The coconut odyssey - the bounteous possibilities of the ... - ACIAR

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Contents Foreword 5 Preface 13 Chapter 1. �e coconut odyssey begins 15 But let us start at the beginning … . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Evolution of the coconut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Friendship with a crab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Coconut diversity and the human factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Completing the equatorial circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Australia’s coconut story: a remarkable absence in precolonial times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Were Aborigines consumers but not growers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 �e scourge of a native rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Loss of coconut seedlings and older palms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Coping with sea-level rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Coastal explorers in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Planting by Australian colonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 �e coconut redeployed in an ornamental role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 What are the environmental limits for the coconut? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Extreme latitude: the coconut seedling as an indoor plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Can the coconut palm be regarded as a native Australian plant? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Chapter 2. Surprising diversity among coconuts—adaptations to new environments and to human demands 33 How many varieties of coconut are there? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Telling the difference between a Tall and a Dwarf palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Drought tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Tolerance of low temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Tolerance of insect and disease attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 7
�e strand posed few biohazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Diversity among Dwarfs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Diversity among palms introduced into Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Exploiting diversity with hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Chapter 3. �e life story of a palm: from seed to first fruit 43 Starting with the seed … . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 �e husk hides the very young seedling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 �e seedling ‘sponges’ from the kernel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Growth of the independent seedling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Flowering begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 What gives the palm crown its great shape? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Crown shape responds to age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Fruiting begins: a competition for resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Why does the palm on the strand lean towards the water? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Maintaining a grip on the earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Dwarfs are at greater risk than Talls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Survivors can last (almost) forever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Chapter 4. Taking the plunge: looking after your own palms 55 Latitude and climate might restrict potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Study the soil and take expert advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 �e coconut is ‘building friendly’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Choosing the best variety for your purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Managing the nursery and planting out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Protecting the young palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 How soon will the palms flower? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Australian environments and the coconut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 8
Page 1 and 2: The coconut odyssey the bounteous p
Page 4 and 5: �e coconut odyssey the bounteous
Page 6: Foreword Coconut is a tree of great
Page 11 and 12: Traditional coconut cream and milk
Page 14 and 15: Preface Few plants are more univers
Page 16 and 17: chapter 1 �e coconut odyssey begi
Page 18 and 19: Evolution of the coconut �e ocean
Page 20 and 21: In this way, the coconut palm evolv
Page 22 and 23: Figure 1-5. Zones of latitude withi
Page 24 and 25: ships bound for Cuba and other isla
Page 26 and 27: as the seedling develops. It secret
Page 28 and 29: But there was another motive. Durin
Page 30 and 31: Figure 1-12. Four seasonal mean tem
Page 32 and 33: midwinter, the central heating kept
Page 34 and 35: chapter 2 Surprising diversity amon
Page 36 and 37: Dwarfs have far fewer varieties tha
Page 38 and 39: �ey are also notably better adapt
Page 40 and 41: �e Niu Leka produces many interme
Page 42 and 43: Figure 2-6. Aerial view of North Ke
Page 44 and 45: chapter 3 �e life story of a palm
Page 46 and 47: �e embryo of the seed is conceale
Page 48 and 49: noticeable setback to growth, the s
Page 50 and 51: completing the second full circle.
Page 52 and 53: Why does the palm on the strand lea
Page 54 and 55: Figure 3-12. �e exposed roots of
Page 56 and 57: chapter 4 Taking the plunge looking
Page 58 and 59:
Annual rainfall of 2000 mm, which i
Page 60 and 61:
Figure 4-2. Crowded palms, showing
Page 62 and 63:
Figure 4-4. Fruitless and therefore
Page 64 and 65:
chapter 5 Caring for the palm from
Page 66 and 67:
Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, par
Page 68 and 69:
�e only known coconut disease att
Page 70 and 71:
least in the early years) will not
Page 72 and 73:
Table 5.1. Visual symptoms of some
Page 74 and 75:
Table 5.2. Critical levels for mine
Page 76 and 77:
chapter 6 �e productive palm pote
Page 78 and 79:
from a palm with a 10-metre trunk.
Page 80 and 81:
Figure 6-5a. A less likely disaster
Page 82 and 83:
Where there is ready access to a to
Page 84 and 85:
chapter 7 �e fruit and its parts
Page 86 and 87:
have provided the foundation for a
Page 88 and 89:
traces of many minerals, such as po
Page 90 and 91:
Figure 7-3. Coconut milk being sque
Page 92 and 93:
produced particularly in India and
Page 94 and 95:
is lit at one end (requiring coals
Page 96 and 97:
Coconut sap for toddy and sugar In
Page 98 and 99:
(400-600 kg/m 3 ), and finally ther
Page 100 and 101:
Precision cutting recovers the best
Page 102 and 103:
even one metre would be enough to
Page 104 and 105:
Preparing a ‘tender nut’: a spe
Page 106 and 107:
little water left inside. Select on
Page 108 and 109:
Recovering the kernel �e kernel c
Page 110 and 111:
Small, 10-mm cubed pieces of fresh
Page 112 and 113:
chapter 10 �e coconut’s industr
Page 114 and 115:
using annual oil crops. Until then,
Page 116 and 117:
which is the largest exporter. Indi
Page 118 and 119:
on the separation of oil from its e
Page 120 and 121:
skills. �e introduction of simple
Page 122 and 123:
chapter 11 �e wonder food Since a
Page 124 and 125:
Saturated and unsaturated fats Mark
Page 126 and 127:
double bonds are shown beside the n
Page 128 and 129:
Independent researchers in the Unit
Page 130 and 131:
molecules entering into the chemist
Page 132 and 133:
Issue Detail Comments 10. High melt
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