to survive the <strong>on</strong>slaught of<br />
successive governmental agencies that have c<strong>on</strong>sistently<br />
seen them as a threat to both state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> societal security?<br />
Available evidence suggests that social capital plays an<br />
important role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process of supply, sale <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> profits<br />
accru<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from the sale of sALw <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drugs. stocks of<br />
social capital <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the form of associati<strong>on</strong>al activity, social<br />
networks, trust <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavioral norms can be l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to<br />
improved output <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> better performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of<br />
growth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> productivity at the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> group enterprise levels. the role of social capital<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the processes of salw <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> narcotics traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> west africa is quite complex, hence, a thorough<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of this dynamic is critical for nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
governments, eCowas <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al partners<br />
seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to deal with the tw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vices. The logical<br />
first step would be to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the dynamics that<br />
underp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s sAwL <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> drug traffick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> west <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
studies of unemployment trends, especially am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
youths, social associati<strong>on</strong>s both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sub-regi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
diasporas would go a l<strong>on</strong>g way <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> shedd<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g light <strong>on</strong> how<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> why these networks have proved so resilient.<br />
ECowAs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>C<strong>on</strong>flict</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Preventi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> west <str<strong>on</strong>g>Africa</str<strong>on</strong>g>: C<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Triple Threats<br />
13<br />
NYU<br />
CIC