The Linguistics Journal September 2009 Special Edition Language

The Linguistics Journal – September 2009
the centre of our social world (Kramsch, 1993; 1998; Gumperz, 2003; Scollon and Scollon, 2001). As
Gumperz (2003: 215) states discourse is currently the prime site for the study of culture and language.
In lingua franca situations the relationships between specific languages and cultures are unlikely
to entail a straight forward target language – target culture correlation. This brings into question the
perceived inexorable link between cultures and languages as proposed by linguistic relativity (Whorf,
1939; Gumperz and Levinson, 1993). Critical approaches are needed which incorporate the fluid and
dynamic nature of intercultural communication, and the manner in which languages and cultural forms
and references function in them.
Risager (2006; 2007) argues that in global contexts a language and culture are not inexorably
linked. She draws an important distinction between languages and cultures at a ‘generic’ general level
and at a ‘differential’ level. At the generic level the links between language and culture are, as linguistic
relativity proposed, inexorable with languages always enacting and embodying cultures. However, in the
differential sense specific languages such as English are not necessarily tied to specific cultures. In
examining what she refers to as the global flows and global complexities of language use and social
groupings, Risager proposes that languages are changed and adapted to the local needs and contexts of
their users and not fixed to defined social and cultural groupings. Rather the links between a language
and its cultural references are made new in each instance of communication and in relation to each
participant. Therefore, English used as a lingua franca does not necessarily embody English native
speaking cultures, but the meanings of its users and the surrounding context in which it is used.
The notion of global flows is taken up by Pennycook (2007) in his study of global hip-hop
cultures, including Asia, and the English language. He demonstrates the manner in which English is
moulded to the cultural contexts of its users, while at the same time influencing and changing those
contexts. However, the process does not stop there. Pennycook suggests that these local adaptations of
languages, cultural forms and practices are then in turn sent back out into global contexts where the cycle
of change continues. Canagarajah (2005; 2007), whose writings deal extensively with Asian Englishes,
also draws attention to the tensions between the global and the local resulting in the flow, flux and fixity
of linguistic and cultural forms. For Canagarajah this means a re-evaluation of English language use and
The Linguistics Journal – Special Edition Page 18