the inhibitory properties of and mode of action of plant essential oils ...

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Table 1.1 Plant oils with known action against parasites. FAMILY BOTANICAL NAME VULGAR NAME PARASITE(S) AFFECTED Alliaceae Allium sativum Garlic G. duodenalis (syn. intestinalis and lamblia), L. major, L. colosoma, C. fasculata, Cryptosporidium spp., T. gallinarum, H. meleagridis, P. berghei, T. brucei brucei, T. b. rhodesiense, T. b. gambiense, T. evansi, T. congolense, T. equiperdum, T. cruzi, E. histolytica Annonaceae Hexalobus crispiflorus ? P. falciparum Pachypodanthium confine Bohingo P. falciparum Xylopia aethiopica African Guinea Pepper P. falciparum Xylopia phloidora Bolando P. falciparum Asteraceae Achillea millefolium Yarrow T. cruzi Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium Epazote / Jesuit’s L. amazonensis ambrosioides Tea Cochlospermaceae Cochlospermum False Cotton / P. falciparum planchonii N’Dribala Euphorbiaceae Antidesma laciniatum ? P. falciparum Croton cajucara Sacaca L. amazonensis Lamiaceae Melissa officinalis Lemon Balm T. brucei, L. major Ocimum Wild / African P. berghei, H. contortus, T. cruzi gratissimum Basil C. elegans Ocimum sanctum Sacred E. hartmanni, E. nana, B. Oreganum vulgare Balm/Basil hominis, P. humanus capitis, E. Oregano tenella, T. cruzi ? = Name unknown Tetradenia riparia Thymus vulgaris Nutmeg Bush Thyme 12 P. falciparum P. humanus capitis, T. cruzi, G. duodenalis Lauraceae Cinnamomum zeylanicum Cinnamon T. gallinarum and H. meleagridis Loganiaceae Strychnos spinosa Spiny Monkey Orange T. brucei Myristiceae Virola surinamensis Light Virola P. falciparum Myrtaceae Melaleuca alternifolia Tea Tree T. brucei Syzygium aromaticum Clove T. cruzi Poaceae Cymbopogon citratus Lemon Grass P. berghei, T. cruzi Ranunculaceae Nigella sativa Black Seed/Cumin Schistosoma mansoni Rutaceae Citrus limon Lemon T. gallinarum and H. meleagridis
Table 1.2 Plant oils that demonstrate cytotoxic activity. FAMILY BOTANICAL NAME VULGAR NAME 13 REF. Alliaceae Allium sativum Garlic (Joseph, Rao and Sundaresh 1989; Musk, Clapham and Johnson 1997) Annonaceae Pachypodanthium Bohingo (Boyom et al. 2003) confine Xylopia aethiopica Cochlospermaceae Cochlospermum planchonii African Guinea Pepper False Cotton/ N’Dribala (Boyom et al. 2003; Gonzalez- Coloma et al. 2002; Nakanishi et al. 2003; Zeng et al. 2003) (Benoit-Vical et al. 1999; Benoit-Vical et al. 2003; Vonthron-Senecheau et al. 2003) Euphorbiaceae Antidesma laciniatum ? (Boyom et al. 2003) Croton cajucara Sacaca (Anazetti et al. 2003; Freire et al. 2003; Rodriguez & Haun 1999; Agner et al. 2001 and 1999) Lamiaceae Melissa Lemon Balm (Ballard et al. 2002; Mikus et officinalis al. 2000) Menthe piperita Peppermint (Gaworski et al. 1994; Lazutka et al. 2001; Nair 2001; Spindler & Madsen 1992; Vo, Chan and King 2003) Thymus vulgaris Thyme (Haroun, Mahmoud and Adam 2002; Wang et al. 1999) Myriceae Eucalyptus Eucalyptus (Darben, Cominos and Lee globulus 1998; De Vincenzi et al. 2002; Gouin & Patel 1996; Patel & Wiggins 1980; Schnitzler, Schon and Reichling 2001) Myristicaceae Myristica Nutmeg (Banerjee et al. 1994; fragrans Hallstrom & Thuvander 1997; Janssens et al. 1990; Pecevski et al. 1981; Sangalli & Chiang 2000) Myrtaceae Eugenia Clove (Abdo et al. 2001; Simpson caryophyleta 1998) Melaleuca Tea Tree (Del Beccaro 1995; Jacobs & alternifolia Hornfeldt 1994; Schnitzler, Schon and Reichling 2001; Soderberg, Johansson and Gref 1996) Ranunculaceae Nigella sativa Black Seed/ (Mansour et al. 2001; Worthen, Cumin Ghosheh and Crooks 1998; Zaoui et al. 2002; Ali & Blunden 2003) Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa Turmeric (Chan, Chi-Tang and Hsing 1995; Deshpande et al. 1998; Kandarkar et al. 1998) ? = Name unknown.
Page 1 and 2: A thesis submitted in partial fulfi
Page 3 and 4: ABSTRACT The main aims and objectiv
Page 5 and 6: ABBREVIATION LIST 1DE: 1-dimensiona
Page 7 and 8: ml -1 : Per millilitre MgCl2: Magne
Page 9 and 10: FIGURE AND TABLE LIST CHAPTER 1 - I
Page 11 and 12: Figure 4.9 Incubation of T. cruzi e
Page 13 and 14: Life cycle.........................
Page 15 and 16: Effect of oil constituents on viabi
Page 17 and 18: 4:3.3 Epimastigote culture analysis
Page 19 and 20: 7:1 ABSTRACT.......................
Page 21 and 22: CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1
Page 23 and 24: ecome resistant to both chloroquine
Page 25 and 26: Leptomonas colosoma, Crithidia fasc
Page 27 and 28: viability of a population) determin
Page 29 and 30: changes in phospholipid composition
Page 31: killed by garlic (Zenner et al. 200
Page 35 and 36: arouse, until the stomach was clear
Page 37 and 38: Dermatological reactions Many plant
Page 39 and 40: 2002). With industrialised nations,
Page 41 and 42: elongation and joining of large cyt
Page 43 and 44: the ER is the formation and folding
Page 45 and 46: of the cysts through the stomach ex
Page 47 and 48: Figure 1.5 Life-cycle of G. duodena
Page 49 and 50: Cryptosporidium is an apicomplexan
Page 51 and 52: Table 1.4 - Continued Species of Cr
Page 53 and 54: Upon excystation, sporozoites attac
Page 55 and 56: MacKenzie et al. 1994b). However, a
Page 57 and 58: Figure 1.7 Life-cycle of C. parvum.
Page 59 and 60: identified by the relative position
Page 61 and 62: Amastigote These replicative stages
Page 63 and 64: Life Cycle The sylvatic cycle start
Page 65 and 66: Acute phase An intense and localise
Page 67 and 68: inflammatory reactions induced by t
Page 69 and 70: 1:8 Research Hypothesis Little scie
Page 71 and 72: able to identify them molecularly a
Page 73 and 74: CHAPTER 2 Giardia duodenalis The in
Page 75 and 76: 2:2 INTRODUCTION The protozoan para
Page 77 and 78: example, the understanding of antig
Page 79 and 80: Jassim & Naji 2003) and more recent
Page 81 and 82: 2:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.3.1 Par
Page 83 and 84:
concentration equivalent to 0.02% v
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whole oil respectively. Elemi oil c
Page 87 and 88:
Plus Protein standard; unstained; 1
Page 89 and 90:
2:4 RESULTS Ethanol and DMSO titrat
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Figure 2.1 In vitro viability of G.
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and elemi was 0.005% although > 80%
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Trypan Stained / Non-viable Trophoz
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(10.90%). Whilst both the main cons
Page 99 and 100:
Incubation of G. duodenalis trophoz
Page 101 and 102:
Trophozoite protein profiling by SD
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used in this protein analysis exper
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MIC of 0.005%. This phenomenon was
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Effect of elemi oil on viability as
Page 109 and 110:
0.05). This effect though, was less
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kDa 50- 37- 50- 37- 50- 37- MW G HK
Page 113 and 114:
2:5 DISCUSSION These experiments we
Page 115 and 116:
Using microscopic evaluation of par
Page 117 and 118:
cell death may have been initiated,
Page 119 and 120:
Using this information, investigati
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flavanones, anthocyanidins and isof
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protein was also abolished in elemi
Page 125 and 126:
CHAPTER 3 Cryptosporidium parvum In
Page 127 and 128:
3:2 INTRODUCTION The enteric parasi
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disease in extraintestinal location
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constituents and speed of activity.
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(empty), partially excysted and int
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and incubated for a further 1, 4 or
Page 137 and 138:
3:4 RESULTS 3:4.1 Acidification exp
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When compared with MD, the IOWA iso
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with incubation at 5ºC (-0.5 ± 1.
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constituent in palmarosa oil which
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Spontaneous Excystation Rate (%) 10
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3:5 DISCUSSION Interventions in the
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When these acid treated oocysts wer
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PEOs augment the effect of temperat
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spontaneous excystation within 4 h.
Page 155 and 156:
Trans-anethole is used as a flavour
Page 157 and 158:
CHAPTER 4 Trypanosoma cruzi The act
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4:2 INTRODUCTION The disease caused
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It is clear that alternative therap
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analyse the activity of 12 differen
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µl of parasites. One 96 well plate
Page 167 and 168:
Incubation of T. cruzi epimastigote
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4:4 RESULTS Comparison of incubatio
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MTS Absorbance (492nm) 1 0.9 0.8 0.
Page 173 and 174:
Page 175 and 176:
A B Absorbance (492nm) Trypan Stain
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Titration of PEOs As all the PEOs a
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0.02% 0.01% 0.005% 0.0025% 0.00125%
Page 181 and 182:
Page 183 and 184:
Trypan Stained / Non-viable Epimast
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published concerning the trypanocid
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using the MTS assay, where a lack o
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With myrtle, 2 constituents working
Page 191 and 192:
mixed with inert carrier oils such
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5:1 ABSTRACT The protozoan parasite
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37ºC over a 24 h period, in the ab
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against Cryptosporidium with any su
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polyphenol content of PRBE was 920
Page 201 and 202:
5:4 RESULTS Polyphenolic content of
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Figure 5.1 A Viable and dead G. duo
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Effect of FB, BB and PRBE on the sp
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5:5 DISCUSSION Here it is shown tha
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spontaneous excystation observed (F
Page 211 and 212:
certain concentration is exceeded (
Page 213 and 214:
6:1 ABSTRACT Current conventional t
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Flavonoids and phenolic acids form
Page 217 and 218:
efore any dilutions in TYI-S-33 cou
Page 219 and 220:
6:4 RESULTS Incubation of G. duoden
Page 221 and 222:
Trypan Stained / Non-viable Trophoz
Page 223 and 224:
6:5 DISCUSSION It was demonstrated
Page 225 and 226:
vitro, is not due to the degradatio
Page 227 and 228:
CHAPTER 7 The examination of latrin
Page 229 and 230:
7:2 INTRODUCTION The examination of
Page 231 and 232:
7:3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 7:3.1 Sou
Page 233 and 234:
Figure 7.2 Excavation of Soutra Ais
Page 235 and 236:
7:3.2 Sample preparations Formol et
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magnet. The tubes were rocked throu
Page 239 and 240:
Using the methods of Smith et al. (
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incubated at 55°C for 3 h in a wat
Page 243 and 244:
RNA Cryptosporidium gene to determi
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concentration recommended in publis
Page 247 and 248:
7:4 RESULTS Microscopic examination
Page 249 and 250:
Figure 7.6 Fluorescence staining of
Page 251 and 252:
These slurries were subjected to IM
Page 253 and 254:
Figure 7.10 PCR analysis for Crypto
Page 255 and 256:
Pike 1967 & 1968; Jones 1982; Aspoc
Page 257 and 258:
the digestion enzymes DraI and AseI
Page 259 and 260:
CONCLUSIONS This series of experime
Page 261 and 262:
distortion, blebbing and increased
Page 263 and 264:
trophozoites and Trypanosoma epimas
Page 265 and 266:
Reduviid bug is a means of entry fo
Page 267 and 268:
anticryptosporidial activity may be
Page 269 and 270:
Historically, many PEOs and extract
Page 271 and 272:
REFERENCES Abdo, K.M., Cunningham,
Page 273 and 274:
Anthony, J-P., Fyfe, L. Smith, H.V.
Page 275 and 276:
Best, M., Sattar, S.A., Springthorp
Page 277 and 278:
in the chronic phase of experimenta
Page 279 and 280:
entidade morbida do homem. Memorias
Page 281 and 282:
Current, W.L., Upton, S.J. and Hayn
Page 283 and 284:
Elliot, B.C., Wisnewski, A.V., John
Page 285 and 286:
Ferreira, L.F., Britto, C., Cardoso
Page 287 and 288:
Gillin, F.D., Reiner, D.S. and Bouc
Page 289 and 290:
Hashmey, R., Smith, N.H., Cron, S.,
Page 291 and 292:
Hunter, P.R. and Syed, Q. 2001. Com
Page 293 and 294:
Kim, H.C. & Healey, J.M. 2001. Effe
Page 295 and 296:
Le Bourhis, B. 1968. Preliminary re
Page 297 and 298:
ornidazole. Transactions of the Roy
Page 299 and 300:
Moo-Puc, R.E., Mena-Rejon, G.J., Qu
Page 301 and 302:
length polymorphism assay. Applied
Page 303 and 304:
Pecevski, J., Savkovic, D., Radivoj
Page 305 and 306:
Reduker, D.W. & Speer, C.A. 1985. F
Page 307 and 308:
Rothhammer, F., Allison, M., Nuñez
Page 309 and 310:
Sgambatti de Andrade, A.L., Zicker,
Page 311 and 312:
Sosa Estani, S., Segura, E.L., Ruiz
Page 313 and 314:
Tyler, K.M. and Engman, D.M. 2001.
Page 315 and 316:
Wang, M., Kikuzaki, H., Lin, C.C.,
Page 317 and 318:
Yasunaka, K., Abe, F., Nagayama, A.
Page 319 and 320:
Family: Burseraceae, Commiphora myr
Page 321 and 322:
Family: Lamiaceae, Pogostemon cabli
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Family: Rutaceae, Amyris balsamifer
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Family: Ericaceae, Vaccinium vitis-
Page 327 and 328:
Family: Rosaceae, Rubus fruticosus
Page 329 and 330:
Family: Rosaceae, Sorbus aucuparia
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Appendix 5. SDS-Polyacrylamide gel
Page 353 and 354:
5. When the glass plates are in pla
Page 355 and 356:
Appendix 6: Incubation of G. duoden
Page 357 and 358:
Appendix 8. Agarose gel electrophor
Page 359:
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