D10: Impact of Contaminants - Hydromod

Integrated Water Resource Management for Important Deep European Lakes and their Catchment Areas 

EUROLAKES 

D10: Impact of Contaminants 


Work package No. 32: Impact of Contaminants 

Lead contractor: HYDROMOD 

Main objective: Strategies 

Strategic leader: Dominique Fontvieille (CAR) 

Responsible task leader: Kurt Duwe (HYD) 

Main contributor involved: Organisation and E-Mail 

Simon Weyrer (PuP) weyrer@pap.co.at 

Ulrike Sydow (HYD) sydow@hydromod.de 

Kurt Duwe (HYD) duwe@hydromod.de 

Eckard Hollan (ISF) isf.eurolakes@lfula.lfu.bwl.de 

Dieter Boymanns (IPT) dieter.boymanns@jrc.es 

Dissemination level: Confidential 

FP5_Contract No.: EVK1-CT1999-00004 

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Date: 25/07/01 

File: D10-vers.4.0.doc 

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1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Water is on one hand an irreplaceable and life-supporting element of all life, not only 

human, but plant and animal life as well, and of ecosystems as a whole. Undeveloped 

and unpolluted wetlands, in turn, are the single most important precondition for the 

protection of biodiversity. On the other hand water is also valued as a resource. Surface 

and groundwater have manifold economic uses, be it for industry, agriculture, shipping, 

mining and many others, and of course as a source of drinking water. 

Therefore any water management initiative should be founded as complete as possible 

on a understanding of the water resource system to which it applies. Water is first of all 

a natural resource and the sustainable management of that resource calls for an improved 

understanding of the aquatic ecosystems. Water is a resource which is essentially 

best managed at local water basin level but there are common grounds in water 

resource development across Europe, and numerous interactions – environmental, as 

well as socio-economic – are well beyond the scope of action taken at the local or regional 

level. This leads to a call for European directives and frameworks to guide management 

decisions at the various levels. 

This report of the European Fifth Framework Programme project EUROLAKES summarises 

the impacts of contaminants on aquatic ecosystems with respect to great deep 

lakes and, while the more obvious signs of water pollution, fish kills and foam floating 

on the surface, are fortunately seldom encountered in European lakes today, more 

subtle biological effects have been the focus of this study. Trace quantities of endocrine 

disrupting chemicals, for instance, have been shown to interfere with the hormone 

regulation of fish and molluscs, leaving them infertile. Hazardous chemicals such as 

these may be made responsible for declining fish catches in several European countries, 

yet the exact mechanisms of action are extremely difficult to identify. Only a precautionary 

approach preventing the continued release of potentially hazardous substances 

into the environment can solve this problem. 

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have caused particular concern because they 

may interfere with the normal function of the hormonal systems also of humans. Endocrine 

disrupting properties are found in several classes of chemicals released into the 

environment such as some insecticides and fungicides, some phthalate plasticizers, dioxins 

and anti-fouling paints. Speculation has linked exposure to EDCs to a range of 

effects in humans and animals from falling sperm counts to increases in testicular cancer 

all of which has fuelled public concern. Humans are exposed daily to chemicals that 

have been shown or suggested to have hormone-disrupting properties. Speculation has 

linked this to a range of disorders. Whilst high levels of exposure to some EDCs could 

theoretically increase the risk of such disorders, no direct evidence is available at present. 

Trends in the incidence of some of these disorders are difficult to discern and, 

when they are found, are difficult to interpret because of inconsistencies in method. 

EDCs are but one of a variety of potential risk factors, both environmental and genetic. 

Despite the uncertainty, it is prudent to minimise exposure of humans, especially pregnant 

women, to EDCs.


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From the eco-toxicologists viewpoint the true state of European water resources and 

aquatic ecosystems considering EDCs and other xenobiotics is unknown. Monitoring 

programmes are inadequate or partly non-existent in Member States, and where they 

are in place, their results often remain inaccessible to the public. There are no dependable 

assessments of the ecological status of rivers, lakes and wetlands. The Water 

Framework Directive 2000/60/EC 16 (WFD) will require an assessment system for the 

first time, delivering reliable and comparable ecological status data for all waters, regardless 

of the European region concerned. It may be astonishing in a rich continent 

like Europe to note that the EU is currently unable to indicate the extent of pollution and 

disruption of their aquatic resources with any sort of confidence. 

While e.g. the issue of EDCs is confused by serious gaps in our knowledge, policies to 

deal with the current concerns must be developed further and regulations cannot be 

‘put on hold’ until all the evidence has been collected as proposed by various economical 

interest groups. Development of policies and regulations must go hand in hand with 

ongoing research and any legislation must be able to adapt rapidly to advances in scientific 

knowledge. Above all, there must be a co-ordination of both research funding 

and policy development between the different bodies responsible international and national. 

Many questions about water pollutants cannot be answered yet. Continued research, 

with the results made openly available, is essential if the uncertainties are to be 

properly addressed and the risks understood.


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Table of Contents 


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1 Executive Summary.............................................................................................. 2 

2 Introduction........................................................................................................... 6 

3 Background .......................................................................................................... 8 

3.1 THE UNDERLYING PROBLEM........................................................................................................... 8 

3.2 CURRENT HANDLING OF THE EDC PROBLEM IN THE EUROPEAN UNION ........................................... 9 

4 The Endocrine System ....................................................................................... 20 

4.1 THE FUNCTION OF HORMONES..................................................................................................... 20 

4.2 THE FUNCTIONING OF ENDOCRINE DISRUPTERS ........................................................................... 21 

5 Background Information to Materials with a Putative Endocrine Impact............. 22 

6 Methods of Determining the Endocrine Effect of Substances ............................ 25 

6.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................. 25 

6.2 TESTING STRATEGIES .................................................................................................................. 30 

6.3 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS ............................................................................................................. 32 

6.4 OUTLOOK.................................................................................................................................... 37 

6.5 ECOTOXICOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT....................................................................................... 39 

7 Impacts of Hormonal Active Chemicals to Humans and Animals....................... 43 

7.1 THE HAZARDOUSNESS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS ............................................................... 43 

7.2 SUBSTANCES AND GROUP OF SUBSTANCES WITH A PUTATIVE ENDOCRINE DISRUPTING ABILITY ...... 44 

7.3 TOXIC EFFECTS TO AQUATIC ORGANISMS .................................................................................... 51 

8 Ecotoxicology ..................................................................................................... 53 

8.1 BEHAVIOUR OF CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT......................................................................... 53 

8.2 REDUCTION OF FOREIGN SUBSTANCES BY MICRO-ORGANISMS ..................................................... 54 

9 Level of Pollution in Water and Sediment .......................................................... 58 

9.1 TRANSPORT AND ACTION OF TRANSPORT IN WATER ...................................................................... 58 

10 The Catchment Areas......................................................................................... 61 

10.1 CATCHMENT AREA OF LAKE CONSTANCE (BODENSEE)............................................................... 62 

10.2 CATCHMENT AREA OF LAKE GENEVA (LAC LÉMAN)..................................................................... 70 

10.3 THE CATCHMENT AREA OF BOURGET LAKE (LAC DU BOURGET).................................................. 80 

10.4 CATCHMENT AREA OF LOCH LOMOND........................................................................................ 84 

10.5 SUMMARY OF THE SITUATION AT THE LAKES .............................................................................. 89 

11 Elimination of Contaminants............................................................................... 90 

11.1 PROCESSES TO ELIMINATE CONTAMINANTS FROM WASTEWATER................................................ 91 

11.2 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK......................................................................................................... 105 

11.3 PROCESSES TO ELIMINATE CONTAMINANTS FROM SOURCES FOR DRINKING WATER SUPPLY........ 105 

11.4 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK......................................................................................................... 115 

12 Outlook and Recommendations with respect to hazardous substances .......... 116 

13 Abbreviations.................................................................................................... 118


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List of References................................................................................................... 120 

List of Figures ......................................................................................................... 129 

List of Tables .......................................................................................................... 130 

Annex 1................................................................................................................... 131 

Annex 2................................................................................................................... 134


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2 INTRODUCTION 


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Often extending across one or more international boundaries, river basins and subcatchment 

areas play a critical role in the natural functioning of the earth. Hydrologically, 

watersheds integrate the surface water run-off of an entire drainage basin. Economically, 

they play a critical role as sources of water, food and recreational amenities, 

hydropower and transportation routes. Ecologically, watersheds constitute a critical link 

between land and sea; they provide habitats within wetlands, rivers and lakes – for 40% 

of the world’s fish species, some of which migrate between marine and freshwater 

systems. Watersheds also provide habitats – within the terrestrial ecosystems such as 

forests and grasslands – for most terrestrial plant and animal species and they provide 

a host of other ecosystem functions – from water purification and retention to flood 

control, nutrient recycling and restoration of soil fertility – which are all vital to human 

civilisation. 

The protection of our water resources is an important issue today and in the future. 

Water protection means to preserve the natural water cycle or to restore it. A functional 

water ecosystem is the basis for a successful sustainable development of the environment 

both in local and global framework. Every day industry, trade, agriculture and 

households use a lot of chemical products. About the reactions and effects of these 

chemicals less or nothing is known. By use or waste management these products reach 

the waters directly via sewage or indirectly via air and soil. One of the most important 

measures is the protection of the water against new substances which harm water- and 

land organisms as well as humans already in low concentrations, therefore the reduction 

of the water pollution with all kinds of chemicals used by industry, trade, households 

and agriculture [BUWAL 1997]. 

For reaching this aim it is necessary to write the laws and directives in rigid and precise 

forms and additionally amend them in the field of water protection and fishing, e. g. according 

to a protection from endocrine disrupters. Therefore investigations and evaluation 

of the condition of the waters must take place and the public has to be informed 

about the results. The risks for the waters must be recognised in time and the associated 

need for further research, too, if necessary. 

The workpackage WP 32 “Impact of Contaminants” of the EUROLAKES project is projected 

to deliver information to workpackage WP 35 “substantiated ecological targets”. 

In this category ecological and ecosystem quality targets and criteria will be adapted to 

great deep lakes and their catchment areas. The objectives and the input to WP 35 are 

the investigations on the implications of considering toxicological contaminants like 

relevant organic compounds (endocrine disrupters) and heavy metals for the long-term 

management of the lake ecosystem which are objective of this report. Here the relationship 

betwen the lakes as drinking water reservoirs with the rural and urban use in 

the catchment areas has to be considered. 

Waters being polluted by selective pollution like waste water inflows of sewage treatment 

plants and diffuse inputs like surface runoff from agriculture areas, do not persist


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on the pollution level even if no dilution by pure inflows happens. Bacteria and ciliates 

withdraw permanent organic protective substances by their metabolic activity from the 

water in which they thrive [JAEGER 1994]. Thus, micro-organisms have the potential to 

eliminate protective substances and to purify the waters in a certain period.This selfpurification 

capacity of waters is used in sewage treatment plants. Nowadays waste 

water is often contaminated with substances which cannot be eliminated or can only be 

eliminated in an inadequate quantum by these plants. Thus, the receiving water is 

loaded exceedingly. With respect to "new contaminants" and the economic efficiency of 

treatment, the minimisation and further processing of treatment by-products, improvements 

in water treatment technologies are needed. A special problem are pharmaceutical 

products and pathogenic germs, passing partly intact through the treatment plants. 

Here exists a great risk of generating resistances so that new purification levels and an 

upgrade of the treatment plants are needed. With regard to these new purification levels 

specific options for deep lakes are analysed in this report to reduce future input of 

pollution to a minimum. The above mentioned anthropogenic load of aquatic ecosystems 

is not only a result of sewage treatment plant effluents and the introduction of only 

moderate pre-treated waste waters. The rainwash from agricultural areas and the animal 

husbandry contaminate the water of lakes, rivers and partly the groundwater significantly. 

A protection of great deep lakes being drinking water reservoirs is important because 

they have to comply with a certain standard to guarantee the postulated drinking water 

quality. Moreover, pollutants affecting the drinking water quality are also able to have a 

negative impact to the aquatic ecosystem. For this reason, these reservoirs have to be 

monitored to detect impairments in time. Information on pollutants, pollutant sources, 

pathways and impacts with respect to great deep lakes were compiled in this report. 

The qualitative and quantitative vulnerability of the investigated deep lakes with relevant 

organic contaminants and heavy metals were also to be named. The main objective of 

this task, however, was a survey of relevant contaminants, their threshold values and/or 

limit values with respect to the European Drinking Water Directive. But also the current 

valid threshold values of relevant substances and compounds in regard to other European 

and national directives like the Drinking Water Directive and the Bathing Water Directive 

are considered. In doing so, the relevance of the list of priority substances determined 

on European level concerning the investigated areas was considerdd. The 

behaviour of the detected substances in the aquatic environment is described and the 

possibility of (new) detection methods as standard test is shown.


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3 BACKGROUND 


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3.1 THE UNDERLYING PROBLEM 

In [LEISEWITZ 1996] it is mentioned that the consumption and the use of synthetic 

substances – which cannot be found in the nature - have an enormous influence on the 

ecological balance. These xenobiotics are usually persistent and there impact may be 

felt on the whole globe caused by world-wide use and/or atmospheric long-distant 

transport. In addition, they are already effective in relatively small dosages. Their accumulation 

in organisms, the food chain, the soil, waters and sediments (from where they 

can be mobilised) have the consequence of a long-term effect even at a very low input. 

Furthermore they are not recoverable from the biosphere. Most of these contaminants 

are dissolved in water. Via rivers and the atmosphere they enter the oceans. Therefore 

particularly the aquatic systems of the estuaries, the coastal area and the marginal 

seas have to be concerned besides the inland waters. [LEISEWITZ 1996] continued 

that through predator-prey-relationships these substances can be transmitted also. 

Thus, their concentration in the organism increases rapidly (biomagnification). Even 

children and their parents are connected with each other through the food chain. The 

application of man-made substances can be effected over the blood supply of a growing 

embryo, over the suckle or substances being included in the egg. Such a passing 

on of one generation to the next, causes an accumulation in the organisms of the affected 

individuals and have a negative influence on the offspring's early stages of development, 

especially on organs and control mechanisms developing in a fast and intensive 

metabolic process at the growing germ, the embryo and baby. This metabolic 

process where genetic and the hormone system work together is part of a complicated 

control mechanism being still unknown in many respects. If it comes to a disorder, development 

disturbances, deformations, erroneous trends and the dying of the germ 

could be the consequences. 

In the past the main attention to check health damages caused by environmental 

chemicals was a possible toxic, carcinogenic or teratogenic effect. Since the 1990s the 

hormone effect of contaminants is known. The hormonal regulation is decisive for the 

tissue differentiation /proliferation of the crotch and the spermatogenesis. This regulation 

will be deranged by hormone-like substances or substances which are able to disturb 

the balance of the hormone system. This means the same substances operate 

also reproduction-damaging as endocrine disrupters [LEISEWITZ 1996]. 

On the basis of today’s incomplete knowledge final statements about the effects of 

pesticide residues on the human health respectively on the water ecology can not be 

made. The risk lies in the complex effect of small dosages of different active substances 

and not on the toxicity of a single substance. On the one hand pollutants reach 

waters directly via sewage treatment plants and on the other hand diffusely. The input 

of pesticides into the ground water depends on the application practice, soil conditions 

as well as the mobility and degradability of the substance. The use of herbicides on railroad 

installations is a problem if the substances trickle away directly through the track 

ballast without passing an active soil layer where they at least partly be metabolised 

[BUWALa].


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Today, nearly 100,000 synthetic chemical substances are in use. If they are hardly biodegradable 

these substances flow with the sewage in water basins. Most of the chronic 

environmental disturbances were not predictable and are recognised only with the first 

damages. Several laws and regulations control the use of such problematic substances 

to protect the waters [BUWALa]. Because the chemical structure of every substance is 

different, it has different properties and must be assessed individually. Therefore, the 

large and constantly growing number of substances causes a huge amount of work for 

the licensing authorities. In the environmental impact assessment of a substance the 

important factors are - in addition to its properties - the way in which it is used and disposed 

and the consumed quantity. A priority is given in Germany to the 2,000 substances 

which are produced in quantities of over 1,000 t/a ("high production volume 

chemicals") [BUWAL b]. For a preventive health protection, however, it would be necessary 

to avoid such substances being suspected having hormonal effects. 

3.2 CURRENT HANDLING OF THE EDC PROBLEM IN THE EUROPEAN UNION 

In December 1999 the Communication on a "Community Strategy for Endocrine Disrupters, 

a range of substances suspected of interfering with the hormone systems of 

humans and wildlife" COM (1999) 706 final was published by the European Commission. 

The objectives of this paper are two-fold. On the one hand the identification of the 

endocrine disrupting problem, its causes and consequences, on the other hand the 

identification of appropriate policy action an the basis of the precautionary principle in 

order to respond quickly and effectively to the problem, thereby alleviating public concern. 

Four key elements are identified on the basis of which an appropriate set of actions 

is recommended. These are: the need for further research, the need for international 

co-ordination, the need for communication to the public and the need for policy 

action. 

With regard to the need for further research it is said in the paper COM (1999) 706 final, 

that for substances suspected to be endocrine disrupters a list is to be compiled. 

To identify the selection criteria used to place substances on this list further scientific 

data collection and research is necessary. In addition, it is necessary to assess the 

quantities of these substances in the environment, based on an examination of the 

material flow of each substance. This includes production volumes, consumption in 

further processing and final products and import/export volumes. It is essential to carry 

out further research in these areas and to investigate the need for refinement of current 

risk assessment methodologies to address endocrine disrupters. Because, while no 

agreed test methods and no effective screening and testing strategy are available the 

communication continues, many substances, for which little information is currently 

available, may escape attention when compiling a list of potential ED substances.In order 

to support a rapid development of test methods, the EU may consider necessary to 

implement a research effort into the mechanisms of action of the endocrine system and 

the range of effects, including the role of hormones at key stages of life circles. In addition, 

further investigations are required into the links between adverse health effects in 

humans and wildlife and exposure to specific substances or mixtures of substances. 

Here are included the health consequences of phytoestrogens and hormones used as 

growth promoters.


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The communication COM (1999) 706 final points at the financing of several research 

works aimed at the development and validation of test methods for the identification of 

endocrine disrupters by the Commission. Last but not least there is also a need to develop 

and validate appropriate environmental monitoring tools. Existing Community 

provisions of law on environmental and human health aspects of chemicals are based 

on a three-stage approach. This approach is also described in COM (1999) 706 final. In 

the first stage, the hazard identification, a substance's inherent capacity to cause adverse 

effects on human health and the environment is identified, on the basis of the intrinsic 

properties of a substance. The second stage is a risk assessment where the 

risks in conjunction with the exposition of a chemical substance are evaluated. In the 

third stage, the risk management, strategies for the management of risks are developed. 

The directives being the basis for the hazard identification, the risk assessment 

and the risk management are listed in Annex I of COM (1999) 706 final. 

The Water Framework Directive Concerning the EDC Problem 

It is beyond the scope of this chapter to give a comprehensive view of the WFD and the 

authors have attempted to identify and focus on the key issues of the WFD that are related 

to chemicals, analyse its provisions, point out weaknesses and ambiguities and 

derive from them a number of political options which are crucial for the improvement of 

European waters. 

In September 2000, after a decade of political struggle, the European Parliament and 

Council adopted the Water Framework Directive (WFD). There is no doubt that this new 

framework for EU water legislation is a most complex package of objectives, instruments 

and obligations. Two of the main goals of the Water Framework Directive are the 

protection and improvement of the aquatic environment and the contribution to sustainable, 

balanced and equitable water use. The Directive should also contribute to 

achieving the objectives of relevant international agreements (e.g. OSPAR, 

BARCELONA and HELCOM). This is important since some of the objectives laid down 

by these international agreements are far-reaching and might ask for more stringent 

measures than those currently required under the WFD. New instruments are introduced 

in the EU water policy to protect and improve all European waters: an ecological 

and holistic water status assessment approach; river basin planning; a strategy for 

elimination of pollution by dangerous substances; public information and consultation 

and finally, financial instruments. Despite these important additions to EU water policy 

instruments, a number of problems are emerging from the directive. They need to be 

dealt with as soon as possible to achieve clear and consistently positive results for EU 

waters. 

Some of the main weaknesses identified are: 

- complicated and wide-ranging exemption and derogation conditions for the environmental 

objectives for ‘heavily modified’ waters or for new physical modifications 

for example;


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- new implementation problems, also due to legal uncertainty - for example the 

situation before and after the repeal of existing water legislation; 

- a shift of important decisions to subsequent political processes – like the criteria 

for assessing groundwater quality, or the environmental quality standards and 

emission limit values for surface waters. 

One may say that the WFD follows a two-level approach, which differs from existing EU 

water legislation: 

- Co-ordination of measures at national or Community level (with the WFD). 

- The definition of exact objectives, guidelines and measures is left to subsequent 

political processes (through daughter directives, experts' committees). 

The success of this approach will strongly depend on political will and future hard work, 

on the full participation of all stakeholders as well as on the exploitation of synergies 

between the various legislative instruments provided for under the WFD. 

Chemicals Policy under the WFD 

With respect to the regulation of water pollution, the Water Framework Directive requires 

action at Member State level and Community-wide uniform standards for certain 

chemicals. 

At Member State Level: Environmental quality standards (EQSs) for all pollutants 

‘identified as being discharged in significant quantities’ into bodies of surface water 

have to be set at Member State level (an indicative list of the main pollutants is provided 

in Annex VIII). Compliance with these EQSs is required for the achievement of 

the objective of ‘good ecological status’ (defined in Annex V) by Dec 2015. For ‘High 

Status’ surface water bodies, Member States must with regard to the non-deterioration 

provision (article 4.1.a.i): 

- prevent non-synthetic pollutants discharged in significant quantities from reaching 

concentrations in the water body above the range normally associated with 

undisturbed conditions; 

- and prevent synthetic pollutants discharged in significant quantities from reaching 

concentrations above the limits of detection. 

At Community Level: EU sets Community-wide standards, which have to be met as 

part of the objective of achieving ‘good chemical status’. The more stringent standards 

described above apply to high status waters. 

The existing Community standards (laid down in the daughter directives to the Dangerous 

Substances Directive (76/464/EEC)) are listed in Annex IX. For bodies of surface 

water, environmental objectives established under the first River Basin Management 

Plan required by this Directive shall, as a minimum, give effect to quality standards at 

least as stringent as those required to implement Directive 76/464/EEC. However, the


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Dangerous Substances Daughter Directives must be reviewed by the Commission, and 

revised control measures proposed, including the possible repeal of controls on the 

substances covered by these Directives but not included in the Water Framework Directive’s 

list of priority substances The Water Framework Directive’s list of priority substances 

will be identified under the procedures laid down in Article 16. Priority hazardous 

substances will be selected from this list. The priority list will be reviewed every 4 

years. The list replaces the list of 129 substances prioritised in the Commission Communication 

to the Council of 22 June 1982. For priority substances a progressive reduction 

in pollution is to be achieved by establishing Community-wide environmental 

quality standards and source controls by the procedure laid out in Article 16. For socalled 

priority hazardous substances, the cessation of discharges, emissions and 

losses shall in principle be achieved within 20 years at the latest. There is no derogation 

provided in the Directive from these obligations. 

Priority Hazardous Substances 

Community-wide standards will specifically apply to so-called priority hazardous substances, 

a sub-group of the WFD list of priority substances. This class of substances 

has been established against fierce resistance at the request of the European Parliament. 

It is the first time in EU law that the cessation of inputs of certain chemicals into 

surface waters has been made a legal requirement. For priority hazardous substances, 

defined in a similar way to ‘hazardous substances’ under the OSPAR agreement on the 

protection of the Northeast Atlantic, cessation of discharges, emissions and losses shall 

be achieved within 20 years at the latest. Priority hazardous substances are identified 

by the Commission amongst the substances on the priority list (Article 16(3)). To this 

end, the Commission will have to assess which of the substances on the WFD priority 

list fulfil the criteria of bioaccumulation, toxicity and persistence set out in Article 2(29) 

or are giving rise to an equivalent level of concern (e.g. endocrine disrupters, certain 

metals, etc.). In that process, the selection of hazardous or dangerous substances under 

relevant Community legislation (e.g. (EEC) No. 793/93, 91/414/EEC 76/464/EEC) 

and international agreements (OSPAR, UN ECE POPs Convention etc.) has to be 

taken into account. The identification process does not specifically require full risk assessments 

in accordance with Council Regulation (EEC) No. 793/93, which is crucial in 

order to follow a precautionary approach. 

In a second stage, ‘controls for the cessation or phasing-out of discharges, emissions 

and losses’ of priority hazardous substances have to be adopted by the Council and 

EP. The timetable for cessation shall not exceed 20 years as from the adoption of these 

measures. These controls are again proposed by the Commission as daughter directives, 

and have to be adopted by the Council and Parliament. Controls may include 

bans of certain substances, restrictions in terms of use, or a requirement to limit the application 

of a substance to zero-emission, closed-cycle installations. If the Council and 

EP do not adopt the necessary measures for cessation of specific priority hazardous 

substances (Article 16(8)), Member States are required under Article 4(1)(a)(iv) to take 

the appropriate measures to achieve cessation or phasing-out of such substances ‘according 

to Articles 16(1) and 16(8)’, without a specific deadline provided. It is unlikely, 

however, that a Member State will be able to ignore the 20-year deadline, once a priority 

substance has been identified as hazardous at Community level.


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The First WFD Priority List 

A proposal for a first priority list has been tabled by the Commission in February 2000 

(COM (2000) 47 final/2 - 2000/0035 (COD)). It consists of 32 substances selected as a 

result of a simplified risk-based procedure (Article 16.2) with the so-called COMMPS 

procedure, which takes account inter alia of monitoring results and intrinsic substance 

properties. 32 is an arbitrary number and is intended to reflect the Commission’s limited 

administrative potential. It does not indicate that there are no more than 32 substances 

of concern, but that the list of substances should be manageable, adding some new 

ones every four years. Nevertheless, a number of shortcomings can be reported, requiring 

improvements under COMMPS for its future application. For example, a great 

number of substances for which no data were available at Community level from the 

national monitoring programmes were left out. This situation applies to: 

- about 60% of pesticides which are currently in use; 

- all industrial chemicals which no company in the EU produces or imports in 

quantities of over. 1,000 tonnes per year. This concerns about 8,000 to 10,000 

substances for which appropriate data were not available in the IUCLID databank 

when the COMMPS procedure was carried out; 

- industrial chemicals produced or imported by fewer than four undertakings in the 

EU in quantities superior to 1,000 tonnes per year (confidentiality of market 

data). 

As a consequence, the COMMPS procedure covered only 95 substances on the basis 

of monitoring data and 123 substances on the basis of modelling data. 

Amongst the 32 WFD priority substances, 3 are classified as UNECE POPs, 13 as 

hazardous by OSPAR, which means that they are either POP-like substances or highly 

toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative. Another 16 are selected under OSPAR 1998 and 

2000 for priority action for a cessation of their releases by 2020. It should be very clear 

that the priority substances that fulfil one of these selections should be identified as priority 

hazardous substances. The Community has internationally committed itself to 

cease emissions of these substances by 2020. 21 priority substances are in one of the 

above-mentioned ‘hazardous’ categories and most of them are on different lists established 

in Community legislation on dangerous/hazardous substances. At least these 21 

substances should be identified as priority hazardous substances. The Parliament’s 

rapporteur has pointed out that a further 7 substances prioritised by OSPAR in 2000 

should be added to the WFD priority list, thus totalling 39 priority substances, 28 of 

which are priority hazardous substances. 

Repeal of Existing Standards 

The Dangerous Substances Directive (76/464/EEC) will be repealed 13 years after the 

date of entry into force of the WFD. Article 22(6) states that the quality standards established 

under the Water Framework Directive shall be at least as stringent as those 

required for implementation of the Dangerous Substances Directive. It is unclear, however, 

whether this clause guarantees an identical level of water protection under the


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WFD once the Dangerous Substances Directive has been repealed. The five daughter 

directives to the Dangerous Substances Directive (listed in WFD Annex IX) will be reviewed. 

For those substances, which are found on the first WFD priority list, quality 

standards and emission limits will be updated. For those which are not on the first priority 

list, standards shall be reviewed with an option for entire repeal (Article 16(10)). 

Combined approach 

In general, under the Water Framework Directive, specific environmental quality standards 

(EQSs) for pollutants (i.e. concentrations of pollutants, not to be exceeded in the 

receiving waters) and more general ecological-status objectives must be met by applying 

controls on pollutant discharges. For certain activities and certain pollutants, a different 

form of combined approach applies whereby emission controls based on BAT, 

relevant emission limit values or, in the case of diffuse impacts, Best Environmental 

Practices must be applied first. If these are inadequate for meeting an environmental 

quality standard or objective, more stringent emission controls must be set accordingly. 

This true form of combined approach not only achieves the required environmental 

standards and objectives, but may even reduce inputs below these targets. The BAT 

and Best Environmental Practice requirements drive polluters to audit and improve their 

overall environmental efficiency. Such a combined approach applies to substances and 

processes controlled by the Nitrates Directive, the IPPC Directive, the Urban Waste 

Water Directive, directives adopted for priority substances and also the existing 

daughter directives to the Dangerous Substances Directive (Article 10). For priority substances 

(regulation at EU level), both environmental quality standards and uniform 

emission limit values should be set. However, Article 16(6) merely states that the 

Commission should "take account of Community-wide uniform emission limit values". It 

remains to be seen whether this is a binding requirement. In the absence of Community-wide 

measures on priority substances (i.e. if the Council and Parliament are unable 

to agree on measures), Member States have to act on these substances anyway. Article 

16(8) states that Member States have to establish environmental quality standards 

(EQS) and "controls on the principal sources of such discharges, based inter alia on 

consideration of all technical reduction options". This statement implies that Member 

States must apply the strong form of the combined approach, with application of Best 

Available Technologies first, and stronger controls if necessary. After all, this is the regime 

that applies in the event of Community-wide measures being agreed. 

Derogation and Extensions of Deadlines Regarding Chemicals 

Article 4(4) allows Member States to extend the deadline for achieving good status by 

up to twelve years beyond 2015. Such a rule is justified by the need to take account of 

adverse natural conditions or insurmountable technical difficulties. However, there is 

also a more problematical clause allowing extensions on the grounds of disproportionate 

expense. Fortunately, the reasons and justification for making use of an extension 

of the deadline must be included in the River Basin Management Plan, for which public 

consultation is required at all stages. It should therefore be possible to ensure that extensions 

are only used when it can be shown that achievement of the objectives is impossible 

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Less Stringent Objectives 

Article 4(5) may cause even more problems. Member States are allowed to exclude 

specific bodies of water from achieving the objectives because they are "so affected by 

human activity … that the achievement of the objectives would be unfeasible or disproportionately 

expensive’. The weakness is that this paragraph not only applies to past 

human activities, but possibly also to ongoing ones. Potentially, this clause might be 

used to permanently exclude very polluted sites from the scope of the Directive’s good 

status objectives (though not from the objective of progressively reducing pollution by 

priority substances/priority hazardous substances). The formulation of Article 4(8) requiring 

effects on other bodies of water to be taken into account should also be noted. 

However, there are many steps requiring public consultation in the process of applying 

such a derogation. Furthermore, a lot of conditions have to be met. Given sufficient 

public scrutiny, it should be rather difficult for a Member State to abuse this clause. 

Summarised Comments on WFD with Respect to Chemicals 

1. Quick adoption of the list is necessary, but list is not complete 

All the 32 substances proposed by the Commission on the list of priority substances are 

well known. They pose a major threat to the environment and public health and should 

be dealt with as soon as possible. We welcome the Commission’s quick prioritisation 

process for substances under the WFD. However, to ensure consistency with the Union’s 

OSPAR commitments, the Commission should have included more substances in 

the list. Particularly, the substances identified as hazardous by the OSPAR Strategy 

and which are also on the “List of Chemicals for Priority Action” under the OSPAR Convention, 

should be added to the list of priority substances. 

2. Identification of priority hazardous substances must not be compromised by 

socio-economic considerations 

The identification of priority hazardous substances should be based: 

- on the selection of priority substances by the COMMPS procedure, which is taking 

account of substance properties, uses, market volumes and environmental 

occurrence and leads to the list of priority substances; and 

- on available “hazard assessments” and “best available knowledge”. 

This widely accepted procedure in the EU and OSPAR does by definition NOT take socio-economic 

considerations into account. 

3. Identification of priority hazardous substances for the precautionary protection 

of EU waters 

The WFD’s overall environmental objective for the measures against pollution by priority 

hazardous substances is “the aim of ceasing or phasing-out of discharges, emissions 

and losses of these substances” targeted at the precautionary protection of 

freshwaters and the oceans. 

Discharges, emissions and losses of priority hazardous substances can occur through 

many pathways: Direct use in the environment (e.g. pesticides); direct use of the sub-


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stance in certain products (e.g. flame retardants or mercury) from which after or during 

use emissions of the substance into the environment occur; priority hazardous substances 

can also occur as by-products of certain processes (e.g. PAHs from combustion 

processes) and as metabolites in the breakdown of other substances. It is clear 

that this multitude of pathways calls for a whole package of different measures to 

achieve the objective of the Water Framework Directive. While a substance ban is the 

appropriate measure to achieve the required protection against priority hazardous substances, 

which are directly used in the environment or in products, this might not necessarily 

be the case for by-products of manufacturing processes, which are isolated 

from the environment. 

The assumption put forward by some industry associations that there is only one 

measure – namely a substance ban – is simplistic and does not reflect the flexibility of 

the WFD. The overriding objective of the Water Framework Directive is the precautionary 

protection of European waters, an objective that does not ask the impossible of either 

the European Union or its Member States. Unintentional releases, for instance due 

to accidents and undetected leaks etc., can never be ruled out entirely, and are accounted 

for by the WFD. However, where priority hazardous substances consistently 

occur as by-products of industrial production, or are identified as breakdown products 

(metabolites) of other substances, or evaporate and leach from consumer products, 

measures have to be taken with the aim to end their releases into the environment. It 

should be kept in mind that the Water Framework Directive provides for up to 20 years 

to achieve the environmental objective of cessation of releases, which allows ample 

time for the development of new technologies and substitute substances. 

List of Priority Substances 

The European Union pay attention to the subject “endocrine disrupter” already discussed 

in 2.1. Now it is described how the selection and classification of contaminants 

are effected at the moment and in the near future. 

The definition oft “hazardous substances” have been contentious for a long time. According 

to the OSPAR agreement, hazardous substances are toxical, persistent, and 

bioaccumulative (bioakkumulierbar). That means, according to their intrinsic properties 

measurable in laboratory tests they are classified to be toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative 

(bioakkumulierbar) [FRAUNHOFER INSTITUTE (98/788/3040/DEB/E1) 1999]. 

At the moment the Council Directive 76/464/EEC on pollution caused by certain 

dangerous substances discharged into the aquatic environment of the Community 

and the included individual directives is the most important instrument to control the 

emissions of hazardous substances from diffuse and selective sources into the surface 

waters. In 1982 the Commission submitted a communication to the council about hazardous 

substances according to list I of council directive 76/464/EEC. Here 130 substances 

are listed to be regular by the community. The selection of these substances 

took place according to a high production capacity and the toxicity, persistence and 

bioaccumulation. After the publication of this list 17 substances were regulated in individual 

directives [FRAUNHOFER INSTITUTE (98/788/3040/DEB/E1) 1999].


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The water framework directive (2000/60/EC) is the directive of the European Parliament 

and the Council establishing a framework for community action in the field 

of water policy. In Article 10 and 16 a community strategy with regard to the establishing 

of harmonised quality objectives and control of emissions of hazardous substances 

is described. After a transitional period this strategy will be replace the directive 

76/646/EEC and the directives passed in this framework [COM (2000) 47 final]. 

The water framework directive demand the control of emissions at their sources and the 

fixing of quality standards to gauge the success of the taken measures. Article 16 describes 

for the first time a legal framework and a unambiguous methodical basis for the 

allocation of priorities to substances for which quality objectives and emission controls 

are going to lay down on community level. In article 16 section 2 of the water framework 

directive a scientific method to identify priority substances is established. The basis for 

that are the risks for the aquatic ecosystem and the risks for humans originate via the 

aquatic environment. In accordance with article 16 the Commission proposed a first list 

with priority substances. This list is the most important fundament for the identification 

of emission controls and harmonised quality objectives to protect the aquatic environment 

in the European Union [2000/60/EC (23. October 2000), FRAUNHOFER 

INSTITUTE (98/788/3040/DEB/E1) (1999)]. 

The Fraunhofer institute environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology from Germany developed 

a procedure called COMMPS-procedure (combined monitoring-based and 

modelling-based priority setting). The COMMPS-procedure (98/788/3040/DEB/E1) is a 

dynamic instrument which can be changed and improved constantly. The selection criterion 

at the COMMPS-procedure was the disposal of data, the classification according 

to the relative risk to the aquatic environment and the opinion of experts 

[FRAUNHOFER INSTITUTE (98/788/3040/DEB/E1) (1999)]. 

The COMMPS-report is a recommendation for a selection of priority substances from 

the list of candidates. For every substance standing on this list, the Commission had to 

state quality objectives and emission controls and the member states had to create 

monitoring programs. Afterwards effective programs are compiled and realised to improve 

the water quality with regard to the selected priority substances. The revision 

should take place at least every six years and on demand more often [FRAUNHOFER 

INSTITUTE (98/788/3040/DEB/E1) (1999), COM (2000) 47 final]. 

In the COMMPS procedure substances were taken from the following lists: 

— List I and II of Council Directive 76/646/EEC, 

— Annex 1A and 1D of the third North Sea Conference (3. NSC), 

— Priority lists 1-3 identified under Council Regulation No 7693/93, 

— OSPAR list of individual candidate substances, 

— HELCOM list of priority substances,


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— Pesticides prioritised under Council Directive 91/414/EEC (and specified under Council Regulation 

3600/92), 

— Monitored substances not mentioned on any of the lists above (based on the monitoring data obtained 

from Member States. 

For the second run of COMMPS substances which are suspected to restrictions or not 

used in the member states so-called "historic pollutants" were deleted from the list. 

The following selection procedure obtained: 

— Risk assessment for existing chemical substances according to Council Regulation (EEC) No. 793/93 

(recent [draft] reports), the Council Directive 91/414/EEC about plant protective agents and the Council 

Directive 98/8/EU about biocides, 

— Targeted risk-based assessment in accordance with Council Directive No. 793/93/EEC with solely 

survey on aquatic ecotoxicity and human toxicity via the aquatic environment, 

— Or, where this proves impracticable within the time scale to simplify a risk-based assessment procedure 

based on scientific principles taking particular account of: 

— Evidence regarding the intrinsic hazard of the substances concerned, in particular its aquatic ecotoxicity 

and human toxicity via aquatic exposure routes, 

— Evidence from monitoring of widespread environmental contamination, and 

— Other proven factors indicating the possibility of widespread environmental contamination, such as 

production or use volume of the substance concerned as well as use pattern. 

Because of basic differences between metals and organic compounds the position table 

for metals are compiled independent from the lists for organic compounds. 

The final result for the COMMPS value of the impacts to the aquatic environment describes 

the relative risk for the aquatic area. At the COMMPS procedure the value is 

calculated as the product of the exposure of the aquatic environment and of the impacts 

to the aquatic environment. Because a substance with a high tendency to accumulate 

in the sediment occurs in the water only in smidgens a separate list had to be 

compiled. 

At the compilation and revision of the list of priority substances the Commission will be 

take into account any available information. That particularly apply for recommendations 

from the Scientific Committee on Toxicity, Ecotoxicity and the Environment 

(CSTEE), the Member States, the European Chemicals Bureau (ECB) and the industry 

and other stakeholders. As mentioned before the COMMPS list will replace the list I of 

the Council Directive 76/646/EEC and after its publication it will became to the Annex X 

of the Water Framework Directive [2000/60/EC (23. October 2000), FRAUNHOFER 

INSTITUTE (98/788/3040/DEB/E1) (1999), COM (2000) 47 final]. 

In the Annex of the Proposal for a European Parliament and Council decision establishing 

the list of priority substances in the field of water policy (COM (2000) 47 final) is 

a list with 32 substances especially groups of substances. This list is compiled on the 

basis of the COMMPS procedure after a publicly and transparent discussion with the 

interested parties. 

CAS 

EU 

Name 

number 

number 

1 15972-60-8 240-110-8 Alachlor 

2 120-12-7 204-371-1 Antracene


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3 1912-24-9 217-617-8 Atrazine 

4 71-43-2 200-753-7 Benzene 

5 n.a n.a. Brominated diphenylether 

6 7440-43-9 231-152-8 Cadmium and its compounds 

7 85535-84-8 287-476-5 C10-13-chloralkanes 

8 470-90-6 207-432-0 Chlorfenvinphos 

9 2921-88-2 220-864-4 Chlorpyrifos 

10 75-09-2 200-838-9 Dichlormethane 

11 107-06-2 203-458-1 1,2-Dichloroethane 

12 117-81-7 204-211-0 Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) 

13 330-54-1 206-354-4 Diuron 

14 115-29-7 204-079-4 Endosulfan 

959-98-8 n.a. alpha-endosulphan 

15 118-74-1 204-273-9 Hexachlorbenzene 

16 87-68-3 201-765-5 Hexachlorobutadiene 

17 608-73-1 210-158-9 Hexachlorocyclohexane 

58-89-9 200-401-2 gammer-isomer, Lindane 

18 34123-59-6 251-835-4 Isoproturon 

19 7439-92-1 231-100-4 Lead and its compounds 

20 7439-97-6 231-106-7 Mercury and its compounds 

21 91-20-3 202-049-5 Naphthalene 

22 7440-02-0 231-111-4 Nickel and its compounds 

23 25154-52-3 246-672-0 Nonylphenols 

104-40-5 203-199-4 4-(para-)-nonylphenol 

24 1806-26-4 217-302-5 Octylphenols 

140-66-9 n.a. para-tert-octylphenol 

25 n.a. 

n.a. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons 

50-32-8 200-028-5 Benzo(a)pyrene 

205-99-2 205-911-9 Benzo(b)flouroanthene 

191-24-2 205-883-8 Benzo(g,h,i)pyrene 

207-08-9 205-916-6 Benzo(k)flouroanthene 

206-44-0 205-912-4 Flouroanthene 

193-39-5 205-893-2 Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene 

26 608-93-5 210-172-5 Pentachlorobenzene 

27 122-34-9 204-535-2 Simazine 

28 87-86-5 201-778-6 Pentachlorophenol 

29 688-73-3 211-704-4 Tributyltin compounds 

36643-28-4 n.a. Tributyltin-cation 

30 12002-48-1 234-413-4 Trichlorobenzenes 

120-82-1 204-428-0 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 

31 67-66-3 200-663-8 Trichloromethane (Chloroform) 

32 1582-09-8 216-428-8 Trifluralin 


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4 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 

All vertebrates have an endocrine system. The endocrine system is a complex network 

of glands and hormones that regulate and control many long and short term bodily 

functions [WWF CANADA 1999]. The physiological mechanisms are distinctive along 

with the nervous and immune system in the endocrine system and allow the communication 

between cells and organs. The function of the endocrine system is multifaceted 

and comprises the regulation of long-term processes like reproduction, growth as well 

as the homeostasis of essential systems such as the water and electrolyte supply and 

the energy metabolism [KLINKE and SILBERNAGEL 1994]. Serious diseases could be 

the consequence of interference of the hormone system, for example by the failure or 

overproduction of hormones [KLINKE and SILBERNAGEL 1994]. 

In many instances specific hormones and the biological process they control are 

chemically identical in animals and humans. This is an amazing fact considering the 

years of evolution and differences in physical structure between animal species. Estradiol 

for instance, a hormone critical to sexual development and behaviour, is chemically 

identical in turtles and humans. Even compared with insects there exist identical features. 

This means that a chemical which affects some components of the endocrine 

system of an insect can be expected to have similarly effects in mammals [WWF 

CANADA 1999]. 

4.1 THE FUNCTION OF HORMONES 

For the co-ordination of the function of organs and organism the cells of a collective 

have to communicate with each other. One way to communicate is the communication 

with messengers so-called hormones, which are part of the endocrine system. Hormones 

- produced and released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands - are essential 

for the regulation of numerous biological processes in the body. Some of the endocrine 

glands are the testes, the ovaries, the pancreas, the adrenal glands, the thyroid, 

the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus and the pineal gland [WWF CANADA, KLINKE 

and SILBERNAGEL 1994]. 

Hormones also play an important part in the development of a growing foetus. In the 

womb or the egg, hormones guide the development of sexual characteristics, the immune 

and the nervous system, the brain, behavioural characteristics and the growth 

[WWF CANADA 1999]. Thyroid hormones, for example, are essential for the brain development 

and testosterone, progesterone and estrogen are essential for reproductive 

organ development and functioning [WWF CANADA 1999]. 

To transmit the hormone effect the signal substances have to reach the target cell over 

the transport in the blood or paracrine diffusion where they are "identified". This identification 

of all hormones is the result from receptors. The hormone and its receptor have 

an intricate and precise fit. The hormone-receptor complex then binds to specific regions 

of DNA in the cell to activate specific genes. Hormones do not alter or damage 

genes. The cell-activation take place by sending a signal inside the cell. If the binding is 

disrupted at certain stages, normal hormonal signals are derailed [WWF CANADA 

1999, KLINKE and SILBERNAGEL 1994, DEVITT 1997].


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4.2 THE FUNCTIONING OF ENDOCRINE DISRUPTERS 

If the hormone system works properly, the right message is sent and is received by 

genes of several cells. If something damages the hormone system, the wrong message 

or no message is sent to the cell [WWF CANADA 1999]. Such a disruption can be 

caused by xenobiotics with an endocrine effect like e.g. several environmental chemicals. 

Points of attack for such endocrine active substances are offered on a physiological (= 

hormonal) and biochemical (= metabolical) level [STEINBERG et al. 1995]. 

[LEISEWITZ 1996, WWF CANADA 1999] stress that due to their endocrine activity environmental 

chemicals are named endocrine or hormone disrupters respectively EDCs 

(endocrine disrupter chemicals). EDCs are synthetical chemicals with the potential to 

disrupt the balance of the endocrine system. Hormones are involved in just about every 

biological process: immune function, reproduction, growth, even controlling other hormones. 

They are already effective in very low concentrations (ppm or ppb) which is the 

reason for the hazardousness of very low dosages of endocrine disrupters [DEVITT 

1997]. 

EDCs may mimic, block or interfere the synthesis, release, transport, elimination and 

binding of natural hormones. They may also temporarily or permanently alter the feedback 

function of the brain, pituitary, gonads, thyroid gland and other organs [WWF 

CANADA 1999]. Unlike easily detected effects of toxic chemicals such as death, birth 

defects, cancer and genetic damage, the results of endocrine disruption are subtle. 

They are not necessarily verifiable on the exposed individuals but rather on their offspring 

[WWF CANADA 1999].


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5 BACKGROUND INFORMATION TO MATERIALS WITH A PUTATIVE 

ENDOCRINE IMPACT 

Persistent Organic Pollutants — POPs 

In the technical terminology the name "Persistent Organic Pollutants" (POPs) is used. 

POPs are synthetical chemicals composed of organic chemical compounds and mixtures. 

Industrial chemicals like PCBs and pesticides like DDT belong to the POPs. 

POPs are primary products or also involuntarily by-products of the industry and combustion 

processes. All POPs are effective in very low concentrations, are extremely 

persistent and hydrophobic. Due to their affinity for body fat they accumulate themselves 

in the environment and the food chain up to a very high level with a dramatic 

concentration increase in the respective organisms to the final consumer 

[GREENPEACE AUSTRIA, WWF CANADA, WWF US]. 

The existence of POPs is relatively recent, since the industrial production started after 

World War II. Today POPs are found almost everywhere - in our food, soil, air and 

water. Some POPs exceptionally accumulate themselves. The content of POPs in the 

water of the North Sea growths up to the content in the zooplankton about a 5 million 

times and up to the fishes and birds body fat a 100 million times enrichment is 

found [Greenpeace Austria, WWF US]. Both organisations refer that impairments of the 

development and the physical health of humans, mammals, fishes, birds etc., indicated 

by POPs, are numerously documented. Particularly in the case of humans an accurate 

allocation to one cause is not usually possible. Due to the mixture of POPs and the humans 

individual way of life with other factors of risk are the cause for this situation. 

Apart from the ingestion, workers and residents of townships near POP-emission 

sources for example can be exposed by inhalation and skin contact. 

The persistent pollutants have the ability - when released into the environment - to be 

transported on air currents or the water to places far away from their point of origin. In a 

cold climate and at low solar radiation POPs are break down slowly and they scarcely 

evaporate at very low temperatures. In consequence of that, a particularly strong accumulation 

in the coldest regions of the earth, e. g. Greenland, Arctic and Antarctica takes 

place [GREENPEACE AUSTRIA, WWF US]. In Austria, dioxins especially accumulate 

in barrier effects in the mountains. An increase of the dioxin concentration in soil with 

increase of the Sea level was ascertained [GREENPEACE AUSTRIA]. 

Global Spread 

[LEISEWITZ 1996, WWF CANADA] refer to the ban of some substances (e. g. 

DDT),which led to a decrease of the concentration in the water and also in organisms. 

The high remaining base concentration at organochlorine compounds however is based 

on the further input of substances from residual waste in the respective regions, the 

remobilization of persistent materials from depots e. g. sediment, its accumulation in 

organisms themselves and from the long-distance haulage from regions where they are 

still used. Streams of the oceans, air currents and rivers, which pass the agriculture 

runoff and industrial discharges into the oceans are important POP transport pathways.


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Therefore particularly the aquatic systems of the estuaries, the coastal area and the 

marginal seas are concerned beside the inland waters. 

Figure 5-1: Grasshopper effect with consequences to Canada [WWF Canada] 

Because organochlorine compounds are volatile, they are able to be prevalent by air 

currents over both hemispheres to places far away from their point of origin. With diminishing 

temperature they condense at different latitudes and are precipitated. Such a 

transport can consist of a number of "hops" from one place to another. Each hop consists 

of three stages: evaporation, transport in the atmosphere and condensation at 

lower temperatures. Scientists have called this phenomenon the "grasshopper effect". 

Because evaporation is minimal in colder regions, POPs tend to build up in arctic and 

mountain ecosystems (cf. 0). 

Figure 5-1 shows the grasshopper effect at the example of Canada which is impaired 

by POP-sources resided beyond the state boundary [LEISEWITZ 1996, WWF 

CANADA]. 

Detection Problems 

Environmental chemicals are trace elements which occur only in very low concentrations 

in the water or in organic material. Their detection is costly. The weak activity of 

these substances is well balanced by the persistence and accumulation capacity. The 

detection of material is not the detection of their impact. From the observation of harmful 

patterns and the simultaneously existence of suspicious substances there does not 

exist a unequivocal causal connection. For the detection of the impact experiments are 

necessary. Moreover, today it is not possible to derive or predict the hormonal impact of 

contaminants from their structure [LEISEWITZ 1996]. He continues that tests of materials 

are necessary but they give only limited information. The reason therefore is, that 

the test results normally contain no information about the impacts of the material on


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the organisms or not at all of a population's vitality. The same test results had been 

obtained for tests which check the receptor binding of environmental chemicals and 

those which should determine the estrogene potential. New test methods has been developed 

in the recent years which are based on the sensitivity of human tumour cells for 

estrogens.


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6 METHODS OF DETERMINING THE ENDOCRINE EFFECT OF SUBSTANCES 

6.1 BACKGROUND 

For regulatory purposes toxicological tests have to be carried out according to internationally 

accepted test guidelines. However, in several recent workshops and publications 

it has been discussed whether the current test guidelines are suitable for identifying 

endocrine disrupters: 

• SETAC-Europe/OECD/EC Expert Workshop on Endocrine Modulators and Wildlife: 

Assessment and Testing (EMWAT), Veldhoven, Netherlands, 10-13 April 

1997; 

• the OECD is at the moment finalising the Detailed Review Paper (DRP): “Appraisal 

of Test Methods for Sex-Hormone Disrupting Chemicals”. The document 

has been prepared by the United Kingdom as a proposed basis on which to assess 

the suitability and availability of existing test methods used both by OECD 

member states and the research community. This document was circulated to 

the OECD National Test Guidelines Co-ordinators in April 1997 and has been 

recently revised to take account of comments received. A final document has yet 

to be published; 

• a draft report from February 1998 of the activities of the Endocrine Disrupter 

Screening Testing and Advisory Committee (EDSTAC) of the US-EPA; 

• a publication in Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry by [ANKLEY et al. 

1998] entitled “Overview of a workshop on screening methods for detecting potential 

(anti-) oestrogenic/androgenic chemicals in wildlife”. 

A summary of all tests available at the moment - including the recommendations for 

their enhancement with respect to endocrine disrupters - discussed in EMWAT, DRP 

and EDSTAC was presented by the OECD in a background paper of the first meeting of 

the OECD Endocrine Disrupter Testing and Assessment Working Group (EDTA), 

March 10-11, 1998. Test guidelines for invertebrates (OECD 202), fish (OECD 203, 

204, 210 and 212 and the draft 28-days juvenile growth) and birds (OECD 205 and 

206) and several tests with mammals like the OECD 407 and 416 are discussed 

therein. It is stated that none of the current OECD ecotoxicology test guidelines are 

specifically designed to detect endocrine disrupters. The same can be argued for the 

EU test guidelines as only regulatory test guidelines are available for acute tests with 

fish and daphnia’s, with non-specific endpoints, including growth and mortality. 

The need for revision of existing OECD test guidelines and the development of new test 

guidelines specifically to address the potential adverse effects arising as a result of endocrine 

disruption, has been proposed by several organisations, such as EDSTAC, and 

in workshops on endocrine disrupters, such as EMWAT. Rather than discussing all ex-


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isting test guidelines in the present document, it is decided to refer to the documents 

above. 

For the environment, both, the hazard identification and the effect evaluation part of risk 

assessment is constructed as a combination of the results of ecotoxicity tests and several 

fate-related physical-chemical and biological properties. This methodology is scientifically 

sound and in agreement with the present state of the art of ecological risk assessment 

procedures. Nevertheless, before going in a detailed evaluation of the capacity 

of this strategy to detect hazards related to endocrine disruption it is necessary to 

clearly identify its aims and the concerns considered under this system. 

Ecotoxicological evaluations try to assess the effects of chemical substances at the 

ecological level. In scientific literature [e.g., BRO-RASMUSSEN et al., 1994], this level 

is commonly defined as “effects on the structure and function of the ecosystems” while 

due to the difficulties arising from the definition of the term ecosystem at the regulatory 

level [e.g., GONZALEZ, 1996] the normative goal for ecological/environmental protection 

is frequently modified and other terms, such as “the protection of living organisms, 

environmental elements and their interactions” are used. In any case from a scientific 

point of view both definitions clearly represent the aim to protect higher ecological levels 

of organisation than individuals-populations, such as communities and their interactions 

with the abiotic components of each environmental compartment. 

However, it is not always easy to combine this theoretical “aspiration” with the “real” 

data source usually employed in ecotoxicological assessments, which in most cases is 

reduced to a limited number of laboratory single-species tests. This limitation is based 

on both technical and economic arguments. The technical arguments mostly focus on 

the difficulties for the interpretations of higher tier tests, e.g. aquatic mesocosms or terrestrial 

model ecosystems while the economic arguments do not require further explanation. 

The relevance of laboratory single-species (eco-)toxicity tests has been discussed 

elsewhere (e.g., CROSSLAND, 1992). It can be considered as a pragmatic approach 

which is, nevertheless, widely employed as a cost/effective alternative (i.e., SETAC, 

1994). From a methodological point of view is quite clear that these “ecotoxicity” tests 

are not “ecological” at all. In principle, we can assume that the test conditions of singlespecies 

(eco-)toxicity tests do not provide more “ecological information” than any (noneco-)toxicity 

test on rats, mice, dogs, etc., which use a non-parenteral (i.e., oral or inhalation) 

route. A fish in a glass aquarium or an algae in an artificial reconstituted medium 

are not more, not less, ecologically relevant than a mouse in a box eating contaminated 

food. 

In spite of these drawbacks, appropriate interpretation of these ecotoxicity tests results 

can lead to conclusions that are ecologically relevant. There are a number of factors 

that make this possible: 

• the organisms used have been selected trying to represent key taxonomic 

groups of relevant environmental compartments for example: 

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- plants, soil invertebrates and soil micro-organisms for the soil compartment of 

the terrestrial environment. 

- vertebrates, pollinators and foliar dwelling invertebrates for the above soil 

compartment of the terrestrial environment. 

- top predators for biomagnification assessments. 

• the toxicity endpoints are specifically selected to be considered as “ecologically 

relevant”, i.e., reproduction, growth rate inhibition, etc. depending on the organisms 

and their ecological role. 

• the interpretation of the laboratory information considers the “ecological goal” 

using either deterministic or probabilistic approaches to extrapolate the laboratory 

data to ecosystem effects. These interpretations require a specific discussion. 

At the present state of the art of ecological risk assessment, deterministic or probabilistic 

approaches (based on laboratory single-species tests) can be justified not only as an 

economically feasible alternative, but can also be justified from a scientific point of view 

when a set of basic conditions, such as those included below, are fulfilled: 

• these methods are part of a tiered approach, and constitute the first step of the 

process (lower tier), to determine if higher tier assessment are required. Their 

results are over-ruled when information at a higher tier level becomes available. 

• the uncertainty of these assessments is quite high, and therefore requires the 

application of an appropriate level of precaution. 

• the transparency of the process must be guaranteed. 

• the decision schemes must be oriented to the reduction of type I-errors (minimising 

the risk for false negatives even by assuming a higher risk for false positives). 

A validation criteria for this condition is that higher tier values must show a 

clear tendency to reduce or at least to maintain the ecotoxicological thresholds 

estimated from the single-species toxicity data. The agreement between the recommended 

protocol and this validation criteria has been observed for several 

substances in the EU industrial and pesticide programmes. 

Taken these and other considerations into account the use of this approach is widely 

extended at the international level [i.e, OECD, 1989]. The deterministic approach is 

nowadays the most commonly used alternative in Europe. The ECETOC revision 

[ECETOC, 1993] compared methods developed in Switzerland, Germany, The Netherlands, 

the EC-JRC, UK, AIS and the OECD which were the basis for the development 

of the EC Technical Guidance Document (TGD). The ecotoxicological threshold is obtained 

by applying a factor (usually named as safety factor, uncertainty factor or application 

factor) to the lowest “relevant” toxicity value. This application factor depends on 

the significance and uncertainty of the available information. It should cover the extrapolation: 

• from acute to chronic toxicity when acute toxicity data are considered, 

• from laboratory to field conditions (unless laboratory conditions should be specifically 

designed to maximise the bioavailability), 

• from the chronic effects observed for the most sensitive tested species to the 

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• from multi-species effects to the protection of the structure and function of ecosystems. 

Typical examples of this approach are the derivation of: 

• the EU Water Quality Objectives [BRO-RASMUSSEN et al., 1994]. 

• the Predicted No Effect Concentrations in the TGD for risk assessment of industrial 

chemicals [EC, 1996c]. 

• the OSPAR Ecotoxicological Assessment Criteria [OSPAR, 1994] 

• the proposed Environmental Quality Standards in the Water Framework Directive 

(which follow the TGD estimation for PNECs) 

Summaries of the application factors employed by the different methods can be found 

in [ECETOC, 1993; OSPAR, 1994; TARAZONA, 1998]. The probabilistic approach use 

the available information to produce a probabilistic distribution for the species sensitivity 

for each chemical. Obviously, the uncertainty in the estimation will depend on the 

amount and quality of the information employed to create the distribution. The ecotoxicological 

threshold is then calculated as the concentration which is safe for a predetermined 

percentage (e.g., 95%) of the species (or other levels of taxonomic organisation). 

A classical example for this procedure is the Dutch Maximum Tolerable Concentration 

procedure [i.e, VAN STRAALEN AND DENNEMAN, 1989]. Combination of deterministic 

and probabilistic approaches are possible in different ways, i.e. by applying a safety 

factor to the concentration which protect a certain percentage of the species [i.e., for 

the USEPA Water Quality Criteria, USEPA, 1995]. 

Nowadays, the tendency is to considered probabilistic approaches as a higher tier step 

in the tiered scheme. Several proposals for the incorporation of probabilistic methods in 

the EU Ecological Risk Assessment programmes for industrial chemicals and for pesticides 

have been presented. 

It must be pointed out that in any case this approach tries to protect individuals or even 

species. If there is a concern for the effects on single species or even for the protection 

of individuals within a species (e.g. relevant for certain endangered species) then, the 

ecotoxicological approach is not valid and environmental (e.g. wildlife) toxicological 

methods are required. The outcome of this approach can be either more or less severe 

than the ecotoxicological method (e.g. requiring either higher or lower threshold values 

to obtain acceptable margins of safety), but in any case it can be assumed that individuals 

are protected by ecotoxicological thresholds. 

The role of single-species ecotoxicity tests in the assessment of endocrine disrupters: 

In theory the basic concepts discussed above are general and not related to the mode 

of action of the chemical. Therefore any mechanism is expected to be covered in the 

extrapolation from laboratory data to the ecotoxicological threshold. This conceptual 

approach can be justified unless: 

• due to technical problems the toxicity test/endpoints can be regarded as unable 

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• the uncertainty factors/probabilistic cut-off do not minimise type I-errors in the 

extrapolation from single species data to ecotoxicological thresholds (i.e. at the 

acute/chronic or chronic/multi-species ratio). 

For some endocrine disruption mechanisms these “unless” clauses represent a potential 

problem which cannot at present be quantified due to the lack of available information 

not only regarding the 4 catchment areas but, rather in general. As an example of 

technical problems, chronic studies on Daphnia’s (female populations with partenogenetic 

reproduction) and algae may not detect effects of oestrogenic pollutants, and the 

same can said for some (not all) chronic tests on fish such as the fish growth inhibition 

tests. However, the same chronic Daphnia test should be, in theory a perfect candidate 

for the detection of androgenic pollutants. 

Regarding the second clause, the most common extrapolation factor from acute to 

chronic effects (acute/chronic ratio) is 10, while not enough information is available to 

determine the ratio between mortality due to endocrine disruption and long-term ecologically 

significant effects due to endocrine disruption mechanisms. 

In conclusion, although the conceptual approach is appropriate, and laboratory single 

species toxicity tests can be considered as either screening, lower tier or cost/effective 

alternatives for the prediction of ecological effects and independent, not related, to the 

specific mechanisms of action, due to the particularities of the acute and chronic toxicity 

tests and endpoints currently selected, the hazard of some endocrine disrupters could 

not be identified by some widely used Ecotoxicity tests batteries. 

Obviously the problem only appears when endocrine disruption is the only or the most 

sensitive and ecologically relevant mechanisms of toxicity and the effects cannot be directly 

or indirectly detected by the selected test endpoints in the scheduled time. Further 

information is required to estimate the magnitude of this problem. 

The development of tests specifically designed to measure endocrine disruption is not 

suitable for ecological effects because: a) the consequences must be evaluated at the 

population level, and b) even the smaller taxonomic groups (mammals, reptiles, amphibians) 

have thousands of different species with physiological and ecological differences 

which highly affect both the sensitivity and the ecological relevance of the effects 

observed at the individual level. 

Particularly for endocrine disruption, our understanding on hormonal physiology is 

mostly limited to vertebrates, with some additional examples for some specific taxonomic 

groups. But even for vertebrates, it is difficult to predict the population consequences 

of individual endocrine alterations such us increases of vitellogenin levels or 

reductions in thyroid activities, until these alterations impair reproduction, growth or survival 

potentials. Therefore, the detection of these impairments must be the endpoints in 

ecotoxicity tests. Therefore, the ecotoxicological consequences of endocrine disrupters 

must be assessed by general, non specific endpoints but assuring that the employed 

tests and result interpretations fully cover the potential consequences of the hormonal 

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A potential solution should be to incorporate a procedure to identify the relevance of 

endocrine alterations. e.g. using the data produced on mammals. This hazard identification 

will be useful to select those tests which can produce the adequate response, 

e.g. to define which chronic toxicity tests on fish is required. This information should 

also be very useful for the assessment of secondary poisoning, this part is described as 

provisional in the current EU protocol for ecological risk assessment and although the 

potential for bioaccumulation is obviously included, additional efforts should be allocated 

for a better understanding of the risk related to the bioaccumulation potential of 

persistent chemicals and particularly for an appropriate characterisation of the potential 

for biomagnification through the food chains. A combination of potential for biomagnification 

and effects on reproduction and/or immunological capacity increase in an exponential 

way the risk for top predators, as can be clearly observed from the examples 

provided in the chapter on wildlife. 

Finally, methods for an adequate characterisation of the potential risks of endangered 

wildlife requiring protection at the individual (for example Iberian lynx or Iberian imperial 

eagle) or population levels should be developed. These methods, to be developed as 

specific scenarios for the local risk assessment, should be applied on certain areas, in 

addition to the general ecological risk assessment, when endangered species are expected 

to be at risk. 

6.2 TESTING STRATEGIES 

Scheme 1 displays the current and future options for defining endocrine disrupters. The 

studies required for a particular agent will be influenced by the extent of any existing 

toxicity database for it. The various screening assays available for use in each tier have 

been discussed above. 

The sequence of conducting tests and the point of entry into Scheme 1 will be influenced 

by many factors. At one extreme, an agent may have been adequately evaluated 

for reproductive effects, e.g. in a one- or two-generation study. In such cases, it may be 

possible to classify the agent as inactive as an endocrine disrupter, irrespective of any 

activities it may be shown to have in in vitro assays. At the other extreme, it may be important 

to study analogues of a confirmed endocrine disrupter in order to prioritise analogues 

for testing in vivo or to eliminate similarly active members of the chemical class. 

In such situations, structure-activity relationship (SAR) or in vitro assays may prove 

valuable in cases where the mechanism of action of the lead chemical is known and 

where appropriate in vitro assays responsive to it are established. In most cases, however, 

a single agent with few toxicity data available on it, will be under consideration. In 

these cases, four possible testing strategies are possible (A-D, Scheme 1):


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Figure 6-1: Approaches to identify endocrine disrupting substances (EDS). Dotted arrows 

represent entries to the sequence of testing that require further research before they can 

be endorsed or eliminated [WEYBRIDGE REPORT, 1996] 

Option A 

Until the problem of metabolism is solved, negative responses observed in vitro will still 

require follow-up testing in vivo. Positive responses in vitro may be of value but they are 

insufficient to define an endocrine disrupter. In vitro assay may be of value to study 

mechanisms of action of a confirmed endocrine disrupter, but still, the problem of metabolism 

will complicate such studies. A major research need is, therefore, to solve the 

problem of metabolism in vitro. There is also the need to devise assays for the metabolic 

disturbances likely to occur in whole organisms. There is also the research need 

to build up SARs in conjunction with the acquisition of new data. 

Option B 

Limited studies in rodents are a possible method to evaluate endocrine disruption. The 

available assays are discussed above. However, it is unclear at present whether it will 

be necessary to include assays in which pregnant animals are studied, together with 

the study of their offspring. There is therefore a research need to acquire data on a 

range of endocrine disrupters in order to establish two things: 

a) the hierarchy of sensitivities between the several available endpoints, 

b) the possible need to study the effects of chemicals on embryos and neonates. 

Until such data are available it is not possible to prescribe a preferred battery of


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assays. A few current precedents suggest that it may be necessary to include 

studies in utero for an adequate evaluation of endocrine disruption. 

Option C 

It may be decided that it is important to study the effects induced in animals exposed in 

utero. The possible endpoints that currently exist are detailed above. 

Option D 

In some cases expected exposures may dictate that testing commences in wildlife species. 

The choice of test species will be mandated by the particular emission condition 

prevailing. In general, however, endocrine disrupters defined in mammals will be selectively 

evaluated in wildlife species in order to evaluate their relative sensitivity and to 

establish no-effect levels. A research need is to select a range of sentinel species and 

endpoints for situations where the study of endocrine disruption commences in wildlife. 

6.3 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 

Many initiatives have been taken in (inter)national fora to develop new test guidelines 

(in vitro screening as well as in vivo screening and comprehensive in vivo tests) and/or 

enhancement of existing test guidelines (additional parameters/endpoints in existing 

test guidelines). The most important initiatives are discussed below: 

OECD Endocrine Disrupter Testing and Assessment (EDTA) Working Group: 

EDTA has been established jointly by the OECD Risk Assessment Advisory Body 

(RAAB) and the OECD National Co-ordinators of the Test Guidelines Programme (NC- 

TGP) in December 1997. The EDTA is the focal point for current OECD work on endocrine 

disrupters. In the draft report of the first EDTA meeting it is stated: “that specifically 

EDTA will provide (1) a forum to mutually inform national and regional activities, 

(2) develop appropriate OECD test guidelines and (3) where possible harmonise risk 

characterisation and assessment approaches”. EDTA recommends on the priority and 

future need for OECD work on endocrine disrupters by: 

• “identifying and prioritising enhancements and modifications to existing OECD 

test guidelines to facilitate the detection of endocrine disrupting substances; 

• developing a workplan for the development of top priority enhancements as indicators 

of endocrine disrupting effects, including an evaluation of their sensitivity 

and reliability; 

• identifying and prioritising needs for new test guidelines and developing a workplan 

for future OECD work, including the validation of new test guidelines; 

• developing a harmonised testing strategy for the screening and testing of endocrine 

disrupting chemicals taking into account the consequences of such a testing 

strategy on the development and validation of test guidelines, and on existing 

regulatory systems for new and existing substances”. 

The following non-mammalian tests were discussed in the first EDTA meeting:


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• Mammals: several tests - from in-vitro screening assays to higher tier tests like the 

two-generation reproductive toxicity study - were discussed. It was agreed that possible 

enhancements to detect chemicals capable of causing endocrine disruption 

should be considered. 

• Birds: It was noted by EDTA that the avian reproduction test (OECD 206) was currently 

in the process of being revised. It was agreed that possible enhancements to 

detect chemicals capable of causing endocrine disruption should be considered in 

the revision process. 

• Fish tests: A proposal to develop a fish full life-cycle test has been agreed by the 

NC-TGP. It was noted by EDTA that also the early life-stage test (OECD 210) has 

the potential to be able to identify an endocrine disrupter, provided the test is sufficiently 

enhanced. EDTA agreed that chronic testing for fish should be the subject of 

separate in depth discussions with appropriate experts. These discussions would 

aim to consider the various proposals for further fish tests - screening as well as 

confirmatory - and to recommend a suitable approach. As a first step an OECD 

Validation Management Group will be established, which will organise the development 

of fish test guidelines. EDTA agreed that a reference set of chemicals with a 

range of potencies for endocrine disruption should be identified for validation studies. 

• Invertebrates: It was concluded that no specific tests were available for endocrine 

disrupters in invertebrates. The outcome of a SETAC-Europe and North American/EC 

Expert Workshop entitled “Endocrine Disruption in Invertebrates: Endocrinology, 

Testing and Assessment”, hold in December 1998 highlight the importance 

of this taxonomic group, as invertebrates represent about 95 % of the known animal 

species. The need for better understanding of invertebrate endocrinology and the 

large physiological diversity, which makes it scientifically unrealistic to select a “representative” 

species, were also stated. Regarding toxicity testing, the generation of 

data on several species is required, considering full life-cycle studies as the ideal 

bioassay. It was also pointed out that existing tests can be implemented for the detection 

of EDS effects by simply adding additional endpoints. 

• The CSTEE considers that the development of cost-effective multispecies laboratory 

tests, in which multiple reproduction strategies would be assessed simultaneously, 

will cover the identified needs and is realistic according to the current state of the art 

of invertebrate testing, and therefore requires priority. 

• Amphibia: EDTA concluded that there are no international accepted test guidelines 

available for amphibia. As EDSTAC has included a proposed amphibian development 

and reproduction test, it was agreed that the US would take the lead in developing 

a proposal for an amphibian test. As a follow-up to the first EDTA meeting the 

“OECD workshop on the Validation of Endocrine Disrupters Screening and Testing 

Methods” was organised on August 10-11 of 1998 in the USA.


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One objective of the meeting was the selection of new test methods or enhancement of 

existing methods to be considered for validation. With respect to test methods the following 

was agreed: 

• mammals: validation work has the highest priority for the 3-day uterotrophic, 5-7 

day Hersberger assay and the OECD 407 repeated dose oral toxicity test in rodents 

(in general, the EU experts at the workshop were in favour of extension of 

the existing OECD 407, and not of the selection of new test methods). The second 

EDTA meeting of November 12-13, 1998 focussed on tests with mammals. 

Protocols for OECD 416 (two-generation), enhanced OECD 407, uterotrophic 

and Hershberger assay were discussed. These will now be part of an OECD 

validation programme. A Validaton Management Group has in the meantime 

been established. 

• wildlife: expert workshops will be organised for fish testing (October 1998 in the 

UK) and mysid testing. In this OECD Expert Consultation meeting on Testing in 

Fish (28-29 October 1998, London, UK) the following was concluded: work underway 

in various fora with respect to the development of methods for the detection 

of endocrine disrupters in fish is still at the level of “pre-validation”. Test 

protocols for further guideline development could probably be submitted to a 

second expert consultation to be hold in September 1999 

Endocrine Disrupter Screening Testing and Advisory Committee (EDSTAC) 

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments of 1996 and the Food Quality Protection 

Act (FQPA) required US-EPA to “develop a screening program, using appropriate 

validated testing systems and other scientifically relevant information, to determine 

whether certain substances may have an effect in humans that is similar to an effect 

produced by naturally occurring oestrogen, or such other hormonal effect as the Administrator 

may designate”. As a result of this EDSTAC was established. In October 

1998 the final report was published. With respect to testing and test guidelines three 

phases - a tiered approach - are distinguished by EDSTAC: 

• Pre-screening: consists of use of (Q)SARs, information from the US-EPA Endocrine 

Disrupter/Disruptor Priority Setting Database and High Throughput Pre-Screening 

(HTPS). In the HTPS 15,000 substances will be tested in an in vitro assay on oestrogen, 

androgen and thyroid receptor binding with and without metabolic activation. 

• Tier 1 testing: consists of the following tests: (1) in vitro: oestrogen receptor binding 

or reporter gene assay, androgen binding or reporter gene assay, steroidogenesis 

assay with minced testis; (2) in vivo: rodent 3-day uterotrophic assay, rodent 20 day 

pubertal female assay with thyroid, rodent 5-7 day Hersberger assay, frog metamorphosis 

assay and fish gonadal recrudescence assay. Possible substitutes are: (1) in 

vitro: placental aromatase assay; (2) in vivo: modified rodent 3-day uterotrophic assay, 

rodent 14-day intact adult male assay with thyroid and rodent 20-day thyroid/pubertal 

male assay.


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• Tier 2 testing: consists of the following tests: (1) two-generation mammalian reproductive 

toxicity study or a less comprehensive test (alternative mammalian reproductive 

test or one-generation test); (2) avian reproduction; (3) fish life cycle; (4) 

mysid life cycle; and (5) amphibian development and reproduction. 

The non-mammalian tests recommended by EDSTAC are discussed below: 

• Fish gonadal recrudescence assay: there are essential endocrine differences between 

fish and mammals: (1) fish differ in steroid profiles (11-ketotestosterone versus 

testosterone); (2) differences in oestrogen receptor; (3) steroid receptors in eggs 

for vitellogenin are unique for oviparous animals. In this assay fish of both sexes 

maintained under simulated winter conditions are exposed to an increasing photoperiod, 

temperature and test substance to determine effects on maturation from the 

regressed position (recrudescence). EDSTAC recommends the fathead minnow 

(Pimephales promelas) as test species. 

• Avian reproduction: EDSTAC recommends the EPA Avian Reproduction Test 

Guideline – test species are the mallard duck and northern bobwhite quail - to be 

enhanced with some additional observations: steroid titrestiters, organ and gland 

weights, histochemistry and histopathology, and reproductive capability of the offspring. 

• Fish life cycle test: EDSTAC recommends the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) 

or the sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus) as test species, depending 

on whether the substances will lead to exposure of freshwater or estuarine/marine 

systems, respectively. Test organisms will be continuously exposed from fertilisation 

through development, maturation and reproduction, and early development of the 

offspring (test duration up to 300 days). 

• Mysid life cycle test: endocrine disrupters can interfere with ecdysteroid activity, being 

an important steroid in arthropods. In this test the effects on development, 

moulting, growth and sexual reproduction are studied. 

• Amphibian development and reproduction: in this test the effects on amphibians exposed 

from the larval stadium through metamorphosis and reproduction is studied. 

With respect to the validation status of the tests recommended EDSTAC distinguishes 

5 categories: 

Category I: tests which have been fully validated and standardised; 

Category II: tests which have been in use for a sufficient period of time 

and have gained sufficient general acceptance. Standardisation 

should be accomplished. 

Category III: tests which have been used sufficiently broad to be generally 

considered relevant or reliable. Further validation and standardisation 

is necessary. 

Category IV: tests which may be relevant, but have not been used very of-


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ten. Method development, validation and standardisation is 

necessary. 

Category V: tests which have actually not been conducted yet. Research 

should be carried out to determine whether these tests can be 

developed, and determine which purpose they can have in the 

endocrine disruption screening and testing program. 

The following non-mammalian tests were placed in these categories: 

Category II: avian reproduction, fish life cycle and mysid life cycle; 

Category IV: fish gonadal recrudescence; 

Category V: avian androgenicity screening test, invertebrate screening 

tests, avian multi-generation test, amphibian development and 

reproduction test and reptilian test. 

Endocrine Modulator Steering Group 

In June 1996 the chemical industrial organisation in Europe CEFIC (Conseil Européen 

de l’Industrie Chimique) - established the Endocrine Modulator Steering Group (EMSG). 

After a public call in The Lancet for tenders, a research programme was announced in 

a press release on 14 May, 1998. The EMSG programme is part of a global programme 

of the chemical industry, in which the Chemical Manufacturers of America (CMA) and 

the Japanese Chemical Industry Association (JCIA) are the other key players. With respect 

to wildlife EMSG will focus on fish, while the CMA concentrates on birds and reptiles. 

At the EDTA meeting in March 1998 the EMSG presented three proposals on 

tests with fish: 

• In vivo screening test: juvenile fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) will be exposed 

for 21 days. Endpoints are induction of the egg yolk precursor vitellogenin 

and sex steroid levels. 

• Modified early life-stage (ELS) tests (enhanced OECD 210): randomly selected 

fathead minnow will be held without further exposure until maturity and subsequent 

egg-laying. In addition histological analyses of the gonads (presence of oocytes in 

testicular tissue and incorporation of yolk into oocytes) and biochemical analyses 

(vitellogenin, sex steroids and analysis of genetic sex) will be performed. 

• Partial life cycle test: sexually mature adult fathead minnow will be exposed for 28 

days. Biological observations (daily counting of fertilised/unfertilised eggs) and histological 

analysis of the gonads (see above) will be carried out. On one occasion 

eggs will be collected. Eggs and hatched fry will then be exposed for 28 days posthatch 

and then follow the same procedure as described above for the ELS test. 

In the EDTA meeting it was discussed that also other fish species than the fathead 

minnow could be used for this type of toxicity testing.


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6.4 OUTLOOK 

Many questions must be addressed before the overall magnitude, extent, and specific 

causes of this environmental concern can be resolved. Information is needed on what 

chemicals or class of chemicals can be considered to be genuine endocrine disrupters. 

The quantity (dose) of a chemical that is necessary to cause an adverse effect is important. 

Next, there is a need to know whether chemicals that are suspected of being 

endocrine disrupters act in an additive, synergistic, or antagonistic manner. While there 

are several available tests that are capable of evaluating a chemical for possible unique 

endocrine system disruption in some animal species, it is unclear which one or ones 

are the most useful. Therefore, it is important to determine how well current screening 

assays predict an adverse ecological effect due to endocrine disruption. Methods need 

to be (further) developed and validated to test for a cause-and-effect and a doseresponse 

relationship to allow for sound risk assessment and regulatory decisions to be 

made. Additional research is needed to 

(1) determine whether a (new) chemical or its metabolites have hormonal activity, 

and if so, what the mechanism of action is; 

(2) prioritise chemicals in relative potency terms of toxicity; 

(3) determine whether organisms are exposed to the chemical in the environment; 

(4) ascertain whether there are sensitive species and individuals, and 

(5) predict effects in the environment, including the effects on organisms, populations, 

communities, and ecosystems; 

(6) integrate the development of SAR in endocrine disruption with new data acquisition; 

(7) devise a source of auxiliary metabolism suitable for use with in vitro assays 

(8) To assess if in vitro assays can be developed to predict changes to the biosynthesis 

and degradation of hormones in whole organisms, and to predict changes 

to thyroid gland function; 

(9) devise novel whole organism assays for endocrine disruption in birds, fishes and 

invertebrates, both for their use to assess hazards to those species and to act as 

a possible replacement for rodent studies; 

(10) establish if endocrine disruption effects observed in neonates or weanlings 

can be predicted by measurements made in the exposed parent. Such research 

will resolve the question of whether there is an absolute need to conduct 

exposures in utero and during lactation; 

(11) establish a hierarchy of sensitivities for the markers of endocrine disruption 

in mammals, fish and birds, using a set of appropriately selected endocrine 

disrupters; 

(12) select sentinel wildlife species and endpoints for use in situations where 

the evaluation of an agent’s endocrine disrupting activity will most usefully commence 

in wildlife species. 

Specifically, test methods are needed to identify potential endocrine disrupters, quantify 

the potency of such action, and demonstrate any adverse outcome. "Sentinel" species 

(organisms used to detect effects of hazardous exposures) have been used to identify 

environmental contaminants. Therefore, there is a need to determine whether current 

sentinel species are adequate surrogates for identifying endocrine disrupters in wild and


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aquatic life or if other sentinel species should be identified and validated for assessing 

the state of ecosystems. Perhaps the development, validation, and use of amphibian 

and/or reptilian models would be appropriate in view of their widespread distribution and 

lack of information on these classes of vertebrates. Evaluations of ecological effect 

generally do not consider factors such as disease resistance (immune system dysfunction), 

behaviour (mating disruption), or reproductive viability of offspring (transgenerational 

effects). Consequently, there is a need to determine whether existing ecological 

effects/endpoints are adequate for assessing endocrine system perturbation. If not, 

then additional effects/endpoints are needed. Finally, there is a need to know what effects 

that occur at the earliest response threshold are relevant for further risk characterisation 

and what are the population, community, or ecosystem consequences of the 

effects observed in fish and wildlife.


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6.5 ECOTOXICOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT 

The word risk coming from the insurance industry means the occurrence probability of a 

damage event. A modern risk assessment of chemical substances not only have to 

take account on humans but also on the environment. The aim of the ecotoxicological 

risk assessment is the estimation of the hazardous impact to the ecosystem regarding 

the toxicological data of chemicals and the exposition. In doing so, both, the effects on 

organisms and populations and the pollution of environmental compartments like the 

ground water have to be estimated and evaluated [FENT 1998]. 

Exposition assessment 

Use 

Amount of input 

Characteristic of input 

Behaviour in the environment 

— Spread 

— Degradation 

— Metabolism 

Hazard evaluation 

Risk analysis 

Risk assessment 

Effect evaluation 

Ecotoxicological effects 

— Acute toxicity 

— Chronic toxicity 

— Toxicity to populations and ecosystem 

— bioaccumulation 

Occurrence probability 

Figure 6-2: hazardous evaluation of substances [FENT 1998]


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For a detailed exposition assessment information about the amount of input, characteristic 

of input like temporary trend, frequency and spatial distribution) as well as data 

about the behaviour of a substance in the environment are necessary. Moreover assumptions 

like sewage quantity and dilutive factor between sewage treatment plant 

runoff and receiving water must be made. If no precise information about the kind and 

the location of the entry as well as the prevailing environmental condition are known, an 

exposition assessment based on scenarios are made. In this situation both a typical input 

and dilution scenario and the worst case situation are proved. From these data the 

predicted environmental concentration (PEC) can be assessed [FENT 1998]. 

The hazard or risk potential of a substance is its potential to harm humans and environment 

based on disadvantageous characteristics. This potential is specified by the 

physical-chemical and toxicological characteristics of the substance and the ecotoxicity. 

At the effect evaluation it is checked if the substance is hazardous to humans and 

nature. This evaluation is based on the acute toxicity not until higher toxical compounds 

the chronical toxicity is integrated. The bioaccumulation is not yet regarded much but is 

an important criterion. The aim of the evaluation of the ecotoxicological hazardousness 

of a substance is the derivation of values for environmental concentrations at which a 

damage of the ecosystem is less probable [FENT 1998]. The author continues that the 

hazard evaluation is a result of the combination of exposition evaluation (amount and 

exposition) and the effect evaluation. It contains an evaluation of the environmental 

risks by using a substance based on input and substance characteristics determining 

the exposition concentrations and possible effects. 

If the hazard evaluation shows that a substance with endocrine characteristics reaches 

the environment in relevant amounts a risk assessment must be done. Here the possible 

dimension, the frequency and the consequences of a contamination based on a 

detailed exposition assessment are estimated. The risk assessment considers the occurrence 

probability [FENT 1998].


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input effects 

destiny, dispersion extrapolation 

environmental concentration 

(PEC) 

PEC/PNEC 

effect concentration 

(PECEC) 

< 1: no risk assessment 

> 1: risk assessment is necessary 


Figure 6-3: Concept of the environmental or ecotoxicological risk assessment of chemical 

substances [FENT 1998]. 

The PEC/PNEC-concept (see Figure 6-3) is a comparison of environmental concentrations 

(exposition) with the effect concentrations (effects). Due to the lack of data about 

the input and the behaviour of the substances in the environment, about the exposure 

concentrations can often be made only an approximate estimate. This uncertain state 

of data causes certain difficulties because there are often only a few experimentally 

found NOEC or LOEC values. Often it is only possible to estimate upper bounds of 

LOEC values or sphere of actions. Beyond this, the extrapolation and safety factors did 

not base on strongly scientific criteria. The highness of this factors depend on the quality 

and quantity of the existing ecotoxicological data. The fixing of such factors concerning 

endocrine effecting substances is not clear [BÄTSCHER et al 1999]. 

The authors emphasise the great importance of clarification of the loading situation of 

humans and wildlife, the environmental behaviour of the substances, the effects of different 

species and populations as well as the clarification of effect mechanisms for a 

risk assessment. At the moment an established risk assessment and evaluation is due 

to the lack of data (insufficient exposition and effect data) hardly be made. A closing of 

the existing research gaps should be made possible a risk analysis and assessment for 

endocrine effects. But it is necessary that the research activities and question formula


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tions be straightened to that aim and the results of the studies (e. g. NOEC, LOEC, effect 

thresholds) be part of the risk assessment in accordance to their importance. 

The used models like the PEC/PNEC model described above are for the evaluation of 

single substances. The effects caused by different substances are unconsidered. 

Therefore it is necessary to develop new models where combination effects of different 

hormonal active substances could be integrated in the risk assessment [BÄTSCHER et 

al 1999].


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7 IMPACTS OF HORMONAL ACTIVE CHEMICALS TO HUMANS AND ANIMALS 

Substances where an endocrine effect to several organisms is evidenced or supposed 

mainly are pesticides and so-called industrial chemicals [LEISEWITZ 1996]. They are 

part of the in 0 pictured group of POPs. A list of environmental chemicals with an endocrine 

effect is shown in appendix 1. Chloroganical materials have a great importance 

but not all in this context suspected environmental chemicals are chlorinated (phthalates, 

surfactants, heavy metals etc.) [LEISEWITZ 1996]. 

7.1 THE HAZARDOUSNESS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS 

The effects of xenobiotics are intensively cross-linked at the different biologicalecological 

levels, shown in the Figure 7-1. 

immediatlysome 

days 

hoursweeks 

weeksmonths 

monthsyears 

monthsdecades 

timetable 

attitude change 

Neurological and endocrinesymptomsbalance/orientation,locomotion, 

motivation/ability to learn 

contaminant 

biological-molecular reaction 

Enzym and metabolism activity 

induktion of xenometabolism-enzyms 

changes of membranes, DNA-mutation 

physiological changes morphological changes 

Oxigen depletion, ions-regulation, 

photosynthesis 

integration of food, digestion, excretion 

changes in the individual life cycle 

Embryonic development growth rate, 

reproduction, regenerative capacity 

changes in the population 

Reducted number of individuals, change in the age distribution, 

generally modified of ressources gene pool 

ecological consequences 

Changes in the biocoenosis/ecosystem 

with regard to dynamics, structure and function 

Histological and cytological 

changes 

Figure 7-1: Cross-linked effects to different biological-ecological levels, according to 

[FENT 1998]


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Environmental chemicals impairing the reproduction of animals have a great ecotoxicological 

relevance because they affect the whole population and could have an effect 

on the surviving of whole species. At wildlife various chronical impacts are known. They 

are based on the variety of the organisms and the complex neuro-endocrine system. 

The effects reach from the change of the reproduction behaviour over impacts on the 

neuro-hormonical system and balance-deviations at sex hormones, the missing of sexual 

cells up to sterility and sexchange. Organical compounds with high persistence belong 

to the most important ecotoxicological chemicals [FENT 1998]. Examples describing 

the effects of endocrine disrupters at humans and wildlife are performed in Appendix 

2. 

7.2 SUBSTANCES AND GROUP OF SUBSTANCES WITH A PUTATIVE 

ENDOCRINE DISRUPTING ABILITY 

In the following sections some special chosen substances and group of substances are 

introduced. Their use and characteristics like ecotoxicologic effects and their (putative) 

endocrine disrupting abilities are described. The selection based on their hazard to the 

aquatic environment and humans on the one hand and the fact that they are measured 

during investigation programs in the catchment areas. For the selection it was not important 

if the substances have been found in concentrations being hazardous for humans 

and wildlife or only in concentrations near the detection limit reps. in concentrations 

being tolerated by special directives like the drinking-water directive. The decision 

for acting like this was the "sneaking" hazard of this substances which have been discussed 

in the previous chapters. 

Heavy Metals - Use and Mode of Action 

As trace elements some heavy metals are essential but in higher concentrations they 

partly have toxicological effects. Heavy metals were emitted by several industrial processes, 

through corrosion, in the mining and on waste dumps. Especially lead, cadmium 

and mercury are regarded as being toxic. As dust, heavy metals can be transported 

over a long distance through the atmosphere and reach this way waters and soil. In 

aquatic environments they were diluted fast and partly they precipitate as low-soluble 

carbonates, sulphates or sulphides. Therefore they accumulate in the sediments. But if 

the sediment's adsorption capacity is effete the concentration in the water increases. 

The cycle of the metals (air, soil, atmosphere, biosphere) strongly depends on the element's 

transformation process. The biomethylation by micro-organisms has a special 

importance, because metal organical compounds built in this way have a high toxicity 

[DIEFENBACH]. 

• Copper: For all organisms copper is an essential trace element. With a yearly production 

of over 7 million tonnes, copper is one of the economically most important 

metals. Beside its main application area - the chemical industry - copper is also 

added to dyes and pesticides (fungicides, algaecides, molluscicides). The industrial 

copper input per year into the biosphere exceeds the natural input through weathering 

processes nearly about three times. Just as non-essential metals, it has in 

higher concentrations a toxic effect. At humans it hardly comes to damages caused 

by copper but for fishes it is very toxic [KÖCK 1996].


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• Cadmium: Cadmium is a non-essential element and for humans and fishes already 

in low concentrations very toxic. In the nature it occurs very seldom and mostly appears 

as an impurity in ores. The anthropogeneous cadmium emissions into the atmosphere 

com to 7600 t/a and exceed the natural emissions (1400 t/a) many times 

over. Cadmium is regarded as mutagenic, carcinogen, teratogenic and results in 

kidney and bone damages [KÖCK 1996]. 

• Mercury: In the nature mercury is ubiquitous. It exists in many physical and chemical 

shapes. Besides different industrial applications, mercury is also added to pesticides 

[KÖCK 1996]. The use as a fungicide (seed protective substance) is interdicted 

[FRITSCHE 1998]. 

• Looking at the world-wide human mercury emissions (3600 t/a) they considerable 

exceed many times the natural emissions (2500 t/a) [KÖCK 1996] . 

• The authors continue that it comes in the body to a fast accumulation of mercury 

and it is only be decomposed very slowly. Chronic expositions with mercury results 

in a damage of the nervous system and many enzyme systems. Moreover it is 

known to be carcinogen, mutagenic and teratogenic. 

• Chrome: For many organisms chrome is an essential trace element but in higher 

concentrations it is toxic. The metal-processing and the chemical industry are the 

main fields of application for chrome. At humans an accelerated chrome exposition 

results in the damage of internal organs and allergical skin reactions. Further it is 

regarded as carcinogen, mutagenic and teratogenic [KÖCK 1996]. 

• Nickel: For some organisms nickel is an essential trace element. In the nature it occurs 

relatively often. The anthropogeneous nickel emissions (52000 t/a) considerably 

exceed the natural emissions (29000 t/a). In water dissolved bivalent nickel concentrations 

have a relative low toxicity for fishes and mammals. Nickel expositions 

(especially inhalation) results in allergic skin reactions, lung damages, suppression 

of enzymes and cancer. Moreover the metal is regarded as teratogenic and mutagenic 

[KÖCK 1996]. 

• Lead: Anthropogeneous lead emissions amount to 2.03 million t/a and exceed the 

natural emissions about the 345fold. In the atmosphere lead is mainly found as suspended 

particles, transported over long distances because of their small size [KÖCK 

1996]. Both, lead and its anorganic compounds are toxic. Acute lead toxications are 

infrequent but a continuous intake of small amounts is dangerous. The anorganic 

lead compounds accumulate themselves into the bones, teeth and hairs. The toxic 

effect primarily concerns kidneys, testis, gastro-intestinal tract, the nervous system 

and the biosynthesis of the haemoglobin. Because of their high fat solubility, organic 

lead compounds are fast reabsorbed over the skin and lungs and finally reach the 

brain. Plants are more resistant against lead than humans. Therefore it must be attended 

that lead does not accumulate in plants used as foodstuff [DIEFENBACH]. 

• Zinc: For all organisms zinc is vital and as an essential trace element it plays an important 

part in enzymatic processes. In the nature zinc is often be found and with a 

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portant metals. The anthropogeneous zinc emissions (840000 t/a) exceed the natural 

emissions about the 23fold . For humans the toxic effect of the metal is low, 

apart from the inhalation of great zinc amounts. Quantities of 30 mg/l could cause 

sickness and vomiting. Further more zinc interrupts the zinc-copper resorption which 

can result in a copper scarcity [KÖCK 1996]. 

Description of Substances - Use and Mode of Action 

Because of the multiplicity of substances, only a few are chosen and described in the 

following paragraphs. 

• Polychlorinated Biphenyles (PCB): PCBs are chemically inert and difficult inflammable. 

Therefore they are multifaceted used as technical composites [FENT 

1998]. For the new use PCBs are forbidden in Germany but it is still found in technically 

outmoded plants (transformers, condensers, refrigerant and insulating material) 

and come into the environment [LEISEWITZ 1996]. Today PCB is sorbed on organical 

materials of soils and sediments and can be remobilised out of it. PCB is lipophilic 

and stable in the environment.On the basis of biomagnification in fishes, 

birds and marine mammals standing at the top of food chains maximum amounts of 

PCB concentrations are found. This is relevant for higher chlorinated congeners, 

because lower chlorinated congeners are metabolised.The chronical toxicity of 

PCBs has a bigger human- and ecotoxicological relevance as the acute one. To 

mammals and humans the chronical impacts of PCBs are carcinoma of the liver, 

immunotoxicity and impairment of the reproduction [FENT 1998]. 

• DDT and other organo-chlorine compounds: DDT was the first synthetical produced 

insecticide [SCHRENK-BERGT and STEINBERG 1998]. It belongs to the 

heavy volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons and is still used in several developing countries 

in spite of the ban in western Europe. DDT is heavy volatile, hydrophobic and 

lipophilic. So a great accumulation in the food chain and sediments of water bodies 

take place. In the depositions of rivers and lakes DDT is frequently about 10 000fold 

higher concentrated as in the water [LEISEWITZ 1996]. DDT and its metabolite 

DDE are especially accumulated in the fatty tissues, liver and the brain. It is active 

as a nerve toxin with neurotoxical effects moreover it results in an increase of the 

thyroid gland. 

• Dioxines: Dioxine is a collective name for polychlorinated dibenzodioxines and furans 

[LEISEWITZ 1996]. Polychlorinated dibenzo-1,4-dioxines and dibenzofuranes 

(PCDD and PCDF) are unwelcome by-products of incineration and production processes. 

On the basis of their chemically-physically and biologically persistence they 

are staying a long time in the environment and accumulate and absorb themselves 

in reservoirs. Further more they are resistant against chemical and biological decomposition 

(cf. chapter 0). Their lipophility supports their bioaccumulation in the lever 

and the fatty tissues of animals. The toxicity of different congeners must be differentiated. 

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a high potential for chronical effects to the development, the reproduction and the 

immune and hormone system [FENT 1998]. 

• Light volatile chlorinated hydrocarbons: Perchloroethylene, trichloroethylene and 

methylene chloride have low boiling points, high vapour pressures and are light volatile. 

They are lipophilic and are used for defatting of metals, paints and as an extracting 

agent for the laundering [LEISEWITZ 1996]. After the inhalation or swallowing 

this materials are quick reabsorbed. They can pass through the blood-brain 

barrier, so at an acute toxication often a narcotic effect appears. Chronical toxications 

are able to cause irreversible neurological harms. Perchloroethylene can also 

be reabsorbed over the skin. In the Ames test the carcinogenic and mutagenic effect 

is evidenced [LEISEWITZ 1996]. 

• Lindane: Lindane is an insecticide and is also added to wood conserving agents. 

The scientific name for lindane is γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (γ-HCH) [LEISEWITZ 

1996]. Lindane is very volatile and accumulates in the organism's fatty tissue. In its 

mode of action it is similar to DDT whereas the effect set in faster. For mammals 

lindane is more toxic as DDT. For the chronical effect of lindane the accumulation in 

the fatty tissue, the kidneys in the nervous system and the brain are significant. Lindane 

is considered to be carcinogen and affects the human reproductiveness 

[WACKER]. 

• Hexachlorbenzene (HCB): Hexachlorbenzene belongs to the heavy volatile chlorinated 

hydrocarbons and is highly lipophilic. It arises as a by-product at different production 

and incineration processes, is a plasticizer in synthetic materials and is used 

as a fungicide. In Germany the use as a fungicide is prohibited [LEISEWITZ 1996]. 

Hexachlorbenzene is considered to be carcinogen and because of the hormonal impact 

it reduces the male reproductiveness. Moreover it affects the immune system 

[LEISEWITZ]. 

• Pentachlorphenol (PCP): PCP is used for the protection of wood, textiles and 

leather due to it's fungicidal and bactericidal impact. The production and the use of 

products including PCPs is prohibited in Germany [LEISEWITZ 1996]. Pentachlorphenol 

operates as a cytotoxin. An exposition with PCP causes eye and skin irritations 

(chlorine acne).Typical symptoms of a PCP exposition are universal lassitude, 

sickness, regurgitation, headache, strong sudation and as well mental disorientation 

[LEISEWITZ 1996]. PCP is member of the category of carcinogen occupational 

substances [WACKER].


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Atrazine is used as a nonselective herbicide [EXTOXNET]. Atrazine inhibits the photosynthesis 

in plants. The plants ingest the substance by the roots and the leaves 

[FEDERAL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY, AUSTRIA]. In 1987 the estimated world-wide 

production amounted 70 000 t [FEDERAL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY, AUSTRIA]. In 

1990 more than 64 million acre of cropland were treated with atrazine in the USA 

[EXTOXNET]. 

Field of Application: In agriculture atrazine is used in agriculture for the weed control 

in corn and millet for more than 30 years [FEDERAL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY, 

AUSTRIA]. Primarily it is used in corn cultivation and the main input takes place between 

May and June. In Switzerland 60 t/a are used, in the catchment of the Mississippi 

20 000 t and in the whole USA together 30 000 t [FENT 1998]. In Austria the increase 

of atrazine occurs with the enlargement of the corn cultivation. In former times, atrazine 

was used in amounts of 8 kg/ha. It was used in mixture with other herbicides for the 

weed control at rail facilities, industry and traffic areas. Here, the dosages mounted up 

to more than 20 kg/ha. This was a significant reason for the pollution of waters with 

atrazine and its metabolites [FEDERAL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY, AUSTRIA]. 

Elimination from the Sewage: Most of the communal sewage treatment plants does 

not eliminate atrazine out of the water. But by means of activated carbon filters they can 

be eliminated trouble-free [COMFORT and ROETH 1996]. 

Pollution Sources: Atrazine reaches the environment from agricultural areas (corn 

cultivation) during the application between May and June. Because of a great mobility 

atrazine reaches the ground water via infiltration and the surface waters via surface 

rainwash [FENT 1998]. A long distance transport of atrazine is possible by dust particles, 

fog and rain [FEDERAL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY, AUSTRIA]. In consequence of 

driftage or evaporation it attains the atmosphere and with the rainfall it reaches the waters 

and ground again [FENT 1998]. 

Environmental behaviour: In Austria's waters atrazine and its by-product desethylatrazine 

cause important residual problems. It was detected in the rain, ground water, 

surface water and the soil. The main problems of the atrazine usage are caused in the 

great prevalence in the environment and the persistence of atrazine an its metabolites 

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the soil atrazine is predominantly metabolised microbial but also abiotically e. g. by sunlight 

and hydrolysis [FEDERAL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY, AUSTRIA]. The hydrolysis 

is fast in acidic or basic environments and rather slower in a neutral pH range. The average 

half-life period is 45 days. In soils with a low part of loam or low content of organic 

substances atrazine is moderate to highly volatile [EXTOXNET]. Under moist and 

warm conditions, the half-life period of atrazine in the topsoil is about 60 days. In subsurface 

soil or in water the half-life period is generally longer [COMFORT and ROETH 

1996]. Under dry or cold conditions atrazine can persist more than a year. Because it 

does not adsorb strongly at soil particles atrazine has a high potential to contaminate 

the ground water despite its moderate water solubility [EXTOXNET]. The biodegradation 

in water and ground water is slower because here atrazine and its metabolites are 

very persistent [FEDERAL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY, AUSTRIA]. By the feeders the 

herbicide attains the epilimnion where it is subject to the different processes of water 

mixing. Between April and November (stratified lake) atrazine is spread in the epilimnion 

within some days. A continuos elimination takes place by the lake outflow. The 

vertical water mixing is significantly slower and transports a small amount into the 

metalimnion and the hypolimnion. During the winter circulation between December and 

March the residual amount of atrazine is spread in the whole lake [FENT 1998]. He also 

points out, that some by-products have also a small herbicide effect. Due to the low vapour 

pressure and a small henry-constant the volatility into the atmosphere is negligible. 

The relatively high water solubility of atrazine and the small distribution coefficient 

causing a relative high mobility from the soil into surface and ground water. Therefore 

atrazine sorbs hardly at sediment and soil particles. The microbial degradability is low. 

Atrazine is relatively persistent but there is no important bio-accumulation in organisms. 

Because the photochemical and biological degradation is also low, the disposition of 

atrazine in the lake is caused by the disposition and transport processes. 

Concentration in the Environment: During the application period highest values are 

measured. In the 1980's atrazine was measured in concentrations of more than 0.1 µg/l 

in many drinking water reservoirs. In the period of three weeks 0.5 - 9.1 µg/l and maximum 

values of 23 µg/l are measured in American rivers. Here the medium atrazine 

concentrations lie between 0.3 - 4.7 µg/l. In small lakes the values are specifically high. 

Surface runoff from agricultural fields continue approximately one month after the use 

and have values up to 250 µg/l. In May/June up to 0.15 µg/l are measured in the rain in 

Switzerland [FENT 1998]. 

Ecotoxicological Effects: For birds, beneficial animals (e. g. bees) and soil-dwelling 

organisms atrazine is extensively harmless. Atrazine does not accumulate itself in the 

food chain. The acute toxicity of atrazine for humans is low. Sporadically irritations of 

skin, eyes and the respiratory tract are recognised. Human toxicologically it is almost 

harmless. It is not safe to say that atrazine has a mutagenic res. teratogenic effect. In 

long-term studies an increased rate of breast cancer has been recognised. The EPA 

classified atrazine to be a "Possible Human Carcinogen". It is suspected to have an 

unwanted estrogene effect [FEDERAL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY, AUSTRIA]. 

Atrazine represses the photosynthesis and is an environmental chemical with a herbicide 

effect. In the water it mainly impairs algae and water plants but between related 

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acute moderate toxic but negative long-time effects like reproductive interference and 

malformation have been observed at low atrazine dosages ( aquatic makrophytes > benthic organisms > zooplankton > fishes 

LD50-values (96 h) of fishes lie in the range of 3.5 - 20 mg/l but chronic values lie at 0.5 

- 1.0 mg/l. The author continues that atrazine is very persistent and represses the primary 

production in stagnant water at a concentration of ≥ 20 µg/l. First effects occur in 

the phytoplankton and periphyton. In plant communities no effects are determined at 

low values but concentrations of 1 - 5 µg/l impair single algae. An impairment of the 

photosynthesis and a change in the range of species take place at concentrations of 

100 µg/l. The displacements of species are different in the experiments but it tends to 

result in an expansion of resistant species in those niches where sensible species are 

eliminated. Also at 100 - 500µg/l indirect effects like changes of the water quality and 

the reduction of herbivore populations are recognised. This causes a change in the diet 

of fish. Although chronic effects to aquatic animals have an important relevance only a 

few are known. 4 - 5 µg/l causes histological changes at the kidneys and 80 µg/l causes 

cell damages [FENT 1998]. 

Model System Measuring Parameter Effect 

specific single algae 

marine phytoplankton 

microcosm (pond) 

photosynthesis 

primary production 

phytoplankton productivity 

mesocosm (pond) phytoplankton productivity 

micro- res. mesocosm phytoplankton productivity 

(pond) 

makrophytes abundance 

Inhibition 

Reduction 

reduction 

green algae reduced 

chlorophyll-values increased 

reduction 

substitute of sensitive breeds 

Table 7-2: Atrazine-Effects at Concentrations till 50 µg/l [FENT 1998] 

Lowest Effect- 

Concentration 

(µg/l) 

1 

6 

15 

20 

50


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Ban: Since 1992 a statutory limitation (BGBI Nr. 97/1992) of 0.5 kg agent/ha and year 

is obtained in Austria. In 1995 atrazin containing compounds are disbarred in Austria 

which is like a prohibition. The use of atrazine is also forbidden in Germany, Denmark, 

Sweden and Finland. In some EU member states like France, Holland and Spain atrazine 

is still used as a herbicide. There is no agreement about a consistent restriction of 

atrazine in the whole EU so it is possible to readmit atrazine in Austria [FEDERAL 

ENVIRONMENT AGENCY, AUSTRIA]. 

Regulations 

laws, bye-laws, drinking wa- ground water food 

directives ter 

Austria BGBl. Nr. Grenzwert seit 

448/1991 1. Juli 1994: 

(i.d.g.F.): Trinkwasser-Pestizidverordnung 

0,1 µg Atrazin/l 

BGBl Nr. 

Schwellenwert 

502/1991 

seit 1. Juli 

Grundwass- 

1994: 0,1 µg 

erschwellenwerteverordnung 

Atrazin/l 

BGBl. Nr. 

Allgemeiner 

747/1995 

Höchstwert: 

(i.d.g.F.): 

0,1 mg/kg; für 

Schädlingsbekä 

Mais: 0,5 

mpfungsmittel- 

Höchstwerteverordnung 

mg/kg 

EU-law 80/778/EWG: Höchstkon- 

Richtlinie des zentration: 0,1 

Rates vom 15. 

Juli 1980 über 

µg/l 

Qualität von 

Wasser für den 

menschlichen 

Gebrauch 

7.3 TOXIC EFFECTS TO AQUATIC ORGANISMS 

The table below is showing the toxic effect of environmental chemicals to aquatic organisms 

in the different biological levels. 

Thereby denote: OT = organo-tin compounds, PAH = polycycylic aromatic hydrocarbons; 

PCDD = polychlorinated dibenzo-1,4-dioxins; PCB = polychlorinated biphenyls; 

HM = heavy metals [FENT 1998].


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Level Effect Place of action (organism) Environmental 

chemicals 

Molecule Mutation, cancer 

Lever tumours (fishes) 

PAH 

Inhibition of enzymes 

Cytochrom P450 (fishes) 

OT, HM 

ATP-asen, oxidat. Phosphorylierung OT, HM 

Blocking of ion channels Neurones (fishes, arthropods) Pyrethroide 

Cells Cytotoxicity 

Cell membranes 

OT, HM, radicals 

nerve membrane 

Inhibition of the nerve irritation PCDD 

Organism Damage of organs 

Necrosis, apoptosis 

Several 

Growth and development Metamorphose at amphibians OT 

Failure of the development (fishes) Several 

Change of behaviour 

Search for food, enemy prevention OT, solvents 

Immuntoxicity 

Reduced immune response 

OT, HM, PCB, 

(fishes and mammals) 

PCDD 

Neurotoxicity 

Nervous system 

Pyrethriode, 

Carbamate, 

Organophosphates 

Physiological effects 

Metabolic disturbance 

(hormones, enzymes) 

Several 

Reproduction 

Estrogenic impact 

Alkylphenols 

(fishes and amphibia) 

Pesticides 

Androgenic impact (molluscan) Tributyltin 

Early stage of fishes 

OT, HM 

Thinning of eggshells (birds) DDT 

No reproduction at otters 

PCB 

Population Age and size structure Stagnant and sluggish waters 

(Phyto- and zooplankton, fishes) 

Several 

Community 

Ecosystem 

Formation and frequency 

of species 

Communities of plankton, 

communities of invertebrates, 

loss of species 

Pesticides, HM, 

Acid 

Depositions 

Table 7-3: Toxic effects of environmental chemicals to aquatic organisms in the different 

biological levels [FENT 1998].


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8 ECOTOXICOLOGY 

The ecotoxicological impact of a substance depends on its chemical-physical attributes, 

biological availability and activity as well as its doses. The effects are considered as a 

whole at all biological levels - from the molecule to the ecosystem. The effects at the 

molecule and organism level are of central importance because here basic principals of 

operation are shown which affect to higher population and ecosystem levels. Beside the 

direct effects also indirect effects are analysed resulting from ecological reciprocities 

[FENT 1998]. He also states that all environmental fields are linked with dynamical 

transport and transfer processes. In this way environmental chemicals are spread and 

altered. The ecotoxicological effects of chemicals at organisms and the ecosystem can 

only be understood in connection with the exposition. If the features high persistence, 

high lipophility and bad metabolism are combined, it is dealt with ecotoxicological hazardous 

chemicals (e. g. PCDD, PCB, DDT). The chronic effect as a result of the load 

with low dosages over a long period is of a great ecotoxicological importance at environmental 

chemicals occurring in low concentrations, says the author. To turn away the 

chemical's harmful effect to organisms and ecosystems, basics for the practice must be 

created. Here test systems are used determining the toxicity at single organisms. But 

the testing of chemicals must not be restricted to test systems. 

8.1 BEHAVIOUR OF CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 

All chemicals reaching the environment are subject to strongly networked circles. In 

these circles natural biogenic procedures are linked to anthropogeneous flows of material. 

In the different compartments the chemicals exist unbalance. Therefore physical 

transfer processes and biological transformation processes between the environmental 

fields are important. The chemicals are determined by concentration gradients. During 

transport and transfer processes the substance is unchanged but at chemical and biological 

transfer processes the structure of the substance is changed [FENT 1998]. 

Table 8-1 shows the processes responsible for the destiny of environmental chemicals: 

Category Process Chemicals 

Transport Advection, diffusion, dispersion, 

Crude oil, atrazine 

transport by particles 

PAH 

Transfer Solution in the water body 

Surfactant 

Sorption at particles, sediment and soil (sedi- Heavy metal 

mentation) 

Tetrachlorethene (PER) 

Evaporation into the atmosphere 

Sulphur and nitric ox- 

Atmospherical deposition 

ide, PCDD 

Transfor- Abiotic (Hydrolyse, photolysis, redox reac- Pesticide 

mationtions) (Organophosphate) 

Biotic (aerobe and anaerobe reduction) Methyl mercury, pesticide 

Table 8-1: Processes responsible for the destiny of environmental chemicals [FENT 1998]


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8.2 REDUCTION OF FOREIGN SUBSTANCES BY MICRO-ORGANISMS 

[FRITSCHE 1998] mentions, that the biological reduction (biodegradation) is the reduction 

of the complexity of an organic compound. Normally, a total mineralisation does not 

happen in the nature because a part of the organic compounds are used for the cell 

growth. Natural materials are metabolised by micro-organisms. During the evolution micro-organisms 

had developed a multiplicity of enzymes for the metabolism of natural 

materials. Because of the industrial development during the last 50 years microorganisms 

have an added contact with new organic substances. Several of this xenobiotics 

are metabolised if they are similar to natural materials. If the organisms have 

any respective enzymes, the reduction stays away. Because of mutation and genetic 

recombination the evolution is proceeding. In this manner micro-organisms regenerate 

themselves with new, changed or advanced metabolic efficiencies for the metabolism of 

foreign matter. But it must be allowed that the evolution takes place slowly and need a 

pressure of selection. A pressure of selection is also only infrequent at contaminated 

locations because beside the persistent environmental chemicals other organic compounds 

exists [FRITSCHE 1998]. 

Microbial Elimination of Heavy Metals 

[FRITSCHE 1998] refers that heavy metals can not be metabolised but oxidised or reduced 

and converted into other compounds. For the elimination of heavy metals from 

the environment three mechanisms are important: the biotransformation, the biosorption 

and the sulphide precipitation. 

At the methylation by fungi and Methanobacterium for the micro-organisms detoxification 

functions happen but for the environment they mean the relocation from one medium 

into the gaseous phase connected with the formation of more toxic compounds for 

human and animals. Toxic chromates and dichromates are reduced by bacteria into 

lower toxical trivalent chrome. The fixation at metallothioneines (Metallthioneine) at 

bacteria is evidenced for copper, zinc and cadmium. Metallothioneines are lower molecular 

rich in cystein polypeptides where heavy metals are bounded at SH-groups 

[FRITSCHE 1998]. He points out that, in contrast to the bioaccumulation the biosorption 

is not bounded to living cells. With bacillus-cells preparations were made adsorbing 

cadmium, chrome, copper, mercury and zinc not selective. The sorption results from 

highly dilutions. Through stripping the separation of the heavy metals results and 

through alkali-treatment the biomass is reactivated. In soils a fixation of heavy metals in 

melanin results through fungi. The fixation of metals were proved with the high in melanin 

"black yeast" Aureobasium pullans. Due to H2S-fixation through sulphide reducing 

bacteria in anaerobic sediments heavy metal sulphide precipitation takes place. 

Reduction of Chlorinated Aromatic Substances 

[FRITSCHE 1998] refers that there are only a few specialists which are able to use single 

and twice chlorinated aromatic substances as C and energy sources under selective 

conditions. The cometabolic turnover to hydroxylated metabolites is more common. 

They are able to receive more or less bound residues with the soil matrix. If a dehalogenation 

of the chlorine aromatic substances take place, a mineralisation is possible. 

For determinably single and twice halogenated aromatic substances four mechanisms 

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other mechanisms are the oxidative de-halogenation, the hydrolytic de-halogenation 

and the reductive de-halogenation [FRITSCHE 1998]. He describes, the prerequisite at 

the de-chlorination after ring splitting is, that the enzymes preparing and realising the 

ring splitting are such non-specific that they can also transform chlorinated analogous 

substances. This low specificity is infrequent at bacteria and only with some efforts 

such strains can be concentrated. Obviously they are infrequent in the nature. On one 

hand strains with non-specific enzymes must be found on the other hand it must be 

minded that no enrichment of toxic metabolite take place. The reduction reaction and 

the regulation of the respective enzymes result very specific. For this reason it is difficult 

to get a strain which is able to use productive a wide spectrum of chlorinated aromatic 

substances for the growth. 

Failure to pressure of selection makes sure, that e. g. the metabolism of the phenoxy 

acid herbicide 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) is unrealised. Moreover substances 

can arise, which are further metabolised only with difficulty and by their reactivity 

they are bound to the soil matrix. As an example dichlorinebrenzcatechin is mentioned 

which arises through oxidation from 3,4 dichlorophenol. Soil fungi like penicillium 

have a relative non-specific working phenol-hydroxylase. It transform a wide spectrum 

of single and twice chlorinated phenols to chlorobrenzcatechins. At the reduction of the 

above-mentioned 2,4-D, the brenzcatechin-dioxygenase is catalysing the twiceoxidation. 

It reacts more substrate specifically, so that the chlorobrenzcatechins temporary 

be accumulated [FRITSCHE 1998]. He says, it applies to the monochlorophenols, 

that chloro-substituted phenols are reduced in 4-position well, in 2-position moderate 

and in 3-position bad. 

There are also some specialists which partly dechlorinate pentachlorophenol (PCP). 

Plural the process finished at tetra-, tri- and dichlorophenols. Aerobic bacteria like rhodococcus 

chlorophenolicus realise a para-hydroxylation to tetrachlorohydrochinon 

(para-Hydroxylierung zu Tetrachlorohydrochinon). Via hydrolytic and reductive reactions 

this substance is dechlorinated to 1,2,4-trihydroxybenzene. Organisms like phanerochaete 

chrysosporium build several metabolites such as the methoxylated compound 

pentachloroanisole. At the aerobic reductive dehalogenation a wide spectrum of tetra, 

tri and dichlorophenoles emerge. Thus, possibilities to abolish these environmental 

chemicals microbial arise because twice chlorinated phenoles are mineralised aerobically. 

This way the basics for the development of specific bioremidiation methods exist 


Limits of Degradability - Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Dioxins 

Multi-chlorinated aromatic compounds build up of two aromatic rings, are hardly reduced 

aerobically because the chlorine substitutes impede the enzymatic attack. 

Thereby the number and the position of the chlorine substitutes and the structure of the 

molecule play an important part. If this differentiation is not be made seeming contradictory 

propositions about the persistence level of such compounds take place 

[FRITSCHE 1998].


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• Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB): In laboratory studies a degradation pathway for 

a cometabolic aerobic degradation of low chlorinated biphenyls is ascertained, starting 

at the non or single chlorinated ring of the molecule and follows the scheme of 

meta-cleavage. Chlorobenzoat and a C5-acid are the end-products but their metabolism 

is already unexplained. Experiments with pseudomonas testosteroni showed 

that the process is strongly inhibited by accumulating of intermediate products. For 

this reason one searches for non-sensitive strains in order to get a detoxification of 

the PCBs existing in the environment [FRITSCHE 1998]. He mentions present tests 

about the reductive dechlorination of PCB in anaerobic river sediments. Here it may 

be evidenced that at the -in the environment often be found - tetra till octa homologue 

of the archlor 1260 (a congener of the PCB) a 20-40 % de-halogenation take 

place so that the starting product is detoxicated. Because lower chlorinated PCB are 

potentially aerobic bio-degradable a combination of anaerobic-aecobic-processes is 

pondered. 

• Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins (PCDD): The most well-known substance of this 

group is the high toxical known as seveso-poison 2,3,7,8-terrachlorodibenzodioxin. 

Dibenzodioxins are bio-degradable if they have no or only one chlorine substitute 

For strategies to construct specialists of bio-degradation for higher chlorinated congeners 

the results are interesting made with pseudomonas and brevibacterium 


Potential and Acute Possibility of Metabolism of Xenobiotical Substances 

It must be differentiated between the potential and the actual, that means in the environmental 

medium realised capacity of decomposition. For many for the environment 

critical substances, micro-organisms could be isolated having biodegradation potentials 

under laboratory conditions but they are unusually realised in the environment. For the 

development of specific methods of bioremediation the cognition about potential capacity 

of decomposition are important. At the same time limits of the natural achievement 

potential are shown which resulted in a production prohibition of especially critical substances 

like DDT and lindane [FRITSCHE 1998]. He continued that at the investigation 

of bio-degradation, it was made clear several times that the starting compounds vanished 

but the metabolites still stay or be further transformed. This way critical products 

could be formed like diazo compounds. Contrary to the degradation also bioaccumulation 

could happen. 

The degradation in the environment depends on a multiplicity of factors as shown in 

Figure 8-1. [FRITSCHE 1998] points out, that these factors have to be recorded for 

making propositions about the destiny of compounds. Beside the microbial processes 

also physicochemical transformations are important.


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chemical 

structure 

bio-availability 

and transfer 

of substances 


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micro-organisms 

pure and mixed culture 

N- and P-sources, 

H-acceptors 

concentrations 

of xenobiotical 

substances 

Substrates for 

co-metabolism 


Figure 8-1: Factors and interdependent action which are decisive for the realisation of potential 

microbial capacity of decomposition, modified according to [FRITSCHE 1998].


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9 LEVEL OF POLLUTION IN WATER AND SEDIMENT 

In the [ENVIRONMENTAL ATLAS BERLIN] it is said that there is a continual accumulation 

of pollutants in water bottom soils, such as heavy metals and chlorinated hydrocarbons. 

In the material cycle of waters sediments form a natural buffer and filter system. The 

waters are subject to strong variations of current, substance input, substance transport 

and sedimentation. In addition to the water sample analyses practised for years, sediment 

analyses is increasingly important in evaluating qualities of the total ecosystem of 

a water body. In comparison to water analyses and independent of current inputs, 

sediment tests reflect the long term quality situation. For this reason, sediment tests are 

a better basis for fundamental comparisons with other flowing waters. The suspended 

and precipitate substances stored on the water bottom form a reservoir for many pollutants 

and trace substances of low solubility and low degree of degradability. According 

to their chemical persistence and the physical-chemical and biochemical characteristics 

the substances are conserved in sediments over longer periods of time. Even after 

sedimentation, portions of fixed substances can be remobilised and re-enter the material 

cycle of water. Analyses of sediment samples from different depths give a chronological 

record of inputs in waters and can also allow conclusions to be drawn regarding 

sources of contamination. Also mineral suspension and precipitation substances are 

able to store heavy metal ions on their outer surface and they can also be bound in 

water organisms. The heavy metals can be taken up by higher organisms through the 

food chain, or they sink to the bottom as sediment, depending on the flow velocity of 

water. Various pesticides and PCB have the characteristic of being stored adsorptively 

on suspended matter or in plant organisms. After attaining into the sediment this substances 

and by ingestion of the organisms they reach the food chain. Eels have a high 

fat content and eat bottom organisms and bury themselves in sediment. That way, the 

intake of pesticides and PCB not only takes place through nutrients. They also ingest 

them through the skin and accumulate them in the body fat [ENVIRONMENTAL ATLAS 

BERLIN]. 

9.1 TRANSPORT AND ACTION OF TRANSPORT IN WATER 

[FENT 1998] refers that several processes are responsible for the destiny of chemicals 

in water bodies, like disposition, dilution in the water, volatility in the atmosphere, sedimentation, 

abiotic chemical conversation (hydrolysis, photolysis, oxidative and reductive 

processes), biotic conversations(microbial reduction, metabolism) and bioaccumulation. 

He continues that chemicals having a high vapour pressure and a low water solubility 

are given to the atmosphere very fast. If substances have a low water solubility and a 

low vapour pressure they prefer to adhere at particles and sediment. Figure 9-1 shows 

the apply of contaminants to their volatility in a simplified version.


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Figure 9-1: Organic contaminants [FENT 1998] 


Chemicals normally spread in water more or less by solubility, adsorption at particles 

and the accumulation in organisms. The compounds can be deposited from the atmosphere 

to the water[FENT 1998]. From here they can reach the soil by disposals. 

These relations are shown in Figure 9-2. As adsorbents particles play an important part 

in waters. Through sorption to particles and sediments contaminants can be eliminated 

from the water body. The adsorption abilities of the particles to the ground or sediment 

are responsible for their rate of mobilisation and migration in and out of the ground in a 

significant way [FENT 1998]. 

input 

Infiltration of 

groundwater 

Air/Water-exchange 

ATMOSPHERE 

Deposition 

Transport 

Transformation 

WATER 

SEDIMENT 

Photolyse 

Sedimentation 

Sediment-Waterexchange 

Figure 9-2: Transport- and transformation processes of contaminants in stagnant waters, 

modified according to [FENT1998]. 

dish


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Bioaccumulation and Nutrient Balance in the Water 


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Figure 9-3: Connection between 

the bioaccumulation of persistent 

contaminants in fishes and the nutrient 

ratio in lakes [FENT 1998] 


The nutrient ratios in lakes and the resulting changes in the organic parts of the lake 

water could be important for the accumulation of foreign substances. The bioaccumulation 

of persistent contaminants like PCB and DDT in fishes is connected with 

the lake’s productivity and the chemistry. The lake’s trophic level and the content of 

humates have an great influence. In eutrophic lakes (high productivity) the fishes contain 

less PSB and DDT as in oligotrophic lakes. The reason therefore is the faster 

growth of the fishes and a faster turnover of the plankton. Supplementary a reduction of 

the concentration of foreign matter referring to the weight takes place [FENT 1998]. 

Figure 7-3 shows the connection between bio-accumulation of persistent contaminants 

in fishes and the nutrient balance in lakes.


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10 THE CATCHMENT AREAS 

Anthropogenic land use, especially agricultural and forestry, has an important influence 

on the quality of ground and surface water and also influences the whole water balance. 

Water quality can be influenced by the input of pollutants and nutrients from both 

diffuse and point sources. Besides this the water balance can be changed by different 

actions like sealing of land, water regulation and land amelioration [WINKLER 1996]. 

[WINKLER 1996] refers to the necessity of a registration and evaluation of land use in 

accordance with their influence on the water balance and quality to protect the ground 

and surface water as well as water reservoirs, and for the restoration of alreadyimpaired 

water resources. 

In the catchments investigated diffuse and point sources are identified and their impacts 

are described. Point sources include local and industrial sewage, collected by 

sewers and transported via sewage treatment plants into the surface waters. . Precipitation 

water directly passed into surface water, sewage from domestic sewage plants as 

well as untreated sewage from individual farms and sewage water from leaky sewers 

are also point sources. Inputs like surface runoff, sewage and direct input of substances 

from the atmosphere are diffuse sources [PRASUHN et al 1996]. 

Besides these influences a major source of endocrine disrupters is sewage treatment 

plants because they can not be eliminated by the common treatment methods. 

In the following the lakes and their catchment areas are introduced and the land use 

and data about pollution sources concerning the special hazard contamination of endocrine 

disrupters are described. 

The Figure 10-1 shows the pollution inputs into water caused by agriculture, transport, 

industry and households being the major sources of water pollution. 

Figure 10-1: Pollution inputs into water [BUWAL a]


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With exception of Loch Lomond, that turns out to be a “reference area”, the 3 lakes are, 

in terms of pollution, characterised by domestic sewage and its breakdown products. 

Although there is also industrial’s effect on the environment, the areas are not dominated 

by typical industrial pollution sources. The section hereafter gives a concise description 

of relevant pollutants in the catchment areas of the lakes. For some pollutants 

little information is currently available and (in contrast to e.g. heavy metals), and as yet 

no test methods and effective screening methods known. Therefore, the picture is still 

incomplete. 

10.1 CATCHMENT AREA OF LAKE CONSTANCE (BODENSEE) 

After Lake Geneva Lake Constance is the second largest lake on the northern edge of 

the Alps [BROMBACH and MICHELBACH 1998]. The lake basin was formed by the 

erosive forces of the Rhine glacier which excavated a 500 m deep valley during its last 

extension, about 30.000 years before the present. At the end of this glaciation, 15.000 

years ago, the lake area was more than twice its present cover, including large parts of 

the Rhine Valley and both Lake Walen and Lake Zurich. Lake Constance and its 11 

487 km² large catchment area belong to the flow system of River Rhine [BROMBACH 

and MICHELBACH 1998]. The lake is divided into two parts, the upper lake (including 

the Überlingersee) and the lower lake (including the Gnadensee and Zellersee). The 

Rhine bridge Constance can be taken as the parting line. The contact between both 

parts of Lake Constance is named Seerhein. The catchment area of the upper lake is 

10919 km² large. The catchment area of the lower lake is only 568 km² large [GURTZ 

et al 1997]. The surface of the lake is ca. 540 km² large. The catchment area includes 

parts of the German "Bundesländer" Baden-Wuerttemberg and Bavaria, Austria, 

Liechtenstein, Switzerland and Italy. The volume of Lake Constance amounts to 48.5 

billion m³ and the maximum depth is ca. 254 m. The mean discharge referring to the 

tide gauge Constance is ca. 372 m³/s approximating 1.000 mm discharge rate per annum 

or a mean dwell of 4.1 years in the lake [BROMBACH and MICHELBACH 1998]. 

In its natural state, Lake Constance was a typical oligotrophic pre-alpine lake with low 

concentrations of nutrients, low densities of phytoplankton, high water transparency and 

high hypolimnic oxygen concentrations. Until the early 1970's, the major part of this 

sewage entered the lake without any treatment, resulting in a strong increase of the Pload, 

additionally enhanced by increasing inputs from agricultural sources and from 

precipitation. At present, 75 % of the sewage phosphorus is chemically precipitated in 

treatment plants. Further reduction of the P-load is expected after completion of the 

sewage purification programme in large treatment plants. Depending on the remaining 

P-load, new lower equilibrium concentrations will be reached in the lake. Thus, this provides 

an example of a successful restoration programme beyond national borders.The 

Lake Constance and its environs is a densely populated area with a Europe-wide relevance. 

The ecosystem Lake Constance has an unique flora and fauna and therefore 

having a high ecological value. The drinking water for more than 4 million people living 

in the neighbouring countries is gained from the lake. The whole drinking water draw-off 

from Lake Constance amounts 0.14 km³/a being 1.2 % of the yearly intake of 11.6 

km³/a [BROMBACH and MICHELBACH 1998]. Table 10-1 shows the portion of area of 

the countries in the catchment area of Lake Constance. 

Country Area Part of the Forest Agricul- Non- Resi-


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[%] 


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[ha] tural area 

[ha] 

productive 

[ha] 


dential 

estate 

[ha] 

Upper Lake 

Bavaria 58762 5.4 15351 38365 1447 3599 

Baden-Wuerttemberg 

211998 19.4 58103 130098 3333 20463 

Vorarlberg (A) 233539 21.4 71716 127710 25478 8636 

Switzerland 519886 47.6 131874 204255 166072 17685 

Italy 5400 0.5 75 0 5325 0 

Lake area 47600 4.3 0 0 47600 0 

Upper Lake total 

Lower Lake 

109318 

5 

100.0 283300 506317 251109 52459 

Baden-Wuerttemberg 

42012 77.0 13910 21424 851 5827 

Switzerland 6228 11.4 2503 2881 59 785 

Lake area 6300 11.6 0 0 6300 0 

Lower Lake total 54539 100.0 16413 24305 7209 6612 

Catchment area 

total 

114772 

4 

299713 

26.1 % 

530622 

46.2 % 

258318 

22.5 % 

59071 

5.1 % 

Table 10-1: portion of area of the countries in the catchment area of Lake Constance 

[PRASUHN, et al. 1996]. 

Data of Land Use with Relevance to the Water Supply 

About 2.2 million people live in the international Lake Constance region, and almost 

one million work here. Beside that, this area is also a favourite vacation and recreational 

area. In the following the percentage of industry agriculture and forestry at the 

catchment area is described. (The data are taken from Table 10-1). 

Industry: The economic structure is dominated by the manufacturing industry. The 

main focus is formed by the mechanical engineering, vehicle construction, electrical 

engineering, precision mechanics and optics [Bodenseekreis].. 

Agriculture: The contamination of soil and groundwater by the high use of pesticides 

and nitrates in the agriculture is an environmental problem. The climate in the area of 

Lake Constance enables intensive cultivation of fruit, wine, vegetables and hops. 

Therefore agriculture plays an important role concerning the contamination of soil, surface 

and ground water in this region. Open land and traditional orchards have given 

way increasingly to plantations of dwarf fruit trees that require high levels of agricultural 

chemicals. As a result of that, the pollution of the lake with pesticides, fertilisers and 

petroleum waste has grown. The agricultural area of 530622 ha is equivalent to 46.2 % 

of the total catchment area.


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Figure 10-2: Catchment Area of Lake Constance 



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Forestry: Poor forestry practices have the potential to pollute water, damage watersheds 

and destroy wildlife habitat. The natural ecological process that maintain a 

healthy forest can be interrupted by conversion to a monoculture. The runoff from disturbed 

areas can carry sediment, nutrients, pesticides and fertilisers. Surface and 

ground water can be contaminated with these pollutants. The forest area of 299713 ha 

is equivalent to 26.1 % of the total catchment area. 

Amounts of Contaminants in the Catchment Area of Lake Constance 

It could not be realised to get more information about pesticides via an assessment of 

the used substances in the catchment area of Lake Constance. For each border state 

there only exist details about the countrywide used pesticides as well as the recommendations 

for their special use in the agriculture. From the recommendations of use it 

could not be deduced the used substances or the amounts [MÜLLER 1993]. 

Data about Pollution Sources 

Beside nutrients an increasing amount of other substances are admitted into Lake 

Constance. The sources and possible effects are shown in the following figure. 

natural indus- traf- naviga- agriculture and 

non point 

point sources caused 

by accidents, discharges, 

drain systems 

f t t 

Pollutants in Lake Constance 

Hydrocarbons (especially petrol, 

solvents, pesticides, herbicides) 

heavy metals 

non point point sources 

accumula- acutementimpair- 

oxygen consump- 

f i l l t 

tion 

during the micobial re- 

sediments animals and 

l t burden of any member of the food chain 

sub-lethal impairment 

of the soil bio- 

sub-lethalimpairments Figure 10-3: Diagram of source and effects of pollutants in Lake Constance [according to 

UBR 1994]


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The existing threshold values are fixed on the basis of the substances toxicity to humans 

and not on their ecotoxicity. The threshold values refer on the open water but a 

plurality of foreign matter was measured partly in higher concentrations in the sediment. 

About the impacts of these substances is known very less the more so as between different 

substances interactions could happen. Aggravating is the fact, that the detection 

limit for some substances and groups of substances is already relative high. Chronic 

toxic impacts and interference of natural biological processes like reproduction and 

search for food can not be excluded even at very low concentrations [UBR 1994]. 

In the UBR-study it is mentioned, that the direct discharges into the open water of Lake 

Constance are caused by navigation because the exhaust gases of the outboard motors 

are discharged directly into the lake. That way a significant amount of the emission 

products come into the water like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and 

emulsified oils. A direct connection between the amount of hydrocarbons into the water 

and the intensity of the shipping traffic on Lake Constance could be proved. The mixture 

and the quantity depend very much on the motor type and fuel. At local places high 

concentrations are reached. Calculations in 1980 reveal that the emissions caused by 

navigation lie approximately at 1120 t highly volatile hydrocarbons for the whole lake. 

Approximately 67 % of this emissions are caused by sport sips and 50 % by two-stroke 

engines. Ecotoxicological surveys have shown that the exhaust gases of two-stroke engines 

have high toxicological impacts to standardised biological test procedures. For 

the four-stroke engines the results have shown lower values. 

The input of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons result particularly from the road dust 

contaminated with asphalt particles. The input of these pollutants can be prevented by 

a purification of the surface and street effluents in special plants at the main streets 

near the lake [UBR 1994]. An other safety hazard is the transport of hazardous goods 

on the roads and rail roads near the lake. The annual transport of hazardous goods in 

the inflow area of Lake Constance is substantial, at approximate 3.4 million tonnes. The 

ratio of road to rail transport is 54:46. The most significant traffic streams are the transport 

of mineral oil from the Singen region to Konstanz, and further on to the area of 

Switzerland around Lake Constance, and from around Ulm and Freiburg to the area of 

southern Germany around the lake, and further on to Austria [KREUTLER et. al. 2000]. 

The high concentrations of heavy hydrocarbons are found also in younger sedimentation 

layers consist of minimum 90 % of fossil hydrocarbons. The sources of these hydrocarbons 

can not be named but the emission at several sources can be estimated. 

Motorboats are account for approximately 42 t/a, inputs of road effluents mount up to 

approximately 32.5 t/a, inputs from the burning of coal as well as from exhaust fumes 

and oil heating. An other aspect are accidents. Between 1988 and 1990 18 000 l oil 

were leaked in the administrative district of Konstanz. In the period 1986 to 1990 64 

300 l water-endangering substances were leaked in the administrative district of Bodenseekreis 

[UBR 1994]. 

The UBR-study points out, that volatile hydrocarbons belong to the substances, to be 

descended from industrial manufacturing processes and are found in the sediment of 

Lake Constance in higher concentrations. They are used as solvents in great quantities. 

To these substances also belong phthalates (plasticizer in plastics) which were emitted 

by use. Different heavy metals were partly remobilized from the sediment if the oxygen


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concentration near the sediment surface deteriorates. In 1985 approximately 1.5 t zinc, 

755 kg lead and 208 kg copper reaches Lake Constance via road effluents. The main 

source of these emissions is the road traffic. The untreated surface waters reach the 

sewage water system but not a treatment plant and enter the lake unchanged. 

Along the busy road B 31 all the direct discharges in Lake Constance will stop not until 

the realisation of the planned by-pass. The waste water treatment of the textile industry 

from the region make problems because the state of the art according to the pretreatment 

is still a contentious issue. The industry is subject to the indirect discharger 

directive. In 1988 and 1989 it was ascertained that the threshold values were not be 

observed in pre-treatment plants in the administrative district of Konstanz [UBR 1994]. 

Besides agricultural and forestry the source of pesticide residues are also weed control 

methods at the railways. Official information from the DB (German railway) state that 

every year 1.18 to 1.3 g herbicides (diuron tender) per square meter are sprayed. This 

way of weed control must be stopped at the railways near Lake Constance [UBR 1994]. 

From 1996 to 1998 five investigations about pharmaceutical products and some byproducts 

take place in the catchment area of Lake Constance. The water samples from 

two sewage treatment plant effluents, the most important feeders of Baden- 

Wuerttemberg as well as from the nearshore and the open water of the "upper lake" 

were checked to more than 60 substances. More than one third of the substances have 

been proved [ROßKNECHT, HETZENAUER 2000]. The authors continue, that mainly 

some antibiotics, different antirheumatics and x-raying radio-opaque dye as well as the 

antiepileptikum carbamazine and the lipid lowerer clofibrin acid has been proved more 

often and in higher concentrations. With all these substances travel varying concentration 

levels from the sewage treatment plant effluents to the concentrations in the open 

water in the middle of the lake. 

Pesticides Load of Lake Constance and Flowing Waters 

In [MÜLLER 1993] the results of a two years study about the spatial and temporal distribution 

of pesticides are resumed for Lake Constance. The intention of this study 

was the result of several surveys about pesticides in the ground and surface water 

which have shown that different compounds occur in increased concentrations. During 

six sampling series in 1990 and 1991 several samples of water from the lake, feeders 

and outlets have been tested to 80 different pesticides and by-products of pesticides. 

Substances for which during the first testing period no positive results were found have 

not been tested in the second testing period [MÜLLER 1993]. He points out that only 

four substances could be found in each sampling: atrazine, desethylatrazine, simazine, 

and terbutylazine. Atrazine was found in the water of Lake Constance in more 

than 90 % of the samplings in a constant concentration of 0.03 mg/m³ and a maximum 

value of 0.04 mg/m³. The by-product of atrazine desethylatrazine has a detection limit 

of 0.03 mg/m³ and could not be found in any lake-sampling since the halfway through 

1991. Before this time the concentrations were laying between 0.03 and 0.06 mg/m³. 

In January 1990 simazine was not provable in any sampling of Lake Constance and 

reached in July 1990 nearly in each sampling nearly the detection limit. Since February 

1991 nearly the same amount of 0.02 mg/m³ was measured. Terbutylazine was only 

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1993]. With the exception of the feeders the same substances were found in the water 

of Lake Constance. The maximum values were always higher than in the lake water 

(atrazine 0.12 mg/m³, desethylatrazine 0.014 mg/m³, simazine 0.05 mg/m³, terbutylazine 

0.03 mg/m³). On the other hand these substances were multiple not be provable 

especially in the Dornbirnerach and sometimes in the Old Rhine. [MÜLLER 1993] 

stresses, that beside the four named triazines two more substances - cyanazine and 

diuron - and as well the by-products desethysimazine and desethylterbutylazine were 

found in some samples of the feeders. 

In accordance with other investigations like places for drinking water samplings at the 

lake the results prove the occurrence of low amounts of pesticides in the water of Lake 

Constance. The found concentrations are obviously lower than the permitted limit values 

in accordance to the German Drinking Water Directive (for single substances 0.1 

mg/m³ and for the summation 0.5 mg/m³) [MÜLLER 1993]. The survey did not produce 

alarming results. Nearly 90 % of the tested pesticides were not be provable. The total 

herbicides atrazine and simazine are contained non-seasonal in traces in the whole 

Lake. An effect of the substances ban for atrazine being in force since spring 1991 in 

Germany has not be recognised during this random sample inquiry. 

In the period May 1999 to May 2000 in the flowing water Seefelder Aach, Riedgraben 

as well as the sewage treatment plant effluents in Fricken, Biegensegel and Grasbeuren 

a continual load of pesticides have been detected. 37 of the 58 investigated 

substances have been found. Withal 84 % of all load res. 94 % of the measured sewage 

treatment plant effluents have shown pesticides whereas up to 8 different active 

substances per single probe have been detected. The most commonly measured substances 

were the herbicides diuron, simazin, isoproturon, 2,4-D, dichlorprop-P, MCPA 

as well as mecoprop-P, the fungicides pyrimethanil, fenarimol, cyprodinil, penconazol 

and carbendazim as well as the insecticides primicarb and tebufenozid [SCHLICHTIG 

et al. 2001]. From the catchment area of the Seefelder Aach al least 9.2 kg active substances 

have been entered Lake Constance. The part of the pesticide loads from the 

sewage treatment plants were 61,5 % of the measured total load at the estuary of the 

Seefelder Aach. Due to degradation processes several of the from the sewage treatment 

plants emitted substances could not be detected at the mouth of the Seefelder 

Aach [SCHLICHTIG et al. 2001]. 

Investigation Programme - Feeders and Measured Parameters 

[HETZENAUER 1997] reports about samplings at selected places in the feeders Nonnenbach, 

Argen, Schussen, Rotach, Mühlbach Friedrichshafen, Manzeller Bach, Brunnisach, 

Lipbach, Kniebach, Dysenbach, Seefelder Aach, Nußbach, Tobelbach, Stockacher 

Aach, Mühlbach Randolfzell, Kasernengraben and Radolfzeller Aach has been 

performed. 

In the period between January 1993 and December 1995 the heavy metals arsenic, 

lead, cadmium, chrome copper and zinc and adsorbed organic halogen compounds 

(AOX) and volatile halogenated hydrocarbon of the group of the organic pollutants and 

oxygen depleting substances has been analysed. The measuring method for the heavy 

metals was the atom absorption spectrometry (AAS) for the AOX the "AOX Automat"


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(kind of measuring instrument) was used and the volatile halogenated hydrocarbons 

were measured with the headspace gas chromatography. 

Heavy Metals 

The feeders load with heavy metals is discussed now. For all feeders the 90-percentile 

for chrome lies in a range which is deemed to be anthropogenic uncontaminated. The 

result for lead is the same apart from the two small feeder Kasernengraben and Mühlbach 

Friedrichshafen. Because of its varied use zinc is an indicator for anthropogenic 

influences. High 50-percentile and peaks are found in the Kasernengraben and in the 

Mühlbach Friedrichshafen while the other feeders are minor affected. The 50-percentile 

values for cadmium lie under 0.05 µg/l in every feeder so they are classified to be only 

slightly burdened. With the exception of the Kasernengraben the concentrations for 

copper lie in the area of a low load in every feeder [HETZENAUER 1997]. The author 

continues, that the Institute for Lake Research measures selected heavy metals in the 

feeder Schussen since more than 15 years. In this period a reduction of the concentration 

of some metals are recognised. In the period 1984 till 1987 the medium concentration 

for arsenic has been reduced from more than 5 µg/l to 1 µg/l and is now constant 

on this level. The lead concentrations in the Schussen are also reduced. Both could be 

the result of a processing conversion of an polluter/ discharger. In general, the heavy 

metal contamination of the Lake Constance feeders in Baden-Wuerttemberg is low till 

moderate. An exception are the small feeders Kasernengraben and Mühlbach 

Friedrichshafen which often have higher concentrations. 

AOX and Volatile Halogenated Hydrocarbons 

The relevant 50-percentile values for the adsorbed organic halogen compounds (AOX) 

in 16 of the 17 tested feeders lie at 7-14 µg/l. This is a small till moderate contamination. 

Because of a high 50- and 90- percentile value the Kasernengraben is special. 

This high concentrations could be the result of sewage discharge as well as of contaminated 

sides from a former military use. In contrast to the other parameters, at the 

group of volatile halogenated hydrocarbons only five random samples are analysed in 

1995. The compounds bromidchlormethan, bromoform, dibromchlormethan, tetrachlorcarbon, 

trichlorethyten, chloroform, tetrachlorethylen and trichlorethan have been 

tested. The four first named compounds always lain below the determination limit of ca. 

0.1 µg/l. The other four volatile halogenated hydrocarbons were found only in some 

feeders, especially in the Kasernengraben (maximum value 2.6 µg/l for trichlorethylen, 

1.7 µg/l for chloroform) and in the Mühlbach Friedrichshafen (maximum value 2.1 µg/l 

for tetrachlorethylen). Chloroform values higher than 1 µg/l are classified as an increased 

burden. The maximum value in the Kasernengraben is higher than this value. 

In the rivers Schussen, Randolfzeller Aach, Seefelder Aach, Rotach, Stockacher Aach 

and Nonnenbach only some volatile halogenated hydrocarbons could be measured. All 

the measured concentrations are lower than 0.25 µg/l [HETZENAUER 1997]. 

Summary of the Situation at Lake Constance Concerning Endocrine Disrupters 

As shown, several active substances like pesticides and heavy metals have been detected 

in the water of the Bodensee and in investigated feeders. Due to the numerous 

flowing waters in the Lake Constance catchment and the high measured pesticide 

loads SCHLICHTIG et al 2001 emphasising the need of further controls of the small


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flowing waters to protect the aquatic communities. Because of its high volume the pesticide 

load from the Seefelder Aach cause no risk for the lake but the catchment of this 

flowing water is only a small part of 2.4 % of the whole catchment area of the Bodensee. 

In comparison of the 17 feeders of Lake Constance in Schussen, Mühlbach Randolfzell 

and Mühlbach Friedrichshafen increased concentrations are found. Even higher concentrations 

are found in the Kasernengraben and can be named as “heavy contaminated”. 

The survey of [HETZENAUER 1997] shows, that even small feeders often are 

contaminated with higher concentrations. This small feeders are not so important for 

the overall loads flowing into Lake Constance. But higher concentrations could be local 

harmful to the nearshore in the estuary. (For the limnological condition of Lake Constance 

this area play an important part. For this reason it is necessary to reduce also 

the contamination of the small feeders to a tolerable level. 

In the survey of SCHLICHTIG et al 2001 a total diuron load of 40 % have been detected 

in the Seefelder Aach. This cannot be the result of the agricultural diuron use and 

causes the research need in non-agricultural areas. 

10.2 CATCHMENT AREA OF LAKE GENEVA (LAC LÉMAN) 

Lake Geneva is located in the Alps and of glacial origin is bordered by Switzerland in 

the north and France in the south. The lake is divided in two parts, the "small lake" and 

the "large lake" (Figure 10-4). The "small lake" in the west part has a volume of 3 km³, a 

maximum depth of 76 m and a water surface of 81.2 km². The eastern "large lake" has 

a volume of 86 km³, a maximum depth of 309.7 m and a water surface of 498.9 km². 

Lake Geneva has a surface of 580.1 km² whereof 234.8 km² are located in France and 

345.3 km² in Switzerland (cantons Waadt, Wallis and Geneva). The mean volume 

come to 89 km³ and the mean rate of discharge between 1935 and 1996 were 250 

m³/s. The theoretical retention time of the water is 11.4 years [CIPEL 200a].


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Figure 10-4: Lake Geneva [CIPEL 2000a] 


The catchment area with the lake mount up to 7 975 km² and without the lake to 7 393 

km². 890 km² of this area belong to France and 6 503 km² to Switzerland (Figure 10-5). 

The most important kinds of land use are forests (22 %), pastures (23 %), arable land 

(20.5 %) and non arable areas (34.5 %). The 1 515.5 km² arable land is distributed as 

follows: 63.1 % meadows, 26.7 % fallow land, 6.6 % vines, 2.6 % intensive orchards 

and 1 % vegetable growing. The catchment area of Lake Geneva has a population of 

904 550 people [CIPEL 200a]. Figure 10-6 and Figure 10-7 show the situation concerning 

population, industry and tourism res. the land use in the catchment. 

Figure 10-5: Catchment Area of Lake Geneva [CIPEL 2000a]


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Land Use and Industry in the Lake Geneva Catchment 


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Figure 10-6 shows the proportion of population, industry and tourism in the Lake Geneva 

catchment. Important industries are chemical industry, mechanics, power plants, 

ironworks and cement works and clock industry. The locations with the highest population 

are in the areas of Geneva, Lausanne, Nyon, Evian and Montreux . 

Figure 10-6: Population, industry and tourism in the Lake Geneva Catchment Area [CIPEL 

2000a 

Regarding the land use in this area Figure 10-7 gives an overview. Near the lake shore 

extensive and intensive cultivation are dominating beside areas used for viniculture. 

Beside this, there are although forests as well as pastures and meadows.


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Figure 10-7: Land use in the Catchment Area of Lake Geneva [CIPEL 2000a] 

Drinking Water Extraction and Sewage Treatment 


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Lake Geneva is one of the greatest drinking water reservoirs in West Europe. After a 

simple treatment the water can be used as drinking water. At Lake Geneva there are 11 

of such treatment plants. Metals dissolved in the water and unnatural micro-pollutants 

are hardly or not removed by this treatment. Currently, in the middle of the lake the 

water comply with the legal requirements for drinking water concerning all measured 

substances like e.g. metals and pesticides but some of them could be proved in traces. 

Although the concentrations are low they are undesired [CIPEL 2000c]. In the catchment 

area of Lake Geneva 80 % of the population have a connection to a sewage 

treatment plant in 1991 and now in 2000 there are 90 % [CIPEL 2000d]. 

Pollution Situation in Lake Geneva 

There are no systematic studies of occurrence of natural or synthetic estrogens in Switzerland. 

The environment can be influenced by the load of hormonal active substances. 

But today the degree of this influence can not be assessed because there are exist only 

a few investigations about and the complexity of the effect mechanisms. The inadequate 

knowledge about pollution in Switzerland and the possible disturbances associated 

with it point to a requirement for research. There is a need for research into identifying 

endocrine disrupters, characterisation of their effects and risk assessment 

[BÄTSCHER et al. 1999]. In Switzerland approximately 400 active substances are 

authorised in pesticides. For ground water the threshold value is 0.1 µg/l for the single 

substance res. 0.1 µg/l for a single pesticide [BUWAL a]. 

At the monitoring of 12 flowing waters pesticides have been proved. The concentrations 

were low but in certain situations there is a risk for the water biology. Triazine contain-


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ing herbicides are still proved in the lake water. Although their concentration is low and 

below the threshold value for drinking water is their presence undesired [CIPEL 2000d]. 

More than 800 industry plants are registered but the situation is not serious because all 

have their own treatment plant or are connected to a sewage treatment plant. It seems 

that concerning the micro-pollutants like e. g. pesticides and heavy metals no important 

problems exist. But it is more difficult to made an exactly estimation because only few 

measurements are made. According to the amounts of the measured parameters in the 

different compartments like natural habitats, sewage treatment plant effluents, industrial 

discharges and sewage sludge there are great differences. Because of this it is difficult 

to estimate the true influence of the industry to the natural habitats of the Lake Geneva 

catchment. The control of certain micro-pollutants having an negative effect to the biocenosis 

already in low concentrations are not part of the regular monitoring program yet 

[CIPEL 200d]. 

The amounts of mercury, lead, cadmium, chrome, copper, manganese and iron measured 

in the water of Lake Geneva are very low and the requirements concerning the 

drinking water and the habitat for fishes are warranted. Investigations concerning pesticides 

and NTA and EDTA are also made. Very low amounts of herbicides, atrazine, simazine 

and terbutylazin are measured. These concentrations are below the standard 

for drinking water. The registered reduction of mercury charges in fish could be affirmed. 

The mercury and PCB concentrations in fish are harmless. On the basis of a 

standard-table to rate the content of metal in mussels (species Dreissena) the following 

propositions can be made: 

— Concerning cadmium, they are extremely burdened at the river banks near Bouveret, 

Thonon, Meillerie and near Dranse and Hermance, medium burdened at 

other locations, 

— There is a medium burden with chrome, copper, zinc and nickel at every location 

but some are near the level polluted, 

— Concerning lead there is a medium burden for Versoix, Promenthouse, Venoge, 

Lutry, Vidy and Thonon, other locations are not burdened [CIPEL 2000b]. 

Between 1995 and 1997, 22 flowing waters have been explored. The biological water 

quality deteriorate top down. This impairment is caused by several anthropogenic ascendancies. 

Although certain impairments caused by nutrients and organic material are 

reduced by sewage treatment other replace them. For example pesticides, alluvial 

matters and degradation of shore vegetation. The water quality of only one third of the 

investigated Waadt's rivers is acceptable at their inflow into Lake Geneva [CIPEL 

2000b]. 

A Swiss exploration about the influence of sewage treatment plant effluents (three of 

the treatment plants are in the Lake Geneva catchment) shows that such effluents have 

in some cases a negative effect to the development of fishes [CIPEL 2000d]. 

During the use of pesticides these products are proved in rivers. In certain cases these 

concentrations could be a threat to the biological condition of water bodies. Therefore


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regularly controls and investigations about the sources of these substances are necessary 

[CIPEL 2000d]. 

Measurements and Investigation Programs Concerning Pollutants in Lake Geneva 

DDT and metabolites: In twelve feeders of Lake Geneva the o,p'- and p,p'-isomers of 

DDT, DDD and DDE have not been found in 1997. The detection limits of these substances 

are between 0.05-0.1 µg/l. In a older study of 1979 the concentrations of DDT 

and its metabolites (p,p'-isomers) were measured in the sediments of Lake Geneva. 

The upper 2 cm of the sediment contained concentrations between 0.5 and 49 µg/kg 

dry weight of DDT and metabolites. This load was mainly composed by p,p'-DDD and 

p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDT was only found sporadically. In 1982/1983 samples from the estuaries 

(Mündungsregionen) of the most important feeders and from sediments of Lake 

Geneva were tested. In every sediment sample of Lake Geneva p,p'-DDT was found in 

medium concentrations of 4.2 µg/kg dry weight and maximum values of 14.4 µg/kg. In 

the sediments of the estuaries concentrations up to 22 µg/kg were detected. In the water 

of Lake Geneva no isomers of DDT or its metabolites were measured at a detection 

limit of 0.05-0.1 µg/l [BÄTSCHER et al. 1999]. Between 1984 and 1993 the concentrations 

of p,p'-DDE in some fish species were proved and showed a decreasing tendency. 

The existing data are insufficient to derive a general decreasing tendency from 

that [BÄTSCHER et al. 1999]. 

PCB: Surface sediments from the estuaries of important feeders are investigated between 

1982 and 1990 to their PCB-load. The total concentrations of most of the samples 

were between 25 and 200 µg/l dry weight. A consistent temporal trend of the PCBload 

could not be found. In 1978 the total load with PCB in the sediment of Lake Geneva 

has a medium concentration of 43 ± 28 µg/kg dry weight and 1983 at 47 ± 24 

µg/kg dry weight. In 1979 between 20 and 540 µg PCB/kg dry weight were found in 15 

sediment samples. From a perennial measuring program PCB-data of Lake Geneva are 

available permitting predications about the temporal trend (zeitlicher Verlauf) of the 

load.1995 Dreissena polymorpha living in the estuary of 12 investigated feeders of Lake 

Geneva were tested to their PCB-load. At 11 locations the total concentrations were 

between 100 and 500 µg PCB/ kg dry weight. The highest values were measured with 

approximately 2500 µg PCB/kg dry weight in mussels from the Venoge estuary 

[BÄTSCHER et al. 1999]. 

Lindane, Endosulfan and Vinclozolin: Between 1992 and 1996 twelve feeders of 

Lake Geneva have been explored but lindane (γ-HCH) was found in any flowing water 

at a detection limit was 50 ng/l. Samples showed that no HCH (α, β, γ, δ) were detected 

at detection limits of 50-100 ng/l [BÄTSCHER et al. 1999]. In 1995/1996 twelve feeders 

of Lake Geneva have been explored but endosulfan was not measured at a detection 

limit of 50 ng/l [BÄTSCHER et al. 1999]. Vinclozolin have never been detected in the 

water of Lake Geneva during several measuring campaigns between 1992 and 1995. 

The detection limit was 100 ng/l [BÄTSCHER et al. 1999]. 

Antifouling Compounds: Antifouling paints prevent or retard the growth of algae, 

bacteria and shellfish on ships’ hulls. However, organotin compounds are among the


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most toxic substances for aquatic organisms [BUWAL b]. In Switzerland no authorised 

agricultural pesticide containing TBT but it is still used for wood treatment and has other 

industrial applications [BECKER-VAN SLOOTEN AND TARRADELLAS, 1994]. On the 

1 st of July 1988 a Swiss legalisation came into force banning the selling of antifouling 

paints containing trialcyl- or triaryltins. Importers and sellers were allowed two years of 

dispose of their stock. The selling of antifouling paint containing these compounds was 

illegal after 1 st of July 1990. In France the use of TBT-containing antifoulings has been 

forbidden since 1982 for vessels less than 25 m in length. [BECKER-VAN SLOOTEN 

AND TARRADELLAS, 1994/1995]. Nowadays antifouling products contain besides 

copper a triazine compound which is effective against algae [BUWAL b]. In the marina 

of Lake Geneva only every fourth boat is painted annually and the boats left in the water 

during winter [BECKER-VAN SLOOTEN AND TARRADELLAS, 1994]. [BECKER et 

al 1992] showed high organotin levels in Lake Geneva in 1988 just as the ban came 

into force. In this work it was shown that the TBT contamination of water, sediment and 

bivalves was higher in Swiss marinas of Lake Geneva than in the French marinas. This 

study of [BECKER et al 1992] was designed to compare the organotin concentrations in 

marinas within two countries - Switzerland and France - having different legislation. 

Water, sediment and mollusc samples were collected from three Swiss and two French 

marinas (Figure 10-8). As a reference, a natural site was chosen away from sources of 

organotin compounds, but presenting similar characteristics to a marina like a sheltered 

and shallow site. The results of the assessment of butyl- and phenyltin compounds in 

Lake Geneva are reported in Each value i a mean of 6 samples (3 stations each with 

one surface and one bottom sample) except for the reference point (2 stations). The 

range is indicated below in parantheses. TPT has not been detected. (nd = not detected, 

CH = Switzerland, F = France) 

Table 10-2, Table 10-3 and Table 10-4. the TBT concentrations ranged from not detected 

to 1.08 µg/l in water and from 0.03 to 4.76 µg/g dry weight in sediment. The 

Swiss marinas were up to 20 times more contaminated than the French ones. This difference 

was more pronounced for the water than for the sediment. Partly it can be explained 

by the fact that the use of antifouling paints is regulated in France since 1982. 

Furthermore, the values might reflect the degree of flushing as Geneva and Lausanne 

are the most enclosed marinas with the poorest water exchange. Generally the aqueous 

concentrations of DBT and TBT measured in June were higher than in September. 

This can result from the typical spring activities like hosing operations and launching of 

the yachts .


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Figure 10-8: Sampling Locations in Lake Geneva [BECKER et al 1992] 


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All water and sediment samples contained more TBT than DBT suggesting that degradation 

takes place assuming that the primary input of butyltin to these areas is from 

TBT-based antifouling paint. The organotin levels in water were lower than in sediment, 

which confirms that they appear to concentrate there. The natural site showed concentrations 

below those observed in the marinas, but nevertheless organotin compounds 

could be detected. This indicates that the contamination extends outside the marinas 

onto the banks of Lake Geneva. The possibility that other important TBT sources exist 

seems improbable. TPT has been detected in sediments of each location but it was always 

present at lower concentrations than TBT [BECKER et al 1992]. 

The measurements showed that the molluscs contained high levels of organotins, especially 

those collected in Swiss ports (Table 10-4). At Port d’Ouchy / Lake Geneva 

TBT was found in mussels in mean annual values (Jahresmittelwerte) of about 24 – 35 

mg/kg dry weight. During the measuring period between 1990 – 1993 no reduction of 

the TBT concentrations at Lake Geneva could be recognised The study of [BECKER et 

al 1992] indicates an important organotin contamination of Lake Geneva marinas, 

which has reached a critical level for the most sensitive species. 

A study of [BECKER-VAN SLOOTEN AND TARRADELLAS, 1994] was designed to assess 

the effects of the new Swiss law. The tributyltin concentrations have been measured 

in the water of one station of Lake Geneva marina between May 1990 and October 

1993. The maximum values with more than 700 ng/l have been measured in spring 

although - according a survey - 82 % of the boats staying in the water the whole year. 

Because of that it can be conjecturable that metabolism, sorption to particles and sedimentation 

having an influence to the reduction of the concentrations during the winter 

time. In general, concentrations rise in summer when the pleasure boat activities are 

most important and decrease in autumn. The organotin concentrations of Lake Geneva 

marina sediment did not decrease between 1990 and 1993. The sediment concentra-


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tions (2 cm depth) in the measured harbour at Lake Geneva are for TBT in the range of 

660 to more than 5000 µg/kg dry weight and for TPT between 118 and approximately 

1800 µg/kg. In comparison to other Lakes in the same study, the marina of Lake Geneva 

showed the highest contamination. The TPT concentrations were always lower 

than TBT concentrations. In 1993 TPT was not measured and the highest level reached 

by TPT was 0.9 µg/g dw in Lake Geneva marina in September 1990. The butyltin concentrations 

in zebra mussel tissue of Lake Geneva marina over the 4-year period 

showed no decrease of the contamination. The annual concentrations actually increased. 

Furthermore, the TBT concentrations were quite stable throughout the year 

and no clear summer-winter profile was detectable. Irgarol 1051 is the trade name of a 

triazine herbicide (2-methylthio-4tert-butylamino-6-cyclopropylamino-s-triazine). After 

the ban of organotin compounds in antifouling paints in Switzerland in 1990 they were 

replaced by Irgarol 1051 and copper based products [TÓTH et al 1996]. In the study of 

[TÓTH et al 1996] two marinas and one reference site were chosen in Lake Geneva. 

The samples were collected between August 1994 and April 1995. The present Irgarol 

1051 concentrations in water of Lake Geneva marinas do not reach the acute toxic levels 

for algae but an ecotoxic long-term effect on phytoplankton, algae and macrophytes 

cannot be excluded. 

Location Butyltin concentratíon (µg/L) 

June 1988 September 1988 

DBT TBT DBT TBT 

Geneva (CH) 0.014 

0.299 

0.005 

0.049 

(nd - 0.083) (nd - 1.079) (nd - 0.022) (nd - 0.087) 

Lausanne (CH) 0.072 

0.271 

0.037 

0.123 

(nd - 0.0103) (0.077 - 0.377) (nd - 0.065) (0.079 - 0.170) 

Montreux (CH) 0.061 

0.353 

0.005 

0.041 

(nd - 0.243) (nd - 0.695) (nd - 0.011) (nd - 0.106) 

Thonon (F) nd 0.015 

0.003 

0.026 

(nd - 0.063) (nd - 0.008) (nd - 0.045) 

Yvoire (F) nd 0.047 

0.007 

0.045 

Reference (CH) nd 

(nd - 0.064) 

0.013 

(nd - 0.053) 

(nd - 0.010) 

0.002 

(nd - 0.008) 

(nd - 0.015) 

0.004 

(nd - 0.015) 

Each value i a mean of 6 samples (3 stations each with one surface and one bottom sample) 

except for the reference point (2 stations). The range is indicated below in parantheses. 

TPT has not been detected. (nd = not detected, CH = Switzerland, F = France) 

Table 10-2:Concentrations of butyltins in water of Lake Geneva marinas and one natural 

site (reference) [BECKER et al 1992]


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Location Organotin concentration (µg/g dry weight) 

DBT* DBT TBT* TBT TPT* TPT 

(mean) (mean) (mean) 

Geneva (CH) 1 0.175 

1.495 

0.213 

2 0.158 0.191 0.686 0.983 0.062 0.137 

3 0.239 

0.767 

0.137 

Lausanne (CH) 1 0.285 

1.086 

0.211 

2 0.465 0.865 1.814 2.555 0.148 0.424 

3 1.846 

4.764 

0.912 

Montreux (CH) 1 0.448 

1.517 

0.171 

2 0.056 0.202 0.176 0.643 0.028 0.081 

3 0.103 

0.236 

0.043 

Thonon (F) 1 0.047 

0.244 

0.065 

2 0.103 0.129 0.470 0.426 0.032 0.037 

3 0.237 

0.564 

0.014 

Yvoire (F) 1 0.026 

0.137 

0.017 

2 0.101 0.061 0.248 0.204 0.010 0.042 

3 0.056 

0.227 

0.100 

Reference (CH) 1 nd 0.007 0.027 

0.020 0.011 

2 0.014 

0.040 0.034 0.002 

* Each value is a mean of two analyses of the same sample (top 2 cm) 

Table 10-3: Concentration of organotins in sediment of Lake Geneva marinas and one 

natural site (reference) [BECKER et al 1992] 

Location Organotin concentration (µg/g wet weight) 

June 1988 September 1988 

DBT* TBT TPT DBT TBT TPT 

Geneva (CH) Dp 1.390 9.337 2.796 4.161 8.376 3.337 

Ac x x x 0.101 1.596 nd 

Lausanne (CH) Dp 0.416 5.632 nd 1.784 7.936 2.290 

Ac x x x 0.209 1.222 nd 

Montreux (CH) Dp 0.178 2.378 0.615 2.182 6.014 1.025 

Ac 0.187 1.678 0.072 0.081 0.701 nd 

Thonon (F) Dp 0.297 3.964 nd 0.606 4.039 nd 

Ac 0.059 0.279 nd 0.107 0.608 nd 

Yvoire (F) Dp x x x 0.716 3.238 nd 

Ac 

Reference (CH) Dp 

Ac 

0.145 

0.119 

0.044 

0.875 

1.466 

0.332 

nd 

nd 

0.079 

0.155 

0.336 

0.049 

1.066 

2.147 

0.244 

Each value represents one composite sample. 

Dp = Dreissena polymorpha, Ac = Anodonia cygnaea, nd = not detected, x = no data available 

Table 10-4: Concentrations of organotins in bivalves of Lake Geneva marinas and one 

natural site (reference) [BECKER et al 1992]. 

nd 

nd 

nd


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10.3 THE CATCHMENT AREA OF BOURGET LAKE (LAC DU BOURGET) 

Lac du Bourget located in the Alps is the largest natural French lake. It has a length of 

18 km with a maximum width of 3.2 km. The surface area is 44.6 km² and the maximum 

depth is 145 m. Bourget Lake has an estimated volume of 3.6 x 10 9 m 3 and the average 

discharge rate is 16 m³/s. The main inflow to Bourget Lake is the River Leysse. It has a 

number of significant tributaries, rising in the Bauges and Chartreuse massifs. The main 

river flows for a distance of about 30 km, passing through city of Chambéry, before 

discharging into the southern end of the lake. The estimated hydraulic load to the lake 

is about 5 x 10 5 m 3 and the theoretical water retention time has been calculated to be 

about 7 years. 

The catchment of Bourget Lake is approximately 560 km 2 in area, 12.5 times greater 

than the area of the lake. With the main part in the south and east part of the lake. 

The Bourget watershed (Savoie department) is composed of sixty communes (territorial 

divisions), and main of them are still rural (agricultural location). The catchment area 

can be divided into six sub-catchments. Five of these sub-catchments are based on the 

main inflows to the lake. These are the Leysse, Belle Eau, Sierroz, Tillet, and 

Chautagne rivers. The other sub-catchment, the Montagne du Chat, is not a major 

inflow. 

Figure 10-9:Location of Bourget Lake in France (Source: SOGREAH) 

The largest sub-catchment is that of the River Leysse (ca. 320 km 2 ) which is grouped 

with the adjacent, but much smaller, Belle-Eau sub-catchment (12 km 2 ). The River


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Chautagne sub-catchment lies to the north of the lake and the Montagne du Chat subcatchment 

is located to the west of the lake. 

The Bourget Lake catchment is also characterised by groundwater flow. Aquifers are 

found in an area of about 25 km 2 within the Chambéry valley. The aquifer is drained by 

pumped wells to supply drinking water to Chambéry and also via the Belle Eau inflow. 

Bourget Lake is a very popular recreational site for a large range of activities both on 

the water and around the shore. But it is also an important source of drinking water for 

local municipalities 

Bourget Lake is an important resource both for supplying drinking water. It is also an 

attractive area of the Savoie department and of the Rhône-Alpes region. For example, 

the lake’s beaches attract more than 450,000 bathers every year. The lake is also used 

as a site for various water sports e.g. rowing, sailing, windsurfing, water skiing and 

yachting. Other visitor activities associated with the lake and catchment are walking, 

cycling, climbing, angling, etc. In addition, commercial activities such as professional 

fishing are also important with 80 tonnes of fish being caught every year at an 

estimated value of 2 million francs (300,000 euros).


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Figure 10-10: Catchment Area of Bourget Lake (Source: SOGREAH) 

Red line shows the Leysse watershed 



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Land Use in the Bourget Lake Catchment 


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The Chambéry and Aix les Bains area is a very urban area with specific orchards on La 

Motte Servolex. Chambéry, expect the city, are some agricultural area near the city. La 

Motte Servolex with orchards and in the south vine. On the west side and east of the 

lake between Aix les Bain and Chautagne there are many forests. In the north part of 

the catchment in the Chautagne area are agriculture and forests and in the Albanais 

area are cattle and pigs. 

The upland areas of the Leysse catchment, i.e. the catchments of the upper Leysse 

and the Hyère-Albanne tributaries, are mainly rural. Agriculture and cattle farming predominate, 

although this is limited by the steep gradients, the climate and the inaccessibility 

of the area. Forests cover approximately 50 % of land in this part of the catchment. 

In contrast, the lowland areas of the Leysse catchment are much more heavily 

populated (> 650 per km 2 ), urbanised and industrialised, particularly in the environs of 

the city of Chambéry. Outside the urban areas, fruit, wine and cereal production is well 

developed. There is an average population density of 321 people per km 2 in the whole 

catchment. 

Pollution Sources and Antropogenic impacts 

In the Bourget Lake catchment area are 15 sewage treatment plants with a total 

capacity of 387 450. Details are listed in Table 10-5. 

Name Capacity of sewage treatment plant 

Aix les Bains 70000 

Albens 3000 

La Boille 1500 

Le Bourget du Lac 4500 

Chambéry 290000 

Chindrieux 1000 

Conjux 300 

Les Deserts 150 

La Féclaz 2500 

Ruffieux 600 

Saint Félix 10700 

St Thibaud de Couz 200 

Serrières 600 

Technolac 2000 

Le Montcel 400 

Table 10-5: Sewage treatment plants in the Bourget Lake catchment 

Despite Bourget Lake’s attractive appearance, it is vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts 

that affect its fragile biological balance. The main threats to its ecological status are 

thought to be from the impacts of diffuse agricultural pollution (e.g. pesticides and 

nutrient enrichment), transport related pollution (e.g. run-off from roads and accidental 

spillage) and domestic and industrial effluents (particulary from Chambéry and Aix-les- 

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directly to the Rhône river, downstream the Bourget Lake. Since effluents re-routing. 

phosphorus concentration in the lake is significantly decreasing. However, nitrate 

concentration in the lake is just a little decreasing 

Pesticides such as herbicides, insecticides and fungicides are used in agriculture like 

vine culture, cereal growing and orchards (cp. with the description of land use described 

before). Several products are used like e. g. diuron, simazine, alachlor, therbutylazine 

and lindane. Beside the agricultural usage there is also a non agricultural use of 

pesticides. An application takes place on rail roads, roads, highways in cities, on 

airports on golf courses and in forests (e. g. diuron, oxadiazon, gyphosate etc.). In the 

departement of Savoie 6-7 t herbicides are used for non agricultural application and 65 

t for agricultural use [Chaton N., 1997]. Pesticide quantity used by year on the lake 

catchment area was estimated at 16 t in 1997 [Chaton N., 1998]. 

Monitoring Programme 

Unfortunately there are no data about surveys available so nothing can be said with 

certainty about the concentrations of the used pesticides in the water and sediment of 

Bourget Lake or some important feeders. 

10.4 CATCHMENT AREA OF LOCH LOMOND 

In terms of surface area (70.6 km²), Loch Lomond is the largest body of fresh water in 

Scotland and the second largest in volume (around 2.6 x 10 9 m 3 ). It is situated 32 km to 

the north-west of Glasgow [SEPA 2000c]. 

The Loch Lomond basin is of glacial origin with deposited eroded material forming a 

dam at the southern end of the lake. The Lake is complex and varied in shape consisting 

of two main basins although there are a number of smaller subsidiary ones. The 

lake basin profile reflects the differences in the topography of the surrounding land. The 

top north part of the loch is long (around 20 km), narrow (maximum width of 1.5 km) 

and very deep (depths to 189.9 m) compared to the large wide (maximum width of 8.8 

km) and shallow area (typically between 5 and 20 m depth at southern end) of the 

south end [SEPA 2000c]. The mean rate of discharge is 8.3 m³/s and the theoretical 

water retention time are 2 years. 

The Loch Lomond catchment area is 769 km² in size. This total area is made up of a 

lake surface of 71 km², a natural catchment area of 696 km² plus three areas of catchment 

capture around Loch Sloy and one area above the Endrick Water. At the Endrick 

river a number of streams are intercepted to supplement the flow to the loch. The natural 

catchment of Loch Lomond can be divided into two northern and two southern subcatchments 

based on their contrasting bedrock geology and topography [MAITLAND 

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Figure 10-11: Catchment Area of Loch Lomond [SEPA, changed] 


Loch Lomond's catchment is characterised by a relatively low mean altitude and gentle 

slopes with a high percentage of arable ground and base-rich rocks. For the River 

Clyde catchment as a whole are far more roads than in any of the Scottish catchments 

and relatively high population. More than half of Scotland's population, approximately 

2.6 million, live within on hours drive of the lake [HAMILTON 1988], although most of 

these are outwith the catchment. 

In comparison to the other catchment areas of Lake Constance, Lake Geneva and 

Bourget Lake it has the lowest population. The extent of arable ground and base-rich


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rocks gives a good indication of the potential natural richness of the lake waters draining 

from them. 

Loch Lomond is an important source of portable water for two supply schemes, with a 

total ultimate yield of 454 megalitres per day. Because of its good water quality - the 

European Community classification of water intended for humans consumption grades 

Loch Lomond the highest quality - Loch Lomond is also important as a reservoir for 

public water supply and hydro-electricity generation at Loch Sloy hydroelectric power 

station [SEPA 2000c]. 

Data of Land Use with Relevance to the Water Supply 

In the two northern sub-catchments, the Falloch (area 113 km²) and the Inveruglas 

(area 158 km²), lie entirely to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, an 

important geological festure which crosses the southern part of the lake. The land is 

used for upland sheep-grazing (87 % of the catchment area, although forestry is also 

important (8 % of the catchment area). The northern sub-catchments are relatively underpopulated 

with little urban development. The two southern sub-catchments, the 

Fruin (area of 161 km²) and the Endrick (area of 264 km²), lie to the south and east of 

the Highland Boundary Fault. Here is more arable farming (26 %) although large areas 

are still used fore rough grazing (56 %) and forestry (13 %). 

The 'Loch Lomond Catchment Management Report' published by the Scottish Environment 

Protection Agency (SEPA) states that Loch Lomond and its catchment are an 

important water supply, essential for the social and economic well-being of Central 

Scotland. However, these resources are coming under increasing pressure from potentially 

conflicting uses and activities, including recreation and tourism, forestry, agriculture, 

power generation and water abstraction. Approximately 9 % of the catchment is 

covered by water, compared to 35 % for agricultural land and 13 % for forestry. Urban 

and industrial areas in comparison account for less than 2 % of the land cover [SEPA]. 

Agriculture has played an important role in shaping the landscape and defining the 

character of the Loch Lomond catchment. The report says forestry plays an integral role 

in the landscape and history of the Loch Lomond catchment. In the past, forestry practices 

have caused a number of environmental problems within the catchment. However, 

recent years have seen attempts, including the introduction of the Forest and Water 

Guidelines, to counteract many of these negative impacts. The restructuring of commercial 

woodlands and an increase in the development of native and riparian woodlands 

have also been beneficial [SEPA]. 

Pollution Sources in the Catchment Area of Loch Lomond 

Due to the size of lochs and the diluted nature of any pollutants, water quality problems 

often take a long time to become apparent.Forestry, in particular coniferous forestry, 

exacerbates the problem by scavenging atmospheric pollutants [SEPA 2000c]. 

Along the shore of the lake there are numerous single dwellings, camping and caravan 

parks, youth hostels, hotels and small villages which discharges effluents directly or indirectly 

into Loch Lomond. Discharges are also received from the surrounding forest


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and farm lands. Some of the local sewage treatment plants discharge excellent quality 

effluents but others suffer from inadequate maintenance or erratic loading. Luss village 

and Luss campsite are now served by a sewage treatment plant, having previously 

used individual septic tanks. At other recreational sites septic tanks are provided which 

should have sufficient capacity to receive the sewage from a full campsite or caravan 

park. On the loch itself there are many cruising boats fitted with chemical toilets [SEPA 

200c]. 

A number of potential damaging activities within the Loch Lomond catchment have 

been identified by SEPA as threatening the lake's good water quality status. These activities 

are as follows: 

— Sewage effluents leading to increased nutrient and organic loading, 

— Farming resulting in increased use of fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides and problems 

associated with leakage from silage and slurry tanks, 

— Afforestation causing increases in suspended soils and turbidity, and the use of 

fertilisers and pesticides. 

Sewage, urban and agricultural run-off and direct contamination through livestock watering 

can compromise water quality. The main potential sources of organic and toxic 

pollution within the Loch Lomond catchment include agriculture (sheep dip, silage, 

slurry, pesticides and organic fertilisers), forestry (organic fertilisers, herbicides and fuel 

spillage), recreation (disposal of chemical toilet contents, hydrocarbon pollution from 

boat exhausts and fuel spillage) and waste disposal. Because there is very little industry 

within the catchment pollution by industrial chemicals is less of a problem [SEPA]. 

Sheep farming is widely spread in the catchment area of Loch Lomond. As mentioned 

above chemical products are used to control a range of ectoparasites, such as scab 

and blowfly. The application takes place by dipping the sheep in a lotion including these 

chemicals. All sheep dips are toxic to aquatic life and even tiny amounts of dip can affect 

the environment. A cup of cypermethrin, the most commonly used pyrethroid dip 

has the potential to kill fish and insects over several kilometres in a sizeable watercourse 

[SEPA 1997]. In [SEPA 2000b] it is mentioned that sheep dip continues to pose 

a serious chronic pollution in some upland areas throughout Scotland, particularly 

through the use of synthetic phyrethroid dips which are highly toxic to aquatic life. Residues 

of sheep dip chemicals may also be discharged to rivers via sewage treatment 

plants after processing of fleeces and skins by the textile industry [SEPA 1999c], although 

no such processing occurs within the Loch Lomond catchment. 

In a press release of June 2000 [SEPA 2000a] SEPA stresses that sub-standard dipping 

facilities and poor disposal practices pose a significant environmental risk and a 

number of pollution incidents over the past few months have highlighted these dangers 

with the watercourses affected sometimes taking a long time to fully recover. The article 

continues that under the Groundwater Regulations 1998, it is illegal to intentionally dispose 

of waste sheep dip from static or mobile dippers, shower or jetters to land without 

an Authorisation from SEPA.


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Water-based activities are of particular importance in Loch Lomond. Boating can increase 

erosion at unofficial launching sites and sheer overcrowding may be a problem 

in some popular areas. fuel spillages from powered craft may cause water pollution and 

disposal ofchemical toilets' contents may be a problem for larger motor-cruisers 

[SEPA]. A maximum of 1.275 boats were counted using the lake on one day during 

1999, the highest figure since monitoring began in 1989. This increase in powered boat 

traffic has led to concerns over a number of possible detrimental effects ranging from 

boat engine hydrocarbon emissions impacting on water quality, to boat wakes causing 

damage to aquatic plants in shallow waters and exacerbating problems of shore erosion. 

More detailed information is not available at the moment but in general the situation at 

Loch Lomond is not as serious as at the other three Lakes because here the interference 

by humans is not so important. 

The Situation in Scotland Concerning Endocrine Disrupters 

Natural hormones in drinking water are of little concern in Scotland because there is 

only one location where a sewage outfall enters a water course above the point where 

water is taken for a public water supply. Effluents from some large sewage treatment 

plants also discharge into rivers and estuaries and natural hormones, excreted by 

women, may have feminising effects on male fish as has been found in rivers in England. 

In addition, Scotland has a large amount of wool, textiles and electronics industry 

and the waste waters from these, which may contain alkyl phenol ethoxylates (APEs), 

enter the river and tidal waters where they may have an adverse effect on fish and 

other aquatic life. A survey by the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) in 

1996 showed that EDCs were present in some areas but at concentrations below the 

'no effect' level. The results also showed that at 13 sites this level may be exceeded at 

certain times. SEPA points out that there have been no reports of any adverse effects 

on the fish in the rivers receiving these effluents, but there has been no systematic investigation 

yet carried out to confirm this [SEPA 1999b]. 

The great majority of freshwater lochs in Scotland are of high water quality. Of those 

which have some degree of pollution, diffuse causes of pollution such as acidification, 

diffuse agricultural pollution and forestry were responsible for 80 % of polluted lochs, 

says SEPA in its report "Improving Scotland's Water Environment. SEPA (1999a) continues 

that only three lochs are currently listened in the poor or seriously polluted categories 

and only one of these has a reasonable prospect of being improved to fair water 

quality by the end of 2005. Sewage effluent and freshwater fish farming are the only 

significant point source discharges to Scottish lochs. Diffuse agricultural pollution and 

urban drainage are also among the top four sources of river pollution in all regions. The 

diffuse agricultural pollution results from the run-off of pesticides, organic waste, soil 

and nutrients from agricultural land. SEPA said, that drainage from roads, yards and 

roofs in urban areas is typically contaminated by metals and oils. Concerning the industrial 

effluent SEPA says that in rivers industrial effluent affects only about 2 % of the 

polluted river length and is ranked as seventh in the list of sources of polluted river waters. 

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Concerning the measurements of water quality SEPA (1999a) points out that the quality 

of Scotland's waters was initially measured by chemical analysis which measured the 

levels of oxygen demand and suspended solids to be used to assess the impact of 

sewage discharges and some forms of industrial pollution. Since the 1950s, the range 

of chemical measurements routinely carried out has increased considerably and now 

includes the measurement of nutrients, metals, oil and man-made organic substances 

such as pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls. SEPA (1999a) stresses that the interpretation 

of chemical analyses also requires a good understanding of the concentrations 

above which a chemical causes damage to the environment, together with how it 

interacts with any other pollutants which may be present. 

10.5 SUMMARY OF THE SITUATION AT THE LAKES 

In the previous chapters the situation at the Lakes has been described. The evaluation 

of the available data shows that several substances have been detected during the different 

surveys. Very often the substances have been measured near the detection limit 

or in ranges being in a tolerable amount concerning the drinking water or bathing water 

directive. Only SCHLICHTIG et al (2001) describe in a study the situation at the 

Seefelder Aach in the Lake Constance catchment where three substances have been 

detected in higher concentrations than the set target of the LAWA. The substances diuron, 

isoproturon and pirimicarb have exceeded quality targets up to 200 fold. The 

authors blame the sewage treatment plants, the improper handling of pesticides and 

their use in orchard horticulture. With respect to the sewage treatment plants the study 

shows that the 3 investigated plants, of 10 in the whole catchment, deliver an important 

part of the total pesticide load of the Seefelder Aach. They also critisise the fact that 

there are no set targets for many substances, and some results could not be analysed. 

Generally, the data concerning the impact of contaminants at the four EUROLAKES 

can not exclude to evaluate the possibility of potential for harm to the environment. 

There exists much less information about the coaction of different substances.


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11 ELIMINATION OF CONTAMINANTS 

The new water policy re-organises Community water legislation to prevent further deterioration 

and to protect and enhance water quality and quantity of aquatic ecosystems 

and groundwater. This proposal establishes a Community Framework with a common 

approach, objectives, basic measures and common definitions. This water policy focuses 

on water as it flows naturally through river basins and lakes towards the sea, 

taking into account natural interaction of surface water and groundwater in quantity and 

quality covering the whole of a river basin district including estuaries, other transitional 

waters and coastal waters. A combined approach to pollution control is required with 

control at source combined with the setting of environmental quality standards to ensure 

good status of waters by 2010. Programmes of measures must take into account 

all sources of impact on the aquatic ecosystems including impact from agriculture, energy 

production, transport, and spatial planning. Systematic monitoring of achievements 

is required. Moreover, the proposal introduces a requirement for water pricing policies 

that act as an incentive for the rational use of water as a step towards the full recovery 

of costs for water services, including financial, environmental and resource costs. The 

proposed Directive furthermore implements international obligations under the United 

Nations Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Transboundary Water 

Courses and International Lakes of 1992 and the UN Convention on the nonnavigational 

use of waters of 1996. 

The occurrence of natural and anthropogenic endocrine disrupters in the environment 

can cause disturbances in the hormonal system of aquatic organisms. Sewage treatment 

plant runoffs are a major source of EDC's released into the environment since 

they are only incompletely eliminated in sewage treatment plants. Natural estrogens in 

the effluent can still reach levels which exert estrogenic effects on wildlife. Therefore 

the survey into the elimination of endocrine disrupters in sewage treatment plants is 

necessary [SCHWIER et al. 2001]. 

The research results of several investigations have shown that small amounts of natural 

and synthetic steroids (in the ng/l range) are found in the runoffs of sewage treatment 

plants. However these concentrations are seldom detected in portable water supplies or 

in river water. Xenoestrogens have been detected at higher concentrations (in the µg/ml 

range) not only in sewage treatment plant runoff, but also in surface water receiving 

wastewater runoff [HELMREICH 2001]. 

The estrogenic nonylphenol is a degradation product of frequently occurring tensides 

and accumulates in large quantities in the sewage sludge due to its hydrophobic behaviour. 

Therefore, for an input/output balance of hormonally active substances in sewage 

treatment plants the process of sludge treatment has to be included [SCHWIER et 

al. 2001].


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11.1 PROCESSES TO ELIMINATE CONTAMINANTS FROM WASTEWATER 


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General Description of Processes Currently Applied 

It basically has to be distinguished between municipal and industrial wastewater treatment 

which apply more or less the same basic processes but under different preconditions 

and frequently with different aims. 

Industrial Wastewater Treatment 

Since industrial wastewater is characterised by high concentrations of specific contents 

(depending on the industry sector) intensified processes suitable for elimination of 

these specific contaminants are applied. As far as possible physical chemical processes 

are used and only if wastewater composition (ratio of nutrients and bio degradable 

carbonic compounds) allows, biological processes are applied. 

As the processes applied are based on the same principles as thosefor municipal 

wastewater treatment a more detailed process description shall be covered by the following 

section. It has to be noted that frequently industrial wastewater are subjected 

only a pre-treatment which allows a further full treatment together with municipal 

wastewater. The common treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater can have 

many advantages since municipal wastewater is frequently lacking carbonic compounds 

for full reduction of nutrients, whereas industrial wastewater are frequently 

characterised by high concentrations of carbonic compounds and a lack of nutrients. 

Municipal Wastewater Treatment 

Wastewater composition 

The average waste produced by a person in Europe can be characterised by the following 

table according to [IMMHOFF, 1990] and [ATV A131, 1991] 

Total 

g/person/ 

day 

BOD5 in 

g/person/ 

day 

Organic compounds 

in g/person/day 

Thereof 

pounds 

dissolved com- 125 30 50 75 

Thereof settable 50 20 30 20 

Thereof not settable 15 10 10 5 

Total waste load 190 60 90 100 

COD 120 

Ptotal 

2,5 

11 

N total 

Table 11-1 Wastewater composition 

Mineral compounds 

in g/person/day 

A typical municipal wastewater treatment plant corresponding to Council Directive 

941/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban wastewater treatment applies the following 

processes:


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Mechanical treatment 

1. Screening or straining: Typically a coarse screen and fine screens with a min. 

slots spacing down to 3mm is applied 

2. Sedimentation for removing of sand and grit 

3. Flotation for removing of oil and grease 

4. Pre (or primary)- sedimentation prior to biological treatment for removing of undissolved 

settable organic and inorganic compounds. 

With these mechanical treatment processes a reduction in the total waste-load of up to 

30 % can be achieved. Pre - sedimentation is not always applied since it is not always 

wished to fully reduce carbonaceous pollution load in order to keep up a the required 

ratio C : N : P for the following biological treatment process. 

Screenings are usually washed and deposed or used in other biological solid waste 

processes (like composting), the removed grit is washed and deposed or reused for 

different purposes. 

The settled sludge from the pre (or primary sedimentation) is referred to as primary 

sludge and usually submitted to further anaerobic treatment. 

Biological treatment 

Activated sludge process (processes with suspended micro -organisms growth) 

The principle of biological wastewater treatment is based on the ability of microorganisms 

to deteriorate certain organic substances contained in natural waters. This 

natural self purification capability of surface waters is technically applied and intensified 

in the activated sludge process which is mostly applied in plants designed to keep the 

effluent standards of western European countries. 

The activated sludge process essentially involves a phase in which the water to be purified 

is brought into contact with a bacterial floc in the presence of oxygen (aeration 

phase) followed by a phase of separation of the purified wastewater from this floc (clarification). 

In fact these processes amount to an intensification of the phenomena that 

occur in the natural environment. The difference lies in the greater concentration of micro 

organisms which result in a greater oxygen volume demand. Moreover, in order to 

maintain the bacterial mass in suspension, it must be artificially mixed. 

An activated sludge facility always includes 

a so called aeration tank, in which water to be purified comes into contact with the purifying 

bacterial mass, 

• a clarifier, in which the purified water is separated from the bacterial growth


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• a re-circulation device for the return of the biological sludge from the clarifier to 

the aeration tank. This arrangement enables the aerated tank to support the 

quantity of or concentration of micro-organisms required to maintain the desired 

level of purification 

• a device for the extraction and disposal of excess sludge, or surplus sludge, or 

surplus bacterial growth, which is permanently synthesised from the substrate, 

• a device supplying oxygen to the bacterial mass in the aeration tank, 

These plants are usually fed continuously with wastewater, and the processes are applied 

in separate reactors. However it is also possible to apply these processes (aeration, 

clarification, excess sludge removal...etc) in the same reactor with discontinuous 

feeding of the wastewater to different reactors. This mode of operation requires different 

plant design and process layout and is referred to as SBR (sequencing batch reactor) 

process. 

The compounds contained in the wastewater are aerobically degraded by excellular enzymes, 

by metabolising, by aerobic fermentation processes, by transformation of the 

compounds to gases (like CO2 and N2 ),by building up additional bio mass or by adsorption 

to the activated sludge floc. So the compounds contained in the wastewater 

leave the plant either in the form of gas (CO2) in the form of bio mass (approx. ratio 50 

: 50 in aerobic processes) or the not biodegradable compounds in the residual effluent. 

The capability of the plant is depending on the prevailing bacteria strains. Since different 

bacteria strains have different growth rates the “sludge age” (the retention time of 

the bacteria in the system) is the key point in the design of biological treatment plants. 

The more specialised the bacteria have to be, the lower is the growth rate and consequently 

the longer the provided retention time has to be. 

For plants designed only for the removal of carbonaceous compounds a sludge age of 

3 days is sufficient, for plants designed for nitrogen removal the sludge age must be 

minimum 10-12 days depending on the temperature. 

According to the Council Directive 941/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban 

wastewater treatment most treatment plants have to be designed for enhanced nutrient 

removal up to the year 2005, what means that the aerobic sludge age will have to be 

minimum 10-12 days. This means an increase in the sludge age of up to 300 % compared 

to existing plants only designed for reduction of carbonaceous compounds. As 

will be described below this will have a great influence on the reduction of endocrine 

substances since the high sludge age is a precondition for the presence of bacteria 

which allow the degradation of compounds which are present in the wastewater in only 

very low concentrations.


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Figure 11-1 Monod function 


That means low substrate concentrations (effluent concentrations) can only be 

achieved with low growth rates. Further the bacteria growth rate is approximately the inverse 

of the sludge age and the sludge age again is a function of the sludge load, say 

the pollution load per sludge (bacteria) unit. That means if a plant is operated with a low 

sludge load (say high activated bacteria / sludge masse for the incoming waste load) 

the sludge age is high and bacteria with low growth rates, specialised for the metabolisation 

of compounds which are difficult to reduce, can accumulate in the system. According 

to MONOD the effluent concentration is then not a function of the incoming inflow 

concentration but a function of the growth rate, say sludge age. In plants designed 

to meet the requirements of Council Directive 941/271/EEC the sludge load is low 

enough to allow the growth of bacteria which are able to metabolise compounds which 

are in very low concentrations and which are difficult to reduce. [KREUZINGER, 1998] 

Processes with attached growth 

Most micro-organisms are able to grow on the surface of solid when organic compound, 

mineral salts and oxygen are available. They are anchored by means of an exopolymerbased 

gelatinous material produced by the bacteria, inside, which the bacteria can, to 

some extent, move about. The colonisation of the solid matters begins in selected areas, 

whence the bio-film develops continuously until the entire surface of the support is 

covered with a monocellular layer. From this moment on , growth is carried on by the 

production of new cells covering the first layer.


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The oxygen and nutrients carried in the water to be treated diffuse throughout the biofilm 

until the deepest cellular accumulations are no longer affected by the oxygen and 

nutrients. After some time, stratification occurs with an aerobic layer, where the oxygen 

is diffused, on top of a deeper anaerobic layer in which there is no oxygen. This shall 

generally be avoided by hydraulically designing the system so that the when the bio-film 

exceeds a certain thickness the bacteria are washed away. The use of bio-film methods 

for treating water shows that the bacteria attached to a support usually display higher 

specific activity than those observed in suspended growth. 

This principle has long been applied in the 60ies and 70ies in the so called trickling filters 

which were designed for removal of carbonaceous compounds and in some cases 

even for nitrification and simultaneous sludge stabilisation. However in order to fulfil the 

requirement of nutrient removal most if these trickling filters have been replaced by activated 

sludge process plants in Germany and Austria the last 20 years. 

Trickling filters allow the water to be treated to trickle onto a mass of material with a 

high specific surface area, supporting a film of purifying micro-organisms. These filters 

are aerated by natural draught, occasionally by forced countercurrent ventilation. When 

the bio-film is charged with only a low waste load also bacteria with low growth rates are 

able to grow on the supporting material. The advantage that the bacteria are fixed to a 

support and need not pass the clarifier, is being used in processes with submerged 

contact structures, which are situated in a tank of activated sludge, allowing bacteria 

with very low growth rates to grow in the system. Thus with that arrangement it is possible 

to improve the performance of an activated biological sludge stage without enlarging 

the clarifier which may be limited by the solids loading applied. 

Processes with submerged contact structure are more and more applied since they allow 

very specialised bacteria, which can also reduce substances present in very low 

concentrations in the water, to settle on the supports. 

Treatment of surplus sludge - primary sludge and excess biological sludge 

Primary sludge 

Primary sludge is usually pre thickened in a pre thickener, (frequently together with the 

excess biological sludge) or is directly sent to the anaerobic digester. The supernatant 

liquid of the pre thickener is usually added to the influent. Frequently primary sludge 

and excess biological sludge are thickened together. 

Excess biological sludge 

The excess biological sludge needs further reduction of organic material. This is done 

either by aerobic stabilisation or by anaerobic digestion. The ratio organic/inorganic 

material in excess sludge typically is 2 /3 to 1 /3, thus stabilisation of excess sludge allows 

a reduction of the sludge dry weight by 2 /3.


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Anaerobic digestion 

In an anaerobic digester the organic material is metabolised into approx. 2 /3 CH4, 1 /3 

CO2 and biomass. The process is performed in a stirred reactor at a temperature between 

30-37 °C. The gas can be used for heating or energy generation. After anaerobic 

digestion the stabilised sludge is thickened to the extent required for the final disposal. 

Aerobic stabilisation 

Excess sludge can also be stabilised aerobically by increasing the aerobic sludge age 

to an extent where organic material is aerobically degraded and mineralised. This is 

practically done simultaneously in the aeration tank in small plants (up to 10.000 P.E), 

or in a separate aerated stabilisation basin. The aerobic stabilisation process is much 

more energy consuming than anaerobic fermentation. Also the de-watering of the aerobically 

stabilised sludge is more difficult and energy consuming. For this reason aerobic 

stabilisation is only applied in small treatment plants. (up to 10.000 – 25.000 PE). 

Supernatant liquids and process water 

The supernatant liquids from all processes for thickening (static thickeners, mechanical 

de-watering) are usually charged with high loads of nutrients and also COD. For that 

reason different strategies for adding the waters to the plant or even for separate treatment 

are applied. 

A general flow sheet showing the mass streams in a typical wastewater treatment plant 

designed according to the state of the art is shown in Figure 11-2 

Figure 11-2 Mass streams in a typical wastewater treatment plant, according to 

[KREUZINGER, 1998]


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Final disposal of excess sludge 

The following disposal routes for excess sludge are mainly used in the EC: 

1. Use in agriculture (sludge spreading) 

2. Use on other land (recultivation) 

3. Disposal on landfills 

4. Disposal (on landfills) after incineration 


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Partly sludge is further treated by composting together with other organic waste prior to 

beneficial use in agriculture or on other land. 

Which pathways are used in which country and the tendency on European level for the 

future is depending on a variety of factors like ecology, economy, social aspects, the 

current knowledge about the benefits and potential harmful effects of the utilisation of 

sewage sludge, and the trends in European legislation [WITTE, 2000]. 

The existing and extrapolated future pathways for Germany and the EC according to 

WITTE (2000) and MARMO (1999) are given in the following Figure. 

Figure 11-3 Pathways of sewage sludge disposal 

According to MARMO (1999) for the year 2000 53 % of the sludge are used for agriculture 

and recultivation of soils, 23% of the sludge is disposed in landfills, 22% of the 

sludge is incinerated and 2% is disposed by other ways.


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The Council Directive 86/278/EEC of 12 th June 1986 on the protection of environment 

and in particular of soil, when sludge is used in agriculture; and most of all Council Directive 

1999/31/EC of 26 th April 1999 on the landfill of waste, which makes disposal of 

surplus sludge on landfills practically only possible after sludge drying (which is very 

energy consuming) will favour the incineration and agricultural use of sewage sludge, 

and reduce disposal on landfills for the future. 

Other processes applied 

Besides these basic processes applied for treatment of sewage the following processes 

are applied for improving the effluent quality, in particular in order to meet the requirements 

for phosphorus removal according to Council Directive 91/271/EEC on urban 

waste water treatment. 

• Phosphorus removal: According to this directive urban wastewater discharged into 

sensitive areas must be subjected to further treatment in order to reduce phosphorus 

and nitrogen concentrations. In fact the most common way to reduce phosphorus 

is precipitation with metal salts which is added mostly the aeration tank and the 

precipitant being disposed with the surplus sludge. It is also possible to reach phosphorus 

concentrations in the effluent below 2mg/l by enhanced nutrient removal, say 

by biological phosphorus removal.The principle of biological phosphorus removal is 

based on providing the treatment plant with a supply of micro-organisms (or rather 

groups of micro-organisms) that are capable of enhanced phosphorus incorporation 

into their cells as a polyphosphate. These must Therefore be given a selection advantage 

over the other groups of micro-organisms. This can be done by setting the 

biocoenosis of the treatment plant, at least for a short period, under strong anaerobic 

conditions by connecting an anaerobic tank into the sludge cycle 

• Wastewater disinfection: Direct discharge into bathing waters requires the disinfection 

of wastewater. Whereas in the past chlorine has been used now UV radiation 

is mostly applied. 

The effect of these processes on Endocrine Substances 

Current knowledge about endocrine substances in wastewater and their elimination 

/ breakdown in wastewater treatment plants in general 

Only a very few research works have been done on this matter, consequently only very 

little information is available. It must be noted that in wastewater technology an analytic 

accuracy of only 1/10 mg/l is usually applied, and that wastewater is characterised by 

sum parameters like BOD5 or COD. So it simply has never been possible to take care 

of these substances by operating entities of wastewater treatment plants. 

The few publications on this matter shall be summarised in the following. It must be 

outlined that the existing publications hardly contain any information about processes 

applied or process parameters which would be necessary to gain information about the 

effect of processes and operation modes on the substances considered. Obviously the 

involved scientists were not wastewater process engineers.


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Another problem is that the standard of wastewater treatment has changed considerably 

the last 20 years what makes extrapolation or interpretation of data gained in the 

80ies impossible. 

A research programme in these questions has started on June 2000 in Austria under 

the Title “Austrian Research Co-operation on Endocrine Modulators (ARCEM). The 

programme is scheduled up to mid 2003 and is initiated by Austrian Scientists from 

different universities together with the Austrian Federal Environment Agency and the 

Federal Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and water management. 

One module under this programme will deal with the aspect of the reduction of endocrine 

modulators from the point of wastewater /drinking water process engineering. 

However results may not be expected before mid 2001. 

Currently the following can be stated regarding the effect of wastewater treatment processes 

on endocrine substances: 

• The elimination rate of the substances by mechanical treatment, particularly in the 

primary sedimentation is depending on the hydraulic retention time of the wastewater 

in the primary sedimentation tank. Since the substance in this treatment stage 

are sourced out with the primary sludge the physical chemical properties of these 

substances in relation to the primary sludge play an important role. Considering 

classical wastewater parameters as BOD5, max. 30 % of the waste load can be 

eliminated in this stage. Since many endocrine substances are lipophil the rate of 

reduction in this treatment process can even be higher if high amounts of fat are 

contained in the wastewater. [KREUZINGER, 1998] 

• However from the point of view of wastewater process engineering it has to be 

stated that a high reduction of waste by primary sedimentation is not always desired. 

There is even a recent trend to reduce the efficiency of primary sedimentation since 

too much reduction of carbonaceous compounds in the primary sedimentation can 

cause difficulties in Nitrogen reduction in the activated sludge process. (change of 

ratio C:N). And since more and more treatment plants are legally obliged to reduce 

nitrogen the efficiency of primary sedimentation is being reduced. 

• Difficult biodegradable substances are being adsorbed to activated sludge flocks 

due to their higher molecular weight (most of all steroid hormones are made up of 

large molecules), and are being soured out with the excess biological sludge for 

further treatment. [KREUZINGER, 1998] 

• During aerobic excess sludge stabilisation, in which course the sludge is aerated for 

days, even weeks, a further reduction of endocrine substances is assumed. Anaerobic 

stabilisation can also induce anaerobic degradation mechanisms which can 

complete aerobic processes, like it is the case with NPnEOs [KREUZINGER, 1998]). 

• If the final excess sludge is disposed in agriculture or if it is composted (what exposes 

the sludge to further intensive aerobic biological processes) also the ad-


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sorbed difficult to degrade substances are assumed to be reduced. An additional 

reduction of these substances is expected from UV radiation to which sludge spread 

on (mostly agricultural) land is exposed. If sludge is incinerated the adsorbed substances 

are assumed to be destroyed [KREUZINGER, 1998]). 

Reduction of endocrine substances in wastewater treatment plants– results of 

monitoring studies in Austria 

In 1998 a monitoring campaign was done in Austria, initiated by the Federal Environment 

Agency –Austria, in which course the influent and effluent of 17 WWTP (3 out of 

them are industrial plants) was analysed with regards to Xenohormones and Steroidhormones. 

In particular the following 7 substances were considered under this campaign: 

1. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) 

2. Phthalates 

3. Organotin compounds 

4. Alkylphenoles 

5. Nonylphenolmono and diethoxylates 

6. Bisphenol A (BPA) 

7. Buthylhydroxyanisol (BHA) 

The results are published by the Federal Environment Agency – Austria; BE-154 (1999) 

and are summarised hereafter: 

Results of the filtered wastewater samples: 

Polychlorinated Biphenyles (PCB): 

• In the influent to the WWTPs some PCB –congeneres (PCB 28, 52, 77, 138, 153, 

180) could be detected (concentration above 0,002 µg/l). 

• In the effluent PCB were not detectable. 

Phthalates 

• The highest concentrations of Phthalates in the influent to the WWTPs were measured 

with max. 26 µg/l Diethylphthalate, max. 17 µg/l Dimethylphthalate and max. 

7,5 µg/l Di(2-ethyhexyl)phthalate. 

• In the effluent only Dimethylphthalate with a median (n=17) of 1 µg/l was regularly 

detectable. 

• Dibutylphthalate and Butylbenzylphthalate, which are suspected to have estrogenic 

effects could not or only sporadically be detected above the detection concentration 

of 0,5 µg/l and 0,4 µg/l in the effluent of the monitored plants. 

Organo-tin-compounds 

• The highest detected concentration of Tributyltin in the influent to the plants was 

0,02µg/l.


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• In 8 out of 17 influent samples Tributyltin was detected above the detection concentration 

of 0,01 µg/l. 

• The highly toxic Tributyltin was found in the effluent samples of 4 plants above the 

detection concentration of 0,01 µg/l, with a max. concentration of 0,014 µg/l. 

• The most frequently detected organo-tin compound in the effluent was monobutyltin 

with 5 out of 17 samples above the detection concentration of 0,01 µg/l. The maximum 

concentration lay at 0,019 µg/l. 

• Dibutyltin was detected only in one effluent sample above the detection concentration 

(0,01 µg/l), although it could be analysed in many influent samples. 

• In 9 out of 17 influent samples the concentration of Dibutyltin was above 0,01 µg/l, 

with the maximum detected concentration at 0,023 µg/l. 

• All other Organo-tin compounds were not detectable above the detection concentration 

of 0,005 µg/l. 

Alkylphenoles 

• The dominating alkylphenole in influent and effluent of the WWTPs was 4-NPtec.(mixture 

of 4-NP and 2-NP in ratio 9:1).The maximum concentration in the influent 

samples was 9,4 µg/l; in the effluent 1,9 µg/l. 

• Further frequently detected alkylphenoles in influent and effluent were 4-tert – 

Buthylphenole and 4-tert-Octylphenole. The 4-tert–Buthylphenole concentrations in 

the effluent samples ranged from 0,06 to 0,45 µg/l, for 4-tert-Octylphenole between 

0,06 and 0,24 µg/l. 

Nonylphenolethoxylates (NP1EO, NP2EO) 

• In the influents of the monitored treatment plants surprisingly high maximum concentrations 

of 11,4 µg/l NP1EO and 27,5 µg/l NP2EO were found. 

• In the effluent of these plants the concentrations were significantly lower (NP1EO 

Min0,142 µg/l, Max. 0,86 µg/l; NP2EO Min. 0,169 µg/l, Max. 2,164 µg/l;) 

Buthylhydroxyanisol (BHA) 

• The antioxidans (E 320) could be found in the influent as well as in the effluent of 9 

out of 17 treatment plants above the detection concentration of 0,05 µg/l (Min. effluent: 

0,044 µg/l; Max. effluent 0,137 µg/l). 

Bisphenol A (BPA) 

• The max concentration detected in the influent was 8,43 µg/l. 

• The concentrations in the effluent were significantly lower with a median (n=17) of 

0,243µg/l, and a maximum concentration of 0,884 µg/l.


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Phthalates 

• In 50-60% of the samples Di(2-ethyhexyl)phthalate- and Dibutylphthalate concentrations 

were detected. 

• Dimethylphthalate and Diethylphthalate could be detected only scarcely, Butylbenzylphthalate 

could not be detected in any of the samples. 

Organo-tin-compounds 

• In the solid matters of 40 % of the analysed samples Tributyltin could be detected 

above the detection concentration. 

• Only in 20 % of the samples Dibutyltin could be detected, and Monobutyltin could 

only be detected in one single sample. 

Nonylphenolethoxylates (NP1EO, NP2EO) 

• In the solid matters of 75 % of the analysed samples Nonylphenole could be analysed 

• NP1EO and NP2EO was found in 50% and 40% of all analysed samples. Mostly the 

concentration of NP1EO was found above the concentration of NP2EO. 

The effect of wastewater treatment on steroid hormones and Alkylphenolpolyethoxylates 

in particular 

The only publication regarding more detailed reduction pathways of endocrine substances 

in sewage treatment plants is from [KREUZINGER, 1998]. He summarises 

publications on steroid hormones and Alkylphenolethoxylates and comes to the following 

results: 

Effect of wastewater treatment processes on Steroid Hormones 

Estrogens are collected in the sewer system and reach the wastewater treatment plants 

most probably in their biologically less effective conjugated form 

[UMWELTBUNDESAMT BERLIN, 1995] 

Considering the decomposition properties of other complex compounds during treatment 

of wastewater [GIGER, AHEL, KOCH, 1986;MARCOMINI, 1989; AHEL], it may be 

assumed that the further degradation of estrogens in wastewater treatment plants is 

strongly depending on the processes and mode of operation applied in the sewage 

works. 

[FÜRHACKER, 1998] and [SCHWEINFURTH, 1997] summarise the decomposition of 

EE2 in wastewater and environment as follows: 

After incubation of EE2 – and also mestranol – with activated sludge under aerobic 

conditions over a duration of 5 days Norpoth et.al. (1973) noticed a reduction in the 

concentration of theses substances.


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[TABAK and BUNCH ,1970] noticed a reduction of 95 % of EE2 (20mg/l) at continuous 

incubation with activated sludge after a period of 4 weeks, whereas with adapted microorganisms 

within 3 weeks a reduction of 97 % and after 4 weeks a full primary reduction 

was noticed. It seemed that the substances were in an initial stage adsorbed to 

the activated sludge flocks. As has been expected EE2 showed to be more stabile under 

these conditions than the endogene estrogenes estradiole, estron and estriol. 

[TABAK et al., 1981] further conducted a field study in several wastewater treatment 

plants (n=12-14) in the United States, investigating the degradation of different 

Stereoidhormones. They reported a reduction of 20-40 % in the course of the wastewater 

treatment. Considering the analytical procedures applied under this study, it is 

assumed that the measured concentrations also include conjugated metabolites of EE2, 

so that the percentage of actually eliminated free compounds is even higher. 

Adsorption to activated sludge particles might mainly contribute to the reduction of concentrations. 

Considering the structure of EE2 it is assumed that hydrolysis and photolysis 

processes are of minor contribution to the elimination of EE2. 

As can be seen, important information on process parameters like age of the incubated 

sludge, waste load, origin (from which process) of the sludge is very scarce and does 

not allow any statements on the performance of existing treatment plants designed according 

to the current state of the art. Another problem is that the state of the applied 

technology in wastewater engineering has changed considerably since the 80ies. 

Effect of wastewater treatment processes on Alkylphenolpolyethoxylates 

(NPnEOs) 

There exists a number of detailed research works on the behaviour of NPnEOs in the 

biological wastewater treatment process which have been conducted by the EAWAG in 

Switzerland. [AHEL.et.al 1994, BRUNNER et.al 1984, GIGER et al 1984, MARCOMINI 

at.al 1988, SIEGRIST et.al.1989]. 

The following paragraphs summarise the results and findings of these Swiss research 

works and are based on the recently published pathways for the decomposition of 

NPnEOs [published by CORCIA et.al 1998]. 

Transformation of NPnEOs in sewer system and mechanical wastewater treatment 

According to [GIGER,1986], and AHEL (1994) the distribution of NPnEOs in the analysed 

raw water influents to sewage treatment plants did not significantly differ from the 

distribution of the primary sedimentation tanks effluent. (Refer to Figure 11-2) 

However the concentrations in short chain NPnEOs is changed considerably. This 

could be explained by the fact that short chain NPnEOs are more hydrophobe and are 

Therefore easier adsorbed to non dissolved wastewater particles which settle in the 

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Due to the fact that the distribution function of technical products (which is following a 

Poisson distribution) is differing from the bimodal distribution of the NPnEOs in the influent 

to the plant, and since only etoxylated NPs can be found in the influent, it is assumed 

that initial transformation processes are taking place already in the sewer system. 

Figure 11-4 Distribution of NPnEO oligomeres 

Transformation of NPnEOs in aerobic biological wastewater treatment processes 

In the aerobic biological treatment stages in which the oxidation of organic wastewater 

substances takes place the Ethoxyl and Alkyl-Side Chains are reduced to NP2EO and 

NP1EO and carboxylation of Ethoxyl and Alkyl-Side Chains takes place. 

In the effluent of the treatment plants with biological treatment mainly NP2EO and 

NP1EO (also a few traces of NP3EO – NP10 EO) can be found, long chain oligomeres 

are missing. 

The publication of [GIGER (1986] compares the distribution of NPnEO groups in the effluent 

of two treatment plants (WWTP Opfikon and WWTP Bassersdorf) which are designed 

and operated at different levels (one with high sludge age and nitrification, the


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other with low sludge age). The results clearly demonstrate that there is a relation between 

reduction of NPnEOs and the process parameters like sludge age, sludge load, 

nitrification and reduction of organic wastewater contents as outlined above. 

Transformation of NPnEOs in anaerobic sludge stabilisation 

The further degradation of NPnEOs (NP2EO and NP1EO) which are adsorbed to the 

excess biological sludge, takes place during anaerobic stabilisation in the sludge digester, 

by elimination of the Ethoxy groups down to NP. Tschui et al (18) could verify 

this reduction in a batch test. After a retention time of 20 days some 60% of the NP2EO 

and NP1EO were decomposed and the amount of NP was doubled. 

They could even notice a surplus of NP which did not result from the degradation of 

NP2EO and NP1EO. 

This could be explained by the fact that probably remaining NP3EO – NP10 EO chains 

and CAPEs as well as CAPECs (which were not measured) are reduced to NP under 

anaerobic conditions. 

11.2 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK 

Obviously endocrine substances can be reduced in wastewater treatment plants but not 

fully. With the Council Directive 91/271/EEC on urban waste water treatment, May 21 th , 

1991, most European WWTPs are obliged to apply aerobic biological treatment processes 

with high sludge age what favours the growth of bacteria capably of metabolising 

substance which are contained in low concentrations in the wastewater. 

Further advantageous are aerobic conditions for the deposed excess sludge as provided 

in agricultural use or composting of the sludge. According to studies regarding 

future trends in the European Union it may be expected that an increase of the sludge 

used for agriculture will take place. 

However, still the information required to prepare strategies in design and operation of 

WWTPs is insufficient, and most probably it will not be able to completely eliminate the 

substances in the course of the treatment. 

Theoretically the effluent could be further treated by membrane processes or activated 

carbon processes which can completely eliminate nearly all substances targeted. In 

other words “technically everything is possible”, but these processes are extremely 

costly and it is not considered a sound approach to invest in end of pipe technology. 

Avoiding of these substances by production restrictions and strict regulations would be 

a much more economic and reasonable approach for reducing the emission of endocrine 

modulators into the environment. 

11.3 PROCESSES TO ELIMINATE CONTAMINANTS FROM SOURCES FOR 

DRINKING WATER SUPPLY 

General considerations


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The aim of any water treatment is defined in Mutschmann et Stimmelmayer (1999) as: 

1. To change natural parameters of the water so that water is hygienically harmless for 

human consumption and suitable for technical use. This includes softening of water, 

iron and manganese removal, modifying of carbonate balance, aeration of water, 

etc.. 

2. To remove anthropogeneous substances. Originally this mainly meant removal of 

bacteria and viruses by disinfection. However since intensivation of agriculture and 

industrialisation it means removal of nitrates, pesticides, heavy metals, organic chlorine 

compounds, and others 

For the removal of anthropogeneous substances extremely cost intensive treatment 

processes exist, like reverse osmosis, ultra filtration, ion exchange, biological treatment, 

etc...which would also be suitable for the removal of endocrine substances. 

That means technically each substance can be removed. With membrane processes 

for example (ultra filtration, nano-filtration, reverse osmosis, electro dialysis) it is possible 

to remove any molecules desired, but this would undoubtedly double or triple present 

water tariffs what is economically and also politically very difficult. 

On the other hand the effect of conventionally applied processes on endocrine substances 

is not known at all, and there are no publication available on this matter. So the 

effect of these processes on endocrine substances must be investigated prior to deciding 

to go for high tech processes, supposed this approach is considered reasonable 

at all. 

Protection of the natural water sources by avoiding the contamination with anthropogeneous 

substances must be given priority to investing into end of pipe technology. 

Commonly applied processes for treating of drinking water 

Since water quality is individual for each source of drinking water each source required 

individual treatment to render it into drinkable water complying with national and European 

directives. 

Water treatment engineering and chemistry is a science for itself, and the following 

shall only give a rough overview about commonly applied processes. 

Figure 11-5 illustrates the main treatment lines commonly found, which may be supplemented 

by additional special treatment lines made necessary by the presence of 

specific undesirable substances in the raw water (e.g. fluorine, nitrates, calcium) 

Line 1 is designed to treat clean, unpolluted raw water requiring only disinfection to 

achieve the required microbiological quality. Line 2 is designed to treat water with no 

pollutants, except SS, and requiring simple filtration prior to disinfection. Where the 

water contains a small quantity of colloids, or has a more pronounced colour, in-line coagulation 

will solve the problem (Line 3). If the quantity of coagulant required to remove 

the colloids or reduce the colour is too high, the floc formed will be large and will rapidly


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clog the filter creating the need for frequent washing. It is therefore essential to provide 

a floc separation stage that uses settling or flotation techniques prior to filtration (Line 

4). 

The floc formed after addition of coagulant clarifies the water. This floc also has adsorbent 

qualities allowing a number of pollutants to be adsorbed on its surface. However, 

if the concentration of pollutant organic matter is too high, it may be necessary to 

include additional treatments, such as oxidation (Line 6) or adsorption (Line 5), which 

are used together with one or other of the clarification processes. 

Some of the above treatment stages have a biological effect (Line 7). Whenever a 

treatment process involves a solid liquid interface, the latter encourages the development 

of micro-organisms, which may have a positive effect on the treated water. This is 

true of filter stages (sand or GAC) and, to a lesser extent, the sludge bed employed in 

settling tanks. 

Figure 11-5 Basic processes in Drinking Water Treatment according to [DEGREMONT, Water 

Treatment Handbook, 1991] 

The traditionally applied processes in rendering surface waters suitable for drinking are: 

1. Mechanical treatment (screening, straining, sand removal, etc.) 

2. Aeration 

3. Sedimentation of suspended solids, mostly in combination with coagulation and 

flocculation


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4. Filtration (mostly rapid filtration, formerly slow sand filtration) 

5. Polishing processes (ozonisation, activated carbon adsorption of odours and 

taste) 

6. Disinfection 

These processes are combined according to requirement and have to be completed 

according to other substances contained in the raw water. 

In developing countries the processes described above are still being applied as the 

only treatment for raw water. In Europe modern sea and river water plants are more 

and more applying ozone and activated carbon as completing and substituting treatment 

stages to the traditional ones. 

Ozone 

• can support coagulation and flocculation by converting large monopolar molecules 

into smaller polar compounds 

• can crack organic molecules like phenoles 

• can oxidise soluble gases as sulphides and mercaptanes, in order to reduce odour 

and taste 

• can de-colourise by destroying colloids and colours of humic acids 

• can rise the BOD/COD ratio what increases the biodegradability of organic substances 

Ozone is usually used as pre-ozonisation prior to flocculation and filtration and as main 

ozonisation after flocculation and filtration in order to reduce odour colour and taste and 

for disinfection. Ozonisation is mostly applied in combination with activated carbon in 

order to reduce residual ozone in the treated water. [LEITZKE, 1999, a presentation of 

applied ozone processing from the company Philaqua, Germany] 

Activated carbon 

Activated carbon has a broad spectrum of adsorptive activity, as most organic molecules 

are retained on its surface. The hardest to retain are the molecules which are the 

most polar and the linear ones with a very low molecular weight.. Molecules which are 

slightly polar, generating taste and smell, and molecules with a relatively high molecular 

weight are for various reasons well adsorbed on carbon. 

Beyond these adsorbent properties activated carbon is also a bacteria support that is 

capable of breaking down a fraction of adsorbed phase. Thus, a part of the support is 

continuously being regenerated and capable of freeing sites, allowing new molecules to 

be retained. (DEGREMONT, Water Treatment Handbook, 1991) 

The fact that activated carbon is also a bacteria support lead to the development of 

biological activated carbon, which operates similar to trickling filters, allowing the growth 

of bacteria which can specialise in metabolising difficult biodegradable substances. 

Activated carbon is applied in two forms: 

Powdered activated carbon (PAC) and granular activated carbon.(GAC). PAC takes the 

form of grains between 10 and 50µm and its use is generally combined with clarification


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treatment. It is added continuously to the water together with flocculation reagents, it 

enters the floc and is then extracted from the water by sedimentation. 

The advantage of PAC is that adsorption is rapid since large surface area of powder is 

directly accessible, that it is constantly exchanged by new one and that quantities can 

be dosed according to requirement. For that reason it can also eliminate difficult to adsorb 

substances like pesticides. The big disadvantage of PAC is that it can not be regenerated 

and that it is difficult to remove final traces of impurities without adding excessive 

amounts of activated carbon. It is therefore used when intermittent or small 

quantities are required. 

Granular activated carbon (GAC) is used as filter bed through which the water to be 

treated passes, leaving behind the impurities which are thus extracted methodically. 

The water, as it progressively loses its pollutants, encounters zones of activated carbon 

which are less and less saturated and therefore more and more active. 

Some examples of applied surface water treatment processes in European cities are 

shown in Figure 11-6.


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Figure 11-6 Applied processes for treatment of surface waters in European Cities 


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Processes which might have an effect on the degradation of endocrine substances 

State of research 

Currently there are no publications available on the effect of drinking water processes 

on endocrine substances. 

A research programme in this has started on June 2000 in Austria under the Title “Austrian 

Research Co-operation on Endocrine Modulators (ARCEM). The program is 

scheduled up to mid 2003 and is initiated by Austrian Scientists from different universities 

together with the Austrian Federal Environment Agency and the Federal Ministry for 

Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management. One module under this 

programme will deal with the aspects of drinking water treatment. 

Under this programme the following treatment processes will be considered with regards 

to its effect on endocrine substances. 

1. Adsorption 

2. Metabolism of the substances under influence of oxidants like ozone, ozone in 

combination with UV radiation, persulfate, caroate. 

3. Metabolism of the substances under influence of chlorine compounds like chlordioxid, 

hypochlorit and hypochlorit in combination with UV radiation 

4. General effect of UV radiation on the substances 

5. Biological reduction of these substances by biological active activated carbon 

6. Biological reduction of these substances by slow sand filtration 

7. Biological reduction of these substances by biological Iron and manganese filters 

8. Influence of precipitation, flocculation and sedimentation on these substances. 

However results are not expected before mid 2001 

Based on the current knowledge of the effects of wastewater treatment processes on 

endocrine substances the following processes could in the opinion of the author be 

suitable to reduce or eliminate endocrine substances. However it is only the hypothetical 

opinion of the author. 

Membrane processes 

Endocrine substances can theoretically be fully removed from water (drinking water and 

also waste water) by membrane processes. 

Membrane bioreactors are a particularly promising alternative to conventional activated 

sludge treatment with respect to effluent quality, not just regarding the removal of endocrine 

disrupting substances [SCHWIER et al. 2001]. 

These processes are classified according to the size of the pores of the membrane and 

thus by the size of water contents retained.(Figure 11-7).


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Figure 11-7 classification of membrane processes according to [DEGREMONT Water 

Treatment Handbook, 1991] 

Reverse osmosis: 

The raw water is pumped at 5 to 100 bar against a semi-permeable membrane which 

allows water to pass through while solutes are retained except for certain organic molecules 

similar to water (with a low molecular weight and strong polarity). In order to prevent 

fouling and scaling on the membrane, pre-treatment of the water with processes 

like ion exchanging, flocculation, micro filtration, treatment with polyphosphates, etc. is 

necessary. The treated water needs further treatment for pH adjusting and increasing of 

salt concentration. 20 % of the treated raw water remains as wastewater which disposal 

is very costly. With that process nearly pure water can be produce, but technical needs 

and costs are tremendous. 

Ultra filtration: 

These membranes allow to retain compounds of a defined size in the raw water. Ultrafiltration 

allows only the coarsest solutes (macromolecules) to be rejected. The process 

is mainly applied to retain bacteria and viruses. Also turbidity can be reduced down to 

0,1 FNU. Ultrafiltration is frequently used for recycling of backwashwater from filtration. 

Micro filtration 

These membranes do not change the composition of the solution in any way, only suspended 

solids, colloids, bacteria etc. are rejected. It is assumed that micro filtration is 

suitable to retain endocrine substances only to a very little extent. 

Electrodialysis: 

If a liquid that is rich in ions, is subjected to an electrical field by means of two electrodes 

with a continuous potential difference applied between them, the cat-ions will be 

attracted to the negative electrode and the an-ions will be attracted to the positive electrode. 

If nothing impedes their movement, they will each lose their charge on the opposite 

sign electrodes and thus electrolysis takes place. However if a series of selective 

dialysis membranes is placed between the electrodes cation membranes, permeable 

only to the cations, and anion membranes, permeable only to the anions the migration


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of ions is restricted as the anions cannot pass through the negative membranes an the 

cation cannot pass through the positive membranes. (supposed they are arranged alternately). 

Compared to reverse osmosis the percentage of wastewater produce is only 

10%. A disadvantage is that all dissolved salts are retained what requires additional 

treatment of the produced water to make it suitable for drinking. With special membranes 

it is possible to retain only defined ions, like Nitrates, therefore it is used to remove 

nitrates from groundwater [DEGREMONT Water Treatment Handbook, 1991]. 

With this process it is possible to demineralise water. However, the non ionised molecules 

in particular organic compounds remain behind in the treated water. Therefore 

electrodialysis can never remove all endocrine substances. 

Adsorption to activated carbon 

Another promising process to eliminate endocrine substances is adsorption to activated 

carbon as it is used to eliminate pesticides. The main features of the process are described 

above. 

The problem with regards to endocrine substance is the fact that these substances are 

found in raw water in very low concentrations. That means the adsorbent is likely to be 

saturated with other pollutants. Another problem is that more easily absorbable substances 

can re-mobilise already adsorbed substances. In any case the water treated 

with activated carbon must be properly pre treated with other processes prior to go for 

particular substances which are contained in the water in very low concentrations. A 

promising approach would be a two step process with PAC followed by a GAC process. 

Activated carbon and membrane processes are also applied for “tertiary treatment” of 

wastewater treatment plants effluent. Both processes can retain dissolved organic 

compounds which have resisted upstream biological treatment. So also endocrine substances 

contained in wastewater can theoretically be retained from the effluent. In other 

words also for wastewater “technically everything is possible”, its just a question of 

costs. 

Biological processes 

According to what is known about Alkylphenolpolyethoxylates and steroid hormones, 

aerobe biological processes seem to contribute to a shortening of NPnEO chains and to 

a degradation of steroid hormones. So one can assume that also aerobe biological processes 

as used in drinking water treatment will have an effect on these substances. 

However the role of biological processes in drinking water treatment is not comparable 

to wastewater treatment. Raw water of drinking water contains only very little nutrients 

which mostly have to be added to the process. 

Nevertheless, bio-films can be found on slow sand filters which are nowadays only used 

in small water works. According to Degrémont the biological action of slow sand filters 

is not effective when it comes to removing all micropollutants (phenoles, detergents, 

pesticides). For instance, they can only remove about 50 % of organo chlorinated pesticides.


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Attached growth of bacteria can also be found on activated carbon and on biological 

Iron and manganese filters. 

Oxidation 

Oxidation with ozone, a combination with ozone and UV radiation, or H2O2 + UV is a 

common process in drinking water treatment to eliminate or change organic compounds. 

In combination with an adsorption to activated carbon this is also a very promising 

process to eliminate endocrine substances. 

11.4 SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK 

It is assumed by the author that also the currently applied combination of processes for 

treating of surface waters (flocculation, sedimentation, filtration) are contributing a great 

deal to the reduction of these endocrine substances. A completion of these processes 

by ozonisation, followed by an activated carbon adsorption process (as frequently already 

now applied for polishing treatment) should be sufficient for the reduction of endocrine 

substances beyond the detection concentration. 

However, it can never be a reasonable solution to contaminate water and apply extremely 

expensive “end of pipe technology” to remove these contaminants. Avoiding of 

contamination is for sure the more economic approach. 

Further research is necessary in order to evaluate the degradation behaviour of endocrine 

disrupters with respect to different wastewater technologies. In addition, the possibility 

of ground water contamination as a result of sludge deposition should be investigated 

[HELMREICH, 2001]


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12 OUTLOOK AND RECOMMENDATIONS WITH RESPECT TO HAZARDOUS 

SUBSTANCES 

The overall objective of the WFD is to achieve ‘good status’ for all waters. It is therefore 

of paramount importance to define the term ‘good status’ precisely and consistently and 

to apply identical criteria to all waters throughout the Community and accession countries. 

Many technical and political steps lie ahead which have to be mastered in order to 

safeguard comparable status assessments, thus creating a ‘level playing field’ for water 

protection in the EU. 

Key issues to be addressed: 

Member States will have to co-operate closely and from the very beginning in elaborating 

the criteria that define ‘good status’ and the administrative mechanisms necessary 

to achieve it for all Community waters. The development of such criteria should not be 

compromised by the political and/or economic implications of their application at Member 

State level. Member States should only use derogations from restoration where the 

costs are genuinely disproportionate to the long-term benefits. Good status should be 

ambitious and it should be meaningful. Clear provision must be made for a review of all 

Ecological Status criteria at regular intervals, with the aim of ensuring that these continue 

to optimise both the protection of existing quality and the incentive for ecological 

improvement according to new available scientific knowledge. Public involvement 

should be actively encouraged for all relevant decisions. 

All actors involved in decision-making – Member States, the Commission, the European 

Parliament as well as industry associations – have to apply the provisions of the WFD 

concerning priority hazardous substances. The objective of preventing inputs of a 

handful of particularly problematical chemicals within 20 years is not too ambitious, but 

a necessary prerequisite for efficiently protecting waters, including the marine environment. 

The Commission, Council and Parliament have to work together in devising progressive 

and ambitious groundwater legislation. Notably, a new balance needs to be found between 

agricultural interests and the protection of groundwater, which is after all the 

source of no less than two thirds of EU drinking water. 

The Commission will have to control that the river basin authorities have the competence, 

legal power and resources to realise the objectives of the WFD. The principles of 

the WFD with respect to the status objectives, sustainable use of water and full-cost 

pricing are reflected in all sectoral Community policies and decisions. This applies more 

specifically to the Common Agricultural Policy, Structural and Cohesion Funds, and 

possible future policies on the organisation of the water industry. Member States should 

fully integrate water management into all sectors, including land-use activities. In order 

to make management more transparent, public consultation has to be introduced at 

every level and stage of the drawing-up of river basin management plans. Public participation 

will not only increase the effectiveness of the measures adopted to achieve


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the WFD’s objectives, but also the legitimacy and general acceptance of EU water policies. 

The Commission and Member States have to develop guidelines together for the economic 

analysis of water uses in a river basin district, which allow the sufficient assessment 

of all costs including environmental costs by 2004. But water is not just a commercial 

good and market forces are not easily applicable; the economically based calculation 

of environmental costs is therefore complicated. Simple and straightforward 

action - like identifying and reducing subsidies, charges or levies for water abstraction 

and use and earmarking them etc. – should be given priority. 

From a formal point of view and from the detailed analysis of the major provisions of the 

WFD, it is clear that it will be crucial that all the directives to be repealed in 2013 and 

especially the Groundwater and Dangerous Substances Directives have to be implemented 

and enforced as soon as possible. The WFD offers a useful supporting frame 

to implement these directives and the full implementation of existing directives is a prerequisite 

for meeting the WFD objectives.


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13 ABBREVIATIONS 


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ADME Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion 

AG Ano-genital distance 

Ah Arylhydrocarbon 

AMH Anti-Mullerian hormone 

AR Androgen receptor 

BOD5 

Biological Oxygen Demand during 5 days 

BPH Benign prostatic hyperplasia 

CEFIC European Chemical Industry Council 

COD Chemical Oxygen Demand 

COMMPS (combined monitoring-based and modelling-based priority setting): 

COMMPS has been elaborated in collaboration with a consultant 

(Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, 

Germany). The basic idea is to rank substances for which sufficient 

data are available according to their relative risk to the aquatic environment 

in an automated manner and to apply expert judgement for 

the final selection of priority substances. 

DBCP 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane 

DDE p,p-DDE: 1,1-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-2,2-dichloroethene 

DEPA Danish Environmental Protection Agency 

DES Diethylstilboestrol 

DHT Dihydrotestosterone 

EC European Community 

ECETOC European Centre for Ecotoxicology and Toxicology of Chemicals 

EDS Endocrine disrupting substance 

EEA European Environment Agency 

EEF Oestrogen equivalent factor 

ELV Emission Limit Values 

EQS Environmental Quality Standard 

ER Oestrogen receptor 

ESF European Science Foundation 

FSH Follicle stimulating hormone 

GAC Granular Activated Carbon 

GFEA German Federal Environment Agency 

GnRH Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone 

hAR Human androgen receptor 

hER Human oestrogen receptor 

IEH Institute for Environment and Health 

ISE International School of Ethology 

IUCLID International Uniform Chemical Information Database 

LH Luteinising hormone 

MRC Medical Research Council 

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 

ORD [United States of America] Office of Research and Development 

OSPAR The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the


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North-East Atlantic ("OSPAR Convention") was opened for signature 

at the Ministerial Meeting of the Oslo and Paris Commissions in 

Paris on 22 September 1992. The Convention has been signed and 

ratified by all of the Contracting Parties to the Oslo or Paris Conventions 

(Belgium, Denmark, the Commission of the European Communities, 

Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, 

Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom of Great 

Britain and Northern Ireland) and by Luxembourg and Switzerland. 

The OSPAR Convention entered into force on 25 March 1998. It replaces 

the Oslo and Paris Conventions, but Decisions, Recommendations 

and all other agreements adopted under those Conventions 

will continue to be applicable, unaltered in their legal nature, unless 

they are terminated by new measures adopted under the 1992 

OSPAR Convention. 

PAC Powdered Activated Carbon 

PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls 

PCO Polycystic ovaries 

PE Population Equivalent (usually 60g BOD5) 

POP Persistant organic pollutant 

PR Progesterone receptor 

QSAR Quantitative structure-activity relationship 

RBMP River Basin Management Plan (Article 13, WFD) 

SAR Structure-activity relationship 

SHBG Sex hormone binding globulin 

SS Suspended Solids 

Sts Sulphotransferase enzymes 

T3 Tri-iodothyronine 

TBT Tributyltin 

TCDD 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 

TEF Toxic equivalent factor 

TR Thyroid hormone receptor 

UDP Uridine diphosphate 

UGT UDP-glucuronyl transferase 

USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency 

WFD Water Framework Directive (full title: European Parliament and 

Council Directive establishing a framework for Community action in 

the field of water policy) 

WHO World Health Organisation 

WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant


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Chemicals. Online in the Internet: URL: ”http://www.wwfcanada.org/hormonedisruptors/index.html” 

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"http//www.worldwildlife.org/toxics/progareas/pop/index. htm and several links (release 

order in November 2000).


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LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 5-1: Grasshopper effect with consequences to Canada [WWF Canada] .......... 23 

Figure 6-1: Approaches to identify endocrine disrupting substances (EDS). Dotted 

arrows represent entries to the sequence of testing that require further research 

before they can be endorsed or eliminated [WEYBRIDGE REPORT, 1996] ......... 31 

Figure 6-2: hazardous evaluation of substances [FENT 1998]..................................... 39 

Figure 6-3: Concept of the environmental or ecotoxicological risk assessment of 

chemical substances [FENT 1998]......................................................................... 41 

Figure 7-1: Cross-linked effects to different biological-ecological levels, according to 

[FENT 1998]........................................................................................................... 43 

Figure 8-1: Factors and interdependent action which are decisive for the realisation of 

potential microbial capacity of decomposition, modified according to [FRITSCHE 

1998]. ..................................................................................................................... 57 

Figure 9-1: Organic contaminants [FENT 1998] ........................................................... 59 

Figure 9-2: Transport- and transformation processes of contaminants in stagnant 

waters, modified according to [FENT1998]. ........................................................... 59 

Figure 10-1: Pollution inputs into water [BUWAL a]...................................................... 61 

Figure 10-2: Catchment Area of Lake Constance......................................................... 64 

Figure 10-3: Diagram of source and effects of pollutants in Lake Constance [according 

to UBR 1994].......................................................................................................... 65 

Figure 10-4: Lake Geneva [CIPEL 2000a].................................................................... 71 

Figure 10-5: Catchment Area of Lake Geneva [CIPEL 2000a]..................................... 71 

Figure 10-6: Population, industry and tourism in the Lake Geneva Catchment Area 

[CIPEL 2000a]........................................................................................................ 72 

Figure 10-7: Land use in the Catchment Area of Lake Geneva [CIPEL 2000a] ........... 73 

Figure 10-8: Sampling Locations in Lake Geneva [BECKER et al 1992]...................... 77 

Figure 10-9:Location of Bourget Lake in France (Source: SOGREAH)........................ 80 

Figure 10-10: Catchment Area of Bourget Lake (Source: SOGREAH)......................... 82 

Figure 10-11: Catchment Area of Loch Lomond [SEPA, changed] .............................. 85 

Figure 11-1 Monod function.......................................................................................... 94 

Figure 11-2 Mass streams in a typical wastewater treatment plant, according to 

[KREUZINGER, 1998]............................................................................................ 96 

Figure 11-3 Pathways of sewage sludge disposal........................................................ 97 

Figure 11-4 Distribution of NPnEO oligomeres........................................................... 104 

Figure 11-5 Basic processes in Drinking Water Treatment according to [DEGREMONT, 

Water Treatment Handbook, 1991]...................................................................... 107 

Figure 11-6 Applied processes for treatment of surface waters in European Cities ... 111 

Figure 11-7 classification of membrane processes according to [DEGREMONT Water 

Treatment Handbook, 1991] ................................................................................ 113


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LIST OF TABLES 

Table 3-1: List of priority substances in the field of water policy [COM (2000) 47 final] 19 

Table 7-2: Atrazine-Effects at Concentrations till 50 µg/l [FENT 1998]......................... 50 

Table 7-3: Toxic effects of environmental chemicals to aquatic organisms in the 

different biological levels [FENT 1998]................................................................... 52 

Table 8-1: Processes responsible for the destiny of environmental chemicals [FENT 

1998] ...................................................................................................................... 53 

Table 10-1: portion of area of the countries in the catchment area of Lake Constance 

[PRASUHN, et al. 1996]......................................................................................... 63 

Table 10-2:Concentrations of butyltins in water of Lake Geneva marinas and one 

natural site (reference) [BECKER et al 1992]......................................................... 78 

Table 10-3: Concentration of organotins in sediment of Lake Geneva marinas and one 


Table 10-4: Concentrations of organotins in bivalves of Lake Geneva marinas and one 


Table 10-5: Sewage treatment plants in the Bourget Lake catchment ......................... 83


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ANNEX 1 

Schemata with the mode of action of endocrine disrupters 


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Cells have receptors where hormones are able to tie 

down. The hormone-receptor-complex is activating the 

cell. Natural hormones dock at receptors and activates 

it in the appropriate level [WWF CANADA, DEVITT 

1997]. 

Endocrine disrupters are able to dock at the receptor, 

too. They are blocking normal signals because the 

body hormones can not fit into the receptor. Hormone 

blockers interferes with the signal from the body hormones 

[WWF CANADA, DEVITT 1997]. 

The messages send by the endocrine disrupters are 

wrong. Either they give a signal stronger than the 

body's hormone (and at the wrong time), or... 

endocrine disrupter gives a signal weaker than natural 

hormones and at the wrong time [WWF CANADA, 

DEVITT 1997].


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EDC List 

Chemicals in the environment reported to have reproductive and endocrine disrupting 

effects. 

The list and references are based on: Colborn T (1998) Endocrine disruption from environmental 

toxicants. In: Rom WN (ed.) Environmental and Occupational Medicine, 

Third Edition. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, 803-812. (in press) [WWF 

CANADA]. 

Table of environmental pollutants with a putative endocrine effect [WWF 

CANADA] 

Herbicides 

- 2,4-D - ethiozin - picloram 

- 2,4,5-T - glufosinate-ammonium - pendimethalin 

- acetochlor - ioxynil - prodiamine 

- alachlor - linuron - pronamide 

- amitrole - metribuzin - simazine 

- atrazine - molinate - terbutryn 

- bromacil - nitrofen - thiazopyr 

- bromoxynil - oryzalin - triclorobenzene 

- cyanazine - oxyacetamide (FOE - trifluralin 

- DCPA 

Fungicides 

5043) 

- paraquat 

- benomyl - nabam 

- etridiazole - pentachloronitrobenzene 

- fenarimol - triadimefon 

- fenbuconazole - tributyltin 

- hexachlorobenzene - vinclozolin 

- mancozeb - zineb 

- maneb 

- metiram 

Insecticides 

- ziram 

- aldrin - dinitrophenol - mirex 

- bifenthrin - endosulfan (a and ß) - oxychlordane 

- carbaryl - ethofenprox - parathion 

- carbofuran - fenitrothion (methylparathion) 

- chlordane - fenvalerate - photomirex 

- chlordecone - fipronil - pyrethrins 

- chlorfentezine - ß-HCH - synthetic pyrethroids


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- l-cyhalothrin - heptachlor and H- - ronnel (fenchlorfos) 

- DDT and metabolites 

epoxide 

- endrin - toxaphene 

(DDE, DDD) - lindane (ß-HCH) - transnonachlor 

- deltamethrin - malathion - aldicarb 

- dicofol - methomyl - DBCP 

- dieldrin 

- dimethoate 

Other Types of Pesticides 

- methoxychlor - n-2-fluorenylacetamide 

- ethylene thiourea (ETU) - pentachlorophenol (PCP) 

- pentachlorobenzene - piperonyl butoxide 

Industrial Chemicals & Contaminants 

- 4-OH-alkylphenol - 4-OH 2',3',4',5' tetrachlorobiphenyl 

- aluminum* - 2,2',3,3',6,6' hexachlorobiphenyl 

- benzopyrene - pentabromodiphenyl ether 

- bisphenol-A - penta- to nonylphenols 

- 4-OH-biphenyl - phthalates 

- t-butylhydroxyanisole (BHA) - benzylbutylphthalate 

- cadmium* - di2ethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) 

- carbon disulfide - diisobutylphthalate 

- dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) - dinhexylphthalate (DnHP) 

- furans - di-n-octylphthalate (DnOP) 

- hydroxy (hydro)-quinones - diOHbenzoicacids (DHBA) 

- lead* - phenol 

- mercury* - polychlorinated diphenyl ether 

- methylcolanthrene (MCA) - radioactive iodine 

- polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) - resorcinol 

- polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) - styrenes 

- 2 to 4-OH 2',5' dichlorobiphenyl - tetrachloro-benzyltoluenes 

- 2,3,4 trichlorobiphenyl - thiocyanate 

- 4-OH trichlorobiphenyls (2,2',5;2',4',6') - vinyl acetate 

- 3-OH 2',3',4',5' tetrachlorobiphenyl *metals


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ANNEX 2 

Examples of environmental effects 

The great lakes in North America include a whole cocktail of POPs. A detailed investigation 

of the animals living at these place, has been carried out over many years 

[LEISEWITZ 19969]. Besides unknown symptoms at several living free animals even 

the disappearance of whole species is described. In the case of 16 investigated fish, 

bird, reptile and mammal species which drops have been died or which are not able to 

reproduce themselves in a normal way, are top predators standing at the top of the food 

chain. They are eating fish or fish-eating animals. The symptoms lead to a reduction of 

population, reach from a kind of "wasting" over damages of the immune system and organs, 

interference of the thyroid gland, deformities, tumours and cancer as well as behavioural 

abnormalities until reproductive damages [GREENPEACE AUSTRIA 1999]. 

Related interference are found as well at humans which ate fish from the Great Lakes. 

Tumours and cancer, behavioural abnormalities and learning deficits at children which 

mothers ate a lot of fish during the pregnancy, impairment of the immune system and 

interference of the sexual system, poor fertility, diabetes and many more is ascertained 

[LEISEWITZ 1996]. DDT and it's decomposition products, PCB, dioxins and several 

pesticides belong to the dedicated substances having the origin in the neighbouring 

industry and agriculture [GREENPEACE AUSTRIA 1999]. 

Behavioural and perception interference 

EDCs have the potential to disrupt the normal neurological development which lead to 

behavioural and cognitive abnormalities [WWF CANADA]. 

Seagulls burdened with DDT res. it's decomposition product DDE show changes in the 

sexual ratio. As a result of this, female nested with female. In Florida it was noticed, that 

adult birds did not mate or take interest in breeding colonies [WWF CANADA, 

GREENPEACE AUSTRIA] . 

Hormonal malfunction and feminisation 

A 1980 dicofol spill (a pesticide similar in structure to DDT) into Lake Apopka, Florida 

caused serious hormonal dysfunction and feminisation in the lake's alligator population 

[WWF CANADA]. The offspring were hermaphrodites or have a quite belittled phallus 

so that they were unable to mat themselves ]LEISEWITZ 1996]. Ratios of estrogen to 

testosterone in eggs were twice as high as normal. Adult female alligators produced 

about twice the normal estrogen levels for a typical female, while male alligators 

emerging from eggs produced almost no testosterone [WWF CANADA]. 

Male fishes exposed to nonyl phenols, a substance used in detergents and various industrial 

processes, produce vitellogenin. Vitellogenin is an estrogen stimulated egg-yolk 

protein produced by female during egg production. Vitellogenin concentrations in male 

trout living in river outfalls of sewage treatment plants were up to 100,00 times higher 

as in normal male fishes. More than half of their blood protein was yolk [WWF 

CANADA]. 

Decreased immune defence system


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Dioxin, even at levels 25 % below the amount found in general human populations, reduces 

white blood cells and the organism is more susceptible to viral infections [WWF 

CANADA]. 

Levels of PCB were two-to-three times higher in seals and dolphins died in the North 

Sea, the Baltic Sea, along the Eastern Seaboard of the United States and the Mediterranean 

Sea than in healthy animals. Synthetic chemicals and heavy metals have been 

reduced the animals' immune system function and they died at infectious diseases. 

Seals fed with PCB- and dioxin-contaminated Baltic Sea fish had significantly lower killer 

cell activity and antibody response than seals fed a less contaminated source from 

the Atlantic [WWF CANADA]. 

Thyroid effects 

Certain PCBs and dioxins are known to impair normal thyroid function. Thyroid hormones 

are essential for the whole brain development during the embryonic period and 

the time after. Interference with thyroid function at this time can lead to a loss of intelligence 

and behaviour abnormalities. Studies are finding links between in utero exposure 

and behavioural responses in children. Most notably is hyperactivity. A hyperactivity is 

also be initiated if the level of thyroid hormones is reduced during the pregnancy [WWF 

CANADA]. 

Researches at the Great Lakes report of a 100 % prevalence of thyroid enlargement in 

2-4 year old salmons. Some salmons have been found with thyroids over a million 

times their normal size. In Lake Erie the problem is so severe that they are beginning to 

rupture. Almost all the salmons observed had hermaphroditic reproductive system[WWF 

CANADA]. 

Carcinogenic effects 

An excess exposure to estrogen is a primary risk factor for getting breast cancer, endometrial 

cancer and for endometriosis (a painful disease characterised by cells which 

are normally found inside the uterus growing outside the uterine wall). The increase of 

endometriosis was found at female monkeys exposed to low levels of dioxin were subsequently 

found to develop endometriosis [WWF CANADA]. 

DDT, PCBs, keptone and atrazine increase the production of a more potent form of 

estrogen in the body which increase the chance of cancer [WWF CANADA]. 

Testicular cancer has increased dramatically in industrial countries. Precancerous cells 

develop during embryonic periode and lie dormant until some hormonal surge during 

puberty triggers their proliferation. Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in 

American men and has increased 126 % from 1973 to 1991. Animal studies have found 

that long-term exposure to estrogen can induce prostate cancer [WWF CANADA]. 

Decrease of sperm count 

Sperm counts have dropped by approximately 50 % over the past 50 years. In several 

studies men from different regions of North and South America, Europe and Asia were 

studied. The indicated average sperm count decreased 45 % between 1938 and 1990. 

The rate of decline was greater in younger males, suggesting that the damage was 

done in the womb. Surveys of men born in the UK between 1955 and1974 have found 

that younger men have significantly poorer sperm quality. Thereto belong a decrease in 

concentration and motility [WWF CANADA].


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One hypothesis is that the production of sertoli cells responsible for sperm production, 

is being reduced by exposure to estrogenic and/or anti-androgenic chemicals during the 

embryonic development. Since each sertoli cell produces only a fixed number of sperm, 

their number are limit the number of sperm an adult man can produce. During male development 

the pituritary gland secretes a follicle-stimulating hormone, which is suppressed 

with increasing estrogen levels, thereby reducing sertoli cell formation [WWF 

CANADA]. 

Dying of sea birds at Clear Lake (California) 

Since the 50ies a massive reduction of Aechmophorus occidentalis population took 

place. For the combat of mosquitoes the DDT related pesticide DDD was used several 

times with a increasing dosage. In the fatty tissue of dead birds high concentrations of 

DDD were found. Than a investigation of the fishes in the sea and the whole food chain 

followed. The DDD was found in high concentrations as well in the planctonic algae. It 

was also be ascertained that the pesticide is passed down from one generation to the 

next in algae, fishes, birds, frogs and other organisms [GREENPEACE AUSTRIA]. 

Dying of peregrine falcons in Germany 

Through Pesticide contaminated preys (DDT and other) the animals were poisoned and 

their population increased in Germany and also on the whole northern hemisphere 

since 1950. On the one hand the animals are poisoned through the preys, on the other 

hand more and more clutches were lost because of brashly egg shells. This was the 

reason of a hormone disruption of the calcium metabolism caused by pesticides 

[GREENPEACE AUSTRIA].

D10: Impact of Contaminants - Hydromod

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