Marketing Animals - Antennae The Journal of Nature in Visual Culture
Marketing Animals - Antennae The Journal of Nature in Visual Culture
Marketing Animals - Antennae The Journal of Nature in Visual Culture
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<strong>Antennae</strong><br />
Issue 23 - W<strong>in</strong>ter 2012<br />
ISSN 1756-9575<br />
<strong>Market<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>Animals</strong><br />
Adele Tiengo and Matteo Andreozzi – Eat Me Tender / Barbara J. Phillips – Advertis<strong>in</strong>g and the Cultural Mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>Animals</strong> / Adele Tiengo and Leonardo Caffo –<br />
Animal Subjects: Local Exploitation, Slow Kill<strong>in</strong>g / Claire Molloy – Remediat<strong>in</strong>g Cows and the Construction <strong>of</strong> Ethical Landscape / Concepcion Cortes Zulueta – His<br />
Master’s Voice / Cluny South – <strong>The</strong> Tiger <strong>in</strong> the Tank / Iwan rhys Morus – Bovril by Electrocution / Louise Squire – <strong>The</strong> <strong>Animals</strong> Are “Break<strong>in</strong>g Out”! / Gene Gable –<br />
Can You Say, “Awww”? / Sonja Britz – Evolution and Design / Hilda Kean – Nervous Dogs Need Adm<strong>in</strong>, Son! / Kather<strong>in</strong>e Bennet – A Stony Field / John Miller -- Brooke’s<br />
1<br />
Monkey Brand Soap / Sunsan Nance – Jumbo: A Capitalist Creation Story / Kelly Enright – None Tougher / L<strong>in</strong>da Kal<strong>of</strong> and Joe Zammit-Lucia – From Animal Rights and<br />
Shock Advocacy to K<strong>in</strong>ship With <strong>Animals</strong> / Natalie Gilbert – Fad <strong>of</strong> the Year / Jeremy Smallwood and Pam Mufson by Chris Hunter – <strong>The</strong> Saddest Show on Earth /<br />
Sabr<strong>in</strong>a Tonutti – Happy Easter / Bett<strong>in</strong>a Richter – <strong>Animals</strong> on the Runway / Susan Nance – ‘Works Progress Adm<strong>in</strong>istration’ Posters / Emma Power -- Kill ‘em dead!”<br />
the Ord<strong>in</strong>ary Practices <strong>of</strong> Pest Control <strong>in</strong> the Home
<strong>Antennae</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Nature</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Visual</strong> <strong>Culture</strong><br />
Editor <strong>in</strong> Chief<br />
Giovanni Aloi<br />
Academic Board<br />
Steve Baker<br />
Ron Broglio<br />
Matthew Brower<br />
Eric Brown<br />
Carol Gigliotti<br />
Donna Haraway<br />
L<strong>in</strong>da Kal<strong>of</strong><br />
Susan McHugh<br />
Rachel Poliqu<strong>in</strong><br />
Annie Potts<br />
Ken R<strong>in</strong>aldo<br />
Jessica Ullrich<br />
Advisory Board<br />
Bergit Arends<br />
Rod Bennison<br />
Helen Bullard<br />
Claude d’Anthenaise<br />
Petra Lange-Berndt<br />
Lisa Brown<br />
Rikke Hansen<br />
Chris Hunter<br />
Karen Knorr<br />
Rosemarie McGoldrick<br />
Susan Nance<br />
Andrea Roe<br />
David Rothenberg<br />
Nigel Rothfels<br />
Angela S<strong>in</strong>ger<br />
Mark Wilson & Bryndís Snaebjornsdottir<br />
Global Contributors<br />
João Bento & Catar<strong>in</strong>a Fontoura<br />
Sonja Britz<br />
Tim Chamberla<strong>in</strong><br />
Concepción Cortes<br />
Lucy Davis<br />
Amy Fletcher<br />
Katja Kynast<br />
Christ<strong>in</strong>e Marran<br />
Carol<strong>in</strong>a Parra<br />
Zoe Peled<br />
Julien Salaud<br />
Paul Thomas<br />
Sabr<strong>in</strong>a Tonutti<br />
Johanna Willenfelt<br />
Copy Editor<br />
Maia Wentrup<br />
Front Cover Image: Orig<strong>in</strong>al image - Pirelli, Atlante, 1954 © Pirelli<br />
2
EDITORIAL<br />
ANTENNAE ISSUE 23<br />
T<br />
his issue <strong>of</strong> <strong>Antennae</strong> was developed around the idea that advertis<strong>in</strong>g can be much more than<br />
a pivotal market<strong>in</strong>g tool <strong>in</strong> capitalist societies. Over the past few years, through the <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
popularity <strong>of</strong> social networks advertis<strong>in</strong>g strategies have more and more come to play a pivotal<br />
role <strong>in</strong> communication and can be understood as a cultural thermometer <strong>of</strong> our identities and desires.<br />
<strong>The</strong> conspicuous presence <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g is therefore a phenomenon that deserves study; it<br />
is not a new phenomenon <strong>in</strong> itself but it is one that nonetheless demands renewed attention and<br />
scrut<strong>in</strong>y through a human-animal studies lens. Whether photographed, illustrated, animated or filmed<br />
the ambivalent presence <strong>of</strong> the animal, <strong>in</strong>itially seems to facilitate the delivery <strong>of</strong> consumeristic<br />
messages. However, th<strong>in</strong>gs are much more complex. What does the animal sell to us and what do we<br />
effectively buy through these <strong>in</strong>stances <strong>of</strong> visual consumption? What role does the animal play <strong>in</strong> the<br />
persuasions processes enacted by advertisements?<br />
In the attempt to provide some answers to these questions and more, besides a traditional call<br />
for academic papers, <strong>Antennae</strong> also solicited short commentaries on advertisements chosen by our<br />
readers and contributors. <strong>The</strong> colourful variety <strong>of</strong> examples submitted contributes to the outl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> an<br />
extremely diverse range <strong>of</strong> animal appearances <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g greatly vary<strong>in</strong>g on the grounds <strong>of</strong> what is<br />
to be sold and which target audiences are to persuade. <strong>The</strong>se shorter entries have been <strong>in</strong>terposed<br />
between longer and more complex analyses <strong>of</strong> specific animal presences <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g. One <strong>of</strong> the<br />
unexpected result gathered from the collection <strong>of</strong> the excellent submissions we received, highlights a<br />
perhaps not too surpris<strong>in</strong>g, current, overrid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest for mammals aga<strong>in</strong>st any other animal group.<br />
Anthropomorphism may be an <strong>in</strong>evitable expedient essential to the success <strong>of</strong> the identification<br />
process ly<strong>in</strong>g at the core <strong>of</strong> all advertis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tend<strong>in</strong>g to sell us commodities. This is rather well<br />
demonstrated through the publication <strong>of</strong> a portfolio <strong>of</strong> v<strong>in</strong>tage adverts with which this issue comes to a<br />
close. For this essential contribution we have to thank Nigel Rothfels who on a warm June afternoon <strong>in</strong><br />
2011 walk<strong>in</strong>g lazily around the streets <strong>of</strong> Zurich came across a very unusual archive. As Nigel recalls, “I<br />
was <strong>in</strong> the city to attend a small conference on science and before long, I found myself star<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the w<strong>in</strong>dows <strong>of</strong> the Swiss National Bank! A quite fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g exhibit had been organized <strong>in</strong> the w<strong>in</strong>dows<br />
by staff at the Museum für Gestaltung Zürich focus<strong>in</strong>g on the history <strong>of</strong> animals appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
posters. I went from w<strong>in</strong>dow to w<strong>in</strong>dow enjoy<strong>in</strong>g the posters and tak<strong>in</strong>g pictures. Through the generosity<br />
<strong>of</strong> Dr. Bett<strong>in</strong>a Richter and Allesia Cont<strong>in</strong> at the Museum, we are now able to br<strong>in</strong>g a selection <strong>of</strong> this<br />
rarely seen and remarkable collection to <strong>Antennae</strong>’s readers”.<br />
Besides consider<strong>in</strong>g a range <strong>of</strong> well known and lesser know advertisements, this issue also looks<br />
at the more ethically driven consideration <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> animal imagery <strong>in</strong> the advertisements<br />
produced by animal advocacy and conservation organisations through a thought-provok<strong>in</strong>g piece by<br />
Joe Zammit-Lucia and L<strong>in</strong>da Kal<strong>of</strong>, whilst an <strong>in</strong>terview with creative teams at Young & Rubicam<br />
Chicago demonstrates how the presence <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g can be used to the advantage <strong>of</strong><br />
animals through some astonish<strong>in</strong>gly simple but impressive communicational <strong>in</strong>ventiveness.<br />
Lastly I would like to take the opportunity to thank all <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> this issue <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Antennae</strong>.<br />
Giovanni Aloi<br />
Editor <strong>in</strong> Chief <strong>of</strong> <strong>Antennae</strong> Project<br />
3
CONTENTS<br />
ANTENNAE ISSUE 23<br />
6 Eat Me Tender<br />
Love can be dangerous when it comes to cook<strong>in</strong>g. In this image, the evidence that a ‘lover’ wants to possess his woman just like a ‘meat lover’ wants to eat his steak is<br />
exposed <strong>in</strong> a grotesque way. Sexist discrim<strong>in</strong>ation and animal exploitation are here associated to ‘love’, understood as an abuse mitigated by tenderness and care <strong>in</strong> the act<br />
<strong>of</strong> possess<strong>in</strong>g and kill<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Text by Adele Tiengo and Matteo Andreozzi<br />
9 Advertis<strong>in</strong>g and the Cultural Mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>Animals</strong><br />
One explanation for the proliferation <strong>of</strong> animal trade characters <strong>in</strong> current advertis<strong>in</strong>g practice proposes that they are effective communication tools because they can be used<br />
to transfer desirable cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs to products with which they are associated. <strong>The</strong> first step <strong>in</strong> exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g what messages these animals communicate is to explore the<br />
common cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs that they embody. This paper presents a qualitative analysis <strong>of</strong> the common themes found <strong>in</strong> the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> four animal characters. In<br />
addition, it demonstrates a method by which cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs can be elicited. <strong>The</strong> implications <strong>of</strong> this method for advertis<strong>in</strong>g research and practice are discussed.<br />
Text by Barbara J. Phillips<br />
20 Animal Subjects: Local Exploitation, Slow Kill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>The</strong> city <strong>of</strong> Milan will host Expo 2015, with the theme “Feed<strong>in</strong>g the Planet. Energy for Life”. In view <strong>of</strong> this occasion, the <strong>in</strong>terest for cul<strong>in</strong>ary tradition and the global challenge<br />
<strong>of</strong> food security is rapidly grow<strong>in</strong>g. Farm<strong>in</strong>g and livestock rais<strong>in</strong>g traditions plays a major role <strong>in</strong> Italy, homeland <strong>of</strong> the worldwide renowned Slow Food.<br />
Text by Adele Tiengo and Leonardo Caffo<br />
23 Remediat<strong>in</strong>g Cows and the Construction <strong>of</strong> Ethical Landscape<br />
Concern about the impact <strong>of</strong> livestock on the environment has generated debates about how best to manage dairy farm<strong>in</strong>g practices. Soil erosion and compaction and loss <strong>of</strong><br />
biodiversity from graz<strong>in</strong>g and silage production, ammonia and methane emissions, as well as high levels <strong>of</strong> water consumption, have all been identified as direct effects on the<br />
environment from dairy farm<strong>in</strong>g activity. [i] Whilst the issues have been well reported <strong>in</strong> the press, there has been little <strong>in</strong> the way <strong>of</strong> imagery to accompany the environmental<br />
critique <strong>of</strong> milk production. Instead, much <strong>of</strong> the popularly available imagery <strong>of</strong> dairy farm<strong>in</strong>g has been generated by advertis<strong>in</strong>g which cont<strong>in</strong>ues to deploy culturally-specific<br />
visions <strong>of</strong> contented cows <strong>in</strong> rural landscapes.<br />
Text by Claire Molloy<br />
28 His Master’s Voice<br />
A white dog with brown ears sits <strong>in</strong> front <strong>of</strong> a gramophone, head directed to its brass-horn and slightly tilted to one side. <strong>The</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g was purchased <strong>in</strong> 1899, along<br />
with its full copyright, by the emerg<strong>in</strong>g Gramophone Company from the artist Francis Barraud.<br />
Text by Concepcion Cortes Zulueta<br />
31 <strong>The</strong> Tiger <strong>in</strong> the Tank<br />
Despite the complexities and <strong>in</strong>constancies <strong>of</strong> the human-animal relationship non-human animals [1] have been <strong>in</strong>timately <strong>in</strong>terwoven with<strong>in</strong> human culture for thousands <strong>of</strong><br />
years. Representations <strong>of</strong> animals exist across many mediums, with roots clearly visible <strong>in</strong> Palaeolithic cave pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs and early carv<strong>in</strong>gs, evolv<strong>in</strong>g human language, music and<br />
drama, and narrative fables and folk stories. Unsurpris<strong>in</strong>gly then animal representations cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be rife throughout our modern lives and across much popular media.<br />
Text by Cluny South<br />
39 Bovril by Electrocution<br />
I first came across this illustration whilst brows<strong>in</strong>g through Leonard de Vries’s fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g collection, Victorian Advertis<strong>in</strong>g, about twelve years ago. I was look<strong>in</strong>g for someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
else at the time – examples <strong>of</strong> late Victorian electric belt advertisements as part <strong>of</strong> a project on n<strong>in</strong>eteenth-century medical electricity. Instead, this one jumped out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
page at me.<br />
Text by Iwan Rhys Morus<br />
42 <strong>The</strong> <strong>Animals</strong> Are “Break<strong>in</strong>g Out”!<br />
This paper explores recent TV adverts <strong>in</strong> which the animals portrayed come to appear before us <strong>in</strong> new ways. Gone are cosy images <strong>of</strong> chimpanzees play<strong>in</strong>g house, wear<strong>in</strong>g<br />
flat-caps and frocks, and pour<strong>in</strong>g cups <strong>of</strong> tea. <strong>The</strong> animals are break<strong>in</strong>g out! Mary, the cow (Muller yoghurt), is “set free” on a beach to fulfil her dream <strong>of</strong> becom<strong>in</strong>g a horse.<br />
More cows (Anchor butter) have taken charge <strong>of</strong> the dairy.<br />
Text by Louise Squire<br />
49 Can You Say, “Awww”?<br />
<strong>Animals</strong> have long been a regular theme <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g, especially when anthropomorphized. Except for obvious ties to products like dog food and pet products, animals<br />
usually have noth<strong>in</strong>g to do with the goods or services advertised, but we connect with them and the products nonetheless, and we get a good feel<strong>in</strong>g when a company is<br />
associated with cute animals.<br />
Text by Gene Gable<br />
51 Evolution and Design<br />
<strong>The</strong> animal as sign has a long evolutionary history, but with the onset <strong>of</strong> cultural modernity it began to assume new semiotic forms. Foucault describes a new field <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>creased visibility that emerged <strong>in</strong> the eighteenth century which gave rise to a complex semiotic system with<strong>in</strong> which the sign began to take on a life <strong>of</strong> its own. If images<br />
could be regarded as liv<strong>in</strong>g organisms, how could this affect their representational values <strong>in</strong> society? And, what are the implications for the lives and representation <strong>of</strong> animals?<br />
Text by Sonja Britz<br />
61 Nervous Dogs Need Adm<strong>in</strong>, Son!<br />
This advert comes from a British magaz<strong>in</strong>e <strong>The</strong> Tail Wagger, October 1940. <strong>The</strong> Tail- Waggers Club had been founded <strong>in</strong> 1928 to promote dog welfare stat<strong>in</strong>g, ‘<strong>The</strong> love<br />
<strong>of</strong> animals, and especially <strong>of</strong> dogs, is <strong>in</strong>herent <strong>in</strong> nearly all Britishers’ and by 1930 numbered some 300,000 members. [i] All dogs were eligible for membership, not just those<br />
from established breeds. By July 1930 it had become a general legal requirement that all dogs should wear collars and the club and magaz<strong>in</strong>e endorsed such measures. [ii]<br />
Text by Hilda Kean<br />
64 A Stony Field<br />
Brand representations proliferate reflexive identities <strong>of</strong> their producers and consumers. <strong>The</strong>se self-advertisements re<strong>in</strong>scribe commodified identities reproductively back onto the<br />
subjects and objects – the represented figures – <strong>of</strong> consumption. In this paper I argue that the cooption <strong>of</strong> identity politics by mult<strong>in</strong>ational corporations like Stonyfield Farm,<br />
Inc. operates with<strong>in</strong> material and virtual doma<strong>in</strong>s that conceal fetishized processes <strong>of</strong> consumption.<br />
Text by Kather<strong>in</strong>e Bennett<br />
80 Brooke’s Monkey Brand Soap<br />
Brooke’s Monkey Brand Soap was a common, even iconic, presence <strong>in</strong> the pages <strong>of</strong> late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth-century illustrated newspapers <strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong>. Barely an issue <strong>of</strong> the London<br />
Illustrated News, <strong>The</strong> Graphic or <strong>The</strong> Sketch passed without a full or half page spread <strong>of</strong> Brooke’s ubiquitous monkey, arrayed <strong>in</strong> one <strong>of</strong> its many baffl<strong>in</strong>g guises:<br />
promenad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> top hat and tails, juggl<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g pots <strong>in</strong> a jester’s get-up, strumm<strong>in</strong>g a mandol<strong>in</strong> on the moon, destitute and begg<strong>in</strong>g by the side <strong>of</strong> the road, kneel<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
accept a medal from a glamorous Frenchwoman, career<strong>in</strong>g along on a bicycle with feet on the handle-bars, cl<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g precariously to a ship’s mast, carefully polish<strong>in</strong>g the family<br />
ch<strong>in</strong>a and here <strong>in</strong> 1891, slid<strong>in</strong>g gleefully down the banisters with legs spread wide and the h<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> a smile while two neat Victorian children watch calmly on.<br />
Text by John Miller<br />
4
83 Jumbo: A Capitalist Creation Story<br />
Today, a pr<strong>of</strong>usion <strong>of</strong> non-human animals <strong>in</strong>habit the world <strong>of</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g. Consumers see some <strong>of</strong> them <strong>in</strong> person and some as brand icons, team mascots, and other moregeneric<br />
endorsers <strong>of</strong> consumption (sometimes their own consumption, like pig characters decorat<strong>in</strong>g BBQ restaurants or matronly cows on dairy product packag<strong>in</strong>g)<br />
embellish<strong>in</strong>g countless products, services and enterta<strong>in</strong>ments. This zoological cornucopia provides a naturaliz<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>k to the non-human world, promis<strong>in</strong>g us that to absorb<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g messages and spend is to participate <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>evitable and emotionally authentic activity because, as the belief goes, animals don’t lie (Shuk<strong>in</strong> 2009, 3-5).<br />
Text by Susan Nance<br />
95 None Tougher<br />
Rh<strong>in</strong>oceroses are rarely anthropomorphized mak<strong>in</strong>g this American magaz<strong>in</strong>e advertisement from the 1950s an unusual specimen. Armstrong, a rubber and tire company,<br />
found the tough exterior <strong>of</strong> rh<strong>in</strong>oceroses the prime comparison for its most durable automobile tires, dubbed “Rh<strong>in</strong>o-Flex.”<br />
Text by Kelly Enright<br />
98 From Animal Rights and Shock Advocacy to K<strong>in</strong>ship with <strong>Animals</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> visual cultures manifested <strong>in</strong> the advertis<strong>in</strong>g and communication activities <strong>of</strong> animal rights activists and those concerned with the conservation <strong>of</strong> species may<br />
be counter-productive, creat<strong>in</strong>g an ever-<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g cultural distance between the human and the animal. By cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g to position animals as subjugated,<br />
exploitable others, or as creatures that belong <strong>in</strong> a romanticized ‘nature’ separate from the human, communications campaigns may achieve effects that are<br />
contrary to those desired. <strong>The</strong> unashamed, cheaply voyeuristic nature <strong>of</strong> shock imagery may w<strong>in</strong> headl<strong>in</strong>es while worsen<strong>in</strong>g the overall position <strong>of</strong> the animal <strong>in</strong><br />
human culture. We <strong>of</strong>fer an alternative way <strong>of</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g about visual communication concern<strong>in</strong>g animals – one that is focused on enhanc<strong>in</strong>g a sense <strong>of</strong> k<strong>in</strong>ship<br />
with animals. Based on empirical evidence, we suggest that cont<strong>in</strong>ued progress both <strong>in</strong> conservation and <strong>in</strong> animal rights does not depend on cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
castigation <strong>of</strong> the human but rather on embedd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> our cultures the type <strong>of</strong> human-animal relationship on which positive change can be built.<br />
Text by Joe Zammit-Lucia and L<strong>in</strong>da Kal<strong>of</strong><br />
112 Fad <strong>of</strong> the Year<br />
At the end <strong>of</strong> 2010 one <strong>of</strong> the UK’s commercial television channels, ITV, selected twenty <strong>of</strong> the most popular TV adverts from the year and entered them <strong>in</strong> to their own<br />
competition to f<strong>in</strong>d the television ‘Ad <strong>of</strong> the Year’. <strong>The</strong> w<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g advert was one featur<strong>in</strong>g a rescue dog called Harvey who is <strong>in</strong> kennels, hop<strong>in</strong>g somebody will come along and<br />
adopt him.<br />
Text by Natalie Gilbert<br />
114 <strong>The</strong> Saddest Show on Earth<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce 1884, children across the United States have been dazzled by the sequ<strong>in</strong>ed wonders <strong>of</strong> the R<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g Bros. Circus. For many a youngster the spectacle <strong>of</strong> costumed<br />
elephants perform<strong>in</strong>g myriad tricks under the big top is a highlight <strong>of</strong> the show. Yet the bright spotlight <strong>of</strong> the center r<strong>in</strong>g casts a dark shadow across this American <strong>in</strong>stitution.<br />
Persistent allegations <strong>of</strong> elephant abuse have trailed the travell<strong>in</strong>g show for years.<br />
Text and <strong>in</strong>terview questions to Jeremy Smallwood and Pam Mufson by Chris Hunter<br />
120 Happy Easter<br />
Even if we are talk<strong>in</strong>g about this image as an “advertisement”, it is clear that its scope is not bus<strong>in</strong>ess, but to <strong>in</strong>form and raise consciousness about the slaughter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
animals. <strong>The</strong> message itself is rather peculiar: it’s obviously about animals, but without <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g any image <strong>of</strong> them <strong>in</strong> the picture. If a contradiction exists, it has noth<strong>in</strong>g to do<br />
with the message conveyed by the advertisement, but rather with ambiguous attitudes <strong>of</strong> humans towards animals. In this case, it’s the lambs who are not portrayed <strong>in</strong> the<br />
advertisement.<br />
Text by Sabr<strong>in</strong>a Tonutti<br />
123 <strong>Animals</strong> on the Runway<br />
<strong>The</strong> discussion <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> graphic art has radically changed s<strong>in</strong>ce about 1950. In contemporary performances and <strong>in</strong>stallations, even liv<strong>in</strong>g animals are displayed, which<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten leads to ethical discussions. Recent work, however, reflects a new societal view <strong>of</strong> animals: A strictly anthropocentric view has had its day, now animals have come to be<br />
seen as equal creatures and have emancipated themselves <strong>in</strong> artistic representation.<br />
Text by Bett<strong>in</strong>a Richter<br />
132 ‘Works Progress Adm<strong>in</strong>istration’ Posters<br />
In 1933 and 1934, as part <strong>of</strong> the “New Deal” economic plan for the United States, President Frankl<strong>in</strong> Roosevelt’s adm<strong>in</strong>istration created a new federal agency called the<br />
Works Progress Adm<strong>in</strong>istration (WPA) to hire artists to document and promote American cultural life.<br />
Text by Susan Nance<br />
136 Kill ‘em dead!: the Ord<strong>in</strong>ary Practices <strong>of</strong> Pest Control <strong>in</strong> the Home<br />
In recent years critical animal geographies have po<strong>in</strong>ted to dearth <strong>of</strong> stories about the small, the microscopic, the slimy and the abject. <strong>The</strong> exoskeleton, though pa<strong>in</strong>fully<br />
present to anyone bitten by a bedbug or disgusted by a cockroach, has been all but absent <strong>in</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant animal geographies. Death and the kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals is a further<br />
notable absence. However, this scholarly absence is not parallel with<strong>in</strong> the popular imag<strong>in</strong>ation, where cockroaches, files and dust mites loom large at the centre <strong>of</strong> a<br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g war focused on the eradication <strong>of</strong> house pests.<br />
Text by Emma Power<br />
5
S<br />
<strong>in</strong>ce the Sixties, ec<strong>of</strong>em<strong>in</strong>ist philosophical<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g has been underl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the strong<br />
connection between sexist discrim<strong>in</strong>ation,<br />
exploitation <strong>of</strong> nonhuman animals, and abuse <strong>of</strong><br />
natural resources. <strong>The</strong>se three phenomena have<br />
been seen as so deeply <strong>in</strong>terconnected, both<br />
conceptually and historically, that they can be<br />
adequately understood and handled only as a<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle question. What the ec<strong>of</strong>em<strong>in</strong>ists state –<br />
and the image presented <strong>in</strong> this advert confirms<br />
– is that <strong>in</strong> Western patriarchal civilization,<br />
women, nonhuman animals, and the<br />
environment are categories related to ‘animated<br />
properties’, or ‘mobile goods’.<br />
How should these logically fallacious and<br />
discrim<strong>in</strong>atory messages be handled, criticized,<br />
and discouraged? <strong>The</strong> ec<strong>of</strong>em<strong>in</strong>ist philosopher<br />
Val Plumwood suggests to contrast the<br />
patriarchal conceptual framework through a<br />
careful work <strong>of</strong> revaluation, celebration, and<br />
defense <strong>of</strong> what male dom<strong>in</strong>ion subdues. On<br />
the one hand, dichotomical metaphors<br />
underrate the fem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e as related to corporeality,<br />
emotions, <strong>in</strong>tuitiveness, cooperation, care, and<br />
sympathy; on the other hand, the mascul<strong>in</strong>e is<br />
celebrated as related to opposed concept,<br />
such as rationality, <strong>in</strong>tellect, competition,<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ion, and apathy (Plumwood, 1992).<br />
6<br />
EAT ME TENDER<br />
Love can be dangerous when it comes to cook<strong>in</strong>g. In this image, the evidence that a ‘lover’ wants to possess his<br />
woman just like a ‘meat lover’ wants to eat his steak is exposed <strong>in</strong> a grotesque way. Sexist discrim<strong>in</strong>ation and<br />
animal exploitation are here associated to ‘love’, understood as an abuse mitigated by tenderness and care <strong>in</strong> the<br />
act <strong>of</strong> possess<strong>in</strong>g and kill<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Text by Adele Tiengo and Matteo Andreozzi<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the most powerful ec<strong>of</strong>em<strong>in</strong>ist approach<br />
to the issue <strong>of</strong> animal exploitation as a practice<br />
focused on – but not restricted to – food is Carol<br />
Adams’ <strong>The</strong> Sexual Politics <strong>of</strong> Meat. Published <strong>in</strong><br />
1990, Adams’ book comb<strong>in</strong>es the author’s<br />
experience as a fem<strong>in</strong>ist activist and her<br />
academic researches to formulate the l<strong>in</strong>k<br />
between the perception <strong>of</strong> nonhuman animals<br />
and women as ‘consumable bodies’, <strong>of</strong>fered to<br />
men’s pleasure. Adams suggests that both<br />
women and animals are victims <strong>of</strong> a process <strong>of</strong><br />
objectification, fragmentation, and<br />
consumption, especially <strong>in</strong> visual, textual, and<br />
discursive texts. Through metaphor, a subject is<br />
objectified, then fragmented and separated<br />
from its ontological mean<strong>in</strong>g, and consumed as<br />
an object, exist<strong>in</strong>g only through what it<br />
represents. In the Meat Lovers advertisement, the<br />
woman/cow is an object <strong>of</strong> consumption and<br />
the representation <strong>of</strong> the patriarchal idea <strong>of</strong> love<br />
as dom<strong>in</strong>ion and possession.<br />
Many are also the analogies between Adams’<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation and Derrida’s<br />
carnophallogocentrism. Derrida uses this<br />
neologism to <strong>in</strong>dicate the predom<strong>in</strong>ance <strong>of</strong><br />
rationality, mascul<strong>in</strong>ity, and carnivorous habits. In<br />
his <strong>in</strong>terview ‘Eat<strong>in</strong>g Well’, he clarifies this po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
admitt<strong>in</strong>g that women and vegetarians are
actually ethical, juridical and political subjects,<br />
as well as men and meat eaters. However, this is<br />
a recent achievement, and still «authority […] is<br />
attributed to the man (homo and vir) rather than<br />
to the woman, and to the woman rather than to<br />
the animal». And <strong>in</strong> fact, Derrida asks, how many<br />
possibilities are there that a head <strong>of</strong> State<br />
publicly and exemplarily declares himself – or<br />
herself – to be a vegetarian? (Derrida, 'Eat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Well', or the Calculation <strong>of</strong> the Subject: An<br />
Interview with Jacques Derrida 1991, 114).<br />
Both identify meat eat<strong>in</strong>g and maleness<br />
as crucial elements <strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g who is a<br />
subject. In particular, Derrida states that there are<br />
three fundamental conditions to recognize a<br />
subject as such, at least <strong>in</strong> Western cultures:<br />
La Capann<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Amanti della Carne (Meat Lovers), advert La Capann<strong>in</strong>a<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g «a meat eater, a man, and an<br />
authoritative, speak<strong>in</strong>g self» (Calarco qtd <strong>in</strong><br />
Adams, <strong>The</strong> Sexual Politics <strong>of</strong> Meat 1990, 6).<br />
Adams develops this idea <strong>in</strong> a far more detailed<br />
way. In particular she focuses on the implications<br />
<strong>of</strong> the perception <strong>of</strong> animal/female bodies as<br />
‘consummable’ through butchery and rape,<br />
underl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the evidences <strong>of</strong> this analogy <strong>in</strong><br />
images, commercials, menu covers, and articles<br />
7<br />
that use the female body to attract the male<br />
meat eaters. In the case <strong>of</strong> the advertisement<br />
here presented, rigorously male meat eaters are<br />
<strong>in</strong>vited to consume their love for a steak on a<br />
bed <strong>of</strong> lettuce.<br />
However, rather than aggressive and<br />
pornographic, this k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> love seems tender and<br />
devoted. <strong>The</strong> cow’s head is ridiculously put on<br />
the body <strong>of</strong> a sleep<strong>in</strong>g woman and a man<br />
embraces her. <strong>The</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> the advertisement is to<br />
arouse a k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> tenderness for the animal killed<br />
without putt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to question the meat eater’s<br />
virility. In fact, the tenderness here displayed is<br />
the one that follows the sexual <strong>in</strong>tercourse<br />
between husband and wife, maybe. Curiously<br />
enough, it is the beloved steak that plays here<br />
the role <strong>of</strong> the absent referent. Both the woman<br />
and the cow are visually present <strong>in</strong> the image,<br />
but the object <strong>of</strong> the advertisement – meat – is<br />
only textually summoned. In fact, the proposed<br />
idea is that meat eat<strong>in</strong>g is a behaviour <strong>of</strong> car<strong>in</strong>g<br />
because the woman/cow wants to be object <strong>of</strong><br />
that k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> ‘tenderness’, mean<strong>in</strong>g that she wants<br />
to be eaten/consumed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> scene is not one <strong>of</strong> seduction, but <strong>of</strong>
marital love. Carol Adams clearly expla<strong>in</strong>s how<br />
the sexual politics <strong>of</strong> meat beg<strong>in</strong>s with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
exploitation <strong>of</strong> the reproductive functions <strong>of</strong><br />
female animals. Liv<strong>in</strong>g alone milk and eggs –<br />
which are products <strong>of</strong> maternity –, the majority <strong>of</strong><br />
meat comes from adult females and their<br />
babies. Female nonhuman animals are<br />
exploited to satisfy human appetites both when<br />
they are alive and when they are dead, while<br />
male animals are used much less <strong>in</strong> the food<br />
References<br />
Adams, Carol J. <strong>The</strong> Sexual Politics <strong>of</strong> Meat. Twentieth<br />
Anniversary Edition (2010). New York : Cont<strong>in</strong>uum, 1990.<br />
Derrida, Jacques. "'Eat<strong>in</strong>g Well', or the Calculation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Subject: An Interview with Jacques Derrida" <strong>in</strong> Who Comes<br />
After the Subject, edited by Eduardo Cadava, Peter Connor<br />
and Jean-Luc Nancy, 96-119. New York and London:<br />
Routledge, 1991.<br />
Plumwood, Val. "Fem<strong>in</strong>ism and Ec<strong>of</strong>em<strong>in</strong>ism: Beyond the<br />
Dualistic Assumptions <strong>of</strong> Women, Men, and <strong>Nature</strong>." <strong>The</strong><br />
Ecologist 22, no. 1 (January/February 1992).<br />
8<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry, because they don’t produce anyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g their lives and their meat is considered as<br />
less succulent and tasty. In an analogous way,<br />
female human animals are exploited ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
when they are alive for their sexual and<br />
reproductive function and, basically, to satisfy<br />
men’s pleasure. <strong>The</strong> Meat lovers image makes it<br />
clear that not much has changed, s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
Sixties: females <strong>of</strong> all species are ‘objects’ <strong>of</strong> love<br />
and properties <strong>of</strong> men.<br />
Adele Tiengo is a Ph.D. student <strong>in</strong> Foreign Languages, Literatures,<br />
and <strong>Culture</strong>s at the University <strong>of</strong> Milan (Italy), where she graduated<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2012 with a thesis on the relationship between literature and<br />
ethics <strong>in</strong> the animal question. In 2011 she spent a period as a<br />
visit<strong>in</strong>g researcher at the University <strong>of</strong> Alcalà (Spa<strong>in</strong>), thanks to the<br />
Susan Fenimore Cooper scholarship. She is currently carry<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
her research activities <strong>in</strong> ecocriticism.<br />
Matteo Andreozzi is a PhD student <strong>in</strong> Philosophy at University <strong>of</strong><br />
Milan, Italy. His research is ma<strong>in</strong>ly on Environmental Ethics and<br />
Movements, with a special focus on the analysis and the<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic value concept. He is author <strong>of</strong> the<br />
book Verso Una Prospettiva Ecocentrica. Ecologia Pr<strong>of</strong>onda e<br />
Pensiero a Aete[Head<strong>in</strong>g Toward an Ecocentric M<strong>in</strong>dset. Deep<br />
Ecology and Reticular Th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g], 2011 and editor <strong>of</strong> the book<br />
Etiche dell’Ambiente. Voci e Prospettive [Environmental Ethics.<br />
Voices and Perspectives], 2012. He is also representative member<br />
<strong>of</strong> ENEE (European Network for Environmental Ethics) and MAnITA<br />
(M<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Animals</strong> Italy) and member <strong>of</strong> ISEE (International Society<br />
for Environmental Ethics) and ESFRE (European Forum for the Study<br />
<strong>of</strong> Religion and the Environment). For further <strong>in</strong>formation please<br />
visit http://www.matteoandreozzi.it or<br />
http://unimi.academia.edu/MatteoAndreozzi.
A<br />
merican popular culture has quietly<br />
become <strong>in</strong>habited by all sorts <strong>of</strong> talk<strong>in</strong>g<br />
animals and danc<strong>in</strong>g products that are<br />
used by advertisers to promote their brands.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se creatures, called trade characters, are<br />
fictional, animate be<strong>in</strong>gs, or animated objects,<br />
that have been created for the promotion <strong>of</strong> a<br />
product, service, or idea (Phillips 1996).<br />
Commercials with these characters score above<br />
average <strong>in</strong> their ability to change brand<br />
preference (Stewart and Furse 1986). It appears,<br />
then, that trade characters can be effective<br />
communication tools. However, it is unclear why<br />
this is so. Although trade characters are popular<br />
with advertisers and consumers, their role <strong>in</strong><br />
communicat<strong>in</strong>g the advertis<strong>in</strong>g message has<br />
been generally taken for granted without<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation. It has been<br />
hypothesized that there are several reasons why<br />
advertisers use trade characters: to attract<br />
attention, enhance identification <strong>of</strong> and memory<br />
ADVERTISING AND THE<br />
CULTURAL MEANING<br />
OF ANIMALS<br />
One explanation for the proliferation <strong>of</strong> animal trade characters <strong>in</strong> current advertis<strong>in</strong>g practice proposes that they<br />
are effective communication tools because they can be used to transfer desirable cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs to products<br />
with which they are associated. <strong>The</strong> first step <strong>in</strong> exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g what messages these animals communicate is to<br />
explore the common cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs that they embody. This paper presents a qualitative analysis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
common themes found <strong>in</strong> the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> four animal characters. In addition, it demonstrates a method<br />
by which cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs can be elicited. <strong>The</strong> implications <strong>of</strong> this method for advertis<strong>in</strong>g research and practice<br />
are discussed.<br />
Text by Barbara J. Phillips<br />
9<br />
for a product, and achieve promotional<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uity (Phillips 1996). However, one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
most important reasons for the use <strong>of</strong> trade<br />
characters <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g may be that they can<br />
be used to transfer desired mean<strong>in</strong>gs to the<br />
products with which they are associated. By<br />
pair<strong>in</strong>g a trade character with a product,<br />
advertisers can l<strong>in</strong>k the personality and cultural<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the character to the product <strong>in</strong> the<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> consumers. This creates a desirable<br />
image, or mean<strong>in</strong>g, for the product. <strong>The</strong> first step<br />
<strong>in</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g this explanation <strong>of</strong> trade character<br />
communication is to show that these characters<br />
do embody common cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs that can<br />
be l<strong>in</strong>ked to products. Research has shown<br />
that animal characters are one <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
commonly used trade character types <strong>in</strong> current<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g practice (Callcott and Lee 1994).<br />
<strong>Animals</strong> have long been viewed as standard<br />
symbols <strong>of</strong> human qualities (Neal 1985; Sax<br />
1988). For example, <strong>in</strong> American culture,
"everyone" knows that a bee<br />
symbolizes<strong>in</strong>dustriousness, a dove represents<br />
peace, and a fox embodies cunn<strong>in</strong>g (Rob<strong>in</strong><br />
1932). It is likely that advertisers use animal<br />
characters because consumers understand the<br />
animals' cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs and consequently<br />
can l<strong>in</strong>k these mean<strong>in</strong>gs to a product. <strong>The</strong>refore,<br />
the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals may lie at the<br />
core <strong>of</strong> the mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> animal trade<br />
characters. This paper describes a method for<br />
elicit<strong>in</strong>g character mean<strong>in</strong>gs, presents a<br />
qualitative analysis <strong>of</strong> the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
four animal characters, and discusses the<br />
broader implications that these results have for<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g research and practice. This<br />
qualitative study <strong>of</strong> animal mean<strong>in</strong>gs is<br />
motivated by several issues: Understand<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs that consumers assign to<br />
animal characters will assist <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
successful advertis<strong>in</strong>g campaigns; practitioners<br />
can create characters that embody desired<br />
brand mean<strong>in</strong>gs while avoid<strong>in</strong>g characters with<br />
negative associations. In addition, by<br />
highlight<strong>in</strong>g an underutilized research method by<br />
which the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> characters can<br />
be elicited, this paper presents a way for<br />
practitioners, researchers, and regulators to<br />
understand what messages specific characters<br />
are communicat<strong>in</strong>g to their audiences. This<br />
method may be useful <strong>in</strong> other types <strong>of</strong><br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g research as well. Researchers have,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the past, asked for measures <strong>of</strong> cultural<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g for celebrity endorsers (McCracken<br />
1989) and for symbolic advertis<strong>in</strong>g images (Scott<br />
1994), as well. F<strong>in</strong>ally, by show<strong>in</strong>g that animal<br />
characters have common cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
this paper builds support for one <strong>of</strong> the first<br />
empirical explanations <strong>of</strong> how trade characters<br />
"work" <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g, and creates a foundation<br />
for future trade character research.<br />
<strong>The</strong> next section <strong>of</strong> the paper will present<br />
the theories used to illum<strong>in</strong>ate the research<br />
question: Do there exist shared mean<strong>in</strong>gs that<br />
consumers associate with specific animal<br />
characters? If so, how can these mean<strong>in</strong>gs be<br />
elicited, and what are their common themes?<br />
<strong>The</strong> third section will <strong>in</strong>troduce a method by<br />
which the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> characters can<br />
be elicited, and will present the procedures used<br />
<strong>in</strong> this research study. <strong>The</strong> fourth section will<br />
discuss the results <strong>of</strong> the study, and the last<br />
section will draw general conclusions.<br />
Conceptual Development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Research Question It has been suggested that<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g functions, <strong>in</strong> general, by attempt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to l<strong>in</strong>k a product with an image that elicits<br />
10<br />
desirable emotions and ideas (McCracken 1986).<br />
For example, the image <strong>of</strong> a child may <strong>in</strong>voke<br />
feel<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> pleasure, nostalgia, and playfulness. By<br />
show<strong>in</strong>g a product next to such an image,<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g encourages consumers to associate<br />
the product with the image. Through this<br />
association, the product acquires the image's<br />
cultural mean<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Trade characters may be one type <strong>of</strong><br />
image that advertisers use because these<br />
characters possess learned cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se mean<strong>in</strong>gs are similar to the personalities<br />
that consumers associate with characters from<br />
other sources such as movies, cartoons, and<br />
comic books. For example, Mickey Mouse is<br />
viewed as a "nice guy," while Bugs Bunny is seen<br />
as clever, but mischievous. Individuals do not<br />
<strong>in</strong>vent their own mean<strong>in</strong>g for cultural symbols;<br />
they must learn what each symbol means <strong>in</strong> their<br />
culture (Berger 1984) based on their experiences<br />
with the character. For example, consumers'<br />
ideas about the mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> "elephant" are<br />
shaped by Dumbo movies and African safari TV<br />
programs, and are colored by news stories about<br />
a rampag<strong>in</strong>g elephant that trampled its tra<strong>in</strong>er.<br />
Consequently, although each <strong>in</strong>dividual br<strong>in</strong>gs his<br />
or her own experience to the mean<strong>in</strong>g ascription<br />
process, consensus <strong>of</strong> character mean<strong>in</strong>g across<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals is possible through common cultural<br />
experience.<br />
In advertis<strong>in</strong>g, trade characters' mean<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
are used to visually represent the product<br />
attributes (Zacher 1967) or the advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
message (Kleppner 1966). For example, Mr.<br />
Peanut embodies sophistication (Kapnick 1992),<br />
the Pillsbury Doughboy symbolizes fun (PR<br />
Newswire 1990), and the lonely Maytag repairman<br />
stands for reliability (Elliott 1992). However, the<br />
consumer must correctly decode the trade<br />
character's mean<strong>in</strong>g before it can have an<br />
impact (McCracken 1986). <strong>The</strong>refore, characters'<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs must be easily understood by<br />
consumers if they are to correctly <strong>in</strong>terpret the<br />
character's message. As a result, advertisers<br />
frequently use animal trade characters (Callcott<br />
and Lee 1994) because consumers are thought<br />
to have learned the animals' cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
and consequently are likely to correctly decode<br />
the advertis<strong>in</strong>g message.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first step <strong>in</strong> exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the association<br />
between animal trade characters and the<br />
products they promote is to explore the symbolic<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs conveyed by the animals used <strong>in</strong> these<br />
advertisements. That is, if an advertiser places a<br />
bear (e.g., Snuggle) or a dog (e.g., Spuds<br />
McKenzie) next to his product, what do these
animals represent to the audience? Rather than<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>dividual animal characters, however,<br />
it is necessary to first study an animal's general<br />
cultural mean<strong>in</strong>g. This is because the animal<br />
category (e.g., bear, dog, etc.) provides the<br />
primary, or core, mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
character. Although an advertiser can choose to<br />
highlight certa<strong>in</strong> animal mean<strong>in</strong>gs over others<br />
(e.g., "s<strong>of</strong>tness" for Snuggle Bear and "wildness"<br />
for Smokey Bear), the core set <strong>of</strong> animal<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs dictate what is possible for that<br />
character to express. Snuggle fabric s<strong>of</strong>tener<br />
would not f<strong>in</strong>d it easy to use a porcup<strong>in</strong>e, pig, or<br />
flam<strong>in</strong>go to express "s<strong>of</strong>tness."<br />
In addition, by study<strong>in</strong>g the broad animal<br />
category to which the character belongs, it is<br />
possible to make generalizations that can help<br />
practitioners create and use animal characters<br />
effectively. For example, if advertisers know that<br />
the animal "cat" shares several positive core<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs, they can create cat characters that<br />
capitalize on those mean<strong>in</strong>gs. Alternatively, if<br />
"cat" mean<strong>in</strong>gs conta<strong>in</strong> negative attributes that<br />
reflect badly on the associated product,<br />
advertisers may want to use a different<br />
character.<br />
Method<br />
It is difficult to explore the perceived mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
a trade character by ask<strong>in</strong>g subjects directly, as<br />
their responses tend to be superficial and<br />
descriptive. "Smokey Bear? Oh, he's brown and<br />
wears a hat." Other qualitative methods, such as<br />
<strong>in</strong>-depth <strong>in</strong>terview<strong>in</strong>g, tend to be time- and labor<strong>in</strong>tensive<br />
C features that advertisers may want to<br />
avoid. As an alternative, word association is an<br />
easy and efficient method for explor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
psychological mean<strong>in</strong>g. It can be adm<strong>in</strong>istered<br />
to a group and can elicit the mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> more<br />
than one animal per session, yet provides rich<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation regard<strong>in</strong>g cultural mean<strong>in</strong>g. Szalay<br />
and Deese (1978) state that because a word<br />
association task does not require subjects to<br />
communicate their <strong>in</strong>tentions, it decreases<br />
subjects' rationalizations, and it taps associations<br />
that are difficult to express or expla<strong>in</strong>. Further,<br />
word association does not require thoughts to be<br />
expressed <strong>in</strong> a structural manner. Instead, this<br />
technique produces expressions <strong>of</strong> thought that<br />
are immediate and spontaneous, and this<br />
spontaneity, along with an imposed time<br />
constra<strong>in</strong>t, is thought to reduce subjects' selfmonitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and conscious edit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> responses.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, the method reduces experimenter bias<br />
because no organization or categories are<br />
11<br />
imposed on subjects to limit their responses C a<br />
primary draw-back <strong>of</strong> quantitative research. <strong>The</strong><br />
word association method is not new; other<br />
market<strong>in</strong>g and advertis<strong>in</strong>g researchers have used<br />
it to understand how consumers perceive<br />
products (Kle<strong>in</strong>e and Kernan 1991) and to<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>e a product's attributes to aid <strong>in</strong> product<br />
position<strong>in</strong>g (Friedmann 1986). However, perhaps<br />
because it is "old hat," this method has been<br />
consistently overlooked and underutilized <strong>in</strong><br />
consumer behavior research.<br />
In the present study, <strong>in</strong>formants were asked<br />
to respond to verbal animal names dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
word association task (e.g., "bear") rather than to<br />
visual images <strong>of</strong> the animal. Verbal animal names<br />
are thought to elicit broad responses that reflect<br />
much <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formation that an <strong>in</strong>dividual has<br />
learned to associate with the category, "bear." In<br />
contrast, the way an animal is visually portrayed<br />
can narrow its mean<strong>in</strong>g (Berger 1984). A realistic<br />
picture <strong>of</strong> a bear may elicit a different part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
core mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> "bear" than a cartoon bear.<br />
Images <strong>of</strong> actual trade characters, such as<br />
Smokey Bear or Snuggle, may elicit even narrower<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs associated only with those characters.<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, verbal animal names were used to<br />
generate broad, complete responses. However, it<br />
is possible that advertisers could use both verbal<br />
and visual animals <strong>in</strong> a word association task<br />
when creat<strong>in</strong>g characters. Responses to the<br />
verbal animal name would provide core<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs, while responses to the visual character<br />
would provide a measure <strong>of</strong> how successfully the<br />
particular representation <strong>of</strong> an animal captured<br />
desired mean<strong>in</strong>gs. This possibility will be discussed<br />
further <strong>in</strong> the conclusion section <strong>of</strong> this paper.<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>formants for this study were 21 male<br />
and 15 female undergraduate students enrolled<br />
<strong>in</strong> an advertis<strong>in</strong>g management course at a major<br />
state university. Students participated <strong>in</strong> the study<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g their regular class time. Of these<br />
respondents, 92% were between the ages <strong>of</strong> 20<br />
and 25. <strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> this student sample precludes<br />
conclud<strong>in</strong>g that the results <strong>of</strong> this study reflect the<br />
"true" cultural mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> each animal. However,<br />
this sample is useful to show that a common<br />
cultural mean<strong>in</strong>g for each animal exists <strong>in</strong> a<br />
homogeneous population and can be elicited<br />
through research, whether that population is<br />
composed <strong>of</strong> undergraduate students or other<br />
target markets <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest to advertisers. Each<br />
<strong>in</strong>formant received a package conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a<br />
cover page, an <strong>in</strong>struction page, and five word<br />
association sheets.<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>structions for the word association<br />
task were read aloud and <strong>in</strong>formants' questions
egard<strong>in</strong>g the task were answered. For each word<br />
association task, respondents had one m<strong>in</strong>ute to<br />
write one-word descriptions <strong>of</strong> whatever came to<br />
m<strong>in</strong>d when they thought about the animal listed<br />
at the top <strong>of</strong> the page (Szalay and Deese 1978).<br />
Informants were <strong>in</strong>structed to write these words <strong>in</strong><br />
the order <strong>in</strong> which they came to m<strong>in</strong>d and it was<br />
stressed that there were no wrong answers. <strong>The</strong><br />
first animal listed <strong>in</strong> the package was lobster,<br />
which was used as a practice task to familiarize<br />
students with the word association method. After<br />
complet<strong>in</strong>g the practice task, <strong>in</strong>formants'<br />
rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g questions about the task were<br />
answered. Respondents then completed four<br />
more animal word associations, respond<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
words: pengu<strong>in</strong>, ant, gorilla, and raccoon. <strong>The</strong><br />
particular animals were chosen to reflect the<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests <strong>of</strong> the author; other animals could<br />
illustrate the commonality <strong>of</strong> animal mean<strong>in</strong>gs as<br />
well. <strong>The</strong> order <strong>in</strong> which the four animals were<br />
presented was randomized to control for order<br />
effects.<br />
<strong>The</strong> words generated by <strong>in</strong>formants <strong>in</strong><br />
response to the animal word association were<br />
grouped <strong>in</strong>to categories, or themes that emerged<br />
from the data. Each animal was analyzed<br />
separately, except lobster, the practice task,<br />
which was not coded. For each animal, words<br />
that were similar <strong>in</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g or that had a<br />
common theme were grouped together. Each<br />
<strong>in</strong>formant's responses were added to the tentative<br />
themes discovered <strong>in</strong> the previous <strong>in</strong>formants'<br />
responses, thus support<strong>in</strong>g those themes or<br />
allow<strong>in</strong>g them to be changed (Strauss and Corb<strong>in</strong><br />
1990). Guidel<strong>in</strong>es suggested by Szalay and Deese<br />
(1978) were followed when identify<strong>in</strong>g common<br />
themes.<br />
Words that could not be placed <strong>in</strong>to any<br />
category were placed <strong>in</strong>to an "other" category.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se words did not have an identifiable<br />
association with the animal; they are thought to<br />
be associations to words other than the animal<br />
(i.e., cha<strong>in</strong> associations) or words that show that<br />
the respondent was th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> someth<strong>in</strong>g other<br />
than the task at hand. <strong>The</strong>re were only 10 to 16 <strong>of</strong><br />
these words for each animal.<br />
A second researcher re-classified all <strong>of</strong> the<br />
response words <strong>in</strong>to the categories to check the<br />
soundness <strong>of</strong> the themes. <strong>The</strong>re was an <strong>in</strong>itial 86%<br />
agreement between researchers; disagreements<br />
were resolved through discussion and re-analysis<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formant responses. <strong>The</strong> response words for all<br />
<strong>of</strong> the animals are available from the author.<br />
12<br />
COGNITIVE MAP OF PENGUIN THEMES<br />
<strong>The</strong> themes elicited <strong>in</strong> response to each animal<br />
were illustrated us<strong>in</strong>g cognitive maps, represent<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a pictorial overview <strong>of</strong> each animal's mean<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
<strong>The</strong> cognitive map summarizes the objects and<br />
ideas that <strong>in</strong>formants collectively associate with<br />
each animal, and organizes these associations<br />
<strong>in</strong>to mean<strong>in</strong>gful themes (Coleman 1992). <strong>The</strong><br />
cognitive map also identifies the number <strong>of</strong> times<br />
each theme was mentioned, giv<strong>in</strong>g an idea <strong>of</strong><br />
the relative importance <strong>of</strong> each theme to the<br />
animal's shared mean<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION<br />
General Results<br />
Informants mentioned between 315 and 386<br />
words <strong>in</strong> response to each animal, or<br />
approximately 9 to 11 words per <strong>in</strong>dividual. It was<br />
surpris<strong>in</strong>g that more than 90% <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formants'<br />
responses could be classified <strong>in</strong>to six or seven<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> themes for each animal. In addition,<br />
<strong>in</strong>formants' words were easily coded <strong>in</strong>to these<br />
themes, reflect<strong>in</strong>g a high degree <strong>of</strong> similarity<br />
between respondents. Also, words with the highest<br />
frequencies were mentioned by 8 to 25<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals, which suggests a high degree <strong>of</strong><br />
consistency across <strong>in</strong>dividuals' responses. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
results support the idea that there exist shared<br />
cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs that consumers generally<br />
associate with animals, and that these mean<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
can be elicited through word association.<br />
Interest<strong>in</strong>gly, although it was not the <strong>in</strong>tent<br />
at the outset, the themes that emerged from the<br />
data were remarkably similar between animals.<br />
<strong>The</strong> primary themes mentioned by <strong>in</strong>formants<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude: (a) Appearance, (b) Habitat, (c)<br />
Personality, (d) Human/animal <strong>in</strong>teraction, (e)<br />
Popular culture, and (f) Behavior. <strong>The</strong>se six<br />
categories seem to be most salient for<br />
consumers, and may <strong>of</strong>fer the greatest help <strong>in</strong><br />
creat<strong>in</strong>g animal characters for use <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
campaigns. Appearance summarizes <strong>in</strong>formants'<br />
mental images <strong>of</strong> the animal C how they expect<br />
the animal to look; Habitat describes <strong>in</strong>formants'<br />
expectations <strong>of</strong> where these animals live and the<br />
objects that surround them; Personality represents<br />
the personality traits that <strong>in</strong>formants associate with<br />
each animal; Human/animal <strong>in</strong>teraction<br />
describes how humans coexist and <strong>in</strong>teract with<br />
these animals; while Behavior describes their<br />
typical actions. Popular culture highlights cultural<br />
references that already exist for each animal,
Fig. 1.<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g sources such as television programs,<br />
movies, books, and ads. <strong>The</strong> themes for each<br />
animal are given below <strong>in</strong> greater detail.<br />
Pengu<strong>in</strong><br />
A cognitive map <strong>of</strong> the themes associated with<br />
"pengu<strong>in</strong>," along with the frequency with which<br />
they were mentioned, are shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 1. <strong>The</strong><br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ant themes that emerge from the data are<br />
Habitat and Appearance.<br />
13<br />
Habitat <strong>in</strong>cludes a natural habitat made up <strong>of</strong> the<br />
subthemes <strong>of</strong>: (a) ice and snow, (b) cold, (c)<br />
places such as Antarctica and the South Pole,<br />
and (d) water. Informants also listed other<br />
<strong>in</strong>habitants <strong>of</strong> this environment such as fish, polar<br />
bears, and whales. Informants also mentioned<br />
Appearance as an important pengu<strong>in</strong> theme,<br />
focus<strong>in</strong>g on the subthemes <strong>of</strong>: (a) color, which<br />
was mostly black and white, (b) body parts such<br />
as w<strong>in</strong>gs, beaks, and feet, and (c) the formal<br />
tuxedo that pengu<strong>in</strong>s seem to be wear<strong>in</strong>g.
Fig. 2.<br />
Tuxedo was the most <strong>of</strong>ten mentioned word, with<br />
23 mentions. This strong association seems to<br />
have affected other themes, as discussed below.<br />
Both <strong>of</strong> the dom<strong>in</strong>ant themes suggest that a<br />
pengu<strong>in</strong> is associated with rich visual imagery.<br />
When confronted with the word "pengu<strong>in</strong>," it<br />
appears that <strong>in</strong>dividuals conjure up an image <strong>of</strong><br />
a pengu<strong>in</strong>, and describe him (Appearance) and<br />
his surround<strong>in</strong>gs (Habitat). This <strong>in</strong>terpretation is<br />
supported by a third theme, Behavior, which was<br />
mentioned less <strong>of</strong>ten. This category <strong>in</strong>cludes the<br />
subthemes <strong>of</strong>: (a) waddle, (b) swim, and (c) other<br />
actions, which also contribute to visual imagery.<br />
14<br />
Behavior was mentioned 44 times, suggest<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
respondents frequently visualize the pengu<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
motion.<br />
COGNITIVE MAP OF ANT THEMES<br />
In analyz<strong>in</strong>g the dom<strong>in</strong>ant themes, it seems that<br />
pengu<strong>in</strong>s are viewed as hav<strong>in</strong>g little <strong>in</strong>teraction<br />
with humans. <strong>The</strong> pengu<strong>in</strong> appears to be isolated<br />
from all but a few Eskimos (accord<strong>in</strong>g to two<br />
<strong>in</strong>formants) except when viewed <strong>in</strong> a man-made<br />
habitat (e.g., "Sea World"), and even that type <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>teraction is rarely mentioned (2% <strong>of</strong> the time).
This lack <strong>of</strong> human/pengu<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>teraction is not<br />
surpris<strong>in</strong>g given pengu<strong>in</strong>s' remote location <strong>in</strong> the<br />
world, and the fact that they are removed from<br />
<strong>in</strong>formants' daily experiences. Another theme,<br />
Personality, is characterized by a duality; for the<br />
most part, pengu<strong>in</strong>s are personified as silly<br />
creatures (e.g., cute, funny, go<strong>of</strong>y, playful, etc.),<br />
but they also can be viewed as formal animals<br />
(e.g., dist<strong>in</strong>guished, classy, behaved, mannered,<br />
etc.), even by the same <strong>in</strong>dividuals. This<br />
contradiction may stem from the fact that<br />
pengu<strong>in</strong>s are strange-look<strong>in</strong>g members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bird family and waddle comically <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong><br />
fly<strong>in</strong>g, but also appear to wear<strong>in</strong>g a tuxedo, a<br />
cultural symbol <strong>of</strong> formality and manners.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g pengu<strong>in</strong> themes are<br />
Popular culture and Categories. Pengu<strong>in</strong>s are<br />
associated with a surpris<strong>in</strong>gly large number <strong>of</strong><br />
popular culture references <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g movies,<br />
videogames, mascots, and cartoons. Categories<br />
refers to the hierarchical categorization <strong>of</strong><br />
objects, <strong>in</strong> which an object can be placed <strong>in</strong> a<br />
superset (generalization hierarchy) or a subset<br />
(part hierarchy) (Anderson 1990). For example, a<br />
pengu<strong>in</strong> is a bird (superset), and a type <strong>of</strong><br />
pengu<strong>in</strong> is an emperor (subset). In the same way,<br />
a group <strong>of</strong> pengu<strong>in</strong>s is called a flock, or a herd<br />
(at least for one respondent).<br />
Ant<br />
A cognitive map <strong>of</strong> the "ant" themes is shown <strong>in</strong><br />
Figure 2. <strong>The</strong> three dom<strong>in</strong>ant ant themes are:<br />
Categories, Habitat, and Human/ant <strong>in</strong>teraction.<br />
Categories <strong>in</strong>cludes: (a) type <strong>of</strong> ant, such as red<br />
or army; (b) name <strong>of</strong> ant, such as worker or<br />
queen; (c) group <strong>of</strong> ants, such as colony; and (d)<br />
classification <strong>of</strong> ant, such as <strong>in</strong>sect. <strong>The</strong><br />
importance <strong>of</strong> this theme for ant contrasts sharply<br />
with that for pengu<strong>in</strong>; Categories was mentioned<br />
104 times for ant, but only 16 times for pengu<strong>in</strong>.<br />
This suggests that the ant themes are less<br />
associated with images, and more associated<br />
with verbal or propositional knowledge (Anderson<br />
1990). That is, when asked to respond to the word<br />
"ant," it appears that respondents retrieve verbal<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation that they have learned <strong>in</strong> the past,<br />
such as: the head ant is called the queen; the<br />
male ant is called the drone; ants live <strong>in</strong> colonies;<br />
etc. This <strong>in</strong>terpretation is supported by another<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ant theme: Habitat, where the subthemes<br />
<strong>of</strong> (a) hill and (b) man-made habitat also appear<br />
to conta<strong>in</strong> verbal associations. For example, the<br />
most-<strong>of</strong>ten mentioned words <strong>in</strong> each subtheme,<br />
"hill" and "farm," could be elicited with a fill-<strong>in</strong>-the-<br />
15<br />
blank word task (i.e., "ant____"). <strong>The</strong> same cannot<br />
be said for pengu<strong>in</strong> (e.g., "pengu<strong>in</strong> ice," "pengu<strong>in</strong><br />
cold," etc.). Some imagery is associated with ant,<br />
though, as seen <strong>in</strong> the Habitat subtheme <strong>of</strong> (c)<br />
picnic. For the most part, however, other themes<br />
support verbal, non-imagery based associations<br />
for ant. For example, the ant's image-based<br />
themes, Appearance and Behavior, conta<strong>in</strong> far<br />
fewer words (31 and 7) than do these same<br />
categories for pengu<strong>in</strong> (103 and 44). Also, many<br />
<strong>of</strong> the words <strong>in</strong> Appearance, such as antenna,<br />
thorax, and abdomen, seem associated with<br />
knowledge propositions, rather than image.<br />
Surpris<strong>in</strong>gly, even the Popular culture theme<br />
supports a verbal view because many <strong>of</strong> the<br />
responses <strong>in</strong> this category make use <strong>of</strong> word play<br />
such as "Aunt Bea" and "antichrist."<br />
A dom<strong>in</strong>ant theme for ant that did not exist<br />
for pengu<strong>in</strong> is Human/ant <strong>in</strong>teraction. This focus on<br />
<strong>in</strong>teraction is understandable given that ants are<br />
usually part <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formants' daily environment and<br />
experience. In this category, ants <strong>in</strong>teract with<br />
humans by annoy<strong>in</strong>g them and caus<strong>in</strong>g them<br />
pa<strong>in</strong>; "bite" was mentioned 19 times by<br />
respondents. Humans <strong>in</strong>teract with ants as<br />
exterm<strong>in</strong>ators; we kill them. It is surpris<strong>in</strong>g then, that<br />
under the theme Personality, ants are personified<br />
as hav<strong>in</strong>g more positive than negative qualities.<br />
Words like "strong," "hard-work<strong>in</strong>g," and<br />
"determ<strong>in</strong>ed" are used by respondents. Perhaps<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals have learned to associate these<br />
positive qualities with ants through stories, songs,<br />
and fables, such as "<strong>The</strong> Grasshopper and the<br />
Ant," while negative associations, such as pest,<br />
come from <strong>in</strong>formants' own experiences. As is the<br />
case with pengu<strong>in</strong>, there is a duality <strong>in</strong> the ant's<br />
perceived personality C <strong>in</strong>dustrious and diligent,<br />
yet irritat<strong>in</strong>g and better <strong>of</strong>f dead. <strong>The</strong>se strongly<br />
negative associations may signal advertisers to<br />
use caution <strong>in</strong> utiliz<strong>in</strong>g this animal <strong>in</strong> ads.<br />
Advertisers must be sure that only desirable<br />
characteristics are transferred to the brand.<br />
COGNITIVE MAP OF GORILLA THEMES<br />
Gorilla<br />
A cognitive map <strong>of</strong> "gorilla" themes is presented <strong>in</strong><br />
Figure 3. <strong>The</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant themes that emerge from<br />
the data are Habitat, Appearance, and<br />
Personality. Gorilla's dom<strong>in</strong>ant themes, like those<br />
<strong>of</strong> pengu<strong>in</strong>, are rich <strong>in</strong> visual imagery and appear<br />
to be visually based. For example, Habitat<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>s images <strong>of</strong>: (a) natural habitats, such as<br />
the jungle; (b) man-made habitats, such as zoos
Fig. 3.<br />
and cages; and (c) other <strong>in</strong>habitants, most<br />
notably bananas and monkeys. In the same way,<br />
Appearance is composed <strong>of</strong>: (a) hairy; (b) colors;<br />
(c) size; and (d) body parts, like big hands and big<br />
teeth.<br />
Gorilla is the first animal <strong>in</strong> this study to<br />
have Personality as a dom<strong>in</strong>ant theme. As with<br />
pengu<strong>in</strong> and ant, gorilla is personified <strong>in</strong> two<br />
different ways C as a fierce monster with negative<br />
attributes, and as a gentle giant with positive<br />
ones. <strong>The</strong> theme Popular culture gives a possible<br />
reason for this duality. "K<strong>in</strong>g Kong," the movie(s)<br />
that portrays a giant gorilla destroy<strong>in</strong>g cities and<br />
16<br />
battl<strong>in</strong>g other monsters, received 15 direct and<br />
<strong>in</strong>direct mentions, while "Gorillas <strong>in</strong> the Mist," the<br />
movie that portrays gorillas as human-like,<br />
endangered creatures received 12.<br />
Human/gorilla <strong>in</strong>teraction appears as<br />
another gorilla theme (as it did for ant), even<br />
though the gorilla, like the pengu<strong>in</strong>, is remote and<br />
removed from respondents' daily lives. While the<br />
<strong>in</strong>teraction between humans and ants was<br />
concrete and experience-based, the <strong>in</strong>teraction<br />
between humans and gorillas is viewed more<br />
symbolically by <strong>in</strong>formants, with the subthemes:<br />
(a) ancestor, and (b) research. As our ancestors,
gorillas were associated directly with humans<br />
through Darw<strong>in</strong>'s theory <strong>of</strong> evolution. Informants<br />
also recognized the research l<strong>in</strong>k between gorillas<br />
and humans as we study them for their benefit<br />
(e.g., "endangered") or for ours (e.g., "sign<br />
language").<br />
Raccoon<br />
A cognitive map <strong>of</strong> "raccoon" themes is shown <strong>in</strong><br />
Figure 4. <strong>The</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant themes that emerge from<br />
the responses are: Appearance, Habitat, and<br />
Personality, suggest<strong>in</strong>g that a raccoon’s<br />
personality is an important part <strong>of</strong> its collective<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> the same way as a gorilla's. <strong>The</strong><br />
words associated with raccoon also appear to be<br />
imagery-based, like those for pengu<strong>in</strong> and gorilla.<br />
Unlike the observations made for other animals,<br />
there is no separate theme <strong>of</strong> human/raccoon<br />
<strong>in</strong>teraction. <strong>The</strong> reason for this is that the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>teraction is woven throughout each category.<br />
For example, <strong>in</strong>formants listed both trees and<br />
ro<strong>of</strong>tops, wilderness and dra<strong>in</strong>age ditches as<br />
raccoon habitats. Food <strong>in</strong>cluded crawfish and<br />
trash, and other <strong>in</strong>habitants were likely to be both<br />
possums and coon dogs. This suggests that the<br />
raccoon is not seen as hav<strong>in</strong>g a separate<br />
environment, like ant (e.g., "hill") or gorilla (e.g.,<br />
"jungle"), which can sometimes overlap with a<br />
human environment. Rather, the raccoon shares<br />
our habitat <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tegrated way.<br />
<strong>The</strong> theme Personality <strong>in</strong>cludes: (a) thief;<br />
(b) positive qualities, like cute and playful; and (c)<br />
negative qualities, such as sneaky and<br />
troublesome. Although <strong>in</strong>formants listed both<br />
negative and positive attributes for raccoon, its<br />
personality does not appear to be a duality, unlike<br />
the other animals studied. This is because<br />
respondents viewed the raccoon as possess<strong>in</strong>g<br />
both positive and negative qualities at the same<br />
time as part <strong>of</strong> the same personality role.<br />
Raccoon is personified most <strong>of</strong>ten as a bandit (10<br />
mentions), and also is called a rascal or a<br />
scoundrel. It appears that we admire a raccoon’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>telligence and audacity, while deplor<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
mess they make when they <strong>in</strong>trude on our<br />
property.<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
This study has supported the view that consumers<br />
associate shared mean<strong>in</strong>gs with animals and has<br />
provided a description <strong>of</strong> the common themes<br />
found <strong>in</strong> the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> four specific<br />
animals. In addition, the results <strong>of</strong> this study<br />
support the use <strong>of</strong> the word association method<br />
to elicit those cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
17<br />
COGNITIVE MAP OF RACOON THEMES<br />
Respondents generated six common themes <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terest to advertisers <strong>in</strong> response to each animal:<br />
Appearance, Habitat, Personality, Human/animal<br />
<strong>in</strong>teraction, Popular culture, and Behavior. It is<br />
clear that these themes have practical<br />
applications <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> themes <strong>of</strong><br />
appearance, habitat, and behavior can help<br />
def<strong>in</strong>e a "natural" look for an animal and its<br />
environment <strong>in</strong> an ad, while other popular culture<br />
references <strong>in</strong> response to the word association<br />
task can warn the advertiser if the animal has<br />
already been l<strong>in</strong>ked to another product or idea.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most mean<strong>in</strong>gful themes for advertis<strong>in</strong>g use,<br />
however, are personality and <strong>in</strong>teraction. Through<br />
these themes, an advertiser can explore the core<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs that consumers associate with a<br />
specific animal. If advertisers understand this core<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g, they can appropriate all or part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
animal's mean<strong>in</strong>g for their products. Advertisers<br />
can match positive qualities to the product<br />
attributes or the advertis<strong>in</strong>g message, or avoid<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g the animal if it elicits negative associations.<br />
<strong>The</strong> benefit <strong>of</strong> elicit<strong>in</strong>g core animal<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs is that by us<strong>in</strong>g the associations that<br />
already exist <strong>in</strong> our culture, advertisers do not<br />
have to educate consumers as to what their<br />
animal characters mean. Consequently, an ad's<br />
message will be more quickly and easily<br />
decoded and understood. Many advertisers<br />
<strong>in</strong>tuitively take advantage <strong>of</strong> shared mean<strong>in</strong>gs to<br />
create suitable characters; this paper presents a<br />
method for explicitly capitaliz<strong>in</strong>g on the shared<br />
cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> trade character<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
This study has theoretical implications for<br />
trade character research as well. By show<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
animals have common cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs, the<br />
results support the idea that animal-based trade<br />
characters also embody these shared mean<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, it is possible that trade characters can<br />
be used to transfer a common mean<strong>in</strong>g to a<br />
product. Future trade character research should<br />
focus on the transfer process by test<strong>in</strong>g the ability<br />
<strong>of</strong> trade characters to <strong>in</strong>fluence product<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
In addition, the results <strong>of</strong> this study suggest<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g avenues for future research regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
visual trade character mean<strong>in</strong>gs. How does the<br />
core mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> an animal character (as<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed through consumer response to a<br />
verbal animal name) relate to the mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
character's visual image? For example, a study<br />
could compare teens' responses to the word<br />
"camel" on a word association task with their<br />
responses to an image <strong>of</strong> Joe Camel. Does Joe
Fig. 4.<br />
different? How do Joe's mean<strong>in</strong>gs, as an animal,<br />
compare to the mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the human<br />
Marlboro cowboy? <strong>The</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> many exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
animal characters could be explored us<strong>in</strong>g these<br />
methods. <strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> the word association method<br />
has applications beyond trade character<br />
research. McCracken (1989, p. 319) calls for the<br />
creation <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>strument to "detect and survey"<br />
the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs that are present <strong>in</strong> celebrity<br />
endorsers. Scott (1994) states more generally that<br />
an exploration <strong>of</strong> how symbolic advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
images are <strong>in</strong>terpreted <strong>in</strong> consumer culture is<br />
needed to advance consumer behavior<br />
research.<br />
18<br />
Given its success <strong>in</strong> elicit<strong>in</strong>g the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> animals, the word association method seems<br />
suited to explore the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
celebrities and symbolic images <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g as<br />
well.<br />
In conclusion, this study has shown that<br />
consumers associate shared cultural mean<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
with animal characters. <strong>The</strong>se mean<strong>in</strong>gs can be<br />
elicited through the word association method,<br />
and conta<strong>in</strong> common themes that can be used<br />
to further advertis<strong>in</strong>g theory and practice.
References<br />
Anderson, John R. (1990), Cognitive Psychology and Its<br />
Implications, Third Edition, New York, NY: W.H. Freeman and<br />
Company, 123-135.<br />
Berger, Asa (1984), Signs <strong>in</strong> Contemporary <strong>Culture</strong>: An<br />
Introduction to Semiotics, New York: Longman.<br />
Callcott, Margaret F. and Wei-Na Lee (1994), "A Content<br />
Analysis <strong>of</strong> Animation and Animated Spokes-Characters <strong>in</strong><br />
Television Commercials," <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Advertis<strong>in</strong>g, 23(4): 1-12.<br />
Coleman, Laurence J. (1992), "<strong>The</strong> Cognitive Map <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Master Teacher Conduct<strong>in</strong>g Discussions with Gifted Students,"<br />
Exceptionality, 3: 1-16.<br />
Elliott, Stewart (1992), "Lonel<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> a Long-Last<strong>in</strong>g Pitch," <strong>The</strong><br />
New York Times, May 15, C1.<br />
Friedmann, Roberto (1986), "Psychological Mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
Products: Identification and <strong>Market<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Applications,"<br />
Psychology and <strong>Market<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, 3: 1-15.<br />
Kapnick, Sharon (1992), "Commercial Success: <strong>The</strong>se<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g figures have become American icons," <strong>The</strong> Aust<strong>in</strong><br />
American-Statesman, April 25, D1.<br />
Kle<strong>in</strong>e, Robert E. and Jerome B. Kernan (1991), "Contextual<br />
Influences on the Mean<strong>in</strong>gs Ascribed to Ord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
Consumption Objects," <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Consumer Research, 18:<br />
311-323.<br />
Kleppner, Otto (1966), Advertis<strong>in</strong>g Procedure, 5th edition,<br />
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.<br />
McCracken, Grant (1986), "<strong>Culture</strong> and Consumption: A<br />
<strong>The</strong>oretical Account <strong>of</strong> the Structure and Movement <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Cultural Mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Consumer Goods," <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Consumer<br />
Research, 13: 71-84.<br />
McCracken, Grant (1989), "Who Is the Celebrity Endorser?<br />
Cultural Foundations <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Endorsement Process," <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Consumer Research,<br />
16(December): 310-321.<br />
Neal, Arthur G. (1985), "Animism and Totemism <strong>in</strong> Popular<br />
<strong>Culture</strong>," <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Popular <strong>Culture</strong>, 19(2): 15-24.<br />
Phillips, Barbara J. (1996), "Def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Trade Characters and<br />
<strong>The</strong>ir Role <strong>in</strong> American Popular <strong>Culture</strong>," <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Popular<br />
<strong>Culture</strong>, 29(4): forthcom<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
PR Newswire (1990), "Oh Boy! Pillsbury Doughboy Turns 25!"<br />
September 20.<br />
Rob<strong>in</strong>, P. Ansell (1932), Animal Lore <strong>in</strong> English Literature,<br />
London: John Murray.<br />
Sax, Boria (1988), "Anthromorphism <strong>in</strong> Animal Encyclopedias<br />
<strong>of</strong> N<strong>in</strong>eteenth Century America," New York Folklore, 14(1-2):<br />
107-122.<br />
Scott, L<strong>in</strong>da M. (1994), "Images <strong>in</strong> Advertis<strong>in</strong>g: <strong>The</strong> Need for a<br />
<strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> <strong>Visual</strong> Rhetoric," <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Consumer Research,<br />
21(September): 252-273.<br />
19<br />
Stewart, David W. and David H. Furse (1986), Effective<br />
Television Advertis<strong>in</strong>g: A Study <strong>of</strong> 1000 Commercials,<br />
Lex<strong>in</strong>gton, MA: Lex<strong>in</strong>gton Books.<br />
Strauss, Anselm and Juliet Corb<strong>in</strong> (1990), Basics <strong>of</strong> Qualitative<br />
Research: Grounded <strong>The</strong>ory Procedures and Techniques,<br />
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.<br />
Szalay, Lorand B. and James Deese (1978), Subjective<br />
Mean<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>Culture</strong>: An Assessment Through Word<br />
Associations, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.<br />
Zacher, Robert V<strong>in</strong>cent (1967), Advertis<strong>in</strong>g Techniques and<br />
Management, Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irw<strong>in</strong>, Inc.<br />
Barbara Phillips is Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> <strong>Market<strong>in</strong>g</strong> at the University <strong>of</strong><br />
Saskatchewan, where she teaches brand<strong>in</strong>g and advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
courses. She received her MA and PhD <strong>in</strong> Advertis<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Texas at Aust<strong>in</strong>; her undergraduate degree <strong>in</strong> <strong>Market<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />
is from the University <strong>of</strong> Manitoba. Dr. Phillips’ research program<br />
focuses on visual images <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g and their <strong>in</strong>fluence on<br />
consumer response. She has won several teach<strong>in</strong>g awards and has<br />
published <strong>in</strong> peer-reviewed journals, books, and conference<br />
proceed<strong>in</strong>gs, such as the <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Consumer Research, <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Advertis<strong>in</strong>g and <strong>Market<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>The</strong>ory. Along with Dr. Edward McQuarrie,<br />
she has received the "Best Article" award <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Advertis<strong>in</strong>g and the Dunn Award from the University <strong>of</strong> Ill<strong>in</strong>ois for<br />
"excellence <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g research."<br />
Barbara J. Phillips (1996), "ADVERTISING AND THE CULTURAL MEANING<br />
OF ANIMALS," was orig<strong>in</strong>ally published <strong>in</strong> ‘Advances <strong>in</strong> Consumer<br />
Research’ Volume 23, eds. Kim P. Corfman and John G. Lynch Jr.,<br />
Provo, UT : Association for Consumer Research, Pages: 354-360.<br />
<strong>The</strong> text is here repr<strong>in</strong>ted with k<strong>in</strong>d permission <strong>of</strong> the author and with<br />
many thanks to the ASSOCIATION FOR CONSUMER RESEARCH, Duluth,<br />
MN.
S<br />
low Food’s aim is to foster an ethical<br />
reflection about food consumption and<br />
waste, encourag<strong>in</strong>g people to become<br />
more careful consumers with regards to the<br />
environmental crisis and to cul<strong>in</strong>ary local<br />
traditions. In this perspective, animals are not<br />
mere objects, but sentient be<strong>in</strong>gs liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a<br />
complex web <strong>of</strong> relations with human be<strong>in</strong>gs and<br />
the environment, and carefully looked after by<br />
wise and skilled farmers. Healthy and susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
meat means happy meat, com<strong>in</strong>g from happy<br />
animals.<br />
In l<strong>in</strong>e with this philosophy, there are many<br />
<strong>in</strong>itiatives <strong>in</strong> Italy aimed at restor<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
relationship between people and their food, to<br />
improve their health and more susta<strong>in</strong>able eat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
practices. People are able to meet happy pigs,<br />
cows, chickens, to visit their farms without a sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> revulsion for their imprisoned lives, and to<br />
experience a relationship with them, sentient and<br />
social be<strong>in</strong>gs as they are, just like us. After all, it is<br />
not only Hannibal the Cannibal’s privilege to have<br />
friends for d<strong>in</strong>ner.<br />
<strong>The</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g campaign <strong>The</strong> young face<br />
<strong>of</strong> agriculture, launched by the Lombardy Region<br />
for the exhibition at the Museo Nazionale della<br />
Scienza e della Tecnologia Leonardo da V<strong>in</strong>ci,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>its from the ‘happy meat philosophy’ as a<br />
communicative strategy <strong>of</strong> the rural development<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lombardy. <strong>The</strong> aim is to create a bond<br />
ANIMAL SUBJECTS:<br />
LOCAL EXPLOITATION,<br />
SLOW KILLING<br />
<strong>The</strong> city <strong>of</strong> Milan will host Expo 2015, with the theme “Feed<strong>in</strong>g the Planet. Energy for Life”. In view <strong>of</strong> this<br />
occasion, the <strong>in</strong>terest for cul<strong>in</strong>ary tradition and the global challenge <strong>of</strong> food security is rapidly grow<strong>in</strong>g. Farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and livestock rais<strong>in</strong>g traditions plays a major role <strong>in</strong> Italy, homeland <strong>of</strong> the worldwide renowned Slow Food.<br />
Text by Adele Tiengo and Leonardo Caffo<br />
20<br />
between the eater and the eaten, underl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
that this k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> food is traditional and healthy. <strong>The</strong><br />
images seems to claim that there is no need to<br />
worry, animals are treated just as we would like<br />
them to be, healthily and humanely. Cows, pigs,<br />
and ducks would put their face on this bus<strong>in</strong>ess,<br />
so why don’t we just put ours? <strong>The</strong> campaign is<br />
directed both to organic and local food <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
and it pr<strong>of</strong>its from the ‘green’ image <strong>of</strong> the good<br />
shepherd who personally takes care <strong>of</strong> his<br />
animals, grant<strong>in</strong>g them the well-be<strong>in</strong>g that is<br />
necessary to keep them healthy and, obviously,<br />
tasty. Ethical dilemmas on the exploitation and<br />
kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals are washed away by localism,<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>ability, and tradition.<br />
In the green<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the food <strong>in</strong>dustry,<br />
slaughterhouses can actually have glass walls,<br />
because the consumer is ethically numbed and<br />
conv<strong>in</strong>ced that animals must die to feed people,<br />
and farmers are work<strong>in</strong>g to do it <strong>in</strong> the best<br />
possible way. <strong>Animals</strong> are no more ‘absent<br />
referents’ (Adams 1990), but <strong>in</strong> their presence<br />
their ‘sacrifice’ is legitimized by tradition. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
can be many different speciesist approaches to<br />
the animal otherness, but they all usually fall<br />
under two ma<strong>in</strong> categories: those that recognize<br />
animals as subjects, and those that do not. <strong>The</strong><br />
latter has been highly discussed by philosophers<br />
that, like Descartes, see animals as automata, as<br />
matter at human be<strong>in</strong>gs’ disposal.
Regione Lombardia<br />
L’Agricoltura Cambia Faccia alla Tua Vita (Agriculture Changes the Face <strong>of</strong> Your Life) Regione Lombardia<br />
21
Regione Lombardia<br />
L’Agricoltura Cambia Faccia alla Tua Vita (Agriculture<br />
Changes the Face <strong>of</strong> Your Life) Regione Lombardia<br />
On the contrary, the former perspective,<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to which animals are recognized as<br />
sentient subjects and liv<strong>in</strong>g others, is assumed by<br />
the new category <strong>of</strong> the ‘bio-carnivores’, people<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong>formed about the risks for their<br />
health and, sometimes, for the environment. <strong>The</strong><br />
approach <strong>of</strong> this group <strong>of</strong> well-<strong>in</strong>formed people<br />
makes it easier to digest the exploitation and<br />
kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals, because their suffer<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
privation is made less apparent by claims <strong>of</strong><br />
tradition and susta<strong>in</strong>ability. Moreover, s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
relationship with animal subjects is restored, the<br />
kill<strong>in</strong>g is a much more serious act <strong>in</strong> ethical terms.<br />
Along with the bio-carnivores, this<br />
advertisement appeals to the category <strong>of</strong> the<br />
locavores. <strong>The</strong> locavores are those people that<br />
eat only local and seasonally available food. <strong>The</strong><br />
word was co<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> 2005 by four women <strong>in</strong> San<br />
Francisco and <strong>in</strong> 2007 it was elected as Word <strong>of</strong><br />
the Year by the New Oxford America Dictionary [1] .<br />
Many locavores follows the arguments proposed<br />
by Michael Pollan (2006) <strong>in</strong> his widely known <strong>The</strong><br />
Omnivore Dilemma, <strong>in</strong> which he claims that<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>ably raised local meat is more<br />
environmental friendly than a vegan/vegetarian<br />
22<br />
diet. <strong>The</strong>ir diet certa<strong>in</strong>ly opposes the negative<br />
effects <strong>of</strong> globalization, but <strong>in</strong> do<strong>in</strong>g so it appeals<br />
to a pastoral ideal <strong>of</strong> pure and local based<br />
lifestyle that has never existed and that – provided<br />
that it is more environmentally susta<strong>in</strong>able –<br />
certa<strong>in</strong>ly it would not susta<strong>in</strong> the ever-grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
nutritional needs <strong>of</strong> the human population. As<br />
Vasile Stnescu (2009) clearly shows, Pollan<br />
argues aga<strong>in</strong>st organic meat because it<br />
«represents a false pastoral narrative, someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
produced by the power <strong>of</strong> well crafted words and<br />
images yet lack<strong>in</strong>g ethical consistency, reality, or<br />
ultimately an awareness <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
themselves» (Stnescu 2009, 9), but he can<br />
easily be accused <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g the same false<br />
pastoral narrative <strong>in</strong> his defense <strong>of</strong> local meat.<br />
In the image, the human-animal<br />
hybrydization is exploited to assure the consumer<br />
that the milk or salami they would like to buy are<br />
perfectly safe and approved by their ‘providers’:<br />
cows and pigs are the young faces <strong>of</strong> the<br />
agricultural bus<strong>in</strong>ess, will<strong>in</strong>g to feed human<br />
be<strong>in</strong>gs’ voraciousness. On their part, human<br />
be<strong>in</strong>gs become well aware <strong>of</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> their<br />
food. <strong>The</strong> absent referent – a concept that<br />
makes the massacre <strong>of</strong> the animals <strong>in</strong>visible and<br />
the disregarded eat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> meat possible – is<br />
present aga<strong>in</strong>. <strong>Animals</strong> are subjects aga<strong>in</strong> and<br />
the advertisement, even though display<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
hybridization <strong>of</strong> human and animal bodies, is not<br />
perceived as ridiculous or outrageous.<br />
Nonetheless, animals do not deserve an ethical<br />
treatment that overcomes mere considerations <strong>of</strong><br />
utility and pr<strong>of</strong>it.<br />
References<br />
Adams, Carol J. <strong>The</strong> Sexual Politics <strong>of</strong> Meat. Twentieth Anniversary Edition (2010). New York:<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>uum, 1990.<br />
Cole, Matthew. "From 'Animal Mach<strong>in</strong>es' to 'Happy Meat'? Foucault’s Ideas <strong>of</strong> Discipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
and Pastoral Power Applied to ‘Animal-Centred’ Welfare Discourse." <strong>Animals</strong> 1, no. 1 (2011):<br />
83-101.<br />
OUPblog. Oxfor University Press, http://blog.oup.com/2007/11/locavore/ (accessed March 6,<br />
2012).<br />
Pollan, Michael. <strong>The</strong> Omnivore Dilemma. A Natural History <strong>of</strong> Four Meals. New York: Pengu<strong>in</strong>,<br />
2006.<br />
Stnescu, Vasile. "'Green' Eggs and Ham? <strong>The</strong> Myth <strong>of</strong> Susta<strong>in</strong>able Meat and the Danger <strong>of</strong><br />
the Local." <strong>The</strong> <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Critical Animal Studies VII, no. 3 (2009): 18-55.<br />
Leonardo Caffo is Phd Candidate at University <strong>of</strong> Tor<strong>in</strong>o (Italy),<br />
member <strong>of</strong> Labont: laboratory for ontology andAssociate Fellow<br />
<strong>of</strong> Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics. Is editor <strong>in</strong> chief <strong>of</strong> "Animal<br />
Studies" - his latest book is La possibilità di cambiare: azioni<br />
umane e libertà morali (Mimesis: Milan 2012).<br />
For Adele Tiengo’s biography please see page 8
Concern about the impact <strong>of</strong> livestock on the environment has generated debates about how best to manage<br />
dairy farm<strong>in</strong>g practices. Soil erosion and compaction and loss <strong>of</strong> biodiversity from graz<strong>in</strong>g and silage production,<br />
ammonia and methane emissions, as well as high levels <strong>of</strong> water consumption, have all been identified as direct<br />
effects on the environment from dairy farm<strong>in</strong>g activity. [i] Whilst the issues have been well reported <strong>in</strong> the press,<br />
there has been little <strong>in</strong> the way <strong>of</strong> imagery to accompany the environmental critique <strong>of</strong> milk production. Instead,<br />
much <strong>of</strong> the popularly available imagery <strong>of</strong> dairy farm<strong>in</strong>g has been generated by advertis<strong>in</strong>g which cont<strong>in</strong>ues to<br />
deploy culturally-specific visions <strong>of</strong> contented cows <strong>in</strong> rural landscapes.<br />
Text by Claire Molloy<br />
W<br />
ith little actual access to farmed animal<br />
spaces, the majority <strong>of</strong> western urbandwellers’<br />
experiences <strong>of</strong> livestock and<br />
farm<strong>in</strong>g practices are heavily mediated, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
through food advertis<strong>in</strong>g. In such cases, the<br />
discourse <strong>of</strong> farm<strong>in</strong>g and the spaces <strong>in</strong> which<br />
animals are farmed are constructed to appeal to<br />
the consumer, and both implicitly and explicitly<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer reassurance that farmed animals are<br />
healthy and emotionally satisfied. Advertisements<br />
for dairy products <strong>of</strong>fer imagery that relies on<br />
previously established associations between cows<br />
and green fields to susta<strong>in</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gs, such as<br />
“natural” and “healthy,” which are then assigned<br />
to dairy products. In turn, the imagery re<strong>in</strong>forces<br />
associations between cows and their freedom to<br />
roam <strong>in</strong> natural surround<strong>in</strong>gs, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
connections between dairy cows’ lack <strong>of</strong><br />
conf<strong>in</strong>ement and their will<strong>in</strong>g productivity. Dairy<br />
farm<strong>in</strong>g thus ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s strong cultural associations<br />
with natural landscapes and rural tranquillity, and<br />
such practices occupy a zone <strong>in</strong> the cultural<br />
REMEDIATING COWS<br />
AND THE<br />
CONSTRUCTION OF<br />
ETHICAL LANDSCAPE<br />
23<br />
imag<strong>in</strong>ation that is markedly removed from the<br />
urban <strong>in</strong>dustrial experience.<br />
In reality, eighty per cent <strong>of</strong> the UK<br />
landscape has been shaped by farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
practices. [ii] As a result, the <strong>in</strong>dustry has a major<br />
impact on both the management <strong>of</strong> land and<br />
the development <strong>of</strong> the landscape. In 2006,<br />
agriculture accounted for seventy-seven per cent<br />
<strong>of</strong> land use <strong>in</strong> the UK, amount<strong>in</strong>g to 18.5 million<br />
hectares, <strong>of</strong> which, around thirty-eight per cent is<br />
grass and thirty per cent is land, given over to<br />
rough graz<strong>in</strong>g for domestic livestock. Employ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
over half a million people, the value <strong>of</strong> farm<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
the UK economy is substantial, generat<strong>in</strong>g around<br />
£5.6 billion per year, <strong>of</strong> which the livestock<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry accounts for £7,351 million <strong>of</strong><br />
output. [iii] <strong>The</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ed UK cow population<br />
numbers, around 3.8 million, and <strong>of</strong> these the<br />
larger proportion, slightly over 2 million, are dairy<br />
cows. Decreases <strong>in</strong> the dairy cow population over<br />
fifty years from 2.6 million, <strong>in</strong> 1956, [iv] reflect<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> livestock management, policy,
Ed Edwards and Dave Masterman<br />
Made by Cows S<strong>in</strong>ce 1886, Anchor Orig<strong>in</strong>al Butter Co. CHI and Partners, London CHI and Partners<br />
regulation, and farm<strong>in</strong>g practices. In short, fewer<br />
cows are now produc<strong>in</strong>g more milk. Indeed, dairy<br />
cows deliver the greatest proportion <strong>of</strong> output<br />
generated by livestock farm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the UK, which,<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2006, accounted for £2,501 million worth <strong>of</strong><br />
product. In terms <strong>of</strong> land management, UK dairy<br />
farms cont<strong>in</strong>ue to use hedges and dry stone walls<br />
to divide fields and, consequently, milk<br />
production shapes the rural landscape.<br />
Although it is a New Zealand brand,<br />
Anchor Butter advertis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the UK has utilised a<br />
range <strong>of</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gs derived from the symbolic<br />
relationships between cows and the landscape.<br />
Throughout the campaigns <strong>of</strong> the 1990’s, the<br />
television advertisements featured Jersey dairy<br />
cows, despite the fact that the majority <strong>of</strong> New<br />
Zealand’s four million dairy cows were black and<br />
white Holste<strong>in</strong>-Freisans. [v] With a “s<strong>of</strong>ter” and more<br />
appeal<strong>in</strong>g “look,” Jersey cows were referred to as<br />
“lucky cows,” depicted <strong>in</strong> lush green fields<br />
danc<strong>in</strong>g, s<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g and proclaim<strong>in</strong>g their good<br />
fortune at be<strong>in</strong>g able to “chew the cud and<br />
browse.” An emphasis was placed on the<br />
consumption <strong>of</strong> “green green grass” as the<br />
relationship between cows and spaces reworked<br />
the production cycle <strong>of</strong> milk so that the quality <strong>of</strong><br />
the f<strong>in</strong>al product, butter, was entirely dependent<br />
on the consumption <strong>of</strong> high quality pasture. Such<br />
imagery short-circuited the realities <strong>of</strong> the<br />
processes by which cows are farmed and bov<strong>in</strong>e<br />
lactation is managed, and <strong>in</strong>stead reduced the<br />
cycle to a simplified, and less ethically<br />
24<br />
problematic, process <strong>of</strong> “grass <strong>in</strong>- butter out.”<br />
Each advertisement <strong>in</strong> the “lucky cow”<br />
campaign <strong>in</strong>cluded some manner <strong>of</strong> enclosure,<br />
which ranged from white picket fenc<strong>in</strong>g, to<br />
wooden ranch-style fenc<strong>in</strong>g, and traditional British<br />
hedgerows. This changed <strong>in</strong> the next campaign<br />
which sought to reflect the company’s awareness<br />
<strong>of</strong> consumer concerns about welfare standards.<br />
As a result, the mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> green spaces and<br />
landscape were re-worked to operate with<strong>in</strong> a<br />
discourse <strong>of</strong> welfare. Repositioned as the “freerange<br />
butter company,” Anchor advertisements<br />
replaced live action commercials with animated<br />
cows that appeared to be made from “Fuzzy<br />
Felt:” s<strong>of</strong>t fabric shapes that were popularly<br />
recognisable and sold as a children’s toy <strong>in</strong> the<br />
UK. No longer restricted to representations <strong>of</strong><br />
Jersey cows, the advertisements also depicted<br />
black and white and brown cows, references to<br />
Holste<strong>in</strong>-Freisans and Ayshire breeds. In the<br />
television advertisements, an animated cow<br />
kicked its way out <strong>of</strong> a shed, with an<br />
accompany<strong>in</strong>g voice-over that stated: “<strong>The</strong>re’s<br />
no such th<strong>in</strong>g as the great <strong>in</strong>doors. Only our cows<br />
are free to roam all year round.” In other ads, two<br />
cows studied a map <strong>of</strong> their extensive available<br />
space and another kicked <strong>of</strong>f human footwear<br />
whilst a voice-over declared “If cows were meant<br />
to be kept <strong>in</strong>doors they’d be born with<br />
slippers.” Intertextual references to the film <strong>The</strong><br />
Great Escape were used <strong>in</strong> a further<br />
advertisement that depicted a cow on a
Ed Edwards and Dave Masterman<br />
<strong>The</strong> Great Escape, Anchor Orig<strong>in</strong>al Butter Co. CHI and Partners, London CHI and Partners<br />
motorcycle try<strong>in</strong>g to jump a fence to escape<br />
from farmers armed with pitchforks. <strong>The</strong> advert<br />
used the film’s title music and the sett<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
although visually stripped-back to <strong>in</strong>corporate<br />
impressions <strong>of</strong> snow topped peaks; rem<strong>in</strong>iscent <strong>of</strong><br />
the familiar alp<strong>in</strong>e sett<strong>in</strong>g used for the orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
motorcycle chase scene with Steve McQueen.<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>t advertisements that accompanied the freerange<br />
campaign used Polaroid pictures <strong>of</strong> cows<br />
<strong>in</strong> front <strong>of</strong> well-known landmarks such as the Eifel<br />
Tower and a pyramid, with the strapl<strong>in</strong>e: ”Our<br />
cows are free to roam.”<br />
Concerns were raised about the<br />
company’s depiction <strong>of</strong> “happy cows,” and the<br />
free-range campaign received public criticism <strong>in</strong><br />
1997 when an advert that depicted a calf<br />
“hatch<strong>in</strong>g” from an egg then relax<strong>in</strong>g with its<br />
mother amongst other contented Jersey cows<br />
attracted fifty-four viewer compla<strong>in</strong>ts to the<br />
Independent Television Commission. Public<br />
objections to the advertisement were reported by<br />
the ITC as <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
a) that the use <strong>of</strong> the term "free-range"<br />
implied the cows used to produce Anchor<br />
are allowed to keep their calves with<br />
them, are <strong>in</strong> pasture all year round or are<br />
more humanely treated than usual.<br />
25<br />
(Some farmers amongst the<br />
compla<strong>in</strong>ants po<strong>in</strong>ted out that cattle<br />
<strong>in</strong> New Zealand traditionally have their<br />
tailsdocked);<br />
b) that Anchor butter is no more natural or<br />
pure than other brands;<br />
(ITC, 1997, ”Anchor Butter”)<br />
None <strong>of</strong> the compla<strong>in</strong>ts were upheld by the ITC,<br />
which, <strong>in</strong> its assessment <strong>of</strong> the objections, stated<br />
that the advertiser had confirmed that “the New<br />
Zealand cows used to produce Anchor Butter<br />
were kept <strong>in</strong> pasture all year round which justified<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> the term ‘free-range’” (ITC, 1997). <strong>The</strong><br />
compla<strong>in</strong>ts regard<strong>in</strong>g the implication that calves<br />
stayed with their mothers received no response<br />
from the ITC, although the issue <strong>of</strong> tail-dock<strong>in</strong>g<br />
was accounted for <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g way: “<strong>The</strong><br />
animals shown <strong>in</strong> the commercial had not had<br />
their tails docked but the ITC did not th<strong>in</strong>k that<br />
<strong>in</strong>accuracy was significant enough to make the<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g mislead<strong>in</strong>g” (ITC, 1997). Furthermore<br />
the report noted that “<strong>The</strong> ITC did not th<strong>in</strong>k the<br />
commercial implied that Anchor is better than<br />
other brands, rather that be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> pasture all year<br />
is a more ‘natural’ existence” (ITC, 1997). Although<br />
consumer objections to Anchor Butter advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
were directed toward the misrepresentation <strong>of</strong>
WPP Agency Grey London<br />
It’s Not About Great Brita<strong>in</strong> WPP Agency Grey London<br />
farm<strong>in</strong>g practices and demonstrated tensions<br />
between <strong>in</strong>terpretations <strong>of</strong> the advertisement and<br />
concerns over the implied mean<strong>in</strong>gs about cow<br />
welfare, the ITC’s response made it clear that<br />
what was at issue was the representation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
product and not the misrepresentation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
realities <strong>of</strong> the lives <strong>of</strong> dairy cows.<br />
In an attempt to recover butter-mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the discourse <strong>of</strong> tradition, a 2010 Anchor<br />
Butter commercial returned to live action and<br />
depicted cows leav<strong>in</strong>g the fields to work <strong>in</strong> a<br />
factory with the strap-l<strong>in</strong>e: “Made by cows s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
1886.” <strong>The</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> the £10 million campaign was<br />
to position the company as the “Orig<strong>in</strong>al Butter<br />
Co.” [vi] A country music version <strong>of</strong> the Guns N’<br />
Roses song Paradise City with the lyrics: “Take me<br />
down to a paradise city, where the grass is green<br />
and the girls are pretty, oh won’t you please take<br />
me home” accompanied images <strong>of</strong> cows<br />
“clock<strong>in</strong>g-on,” operat<strong>in</strong>g production mach<strong>in</strong>ery,<br />
perform<strong>in</strong>g quality checks, and packag<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
butter for delivery <strong>in</strong> a n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century factory<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>g hous<strong>in</strong>g contemporary <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
technologies. In the simulation <strong>of</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
century factory production, the advert reimag<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
the relationship between cows and milk<br />
by exclud<strong>in</strong>g the process <strong>of</strong> milk<strong>in</strong>g. Rather than<br />
“produc<strong>in</strong>g milk,” cows “make butter.” In<br />
construct<strong>in</strong>g new associations between the<br />
company and tradition, Anchor Butter also shed<br />
its “free-range” identity. And although the<br />
advertisement placed cows with<strong>in</strong> the conf<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong><br />
the factory sett<strong>in</strong>g, tak<strong>in</strong>g on the humanised roles<br />
<strong>of</strong> operatives, the concept <strong>of</strong> the advertisement<br />
suggested that butter-mak<strong>in</strong>g reta<strong>in</strong>ed l<strong>in</strong>ks with<br />
traditional agricultural and <strong>in</strong>dustrial practices. <strong>The</strong><br />
open<strong>in</strong>g and clos<strong>in</strong>g images still drew directly on<br />
the aesthetic traditions <strong>of</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century<br />
British landscape pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g with large romanticised<br />
26<br />
landscapes at daybreak and sunset. In this way, a<br />
nostalgia discourse framed butter-mak<strong>in</strong>g as<br />
traditional and the company as hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
authenticity through the rather surreal imagery <strong>of</strong><br />
cows be<strong>in</strong>g happily complicit <strong>in</strong> their own<br />
exploitation.<br />
A challenge to the Anchor campaign<br />
came <strong>in</strong> the form <strong>of</strong> a counter-campaign by<br />
Country Life Butter, which used the former<br />
member <strong>of</strong> the 1970’s punk band <strong>The</strong> Sex Pistols,<br />
John Lydon, to front its advertis<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> central<br />
message <strong>of</strong> the campaign was that Country Life<br />
Butter is British and Anchor Butter is from New<br />
Zealand. <strong>The</strong> Country Life campaign underscored<br />
how robust the associations were between the<br />
Anchor Butter brand and national identity, and<br />
the counter-campaign sought to dismantle those<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs and reclaim imagery <strong>of</strong> “British” cows<br />
and countryside. <strong>The</strong> television advertisement<br />
showed John Lydon experienc<strong>in</strong>g various aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> British rural life: the British countryside was<br />
depicted as sheep on a country lane, and the<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> “British milk” was represented by black<br />
and white cows chas<strong>in</strong>g Lydon through an<br />
expanse <strong>of</strong> green fields. <strong>The</strong> pack shot at the end<br />
<strong>of</strong> the advertisement returned to the image <strong>of</strong><br />
open green fields. <strong>The</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>t adverts that were<br />
placed <strong>in</strong> broadsheets and the popular press<br />
used an image <strong>of</strong> Lydon burst<strong>in</strong>g through the<br />
page <strong>of</strong> the newspaper under the “headl<strong>in</strong>es:”<br />
”Revealed: Anchor Butter is from New Zealand”<br />
(broadsheet advertisement, July 2010); and<br />
“Anchor’s from New Zealand” (tabloid<br />
advertisement, July 2010). <strong>The</strong> campaigns<br />
mounted by Anchor and Country Life revealed<br />
the high <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>of</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> cows and the<br />
landscape, and by extension, the commercial<br />
value <strong>of</strong> both.<br />
Macnaughten and Urry argue that<br />
representations <strong>of</strong> natural space are socially and<br />
symbolically produced and that “different<br />
features <strong>of</strong> the landscape are celebrated with<strong>in</strong><br />
different societies” (Macnaughten and Urry, 1998,<br />
p.182). <strong>The</strong> spaces appropriated <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g by<br />
Anchor Butter, for the UK market, and Country Life,<br />
borrowed from established conventions <strong>of</strong><br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g “the countryside” as peaceful, green<br />
and fertile, and symbolically opposed to the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrialisation <strong>of</strong> towns and cities. In this way, the<br />
production <strong>of</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gs around cows and<br />
landscape are mutually re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g. Landscape<br />
can operate through a multiplicity <strong>of</strong> discourses<br />
as a form <strong>of</strong> nostalgia that recalls an idealised<br />
past and as a symbol <strong>of</strong> freedom, <strong>of</strong><br />
“naturalness,” and <strong>in</strong> opposition to<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrialisation. Each <strong>of</strong> these mean<strong>in</strong>gs
translates <strong>in</strong>to context for the bov<strong>in</strong>e body, which<br />
is then understood as part <strong>of</strong> a cultural and social<br />
heritage, and which, <strong>in</strong> turn, reproduces the<br />
sense that cows have always had freedom to<br />
roam and have always been apart from<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrialisation. Locat<strong>in</strong>g cows with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
idealised landscapes <strong>of</strong> a particular country or<br />
region thus re<strong>in</strong>forces symbolic associations<br />
between a sense <strong>of</strong> place, conceived through<br />
the highly organised imagery <strong>of</strong> the natural world,<br />
and the ”naturalness” <strong>of</strong> the life <strong>of</strong> a dairy cow. In<br />
do<strong>in</strong>g this, the connections allude to milk<br />
production as a wholesome process that takes<br />
place <strong>in</strong> only the most ideal <strong>of</strong> locations. A<br />
proliferation <strong>of</strong> cow imagery <strong>in</strong> UK advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
suggests that, at a symbolic level, some animals<br />
are more economically significant than others.<br />
This concurs with a 2002 survey <strong>in</strong> which cows<br />
appeared as the eighth most effective animal for<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g purposes.<br />
One reason for the popularity <strong>of</strong> cows (as<br />
images) may be that their mean<strong>in</strong>gs with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
circuits <strong>of</strong> capitalism have a legacy <strong>in</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
century landscape pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, where benign<br />
bov<strong>in</strong>e bodies have long been associated with a<br />
calm and tranquil British rural life - a culturally<br />
imag<strong>in</strong>ed antidote to <strong>in</strong>dustrialisation and<br />
urbanisation. In this way, the reality <strong>of</strong> the bov<strong>in</strong>e<br />
experience has been mediated by landscape<br />
pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g and remediated by the advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
discourses discussed here. <strong>The</strong> landscapes take<br />
on new mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the light <strong>of</strong> welfare<br />
discourses. Open spaces that signalled non<strong>in</strong>dustrialisation<br />
are transformed by welfare<br />
discourses which reconfigure the landscape as<br />
an ethical space through associations with the<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> “free-range” and “free-to-roam.” As<br />
a result, <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g for dairy-related products,<br />
agricultural spaces overlap with the mean<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
and values that are assigned to nature and “the<br />
countryside,” and these <strong>in</strong> turn close down the<br />
opportunities for questions about welfare<br />
standards and reduce dairy farm<strong>in</strong>g practices to<br />
an extremely narrow range <strong>of</strong> representations.<br />
References<br />
[i] Source: Defra (2008) <strong>The</strong> Environmental Impact <strong>of</strong> Livestock<br />
Production<br />
[ii] Source: <strong>The</strong> National Trust (2001) Farm<strong>in</strong>g Forward<br />
[iii] Source: Defra (2008) <strong>The</strong> Environmental Impact <strong>of</strong> Livestock<br />
Production.<br />
[iv] Source: Miller & Robertson, 1959, p.432.<br />
27<br />
[v] Source: NZ Government website, “Dairy cattle numbers<br />
1895-2005” onl<strong>in</strong>e at http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/dairy<strong>in</strong>g-<br />
and-dairy-products/10/1/1 [accessed 4 May 2010].<br />
[vi] Source: <strong>Market<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Week, 26 February 2010 onl<strong>in</strong>e at<br />
http://www.market<strong>in</strong>gweek.co.uk/news/anchor-launches-<br />
%C2%A310m-ad-push-to-support-brandreposition<strong>in</strong>g/3010501.article<br />
[accessed 3 March 2010].<br />
This piece is adapted with permission from ‘Farmed: Sell<strong>in</strong>g Animal<br />
Products’ <strong>in</strong> Popular Media and <strong>Animals</strong> (Molloy, 2012).<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Claire Molloy is Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Film, Television and Digital<br />
Media at Edge Hill University. Her publications <strong>in</strong>clude the books:<br />
Popular Media and <strong>Animals</strong> (2012), Memento (2010), Beyond<br />
Human:xfrom animality to transhumanism (2011) and American<br />
IndependentxC<strong>in</strong>ema: <strong>in</strong>die, <strong>in</strong>diewood and beyond.
HIS MASTER’S VOICE<br />
A white dog with brown ears sits <strong>in</strong> front <strong>of</strong> a gramophone, head directed to its brass-horn and slightly tilted to one<br />
side. <strong>The</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g was purchased <strong>in</strong> 1899, along with its full copyright, by the emerg<strong>in</strong>g Gramophone<br />
Company from the artist Francis Barraud.<br />
Text by Concepcion Cortes Zulueta<br />
Francis Barraud<br />
His Master’s Voice, Oil on Canvas, 1899 His Master’s Voice<br />
28
T<br />
here seems to be some confusion regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the early history <strong>of</strong> the pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g: if it was<br />
made while Nipper, the dog, was still alive; if<br />
it is based or not on a photograph; what was<br />
Barraud’s <strong>in</strong>itial plan; what was the phonograph,<br />
then replaced by a gramophone, supposedly<br />
play<strong>in</strong>g, or whose idea was its f<strong>in</strong>al title, among<br />
others. What rema<strong>in</strong>s obvious, though, is the<br />
worldwide diffusion <strong>of</strong> an image that acted and<br />
has been used both as a brand and as an<br />
advertisement by several companies, past and<br />
present.<br />
Apart from the mystery surround<strong>in</strong>g its<br />
historical details, the legend accompany<strong>in</strong>g this<br />
domestic scene shared more or less the same<br />
features everywhere. In fact this myth is what<br />
fasc<strong>in</strong>ates me the most. As for its overall content I<br />
feel <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed to keep the version <strong>of</strong>fered by my<br />
Spanish parents, born <strong>in</strong> the fifties, when feign<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ignorance I asked them if the phrase “la voz de<br />
su amo” - literally, “his master’s voice”- sounded<br />
familiar to them. Both burst out: “<strong>of</strong> course!”,<br />
talked about records and then took turns to<br />
expla<strong>in</strong> the touch<strong>in</strong>g story <strong>of</strong> the dog who froze<br />
close to a gramophone play<strong>in</strong>g the voice <strong>of</strong> his<br />
late master, seem<strong>in</strong>gly recognis<strong>in</strong>g it and maybe<br />
try<strong>in</strong>g to make sense <strong>of</strong> what was happen<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Besides the cuteness <strong>of</strong> the little dog, it is<br />
plausible a considerable chunk <strong>of</strong> the strength<br />
and virality <strong>of</strong> the picture lie <strong>in</strong> the questions<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ted out by those two words, seem<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
maybe. Do dogs identify the sounds com<strong>in</strong>g out<br />
<strong>of</strong> gramophones as someone’s voice? Many<br />
people, common people, guided by the slightly<br />
cocked head and their own experiences would<br />
answer positively, stat<strong>in</strong>g that dogs do identify<br />
people’s voices <strong>in</strong> record<strong>in</strong>gs and react to them,<br />
<strong>in</strong> some way or another. But are dogs able to<br />
understand these recorded sounds as such, and<br />
not as an actual person? To what level do they<br />
understand what is happen<strong>in</strong>g? This is, <strong>in</strong> fact, a<br />
more complex issue.<br />
In any case, the development <strong>of</strong> devices<br />
that recorded our audiovisual environment<br />
prompted comparisons between our senses and<br />
perception, and those <strong>of</strong> animals. For example,<br />
to what degree they were tuned to each other, if<br />
animals saw, heard and perceived as we did or<br />
not. Recorders <strong>in</strong>terposed another step between<br />
the actual world and perception. A level which<br />
could be easily manipulated and played with,<br />
fabricat<strong>in</strong>g products, such as photographs, films<br />
or audio-record<strong>in</strong>gs, that <strong>in</strong> some circumstances<br />
even posed as reality. But know<strong>in</strong>g what a<br />
gramophone was and what it did, kept ourselves<br />
aware and complicit with its secrets, and safe not<br />
29<br />
to be fooled by the mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
However dogs, poor little dogs, were<br />
suspected <strong>of</strong> not be<strong>in</strong>g so smart. So maybe<br />
Nipper did recognise his master’s voice, and sat<br />
there <strong>in</strong>terested, wonder<strong>in</strong>g, head titled to one<br />
side. Nevertheless, apparently he never reached<br />
any f<strong>in</strong>al conclusion. For what we know, he may<br />
be puzzled by the event <strong>in</strong> the same way that he<br />
may not recognise his own reflection on the<br />
brass-horn, or <strong>in</strong> a mirror. This scene was a<br />
harmless alternative to persuade about the fidelity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the recorded sound without the risk <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong>fend<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>telligence <strong>of</strong> the human - male?-<br />
customers, and strengthen<strong>in</strong>g simultaneously their<br />
confidence and dom<strong>in</strong>ant position back at<br />
home, sweet home. Maybe this was not just a<br />
portrait <strong>of</strong> man as master <strong>of</strong> animals and<br />
creation. After all, one could be the master not<br />
only <strong>of</strong> his own dog, but also <strong>of</strong> servants, children,<br />
wife and the whole household.<br />
<strong>The</strong> success <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> strokes <strong>of</strong> this<br />
scheme can be validated by the existence <strong>of</strong><br />
recent variations, very similar although focused <strong>in</strong><br />
sight <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> hear<strong>in</strong>g. Like two 2011 Samsung<br />
Galaxy commercials that show a hen and a little<br />
girl deceived by the smart-phone vivid images.<br />
<strong>The</strong> hen, brood<strong>in</strong>g the eggs <strong>in</strong> a screen, and the<br />
girl dropp<strong>in</strong>g the gadget <strong>in</strong>side a goldfish bowl<br />
try<strong>in</strong>g to save a clownfish that was not really there.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are also plenty <strong>of</strong> Internet videos with dogs<br />
tilt<strong>in</strong>g their heads when faced with persons <strong>in</strong><br />
onl<strong>in</strong>e video-chats. This may be possibly because<br />
we f<strong>in</strong>d that charm<strong>in</strong>g, as well as the floppy and<br />
genetically selected neotenic ears that may<br />
partially cause so much tilt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> order to avoid<br />
the obstruction <strong>of</strong> the sound waves.<br />
Beyond the puzzlement that we attribute<br />
to the dog, there is another strong emotional<br />
content <strong>in</strong> the pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g. Is Nipper aware <strong>of</strong> what<br />
death is? Is he mourn<strong>in</strong>g his beloved master?<br />
Perhaps to feed our human pride we would feel<br />
tempted to answer that he is, but we don’t know<br />
for sure. On the other hand if the depicted<br />
vignette were a scientific experiment to check if<br />
Nipper possessed a death concept, nowadays it<br />
probably would have been considered as<br />
ethically unacceptable like the experiment <strong>in</strong><br />
which Col<strong>in</strong> Allen and Mark Hauser described and<br />
then challenged, consist<strong>in</strong>g on study<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
reaction <strong>of</strong> a female monkey when listen<strong>in</strong>g to a<br />
recorded call <strong>of</strong> her dead <strong>in</strong>fant. However, the<br />
brown and white dog can be labelled as an<br />
update <strong>of</strong> the Victorian topic <strong>of</strong> the mourn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
dog. A topic also found <strong>in</strong> other times and<br />
cultures. For <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong> Japan, where a statue<br />
remembers Hachiko the faithful.
All these melodramatic associations seem<br />
especially suitable for a company devoted to<br />
music, which entangles love, life and death.<br />
Matters perfectly captured <strong>in</strong> what looks like a<br />
pla<strong>in</strong> homey scene. If we mix together these with<br />
the human-animal perception riddle, the<br />
shameless compliment to our amaz<strong>in</strong>g human<br />
abilities and the appeal <strong>of</strong> the dog’s slightly tilted<br />
head, what else could we ask for <strong>in</strong> an ad?<br />
Concepción Cortés Zulueta is a PhD candidate <strong>in</strong> art history at<br />
Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spa<strong>in</strong>. Her thesis project,<br />
<strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary <strong>in</strong> its scope, focuses <strong>in</strong> the presence <strong>of</strong> non human<br />
animals <strong>in</strong> contemporary art from the '60s to the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
XXIst Century. She explores issues <strong>of</strong> animal agency, perception,<br />
creativity, and changes <strong>in</strong> the attitudes <strong>of</strong> contemporary artists<br />
towards animals. Specially <strong>in</strong> their attempts to collaborate with them.<br />
She has be<strong>in</strong>g do<strong>in</strong>g research stays at National Art Library, V&A,<br />
London; New Zealand Centre for Human-Animal Studies (NZCHAS),<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Canterbury, Christchurch, and she is currently at MIT,<br />
Cambridge, until January 2013.<br />
30
P<br />
revious academic research look<strong>in</strong>g at how<br />
animals have been portrayed <strong>in</strong> popular<br />
culture – specifically the tabloid press<br />
(Herzog and Galv<strong>in</strong>, 1992), greet<strong>in</strong>gs cards (Arluke<br />
and Bogden, 2010), visual arts (Kal<strong>of</strong> et al. 2011),<br />
and T.V. and pr<strong>in</strong>t adverts (Lerner and Kal<strong>of</strong>, 1999;<br />
Phillips, 1996; Spears et al. 1996) - has generated<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> themes, or roles, <strong>in</strong> which animals<br />
are frequently cast. <strong>The</strong> popular media has <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used animals as a symbolic and allegorical short<br />
hand to quickly conjure up simple constructs;<br />
loved one, saviour, pest, object <strong>of</strong> wonder,<br />
attacker, and victim, to name a few. <strong>Animals</strong><br />
have also been repeatedly presented <strong>in</strong> roles<br />
such as that <strong>of</strong> human tool and emblem <strong>of</strong><br />
nature at large. However, there are additional,<br />
more complex, factors affect<strong>in</strong>g representation<br />
that have also been identified by previous<br />
research. <strong>The</strong>se <strong>in</strong>clude the degree <strong>of</strong><br />
anthropomorphism <strong>of</strong> the animal, whether social<br />
or moral valuations are made regard<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
animal, if any transformative effects can be seen<br />
THE TIGER IN THE TANK<br />
Despite the complexities and <strong>in</strong>constancies <strong>of</strong> the human-animal relationship non-human animals [1] have been<br />
<strong>in</strong>timately <strong>in</strong>terwoven with<strong>in</strong> human culture for thousands <strong>of</strong> years. Representations <strong>of</strong> animals exist across many<br />
mediums, with roots clearly visible <strong>in</strong> Palaeolithic cave pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs and early carv<strong>in</strong>gs, evolv<strong>in</strong>g human language,<br />
music and drama, and narrative fables and folk stories. Unsurpris<strong>in</strong>gly then animal representations cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be<br />
rife throughout our modern lives and across much popular media.<br />
Text by Cluny South<br />
31<br />
between product and animal, and f<strong>in</strong>ally whether<br />
our understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a product<br />
or an animal is likely to be fundamentally altered<br />
by association with the other. This latter po<strong>in</strong>t, the<br />
potential power <strong>of</strong> popular media to shape the<br />
human-animal relationship, has been notably<br />
considered by Spears et al. (1996), who<br />
constructed a symbolic communications model<br />
(SCM) <strong>in</strong> order to exam<strong>in</strong>e how a culturally<br />
constructed world (CCW) might <strong>in</strong>teract with<br />
representations <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g contexts.<br />
Such was the backdrop to the study I<br />
decided to carry out when my curiosity was<br />
ignited by a parallel advertis<strong>in</strong>g research project.<br />
My previous <strong>in</strong>dustry experience background <strong>in</strong><br />
factual animal programm<strong>in</strong>g had already amply<br />
fuelled my <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> popular animal<br />
representations. For some time I had wonder<strong>in</strong>g if<br />
animals suffered <strong>in</strong> the popular media, a little like<br />
typecast actors, constra<strong>in</strong>ed by culturally<br />
constructed roles - roles that were generated by<br />
human stereotypes and biases <strong>of</strong> what it was like
Fig. 1.<br />
Symbolic communications model (SCM) Nancy Spears<br />
to be a given species? For example, did hyenas<br />
ever get cast as anyth<strong>in</strong>g but the bad guys <strong>in</strong><br />
adverts; were dogs always “mans best friend;”<br />
and were butterflies ever anyth<strong>in</strong>g but beautiful?<br />
Added to this, I now wondered if there were any<br />
signs <strong>of</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g uses <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
and whether different products used animals <strong>in</strong><br />
different ways. F<strong>in</strong>ally I wasn’t just <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> how<br />
the media was portray<strong>in</strong>g the outside world, like<br />
Spears et al., I also wondered if stereotyp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
the media could have an impact on an animal’s<br />
real life world? Perhaps this project would give me<br />
a chance to f<strong>in</strong>d out more.<br />
I set about a review and content analysis<br />
<strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> car advertis<strong>in</strong>g to see if the use <strong>of</strong><br />
animals <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle product category displayed<br />
any <strong>of</strong> the themes previously noted by<br />
researchers, or revealed <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g new trends.<br />
Over several months I documented and analysed<br />
over 500 car advertisements that had aired<br />
globally dur<strong>in</strong>g the period <strong>of</strong> 2000 to 2012. My<br />
limitations were as follows: <strong>The</strong> adverts must have<br />
been <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>t advertis<strong>in</strong>g (as opposed to video or<br />
web); any contextual copy (text) crucial to<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g must be translatable us<strong>in</strong>g Google<br />
32<br />
translate (if it was not orig<strong>in</strong>ally <strong>in</strong> English); that the<br />
advertisements were available us<strong>in</strong>g web based<br />
search eng<strong>in</strong>es (Google, B<strong>in</strong>g) or through<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g agency archive site searches; that the<br />
category was auto or bike related; and f<strong>in</strong>ally,<br />
that at least one animal was featured as an<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegral part <strong>of</strong> the advertis<strong>in</strong>g message.<br />
Bulls pull….but Cheetahs are Go!<br />
What I found confirmed past research, but also<br />
provided <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g variations, perhaps some<br />
unique to car advertis<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> symbolic themes<br />
previously identified: threat, victim, tool use, pest,<br />
imag<strong>in</strong>ary person, wild nature and object <strong>of</strong><br />
wonder, could all be seen fairly consistently<br />
across depictions <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> car advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
over the last ten years. For example, sharks and<br />
crocodiles were nearly always coded as<br />
attack<strong>in</strong>g or threaten<strong>in</strong>g, and likewise brown and<br />
black bears were frequently cast <strong>in</strong> a threaten<strong>in</strong>g<br />
role. However, there were also unexpected<br />
nuances. Polar bears were <strong>of</strong>ten depicted as<br />
victims, perhaps due to associations with melt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
polar ice caps and sensitivities regard<strong>in</strong>g climate
Leo Burnett France<br />
500 Black Jack, 2009 Leo Burnett France<br />
33
Leo Burnett Istanbul<br />
How Far Can You Go?, 2010 Leo Burnett Istanbul<br />
change from an auto related <strong>in</strong>dustry. Another<br />
bear exception was the teddy bear, widely used<br />
to represent cute and cuddly, and one that<br />
provides one <strong>of</strong> the more thought-provok<strong>in</strong>g<br />
contributions regard<strong>in</strong>g representation <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
<strong>in</strong> auto advertis<strong>in</strong>g through its depiction <strong>in</strong> the<br />
2009 Fiat Blackjack campaign.<br />
Mov<strong>in</strong>g away from animal threat use,<br />
elephants and hippos were consistently popular<br />
animals for symbolis<strong>in</strong>g both wild nature and<br />
large size/carry<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>in</strong> car advertis<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Rh<strong>in</strong>os were synonymous, likewise, with toughness<br />
across a range <strong>of</strong> auto related products, and<br />
bulls were without exception representative <strong>of</strong><br />
unbridled eng<strong>in</strong>e power. When it came to power<br />
<strong>in</strong> general, however, there were other animals<br />
wait<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the w<strong>in</strong>gs. Horses, <strong>in</strong> contrast to bulls,<br />
were <strong>of</strong>ten used to discuss bridled, controllable,<br />
even <strong>in</strong>telligent, power; a concept that appears<br />
to be grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> popularity, perhaps <strong>in</strong> reference<br />
to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g concerns <strong>of</strong> responsible energy use<br />
and a potential move away from the heady days<br />
<strong>of</strong> raw power, as one <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> sell<strong>in</strong>g features<br />
<strong>in</strong> auto advertis<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Despite this move, however, acceleration,<br />
speed and power cont<strong>in</strong>ue, to date, to be<br />
attributes that feature prom<strong>in</strong>ently <strong>in</strong> car<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g and, not surpris<strong>in</strong>gly, big cats excel <strong>in</strong><br />
34<br />
this category <strong>of</strong> symbolic use. While tigers, and to<br />
a lesser extent leopards, jaguars and pumas,<br />
were <strong>of</strong>ten used to <strong>in</strong>dicate a powerful ride, the<br />
cheetah, as a s<strong>in</strong>gle species, appeared the most<br />
frequently representative <strong>of</strong> “fast” across the<br />
adverts surveyed. Cheetahs were l<strong>in</strong>ked to<br />
acceleration and speed time and aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> car<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g, to the extent that even the smallest<br />
h<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> some spots or the blur <strong>of</strong> its fel<strong>in</strong>e shape<br />
was <strong>of</strong>ten enough to suggest a sports car model.<br />
More camels, pandas and frogs…<br />
As much as cats seem eternally popular <strong>in</strong> car<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g, there were some clear shifts to be<br />
seen <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> animal popularity <strong>in</strong> the adverts<br />
over the decade reviewed. While bulls have seen<br />
a representative decrease <strong>in</strong> car ads, there<br />
appears to have been a rise <strong>in</strong> adverts conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
polar bears, pengu<strong>in</strong>s, frogs, fish, butterflies and<br />
pandas; all <strong>of</strong> which were frequently associated<br />
with environmental vulnerability and habitat<br />
concerns with<strong>in</strong> the adverts. Increas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
environmental awareness has, <strong>in</strong> all likelihood,<br />
also contributed to another animal’s popularity<br />
levels - the camel. This species, clearly on the rise<br />
<strong>in</strong> the adverts surveyed, was almost always
DDB Berl<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> Golf GTI Edition 30, 2007 DDB Berl<strong>in</strong><br />
associated with fuel efficiency. <strong>The</strong> camel’s<br />
newfound popularity across many types <strong>of</strong><br />
vehicle is perhaps not surpris<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a world <strong>of</strong><br />
chang<strong>in</strong>g car priorities. On a more specific level,<br />
the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> the 4x4 SUV market has hailed a<br />
trend shift <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> animal usage, with<br />
”surefooted” goats, and animals traditionally<br />
associated with wild nature (elephants, hippos,<br />
lions, to name a few), see<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creased exposure.<br />
Perhaps most notably, all the ris<strong>in</strong>g consumer<br />
expectations <strong>of</strong> car attributes, comb<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g audience sophistication <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong><br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g language, has also heralded the birth<br />
<strong>of</strong> animal comb<strong>in</strong>ations. Assisted by<br />
improvements <strong>in</strong> computer graphics, these<br />
animal comb<strong>in</strong>ations have allowed several<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> a car, such as fuel economy and<br />
speed, or ruggedness and beauty, to be<br />
promoted <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle advert. This <strong>in</strong> turn has<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> more complex characterisations <strong>in</strong><br />
terms <strong>of</strong> animal usage, and will be an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
trend to follow.<br />
35<br />
Seriously not like us.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> areas <strong>in</strong> which car advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
appeared to diverge from other advertis<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
anthropomorphism somewhat stood out. <strong>Animals</strong><br />
were occasionally portrayed as human-like but<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten the reverse was true. When animals<br />
are used anthropomorphically <strong>in</strong> popular culture<br />
humour is <strong>of</strong>ten a part <strong>of</strong> the equation, and this<br />
understandably sits uncomfortably with car<br />
publicity. Cars are a serious purchase and this<br />
was reflected <strong>in</strong> how animals were associated<br />
with the product <strong>in</strong> car advertis<strong>in</strong>g. It was<br />
generally rare for an anthropomorphic animal to<br />
be shown represent<strong>in</strong>g the product itself.<br />
Rather, car advertisers, as we have noted,<br />
showed a tendency to trade on the powerful<br />
transformative potential <strong>of</strong> animal symbolism and<br />
preferred mak<strong>in</strong>g their products seem more<br />
animal-like. <strong>The</strong> hope was frequently that<br />
associations between a favoured animal’s<br />
attributes and the car would improve the<br />
perceptions <strong>of</strong> the car’s features <strong>in</strong> this category,<br />
even when l<strong>in</strong>ks were fairly tenuous. For example,
McCann Erikson<br />
Opel Astra, 2007 McCann Eriksson<br />
an elephant image might be used to make a<br />
family car appear more spacious, and a<br />
cheetah image could suggest racy, even if <strong>in</strong><br />
reality these attributes <strong>in</strong> the product were<br />
relatively m<strong>in</strong>or.<br />
Look<strong>in</strong>g at how transformation might<br />
happen <strong>in</strong> reverse drew me <strong>in</strong>to the area <strong>of</strong><br />
social moral valuations. A number <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
have historically become so tightly associated<br />
with certa<strong>in</strong> human values that this association<br />
may be considered to have had a transformative<br />
effect on cultural perceptions <strong>of</strong> the animal itself.<br />
Butterflies and doves have historically been the<br />
beneficiaries <strong>of</strong> an association with the human<br />
values <strong>of</strong> freedom and hope, and <strong>in</strong> adverts<br />
these animals are rarely seen <strong>in</strong> a negative light.<br />
Likewise ants and bees have frequently been<br />
associated with human constructions <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dustriousness, and are favourably considered as<br />
a result, whilst conversely bats and wolves have<br />
lost out for centuries due to our cultural tendency<br />
to l<strong>in</strong>k them with human notions <strong>of</strong> darkness and<br />
evil. <strong>The</strong> badges <strong>of</strong> honour, or dishonour, we dish<br />
out, unfortunately tend to “dog” the recipients,<br />
36<br />
colour<strong>in</strong>g how we understand them as an animal<br />
species with<strong>in</strong> a wider cultural framework.<br />
<strong>The</strong> lot <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> car advertis<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
similar to that <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> other advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
categories, as well as that <strong>of</strong> non-animal<br />
characters, <strong>in</strong> this respect. For better or worse,<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g, along with much popular media,<br />
uses shorthand to efficiently evoke mean<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
mood, with m<strong>in</strong>imal explanation. <strong>Animals</strong> are a<br />
useful tool <strong>in</strong> this undertak<strong>in</strong>g, and one that has<br />
been utilised for decades. While the good guys<br />
and bad guys are typecast <strong>in</strong> roles that are rarely,<br />
if ever, questioned, the degree to which<br />
movement may be possible, <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> alter<strong>in</strong>g<br />
these associations <strong>in</strong> popular culture, is an<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g debate. Recent research <strong>in</strong>to the<br />
improv<strong>in</strong>g North American public perceptions <strong>of</strong><br />
cetaceans (whales and dolph<strong>in</strong>s) follow<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
popular TV series “Flipper,” as well as the shift<strong>in</strong>g<br />
North Korean categorization <strong>of</strong> dogs, from food<br />
item to pet animal, suggests that attitudes<br />
towards animal groups can alter surpris<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
quickly and dramatically under certa<strong>in</strong><br />
circumstances, br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g a ray <strong>of</strong> hope that one
David&Goliath<br />
Fast and Fuel Efficient, 2009 David&Goliath<br />
day the hyena may <strong>in</strong>deed star as a film’s happy<br />
hero!<br />
So, f<strong>in</strong>ally, my last question - does the<br />
representation <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g matter <strong>in</strong><br />
terms <strong>of</strong> human attitudes to animals <strong>in</strong> the real<br />
world? For me it’s a clear “yes,” for the reason that<br />
the repeated cast<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> stereotyped<br />
roles across the popular media <strong>in</strong>evitably serves<br />
to re<strong>in</strong>force and perpetuate the prejudiced<br />
constructs we have amassed around non-human<br />
species, as ev<strong>in</strong>ced by Spears et al. <strong>The</strong> effects <strong>of</strong><br />
species bias based on the “charm effect” are<br />
surpris<strong>in</strong>gly pervasive, and even academic<br />
researchers admit to preferenc<strong>in</strong>g charismatic<br />
animals <strong>in</strong> scientific research (Lorimer, 2007).<br />
While a tendency to categorize animals<br />
<strong>in</strong>to “good and bad” and “them and us” may be<br />
a natural product <strong>of</strong> the human-animal<br />
relationship, and our very anthropocentric worldview,<br />
it comprehensively fails to evaluate and<br />
understand animals as they really are. An<br />
appreciation <strong>of</strong> the natural world is not served by<br />
portray<strong>in</strong>g certa<strong>in</strong> animal species as harmless<br />
emblems <strong>of</strong> peace and <strong>in</strong>nocence whilst cast<strong>in</strong>g<br />
others as dark villa<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> nature, s<strong>in</strong>ce these are<br />
projected human constructs. <strong>Animals</strong> are clearly<br />
37<br />
more complex and <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sically valuable, both as<br />
species and <strong>in</strong>dividuals. Like many marg<strong>in</strong>alised<br />
out-groups, animals will likely benefit from a<br />
deeper scrut<strong>in</strong>y, and perhaps this will prove the<br />
best way to tackle one <strong>of</strong> the last major<br />
challenges <strong>of</strong> human prejudice – that <strong>of</strong><br />
speciesism.<br />
Notes:<br />
1) Non-human animals from now on will be referred <strong>in</strong> this<br />
text to simply as animals for reasons <strong>of</strong> brevity.<br />
References:<br />
Arluke, A. and Bogdan, R. (2010). Beauty and the Beast:<br />
Human-Animal Relations as Revealed <strong>in</strong> Real Photo<br />
Postcards, 1905-1935. Syracuse University Press.<br />
Herzog, H.A. and Galv<strong>in</strong>, S.L. (1992). <strong>Animals</strong>, Archetypes,<br />
and Popular <strong>Culture</strong>: Tales from the Tabloid Press. Anthrozoos.<br />
Vol. 5 (2). Pp. 77-92.<br />
Kal<strong>of</strong> L., Zammit-Lucia, J., and Kelly, J.R. (2011). <strong>The</strong><br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animal portraiture <strong>in</strong> a museum sett<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
Implications for conservation. Organization & Environment.<br />
Vol. 24 (2). Pp. 150-174.
Jung von Matt<br />
<strong>The</strong>y Will Survive Jung von Matt<br />
Lerner, J.E., and Kal<strong>of</strong>, L. (1999). <strong>The</strong> animal text: Message<br />
and mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> television advertisements. <strong>The</strong> Sociological<br />
Quarterly. Vol. 40 (4). Pp. 565-586.<br />
Lorimer, J. (2007). "Nonhuman charisma." Environment and<br />
Plann<strong>in</strong>g D: Society and Space. Vol. 25(5). Pp. 911 – 932.<br />
Phillips, B.J. (1996). Advertis<strong>in</strong>g and the cultural mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
animals. Advances <strong>in</strong> Consumer Research. Vol. 23. Pp. 354-<br />
360.<br />
Spears, N.E., Mowen, J.C., and Chakraborty, G. (1996).<br />
Symbolic role <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>t advertis<strong>in</strong>g: Content analysis<br />
and conceptual development. <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Bus<strong>in</strong>ess Research.<br />
Vol. 37. Pp. 87-95<br />
38<br />
Cluny South is currently work<strong>in</strong>g on an Interdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary PhD at the<br />
University <strong>of</strong> British Columbia, <strong>in</strong> the area <strong>of</strong> Conservation Psychology<br />
and <strong>Market<strong>in</strong>g</strong>. Her PhD research looks at how attitudes to animals<br />
are shaped, and what effect perceiv<strong>in</strong>g animals as “<strong>in</strong>-group” or<br />
“out-group” members has for preferences towards them. Previously<br />
she worked for over a decade as a Natural History producer <strong>in</strong> the<br />
UK, primarily creat<strong>in</strong>g factual programm<strong>in</strong>g for the BBC NHU. She has<br />
a B.A. <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>e Art from Central St. Mart<strong>in</strong>’s School <strong>of</strong> Art and worked<br />
with live animals <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>stallations and performances <strong>in</strong> London <strong>in</strong> the<br />
late ‘80’s. She has experience <strong>in</strong> journalism, production design,<br />
publish<strong>in</strong>g and freelance writ<strong>in</strong>g, and currently works part-time as a<br />
researcher and consultant <strong>in</strong> the area <strong>of</strong> public attitudes to animals,<br />
the environment and conservation. She lives <strong>in</strong> Vancouver with her<br />
partner, two children, a dog and two gerbils.
Kessanlv<br />
Bovril by Electrocution from <strong>The</strong> Graphic, Christmas Number, 1891<br />
39<br />
BOVRIL BY<br />
ELECTRICUTION<br />
I first came across this illustration whilst brows<strong>in</strong>g through Leonard de Vries’s fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g collection, Victorian<br />
Advertis<strong>in</strong>g, about twelve years ago. I was look<strong>in</strong>g for someth<strong>in</strong>g else at the time – examples <strong>of</strong> late Victorian<br />
electric belt advertisements as part <strong>of</strong> a project on n<strong>in</strong>eteenth-century medical electricity. Instead, this one jumped<br />
out <strong>of</strong> the page at me.<br />
Text by Iwan Rhys Morus
Electric belt advertisements have a certa<strong>in</strong><br />
charm all <strong>of</strong> their own and can be extremely<br />
<strong>in</strong>formative, but this illustration fasc<strong>in</strong>ated me<br />
– and still does. It seemed to capture <strong>in</strong> one<br />
rather quirky scene the whole curiosity, complexity<br />
and contrar<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> electricity’s place <strong>in</strong> late<br />
Victorian culture. <strong>The</strong> picture itself is an<br />
advertisement for Bovril – a thick, dark brown,<br />
gloopy beef extract, usually consumed either as a<br />
spread on toast or diluted to make beef tea – that<br />
appeared <strong>in</strong> the popular magaz<strong>in</strong>e <strong>The</strong> Graphic<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1891. <strong>The</strong> ad shows some remarkably<br />
complacent look<strong>in</strong>g cattle about to be<br />
sacrificially electrocuted <strong>in</strong> order to manufacture<br />
that wonder-work<strong>in</strong>g product. <strong>The</strong> date is<br />
significant <strong>of</strong> itself <strong>of</strong> course, be<strong>in</strong>g only the year<br />
after the first electrical execution <strong>of</strong> a human<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g took place <strong>in</strong> New York on 6 August 1890.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Graphic, <strong>in</strong> which the advertisement<br />
appeared, had been established <strong>in</strong> 1869 as<br />
competition for the relatively well-established<br />
Illustrated London News. Both publications took<br />
advantage <strong>of</strong> the Victorian proliferation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrialized pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g technologies, particularly<br />
those that made the mass-production <strong>of</strong> relatively<br />
cheap high-quality illustrations possible.<br />
For researchers who spend much <strong>of</strong> their<br />
time delv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to Victorian journals, magaz<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
and newspapers the visual transformation <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>t<br />
culture between the 1830s and the 1860s is<br />
remarkable. Illustrations <strong>in</strong> 1830 are crude and<br />
few and far between. By the end <strong>of</strong> the ‘60s they<br />
are both sophisticated and everywhere. <strong>The</strong> same<br />
goes for advertisements. New technologies, new<br />
markets and new audience expectations<br />
transformed them from be<strong>in</strong>g a few l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong><br />
closely packed text <strong>in</strong> columns dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1830s<br />
to the sort <strong>of</strong> visually dense representation you<br />
can see here.<br />
So why is this such a great picture? In the<br />
first place, it’s because it’s advertis<strong>in</strong>g Bovril, a<br />
substance that needs some <strong>in</strong>troduction to a non-<br />
British audience. It was first manufactured <strong>in</strong> 1886<br />
and was the sort <strong>of</strong> th<strong>in</strong>g I was still be<strong>in</strong>g given as<br />
a child <strong>in</strong> the 1970s after be<strong>in</strong>g ill. <strong>The</strong> name has<br />
an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g etymology that helps expla<strong>in</strong> why<br />
this advert is so fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g for a historian <strong>of</strong><br />
electricity. In his 1871 novel, <strong>The</strong> Com<strong>in</strong>g Race,<br />
the English pulp writer Edward Bulwer-Lytton<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced the “vril-ya,” a race <strong>of</strong> subterranean<br />
super-be<strong>in</strong>gs that did everyth<strong>in</strong>g through the<br />
power <strong>of</strong> vril. Vril, as Bulwer Lytton’s description<br />
made quite clear, was electricity, and animal<br />
electricity at that. Manipulat<strong>in</strong>g it, the vril-ya “by<br />
operations, ak<strong>in</strong> to those ascribed to mesmerism,<br />
electro-biology, odic force, &c., but applied<br />
40<br />
scientifically, through vril conductors ... can<br />
exercise <strong>in</strong>fluence over m<strong>in</strong>ds, and bodies animal<br />
and vegetable, to an extent not surpassed <strong>in</strong> the<br />
romances <strong>of</strong> our mystics.” So, Bovril was meant to<br />
be understood as bov<strong>in</strong>e vril, the concentrated<br />
animal electricity <strong>of</strong> beef. It was named <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to <strong>in</strong>vite its consumers to draw the l<strong>in</strong>k between<br />
the life-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g and health-giv<strong>in</strong>g virtues <strong>of</strong><br />
Bovril and the virtues <strong>of</strong> the mysterious electrical<br />
vril.<br />
That’s what makes this picture so peculiar –<br />
and so clever. It shows Bovril, which the Victorian<br />
consumer is meant to imag<strong>in</strong>e as be<strong>in</strong>g some<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> electrical essence <strong>of</strong> bov<strong>in</strong>e life, be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
produced through electrocution. It elides together<br />
the life-giv<strong>in</strong>g and death-deal<strong>in</strong>g connotations <strong>of</strong><br />
electricity, a nice example <strong>of</strong> postmodern<br />
slipper<strong>in</strong>ess a century before postmodernism. By<br />
the 1890s, the tradition <strong>of</strong> electricity as life was<br />
well-entrenched. From James Graham’s Celestial<br />
Bed <strong>in</strong> the 1780s, to Giovanni Ald<strong>in</strong>i’s and Andrew<br />
Ure’s experiments on electrified corpses, to<br />
Andrew Crosse’s electrical <strong>in</strong>sects, to medical<br />
electricity and the electropathic belt, the<br />
connection seemed secure. By the early 1890s,<br />
advertisements for electric belts and corsets<br />
manufactured by C. B. Harness and his Medical<br />
Battery Company were everywhere, though<br />
Harness was to f<strong>in</strong>d himself <strong>in</strong> court and at the<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the slippery slope to bankruptcy<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the year. After all, if the connection weren’t<br />
so obvious to <strong>The</strong> Graphic’s readers, the Bovril<br />
advert would make no sense.<br />
After 1890, though, electricity had<br />
acquired a quite different connotation as the<br />
latest technology for deal<strong>in</strong>g scientifically<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istered death. <strong>The</strong> l<strong>in</strong>k between death and<br />
electricity wasn’t entirely novel; pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
electricians, as part <strong>of</strong> their discipl<strong>in</strong>e’s folk<br />
tradition, had wild tales <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>trepid natural<br />
philosophers experiment<strong>in</strong>g on the Leyden Jar.<br />
From the 1880s, as towns and cities across Europe<br />
and North America electrified, there was a steady<br />
stream <strong>of</strong> newspaper reports <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>cautious workers<br />
killed by touch<strong>in</strong>g the electric wires. William<br />
Kemmler’s death, as the first victim <strong>of</strong> the electric<br />
chair – and the <strong>in</strong>vention <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
electrocution to describe the process – made the<br />
l<strong>in</strong>k between electricity and death just as secure <strong>in</strong><br />
late-Victorian m<strong>in</strong>ds as the connection between<br />
electricity and life. <strong>The</strong>re were debates <strong>in</strong><br />
electrical and medical journals about just how, <strong>in</strong><br />
practice, electricity killed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> advert shows us the multiplicity <strong>of</strong> ways<br />
<strong>in</strong> which electricity might make sense for the<br />
Victorians. It was life, it was death. It represented
progress and humanitarianism. It was thoroughly<br />
embedded <strong>in</strong> consumer culture mak<strong>in</strong>g it a<br />
wonderful illustration to use with students. If noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
else, it’s a great talk<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t and a way to start<br />
conversations about electricity’s place <strong>in</strong> Victorian<br />
culture and the importance <strong>of</strong> do<strong>in</strong>g cultural<br />
history <strong>of</strong> science <strong>in</strong> general. What it suggests is<br />
that such cultural histories never stop. You can<br />
always dig a little deeper, see th<strong>in</strong>gs from another<br />
angle, and follow another lead to come up with a<br />
new perspective. <strong>The</strong> transitions from science to<br />
technology and culture <strong>in</strong> this picture are<br />
seamless. You can’t tell exactly where they merge<br />
<strong>in</strong>to one another. Most important <strong>of</strong> all, it’s funny,<br />
or at least I th<strong>in</strong>k it is. <strong>The</strong>re’s an old truism that if<br />
you want to understand a culture you need to<br />
laugh at its jokes.<br />
Iwan Rhys Morus MA, MPhil, PhD (Cantab) is a historian <strong>of</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
century science, technology and medic<strong>in</strong>e. He also has <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong><br />
the history <strong>of</strong> the body and n<strong>in</strong>eteenth-century popular culture. He<br />
has published widely on these topics and recent books<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude Shock<strong>in</strong>g Bodies (History Press, 2011), When Physics became<br />
K<strong>in</strong>g (Chicago, 2005), Michael Faraday and the Electrical Century<br />
(Icon Books, 2004) and Frankenste<strong>in</strong>'s Children (Pr<strong>in</strong>ceton, 1998). His<br />
current research projects focus on n<strong>in</strong>eteenth-century optical<br />
illusions as philosophical and experimental practices as well as the<br />
more general history <strong>of</strong> scientific performances <strong>in</strong> the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
century. Dr. Morus is the editor <strong>of</strong> History <strong>of</strong> Science. He is also the<br />
Project Director for the ‘Memory and Media <strong>in</strong> Wales’ JISC-funded<br />
research project and a senior collaborator on the John Tyndall<br />
Correspondence Project at Montana State University.<br />
This piece was orig<strong>in</strong>ally published by the HSS Newsletter<br />
www.hssonl<strong>in</strong>e.org and is here reproduced with permission <strong>of</strong> the<br />
author and thanks to the k<strong>in</strong>d help <strong>of</strong> Jay Malone<br />
41
This paper explores recent TV adverts <strong>in</strong> which the animals portrayed come to appear before us <strong>in</strong> new ways.<br />
Gone are cosy images <strong>of</strong> chimpanzees play<strong>in</strong>g house, wear<strong>in</strong>g flat-caps and frocks, and pour<strong>in</strong>g cups <strong>of</strong> tea. <strong>The</strong><br />
animals are break<strong>in</strong>g out! Mary, the cow (Muller yoghurt), is “set free” on a beach to fulfil her dream <strong>of</strong> becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a horse. More cows (Anchor butter) have taken charge <strong>of</strong> the dairy. An elephant (LG) climbs a tree, break<strong>in</strong>g<br />
through the forest canopy to view the world from a new perspective, and a car is given magnificent new tyres<br />
(Michel<strong>in</strong>), enabl<strong>in</strong>g it to screech to a halt to allow creatures to cross ”the sad stretch <strong>of</strong> road” unharmed. What<br />
has happened to our conceptions <strong>of</strong> animals? Why at this particular po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> time – a time perceived as one <strong>of</strong><br />
“environmental crisis” – do we f<strong>in</strong>d ourselves gaz<strong>in</strong>g from our s<strong>of</strong>as upon these representations <strong>of</strong> boundarybreak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
animals? From what are they break<strong>in</strong>g out? And, more to the po<strong>in</strong>t, what k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> shift renders such<br />
portrayals valuable tools <strong>in</strong> the world <strong>of</strong> commodity, where<strong>in</strong> the conduits l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g supply-and-demand assume<br />
some general need to envision animals as “free-agents?” While we are accustomed to see<strong>in</strong>g animals presented<br />
to us as “free-agents” <strong>in</strong> books or films, the use <strong>of</strong> such portrayals is a notable development <strong>in</strong> the world <strong>of</strong><br />
television advertis<strong>in</strong>g. This paper considers how this phenomenon might be l<strong>in</strong>ked to the challenges we face<br />
where<strong>in</strong> an environmental “crisis” <strong>of</strong> our own mak<strong>in</strong>g calls us to radically reth<strong>in</strong>k our modes <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />
the world about us.<br />
Text by Louise Squire<br />
T<br />
here are several difficulties to consider <strong>in</strong><br />
relation to this <strong>in</strong>vestigation <strong>of</strong> animals as<br />
“free-agents,” not least <strong>of</strong> which is how we<br />
conceptualise the terms “freedom” and<br />
“agency.” Such terms, <strong>of</strong> course, participate <strong>in</strong><br />
the ways, with<strong>in</strong> a Western paradigm, that we<br />
have historically def<strong>in</strong>ed humanity. Both terms,<br />
once we <strong>in</strong>vestigate them, are heavily<br />
dependent (at least traditionally so) on a<br />
capacity for “rationality” (for example Kant, 1959),<br />
and the established view has been, as Mull<strong>in</strong><br />
remarks, that “Humans might be animals, but<br />
humans alone possessed rationality, language,<br />
consciousness, or emotions” (Mull<strong>in</strong> 1999, 206;<br />
THE ANIMALS ARE<br />
“BREAKING OUT”!<br />
42<br />
emphasis added). If both “freedom” and<br />
“agency” require capacities beyond the<br />
wherewithal <strong>of</strong> animals, render<strong>in</strong>g them<br />
<strong>in</strong>capable <strong>of</strong> either, then our various constra<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>of</strong><br />
them would appear unproblematic. On this view,<br />
we might say that the adverts selected, <strong>in</strong><br />
portray<strong>in</strong>g animals thus, take a merely whimsical<br />
approach to enroll<strong>in</strong>g the viewer – and no doubt,<br />
to an extent, they do. We might add to this the<br />
more tell<strong>in</strong>g notion that the adverts serve – or at<br />
least seek – to counter issues related to animal<br />
welfare, especially where the utilisation <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
lies beh<strong>in</strong>d the products marketed. This<br />
counter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> itself, aris<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> part from the work <strong>of</strong>
Fig 1. VCCP<br />
Muller “Thank You Cows”, two stills from tv advert, 2010 VCCP<br />
the likes <strong>of</strong> Regan (1983) and S<strong>in</strong>ger (1977),<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>s to implicate the adverts as signifiers <strong>of</strong><br />
shift<strong>in</strong>g attitudes towards animals, <strong>in</strong>dicative <strong>of</strong><br />
the “reassessments <strong>of</strong> the capacities and status<br />
<strong>of</strong> animals com<strong>in</strong>g from environmental<br />
philosophy” (Jones 2003, 294-295).<br />
However, we can take this further. <strong>The</strong> era<br />
with<strong>in</strong> which we currently dwell has pr<strong>of</strong>oundly<br />
challenged and is currently shift<strong>in</strong>g our th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g<br />
about our place <strong>in</strong> the world. <strong>The</strong> modernist<br />
project for which “[t]he scientific dom<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong><br />
nature promised freedom from scarcity, want,<br />
and the arbitrar<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> natural calamity” (Harvey<br />
1989, 12), as founded upon the assumption <strong>of</strong> an<br />
<strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>itude <strong>of</strong> “natural resources,” has <strong>of</strong> course<br />
grossly misfired. <strong>The</strong> devastat<strong>in</strong>g losses <strong>of</strong><br />
countless species and their habitats add up to<br />
“disappearances” which now endlessly<br />
“reappear” on our television screens <strong>in</strong><br />
programmes such as BBC’s Last Chance to<br />
See (2009). This is no mere aesthetic loss, nor is it<br />
conf<strong>in</strong>ed to the ethical; it takes on the scale<br />
presently def<strong>in</strong>ed by anthropogenic climate<br />
change, <strong>in</strong> turn threaten<strong>in</strong>g our own survival – not<br />
to mention that <strong>of</strong> endless non-human be<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
This environmental “crisis” appears not only “out<br />
there,” but manifests as a phenomenon <strong>of</strong> our<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g rooms, where the world <strong>of</strong> commodity<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ues to reach out to entice us with its<br />
products. Seen <strong>in</strong> this light, <strong>in</strong> “sett<strong>in</strong>g animals<br />
free” these adverts, regardless <strong>of</strong> their location <strong>in</strong><br />
the realm <strong>of</strong> commodity, seem to signify a new<br />
desire to return animals “to landscape;” a desire<br />
which, I <strong>in</strong>tend to show, has resonance beyond<br />
issues <strong>of</strong> animal welfare, which it nonetheless<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first two adverts for consideration both<br />
feature animals that are commonly conta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
with<strong>in</strong> human systems <strong>of</strong> production – cows:<br />
Muller’s “Thank You Cows”<br />
43<br />
Overview 1: This first advert features Mary<br />
the Cow who “has always dreamed <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
horse.” We watch as she is “released” to gallop<br />
freely on a beach, thus her dream is made to<br />
come true. Cows, collectively, are then “thanked”<br />
for the natural goodness <strong>of</strong> their milk, which they<br />
provide for Muller’s fruit corner yoghurts.<br />
Comment,1: Three po<strong>in</strong>ts are <strong>of</strong><br />
particular note for our discussion: (a) the act <strong>of</strong><br />
“release,” sett<strong>in</strong>g Mary free; (b) the act <strong>of</strong> thank<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cows generally; and (c) the statement that Mary<br />
has “always wanted to be a horse.” <strong>The</strong> portrayal<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mary as “thanked,” as Jonas notes, at least<br />
acknowledges that there is some “cost” to the<br />
cow (Jonas, 2010 Survey), signall<strong>in</strong>g a shift <strong>in</strong> the<br />
ways we th<strong>in</strong>k about farmed animals; on the<br />
other hand, as Cole has noted, this k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong><br />
“discursive reconfigur<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>of</strong> “the relationships<br />
between humans and farmed animals” is also<br />
“<strong>in</strong>cidental” to the real welfare <strong>of</strong> the animal (Cole<br />
2011, 84). That Mary has “always wanted to be a<br />
horse” further separates the real from the farfetched,<br />
yet also performs an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g function:<br />
horses, we might note, possess a more privileged<br />
position <strong>in</strong> human (Western) society than do<br />
cows; they “participate <strong>in</strong> ... society <strong>in</strong> the<br />
capacity <strong>of</strong> subjects;” we converse with them<br />
and give them personal names (Sahl<strong>in</strong>s 1976,<br />
174). A horse, therefore, has a degree <strong>of</strong><br />
“personhood” which the cow, <strong>in</strong> becom<strong>in</strong>g horse,<br />
is portrayed as mov<strong>in</strong>g closer towards.<br />
<strong>The</strong> portrayal <strong>of</strong> cows as “free-agents” <strong>in</strong> our<br />
second advert is quite different: Anchor’s “Made<br />
by Cows”.<br />
Overview 2: A herd <strong>of</strong> cows br<strong>in</strong>g<br />
themselves <strong>in</strong>to the dairy to be milked and then<br />
proceed to carry out the production process from<br />
start to f<strong>in</strong>ish, giv<strong>in</strong>g their “approval” to the packs<br />
<strong>of</strong> butter which appear on the f<strong>in</strong>al conveyor. We<br />
watch as they “man-handle” the pallets <strong>of</strong>
Fig. 2 CHI & Partners<br />
Made by Cows, two stills from tv advert, 2010 CHI & Partners<br />
product, operate the gadget that dispenses<br />
brown packag<strong>in</strong>g tape, stack up the boxes on<br />
pallets and then load them <strong>in</strong>to a lorry for<br />
distribution.<br />
Comment 2: That the cows take on the<br />
roles <strong>of</strong> human workers purports to render them<br />
“free-agents” to the extent that we, as citizens <strong>of</strong><br />
our socio-economic framework, are free-agents.<br />
While this advert makes less <strong>of</strong> an imag<strong>in</strong>ative<br />
leap from traditional anthropomorphic portrayals<br />
<strong>of</strong> animals, the “message” here is clear: cows<br />
participate actively <strong>in</strong> the production process and<br />
give their approval to the end product – butter.<br />
This, as Kali notes, gives the appearance that<br />
they are “complicit <strong>in</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> their bodies” for<br />
production (Kali, 2010 Survey).<br />
Grow<strong>in</strong>g popular concern for the<br />
wellbe<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals, <strong>of</strong> course, poses particular<br />
challenges for those companies whose products<br />
are entangled with the rural, which, as Jones<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts out, is “the space where much <strong>of</strong> the<br />
subjugation <strong>of</strong> animals on behalf <strong>of</strong> modern<br />
society takes place” (2003, 287). In both adverts,<br />
we can see that the matter <strong>of</strong> subjugation,<br />
mentioned here by Jones, is reworked (thus<br />
concealed) via its own antonyms for the viewer’s<br />
own comfort or amusement, present<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
animals as set free and thanked, or rewarded<br />
and <strong>in</strong> control. Whatever concerns we may have<br />
about the wellbe<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> farmed animals, these<br />
adverts seek, on some level, to allay them. At the<br />
same time, this move to portray animals as “freeagents”<br />
might lead us to consider more<br />
specifically what a grow<strong>in</strong>g popular concern for<br />
animals might seek to see animals freed from. As<br />
Cranston notes, <strong>in</strong> order to discern what is meant<br />
by “freedom” <strong>in</strong> any given application, we should<br />
ask the question “Freedom from what?” [i] (1967, 5-<br />
44<br />
6). We can explore this <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> two k<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong><br />
limitations: (a) our “physical” constra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
animals; and (b) our “ethical valu<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>of</strong> them.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> the first, Foucault provides a<br />
useful means to view the “constra<strong>in</strong>t” <strong>of</strong> animal<br />
bodies <strong>in</strong> human systems. He claimed that it<br />
was out <strong>of</strong> the longstand<strong>in</strong>g struggle to relieve<br />
humans from the constra<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>of</strong> the natural world<br />
that a shift <strong>in</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> power arose, chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
emphasis from one <strong>of</strong> absolute power (controll<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the “right to life”), to one <strong>of</strong> “discipl<strong>in</strong>e” –<br />
emerg<strong>in</strong>g as f<strong>in</strong>ely tuned and subtly rendered<br />
control over the liv<strong>in</strong>g body at the level <strong>of</strong> life<br />
itself, giv<strong>in</strong>g “power its access even to the body”<br />
(Foucault 1984, 265). <strong>The</strong> models <strong>of</strong><br />
governmentality applied to cities were then<br />
extended to police the “whole territory” – a<br />
“historical rupture,” which Darier describes as<br />
becom<strong>in</strong>g” a condition for environmental “crisis”<br />
(Darier 1999, 23). Farmed landscapes<br />
thus translate as designated food-resources for<br />
“livestock”; “shady meadows” function alongside<br />
build<strong>in</strong>gs designed to “... ensure the successful<br />
enrolment <strong>of</strong> domesticated animals <strong>in</strong>to humandriven<br />
networks” (Jones 2003, 294-296); and<br />
through this enrolment, the liv<strong>in</strong>g body <strong>of</strong> the<br />
animal, as described by Noske, becomes<br />
alienated <strong>in</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> ways: once steered by<br />
the animal, the body is now controlled by others<br />
“and is actually work<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st the animal’s own<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests.” An animal is thus alienated from the<br />
natural life <strong>of</strong> his or her species, from the ecosystem<br />
with<strong>in</strong> which he or she evolved, and <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
also from his or her own fellow animals (Noske<br />
1997, 18-19).<br />
Regard<strong>in</strong>g the second limitation, our<br />
ethical valu<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals has, <strong>of</strong> course, long<br />
been clouded by our assessments <strong>of</strong> their mental
Fig. 3 TBWA/Chiat/Day New York<br />
Sad Stretch <strong>of</strong> Road, two stills from tv advert, 2009 TBWA/Chiat/Day New York<br />
“capacities”, due <strong>in</strong> part to the philosophical<br />
difficulties with ascrib<strong>in</strong>g them rationality or<br />
powers <strong>of</strong> conceptual th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. But possess<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
“concept <strong>of</strong> freedom” or no, it is not hard to see<br />
that animals, when constra<strong>in</strong>ed, strive to be free<br />
(Ingold 2000a; Jones, 2003). As Ingold notes, our<br />
relations with animals have produced a whole<br />
range <strong>of</strong> “tools <strong>of</strong> coercion, such as the whip or<br />
the spur, designed to <strong>in</strong>flict physical force and<br />
very <strong>of</strong>ten acute pa<strong>in</strong>” (2000a, 307). <strong>The</strong><br />
presence <strong>of</strong> this need to coerce clearly reveals<br />
the counter<strong>in</strong>g by the human <strong>of</strong> some otherwise<br />
free movement <strong>of</strong> the animal. Williams adds the<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t that such coercive practices <strong>of</strong>ten do, <strong>in</strong><br />
fact, recognise the sentience <strong>of</strong> the animal, a<br />
recognition which can boost the success <strong>of</strong><br />
coercion (Williams, 2004). Successful coercion, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, benefits production, but as Carr states:<br />
“coercion, it is all but universally agreed, is<br />
antithetical to freedom. To be coerced to do (not<br />
do) someth<strong>in</strong>g is to have one’s freedom<br />
abridged” (Carr 1988, 59). What this highlights is<br />
the tenuous nature <strong>of</strong> the l<strong>in</strong>ks between<br />
our valu<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals and the matter <strong>of</strong> their<br />
capacity to be “free.”<br />
Interest<strong>in</strong>gly, so-called “human” capacities<br />
have, <strong>in</strong> turn, <strong>in</strong>formed the very concept <strong>of</strong><br />
“freedom” itself. Kant, for example, and very<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluentially, argued that it is only <strong>in</strong> the rational<br />
actions <strong>of</strong> a moral agent that true freedom can<br />
exist (Kant, 1959). Philo and Wilbert po<strong>in</strong>t to this<br />
“long-stand<strong>in</strong>g human belief <strong>in</strong> a basic dist<strong>in</strong>ction<br />
between” the rational human and “base passions<br />
and <strong>in</strong>st<strong>in</strong>cts,” which, they observe, “allegedly<br />
obliterate a be<strong>in</strong>g’s potential for agency” (2007,<br />
14-15). This provides a curious situation, <strong>in</strong> which<br />
what we may actually desire animals to be free<br />
45<br />
from is the very idea itself that they cannot be<br />
free.<br />
<strong>The</strong> next two adverts provide a means to<br />
consider the “free-agency” <strong>of</strong> animals that<br />
lie outside our direct conta<strong>in</strong>ment or control:<br />
Michel<strong>in</strong>’s “Sad Stretch <strong>of</strong> the Road” and LG’s<br />
“Clever Elephant”.<br />
Overview 3: this rather gruesome advert<br />
features a “sad stretch <strong>of</strong> road” littered with “roadkill”<br />
casualties. As a p<strong>in</strong>k rabbit beg<strong>in</strong>s to cross the<br />
road one dark night, the headlights <strong>of</strong> a blue car<br />
rapidly approach. Will the rabbit be killed? No –<br />
because the Michel<strong>in</strong> Man throws out a set <strong>of</strong><br />
tyres for the blue car, enabl<strong>in</strong>g it to screech to a<br />
halt and leav<strong>in</strong>g the p<strong>in</strong>k rabbit unharmed.<br />
Comment 3: What is strik<strong>in</strong>g about this<br />
advert is that the agency <strong>of</strong> the animal manifests<br />
at the po<strong>in</strong>t where the car responds to it by<br />
screech<strong>in</strong>g to a halt. When learn<strong>in</strong>g to drive, we<br />
are taught, <strong>in</strong> relation to the UK’s Road Traffic<br />
Act, [ii] not to swerve or stop for animals such as<br />
badgers, foxes, rabbits etc. for fear <strong>of</strong><br />
endanger<strong>in</strong>g “persons.” If <strong>in</strong> swerv<strong>in</strong>g for an<br />
animal we harm a “person,” we have driven<br />
“dangerously,” which amounts to a crim<strong>in</strong>al<br />
<strong>of</strong>fence. This advert therefore appears to suggest<br />
that animals might be “persons” too.<br />
Overview 4: Here, an elephant steps<br />
gracefully through an Amazonian forest<br />
landscape. We watch as he or she reaches a tall<br />
tree and proceeds to climb up it, step by step,<br />
branch by branch. Reach<strong>in</strong>g the top, he or she<br />
emerges from the canopy to encounter a vast<br />
and beautiful vista <strong>of</strong> the landscape at large – a<br />
view from on high.<br />
Comment 4: In climb<strong>in</strong>g a tree, the<br />
elephant breaks out from his or her own
Fig. 4 Y&R New York<br />
Clever Elephant, two stills from tv advert, 2010 Y&R New York<br />
limitations; but who really climbs trees? <strong>The</strong><br />
elephant, we might note, has borrowed the skills<br />
<strong>of</strong> primates, who <strong>in</strong> turn we conceive <strong>of</strong> as<br />
dwell<strong>in</strong>g at the borders between human and nonhuman<br />
animal (Mull<strong>in</strong> 1999, 213). Jonas (2010<br />
Survey) very eloquently describes this advert as<br />
“a Plato’s Cave image,” <strong>in</strong> which “climb<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>of</strong><br />
the world <strong>of</strong> shadow, the elephant reaches the<br />
awesome light <strong>of</strong> pure reason.” In terms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
rational requirements for freedom and agency,<br />
this reveals the elephant as therefore break<strong>in</strong>g<br />
free from our very conceptions <strong>of</strong> him or her as<br />
animal.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se two adverts portray animals not as<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to systems, but as dwellers <strong>of</strong> the<br />
wider landscape. With<strong>in</strong> a Western mode <strong>of</strong><br />
be<strong>in</strong>g, we have long had a habit <strong>of</strong> objectify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
our world, so that “the mean<strong>in</strong>g or identity <strong>of</strong> a<br />
th<strong>in</strong>g is given <strong>in</strong> itself alone, rather than the ‘liv<strong>in</strong>g’<br />
context <strong>of</strong> which it is a part” (Taussig 1977, 153). If<br />
we look at (or th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>of</strong>) an animal and only see<br />
“the animal,” we have objectified it. <strong>The</strong> animal is<br />
at once put at risk, for we can reposition it <strong>in</strong>to<br />
whatever context we choose – literally so <strong>in</strong> the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> farmed animals, where a pig is an<br />
animal that “lives <strong>in</strong> a sty,” cows “give us milk,”<br />
and so on. But the emergence <strong>of</strong> our adverts<br />
co<strong>in</strong>cides with an era where<strong>in</strong> which<br />
“environment” has become an arena <strong>of</strong><br />
contention and <strong>in</strong>tense exam<strong>in</strong>ation. New<br />
awareness <strong>of</strong> ourselves as impact<strong>in</strong>g upon the<br />
natural world raise a parallel shift <strong>in</strong> our<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> “animal,” from animal “as<br />
object,” to animal as active participant <strong>in</strong> the<br />
wider landscape. In his work on “Dwell<strong>in</strong>g”<br />
(2000b), Ingold views landscape as “cont<strong>in</strong>ually<br />
com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to be<strong>in</strong>g through the comb<strong>in</strong>ed action<br />
46<br />
<strong>of</strong> human and non-human agencies” (2000b,<br />
155). He states: “<strong>The</strong> most fundamental th<strong>in</strong>g<br />
about life is that it does not beg<strong>in</strong> here or end<br />
there, but is always go<strong>in</strong>g on ... Environments are<br />
never complete but are always under<br />
construction” (Ingold 2000b, 172). This temporal<br />
“becom<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>of</strong> landscape, <strong>in</strong> which many agents<br />
participate, can be considered as a Latourian<br />
Actor Network, where<strong>in</strong> which it is “no longer just<br />
the human who transports <strong>in</strong>formation through<br />
transformation, but the nonhuman as well” (Latour<br />
1999, 122), underscor<strong>in</strong>g the function<br />
<strong>of</strong> association between a range <strong>of</strong><br />
heterogeneous, agential elements <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />
any com<strong>in</strong>g-to-be (Latour 2005, 5). When viewed<br />
as an ecological construct, this positively<br />
demands the recognition <strong>of</strong> non-human “agents”<br />
as “act<strong>in</strong>g” dwellers <strong>in</strong> the wider landscape.<br />
From with<strong>in</strong> the climate change era <strong>of</strong><br />
“environmental crisis,” a phenomenon evok<strong>in</strong>g<br />
responses that range from alarmism or<br />
zealousness to apathy or even denial, the retreat<br />
<strong>of</strong> the “natural,” together with the decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> its<br />
non-human dwellers, appears as one <strong>of</strong> the more<br />
palpable <strong>of</strong> major concerns. While such a<br />
recognition might further the valu<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
animal per se, it does so with<strong>in</strong> a broader context<br />
<strong>of</strong> risk to the wellbe<strong>in</strong>g and survival <strong>of</strong> not only the<br />
natural world and its parts, but <strong>in</strong> turn <strong>of</strong> the<br />
human species. My contention, then, that the<br />
portrayals <strong>of</strong> animals as “free agents” <strong>in</strong> these four<br />
adverts <strong>in</strong>dicate a desire to return animals to<br />
landscape, is on these grounds. Where Lerner<br />
and Kal<strong>of</strong>, <strong>in</strong> a survey <strong>of</strong> television commercials<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the late 1990’s, noted that animals used or<br />
consumed by humans tend to be portrayed as<br />
“distanced” by avoid<strong>in</strong>g “humanis<strong>in</strong>g” them
(Lerner and Kal<strong>of</strong> 1999), the four adverts <strong>in</strong> this<br />
analysis distance us from the animals <strong>in</strong> vary<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ways and, <strong>in</strong> do<strong>in</strong>g so, simultaneously tap <strong>in</strong>to an<br />
overarch<strong>in</strong>g popular concern, that <strong>of</strong> the security<br />
<strong>of</strong> the natural world – a concern<br />
which <strong>in</strong>cludes the wellbe<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals via their<br />
“release” from our physical and ethical<br />
constra<strong>in</strong>ts. [iii] This “camouflag<strong>in</strong>g” (Grauerholz<br />
2007) and reposition<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the real animal<br />
both removes responsibility from the consumer<br />
(Grauerholz 2007, 347-348), <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong><br />
commodity and ongo<strong>in</strong>g consumer status, and<br />
yet <strong>of</strong>fers the consumer an ersatz opportunity to<br />
participate <strong>in</strong> the re<strong>in</strong>statement <strong>of</strong> animals as<br />
“free-agents,” [iv] and thus to “contribute” to the<br />
safeguard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the natural world.<br />
If to reposition animals <strong>in</strong> landscape is to<br />
render them “free-agents,” then advertisers are<br />
clearly tasked with the reversal <strong>of</strong> our assessments<br />
<strong>of</strong> them as <strong>in</strong>capable <strong>of</strong> free-agency. How does<br />
this work? <strong>The</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> difficulty, as noted, is that <strong>of</strong><br />
ascrib<strong>in</strong>g animals rational thought. Yet our<br />
conceptions <strong>of</strong> freedom and agency can be<br />
challenged, for example, by the work <strong>of</strong> Thrift who<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts out that cognition functions at the level <strong>of</strong><br />
the body (and the senses) much <strong>of</strong> the time (Thrift<br />
2003, 314). He uses this po<strong>in</strong>t to extrapolate the<br />
notion <strong>of</strong> body at the impart<strong>in</strong>g moment <strong>of</strong> its<br />
existence, “bare life,” which, unfolded, becomes<br />
“axvastxbiopoliticalxdoma<strong>in</strong>” (2003,313). Conceivi<br />
ng bodies this way, he argues, highlights “new<br />
paths along which we move,” creat<strong>in</strong>g relations<br />
with the world about us that become<br />
“exfoliations <strong>of</strong> the space <strong>of</strong> the body that can be<br />
treated separately” (2003,114, quot<strong>in</strong>g Gil: 1998,<br />
127). On these terms, the “exfoliations” <strong>of</strong> a cow<br />
conf<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a dairy turn out to be dairy (or meat)<br />
products, while the “exfoliations” <strong>of</strong> an animal “<strong>in</strong><br />
the wild” emerge via the animal’s participation <strong>in</strong><br />
the ongo<strong>in</strong>g construction <strong>of</strong> landscape. In both<br />
cases, the animal is therefore an agent, but only<br />
<strong>in</strong> the second case is the animal “free.”<br />
Kant’s claim (1959) that it is only<br />
<strong>in</strong> the rational actions <strong>of</strong> a “moral” agent that true<br />
freedom can exist, po<strong>in</strong>ts to “morality” as a further<br />
difficulty for animals and free-agency. Whilst it has<br />
been shown that animals may <strong>in</strong> fact possess<br />
altruistic behaviours (e.g. Bek<strong>of</strong>f 2004; de Waal<br />
2010), the idea <strong>of</strong> “morality” rema<strong>in</strong>s grounded,<br />
philosophically, <strong>in</strong> our notions <strong>of</strong> human m<strong>in</strong>ds.<br />
We can, however, take a different approach to<br />
this and th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> a “capacity to<br />
achieve the wider good.” As long as we are<br />
content to believe that animals possess no such<br />
capacity, nor a capacity for “rationality,” then it<br />
appears unproblematic to reposition them with<strong>in</strong><br />
47<br />
our systems, provided that they are “properly<br />
looked after.” But if the “becom<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>of</strong> landscape<br />
requires the <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>of</strong> both human and nonhuman<br />
agencies (Ingold 2000b, 155), then our<br />
assumptions start to look flakey. <strong>The</strong> “free-agency”<br />
<strong>of</strong> animals conta<strong>in</strong>s a wider good, even under<br />
the terms <strong>of</strong> those who are unable to see it as a<br />
benefit for the animal him or herself.<br />
<strong>The</strong> four adverts between them clearly<br />
evoke a poignant message, one to which viewers<br />
seem largely to be attuned. Expanses <strong>of</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>forest<br />
(through which a “clever elephant” strides);<br />
endless natural habitats across the world; the<br />
animals themselves, once liv<strong>in</strong>g creatures strewn<br />
across our (“sad stretches <strong>of</strong>”) roads; whole<br />
species <strong>of</strong> “wild” animal – all are vanish<strong>in</strong>g, it<br />
seems, before our eyes (Frankl<strong>in</strong> 1999, 58, Serpell<br />
1996, 233). We seem at a loss as to how to<br />
“remake” disappear<strong>in</strong>g “nature,” for whatever we<br />
“make” by human hand appears to us as no<br />
natural th<strong>in</strong>g, but rather artefact. In distill<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
animal out <strong>of</strong> ourselves (e.g. Midgley 1994) we<br />
seem to have lost our way and thus now need<br />
that “animal” to be “free.” Hence these adverts,<br />
while they are <strong>in</strong>controvertibly tools <strong>of</strong> the world <strong>of</strong><br />
commodity (together with all that this implies),<br />
and while they assuredly function to obfuscate<br />
the real lives <strong>of</strong> animals (Cole 2011), on the other<br />
hand do po<strong>in</strong>t to a pr<strong>of</strong>ound shift <strong>in</strong> popular<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. What these adverts, I suggest, portend –<br />
and <strong>in</strong> this sense encourag<strong>in</strong>gly – is at least a<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g popular “desire” to rematerialise, through<br />
the release <strong>of</strong> the “animal,” the disappear<strong>in</strong>g<br />
natural world. <strong>The</strong> question <strong>of</strong> course is ... how to<br />
render “desire” dynamic, so that it enters the<br />
deeply exigent sphere <strong>of</strong> change.<br />
Research Statement<br />
This paper orig<strong>in</strong>ates from a larger dissertation,<br />
the research for which <strong>in</strong>cluded two short<br />
qualitative surveys (2010), [v] each straightforwardly<br />
request<strong>in</strong>g a response to three or four <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adverts. One survey, via H-Animal.net, collected<br />
responses from scholars with <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> animal<br />
studies; the other was distributed to a range <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals across different pr<strong>of</strong>essions, a portion<br />
<strong>of</strong> whom had environmental <strong>in</strong>terests generally<br />
(e.g. members <strong>of</strong> Transition Town, RSPB, HDRA,<br />
Greenpeace, and so on). While only some<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs are <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this shorter<br />
piece, I nonetheless wish to thank all who<br />
participated <strong>in</strong> these surveys for their comments,<br />
and <strong>in</strong> particular Eric Jonas<br />
<strong>of</strong> Northwestern University and Dr. Audrey Kali<br />
<strong>of</strong> Fram<strong>in</strong>gham State University whose comments,
with their permissions, I have cited.<br />
Notes<br />
1 As Cranston po<strong>in</strong>ts out, if someone were to approach us on the<br />
street and claim “I am free,” we would have little idea what they<br />
meant (1967, 3). Have they just walked out on their partner? Have<br />
they been let out <strong>of</strong> jail? Is it a political statement? We are obliged to<br />
ask the question “freedom from what?” if there is to be any hope <strong>of</strong><br />
our ascerta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g what is meant by “freedom” <strong>in</strong> a given application<br />
(Cranston 1967, 5-6).<br />
2 <strong>The</strong> Highway Code: “Dangerous driv<strong>in</strong>g” is an <strong>of</strong>fence;<br />
“dangerous,” accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Road Traffic Act 1991, means<br />
“danger either <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>jury to any person or <strong>of</strong> serious danger to<br />
property” (RTA Part 1, Section 1, No’s 1-3).<br />
3 In the 2010 qualitative surveys undertaken as part <strong>of</strong> the research<br />
for this project, those directly express<strong>in</strong>g concerns <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />
animal welfare tended to be alert to the gaps between the real and<br />
the portrayed lives <strong>of</strong> animals, whereas roughly two thirds <strong>of</strong> those<br />
disclos<strong>in</strong>g no such concerns took a support<strong>in</strong>g or even celebratory<br />
stance towards the “release” <strong>of</strong> animals depicted. Both groups<br />
therefore support the “release” <strong>of</strong> animals from human constra<strong>in</strong>ts,<br />
while a third, but smaller group, actively defended farm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
practices.<br />
4 Even the child participants <strong>of</strong> the survey noted the “cover-ups;”<br />
one, for example, stated: “Hav<strong>in</strong>g animals <strong>in</strong> this advert [LG’s “Clever<br />
elephant”] defeats how un-environmentally friendly TV’s are,<br />
because you are see<strong>in</strong>g all this nature, which makes people forget<br />
how bad it is for the environment.”<br />
5 Conducted <strong>in</strong> accordance with the ASA Ethical Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for<br />
Good Research Practice (1999); website <strong>of</strong> the Association <strong>of</strong> Social<br />
Anthropologists <strong>of</strong> the UK and Commonwealth.<br />
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Louise Squire has an MA with Dist<strong>in</strong>ction <strong>in</strong> Philosophy (<strong>Nature</strong> Pathway), from the University <strong>of</strong><br />
Wales, the present article be<strong>in</strong>g based on Louise's MA dissertation: '<strong>The</strong> <strong>Animals</strong> Are<br />
‘Break<strong>in</strong>g Out’! Critical Analysis <strong>of</strong> a Discerned Shift <strong>in</strong> TV Advertis<strong>in</strong>g Towards Representations<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Animals</strong> as ‘Free-Agents’' (2011). Louise is currently registered as a PhD Candidate at the<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Surrey, and her thesis exam<strong>in</strong>es the problem <strong>of</strong> "death" <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />
"environmental crisis" <strong>in</strong> Contemporary Literature. Louise has primary <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> Literary<br />
<strong>The</strong>ory, Poststructuralism, and Contemporary (especially 21st Century) Literature, with<strong>in</strong><br />
English Literature, whilst also hav<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary background, with additional <strong>in</strong>terests<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> Environmental Philosophy and Anthrozoology. Louise's central concern is <strong>in</strong><br />
explor<strong>in</strong>g the value <strong>of</strong> the works <strong>of</strong> the French th<strong>in</strong>kers--and Cont<strong>in</strong>ental Philosophies more<br />
generally--to the analysis <strong>of</strong> literary and media sources <strong>in</strong> the contemporary "environmental<br />
crisis" world.
I<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten wonder what the meet<strong>in</strong>gs at an ad<br />
agency are like when the topic <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
comes up. It must be hard to th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>of</strong> anyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
new to do with them, although special effects<br />
have allowed us to make animals seem to talk,<br />
dance, and do other human-like th<strong>in</strong>gs. And we<br />
always seem to fall for animals (or talk<strong>in</strong>g babies)<br />
with an irreverent or comical persona.<br />
So I wasn’t surprised to f<strong>in</strong>d a great series<br />
<strong>of</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>t ads featur<strong>in</strong>g animals from the Eastern<br />
Corporation, a paper maker <strong>in</strong> Bangor, Ma<strong>in</strong>e, for<br />
its l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> Atlantic bond pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g paper. <strong>The</strong>y all<br />
appeared <strong>in</strong> a series from 1946 that ran <strong>in</strong><br />
American Pr<strong>in</strong>ter magaz<strong>in</strong>e. Click on any image<br />
for a larger version.<br />
<strong>The</strong> company managed to vaguely<br />
connect the animals to the product through small<br />
poems that appeared with each illustration,<br />
which then tied <strong>in</strong> loosely to the ad copy. But like<br />
many paper company ads, the ma<strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t was<br />
to simply show <strong>of</strong>f the paper and the pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g<br />
quality you could achieve with it.<br />
49<br />
CAN YOU SAY,<br />
“AWWW”?<br />
<strong>Animals</strong> have long been a regular theme <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g, especially when anthropomorphized. Except for obvious<br />
ties to products like dog food and pet products, animals usually have noth<strong>in</strong>g to do with the goods or services<br />
advertised, but we connect with them and the products nonetheless, and we get a good feel<strong>in</strong>g when a company<br />
is associated with cute animals.<br />
Text by Gene Gable<br />
Eastern Corporation<br />
Atlantic, 1946 Eastern Corporation
Eastern Corporation<br />
Atlantic, 1946 Eastern Corporation<br />
50
Representations <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g are<br />
persuasive constructions <strong>of</strong> how animals are<br />
perceived. <strong>The</strong>y can convey notions as<br />
disparate as the domestic, the exotic, or the<br />
‘natural’. Certa<strong>in</strong> animals such as cows and pigs<br />
conventionally appear as commodities, whereas<br />
others such as pet cats and dogs are presented<br />
as <strong>in</strong>dividuals with their own specific likes and<br />
dislikes. And across the world the corporate arena<br />
tends to favour charismatic animals, particularly<br />
the Lion. I wish to consider the use <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong><br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g through the lens <strong>of</strong>f Foucault’s notion<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Western episteme and how cultural spaces<br />
are governed by it. However Foucault was writ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> another era and, as Bill Mitchell has observed<br />
‘….’cyberspace and biospace’ have <strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
new frontiers for ‘technical <strong>in</strong>novation,<br />
appropriation and exploitation‘ (2005, p. 309).<br />
Current Posthumanist discourse challenges<br />
the tenets <strong>of</strong> five hundred years <strong>of</strong> normative<br />
Humanist th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g which postulated the centrality<br />
<strong>of</strong> human consciousness. Post-humanist th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g<br />
foregrounds the question <strong>of</strong> the animal by<br />
critically re-assess<strong>in</strong>g established boundaries<br />
51<br />
EVOLUTION AND<br />
DESIGN<br />
<strong>The</strong> animal as sign has a long evolutionary history, but with the onset <strong>of</strong> cultural modernity it began to<br />
assume new semiotic forms. Foucault describes a new field <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased visibility that emerged <strong>in</strong> the<br />
eighteenth century which gave rise to a complex semiotic system with<strong>in</strong> which the sign began to take on<br />
a life <strong>of</strong> its own. If images could be regarded as liv<strong>in</strong>g organisms, how could this affect their<br />
representational values <strong>in</strong> society? And, what are the implications for the lives and representation <strong>of</strong><br />
animals?<br />
Text by Sonja Britz<br />
between humans and animals. <strong>The</strong> animal as<br />
signifier has assumed many roles and identities<br />
throughout history, <strong>of</strong>ten at the expense <strong>of</strong> the<br />
animal. <strong>The</strong> apparent evolution <strong>of</strong> the animal as<br />
signify<strong>in</strong>g element <strong>in</strong> design, could rather be<br />
described as one which has been subjected to<br />
an <strong>in</strong>verse process, an <strong>in</strong>volution, that denotes a<br />
retrograde action turn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> on itself.<br />
Foucault assigns three major divisions to<br />
his notion <strong>of</strong> the Western episteme: firstly<br />
Renaissance, secondly Classical and lastly<br />
Modern. <strong>The</strong> latter is governed by scientific <strong>in</strong>quiry<br />
as well as urbanization. <strong>The</strong> result<strong>in</strong>g chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
perceptions <strong>of</strong> natural history, provide, to my<br />
m<strong>in</strong>d, a framework where<strong>in</strong> views on animals<br />
could be located. His exposition <strong>of</strong> natural history<br />
and sign systems serve to <strong>in</strong>form cultural<br />
representations <strong>of</strong> animals: importantly, culture<br />
never admits unmediated access to actual<br />
animals. (Baker 2001:10). <strong>The</strong> culture <strong>of</strong> design<br />
provides a good example <strong>of</strong> how urban<br />
experiences <strong>of</strong> the animal are mediated by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> semiotics and technology and, thus,<br />
how either prejudices, or sympathies and other
Albrecht Dürer<br />
Indian Rh<strong>in</strong>oceros, 1515, <strong>The</strong> British Museum, London<br />
stereotypical attitudes towards animals filter quite<br />
seamlessly through these representations. <strong>The</strong><br />
producer, designer and viewer (the latter as<br />
<strong>in</strong>tended consumer) are forced <strong>in</strong>to complicity.<br />
In order to establish an acceptable<br />
evolutionary model, it is important to compare<br />
our episteme to preced<strong>in</strong>g ones with regard to<br />
natural history and representational strategies.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Foucault, the first division <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Western episteme, namely the Renaissance,<br />
consisted <strong>of</strong> a complex system <strong>of</strong> similitude, <strong>in</strong><br />
which the concern was not so much related to<br />
the animals themselves, but to what they signified<br />
for human be<strong>in</strong>gs. Develop<strong>in</strong>g from Medieval<br />
bestiaries, strange and exotic animals were<br />
assimilated <strong>in</strong>to an exist<strong>in</strong>g cultural order which<br />
was based on an emblematic, imperialist visual<br />
tradition. <strong>The</strong> results <strong>of</strong> empirical observation<br />
52<br />
played a m<strong>in</strong>or part <strong>in</strong> 16 th century<br />
representations <strong>of</strong> animals: the normative, which<br />
fitted <strong>in</strong>to the cultural matrix, rather than the<br />
observed animal, was represented.<br />
A good example <strong>of</strong> this would be Dürer’s<br />
rh<strong>in</strong>oceros (1515) (which became the<br />
acceptable icon/emblem <strong>of</strong> the animal - even<br />
though it differed from exist<strong>in</strong>g contemporary<br />
empirical observations and studies <strong>of</strong> the actual<br />
animal.<br />
On another level, there was a great<br />
curiosity for the visual relationship <strong>of</strong> one th<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
another - which favoured the symbolic - and<br />
stood <strong>in</strong> opposition to the 16 th century rhetoric <strong>of</strong><br />
science, which has been described as<br />
“dim<strong>in</strong>ished <strong>in</strong> visibility” ( Baker 2001: 20) due to its<br />
fasc<strong>in</strong>ation with the hidden, organic structural<br />
connections between th<strong>in</strong>gs.
In the second section <strong>of</strong> the Western episteme,<br />
called the Classical, the great tripartition between<br />
observation, document and fable (differences<br />
between, firstly, what one sees; secondly, what<br />
has been observed and thirdly, what others<br />
imag<strong>in</strong>e or believe) did not yet exist, and the<br />
reason for this was that signs were then regarded<br />
as part <strong>of</strong> th<strong>in</strong>gs themselves. In the 17 th century<br />
they became modes <strong>of</strong> representation (Foucault<br />
2002:140-141) evolv<strong>in</strong>g their own sign systems.<br />
In the 18th century, L<strong>in</strong>naeus (Systema<br />
Natural, 1759) <strong>in</strong>itiated a new system <strong>of</strong><br />
connect<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the world to observation and<br />
to discourse: the strangeness <strong>of</strong> animals was no<br />
longer regarded as spectacle (as <strong>in</strong> the 16 th<br />
century) but became the object <strong>of</strong> study for<br />
taxonomic purposes. <strong>The</strong> causal relationship<br />
between this view and the birth <strong>of</strong> natural history<br />
as we know it today, is quite obvious. It was clearly<br />
not the result <strong>of</strong> a new <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> nature and its<br />
creatures (because the orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> this <strong>in</strong>terest can<br />
be traced back to pre-history) but really the<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> a new field <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased visibility -<br />
which depended on both exclusion and<br />
systematisation (Foucault 2002:144-145). That<br />
which could not be seen, was utilized as a<br />
classificatory tool, giv<strong>in</strong>g rise to the development<br />
<strong>of</strong> complex sign systems, dislocat<strong>in</strong>g the sign<br />
from the th<strong>in</strong>g itself. Signs began to take on a life<br />
<strong>of</strong> their own.<br />
In the late 20 th and early 21 st centuries, the<br />
position<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the human species <strong>in</strong> nature can<br />
be described as heavily mediated by<br />
technology. As both visual and audio-visual<br />
media govern most mass media imagery,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>of</strong> the animal, there should be no<br />
problem to present the consum<strong>in</strong>g public with<br />
accurate, <strong>in</strong> situ representations <strong>of</strong> animals.<br />
Verisimilitude, rather than similitude <strong>in</strong> some<br />
representations, serves as ersatz quality for<br />
contact with actual animals.<br />
To a large extent, for human urban<br />
populations, biological diversity has def<strong>in</strong>itively<br />
become a pure virtual reality: one that has its<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong>, and also is constructed by and given<br />
content by three communication forces, namely<br />
computer generated imagery, television<br />
documentaries and brand<strong>in</strong>g strategies. It is a<br />
fact that, <strong>in</strong> their daily liv<strong>in</strong>g, current human urban<br />
populations are exposed to a very limited number<br />
<strong>of</strong> animal species. <strong>The</strong> viewer’s experience <strong>of</strong> the<br />
animal therefore happens to be primarily a<br />
mediated one. <strong>The</strong> consequent<br />
simulation/representation <strong>of</strong> the animal, therefore<br />
divorces the animal from its proper life context <strong>in</strong><br />
53<br />
order to fulfil the requirements as set out <strong>in</strong> the<br />
consumer <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />
W.J.T. Mitchell compares the iconologist to<br />
a natural historian: images and pictures are<br />
compared to species and specimens <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
expla<strong>in</strong> how new images appear <strong>in</strong> the world,<br />
what these effect , what they mean and how they<br />
change (Mitchell 2005: 86-87). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to this<br />
theory, images could therefore be subjected to<br />
ext<strong>in</strong>ction, mutation and evolution or, exist, at<br />
least, as co- evolutionary entities with human<br />
be<strong>in</strong>gs. Darw<strong>in</strong>ian evolutionary theory propounds<br />
that common ancestral stock adapts to exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
conditions and are susceptible to gradual<br />
modification over time. Populations are held <strong>in</strong><br />
check through natural selection and survival <strong>of</strong><br />
the fittest, the latter fulfill<strong>in</strong>g the demands <strong>of</strong> the “<br />
economy <strong>of</strong> nature” (White & Cribb<strong>in</strong> 1995:2000).<br />
Transmutation is a resultant process <strong>in</strong> which the<br />
modified <strong>of</strong>fspr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> all dom<strong>in</strong>ant and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
forms tend to become adapted to many and<br />
highly developed places with<strong>in</strong> the economy <strong>of</strong><br />
nature. An <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g view developed by Deleuze<br />
and Guattari explodes the old model <strong>of</strong> the<br />
evolutionary tree <strong>of</strong> descent. <strong>The</strong>y <strong>in</strong>troduce - as<br />
they themselves call it - a schema <strong>of</strong> aparallel<br />
evolution; I quote from A thousand plateaus:<br />
“rhizomes operat<strong>in</strong>g already <strong>in</strong> the<br />
heterogeneous and jump<strong>in</strong>g from one already<br />
differentiated l<strong>in</strong>e to another” (2004: 11). It follows<br />
that evolutionary processes are not judged, but<br />
simply are: a species is neither good nor bad<br />
(Mitchell 2005:86).<br />
By contrast to evolutionary theory, historical<br />
analysis is traditionally l<strong>in</strong>ear, a process <strong>of</strong><br />
analogue and chronology. An historical survey <strong>of</strong><br />
the animal as sign will be helpful <strong>in</strong> identify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> classificatory paradigms <strong>in</strong> which the<br />
animal had been manifested. Abject<br />
representations <strong>of</strong> the animal as exotic other can<br />
be traced from Roman times through to the 19 th<br />
century and early 20th century circus productions.<br />
More recently, to use Steve Baker’s term,<br />
“disnification” <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> representation, has<br />
led to animals be<strong>in</strong>g trivialized, signify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cuteness, humour and disempowerment.<br />
“Disnification” immediately conjures up its prime<br />
referent – signification – a term which is<br />
employed to bestow mean<strong>in</strong>g and credibility on<br />
the subject. By juxtapos<strong>in</strong>g these two concepts,<br />
Baker po<strong>in</strong>ts to the trivializ<strong>in</strong>g nature <strong>of</strong> animal<br />
representation wherever it occurs <strong>in</strong> the mass<br />
media. It is a common phenomenon to notice<br />
that marg<strong>in</strong>alized, disempowered groups are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten metaphorically classified as one <strong>of</strong> a
Barnum, Bailey and Hutch<strong>in</strong>son<br />
Jumbo, colour lithograph 1896<br />
54<br />
Fig. 1. Albrecht Dürer<br />
Indian Rh<strong>in</strong>oceros, 1515, <strong>The</strong> British Museum, London<br />
Fig. 1. Albrecht Dürer<br />
Indian Rh<strong>in</strong>oceros, 1515, <strong>The</strong> British Museum, London
number <strong>of</strong> animal species, because <strong>in</strong> the<br />
hierarchy <strong>of</strong> the “anthropological mach<strong>in</strong>e”<br />
(Agamben 2004:37) the animal is seen as<br />
humanity’s lowest denom<strong>in</strong>ator .<br />
<strong>The</strong> metapicture suggested by Mitchell, <strong>of</strong><br />
regard<strong>in</strong>g images as liv<strong>in</strong>g organisms, opens up<br />
an important arena <strong>of</strong> debate around the value<br />
<strong>of</strong> representations <strong>in</strong> a social context. Biologists<br />
also question seem<strong>in</strong>g certa<strong>in</strong>ties with<strong>in</strong> their field<br />
<strong>of</strong> knowledge, and the worth and validity <strong>of</strong> their<br />
classificatory systems. Similar to biologists, one<br />
cannot evaluate species/images but needs to<br />
consider the values <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong>to the world by<br />
new forms. <strong>The</strong>se might possibly contest exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
criteria and effect a change <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d. Images are<br />
therefore not merely passive entities requir<strong>in</strong>g<br />
human hosts to activate them. <strong>The</strong>y “re-function<br />
our memories and imag<strong>in</strong>ations, br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g new<br />
criteria and new desires <strong>in</strong>to the world” (Mitchel<br />
2005:92).<br />
<strong>The</strong> question that needs to be asked here,<br />
is whether the images that do survive the cultural<br />
evolutionary process are necessarily beneficial to<br />
the iconotype <strong>of</strong> its life form, <strong>in</strong> this case be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the animal. Walter Benjam<strong>in</strong> rem<strong>in</strong>ds us <strong>of</strong> this<br />
danger when he says: ”For every image <strong>of</strong> the<br />
past that is not recognized by the present as one<br />
<strong>of</strong> its concerns, threatens to disappear<br />
irretrievably” (1999:247). It is also important to<br />
identify and recognize the semiotic structures<br />
underly<strong>in</strong>g these survivor images, not so much for<br />
purposes <strong>of</strong> classification as for clarification.<br />
<strong>The</strong> cultural matrix imposed by economic<br />
forces <strong>in</strong> society on the representation <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
can ironically be metaphorically equated to the<br />
“economy <strong>of</strong> nature” – a concept I borrow from<br />
the field <strong>of</strong> evolutionary theory. Large corporate<br />
companies <strong>in</strong> S.A., like Vodacom, Investec,<br />
Hollards and Impala Plat<strong>in</strong>um, each employ their<br />
choice <strong>of</strong> animal <strong>in</strong> order to enforce a specific<br />
brand image. This brand image ostensibly implies<br />
environmental awareness and susta<strong>in</strong>ability; or at<br />
worst, it suggests a false metaphor which is de<br />
facto harmful to the animal.<br />
Large corporations - as mentioned above<br />
- <strong>of</strong>ten will<strong>in</strong>gly write blank cheques to protect<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> animal species. In fact, policies <strong>in</strong> regard<br />
<strong>of</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>ability and social responsibility are today<br />
essential strategies for economic exchange. This<br />
will<strong>in</strong>gness to pay may be on the <strong>in</strong>crease,<br />
thereby pos<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g risk: bus<strong>in</strong>esses like<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and other <strong>in</strong>dustries, might feel less<br />
burdened by the fact that their particular<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustries may be affect<strong>in</strong>g less visible habitats or<br />
less attractive animals that are usually not referred<br />
55<br />
to as icons <strong>of</strong> species loss. A recent Reuters report<br />
states that: “ As world wealth tends to grow,<br />
will<strong>in</strong>gness to pay to protect species is grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
even faster” (<strong>The</strong> Star, 11 May 2006:11).<br />
“However, spend<strong>in</strong>g money to save is not as<br />
important or valuable as not spend<strong>in</strong>g money to<br />
not destroy” (<strong>The</strong> Star, 11 May 2006:11). A UN<br />
report <strong>in</strong> March 2006 (<strong>The</strong> Star, 11 May 2006:11)<br />
stated that: ”humans were caus<strong>in</strong>g the worst<br />
spate <strong>of</strong> ext<strong>in</strong>ctions s<strong>in</strong>ce the d<strong>in</strong>osaurs vanished<br />
65 million years ago.”<br />
In the section to follow, I will be discuss<strong>in</strong>g<br />
three examples <strong>of</strong> animal representation as they<br />
appear <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g material. I will pay attention<br />
to the follow<strong>in</strong>g four tropes respectively employed<br />
<strong>in</strong> each <strong>of</strong> the chosen examples: metaphor,<br />
metonymy, anthropomorphism (or<br />
personification) and totem.<br />
My first example: <strong>The</strong> computer generated<br />
figure for the cellular phone company,<br />
Vodacom, named “ Mo”, is a case <strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t. <strong>The</strong><br />
topos <strong>of</strong> the computer animated meerkat (a<br />
species <strong>in</strong> the mongoose family) f<strong>in</strong>ds its roots <strong>in</strong><br />
the world <strong>of</strong> Disney enterta<strong>in</strong>ment and then<br />
matures <strong>in</strong> Vodacom’s market<strong>in</strong>g campaign with<br />
promises to share pr<strong>of</strong>its aimed at benefit<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
upgrad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the meerkat enclosure at the<br />
Johannesburg Zoo. <strong>The</strong> image <strong>of</strong> the computer<br />
generated meerkat has enormous eyes and a<br />
corrupted, cute appearance. This image can be<br />
classified as both anthropomorphic and<br />
neotenous. Furthermore, the metaphoric and<br />
metonymic dynamics <strong>of</strong> this representation<br />
complicate the strategies employed <strong>in</strong> the<br />
creation <strong>of</strong> this image. <strong>The</strong>se will be discussed <strong>in</strong><br />
the paragraph to follow.<br />
Anthropomorphic <strong>in</strong>terpretations <strong>of</strong><br />
animals are common-place <strong>in</strong> art and the<br />
media. <strong>The</strong> roots <strong>of</strong> the attribution <strong>of</strong> human<br />
motives and behaviour to animals can be traced<br />
to traditions like Greek mythology, fables,<br />
children’s stories and, more recently, the banality<br />
<strong>of</strong> Disneyworld and movies like Ice Age. This<br />
phenomenon most <strong>of</strong>ten conflates with that <strong>of</strong><br />
metaphoric language and sign. John Berger<br />
argues that: “it is not unreasonable to suppose<br />
that the first metaphor was animal” (Berger<br />
1980:90).<strong>The</strong> animal as metaphor proposes a<br />
relationship between humans and animals which<br />
may not at first glance seem exploitative, and <strong>in</strong><br />
many, especially literary examples, actually are<br />
not.<br />
However, when the animal is used as<br />
metaphor denot<strong>in</strong>g the Other, b<strong>in</strong>ary oppositions<br />
are activated and the animal is usually
Unknown Artist<br />
<strong>The</strong> Orang-Outang Carry<strong>in</strong>g Off a Negro Girl, <strong>in</strong> Nederveen Pieterse 1992:38<br />
56
2006. Image show<strong>in</strong>g advertisement for Vodacom’s<br />
advertisement for cellular technology. ‘Mo’ Vodaworld: Autumn.<br />
represented as negative or <strong>in</strong>consequential. In<br />
this case, Mo is neither human nor animal, but<br />
created through technology, operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />
realm <strong>of</strong> the cyborg. He is a metaphor for gobetween<br />
vis-à-vis consumer and what is be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
consumed. <strong>The</strong> actual animal - its appearance<br />
and nature – is, to a large extent, ignored. His<br />
attire, rem<strong>in</strong>iscent <strong>of</strong> the tourist and the safari,<br />
immediately places him on the opposite side <strong>of</strong><br />
the animal world with its connotations <strong>of</strong> the big,<br />
white hunter and trophies. With camera <strong>in</strong> hand<br />
and safari hat jaunt<strong>in</strong>gly pulled over his one eye,<br />
he seductively gazes at the viewer. This vaudeville<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> his manipulated personality is further<br />
revealed by his animated actions <strong>in</strong> the TV<br />
adverts, namely to jive along <strong>in</strong> a downtown<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>g while be<strong>in</strong>g followed by a constantly<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g crowd <strong>of</strong> fans, rem<strong>in</strong>iscent <strong>of</strong> the Pied<br />
Piper and his mesmerised followers. Only <strong>in</strong> this<br />
case the rapid growth <strong>of</strong> the crowd and its<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g noise levels, exposes, as Canetti<br />
(1981:20) claims, the <strong>in</strong>herently destructive<br />
potential <strong>of</strong> the crowd, transform<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong>to a<br />
scene which is more frighten<strong>in</strong>g than enterta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Neoteny is employed as a popular device<br />
<strong>in</strong> animal representation <strong>in</strong> the media. Neoteny<br />
refers to “a condition <strong>in</strong> which there is retention <strong>of</strong><br />
youthful characteristics <strong>in</strong> the adult form” (Baker<br />
57<br />
2001:181). This k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> representation encourages<br />
sentimental adult response, thereby assur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement from the consumer. <strong>The</strong> neotenous<br />
character <strong>of</strong> Mo displaces the distanc<strong>in</strong>g effect<br />
<strong>of</strong> otherness as achieved through metaphor. His<br />
proximity to the familiar world <strong>of</strong> humans and their<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests, calls for a metonymic read<strong>in</strong>g. Be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
part <strong>of</strong> human society, his participatory<br />
relationship to the company’s credibility as a<br />
conserver <strong>of</strong> the environment and <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
animals, as well as one <strong>of</strong> the fastest expand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
markets <strong>in</strong> Africa, is ensured.<br />
A second example: Investec refers to the<br />
actual - as opposed to the animated,<br />
technologically eng<strong>in</strong>eered - animal <strong>in</strong> its<br />
brand<strong>in</strong>g strategy. <strong>The</strong> Zebra is utilized as a liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
icon <strong>of</strong> the company’s progressive vision for<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>ability, partnership and strength. At first<br />
glance it has probably been selected for its<br />
aesthetic appeal, geographical habitat and<br />
behavioural characteristics, but the sub-text spells<br />
a belief <strong>in</strong> an absolutist view <strong>of</strong> nature, which can<br />
be def<strong>in</strong>ed as one <strong>of</strong> plenitude, adaptability and<br />
survival. Selected features <strong>of</strong> the Impala are<br />
isolated, such as its adaptability, alertness and<br />
mutualism, <strong>in</strong> order to highlight and impress <strong>in</strong> a<br />
metonymic fashion the company’s image.<br />
But what is this image signify<strong>in</strong>g? Does it<br />
represent the organic liv<strong>in</strong>g substance with<strong>in</strong><br />
nature <strong>in</strong> opposition to culture, <strong>in</strong> the culturenature<br />
debate? Or can it be termed <strong>in</strong> Foucault’s<br />
words: “forms <strong>of</strong> animal visibility” (Mitchell<br />
2005:177) - real objects <strong>in</strong> the world, but which<br />
are also images and verbal expressions (Mitchell<br />
2005: 176). Could one therefore refer to it as a<br />
totem, a sign which occupies a strategic position<br />
at the nature-culture frontier? Totems can take on<br />
several forms: one <strong>of</strong> them be<strong>in</strong>g the animal<br />
itself. However, the image as such is always more<br />
sacred than what it represents (Mitchell 2005:<br />
178). In this case, not under imm<strong>in</strong>ent threat <strong>of</strong><br />
ext<strong>in</strong>ction as yet, but a successful commercial,<br />
corporate image, which hardly touches upon the<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> the actual animal.<br />
My last example: <strong>The</strong> Hollards brand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
strategy takes this notion <strong>of</strong> the animal as brand<br />
symbol <strong>in</strong>to the biocybernetic doma<strong>in</strong>. By<br />
comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g two diverse species –the horse and<br />
the cheetah that you can see here, as well as the<br />
image <strong>of</strong> the duiker buck jo<strong>in</strong>ed with the caracal I<br />
showed <strong>in</strong> my <strong>in</strong>troduction - the notion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al two animals is displaced. A sense is<br />
created that the modification is an improved<br />
version - rather than a weakened copy <strong>of</strong> the
Ivestec<br />
Here Tomorrow Investec<br />
58
Morrisjones & Company<br />
Unique Partnership, 2006 Morrisjones & Company<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al. Digital manipulation ensures<br />
improvement and flawlessness.<br />
<strong>The</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> this newly<br />
constructed image, can also be <strong>in</strong>terpreted as<br />
provid<strong>in</strong>g a symptomatic example <strong>of</strong> “image<br />
anxiety” (Mitchel 2005:12) po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g to an<br />
uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty regard<strong>in</strong>g the future – <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
possible ext<strong>in</strong>ction <strong>of</strong> species. Here, the potency<br />
<strong>of</strong> the cloned image becomes a central concern<br />
, because it exemplifies the uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty <strong>of</strong> the<br />
future while fulfill<strong>in</strong>g the dream <strong>of</strong> creat<strong>in</strong>g liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
forms which lead to liv<strong>in</strong>g images - a viable<br />
simulacrum <strong>of</strong> a liv<strong>in</strong>g organism (Mitchel 2005:12-<br />
13).<br />
In conclusion, the representation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
animal is central to the history <strong>of</strong> animals –<br />
“because that history is fully shaped by human<br />
documents” (Fudge 2004).<strong>The</strong> repercussions <strong>of</strong><br />
this plethora <strong>of</strong> documentation, which <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
design, are central also to ethical debate<br />
focus<strong>in</strong>g on the question <strong>of</strong> the animal. As<br />
Mitchell states (2005:178-179):<br />
59<br />
natural organisms are not just<br />
entities <strong>in</strong> themselves but a system<br />
<strong>of</strong> natural signs , liv<strong>in</strong>g images, a<br />
natural language <strong>of</strong> zoographia<br />
or ‘animal writ<strong>in</strong>g’ that, from<br />
ancient bestiaries to DNA and the<br />
new book <strong>of</strong> Life, cont<strong>in</strong>ually<br />
re<strong>in</strong>troduces religion – and<br />
animation - <strong>in</strong>to th<strong>in</strong>gs and their<br />
images.”<br />
Current Posthumanist discourse does <strong>in</strong>deed<br />
challenge the tenets <strong>of</strong> 500 years <strong>of</strong> Humanist<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. Instead <strong>of</strong> adopt<strong>in</strong>g a position supportive<br />
<strong>of</strong> an idea that can be used to attempt to<br />
illustrate the evolutionary development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
animal as sign <strong>in</strong> design, I - by contrast - prefer<br />
the notion <strong>of</strong> a rhizomatous change as<br />
expounded by Deleuze and Guattari (2004:12) -<br />
stemm<strong>in</strong>g from a cultural matrix which embraces<br />
diversity, collaboration and multivocality <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to represent that which can never be adequately<br />
represented.
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University Press: Stanford.<br />
Baker, S. 2001. ‘<strong>Animals</strong>, representation and reality’. Society<br />
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Baker, S. 2001. Pictur<strong>in</strong>g the Beast: animals, identity and<br />
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Benjam<strong>in</strong>, W. 1968. Illum<strong>in</strong>ations. Pimlico: London.<br />
Berger, J. 1980. About Look<strong>in</strong>g. V<strong>in</strong>tage Books: New York.<br />
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60<br />
Sonja Britz is a pa<strong>in</strong>ter and writer born <strong>in</strong> Durban, South Africa . She<br />
studied pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g at the University <strong>of</strong> Natal, complet<strong>in</strong>g her MFA<br />
Between 1991 and 2009 she was based <strong>in</strong> Johannesburg, whilst also<br />
undertak<strong>in</strong>g artist’s residencies and exhibit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Europe. She is<br />
<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the socio-cultural aspects <strong>of</strong> animal representation and<br />
have explored subjects such as the predicament <strong>of</strong> the African wild<br />
dog and urban animals. She is represented <strong>in</strong> a variety <strong>of</strong> public<br />
and corporate collections <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the World Wildlife Fund.<br />
In 2009 she moved to the UK and now lives on the coast<br />
<strong>of</strong> Cumbria. She has recently completed on an Arts Council England<br />
funded project, Companion Species: Portrait <strong>of</strong> a Community.<br />
Current <strong>in</strong>terests are animal portraiture and contemporary<br />
wunderkammer.
he same issue <strong>of</strong> the monthly magaz<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded photographs <strong>of</strong> W<strong>in</strong>ston Churchill<br />
patt<strong>in</strong>g a Great Dane and <strong>of</strong> a Kerry Blue<br />
champion. <strong>The</strong>re were adverts <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
those for Hackbridge Kennels to which dogs<br />
could be evacuated for ‘the duration’, Spratts<br />
dog food ‘still carry<strong>in</strong>g on!’ and can<strong>in</strong>e gas masks<br />
and gas –pro<strong>of</strong> kennels. <strong>The</strong> editorial written at<br />
the height <strong>of</strong> the so-called Battle <strong>of</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong> was<br />
headed with the much-used epithet ‘We can take<br />
it’, endors<strong>in</strong>g the myth <strong>of</strong> a resilient Brita<strong>in</strong><br />
stand<strong>in</strong>g alone. [iii]<br />
This jocular advert is aimed at dog lovers.<br />
<strong>The</strong> cartoon bulldog, recognised as a specific<br />
breed by the Kennel Club from the 1870s, wears<br />
its regulation collar and acts symbolically for<br />
Brita<strong>in</strong> reassur<strong>in</strong>g the nervous puppy. As Steve<br />
Baker has argued ‘any understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
animal is <strong>in</strong>separable from the knowledge <strong>of</strong> its<br />
cultural representation’: Brita<strong>in</strong> and bulldogs go<br />
together. [iv] T<br />
<strong>The</strong> dogs’ male gender is<br />
NERVOUS DOGS<br />
NEED ADMIN, SON!<br />
This advert comes from a British magaz<strong>in</strong>e <strong>The</strong> Tail Wagger, October 1940. <strong>The</strong> Tail- Waggers Club had been<br />
founded <strong>in</strong> 1928 to promote dog welfare stat<strong>in</strong>g, ‘<strong>The</strong> love <strong>of</strong> animals, and especially <strong>of</strong> dogs, is <strong>in</strong>herent <strong>in</strong> nearly<br />
all Britishers’ and by 1930 numbered some 300,000 members. [i] All dogs were eligible for membership, not just<br />
those from established breeds. By July 1930 it had become a general legal requirement that all dogs should wear<br />
collars and the club and magaz<strong>in</strong>e endorsed such measures. [ii]<br />
Text by Hilda Kean<br />
61<br />
emphasised by the language: ‘sir’ and ‘son’.<br />
However this particular ‘bulldog’ would not have<br />
been eligible for show s<strong>in</strong>ce he has no testicles-<br />
this absence is clearly displayed given the angle<br />
<strong>of</strong> the image. Despite his firm four-footed stance<br />
and iconic status this great British bulldog has no<br />
balls, rather like the depiction <strong>of</strong> the former<br />
deputy prime m<strong>in</strong>ister John Prescott <strong>in</strong> Steve<br />
Bell’s <strong>The</strong> Guardian cartoons. In the image <strong>of</strong> an<br />
emasculated bulldog ‘full <strong>of</strong> sound and fury and<br />
signify<strong>in</strong>g noth<strong>in</strong>g’ with collar but no balls -<br />
Prescott’s crucifixion on croquet mallets was a<br />
particular delight- I always knew I was read<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
stand-<strong>in</strong> for a bluster<strong>in</strong>g man. [v] But here the<br />
bulldog is not <strong>in</strong>tended to represent a particular<br />
human.<br />
<strong>The</strong> querulous compla<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> the puppy<br />
plays upon a war rumour. In 1940 measures were<br />
taken to regulate food for non-human animals. In<br />
Brita<strong>in</strong> a Waste <strong>of</strong> Food Order obliged animal<br />
keepers to act reasonably, while stress<strong>in</strong>g that
Adm<strong>in</strong><br />
Cooper Dog Products, <strong>The</strong> Tail-Wagger Magaz<strong>in</strong>e, 1940<br />
pets could still be fed. [vi] At a similar time there<br />
were (<strong>in</strong>accurate) reports that Hitler had ordered<br />
all dogs to be killed s<strong>in</strong>ce they were tak<strong>in</strong>g food<br />
from humans. [vii] However, there was a rumour<br />
62<br />
that German dogs were be<strong>in</strong>g killed because<br />
Germans allegedly liked eat<strong>in</strong>g dog meat. [viii] This<br />
rumour has been exposed as such.But I do not<br />
read this cartoon as a serious comment on
alleged Nazi dietary habits. <strong>The</strong> magaz<strong>in</strong>e<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>s a serious article critical <strong>of</strong> the fascists’<br />
utilitarian approaches to dogs and does not<br />
mention this rumour at all. <strong>The</strong> advert de-bunks<br />
the rumour by treat<strong>in</strong>g it jocularly - and we know<br />
that it is jocular s<strong>in</strong>ce the ‘dogs’ are not dogs but<br />
cartoon characters.<br />
<strong>The</strong> text also debunks the idea that<br />
animals were anxious because <strong>of</strong> bombardment<br />
– although some clearly were - [x] stat<strong>in</strong>g ‘Nervous<br />
dogs are usually the victims <strong>of</strong> wrong feed<strong>in</strong>g’.<br />
Importantly this problem (unlike bomb<strong>in</strong>g!) was<br />
soluble with Adm<strong>in</strong> vitam<strong>in</strong>s. An irony <strong>of</strong> the ad is<br />
that it is published <strong>in</strong> 1940 because <strong>of</strong> the war but<br />
the war itself (aside from the Nazi speech bubble)<br />
is not mentioned explicitly. Even potential meat<br />
shortages are only alluded to elliptically. <strong>The</strong><br />
puppy who is too young to know better ‘speaks’<br />
about the war but his comments are dismissed<br />
with a ‘stand firm’ message. While play<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
Nazi-dog-eat<strong>in</strong>g story the advert simultaneously<br />
underm<strong>in</strong>es it. <strong>The</strong> young puppy has ‘got it<br />
wrong’. However it is surely the puppy who<br />
articulates human anxieties. <strong>The</strong> anxiety is<br />
responded to by another, older, dog. <strong>The</strong> human<br />
/puppy is be<strong>in</strong>g calmed by an older dog.<br />
Arguably the reader is expected rationally to<br />
identify with the older dog but emotionally with<br />
the puppy. (If Adm<strong>in</strong> powders were given to real<br />
dogs, it would apparently benefit the anxious dog<br />
as well as the human anxious about the dog.)<br />
Paul Wells has approached cartoon<br />
animals to suggest that they should be read as<br />
animal depictions: ‘… animation demonstrates<br />
an <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic respect for animals, and rather than<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g them safe through humor, it actually<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>s to articulate relevant narratives to support<br />
their cause’. [xi] We are not expected to take the<br />
advert seriously on one level s<strong>in</strong>ce it is juxtaposed<br />
with journalism about ‘real’ dogs: but we are also<br />
<strong>in</strong>tended to read the cultural representation <strong>of</strong><br />
the bulldog as a national icon.<br />
But my use <strong>of</strong> the word ‘we’ is <strong>in</strong>accurate<br />
and ahistorical. This was neither aimed at the<br />
twenty first century reader nor was the product for<br />
contemporary dogs. <strong>The</strong> product, the advert and<br />
the <strong>in</strong>tended reader were all rooted <strong>in</strong> the lived<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> war some 70 years ago. <strong>The</strong><br />
animal-human relationship (and its<br />
representation) was <strong>of</strong> a very particular time and<br />
this advert helps rem<strong>in</strong>d us <strong>of</strong> this.<br />
63<br />
References<br />
[i] <strong>The</strong> Tail-Waggers Club, Tailwaggers, nd 1931<br />
[ii] An Urgent and Important Notice for all Tail-Waggers and dog<br />
owners generally! Tailwaggers Club June 1930<br />
[iii] Angus Calder, <strong>The</strong> Myth <strong>of</strong> the Blitz, Pimlico,1991<br />
[iv] Steve Baker, Pictur<strong>in</strong>g the Beast, Manchester University Press,p.25<br />
[v] http://www.guardian.co.uk/slideshow/page/0,,1974790,00.html<br />
[vi] RSPCA, Annual Report, RSPCA,1940<br />
[vii] <strong>Animals</strong> Defender, NAVS, July 1940. <strong>The</strong> Home Office believed<br />
dogs were be<strong>in</strong>g killed to provide glycer<strong>in</strong>e and fertilisers. TNA:HO<br />
186 /1419<br />
[viii] Veter<strong>in</strong>ary Record, October 1940. Also <strong>The</strong> Times <strong>of</strong> 18<br />
November 1940<br />
[ix] Mieke Roescher <strong>The</strong> Nazis and their animals (unpublished paper).<br />
See too Maren Mohr<strong>in</strong>g, Cats and cities. ‘Hygienic helpers’: cats <strong>in</strong><br />
the cities <strong>of</strong> the ‘Third Reich’.<br />
library.panteion.gr:8080/dspace/bitstream/.../479/1/MMOHRING.pdf<br />
[x] Measures aga<strong>in</strong>st this, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g medication or ear cover<strong>in</strong>g, were<br />
promoted by the RSPCA and National Can<strong>in</strong>e Defence League<br />
[xi] Paul Wells, <strong>The</strong> Animated Bestiary <strong>Animals</strong>, Cartoons, and<br />
<strong>Culture</strong>, Rutgers University Press, 2009, p.11<br />
Hilda Kean PhD, FRHistS is former Dean and Director <strong>of</strong> Public History<br />
at Rusk<strong>in</strong> College, Oxford and currently Adjunct Pr<strong>of</strong>essor at the<br />
Centre for Australian Public History at UTS, Sydney. She has published<br />
widely on cultural and public history and the position <strong>of</strong> non-human<br />
animals. Her numerous works on animals <strong>in</strong>clude Animal Rights.<br />
Social and Political Change <strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce 1800 (Reaktion Books<br />
2000), chapters <strong>in</strong> several books (most recently <strong>in</strong> Lest we Forget ed<br />
Maggie Andrews 2011 and <strong>in</strong> <strong>Animals</strong> and War ed Ryan Hediger<br />
2013) and articles <strong>in</strong> Society and <strong>Animals</strong>, <strong>The</strong> London <strong>Journal</strong>,<br />
International <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Heritage Studies, Anthrozoos and History<br />
Workshop <strong>Journal</strong>. She serves as history editor for Society and<br />
<strong>Animals</strong> and on the advisory board for M<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Animals</strong> and the<br />
Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics. She is currently research<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
writ<strong>in</strong>g about the animal – human relationship on the home front<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the Second World War. Her latest books are <strong>The</strong> Public History<br />
Reader (edited with Paul Mart<strong>in</strong>) Routledge 2013 and Public History<br />
and Heritage Today. People and their Pasts (edited with Paul Ashton)<br />
Palgrave 2013. http://hildakean.com/
64<br />
A STONY FIELD<br />
Brand representations proliferate reflexive identities <strong>of</strong> their producers and consumers. <strong>The</strong>se self-advertisements<br />
re<strong>in</strong>scribe commodified identities reproductively back onto the subjects and objects – the represented figures – <strong>of</strong><br />
consumption. In this paper I argue that the cooption <strong>of</strong> identity politics by mult<strong>in</strong>ational corporations like Stonyfield<br />
Farm, Inc. operates with<strong>in</strong> material and virtual doma<strong>in</strong>s that conceal fetishized processes <strong>of</strong> consumption. I<br />
redeploy Stonyfield’s representational vocabulary <strong>in</strong> look<strong>in</strong>g to uncover these processes as hidden ‘stones’ <strong>in</strong> a<br />
relational ‘field’ <strong>of</strong> embodied power. I beg<strong>in</strong> by review<strong>in</strong>g selected theoretical literature on material and virtual<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> identity, consumption and power. I then apply these perspectives to a recontextualized ‘stony field’, as<br />
figured through the work <strong>of</strong> artist Michael Mercil. I suggest that his project <strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture (2009-11),<br />
considered <strong>in</strong> relation to Judith Butler’s re-read<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> Foucault and Hegel, reconditions the proprietary terms <strong>of</strong><br />
Stonyfield’s cow fetish.<br />
Text by Kather<strong>in</strong>e Bennett<br />
Fig.1. Michael Mercil<br />
<strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture, postcard, 2009 Michael Mercil
Fig.2.<br />
Stonyfield yogurt carton front center, photograph by author.<br />
“M<br />
y market<strong>in</strong>g spend is a round<strong>in</strong>g error<br />
[compared with competitors]," he<br />
says. "But you can go on Stonyfield's<br />
web site (YoTube), and watch cows chew<strong>in</strong>g their<br />
cud”.<br />
Gary Hirschberg, Stonyfield CEO (Re<strong>in</strong>gold, 2012)<br />
My Stonyfield yogurt carton depicts a pastoral<br />
landscape identified as Wayside Farm, Vermont<br />
(USA). <strong>The</strong> reproduced image wraps around a<br />
white plastic cyl<strong>in</strong>der. Its colors are polarized and<br />
focal depths multiplied. A golden light bathes the<br />
verdant pasture and graz<strong>in</strong>g cows <strong>in</strong> sharpest<br />
focus at the center. <strong>The</strong> curved plastic surface<br />
foregrounds the cows spatially and graphically.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y are the closest figures <strong>in</strong> the ‘field’ to me. A<br />
picturesque New England barn set <strong>in</strong> the forested<br />
edge some distance back echoes the modeled<br />
browns <strong>of</strong> their bodies. <strong>The</strong> words “Organic” and<br />
“Pla<strong>in</strong>” <strong>in</strong>trude <strong>in</strong>to the landscape’s middle ground<br />
and vertically frame the cows. <strong>The</strong> font is serifed<br />
and traditional but playful. Float<strong>in</strong>g above <strong>in</strong> a<br />
hazy sky, the more stylized torso and head <strong>of</strong> a<br />
cow peep w<strong>in</strong>somely between flat, primary yellow<br />
and blue banners for ‘’Stonyfield” and “Organic”.<br />
<strong>The</strong> same head reappears decapitated and<br />
vertically centered <strong>in</strong> a marg<strong>in</strong> left <strong>of</strong> the<br />
landscape, bear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> its mouth an <strong>in</strong>vitation for<br />
“SF Rewards” – an <strong>in</strong>centive program for “our loyal<br />
yogurt eaters" [i]. Aligned above is the product<br />
bar code, and below are a list <strong>of</strong> bacterial<br />
cultures attributed to it, a stipulation to “KEEP<br />
REFRIGERATED” and two certifications: “Organic”<br />
and “Gluten-Free”. A standardized chart<br />
quantify<strong>in</strong>g “Nutrition Facts” bounds the image to<br />
the right. Text dom<strong>in</strong>ates the rear panel,<br />
present<strong>in</strong>g the corporation’s story and<br />
environmental ethic. A beam<strong>in</strong>g 'mother' is<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to the border for a bacon salad<br />
recipe under the caption “Meg’s Recipe Box”. <strong>The</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>gredient list is titled “Our Family Recipe”.<br />
65<br />
Stonyfield’s package reproduces the liv<strong>in</strong>g bodies<br />
<strong>of</strong> cows through multiple levels <strong>of</strong> abstraction as:<br />
representational figures <strong>in</strong> a pastoral landscape,<br />
the iconic brand <strong>of</strong> a multi-national corporation,<br />
a purchaser reward system, a codified market<br />
commodity, a matrix for bacterial life, a food<br />
product requir<strong>in</strong>g artificial temperature control, a<br />
regulated and certified object <strong>of</strong> consumption,<br />
numbered grams <strong>of</strong> nutrients and percentages <strong>of</strong><br />
“daily values” for an idealized diet, and an<br />
<strong>in</strong>gredient <strong>in</strong> a heteronormative ‘family meal’. In<br />
this article I question the representational terms<br />
and conditions <strong>of</strong> such abstractions. <strong>The</strong>ir<br />
idiomatic reformulations appear <strong>in</strong> pictures, words<br />
and numbers. <strong>The</strong>ir comm<strong>in</strong>gled figures produce<br />
reductions and multiplications <strong>of</strong> the bodies <strong>of</strong><br />
cows <strong>in</strong> relation to the bodies <strong>of</strong> people, and <strong>of</strong><br />
both <strong>in</strong> relation to their environments. Material<br />
bodies are both subjects and objects <strong>of</strong> the<br />
abstractions, reduced by them to caricatures,<br />
labels and calorie counts. <strong>The</strong>y are also<br />
multiplied, virtually, <strong>in</strong>to new identities and<br />
relations through entangled processes <strong>of</strong><br />
commodification and advertis<strong>in</strong>g. I question how<br />
these representations proliferate reflexive identities<br />
– self-advertisements – <strong>of</strong> their human<br />
producers/consumers, which are then <strong>in</strong>scribed<br />
back onto the cows, the people and their<br />
environments. How do these representations<br />
naturalize new identities and relations, which are<br />
recursively rendered through a market<strong>in</strong>g sp<strong>in</strong>cycle?<br />
My <strong>in</strong>quiry traces materialities and<br />
virtualities <strong>of</strong> its subjects: the cows <strong>in</strong> a stony field,<br />
the field and its stones (where are they?), and the<br />
presumed but unpictured human viewer.<br />
At issue are the material and virtual<br />
embodiments, cont<strong>in</strong>ually refigured, <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
(<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g cows and people) and their<br />
environments. How can the frames <strong>of</strong><br />
representation be opened so that a mutuality<br />
is seen between these subjects/objects that are
Fig.3.<br />
Stonyfield yogurt carton left, right and back, photograph by author.<br />
cows, people, fields and stones? What I’m after is<br />
the responsiveness that Donna Haraway (2008)<br />
conditions <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> “respecere”, draw<strong>in</strong>g on the<br />
Lat<strong>in</strong> ‘to look aga<strong>in</strong>’, but also “the act <strong>of</strong> respect”<br />
(19) with its comb<strong>in</strong>ed mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> consideration,<br />
perception and look<strong>in</strong>g back [ii]. <strong>The</strong> Stonyfield<br />
cartoon-cow looks at me, but I am not seen to<br />
look back. <strong>The</strong> more privileged subject that is ‘I’<br />
sits swallow<strong>in</strong>g her yogurt outside the carton’s<br />
frame. But I am not alone. Who and what else is<br />
out here, beyond the frame, re-produc<strong>in</strong>g ‘my’<br />
relationship with the cows and ‘our’ environments?<br />
Can these ‘I’s be brought <strong>in</strong>to the frame to<br />
stretch, or bend (without necessarily break<strong>in</strong>g), the<br />
reiterative identities <strong>of</strong> the commodity cha<strong>in</strong>? For<br />
a Haraway-<strong>in</strong>spired response, I beg<strong>in</strong> with Julie<br />
Guthman’s chapter on “<strong>The</strong> ‘organic commodity’<br />
and other anomalies <strong>in</strong> the politics <strong>of</strong><br />
consumption” <strong>in</strong> Geographies <strong>of</strong> Commodity<br />
Cha<strong>in</strong>s (Hughes and Reimer, 2004), which takes<br />
me briefly back to Marx and Capital on the<br />
commodity fetish. From there, I turn to Judith<br />
Butler’s <strong>in</strong>vestigation through Foucault <strong>in</strong>to political<br />
economies <strong>of</strong> the body <strong>in</strong> her talk “Bodies and<br />
Power, Revisited” (2002). Butler leads me to a<br />
reconsideration <strong>of</strong> materiality and virtuality,<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> relation to contemporary capitalism<br />
by James G. Carrier, Daniel Miller, Leslie Sklair and<br />
Nigel Thrift <strong>in</strong> Virtualism: A New Political<br />
Economy (Carrier and Miller, 1998). I then look to<br />
artist Michael Mercil, whose project <strong>The</strong> Virtual<br />
Pasture (2008-2011) re-forms the frame <strong>in</strong> a<br />
manner suggested by Butler <strong>in</strong> <strong>The</strong> Psychic Life <strong>of</strong><br />
Power (1997).<br />
66<br />
A cow fetish: What is represented?<br />
<strong>The</strong> multiply abstracted cow-commodity is<br />
impr<strong>in</strong>ted with domesticated standards <strong>of</strong> health.<br />
Its plastic conta<strong>in</strong>er fetishizes not only the “Smooth<br />
and Creamy” bodily substance with<strong>in</strong>, but also its<br />
representations <strong>of</strong> consumer and environmental<br />
protection, localized agricultural practices, and<br />
fair trade for small farmers. Guthman (2004, 234)<br />
writes <strong>of</strong> a politics <strong>of</strong> consumption that centers on<br />
eat<strong>in</strong>g as 'green', ethical and local. This politics<br />
implicates a Marxian commodity fetishism – that<br />
is, a concealment <strong>of</strong> the hierarchical relations<br />
productive <strong>of</strong> commodities. <strong>The</strong> mask<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
capitalist <strong>in</strong>terests beh<strong>in</strong>d organic certification<br />
ascribes to the commodity an <strong>in</strong>nate mystical<br />
“preciousness” (245). Yet its valuation and<br />
formation <strong>in</strong> a market-based system <strong>of</strong><br />
production belies its ethical representations.<br />
Guthman shows that the mult<strong>in</strong>ational market<br />
structure beh<strong>in</strong>d the organic label contradicts<br />
and <strong>in</strong> practice de-l<strong>in</strong>ks it from idioms <strong>of</strong> “smallscale,<br />
populist agrarianism” (240). Organic<br />
certification does not limit the scale or mechanics<br />
<strong>of</strong> production, does not <strong>in</strong>herently or effectively<br />
regionalize food systems, does not m<strong>in</strong>imize food<br />
process<strong>in</strong>g, and does not promulgate labor or<br />
localized trade standards. Rather, ‘Organic’ is now<br />
relegated to standards for production practices,<br />
and more specifically to ‘organic’ <strong>in</strong>puts,<br />
themselves <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to an ‘organic’ market<br />
for fertilizers, pesticides, soil modifications, etc.<br />
(240-1). An <strong>in</strong>ternationalized <strong>in</strong>dustry, evolved
Fig. 4. & 5.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Miracle <strong>of</strong> Milk and Down to Earth, Stonyfield Farm, Inc, film still Stonyfield Farm Inc<br />
67
from <strong>in</strong>terstate agribus<strong>in</strong>ess, has appropriated the<br />
organic label. Stonyfield’s corporate genealogy<br />
[iii] exemplifies this tension between ethical<br />
standards and market standardization. Its<br />
expansion <strong>in</strong>to <strong>in</strong>ternational markets [iv], big box<br />
retail outlets, café cha<strong>in</strong>s [v] and an array <strong>of</strong><br />
processed "food products" asserts a capital<br />
growth model that dom<strong>in</strong>ates its localized picture<br />
<strong>of</strong> health for cows, people and their<br />
'environment'. Guthman reveals the underly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
paradox:<br />
[Organic label<strong>in</strong>g] fetishizes the<br />
process <strong>of</strong> social change itself, by<br />
suggest<strong>in</strong>g that purchas<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
commodity is sufficient to effect<br />
such change. If organic food was<br />
truly an antidote to processes <strong>of</strong><br />
commodification, the ‘organic<br />
commodity’ surely would be seen<br />
as an oxymoron. (245)<br />
What terms and conditions are operative <strong>in</strong> the<br />
capitalized field beh<strong>in</strong>d Stonyfield’s cow fetish?<br />
Marx, Guthman notes, writes <strong>of</strong> a veil<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
human-nature relations by exchange value and<br />
fetishism. He argues, "the objective appearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the social characteristics <strong>of</strong> labour” (Marx,<br />
1990, 176) and its products obscures their social<br />
constitution. Marx dist<strong>in</strong>guishes the contradictory,<br />
“tw<strong>of</strong>old” form <strong>of</strong> the commodity, as both<br />
physical object <strong>of</strong> utility (possess<strong>in</strong>g use-value)<br />
and virtual depository <strong>of</strong> exchange-value.<br />
Conflation <strong>of</strong> the physical/natural object (e.g.<br />
yogurt) with its value form ($3.49) masks the<br />
socially dom<strong>in</strong>ant conditions <strong>of</strong> its production (by<br />
Stonyfield Farm, Incorporated). Marx exam<strong>in</strong>es<br />
the role <strong>of</strong> see<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> commodities:<br />
the products <strong>of</strong> labor become<br />
commodities, sensuous th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
which are at the same time suprasensible<br />
or social. In the same way,<br />
the impression made by a th<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
the optic nerve is perceived not as<br />
a subjective excitation <strong>of</strong> that<br />
nerve but as the objective form <strong>of</strong><br />
a th<strong>in</strong>g outside the eye. In the act<br />
<strong>of</strong> see<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>of</strong> course, light is really<br />
transmitted from one th<strong>in</strong>g, the<br />
external object, to another th<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
the eye. It is a physical relation<br />
between th<strong>in</strong>gs. As aga<strong>in</strong>st this, the<br />
commodity-form, and the valuerelation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the products <strong>of</strong> labour<br />
with<strong>in</strong> which it appears, have<br />
68<br />
absolutely no connection with the<br />
physical nature <strong>of</strong> the commodity<br />
and the material relations aris<strong>in</strong>g<br />
out <strong>of</strong> this. It is noth<strong>in</strong>g but the<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ite social relation between<br />
men themselves which assumes<br />
here, for them, the fantastic form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a relation between th<strong>in</strong>gs. (165)<br />
Marx’s <strong>in</strong>sight might return us to the<br />
Enlightenment's rational-empirical divide, but for<br />
his recognition <strong>of</strong> the fetishized<br />
commodity’s tw<strong>of</strong>old configuration as<br />
object and exchange value, yogurt that is $3.49.<br />
He po<strong>in</strong>ts to the self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>terdependence<br />
<strong>of</strong> its dual value form, and further the<br />
“antagonism… developed concurrently with<strong>in</strong><br />
that form itself” (160). Despite – and because <strong>of</strong> –<br />
this <strong>in</strong>herent self-contradiction, Stonyfield’s tw<strong>of</strong>old<br />
formation <strong>of</strong> ‘organic yogurt’ has led to a 20%<br />
annual growth rate and $360 million <strong>in</strong> sales <strong>in</strong><br />
2010 for it and mult<strong>in</strong>ational owner Groupe<br />
Danone (van Rensburg, 6-7).<br />
How does the commodity fetish refigure<br />
the bodies <strong>of</strong> cows and people? <strong>The</strong> bodies<br />
under question here are those <strong>of</strong> cows, people,<br />
and by extension their environments. <strong>The</strong> social<br />
processes at issue are those <strong>of</strong> capitalized food<br />
trade and the market<strong>in</strong>g practices <strong>of</strong><br />
Stonyfield. In “Bodies and Power, Revisited”<br />
(2002), Butler turns to another model <strong>in</strong> revisit<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Foucault’s Discipl<strong>in</strong>e and Punish. <strong>The</strong> model<br />
directly associates bodies and power as terms<br />
and conditions <strong>of</strong> each other. <strong>The</strong>y figure each<br />
other. Butler writes <strong>of</strong> a “constitutive paradox”<br />
embedded <strong>in</strong> recognition (17). This built-<strong>in</strong><br />
antagonism b<strong>in</strong>ds the body to social processes<br />
that delimit yet lend it the terms necessary to<br />
formulation as a viable subject <strong>in</strong> the world.<br />
Foucault exam<strong>in</strong>es “a certa<strong>in</strong> ambiguity between<br />
subjects and power” (14). He attaches ‘body’ to<br />
both prisoner and prison as material structures.<br />
<strong>The</strong> reiteration articulates his formulation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
body as not exclusively human, or s<strong>in</strong>gular. It is,<br />
also, social, tak<strong>in</strong>g form <strong>in</strong> the prison. <strong>The</strong> double<br />
reference abstracts at the same time that it rematerializes<br />
the term’s signification. It enables a<br />
representation that is tw<strong>of</strong>old <strong>in</strong> its materiality and<br />
virtuality. Both subjects, the prisoner and the<br />
prison, are quite material th<strong>in</strong>gs – as are the cow<br />
and the (stony) field, the consumer (‘I’) and the<br />
grocery store. But their materiality does not<br />
represent the full extent <strong>of</strong> their identities, which<br />
are constituted also through their relation with one<br />
another. Bodily imprisonment is one configuration<br />
<strong>of</strong> power relations. Capital is another. <strong>The</strong>
Fig. 6.<br />
Down to Earth, Stonyfield Farm, Inc, film still Stonyfield Farm Inc<br />
materiality <strong>of</strong> each subject is an active condition<br />
<strong>of</strong> the other, through which the power <strong>of</strong> identity is<br />
produced and cont<strong>in</strong>ually reproduced <strong>in</strong> a taut<br />
mutuality. Butler writes, cit<strong>in</strong>g Foucault:<br />
the very materiality <strong>of</strong> the prison<br />
has to be understood <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> its<br />
strategic action upon and with the<br />
body: it is def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> relation to the<br />
body: '[the] very materiality [<strong>of</strong> the<br />
prison environment is] an<br />
<strong>in</strong>strument and vector [vecteur] <strong>of</strong><br />
power’ (Foucault, 30).<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>of</strong> power (e.g. the market) and the<br />
body (e.g. the cow, the person, 'the environment',<br />
the field, the stone) each require the other for<br />
recognition. And recognition is essential to persist<br />
<strong>in</strong> the shared context <strong>of</strong> multiple subjects that is<br />
society. <strong>The</strong> body is the material condition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
social identity and its <strong>in</strong>stitution. It serves as the<br />
medium through which a “technology <strong>of</strong> power”<br />
(14) acts and activates, produces and<br />
69<br />
exchanges. <strong>The</strong> power technology that is capital<br />
fabricates and sells the product that is yogurt<br />
through the <strong>in</strong>stitution that is the<br />
market. Materiality can then be understood as<br />
itself tw<strong>of</strong>old, denot<strong>in</strong>g “the process by which one<br />
passes over <strong>in</strong>to the other (or <strong>in</strong>deed the process<br />
by which both ‘<strong>in</strong>stitution’ and ‘body’ come <strong>in</strong>to<br />
separate existence <strong>in</strong> and through this prior and<br />
condition<strong>in</strong>g divergence)” (15). So markets, cows,<br />
people, fields and stones are embodied and coproduced<br />
symbiotically. No one <strong>of</strong> these<br />
subjects, scaled <strong>in</strong>dividually or multiply by an<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporated genealogy, appears able to survive<br />
without the others. At least, we can’t see how<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the currently represented tableau,<br />
reproduced with<strong>in</strong> an exclusively capitalized<br />
frame.<br />
So what else may be out here, reproduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
these relationships <strong>of</strong> bodies and<br />
power? Where are the stones <strong>in</strong> this field? Societal<br />
norms are heavily implicated <strong>in</strong> the terse<br />
antagonisms <strong>of</strong> bodies and power. <strong>The</strong>y operate<br />
to filter the communicable, hierarchical terms <strong>of</strong>
Fig. 7. Michael Mercil<br />
<strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture, T-Shirts, 2009 Michael Mercil<br />
recognizable identity. <strong>The</strong>y name, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
“Stonyfield”, “Wayside Farm”, "Vermont", and<br />
“Meg”. That which is non-normative is not<br />
recognizable and cannot be named or<br />
perceived. Yet Butler f<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>in</strong> the unrecognized an<br />
open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> possibility through “critical distance”<br />
(19) from its constra<strong>in</strong>ts. This distance lies tell<strong>in</strong>gly,<br />
even promis<strong>in</strong>gly, with<strong>in</strong> the constra<strong>in</strong>ts and is not<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependent <strong>of</strong> them. Power can only have<br />
effect, and therefore can only exist, through<br />
impos<strong>in</strong>g “norms <strong>of</strong> recognizability” (17) on a<br />
subject. Still, the subject has to desire recognition<br />
<strong>in</strong> those <strong>in</strong>stitutionalized terms. S/he must attach<br />
to them, be named. Desire figures the precarity,<br />
but also the possibility, <strong>of</strong> the unrecognized<br />
subject(s), the cow(s), the person(s), the field(s)<br />
and/or the stone(s). <strong>The</strong> subject wish<strong>in</strong>g to move<br />
beyond the surveyed frames <strong>of</strong> identity opens<br />
his/her/its self to questions <strong>of</strong> what he/she/it might<br />
become. Desire animates possibility by<br />
exceed<strong>in</strong>g the norm while demand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
70<br />
recognition. Into a two-sided border between<br />
desire and recognition reaches “the limited<br />
freedom <strong>of</strong> not yet be<strong>in</strong>g false or true” (19). In<br />
relation to the stony problem at hand, Butler’s<br />
refiguration <strong>of</strong> possibility through the very process<br />
<strong>of</strong> desire that fixes – <strong>in</strong>stitutionalizes, markets – it,<br />
<strong>of</strong>fers the becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> other identities, other<br />
relations, other <strong>in</strong>terdependencies. Haraway, too,<br />
<strong>in</strong>vokes the futurity <strong>of</strong> becom<strong>in</strong>g, and adds a<br />
significant ‘with’: “Touch, regard, look<strong>in</strong>g back,<br />
becom<strong>in</strong>g with – all these make us responsible <strong>in</strong><br />
unpredictable ways for which worlds take shape”<br />
(36).<br />
Materialities and virtualities: How to<br />
become with?<br />
So how can those outside the frame re-enter it to<br />
embody additional figures <strong>of</strong> mutuality and<br />
produce new bodies <strong>of</strong> exchange? Can we<br />
name technologies <strong>of</strong> power that might resist
Fig. 8. Michael Mercil<br />
<strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture, sheep with visitor, 2009-2011 Michael Mercil<br />
capital? A difficulty rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
identification. Foucault writes <strong>in</strong> Discipl<strong>in</strong>e and<br />
Punish that “systems <strong>of</strong> punishment are<br />
to be situated <strong>in</strong> a certa<strong>in</strong> ‘political economy’ <strong>of</strong><br />
the body” (cited <strong>in</strong> Butler, 13). Carrier (1998) ties<br />
the political economy <strong>of</strong> consumer values to a<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> virtualism, “the attempt to make the<br />
world conform to an abstract model” (25) and<br />
idealized images <strong>of</strong> reality (5). Desire, abstraction,<br />
imag<strong>in</strong>ation and conformity are at the core <strong>of</strong><br />
virtualism’s practice. While it shapes abstracted<br />
systems <strong>of</strong> thought such as neo-classical<br />
economics, virtualism also permeates “daily life<br />
and practice”, as “practical abstraction” (25). I<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d Carrier’s ultimate “tale” problematic <strong>in</strong> its<br />
abnegation <strong>of</strong> “general social relationships like<br />
k<strong>in</strong>ship, gender and craft identity” (42). Such<br />
“nuances” give way to a static “dist<strong>in</strong>ctive logic<br />
that spr<strong>in</strong>gs from the calculations <strong>of</strong> commercial<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>in</strong> a competitive environment” (42). <strong>The</strong><br />
universal claim deriv<strong>in</strong>g from – or driv<strong>in</strong>g – his<br />
reductive argument, seconded by Miller, is I th<strong>in</strong>k<br />
precisely the problem. Dismiss<strong>in</strong>g agencies <strong>of</strong><br />
political economy explored productively by<br />
Foucault, Butler and many others can only<br />
71<br />
regenerate new forms <strong>of</strong> capitalism (19). Still, an<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegral logic <strong>of</strong> Carrier’s and Miller’s argument<br />
holds: Cont<strong>in</strong>ual virtualization <strong>of</strong> abstractions<br />
re<strong>in</strong>forces rather than resists their representational<br />
terms and conditions. Miller writes:<br />
my critique <strong>of</strong> postmodernists is not<br />
that they raise the spectre <strong>of</strong><br />
abstraction – a project that this<br />
essay clearly shares. Rather, it is<br />
that postmodernism is based <strong>in</strong><br />
large measure upon a misread<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the experience <strong>of</strong> consumption,<br />
that theorists abstract <strong>in</strong> a way that<br />
re<strong>in</strong>forces abstraction as virtualism.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y replace consumption as<br />
human experience with the virtual<br />
figure <strong>of</strong> the postmodernist<br />
consumer. As such, they contribute<br />
to a consequence <strong>of</strong> economics<br />
and audit<strong>in</strong>g, a general<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> alienation from what<br />
is viewed as an abstract and<br />
distant world. (212)
Fig. 9. Michael Mercil<br />
<strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture, detail with temporary signage, 2009, photo: Just<strong>in</strong> Brown Michael Mercil<br />
Sklair and Thrift <strong>in</strong> the same volume f<strong>in</strong>d that the<br />
practice <strong>of</strong> virtualism cloaks the practical<br />
identities <strong>of</strong> a f<strong>in</strong> de siècle bourgeoisie. Sklair l<strong>in</strong>ks<br />
“the transnational capitalist class (TCC)” to a<br />
global realm <strong>of</strong> regulatory bureaucrats<br />
“dom<strong>in</strong>ated by big bus<strong>in</strong>ess” (144). Thrift f<strong>in</strong>ds that<br />
the practice-oriented abstractions <strong>of</strong><br />
contemporary bus<strong>in</strong>ess lurk <strong>in</strong> a “reflexive<br />
capitalism” (170) seek<strong>in</strong>g generic operational<br />
tactics. Both Sklair and Thrift, as Carrier notes,<br />
suggest “a k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> embeddness for the powerful,<br />
abstraction for the weak” (17). All four exam<strong>in</strong>e a<br />
cooption <strong>of</strong> Marxian formulations by mutual,<br />
transnational bus<strong>in</strong>ess and state <strong>in</strong>terests. <strong>The</strong>y<br />
presage Guthman’s deconstruction <strong>of</strong> organic<br />
trade and certification oriented to capital growth.<br />
But are these members <strong>of</strong> the elite academic<br />
class (which they critique) look<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the right<br />
places for resistance to capitalism? For that<br />
matter, are they even look<strong>in</strong>g for resistance?<br />
Because if so, the glitterati world <strong>of</strong> the capitalist<br />
elite seems hardly the best place to start. I agree<br />
with Guthman that “preciousness is a dubious<br />
solution” (251). An acknowledged situation <strong>of</strong> their<br />
theoretical positions with<strong>in</strong> the capitalized<br />
academy, as Haraway recommended a<br />
72<br />
decade earlier (1988), would be illum<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong>ir<br />
stance outside the frame barely dents it.<br />
How do I refigure cows through consum<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their milk? My rout<strong>in</strong>e consumption <strong>of</strong> yogurt may<br />
be said to further virtualize the bodies <strong>of</strong><br />
Stonyfield’s cows. I say “further” because these<br />
cows are already abstracted. Stonyfield ceased<br />
to own cows early <strong>in</strong> its bus<strong>in</strong>ess life, contract<strong>in</strong>g<br />
milk from dairy farmers s<strong>in</strong>ce 1984<br />
(http://www.stonyfield.com/about-us/our-storynutshell/full-story,<br />
10-23-12). A reference to<br />
Baudrillard’s fourth phase <strong>of</strong> simulation and thirdorder<br />
simulacrum (1995) is easy here. But<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g Carrier’s and Miller’s <strong>in</strong>sistence on<br />
“actual practice” as model, I brush reiterative<br />
simulation aside to look more <strong>in</strong>to the virtualized<br />
daily lives <strong>of</strong> the abstracted cows <strong>in</strong> Stonyfield’s<br />
landscape. Stonyfield.com/yotube, l<strong>in</strong>ks to videos<br />
<strong>of</strong> family farmers belong<strong>in</strong>g to the Organic Valley<br />
Family <strong>of</strong> Farmers/CROPP collaborative. <strong>The</strong>y<br />
portray commitment to the ethics <strong>of</strong> “populist<br />
agrarianism” that Guthman reframes, <strong>in</strong> particular<br />
the health <strong>of</strong> cows, people and their<br />
'environment' (as if there were only one). <strong>The</strong><br />
Organic Valley “family” extends to 1,687<br />
members across the United States (1,606),
Fig. 10. Michael Mercil<br />
<strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture, site, 2009-11, photo: Just<strong>in</strong> Brown Michael Mercil<br />
Canada (61) and Australia<br />
(20) (http://www.farmers.coop/producerpools/cropp-producer-map/,<br />
10-23-12). Of these,<br />
1,411 are dairies, represent<strong>in</strong>g about 270 organic<br />
milk contracts for Stonyfield (Carper, 2010, 36).<br />
Notably, Organic Valley’s product l<strong>in</strong>e, limited <strong>in</strong><br />
its yogurt options to a “lowfat smoothie”<br />
dr<strong>in</strong>k (http://www.organicvalley.coop/products/yo<br />
gurt/, 10-23-12), competes m<strong>in</strong>imally with<br />
Stonyfield’s yogurt products [1]. CROPP, renamed<br />
from Coulee Region Organic Produce Pool<br />
to Cooperative Regions <strong>of</strong> Organic Producer<br />
Pools, opened stock options to non-members <strong>in</strong><br />
2004. Preferred shares valued at more than $75<br />
million dwarf the vot<strong>in</strong>g member shares total<strong>in</strong>g<br />
$42,175[2]. <strong>The</strong> Organic Valley label exports to at<br />
least twelve Asian countries, and plans to grow <strong>in</strong><br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a (Carper 2010, 34, 36). No wonder CROPP<br />
advertises itself as “the nation's largest and most<br />
successful organic farmer<br />
cooperative” (http://www.farmers.coop/, 10-23-<br />
12).<br />
<strong>The</strong> National Organic Program’s<br />
regulations for Livestock Liv<strong>in</strong>g Conditions<br />
generally require accommodation <strong>of</strong> "the health<br />
and natural behavior <strong>of</strong> animals,” and stipulate<br />
73<br />
year-round access to the outdoors, to uncrowded<br />
space and to daily graz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> season. Quality<br />
Assurance International (QAI), Inc., a private<br />
organic certification company authorized by the<br />
U. S. Department <strong>of</strong> Agriculture, certifies the<br />
compliance <strong>of</strong> Stonyfield yogurt with these<br />
regulations. QAI itself holds certifications outside<br />
the US <strong>in</strong> Europe, Canada and Japan, and from<br />
the International Organic Accreditation Service.<br />
QAI’s found<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1989 likely anticipated the 1990<br />
federal Organic Foods Production Act. Guthman<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts out the trade-based orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the national<br />
legislation, an evolution <strong>of</strong> the California Organic<br />
Foods Act. What is now the Organic Trade<br />
Association was founded <strong>in</strong> 1984 by certification<br />
agencies and larger-scale producers to def<strong>in</strong>e<br />
the organic label as primarily “a production<br />
standard for farmers (and later processors) rather<br />
than as a food safety standard for consumers”<br />
(239). She goes on:<br />
Certa<strong>in</strong>ly it did not represent an<br />
alternative system <strong>of</strong> food<br />
provision. <strong>The</strong> organic movement<br />
thereafter evolved <strong>in</strong>to a drive for
Fig. 11. Michael Mercil<br />
Michael Mercil with Shetland lamb at Stratford Ecological Center, Delaware, Ohio, 2010, photo: Matthew Keida Michael Mercil<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutional legitimacy and<br />
regulation <strong>of</strong> the term ‘organically<br />
grown’ <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>of</strong> trade… So<br />
although codification arose from<br />
multiple <strong>in</strong>tentions, its greatest<br />
success was to open up markets.<br />
QAI, the third-party certify<strong>in</strong>g agency <strong>of</strong> Stonyfield,<br />
belongs to this capitalized <strong>in</strong>stitutional l<strong>in</strong>eage. Its<br />
identity lies with<strong>in</strong> the virtualized frame <strong>of</strong><br />
transnational capital propounded by Carrier,<br />
Miller, Sklair and Thrift.<br />
A virtual field<br />
“What, however, if human labor power turns out<br />
to be only part <strong>of</strong> the story <strong>of</strong> lively capital?”<br />
(Haraway, 46). I know Michael Mercil as an artist<br />
and pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> art at the Ohio State University <strong>in</strong><br />
Columbus, Ohio where we both work. Mercil<br />
situates his practice with<strong>in</strong> the structure and history<br />
<strong>of</strong> the land grant university. A series <strong>of</strong> projects<br />
under his “locally focused forum”[3], <strong>The</strong> Liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>Culture</strong> Initiative, materializes with<strong>in</strong> the academic<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitution the <strong>in</strong>stantiation <strong>of</strong> possibility that Butler<br />
proposes. Mercil’s <strong>in</strong>stallation <strong>The</strong> Beanfield (2006-<br />
08) refigured Thoreau’s 2.5 acre beanfield at<br />
Walden Pond. <strong>The</strong> project consisted <strong>of</strong> 49 bean<br />
74<br />
poles on a 500 square foot plot outside the<br />
university’s Wexner Center for the Arts. It entailed<br />
collaboration with the OSU College <strong>of</strong> Food,<br />
Agriculture and Environmental Sciences as well as<br />
the Wexner. In his notes for a 2011 talk, Mercil<br />
describes it as his cultivation <strong>of</strong> art as practice<br />
and as ‘work’, <strong>in</strong> its verb form:<br />
Thoreau’s work at Walden<br />
was Walden, or the becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> Walden through the<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g/writ<strong>in</strong>g/work<strong>in</strong>g through <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
Thoreau went to Walden to<br />
naturalize himself (to configure his<br />
relation to nature) where he then<br />
planted a field <strong>of</strong> beans to<br />
socialize himself (to configure his<br />
relation to society). His work <strong>in</strong> the<br />
bean field was a work<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>of</strong><br />
conversation with neighbors and<br />
passers-by (advice given/advice<br />
ignored). Likewise, I planted <strong>The</strong><br />
Beanfield near the Wexner Center<br />
and along College Road to<br />
engage <strong>in</strong> conversation with the<br />
society <strong>of</strong> the university (advice<br />
given/advice ignored).
Fig. 12. Michael Mercil<br />
Michael Mercil, <strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture, detail <strong>of</strong> Shetland ewe with LED monitor, photo: Matthew Keida Michael Mercil<br />
I asked Mercil at that talk about his use <strong>of</strong><br />
nostalgia <strong>in</strong> <strong>The</strong> Beanfield (2006-08), and <strong>in</strong> his<br />
next Liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Culture</strong> <strong>in</strong>stallation/plantation on the<br />
same plot, <strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture (2009-11). <strong>The</strong><br />
latter, three-year ‘work’ <strong>in</strong>volved breed<strong>in</strong>g what<br />
became a flock <strong>of</strong> 16 sheep (from an <strong>in</strong>itial three)<br />
at the Stratford Ecological Center, an educational<br />
organic farm and nature preserve 25 miles north<br />
<strong>of</strong> campus. Mercil trucked several <strong>of</strong> his sheep to<br />
the fenced campus plot for monthly visits dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the school year, a recurr<strong>in</strong>g event advertised<br />
through a series <strong>of</strong> postcards. Artist and flock<br />
occupied their small 'field' outside the Wexner<br />
from 10 am to 3 pm on the "first Mondays". Mercil<br />
planted his field with livestock forage grasses,<br />
apple trees, and a large LED monitor. <strong>The</strong><br />
monitor's pixelated screen virtualized the sheep’s<br />
country home via cont<strong>in</strong>uous live video feed from<br />
Stratford.<br />
This discussion <strong>of</strong> the project draws mostly<br />
from Mercil’s written response to my question<br />
about nostalgia, a Haraway-style response, but<br />
also my on-go<strong>in</strong>g conversations and co-worker<br />
relation with the artist. Mercil beg<strong>in</strong>s with a set <strong>of</strong><br />
quotes from Leo Marx’s <strong>The</strong> Mach<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Garden (cited <strong>in</strong> Mercil notes, 2011, n.p.):<br />
75<br />
<strong>The</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t veil <strong>of</strong> nostalgia [for the<br />
pastoral] that hangs over our<br />
urbanized landscape is largely a<br />
vestige <strong>of</strong> the once dom<strong>in</strong>ant<br />
image <strong>of</strong> [America as] an<br />
undefiled green republic, a quiet<br />
land <strong>of</strong> forests, villages, and farms<br />
dedicated to the pursuit <strong>of</strong><br />
happ<strong>in</strong>ess. (6, Mercil’s annotations)<br />
[By design] most literary works<br />
called pastorals… qualify, or call<br />
<strong>in</strong>to question, or br<strong>in</strong>g irony to bear<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the illusion <strong>of</strong> peace and<br />
harmony <strong>in</strong> a green pasture. And it<br />
is this fact that will enable us,<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ally, to get at the difference<br />
between the complex and<br />
sentimental k<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> pastoralism.<br />
(25, Mercil’s annotations)<br />
It is <strong>in</strong>dustrialization, represented by<br />
images <strong>of</strong> mach<strong>in</strong>e technology,<br />
that provides the counterforce <strong>in</strong><br />
the American archetype <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pastoral. (26)
Mercil goes on to write about his own work:<br />
<strong>The</strong> LED monitor <strong>in</strong> <strong>The</strong> Virtual<br />
Pasture acts as a counterforce to<br />
the rural nostalgia re/presented by<br />
the landscape <strong>of</strong> the central<br />
campus Oval (once an actual<br />
pasture, then re-eng<strong>in</strong>eered <strong>in</strong> the<br />
image <strong>of</strong> a pasture — without<br />
animals)<br />
From the Stratford Center (where<br />
the sheep are kept) to the Wexner<br />
Center (where the artwork is<br />
located), the image <strong>of</strong> the farm, its<br />
pasture and graz<strong>in</strong>g animals, is<br />
captured by remote camera,<br />
transferred by satellite, streamed<br />
through a computer network and<br />
viewed through the screen <strong>of</strong><br />
contemporary technology.<br />
In his notes, Mercil muses on the orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
Cheerios <strong>in</strong> an unseen and disconnected oat<br />
field owned by General Mills Corporation. He<br />
considers a recent evolutionary theory on the role<br />
<strong>of</strong> cook<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> the relatively<br />
large bra<strong>in</strong> and small stomachs <strong>of</strong> humans:<br />
Cooked food is more easily and<br />
quickly digested than raw food.<br />
Less energy needed by the<br />
stomach to digest = more time for<br />
the bra<strong>in</strong> to daydream. From this<br />
might we suggest that food =<br />
culture? At the table (or round the<br />
fire) lies the context for<br />
conversation = the context for<br />
chew<strong>in</strong>g over ideas (e.g. “Try this.<br />
You might like it.”).<br />
I am not speak<strong>in</strong>g here (though I<br />
could) <strong>of</strong> nutritional impacts, but<br />
rather I am speak<strong>in</strong>g about the<br />
cultural impacts <strong>of</strong> remov<strong>in</strong>g farm<br />
animals from our daily liv<strong>in</strong>g. With<br />
no contact with farm animals, how<br />
can we come to know them, or<br />
what can we know about them?<br />
Without contact with farm animals,<br />
what k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> conversations can we<br />
have either with or about them? So<br />
now, if we speak about farm<br />
animals that we no longer see<br />
and, consequently, we no longer<br />
know, then when speak<strong>in</strong>g about<br />
76<br />
farm animals we, <strong>in</strong> fact, do not<br />
know what we are talk<strong>in</strong>g about.<br />
Yet <strong>of</strong> all animals it is with farm<br />
animals that we have an<br />
evolutionary covenant. We have<br />
co-evolved together. Farm animals<br />
are dependent upon us. We are<br />
dependent upon them—not only<br />
for food, but for our th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture overlooked Ohio State’s<br />
traditional campus green, named <strong>The</strong> Oval. <strong>The</strong><br />
Boston-based Olmsted Brothers landscape<br />
architecture firm <strong>in</strong>tegrated the former farm field<br />
<strong>in</strong>to a master plan for the university <strong>in</strong> 1909. <strong>The</strong><br />
Oval's picturesque scenography <strong>in</strong>herits a<br />
pastoral ideology from the brothers' pater and<br />
Central Park's landscape architect, Frederick Law<br />
Olmsted. Mercil, represent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>The</strong> Mach<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Garden, references (Leo) Marx’s account <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pastoral’s elite history <strong>in</strong> 18 th century landscape<br />
pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Return<strong>in</strong>g to Mercil's notes on the project:<br />
... this image <strong>of</strong> farm animals<br />
outside the Wexner Center is<br />
spectral. <strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture haunts<br />
the Oval with images <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
that at one time actually grazed it.<br />
When, on the first Monday <strong>of</strong> each<br />
month, I br<strong>in</strong>g my sheep to<br />
campus to graze this 500 square<br />
foot patch <strong>of</strong> grass, it becomes a<br />
pasture <strong>in</strong> fact—and it is the Oval<br />
that rema<strong>in</strong>s a virtual image.<br />
To encounter (see) an animal’s<br />
image is not, however, to<br />
experience or to know the animal.<br />
To know a farm animal one must<br />
handle it. This is what farmers do.<br />
At <strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture I do not <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
lessons <strong>in</strong> animal handl<strong>in</strong>g—even<br />
if, at times, it seems the entire<br />
university is my classroom there. Yet<br />
from encounter we build<br />
experience. By mak<strong>in</strong>g farm<br />
animals once aga<strong>in</strong> visible with<strong>in</strong><br />
our daily com<strong>in</strong>gs and go<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>The</strong><br />
Virtual Pasture seeks to <strong>in</strong>form our<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g about them and our<br />
talk<strong>in</strong>g about them…<br />
With the rise <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial scaled
farm<strong>in</strong>g, the animals have<br />
disappeared from our sight. Is this<br />
a good or a bad th<strong>in</strong>g for the<br />
animals? Is this a good or bad<br />
th<strong>in</strong>g for us? Is that a stupid<br />
question? Might a better question<br />
be, whether or not rais<strong>in</strong>g animals<br />
<strong>in</strong> sheds is a necessary th<strong>in</strong>g to do?<br />
And, if so, what condition(s) make it<br />
necessary? While we may choose<br />
to raise farm animals <strong>in</strong> this way,<br />
must we choose to do so?<br />
Is to pasture raise a cow a<br />
(nostalgic) picture <strong>of</strong> farm<strong>in</strong>g, or is<br />
it a farm<strong>in</strong>g practice? <strong>The</strong> Ohio<br />
Dairy Association describes the<br />
pastur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> cows as an<br />
“alternative farm management<br />
technique.” Alternative to what?<br />
Might we th<strong>in</strong>k about that? How<br />
might we talk about it? What, if<br />
anyth<strong>in</strong>g, might we do about it?<br />
Where do we f<strong>in</strong>d ourselves? And<br />
what is the nature <strong>of</strong> the culture we<br />
produce here now? I am an artist,<br />
not a farmer. <strong>The</strong> substance <strong>of</strong> my<br />
practice is to work from the<br />
tangible facts <strong>of</strong> my world toward<br />
a shap<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> my experience <strong>of</strong>/<strong>in</strong><br />
it.<br />
Mercil dismantled <strong>The</strong> Virtual Pasture and<br />
"dispersed" his flock <strong>in</strong> December 2011. <strong>The</strong> artist's<br />
upcom<strong>in</strong>g film Covenant extends the <strong>in</strong>stallation's<br />
central question <strong>in</strong>to the human encounter with<br />
farm animals. <strong>The</strong> release description reads:<br />
Covenant (42:35 m<strong>in</strong>utes) is a film<br />
about farm animals and us that<br />
narrates the fact and the way<br />
these animals become food. In it,<br />
farmers reflect upon the nature<br />
and economy <strong>of</strong> keep<strong>in</strong>g livestock,<br />
while call<strong>in</strong>g our attention to the<br />
rewards, anxieties and challenges<br />
<strong>of</strong> the human/farm animal bond.<br />
Antagonism and desire, retold<br />
If we had no appetite, we would<br />
be free from coercion, but<br />
because we are from the start<br />
given over to what is outside us,<br />
submitt<strong>in</strong>g to the terms which give<br />
77<br />
form to our existence, we are <strong>in</strong> this<br />
respect – and irreversibly –<br />
vulnerable to exploitation. (Butler,<br />
2002, 9)<br />
Guthman applies a concept <strong>of</strong> "aesthetic illusion"<br />
(F<strong>in</strong>e and Leopold, cited <strong>in</strong> Guthman, 236) to<br />
brand name. <strong>The</strong> concept addresses the<br />
<strong>in</strong>terpretive gap between a commodity's<br />
"(physical) use value" and its exchangeable<br />
"imputed use value" (236). <strong>The</strong> gap permits the<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> rent, a disparity between<br />
atta<strong>in</strong>able prices and actual production costs. A<br />
consumer culture that fetishizes the organic<br />
imag<strong>in</strong>ary enables the production <strong>of</strong> signs,<br />
“voluntary labels”, as a tactic for creat<strong>in</strong>g rents.<br />
Such signs, though, are “highly ambiguous”,<br />
subject to re<strong>in</strong>terpretation and redeployment.<br />
<strong>The</strong>ir openness to un<strong>in</strong>tended, socially re<strong>in</strong>scribed,<br />
values and desires suggests Foucault’s<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> proliferative power. Guthman po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
to the classed, raced and regionalized<br />
economic disparities that produce rent and that<br />
rents re-produce. Butler, <strong>in</strong> her chapter “Stubborn<br />
Attachment, Bodily Subjection: Reread<strong>in</strong>g Hegel<br />
on the Unhappy Consciousness” (1997, 31 -62),<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrogates the reiterative and proliferative<br />
exchanges <strong>of</strong> power that produce disparity. Butler<br />
re-narrates Hegel’s “Lordship and Bondage”<br />
figures, the lord and the bondsman. Here, I <strong>in</strong>sert<br />
<strong>in</strong>to a retell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Butler's rewrit<strong>in</strong>g a parenthetical<br />
<strong>in</strong>scription relat<strong>in</strong>g to a stony field. I assume <strong>in</strong> this<br />
uncertified act <strong>of</strong> re-<strong>in</strong>scrib<strong>in</strong>g an artifice to which<br />
Butler might object. But I do this to posit another<br />
frame, wrapp<strong>in</strong>g around two figures, a person<br />
(named Lady Stonyfield) and a cow (named<br />
Cow), <strong>in</strong> a stony relational field (named<br />
Commodity).<br />
<strong>The</strong> lord (Lady Stonyfield) and the<br />
bondsman (Cow) are figures <strong>in</strong> a stony field<br />
(Commodity). <strong>The</strong>se two appear at first to be<br />
opposed and completely different. But the Two<br />
each co-figure the Other <strong>in</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gular yet not<br />
static mutual <strong>in</strong>terdependence. <strong>The</strong> lord (Lady<br />
Stonyfield) depends on the bondsman's (Cow’s)<br />
body and products <strong>of</strong> labor (milk) for the material<br />
conditions (yogurt) <strong>of</strong> his (her) daily life (breakfast).<br />
Through this dependence, the lord (lady)<br />
produces the bondsman's (Cow’s) body, which he<br />
(she) subsumes <strong>in</strong>to his (her) own body. <strong>The</strong> lord<br />
(lady) thus consumes the bondsman's (Cow’s)<br />
labor and products <strong>of</strong> labor (milk and more<br />
cows). For this show <strong>of</strong> power ($360 million <strong>in</strong> sales<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2010) to work, the lord (Lady Stonyfield) must<br />
selectively ‘forget’ his (her) <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong><br />
effect<strong>in</strong>g the bondsman's (Cow’s) body and
(food) products. He (she) must ‘disavow’ his (her)<br />
dependence on the bondsman’s (Cow’s) work. A<br />
paradoxical result is the lord’s (lady’s)<br />
disembodiment <strong>in</strong> assum<strong>in</strong>g the body <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Other, embody<strong>in</strong>g him (her) as bondsman (Cow)!<br />
<strong>The</strong> bondsman (Cow), too, must take part <strong>in</strong> the<br />
substitution (commodification) <strong>of</strong> his (her) body<br />
and products for the lord’s (lady’s) body and<br />
possessions (cartons <strong>of</strong> yogurt to sell for $3.49).<br />
<strong>The</strong> bondsman (Cow) must conspire, is allowed<br />
no choice but to conspire, <strong>in</strong> the concealment<br />
(Commodity) <strong>of</strong> that exchange<br />
(commodification). <strong>The</strong> bondsman’s (Cow’s)<br />
recognition or nonrecognition, consciousness or<br />
unconsciousness, <strong>of</strong> the conspiracy (Commodity)<br />
does not at first change that relational field. <strong>The</strong><br />
bondsman (Cow) is embodied (<strong>in</strong>corporated),<br />
without regard for his (her) response (look<strong>in</strong>g<br />
back), <strong>in</strong>to the duplicitous simulation <strong>of</strong> a<br />
substitution (Commodity). <strong>The</strong> bondsman (Cow) is<br />
conscripted <strong>in</strong>to the relational field on which he<br />
(she) depends for sustenance (grass) and value<br />
(exchangeability) by the lord (lady). Butler<br />
formulates the substitution (<strong>in</strong>corporation)<br />
rhetorically as: “you be my body for me, but do<br />
not let me know that the body you are is my<br />
body” (35). Still, the bondsman (Cow), bonded to<br />
the lord (Lady Stonyfield), cannot ultimately<br />
escape an unhappy consciousness (fear) <strong>of</strong> selfloss<br />
(death). This conscripted reflexivity occurs first<br />
when the bondsman (Cow) sees himself (herself),<br />
and his (her) own erasure <strong>in</strong> the course <strong>of</strong><br />
production. <strong>The</strong>se signs <strong>of</strong> self he (Cow) must<br />
submit, has no power but to submit, to the lord<br />
(Lady Stonyfield) and his (her) embodiment<br />
(<strong>in</strong>corporation) <strong>of</strong> possession<br />
(commodification). <strong>The</strong> submission <strong>of</strong> identity and<br />
agency refigures self as an expropriation and<br />
erasure. <strong>The</strong> bonded (cow) and bonder<br />
(Stonyfield) logically converge <strong>in</strong> a field <strong>of</strong><br />
disembodiment and “fearful transience” (39).<br />
Each is materialized and virtualized through a selfperpetuat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
process <strong>of</strong> consumption.<br />
My re<strong>in</strong>scription stops where the<br />
bondsman’s and cow’s stories diverge. Butler<br />
(Hegel) traces a sequential, reflexive exchange <strong>of</strong><br />
objectivity and subjectivity between the<br />
bondsman (human) and lord (same species).<br />
Each subject pursues a desire for permanence<br />
(life) represented by his (her) object (product) <strong>of</strong><br />
labor. <strong>The</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ated human after many selfrepresent<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(self-advertis<strong>in</strong>g) acts <strong>of</strong> exchange is<br />
enabled to re-<strong>in</strong>scribe upon his/her self some,<br />
though not full, agency <strong>of</strong> identity. Through this<br />
work, the person concealed with<strong>in</strong> the frame <strong>of</strong><br />
78<br />
bondage is seen, and named. Butler (Hegel) f<strong>in</strong>ds<br />
desire – the suppressed desire that drives the<br />
bondsman’s work – to be operative <strong>in</strong> the<br />
possession <strong>of</strong> agency (40). But the cow,<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> her desire, possesses no terms<br />
through which to enter the relational field. <strong>The</strong><br />
(<strong>in</strong>corporated) person(s) condition the<br />
representational terms <strong>of</strong> relation. For the cow to<br />
even appear to her (them) <strong>in</strong> that field, the<br />
person(s) must look back and see her. Butler f<strong>in</strong>ds<br />
that the socially proliferative process <strong>of</strong><br />
consumption destabilizes agency and identity <strong>in</strong><br />
human terms. <strong>The</strong> proliferation opens possibilities<br />
to resist erasure. It b<strong>in</strong>ds subject and object<br />
together <strong>in</strong> a recognized <strong>in</strong>terdependence. If<br />
Lady (people) and Cow (cows) are each seen as<br />
the <strong>in</strong>ternalized subject(s) <strong>of</strong> the Other(s) (ladycow),<br />
each can become the desired object <strong>of</strong><br />
the other. Both can become with.<br />
I see <strong>in</strong> Mercil’s acts <strong>of</strong> work a desire to<br />
know and to respond, respectfully, to the other<br />
animals that enable him to th<strong>in</strong>k and work, that<br />
take part <strong>in</strong> that th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g and work<strong>in</strong>g. His acts are<br />
epistemological and ontological, concerned with<br />
possible logics <strong>of</strong> know<strong>in</strong>g and be<strong>in</strong>g. In this work I<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d an openness to becom<strong>in</strong>g with that<br />
Guthman alludes to, but doesn’t get to, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
conclusion <strong>of</strong> her chapter – despite its critical<br />
open<strong>in</strong>gs. <strong>The</strong> chapters by Carrier, Miller, Sklair<br />
and Thrift on a reductive virtualism seem to<br />
foreclose more possibilities than they open.<br />
Butler’s work, <strong>in</strong> contrast and resistance to that<br />
closure, represents new possibilities. I credit it <strong>in</strong><br />
do<strong>in</strong>g so with mak<strong>in</strong>g possible. Mercil’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>stallations and his words, like Butler’s repr<strong>in</strong>ted<br />
here, co-figure bodies and power. Mercil, unlike<br />
Stonyfield, physically and daily works with animals,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g sheep, chickens, cows and people,<br />
and their grassy and stony fields. An exchange <strong>of</strong><br />
subjectivity and objectivity takes place <strong>in</strong> the<br />
work’s refiguration <strong>of</strong> bodies and environments<br />
and their co-scripted relations <strong>of</strong> power. I suggest<br />
that the possibilities Mercil’s work <strong>in</strong>stantiates<br />
emerge through its materiality <strong>in</strong> cooperation<br />
with its virtuality. I reiterate here Butler’s<br />
and Marx’s materiality as tw<strong>of</strong>old, and Haraway’s<br />
“becom<strong>in</strong>g with” as “c<strong>of</strong>lourish<strong>in</strong>g” (41). <strong>The</strong>se<br />
shared materialities and flourish<strong>in</strong>gs can, should,<br />
be manifold. But only two must be seen to start<br />
the co-productive reflexivity that Butler and<br />
Haraway name. As both demonstrate, and as we<br />
already knew, death and fear recur. Some stones<br />
rema<strong>in</strong> hidden. But hid<strong>in</strong>g can be constructive or<br />
destructive <strong>in</strong>terdependent with situation. And<br />
death need not be an erasure, like the
<strong>in</strong>corporated subsumption <strong>of</strong> Stonyfield’s cow<br />
fetish.<br />
Notes<br />
1 Stonyfield does have a l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> organic yogurt smoothies.<br />
2 In 2011, the first series was valued at $25,137,147, and the latest,<br />
clos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 2010, $45,612,958. (CROPP Audited F<strong>in</strong>ancial Statement<br />
2011, http://www.organicvalley.coop/about-us/<strong>in</strong>vest/stockprospectus/<br />
10-23-12).<br />
3 http://www.michaelmercil.com/liv<strong>in</strong>gculture.html<br />
References<br />
i myStonyfieldRewards.com (15 Oct 2012)<br />
ii I refer to Haraway’s usage <strong>of</strong> “to respond” <strong>in</strong> her critique <strong>of</strong> Derrida’s<br />
lecture “And Say the Animal Responded” (cited <strong>in</strong> Haraway, 2007).<br />
iii <strong>The</strong> French food conglomerate Groupe Danone holds an 85%<br />
stake <strong>in</strong> the US Stonyfield Farm, Inc. (van Rensburg)<br />
iv e.g. Groupe Danone owns 80% <strong>of</strong> Stonyfield Europe. <strong>The</strong> other<br />
20% <strong>of</strong> Stonyfield Europe is held by U.S. Stonyfield Farm, Inc. (Dairy<br />
Industries International, 11)<br />
v “Stonyfield CEO founder open<strong>in</strong>g NYC organic, natural food cafe<br />
concept” (Susta<strong>in</strong>able Food News)<br />
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1998.<br />
“Stonyfield CEO founder open<strong>in</strong>g NYC organic, natural food cafe<br />
concept” Susta<strong>in</strong>able Food News (2012)<br />
http://susta<strong>in</strong>ablefoodnews.com/story.php?news_id=15988 (26 Oct,<br />
2012)<br />
"Stonyfield Comes to Europe, Buys Glenisk". Dairy Industries<br />
International 71 (2006).<br />
Thrift, Nigel. “Virtual Capitalism: <strong>The</strong> Globalisation <strong>of</strong> Reflexive Bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
Knowledge”. Ed. Carrier, James G. and Miller, Daniel. Virtualism: A<br />
New Political Economy. Berg. 1998.<br />
van Rensburg, Deryck J. "Strategic brand ventur<strong>in</strong>g: the corporation<br />
as entrepreneur", <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> Bus<strong>in</strong>ess Strategy 33:3 (2012). 4 – 12.<br />
Kather<strong>in</strong>e Bennett is an assistant pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>in</strong> the Landscape<br />
Architecture Section, Knowlton School <strong>of</strong> Architecture at <strong>The</strong> Ohio<br />
State University (OSU), where she teaches design studios,<br />
representation workshops and research sem<strong>in</strong>ars that <strong>in</strong>vestigate<br />
<strong>in</strong>terspecies habitat. She is a registered landscape architect and has<br />
practiced <strong>in</strong> Boston, New York, Cape Cod, Savannah, San<br />
Francisco, Seoul and Hanoi – the latter while a Visit<strong>in</strong>g Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong><br />
Landscape Architecture at the University <strong>of</strong> Seoul. Her degrees <strong>in</strong><br />
Landscape Architecture and Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g are from the Graduate School<br />
<strong>of</strong> Design at Harvard University (MLA) and <strong>The</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Georgia<br />
(BFA). Kather<strong>in</strong>e has begun research toward a PhD <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Geography at OSU, <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g her collaborative<br />
research with agroecologists, anthropologists, artists and architects <strong>in</strong><br />
the US and Asia.
M<br />
onkey Brand Soap, Brooke’s boasted,<br />
‘cleans, scours, scrubs, polishes [and]<br />
brightens everyth<strong>in</strong>g’, with one notable<br />
exception. <strong>The</strong> catchphrase ‘won’t wash clothes’<br />
features <strong>in</strong> the majority <strong>of</strong> the series (here pr<strong>in</strong>ted<br />
on the stair carpet), <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g a guarantee <strong>of</strong> the<br />
otherwise illimitable scope <strong>of</strong> Brooke’s hygienic<br />
pledge. One strik<strong>in</strong>g image demonstrates the<br />
soap’s extensive powers by pos<strong>in</strong>g the monkey<br />
gaz<strong>in</strong>g with an air <strong>of</strong> self-satisfaction at his own<br />
likeness <strong>in</strong> a fry<strong>in</strong>g pan’s sparkl<strong>in</strong>g base, his face<br />
altered miraculously from black to white,<br />
accompanied by the explanatory note, ‘For<br />
Happy BRIGHT reflection, MONKEY BRAND is just<br />
perfection’. Significantly, the fry<strong>in</strong>g pan generally<br />
features somewhere <strong>in</strong> Brooke’s simian mise-enscène,<br />
although it sometimes takes a second<br />
look to f<strong>in</strong>d it; as if, fasc<strong>in</strong>ated by his own protean<br />
form, the monkey wishes to always keep to hand<br />
the possibility <strong>of</strong> sneak<strong>in</strong>g a glimpse at his new<br />
body, rem<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g himself <strong>of</strong> his transfigured sk<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
the gleam<strong>in</strong>g world Brooke’s promises.<br />
Brooke’s monkey is, <strong>of</strong> course, very much<br />
BROOKE’S MONKEY<br />
BRAND SOAP<br />
Brooke’s Monkey Brand Soap was a common, even iconic, presence <strong>in</strong> the pages <strong>of</strong> late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth-century<br />
illustrated newspapers <strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong>. Barely an issue <strong>of</strong> the London Illustrated News, <strong>The</strong> Graphic or <strong>The</strong><br />
Sketch passed without a full or half page spread <strong>of</strong> Brooke’s ubiquitous monkey, arrayed <strong>in</strong> one <strong>of</strong> its many<br />
baffl<strong>in</strong>g guises: promenad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> top hat and tails, juggl<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g pots <strong>in</strong> a jester’s get-up, strumm<strong>in</strong>g a mandol<strong>in</strong><br />
on the moon, destitute and begg<strong>in</strong>g by the side <strong>of</strong> the road, kneel<strong>in</strong>g to accept a medal from a glamorous<br />
Frenchwoman, career<strong>in</strong>g along on a bicycle with feet on the handle-bars, cl<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g precariously to a ship’s mast,<br />
carefully polish<strong>in</strong>g the family ch<strong>in</strong>a and here <strong>in</strong> 1891, slid<strong>in</strong>g gleefully down the banisters with legs spread wide<br />
and the h<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> a smile while two neat Victorian children watch calmly on. [i]<br />
Text by John Miller<br />
80<br />
a political animal. <strong>The</strong> ‘new imperialism’ <strong>of</strong> the<br />
1890s saw an <strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>of</strong> British expansionist<br />
energy that gave consistent emphasis to the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> commerce. Empire provided both<br />
an abundant source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial raw materials<br />
and potential new markets for manufactured<br />
commodities. Reflect<strong>in</strong>g and support<strong>in</strong>g this<br />
national endeavour were various forms <strong>of</strong> popular<br />
imperialism. Images <strong>of</strong> empire were voraciously<br />
consumed <strong>in</strong> music halls and theatres, <strong>in</strong> copious<br />
works <strong>of</strong> travel writ<strong>in</strong>g and adventure fiction,<br />
ensur<strong>in</strong>g that the idea <strong>of</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong>’s civiliz<strong>in</strong>g mission<br />
became part <strong>of</strong> the fabric <strong>of</strong> cultural life. British<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> Africa were particularly prom<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>in</strong><br />
the media at the f<strong>in</strong>-de-siècle. H. M. Stanley’s<br />
1890 In Darkest Africa, Lord Kitchener’s successful<br />
campaign <strong>in</strong> the Sudan <strong>in</strong> 1898 and the start <strong>of</strong><br />
the Second Boer War <strong>in</strong> 1899 were among the<br />
notably newsworthy events that were grist to the<br />
mill <strong>of</strong> writers, artists and illustrators. Hardly<br />
surpris<strong>in</strong>gly, therefore, Africa is a recurr<strong>in</strong>g theme<br />
<strong>in</strong> Victorian ad pages. Bovril, Eno’s Salts and<br />
Gu<strong>in</strong>ea Gold Cigarettes were among numerous
Brooke’s Soap Monkey Brand<br />
Wont Wash Clothes , 1910 Lever Brothers<br />
81
companies that forged a market<strong>in</strong>g strategy <strong>in</strong><br />
relation to the myth <strong>of</strong> the Dark Cont<strong>in</strong>ent with its<br />
familiar ideological pattern <strong>of</strong> savagery and<br />
bestiality <strong>in</strong>vit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the ‘enlighten<strong>in</strong>g’ <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong><br />
British rule. Brooke’s monkey is part <strong>of</strong> this history.<br />
As our most proximate and troubl<strong>in</strong>g animal<br />
relatives, monkeys have long evoked questions <strong>of</strong><br />
human orig<strong>in</strong>s and identity; concerns which, <strong>in</strong><br />
the context <strong>of</strong> imperialism, frequently return to<br />
ideas <strong>of</strong> race. Victorian soap advertis<strong>in</strong>g drew<br />
consistently on an association between otherness<br />
and filth: <strong>in</strong> the logic <strong>of</strong> imperialism, the<br />
animalized African, or the Africanized animal, was<br />
a lamentably unsanitary creature. Anne<br />
McL<strong>in</strong>tock’s important study Imperial Leather,<br />
which explores, among other th<strong>in</strong>gs, the central<br />
connection <strong>of</strong> ‘commodity racism and imperial<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g’, provides a compell<strong>in</strong>g analysis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
way that ‘soap-mak<strong>in</strong>g became the emblem <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial progress’, as ‘soap was <strong>in</strong>vested with<br />
magical, fetish powers’. [ii] Brita<strong>in</strong>, the argument<br />
ran, was br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g the world cleanl<strong>in</strong>ess, wash<strong>in</strong>g<br />
away degeneracy and backwardness. Dirt was<br />
an evolutionary issue. Consequently, Brooke’s<br />
monkey is a truly global animal, illustrat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
terrestrial scope <strong>of</strong> imperial ambition, even <strong>in</strong> one<br />
<strong>in</strong>carnation skipp<strong>in</strong>g around a t<strong>in</strong>y Earth, with his<br />
trademark fry<strong>in</strong>g pan <strong>in</strong> paw, a citoyen du<br />
monde, herald<strong>in</strong>g a worldwide regimen <strong>of</strong><br />
spotless civilization. He is, the byl<strong>in</strong>e runs, ‘the<br />
world’s polisher’; himself a reformed subject <strong>of</strong><br />
imperial capitalism, lifted from his beastly state to<br />
the appearance <strong>of</strong> a man.<br />
Above all, the moral <strong>of</strong> Brooke’s Monkey<br />
Brand is a message <strong>of</strong> order. ‘<strong>The</strong> poetics <strong>of</strong><br />
cleanl<strong>in</strong>ess’, McL<strong>in</strong>tock writes, ‘is a poetics <strong>of</strong><br />
social discipl<strong>in</strong>e’, [iii] recruit<strong>in</strong>g us all <strong>in</strong>to rituals <strong>of</strong><br />
work, consumption and aspiration, redolent with a<br />
larger philosophical proposition. This is what it<br />
means to be human. At first glance, there is a<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> perilousness about the monkey on the<br />
stairs. <strong>The</strong> blond girl’s arm holds back her<br />
younger, dark-haired companion, but their faces<br />
betray no fear. Rather, they are mak<strong>in</strong>g space for<br />
the spectacle <strong>of</strong> the monkey’s chaotic nature<br />
reconfigured as fun, at worst a case <strong>of</strong><br />
schoolboyish high spirits. If there is a touch <strong>of</strong><br />
weep<strong>in</strong>ess about the big-eyed brunette, there is<br />
an assurance <strong>in</strong> the older girl’s poise that keeps<br />
the tears at bay. Very little literal connection to the<br />
product’s functionality is apparent <strong>in</strong> the<br />
exhilaration <strong>of</strong> the monkey’s descent, unless<br />
perhaps <strong>in</strong> the polished smoothness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
surface that allows him to glide so effortlessly to<br />
the floor. Indeed, the concealment <strong>of</strong> work is a<br />
characteristic trope <strong>of</strong> the Monkey Brand<br />
82<br />
campaign, except occasionally when the<br />
monkey himself is displayed as a labour<strong>in</strong>g<br />
subject <strong>in</strong> images that add social class to race as<br />
another category <strong>of</strong> the animal <strong>in</strong> human form.<br />
As such, Brooke’s <strong>of</strong>fers both an <strong>in</strong>ducement to<br />
and an erasure <strong>of</strong> toil. So, despite the advert’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>sistence on Monkey Brand’s clean<strong>in</strong>g, scour<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
scrubb<strong>in</strong>g utility, what matters most is not the<br />
substance or effect <strong>of</strong> the soap, but the glitter<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ideal it encapsulates: a domestic utopia that<br />
derives its political force from its relationship with<br />
the Earth’s remote, dark places. Beh<strong>in</strong>d the<br />
monkey a pot plant’s spread<strong>in</strong>g foliage gestures<br />
towards a distant jungle habitat. As he zips down<br />
and away from this h<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> his past, fly<strong>in</strong>g by the<br />
seat <strong>of</strong> his tailored pants, precarious but<br />
ultimately secure <strong>in</strong> his new environment, the<br />
monkey represents the triumph <strong>of</strong><br />
empire, realised <strong>in</strong> the urbanity <strong>of</strong> the middle<br />
class home that safely conta<strong>in</strong>s him. In the<br />
deeply conservative Victorian attitudes he<br />
announces, Brooke’s anthropomorphic monkey<br />
rem<strong>in</strong>ds us <strong>of</strong> the discomfort<strong>in</strong>g ideological uses<br />
non-human primates have long been put to <strong>in</strong><br />
the semiotic repertoire <strong>of</strong> capitalist modernity.<br />
References<br />
[i] London Illustrated News, October 3, 1891, p. 453<br />
[ii] Anne McL<strong>in</strong>tock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality <strong>in</strong><br />
the Colonial Contest. New York and London, Routledge, 1995, p.<br />
217; p. 207<br />
[iii] McL<strong>in</strong>tock, Imperial Leather, p. 226.<br />
Dr John Miller arrived <strong>in</strong> Sheffield <strong>in</strong> September 2012 to take up a<br />
lectureship <strong>in</strong> N<strong>in</strong>eteenth-Century Literature. He completed his PhD<br />
at the University <strong>of</strong> Glasgow <strong>in</strong> 2009 and then held postdoctoral<br />
research fellowships at the Institute for Advanced Study <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Humanities, University <strong>of</strong> Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh, and at the University <strong>of</strong> Northern<br />
British Columbia. He also held a teach<strong>in</strong>g fellowship at the University<br />
<strong>of</strong> East Anglia. He is general secretary <strong>of</strong> the Association for the Study<br />
<strong>of</strong> Literature and Environment (UK & Ireland):http://asle.org.uk/<br />
His research focuses on writ<strong>in</strong>g about animals, ecology and<br />
empire from the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century to the present, with particular<br />
emphasis on the late Victorian period. His first monograph Empire<br />
and the Animal Body (Anthem, 2012) explores the representation <strong>of</strong><br />
exotic animals <strong>in</strong> Victorian and Edwardian adventure fiction. He is<br />
currently work<strong>in</strong>g on the co-authored volume Walrus for the<br />
Reaktion Animal series and on his second monograph, Fur: A Literary<br />
History. Other work currently <strong>in</strong> progress <strong>in</strong>cludes co-edited<br />
collections on Henry Rider Haggard and on globalization and<br />
heterotopias, and a special edition <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Journal</strong> for Victorian<br />
<strong>Culture</strong>, ‘New Perspectives on Victorian <strong>Animals</strong>’ (with Claire<br />
McKechnie).
It is tempt<strong>in</strong>g to take for granted that mature<br />
consumer societies are thusly marked by “arkloads<br />
<strong>of</strong> animal figures—realistic and<br />
fantastic—which parade a veritable carnival <strong>of</strong><br />
significations” through our commercial culture, as<br />
Reuel Denny noted already a half century ago<br />
(1989, lv-lxix). Yet they could not function as such<br />
if it were not for the crucial tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ground an<br />
elephant called Jumbo provided advertisers and<br />
consumers over a century ago. He was the<br />
primordial case, a Gilded Age signpost show<strong>in</strong>g<br />
marketers and manufacturers how to use animal<br />
figures to tell emotive stories endors<strong>in</strong>g a modern<br />
consumer subjectivity, stories that could be<br />
essentialized and associated with any product.<br />
Although an <strong>in</strong>dividual with a particular history,<br />
over time Jumbo’s tale was boiled down until he<br />
became “an adjective” <strong>in</strong> both colloquial and<br />
commercial use (Hard<strong>in</strong>g 2000, 11). And, he asks<br />
us to th<strong>in</strong>k about how animal figures have guided<br />
consumers through one hundred and thirty years<br />
<strong>of</strong> economic change by persuad<strong>in</strong>g them to<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternalize a central premise <strong>of</strong> modern<br />
capitalism; namely that one can best achieve<br />
personal liberty through ever-expand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
consumption and the ethic <strong>of</strong> “more.”<br />
JUMBO: A CAPITALIST<br />
CREATION STORY<br />
Today, a pr<strong>of</strong>usion <strong>of</strong> non-human animals <strong>in</strong>habit the world <strong>of</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g. Consumers see some <strong>of</strong> them <strong>in</strong> person<br />
and some as brand icons, team mascots, and other more-generic endorsers <strong>of</strong> consumption (sometimes their own<br />
consumption, like pig characters decorat<strong>in</strong>g BBQ restaurants or matronly cows on dairy product packag<strong>in</strong>g)<br />
embellish<strong>in</strong>g countless products, services and enterta<strong>in</strong>ments. This zoological cornucopia provides a naturaliz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
l<strong>in</strong>k to the non-human world, promis<strong>in</strong>g us that to absorb advertis<strong>in</strong>g messages and spend is to participate <strong>in</strong> an<br />
<strong>in</strong>evitable and emotionally authentic activity because, as the belief goes, animals don’t lie (Shuk<strong>in</strong> 2009, 3-5).<br />
Text by Susan Nance<br />
83<br />
Everybody Needs a Story: Gilded Age<br />
Jumbo<br />
In the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g, there was a modest but<br />
enthusiastic consumer culture <strong>in</strong> North America,<br />
<strong>in</strong>habited by citizens known to expect timely and<br />
fashionable th<strong>in</strong>gs at the lowest possible price<br />
(Breen 2004, 131-32). Prom<strong>in</strong>ent among the<br />
products and services they patronized were<br />
it<strong>in</strong>erant displays <strong>of</strong> anonymous exotic or wild<br />
animals shown <strong>in</strong> barns and empty lots for a fee.<br />
For consumers, pay<strong>in</strong>g to see unusual animals<br />
spoke <strong>of</strong> a desire for worldly novelty and security<br />
through trade (Somk<strong>in</strong> 1967, 11-54; Weeks 1994,<br />
485-95). <strong>The</strong> handbills and newspaper ads<br />
employed by showmen provided the first graphic<br />
commercial representations <strong>of</strong> the animals that<br />
most North Americans would see, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
young female pachyderm known famously as<br />
“<strong>The</strong> Elephant,” an educational and exotic visitor.<br />
That first elephant’s popularity with audiences<br />
<strong>in</strong>spired showmen to spend the next century<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g out how to use animals and their<br />
representations to sell.<br />
Ph<strong>in</strong>eas T. Barnum would become a<br />
crucial pioneer <strong>in</strong> this art <strong>of</strong> communicat<strong>in</strong>g to
consumers with animals that promised<br />
compell<strong>in</strong>g consumer experience. Barnum was a<br />
media genius who <strong>in</strong>structed his agents to<br />
embellish fences and newspaper columns with<br />
l<strong>in</strong>e draw<strong>in</strong>gs, steel plate images and textual<br />
depictions <strong>of</strong> real and <strong>in</strong>vented animals,<br />
contextualized with <strong>in</strong>trigu<strong>in</strong>g stories that enticed<br />
viewers to visit <strong>in</strong> order to judge those be<strong>in</strong>gs for<br />
themselves. At the same time, he <strong>in</strong>vited<br />
Americans to determ<strong>in</strong>e how, as residents <strong>of</strong> a<br />
largely unregulated capitalist economy, one<br />
might wisely evaluate advertis<strong>in</strong>g to f<strong>in</strong>d the<br />
frauds and truths they conta<strong>in</strong>ed. Americans were<br />
will<strong>in</strong>g partners with Barnum <strong>in</strong> valoriz<strong>in</strong>g this idea,<br />
hop<strong>in</strong>g that each person would be free to form<br />
an op<strong>in</strong>ion and exercise it through spend<strong>in</strong>g as a<br />
patriotic mode <strong>of</strong> self-improvement (Adams<br />
1997, 147-63; Cook 2001, 73-126; Harris 1981,<br />
74-75).<br />
When he got <strong>in</strong>to the circus trade <strong>in</strong> the<br />
1850’s, Barnum knew that audience fasc<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
with the notion <strong>of</strong> abundance, as well as<br />
competition between companies, had driven<br />
show producers to develop a “MAMMOTH SHOW”<br />
(as the ads <strong>of</strong>ten read) market<strong>in</strong>g practice<br />
whereby companies strove to create “grandness”<br />
and “giantism” <strong>in</strong> their productions, presag<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
broader market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> excess <strong>in</strong> the late twentieth<br />
century. Bull elephants especially articulated the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry’s overall promotional aesthetic. Circuses<br />
were the only ventures that held liv<strong>in</strong>g elephants<br />
at that po<strong>in</strong>t, s<strong>in</strong>ce there would be no network <strong>of</strong><br />
zoos <strong>in</strong> North America until the end <strong>of</strong> the century.<br />
With their vast bulk and unique shape, elephants<br />
on circus bills and <strong>in</strong> circus day parades<br />
functioned “as an advertisement” for the whole<br />
performance genre. “Any alert advertiser [knew]<br />
that the elephants were the th<strong>in</strong>g to ‘bear down<br />
on hard’” <strong>in</strong> order to stay <strong>in</strong> the public eye, as<br />
circus press agent Charles Day recalled <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry wisdom at the time (1995, 66, 69).<br />
Later that century, when ad men said “Bill<br />
it like a circus,” they referred specifically to the<br />
dramatic and colorful promotional techniques<br />
developed by early showmen to enterta<strong>in</strong> and<br />
amaze just so (Laird 1998, 44). More broadly, the<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ant advertis<strong>in</strong>g theory <strong>of</strong> the period<br />
advocated for liberal spend<strong>in</strong>g on messag<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that presented consumers with the same<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation—usually pla<strong>in</strong>-spoken details on what<br />
could be bought, where, and for what price—<br />
over a period <strong>of</strong> weeks or months. Barnum and<br />
other aggressive marketers <strong>in</strong> various trades would<br />
develop this practice by piqu<strong>in</strong>g audience<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest with novel ads <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g puzzles,<br />
observations on current events, compell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
84<br />
graphics or grandiose claims, and repeat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
them until no person could possibly ignore them<br />
(quoted <strong>in</strong> Rowell 1870, 83). Circuses were the<br />
most prolific employers on the cont<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>of</strong><br />
grand, surreal and colorfully graphic lithographed<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g, which advance men liberally pasted<br />
over fences and build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> cities and the t<strong>in</strong>iest<br />
towns. <strong>The</strong>y easily flattered audiences as a<br />
privileged citizenry by exclaim<strong>in</strong>g how much risk a<br />
given impresario had taken on to br<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
most extraord<strong>in</strong>ary animals to all ticket-payers,<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> their station <strong>in</strong> life, illustrat<strong>in</strong>g those<br />
claims with bizarrely surreal and glamorous<br />
images <strong>of</strong> people and animals <strong>in</strong> every<br />
imag<strong>in</strong>able pose.<br />
Barnum was additionally notorious that<br />
century as a master <strong>of</strong> “Humbug” (today we<br />
might say hype). He was an early expert at issu<strong>in</strong>g<br />
press releases, <strong>in</strong>terviews to friendly journalists,<br />
letters to the editor, and various day-by-day bits<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation that contextualized his advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with a broader controversy or shared public story.<br />
Thus, when Barnum considered Jumbo at the<br />
London Zoo <strong>in</strong> 1881, he saw an elephant who<br />
might carry a dramatic <strong>in</strong>dividual story while<br />
serv<strong>in</strong>g as the perfect agent for the penultimate<br />
execution <strong>of</strong> mammoth market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> history. <strong>The</strong><br />
elephant was then a much-loved resident <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Zoo and a favorite <strong>of</strong> Queen Victoria herself. Born<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1861, <strong>in</strong> the French Sudan (Mali), he had<br />
resided for a short time after his capture at<br />
the Jard<strong>in</strong> des Plantes <strong>in</strong> Paris before arriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
London around age four, where he spent plenty<br />
<strong>of</strong> time accept<strong>in</strong>g food from visitors and be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
driven by his tra<strong>in</strong>er William Scott about the<br />
grounds, carry<strong>in</strong>g a howdah filled with the<br />
children who paid for a ride. By the late 1870’s,<br />
Jumbo was matur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to an adult, and so was<br />
experienc<strong>in</strong>g dangerous periods <strong>of</strong> irritability<br />
known as musth (central to elephant<strong>in</strong>e<br />
reproduction and social organization <strong>in</strong> the wild).<br />
He had also begun to resist the dom<strong>in</strong>ance<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g used to subdue him by becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
unpredictable when Scott was not immediately<br />
present.<br />
Jumbo had a strange dual personality as<br />
far as the British public could see. As portrayed by<br />
citizens and the press, he was at once a friend to<br />
children and a dangerous wild animal surely<br />
bound to kill someone. Look<strong>in</strong>g to relieve himself<br />
<strong>of</strong> the responsibility <strong>of</strong> the elephant, London Zoo<br />
Super<strong>in</strong>tendent Abraham Bartlett agreed to sell<br />
Jumbo to Barnum, who would acquire the largest<br />
elephant <strong>in</strong> the world, as the advertis<strong>in</strong>g would<br />
<strong>in</strong>sist, as the centerpiece for a show branded<br />
“Greatest Show on Earth Comb<strong>in</strong>ed with the
Fig. 1.<br />
<strong>The</strong> iconic Jumbo broadside, 1882, Tibbals Digital Collection, John and Mable R<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g Museum <strong>of</strong> Art , Saratosa, FL.<br />
85
Great London Circus,” produced by his merger<br />
with the ventures <strong>of</strong> legendary circus impresarios<br />
James Hutch<strong>in</strong>son and James A. Bailey (Saxon<br />
1995, 284).<br />
When news <strong>of</strong> the sale became public,<br />
the British press ignited a public controversy that<br />
would lay the groundwork for the elephant’s<br />
transformation from mildly famous zoo captive to<br />
provocative advertis<strong>in</strong>g symbol. In London, the<br />
newspapers and plenty <strong>of</strong> angry citizens,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g children, called Barnum and all<br />
Americans “Philist<strong>in</strong>es” and “slave-owners” who<br />
would make the noble Jumbo mere “chattel”<br />
held captive to enterta<strong>in</strong> a “Yankee mob.” (<strong>The</strong> US<br />
had abolished slavery sixteen years earlier, but<br />
that cliché along with older suspicions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
America as a degenerate and rebellious nation<br />
had stuck) (Hard<strong>in</strong>g 2000, 43-45; Harris 1981, 257;<br />
Jolly 1976, 57-58; Rub<strong>in</strong> and Rub<strong>in</strong> 2005, 3-20).<br />
At first, the controversy had little resonance<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce North Americans could not closely follow<br />
the scandal <strong>in</strong> the London papers. So Barnum<br />
encouraged the local press to give over many<br />
column <strong>in</strong>ches over to Jumbo’s arrival <strong>in</strong> New York<br />
on April 9, 1882. <strong>The</strong>reafter his market<strong>in</strong>g team<br />
used broadsides and show programs to<br />
reconstruct media representations <strong>of</strong> the difficult<br />
evacuation <strong>of</strong> Jumbo from Brita<strong>in</strong> found <strong>in</strong><br />
newspapers and illustrated magaz<strong>in</strong>es like <strong>The</strong><br />
Illustrated London News and Frank Leslie’s<br />
Illustrated, much <strong>of</strong> which consisted <strong>of</strong> pseudoevents<br />
devised to lengthen and make more<br />
theatrical the shipp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the elephant.<br />
Barnum’s lithograph broadsides, show<br />
programs and newspaper spots certa<strong>in</strong>ly billed<br />
Jumbo’s journey “like a circus,” with a colorful and<br />
dramatic giantism (Figure 1). One iconic poster<br />
globalized “THE GIANT AFRICAN ELEPHANT JUMBO”<br />
as “<strong>The</strong> Biggest Elephant <strong>in</strong> the World” <strong>in</strong> tapered<br />
typeset that evoked the curvature <strong>of</strong> the earth,<br />
rem<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g viewers that Jumbo’s “Removal” had<br />
been “remonstrated aga<strong>in</strong>st by the whole British<br />
nation and was accomplished <strong>in</strong> the face <strong>of</strong><br />
seem<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>surmountable objections” by Barnum<br />
and company. It showed a resistant Jumbo<br />
“FORCED INTO HIS BOX” and brac<strong>in</strong>g himself<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the outside <strong>of</strong> the crate. It also portrayed<br />
“JUMBO CHAINED,” wear<strong>in</strong>g an angry expression<br />
and stra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st his halter. Other promotional<br />
materials depicted Jumbo’s height and size with<br />
great exaggeration, as was Barnum’s frequent<br />
practice with animal attractions (Presbrey 1968,<br />
215). One show program <strong>of</strong>fered “All-Famous and<br />
Gigantic ‘JUMBO’ <strong>The</strong> Mighty Lord <strong>of</strong> all Beasts…<br />
<strong>The</strong> Largest Liv<strong>in</strong>g Quadruped on Earth…[and]<br />
Tower<strong>in</strong>g Monster” with Jumbo drawn twice his<br />
86<br />
actual size, and a horse and carriage pass<strong>in</strong>g<br />
comfortably under his belly. [i]<br />
Jumbo’s advertis<strong>in</strong>g told viewers that he<br />
was an extraord<strong>in</strong>ary and powerful <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
reluctantly forced to the United States, a feat only<br />
Barnum could produce. That narrative drew its<br />
cultural sense from the century’s hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
narratives, a genre that was popular <strong>in</strong> book<br />
publish<strong>in</strong>g, magaz<strong>in</strong>es and newspapers. Hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
narratives provided dramatic tales <strong>of</strong> western<br />
men who, with the aid <strong>of</strong> local servants, tracked,<br />
captured or killed wild animals <strong>in</strong> Asia and Africa.<br />
<strong>The</strong>ir prey, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g elephants, were rout<strong>in</strong>ely<br />
portrayed as fierce and noble adversaries <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hunter, beasts who fought valiantly aga<strong>in</strong>st their<br />
pursuers, then died <strong>in</strong> dramatic fashion—all the<br />
better to display the honor and strength <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hunter (here Barnum as f<strong>in</strong>ancial risk taker) brave<br />
enough to <strong>in</strong>itiate the chase (Donald 2006, 50-<br />
68; Wylie 2008, 83-84). An editorialist <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluential Harper’s Weekly agreed that citizens,<br />
too, had “reasons for satisfaction” <strong>in</strong> Jumbo’s<br />
acquisition because he seemed the largest and<br />
perhaps the most robust captive African elephant<br />
left <strong>in</strong> a world <strong>in</strong> which the ivory trade was<br />
decimat<strong>in</strong>g wild elephant populations. [ii] Soon, he<br />
speculated, the American public might<br />
possess the last African bull elephant on earth!<br />
Barnum’s victory was a victory for the whole<br />
nation, the colloquial and promotional wisdom<br />
<strong>in</strong>sisted. One Greatest Show on Earth broadside<br />
got this po<strong>in</strong>t across with an image <strong>of</strong> Jumbo<br />
tower<strong>in</strong>g over the preserved skeleton <strong>of</strong> a North<br />
American mastodon, a late eighteenth-century<br />
totem <strong>of</strong> national prestige that people<br />
remembered well. [iii]<br />
On both sides <strong>of</strong> the Atlantic, pundits<br />
noted frequent public fatigue <strong>in</strong> the face <strong>of</strong> such<br />
tactics, yet also noted that many Britons and<br />
North Americans seemed s<strong>in</strong>cerely <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong><br />
Jumbo’s life. So did the naysayers hasten to<br />
participate <strong>in</strong> the Jumbo scandal by lampoon<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the deftness with which Barnum and his staff were<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>cident out <strong>of</strong> the sale <strong>of</strong><br />
a captive animal (a transaction zoos and circuses<br />
performed regularly with no public notice). <strong>The</strong><br />
lampooners probably only heightened Jumbo’s<br />
versatility as a “rhetorical animal” s<strong>in</strong>ce they<br />
made cultural space for reticent observers to<br />
make their own <strong>in</strong>terpretive use <strong>of</strong> Jumbo by<br />
compla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g or tak<strong>in</strong>g ironic enjoyment from<br />
Jumbo as symbol <strong>of</strong> consumer credulity (Ritvo<br />
1989, 5-6). Funny Folks, an illustrated humor<br />
tabloid supplement added to the British<br />
paper, Weekly Budget, [iv] stayed relevant with a<br />
cover (<strong>in</strong> its own way an advertisement for the
Fig. 2.<br />
Funny Folks, 1882. McCaddon Collection, Special Collections and Rare Books, Pr<strong>in</strong>ceton Library, Pr<strong>in</strong>ceton, NJ.<br />
87
magaz<strong>in</strong>e’s contents and character) depict<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Jumbo as a figurative and literal vehicle for<br />
Barnum’s market<strong>in</strong>g efforts (Figure 2). Drawn with<br />
circus handbills and broadsides glued to his sk<strong>in</strong>,<br />
he was a caricature <strong>of</strong> Barnum’s entrepreneurial<br />
persona as an American media monarch. In a<br />
satirical Roman or British style, he rides Jumbo with<br />
paste-brush scepter <strong>in</strong> hand while wear<strong>in</strong>g a stars<br />
and stripes suit and jaunty crown. Below him, a<br />
grumpy look<strong>in</strong>g Jumbo passes a handbill<br />
celebrat<strong>in</strong>g his own captivity to a small girl.<br />
Plenty <strong>of</strong> people understood that Jumbo<br />
had become a liv<strong>in</strong>g communication medium.<br />
He was a figurative billboard onto which, not only<br />
Barnum and the British and North American press,<br />
but also citizens—the customers <strong>of</strong> zoos, circuses<br />
and the media—were project<strong>in</strong>g their own needs<br />
and identities. Jumbo was then the most famous<br />
animal <strong>in</strong> the world and a turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the<br />
commercialization <strong>of</strong> the human habit <strong>of</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
animals “to th<strong>in</strong>k”—<strong>in</strong> this case about nature and<br />
national rivalries. And as Jumbo toured the US<br />
and Canada with Barnum’s company over the<br />
next three years, the public noise around the<br />
elephant came to be known as “Jumbo Mania.”<br />
Certa<strong>in</strong>ly, Jumbo’s arrival <strong>in</strong> New York <strong>in</strong><br />
April <strong>of</strong> 1881 was a moment many saw as a sign<br />
<strong>of</strong> the American public’s right to have privileged<br />
access to whatever the world conta<strong>in</strong>ed. If<br />
Barnum wrestled that “whatever” away from the<br />
British for his own pr<strong>of</strong>it, he did so equally on<br />
Americans’ behalf, many believed. In a widely<br />
republished telegram to the editor <strong>of</strong> the London<br />
Telegraph, Barnum <strong>in</strong>sisted the elephant was a<br />
right owed to “Fifty-one millions American citizens<br />
[for whom] my 40 years’ <strong>in</strong>variable practice <strong>of</strong><br />
exhibit<strong>in</strong>g [the] best that money could procure<br />
makes Jumbo’s presence here<br />
imperative.” [v] Here—and this was crucial—<br />
Barnum’s bombastic claims <strong>of</strong> spar<strong>in</strong>g no<br />
expense or effort to br<strong>in</strong>g the most gigantic land<br />
animal on earth to the American public were not<br />
signs <strong>of</strong> fraud, but elements <strong>of</strong> an authentically<br />
American cultural event. Each citizen-consumer<br />
could speak his or her m<strong>in</strong>d about Jumbo’s story<br />
and vicariously capture the mighty elephant. In<br />
effect, Barnum’s advertis<strong>in</strong>g told consumers:<br />
Expect more. You deserve it.<br />
Jumbo Mania was possible, <strong>in</strong> part,<br />
because the elephant’s ads constituted a radical<br />
departure from previous circus advertis<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
elephants, or any animal for that matter. S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
the 1870’s, when it became possible to<br />
<strong>in</strong>expensively produce detailed illustrations,<br />
advertisers had begun experiment<strong>in</strong>g with ads<br />
featur<strong>in</strong>g animal and child figures, especially for<br />
88<br />
products aimed at women (Laird 1998, 93). Spots<br />
for foods and medic<strong>in</strong>es depicted anonymous<br />
animals as spirits <strong>of</strong> transformation represent<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the power <strong>of</strong> the product at hand. Some even<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ked human and non-human life <strong>in</strong> whimsical<br />
and ancient ways by <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g amus<strong>in</strong>g animals<br />
portrayed <strong>in</strong> human cloth<strong>in</strong>g or, particularly <strong>in</strong> the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> patent medic<strong>in</strong>es like l<strong>in</strong>iments, assur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
viewers they could use the product on a horse’s<br />
body or their own (Lears 1994, 145). <strong>The</strong>se<br />
promotional animal representations revealed an<br />
early <strong>in</strong>dustry understand<strong>in</strong>g that advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
should engage the viewer with an open-ended<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrogation <strong>of</strong> some common truth (for <strong>in</strong>stance<br />
the complexity <strong>of</strong> citizens’ constructions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
non-human), the memory <strong>of</strong> which the customer<br />
could l<strong>in</strong>k to purchas<strong>in</strong>g the product. Traditionally<br />
the circuses had advertised their elephants even<br />
more simply as naturalist’s curiosity or happy<br />
performer.<br />
Jumbo, however, was depicted as a<br />
complex <strong>in</strong>dividual experienc<strong>in</strong>g a broad range<br />
<strong>of</strong> human-style emotions and personality traits:<br />
frustration, love, fear, stubbornness, sadness,<br />
anger and melancholy resignation. As much as it<br />
asked the viewer to pay to see him at the circus,<br />
Jumbo’s advertis<strong>in</strong>g also <strong>in</strong>vited consumers to<br />
empathize with his feel<strong>in</strong>gs over his fate, while<br />
imag<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g themselves as his captors. It was that<br />
mediated representation <strong>of</strong> Jumbo as traveler<br />
that gave the elephant his real value. “Men and<br />
women are selfish,” Barnum had advised fellow<br />
entrepreneurs <strong>of</strong> why this was so. “We all prefer<br />
purchas<strong>in</strong>g where we can get the most for our<br />
money,” he expla<strong>in</strong>ed, know<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>in</strong> the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> his animal exhibitions he sold not just the<br />
chance to view an animal but an opportunity to<br />
participate <strong>in</strong> a story about the animal that<br />
reflected one’s own identity (quoted <strong>in</strong> Rowell<br />
1870, 82). Barnum had pioneered the “exchange<br />
<strong>of</strong> story for value” <strong>in</strong> his earlier promotions <strong>of</strong><br />
human performers as celebrities and freaks, but<br />
tread new territory when he extended it to the<br />
non-human Jumbo (Twitchell 2000, 25; see also<br />
Presbrey 1968, 219-22). And, <strong>in</strong> fact, it appears<br />
that the Greatest Show on Earth circus sold far<br />
more tickets than usual because <strong>of</strong> the fame<br />
Jumbo achieved <strong>in</strong> the US. Barnum boasted, <strong>in</strong><br />
one <strong>of</strong> his biographies, that he earned several<br />
times over the reported $30,000 he <strong>in</strong>vested <strong>in</strong><br />
import<strong>in</strong>g and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the elephant (Barnum<br />
1888, 333).<br />
Jumbo Mania cont<strong>in</strong>ued unabated for<br />
three years. North Americans immediately began<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g colloquial use <strong>of</strong> the elephant’s title, for<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance as a name for horses and household
Fig. 3.<br />
Clark’s O.N.T. Spool Cotton Jumbo trade card series by Buek<br />
and L<strong>in</strong>dner Lithograph, 1883, Historical Collections, Baker<br />
Library, Harvard Bus<strong>in</strong>ess School, Harvard University,<br />
Cambridge, MA.<br />
pets. Consumers identified with Jumbo further<br />
because the elephant complimented<br />
contemporary technologies for the <strong>in</strong>expensive<br />
reproduction <strong>of</strong> images, which were prov<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
boon to the work <strong>of</strong> persuasion by way <strong>of</strong><br />
storytell<strong>in</strong>g with characters (Laird 1998, 69, 93,<br />
149-51). In the spirit <strong>of</strong> Barnum’s “Jumbo cha<strong>in</strong>ed”<br />
vignette, a Boston thread manufacturer issued a<br />
color trade card advocat<strong>in</strong>g for the strength <strong>of</strong><br />
their product, show<strong>in</strong>g a fierce, red-eyed Jumbo<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g dragged through the streets <strong>of</strong> London to<br />
the ship that would send him to America<br />
“Because Drawn by Willamantic Thread!” [vi] Clark’s<br />
Spool Cotton company produced a series <strong>of</strong> ten<br />
trade cards show<strong>in</strong>g: Jumbo arriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> America;<br />
with suitcase <strong>in</strong> trunk play<strong>in</strong>g tourist; <strong>in</strong> a tuxedo at<br />
the Opera; <strong>in</strong> a bath<strong>in</strong>g suit at the beach at<br />
Coney Island; <strong>in</strong> a bow tie, guzzl<strong>in</strong>g beer at the<br />
bar (here as a male over<strong>in</strong>dulg<strong>in</strong>g at the saloon<br />
<strong>in</strong> reference to the reality <strong>of</strong> manly alcoholism<br />
89<br />
and media reports, probably accurate, that<br />
Jumbo liked alcohol) [vii] (Figure 3). A billiard ball<br />
company similarly presaged the abstraction <strong>of</strong><br />
Jumbo as promotional ideal. <strong>The</strong>y ignored the<br />
fact that Jumbo had broken <strong>of</strong>f his tusks back <strong>in</strong><br />
London to <strong>of</strong>fer ivory “Jumbo Billiard and Pool<br />
Balls” to consumers <strong>in</strong> a “Jumbo Catalogue” sent<br />
by mail. L<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g Jumbo’s notoriety to their the<br />
product they <strong>of</strong>fered a simple, opaque pr<strong>of</strong>ile<br />
elephant with the word “JUMBO” superimposed<br />
across the hide <strong>in</strong> white letters. [viii]<br />
Indeed, most companies appropriated<br />
Jumbo <strong>in</strong>to scenarios divorced from the persona<br />
<strong>of</strong> P.T. Barnum or their even their own company<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>iles. That is, while many companies had been<br />
brand<strong>in</strong>g with the rags-to-riches story <strong>of</strong> their<br />
proprietors (which <strong>in</strong>deed P.T. Barnum did as an<br />
impresario and self-declared celebrity), others<br />
opted to connect their products to the viewer’s<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> the media blitz around the<br />
elephant’s transformation <strong>in</strong>to American pet. <strong>The</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong> Jumbo as celebrity was to<br />
empower and endorse an emotional and self<strong>in</strong>terested<br />
consumerist subjectivity beyond the<br />
context <strong>of</strong> circus advertis<strong>in</strong>g. And that act set the<br />
stage for all consumers to appropriate the power<br />
<strong>of</strong> Jumbo the bull elephant just as P. T. Barnum<br />
had, but with less effort and expense.<br />
Jumbo as the Liberty to Enjoy More<br />
<strong>The</strong>n Jumbo died, hit by a tra<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the small town<br />
<strong>of</strong> St. Thomas, Ontario. It was 1885. Barnum,<br />
Bailey and Hutch<strong>in</strong>son pressed on, exhibit<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Jumbo’s skeleton and taxidermied sk<strong>in</strong> for some<br />
years, then donat<strong>in</strong>g the former to the American<br />
Museum <strong>of</strong> Natural History <strong>in</strong> New York and the<br />
latter to Tufts College <strong>in</strong> Medford, Massachusetts.<br />
Yet, the idea <strong>of</strong> Jumbo had been such a<br />
great step forward <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g animal figures to l<strong>in</strong>k<br />
spend<strong>in</strong>g to the consumer’s symbolic<br />
appropriation <strong>of</strong> the animal’s energy that it did<br />
not die. Jumbo first reappeared as “jumbo,” a<br />
promotional notion <strong>in</strong> the 1910’s and 1920’s <strong>in</strong> the<br />
world <strong>of</strong> music production, seen as a “craze <strong>of</strong><br />
composers and concert-givers for long<br />
compositions and monster performances,” and<br />
other works featur<strong>in</strong>g “long-drawn-out arias” and<br />
other gimmicks. [ix] Later the word became a term<br />
for the market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> newspapers with sensational<br />
stories and “Jumbo editions,” and the drive to<br />
produce ever-taller skyscrapers. [x] Early twentiethcentury<br />
jumboism—“the tendency to esteem art<br />
<strong>in</strong> proportion to its bulk” (as circuses similarly had<br />
<strong>in</strong> their mammoth market<strong>in</strong>g programs)—was a<br />
sign <strong>of</strong> gauche excess and imprudent faith <strong>in</strong>
Fig. 4.<br />
Fruit crate label, ca. 1933. Image courtesy <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong> Advertis<strong>in</strong>g Archives, London<br />
scale. [xi] <strong>The</strong> phenomenon showed how Barnum’s<br />
satire and celebration <strong>of</strong> American pretensions to<br />
greatness was so <strong>of</strong>ten repeated that it had<br />
become a cliché, now devoid <strong>of</strong> its orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
tongue-<strong>in</strong>-cheek roast<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the public’s<br />
fasc<strong>in</strong>ation for “firsts” and “mosts.”<br />
Whether nervous or dismissive <strong>of</strong> the trend,<br />
critics noted that jumboism seemed a peculiarly<br />
American aesthetic, a code for lowbrow<br />
abundance. [xii] Fueled by the boom<strong>in</strong>g consumer<br />
culture many urban Americans were experienc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> those decades, it was also promoted by<br />
consumers’ groups and ad men determ<strong>in</strong>ed to<br />
establish mass consumption as a basic element<br />
<strong>of</strong> national identity and social participation. In<br />
do<strong>in</strong>g so, they were re<strong>in</strong>vigorat<strong>in</strong>g the old “politics<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘more,’” <strong>in</strong>troduced by trade unions <strong>in</strong> the<br />
1890’s, as an alternative to radical economic<br />
reforms, to <strong>of</strong>fer workers a bigger cut <strong>of</strong> the<br />
wealth they helped to produce (Currar<strong>in</strong>o 2006,<br />
17-36; McGovern 2006).<br />
90<br />
Meanwhile, advertisers turned to “scientific<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g” campaigns that assumed the<br />
emotional pliability <strong>of</strong> consumers and so<br />
associated products with experiences <strong>of</strong><br />
satisfaction or the creation and display <strong>of</strong><br />
personality (Marchand 1985, 68-69). In mov<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from the carnivalesque to realism <strong>in</strong> their art, ad<br />
men emphasized aspirational consumption <strong>of</strong><br />
home appliances, automobiles, jewelry, cloth<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
and cosmetics. Anonymous elephants cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
to appear <strong>in</strong> various k<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> those<br />
years, for <strong>in</strong>stance as icons for India (pictured as<br />
a decorated Asian elephant carry<strong>in</strong>g riders), or <strong>in</strong><br />
cartoons, as symbols for the American<br />
Republican Party, and (if p<strong>in</strong>k) for a state <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>toxication.<br />
When the Great Depression hit, the<br />
contemporary ethos evoked “Fear and<br />
Hoard<strong>in</strong>g,” as one recent <strong>in</strong>terpretation put it, as<br />
consumers focused especially on food<br />
staples. [xiii] It was also the era <strong>of</strong> safari-style “tooth
and claw” movies and other cultural products<br />
that celebrated a forceful and <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
manhood <strong>in</strong> order to reassure Canadians and<br />
Americans who saw the men <strong>in</strong> their lives buckl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
emotionally under the humiliation <strong>of</strong> chronic<br />
unemployment. Invit<strong>in</strong>g vicarious participation by<br />
viewers, <strong>in</strong> safari films, wild animal wranglers like<br />
Frank Buck and Clyde Beatty dom<strong>in</strong>ated their<br />
animal subjects—tigers, lions, elephants and<br />
others—who were noble adversaries because<br />
they were equally powerful as their captors.<br />
(Stokes 2004, 138-54) Indeed, had it not been so<br />
for Barnum and his audience with Jumbo as well?<br />
Consequently, for parity products like<br />
food, the old aesthetic <strong>of</strong> abundance became<br />
newly important and jumboism as market<strong>in</strong>g<br />
theory for musicians and newspaper men jostled<br />
<strong>in</strong> those days with an archetypical African bull, a<br />
generic Jumbo <strong>of</strong> sorts. He appeared on cans<br />
and boxes to give “regenerative” mean<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
oversized produce like “Jumbo Olives” (Lears<br />
1994, 157-58). Strength Valencias oranges <strong>of</strong><br />
California created a series <strong>of</strong> animal themed<br />
labels for their wooden crates featur<strong>in</strong>g rh<strong>in</strong>os,<br />
lions, and others. <strong>The</strong> Strength-brand African<br />
elephant sniffed down his trunk at the viewer with<br />
his ears outstretched display<strong>in</strong>g his size and might<br />
(Figure 4). For consumers weary <strong>of</strong> restra<strong>in</strong>t and<br />
uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty, this jumbo elephant was a sign <strong>of</strong><br />
gigantism to be sure, yet not as hype or satire, but<br />
as relief. He was a comfort<strong>in</strong>g promise for the<br />
future and metaphor for citizens’ <strong>in</strong>ner fortitude,<br />
mental and physical. (Indeed, the University <strong>of</strong><br />
Alabama still uses an “angry” African bull<br />
elephant as promotional mascot for their sports<br />
teams.)<br />
Older forms would overlap with these new<br />
trends. <strong>The</strong> formal “Jumbo” still served as a<br />
nostalgic stock character <strong>of</strong> the circus arts,<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g the genre <strong>in</strong> films and Broadway<br />
shows set <strong>in</strong> circuses. And after the Cole Brothers<br />
Clyde Beatty Circus had the gumption to <strong>of</strong>fer an<br />
elephant as “JUMBO 2 nd – <strong>The</strong> Only African<br />
Elephant with Any Circus” <strong>in</strong> the 1930’s, there<br />
would be more than thirty zoo and circus<br />
elephants around the world given that<br />
name. [xiv] One 1948 Levi’s ad for work<strong>in</strong>g-class<br />
men comb<strong>in</strong>ed jumbo as circus trope and<br />
metaphor by portray<strong>in</strong>g two elephants giggl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
about a third, who va<strong>in</strong>ly struggles to pull his leg<br />
free from a stake to which he is tethered with a<br />
pair <strong>of</strong> jeans: “S<strong>in</strong>ce they tied him up with those<br />
Levi’s – he never gets away,” one expla<strong>in</strong>s to the<br />
other. [xv]<br />
Still, post-War advertis<strong>in</strong>g practice<br />
expanded to <strong>in</strong>clude promotion by the sell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
91<br />
lifestyles (enacted through specific products) such<br />
that jumboism proliferated to a broad array <strong>of</strong><br />
products promis<strong>in</strong>g modernity, joy and liberty <strong>in</strong><br />
unrestra<strong>in</strong>ed consumption, especially for the<br />
valuable adult female market segment (Leiss,<br />
Kl<strong>in</strong>e, Jhally and Botterill 2005, 190-98). <strong>The</strong> 1955<br />
mail-order catalogue Housewares for<br />
Homemakers proposed that the Pearl-Wick<br />
Jumbo Shelf Hamper could make post-War<br />
laundry storage elegantly functional: “Super<br />
giantized hamper with handy built <strong>in</strong> shelf for<br />
cosmetics… Largest hamper ever made.” In the<br />
Miss America Pageant Official Yearbook for 1963,<br />
an ad for Toni Home Beauty Collection <strong>of</strong>fered,<br />
“for the girl who wants just curves, not curls. Big,<br />
big jumbo size body curlers.” [xvi]<br />
Jumbo had come to mean “enjoy more –<br />
you deserve it”—more volume, more options,<br />
more convenience—as a sort <strong>of</strong><br />
consumerist carpe diem. Jumbo as modern<br />
abstraction <strong>of</strong>fered acquisitiveness without the<br />
ta<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> gluttony. It reified a corporate,<br />
government and popular consensus that North<br />
Americans would be def<strong>in</strong>ed by what Lizabeth<br />
Cohen has called “an economy <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>exhaustible<br />
abundance,” that many consumers appear to<br />
have embraced wholeheartedly as a right they<br />
had earned (Cohen 2003, 10). Indeed, every<br />
agricultural fair and carnival <strong>of</strong>fered “Jumbo<br />
Malts” and milkshakes for carefree summer eat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> places <strong>of</strong> commercial leisure, and so<br />
employed jumbo as a food design element<br />
evok<strong>in</strong>g relaxed celebration.<br />
It made sense for Jumbo to become so<br />
abstract. New streams <strong>of</strong> conceptual advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
were emerg<strong>in</strong>g just then to expla<strong>in</strong> products,<br />
services, whole companies, and even political<br />
candidates with impressionistic and highly<br />
symbolic or metaphorical messag<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong><br />
Volkswagen Beetle “Th<strong>in</strong>k Small” ad m<strong>in</strong>iaturized a<br />
Beetle <strong>in</strong> the upper left hand corner <strong>of</strong> a blank,<br />
white space <strong>in</strong> order to advertise the car by<br />
engag<strong>in</strong>g its critics (result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> “<strong>The</strong> most admired<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>t ad <strong>of</strong> all time,” by one tell<strong>in</strong>g) (Tungate 2007,<br />
opposite 118). Such advertis<strong>in</strong>g asked consumers<br />
to do the mental work <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terpret<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g promotional communication <strong>in</strong>to a<br />
persona ev<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g membership <strong>in</strong> subcultures<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed by particular modes <strong>of</strong> consumption.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, <strong>in</strong> the context <strong>of</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g public<br />
awareness <strong>of</strong> the abilities and complex mental<br />
lives <strong>of</strong> elephants publicized by media-savvy<br />
ethologists and behaviorists <strong>in</strong> those years, North<br />
Americans soon found advertis<strong>in</strong>g bear<strong>in</strong>g tra<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
elephants pictured attempt<strong>in</strong>g to crush luggage<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to demonstrate its durability or pictured
Fig. 5.<br />
Consumer as astonished <strong>in</strong>nocent. United States Postal Service, “Jumbo Jets,” 1999<br />
with home computers as a metaphor for memory<br />
[xvii] (Mitman 2006, 175-94).<br />
Perhaps the peak <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>nocent faith <strong>in</strong><br />
jumbo as product design concept came <strong>in</strong> 1970<br />
with the advent <strong>of</strong> commercial travel by the<br />
Boe<strong>in</strong>g 747 (Figure 5). <strong>The</strong> “Jumbo Jet”<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporated the essence <strong>of</strong> a long-dead animal<br />
to express an ethos <strong>of</strong> “more” by its very form. It<br />
evoked a sense <strong>of</strong> wonder for the can-do-ism <strong>in</strong><br />
American <strong>in</strong>dustrial production, l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g consumer<br />
emotions and ideology <strong>in</strong> every flight (Kramer<br />
2006, 156-59). Like the promotional stamp the<br />
United States Postal Service would issue <strong>in</strong> 1999 to<br />
celebrate the first commercial flight <strong>of</strong> the Boe<strong>in</strong>g<br />
747, the aircraft would advertise American power<br />
and affluence as it traveled the globe.<br />
92<br />
Jumbo: “Help Yourself to Happ<strong>in</strong>ess”<br />
Today, Jumbo seems, <strong>in</strong> many respects, a<br />
throwback to simpler times. In our contemporary<br />
“fifth frame” <strong>of</strong> promotional communication,<br />
much advertis<strong>in</strong>g refra<strong>in</strong>s from tell<strong>in</strong>g consumers<br />
that products and services are tied to a particular<br />
lifestyle, social group or persona; <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that it can be a medium for the creation <strong>of</strong> one’s<br />
own mean<strong>in</strong>gs (Leiss, Kl<strong>in</strong>e, Jhally and Botterill<br />
2005, 563-72). Yet, Jumbo rema<strong>in</strong>s more<br />
ideologically rigid. It is a tenacious classic that<br />
paradoxically speaks <strong>of</strong> an admiration for “more,”<br />
while promot<strong>in</strong>g products and services directed<br />
at people for whom more is <strong>of</strong>ten less. To be sure,<br />
many uses <strong>of</strong> jumbo rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>nocuous enough
(and thus all the more persuasive because<br />
seem<strong>in</strong>gly free <strong>of</strong> ideology): jumbo pa<strong>in</strong>t tray,<br />
jumbo rais<strong>in</strong>s, jumbo paper towels, jumbo frame<br />
(ethernet network), Jumbotron. This is particularly<br />
so with utilitarian products for which “more” is<br />
<strong>in</strong>deed a practical matter <strong>of</strong> convenience.<br />
Yet, as a term, jumbo has become a<br />
broadly applicable cloak for the market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
over<strong>in</strong>dulgence—the post-War consumerist carpe<br />
diem taken to the extreme. Some commentators<br />
have labeled the result<strong>in</strong>g phenomenon,<br />
“affluenza,” an affliction suffered by “<strong>The</strong><br />
Overspent American,” strung out on credit and a<br />
facile belief <strong>in</strong> the cheapness <strong>of</strong> buy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
bulk. [xviii] Recent uses <strong>of</strong> the jumbo idea bear<br />
troubl<strong>in</strong>g testament to that self-destructive streak<br />
<strong>in</strong> North American consumers. With the economic<br />
bubbles North Americans created at the end <strong>of</strong><br />
the twentieth-century, there came robust modes<br />
<strong>of</strong> consumption and display to celebrate them.<br />
<strong>The</strong> conceptual jumbo became a marker<br />
(satirical for some, <strong>in</strong>vigorat<strong>in</strong>g for others) <strong>of</strong><br />
brands encourag<strong>in</strong>g proud rejection <strong>of</strong> modesty<br />
and self-restra<strong>in</strong>t, with food as a particular fixation:<br />
Jumbo 2 for 1 Pizza, jumbo hot dog, Super Size<br />
meal, Super Big Gulp, Meat’Normous Omelet<br />
Sandwich. Jumboism materialized as an entire<br />
genre <strong>of</strong> “all-you-can-eat” restaurants unique to<br />
the cont<strong>in</strong>ent (the most un<strong>in</strong>tentionally depress<strong>in</strong>g<br />
slogan be<strong>in</strong>g attached to the Golden Corral<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>: “Help Yourself to Happ<strong>in</strong>ess”). We see it <strong>in</strong><br />
the brand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> box stores and bulk retailers like<br />
Costco, Big Lots and the Direct Buy Club that<br />
promise the consumer economies <strong>of</strong> scale but<br />
actually burden them with the costs <strong>of</strong><br />
transport<strong>in</strong>g, stor<strong>in</strong>g and f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ventory that<br />
supermarkets and department stores once<br />
bankrolled. Those patterns were <strong>in</strong> turn facilitated<br />
by the public’s desire for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly large<br />
vehicles (remember the Hummer?) to carry<br />
warehouse shopp<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>ds to spacious “monster<br />
houses,” all <strong>of</strong> it f<strong>in</strong>anced by “jumbo loans.”<br />
(Figure 6)<br />
Eagles, beavers, elk, bison, coyotes and<br />
other symbolic species aside, the African bull<br />
elephant—the Jumbo elephant—has been the<br />
iconic animal <strong>of</strong> North American capitalism.<br />
Unlike the fictionalized and essentialized animal<br />
figures that represent human feel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
for cellular companies, zoos, foods, animated<br />
films and countless other products, services and<br />
experiences, jumbo advertises the overarch<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ideal by which consumption has constantly<br />
expanded. Although embraced sporadically<br />
across the population, the ethos <strong>of</strong> jumbo has<br />
been grounded <strong>in</strong> a simple but very old idea: if<br />
93<br />
Fig. 6.<br />
Asian elephant as stand <strong>in</strong> for jumbo as suddenly precarious<br />
product design concept, 2010. Image courtesy <strong>of</strong> Diamond<br />
Fund<strong>in</strong>g Corporation.<br />
some is good, more must be better; North<br />
Americans should have the most, and it will be<br />
easy. S<strong>in</strong>ce Jumbo’s day, images and stories<br />
extracted from events around his life seem to<br />
have had a mysterious power to communicate<br />
manifestly fraudulent claims with a sense <strong>of</strong><br />
authenticity that have made them seem<br />
normative and comfort<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> puzzle and power<br />
<strong>of</strong> jumbo as advertis<strong>in</strong>g trope is that this effect did<br />
not fade as the generations passed. Today he still<br />
naturalizes the most unsusta<strong>in</strong>able consumer<br />
desires and habits.<br />
Notes<br />
[i] “<strong>The</strong> Great African Elephant Jumbo,” Strobridge Lithograph Co., 1882, Tibbals<br />
Digital Collection, John and Mable R<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g Museum <strong>of</strong> Art, retrieved May 2,<br />
2011;<br />
http://emuseum.r<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g.org/emuseum/view/objects/asitem/search$0040/4/title<br />
-asc?t:state:flow=9dc5b092-f73d-4076-ada6-c44123d3e916; “Barnum &<br />
London: 8 United Monster Shows,” 1883, C-131a, Circus Poster Collection,<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>ceton University Library, Pr<strong>in</strong>ceton, NJ.<br />
[ii] “Jumbo,” Harper’s Weekly, April 1, 1882.<br />
[iii] “Barnum & London: Jumbo,” Strobridge Lithograph Co., 1882, Tibbals Digital<br />
Collection, John and Mable R<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g Museum <strong>of</strong> Art, retrieved May 2, 2011,<br />
http://emuseum.r<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g.org/emuseum/view/objects/asitem/search$0040/1/title<br />
-asc?t:state:flow=04cd6684-1e6b-4674-8c76-74dfb893acc5.<br />
[iv] “History <strong>of</strong> the Collection – Funny Folks,” British Comics Collection, British<br />
Library, retrieved April 17, 2011,<br />
http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/f<strong>in</strong>dhelprestype/news/britcomics/.<br />
[v] “Barnum and His Elephant Jumba (sic.),” New York Times, February 24, 1882.<br />
[vi] <strong>The</strong> Willamantic trade card is reproduced <strong>in</strong> Deborah Walk, Jennifer Lemmer<br />
and Marcy Murray, “Colorful Circus Paper Traces the Spread <strong>of</strong><br />
‘Jumbomania’,” Ephemera Society Articles, retrieved March 21, 2011,<br />
http://www.ephemerasociety.org/articles.html.<br />
[vii] Clark’s O.N.T. Spool Cotton Jumbo trade card series by Buek and L<strong>in</strong>dner<br />
Lithograph, 1883, Historical Collections, Baker Library, Harvard Bus<strong>in</strong>ess School,<br />
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, retrieved March 27, 2011,<br />
http://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/19th_century_tcard/. <strong>The</strong> full series can be<br />
viewed at http://www.tradecards.com/articles/jumboBL/<strong>in</strong>dex.html.<br />
[viii] “Jumbo Billiard and Pool Balls,” Puck, June 27, 1883.
[ix] “A Few L<strong>in</strong>es,” Review <strong>of</strong> Reviews 4 (1891): 289; Henry <strong>The</strong>ophilus<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ck, Songs and Songwriters (New York: C. Scribner’s Sons, 1900), 28.<br />
[x] “<strong>Journal</strong>ism,” <strong>The</strong> Spectator 114 (June 12, 1915): 805.<br />
[xi] F<strong>in</strong>ck, Songs and Songwriters, 19.<br />
[xii] “Jumbomania,” Littell’s Liv<strong>in</strong>g Age 287 (1915): 187<br />
[xiii] “An American Dream Timel<strong>in</strong>e,” Vanity Fair, March 13, 2009, retrieved May<br />
2, 2011, http://www.vanityfair.com/onl<strong>in</strong>e/daily/2009/03/an-american-dreamtimel<strong>in</strong>e.html.<br />
[xiv] http://www.elephant.se/database.php.<br />
[xv] “Levi’s,” Ho<strong>of</strong>s & Horns 43, no. 3 (September 1948): 21.<br />
[xvi] John Wanamaker Department Stores, Housewares for<br />
Homemakers (Philadelphia: Whipple & Kelley, 1955), 13; Official Yearbook <strong>of</strong><br />
the Miss America Pageant, 1963, 31, Miss America Programs Collection. Both<br />
these sources reside <strong>in</strong> the Digital Archives <strong>of</strong> the Hagley Library and Museum,<br />
Greenville, DE, http://digital.hagley.org/.<br />
[xvii]<br />
For a sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> such advertis<strong>in</strong>g see<br />
http://www.advertis<strong>in</strong>garchives.co.uk/.<br />
[xviii] At least five books by different authors bear the title Affluenza. Juliet<br />
Schor, <strong>The</strong> Overspent American: Why We Want What We Don’t Need (New York:<br />
Harper Perennial, 1999).<br />
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Rowell, George P. 1870. <strong>The</strong> Men Who Advertise: An Account <strong>of</strong> Successful<br />
Advertisers, Together with H<strong>in</strong>ts on the Method <strong>of</strong> Advertis<strong>in</strong>g. New York: Nelson<br />
Chesman.<br />
Rub<strong>in</strong>, Barry and Judith Colp Rub<strong>in</strong>. 2005. Hat<strong>in</strong>g America: A History. New York:<br />
Oxford University Press.<br />
Saxon, Arthur H. 1995. P. T. Barnum: <strong>The</strong> Legend and the Man. 1989; repr. New<br />
York: Columbia University Press.<br />
Shuk<strong>in</strong>, Nicole. 2009. Animal Capital: Render<strong>in</strong>g Life <strong>in</strong> Biopolitical Times.<br />
M<strong>in</strong>neapolis: University <strong>of</strong> M<strong>in</strong>nesota Press.<br />
Somk<strong>in</strong>, Fred. 1967. Unquiet Eagle: Memory and Desire <strong>in</strong> the Idea <strong>of</strong><br />
American Freedom, 1815-1860. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.<br />
Stokes, John. 2004. “‘Lion’s Griefs’: <strong>The</strong> Wild Animal Act as <strong>The</strong>atre” <strong>in</strong> New<br />
<strong>The</strong>atre Quarterly Vol. 20, No. 2, 138-54<br />
Twitchell, James B. 2000. Twenty Ads That Shook the World: <strong>The</strong> Century’s Most<br />
Groundbreak<strong>in</strong>g Advertis<strong>in</strong>g and How It Changed Us All. New York: Three Rivers<br />
Press.<br />
Tungate, Mark. 2007. Adland: A Global History <strong>of</strong> Advertis<strong>in</strong>g. London: Kogan<br />
Page.<br />
Weeks, William Earl. 1994. “American Nationalism, American Imperialism: An<br />
Interpretation <strong>of</strong> United States Political Economy, 1789-1861” <strong>in</strong> <strong>Journal</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Early Republic Vol. 14, No. 4, 485-95.<br />
Wylie, Dan. 2008. Elephant. London: Reaktion.<br />
Susan Nance is a historian <strong>of</strong> communication and live<br />
enterta<strong>in</strong>ment. She is Associate Pr<strong>of</strong>essor at the University <strong>of</strong> Guelph<br />
<strong>in</strong> Guelph, Ontario and affiliated faculty <strong>of</strong> the Campbell Centre for<br />
the Study <strong>of</strong> Animal Welfare. She received her Ph.D. from UC<br />
Berkeley <strong>in</strong> 2003 and has s<strong>in</strong>ce published on the histories <strong>of</strong> parades,<br />
civic festivals and the bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> tourism, as well as a book, How the<br />
Arabian Nights Inspired the American Dream, 1790-1935 (University<br />
<strong>of</strong> North Carol<strong>in</strong>a Press, 2009), document<strong>in</strong>g uses <strong>of</strong> Eastern<br />
personae <strong>in</strong> amateur and pr<strong>of</strong>essional enterta<strong>in</strong>ment. Susan's most<br />
recent work, Enterta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Elephants: Animal Agency and Bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong><br />
the American Circus (<strong>The</strong> Johns Hopk<strong>in</strong>s University Press, 2013)<br />
documents the lives and labors <strong>of</strong> 19th-century circus elephants.<br />
She is currently work<strong>in</strong>g on the nature <strong>of</strong> animal celebrity as well as a<br />
book-length history <strong>of</strong> rodeo animals <strong>in</strong> North America.
T<br />
his ad for Armstrong tires depicts a burly,<br />
brash rh<strong>in</strong>oceros slouch<strong>in</strong>g somewhat<br />
taunt<strong>in</strong>gly, hat askew, and cigar <strong>in</strong> hand. He<br />
looks like a Hollywood gangster. “Really,” the<br />
rh<strong>in</strong>oceros seems to say, “you’re go<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
question my toughness?”<br />
<strong>The</strong> slogan “None Tougher” appears as the<br />
headl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the ad, <strong>in</strong>tended to sell durable tires<br />
to American consumers. Armstrong’s advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
strategy meshes a presumed toughness <strong>of</strong><br />
rh<strong>in</strong>oceros sk<strong>in</strong> with an imag<strong>in</strong>ed toughness <strong>of</strong><br />
rh<strong>in</strong>oceros personality. Yet the imag<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
“personality” <strong>of</strong> this rh<strong>in</strong>oceros has more to do with<br />
a stereotype <strong>of</strong> a car salesman or auto<br />
mechanic than <strong>of</strong> actual rh<strong>in</strong>oceroses. He is<br />
made human through bipedalism, clotheswear<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
and cigar-smok<strong>in</strong>g. This is, <strong>in</strong> fact, a very<br />
human version <strong>of</strong> toughness; it says noth<strong>in</strong>g about<br />
the natural traits <strong>of</strong> rh<strong>in</strong>oceroses that might make<br />
them good examples <strong>of</strong> robustness.<br />
Armstrong’s advertisement is sell<strong>in</strong>g both<br />
nature and artifice. First, the product itself, Rh<strong>in</strong>o-<br />
Flex tires, are constructed from rubber. Rubber is<br />
a natural product, though it is likely that Armstrong<br />
also used artificial <strong>in</strong>gredients available at the<br />
time, perhaps even artificial rubber. While they<br />
make no claims to the tires’ composition, they<br />
use a second natural product as a sales pitch:<br />
rh<strong>in</strong>oceros sk<strong>in</strong>. <strong>The</strong> tires are not made from rh<strong>in</strong>o<br />
sk<strong>in</strong> nor, as far as we can tell, do they directly<br />
95<br />
NONE TOUGHER<br />
Rh<strong>in</strong>oceroses are rarely anthropomorphized mak<strong>in</strong>g this American magaz<strong>in</strong>e advertisement from the 1950s an<br />
unusual specimen. Armstrong, a rubber and tire company, found the tough exterior <strong>of</strong> rh<strong>in</strong>oceroses the prime<br />
comparison for its most durable automobile tires, dubbed “Rh<strong>in</strong>o-Flex.”<br />
Text by Kelly Enright<br />
mimic (as today’s biomimicry might) its<br />
construction. <strong>The</strong> comparison is presumptuous.<br />
Yet Armstrong’s illustrator makes the po<strong>in</strong>t. Look at<br />
the tires l<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> a neat row <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly deep,<br />
rugged traction. <strong>The</strong>n move your eye to the right<br />
hip <strong>of</strong> the rh<strong>in</strong>oceros. His sk<strong>in</strong> is pocked and<br />
wr<strong>in</strong>kled and has warts that visually resembles the<br />
most rugged <strong>of</strong> the tires (the one at far right). Here<br />
is the image <strong>of</strong> rh<strong>in</strong>o toughness the consumer is<br />
meant to buy—figuratively and literally.<br />
While this gangster rh<strong>in</strong>o appears as a<br />
character <strong>in</strong> several ads, Armstrong’s logo for<br />
Rh<strong>in</strong>o-Flex tires is the smaller rh<strong>in</strong>oceros seen on<br />
the top <strong>of</strong> the tire rack. Represented here is a<br />
comparatively younger, more jubilant member <strong>of</strong><br />
the species. It is engaged <strong>in</strong> a carefree jaunt, its<br />
tail bounc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the breeze, its mouth turned<br />
slightly upwards <strong>in</strong> a smile. This rh<strong>in</strong>o, known as<br />
“Tuffy,” appeared pr<strong>in</strong>ted on several market<strong>in</strong>g<br />
products such as ashtrays, paperweights, and<br />
patches, and despite its name hardly conveys<br />
toughness. <strong>The</strong> fiction <strong>of</strong> the ad creates a world <strong>in</strong><br />
which a rh<strong>in</strong>o salesman uses another rh<strong>in</strong>o image<br />
to sell tires. Tuffy is a rh<strong>in</strong>oceros representation<br />
with<strong>in</strong> a world <strong>of</strong> personified rh<strong>in</strong>oceroses. Is the<br />
larger one the real rh<strong>in</strong>o? Or is the logo?<br />
And which is really sell<strong>in</strong>g the tires? While<br />
the tough rh<strong>in</strong>o glares at the viewer, Tuffy, smiles.<br />
From toughy to Tuffy, the admen cover all their<br />
bases. <strong>The</strong>y convey the durability <strong>of</strong> Rh<strong>in</strong>o-
Keith Ward<br />
Armstrong Rh<strong>in</strong>o-Flex Tires, 1953<br />
Flex tires and employ a charismatic image <strong>of</strong> an<br />
animal to ensure likeability.<br />
So where is the animal <strong>in</strong> this animal ad?<br />
Why not just depict a real rh<strong>in</strong>o look<strong>in</strong>g as if he<br />
were about to charge the viewer? Would that not<br />
convey toughness? Perhaps Armstrong could not<br />
commit to a realistic rh<strong>in</strong>oceros representation<br />
because it would be too real. <strong>The</strong> destruction <strong>of</strong><br />
rh<strong>in</strong>oceros habitat, <strong>in</strong> part for rubber plantations,<br />
96<br />
decreased rh<strong>in</strong>o numbers throughout the<br />
twentieth century.[i] Thus, Armstrong had to<br />
separate product from its place <strong>of</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>. <strong>The</strong><br />
rh<strong>in</strong>o image, perhaps unwitt<strong>in</strong>gly, is both tribute<br />
and façade. By not show<strong>in</strong>g anyth<strong>in</strong>g resembl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a real rh<strong>in</strong>o, consumers disassociate product and<br />
place. Yet the product itself is a tribute to the<br />
genius <strong>of</strong> nature, want<strong>in</strong>g to replicate the sk<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> a<br />
rh<strong>in</strong>o as <strong>in</strong>dustrial product.
Referr<strong>in</strong>g to real rh<strong>in</strong>os might have also forced<br />
Armstrong to confront the actual vulnerability <strong>of</strong><br />
the species. Rh<strong>in</strong>oceroses may have tough sk<strong>in</strong><br />
and confrontational attitudes (though their<br />
charges are usually bluffs), but they are<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly unable to survive <strong>in</strong> the wild. <strong>The</strong>y are<br />
extremely susceptible to environmental changes,<br />
breed slowly, and despite legal protections suffer<br />
from excessive poach<strong>in</strong>g. What is most strik<strong>in</strong>g<br />
about this advertisement is that it promises traits-longevity,<br />
durability--that rh<strong>in</strong>os, <strong>in</strong> fact, do not<br />
possess. <strong>The</strong> irony is further evident <strong>in</strong> the ad’s<br />
subtitle: “unconditionally guaranteed!” What can<br />
a vulnerable animal guarantee? <strong>The</strong> ad is ripe<br />
with denial about the destructive relationship<br />
between nature and technology.<br />
Notes<br />
[i] D<strong>in</strong>erste<strong>in</strong>, Eric 2003. <strong>The</strong> Return <strong>of</strong> the Unicorns: <strong>The</strong> Natural History<br />
and Conservation <strong>of</strong> the Greater One-Horned Rh<strong>in</strong>oceros. New York:<br />
Columbia University Press and Mart<strong>in</strong>, Esmond and Chryssee Bradley<br />
1981. Run Rh<strong>in</strong>o Run. London: Chatto & W<strong>in</strong>dus.<br />
Kelly Enright is the author <strong>of</strong><strong>The</strong> Maximum <strong>of</strong> Wilderness: <strong>The</strong> Jungle <strong>in</strong><br />
the American Imag<strong>in</strong>ation, Osa & Mart<strong>in</strong>: For the Love <strong>of</strong> Adventure,<br />
and Rh<strong>in</strong>oceros. She has a doctorate <strong>in</strong> American history and a<br />
master’s <strong>in</strong> museum anthropology. Her work focuses on portrayals <strong>of</strong><br />
nature <strong>in</strong> American culture, human-animal relationships, museums,<br />
explorations, and travels.<br />
97
B ad Marriage, Quick Divorce.<br />
<strong>The</strong> above subtitle from a paper by Marc Sag<strong>of</strong>f<br />
(1984) summarizes the state, then and now, <strong>of</strong><br />
the relationship between the animal rights<br />
community and those concerned with the<br />
recovery and protection <strong>of</strong> endangered species.<br />
Accusations <strong>of</strong> flawed views and unreasonable<br />
behaviour flow both ways, reflect<strong>in</strong>g seem<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
irreconcilable values and ways <strong>of</strong> see<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Different Worlds<br />
For the biologist <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> wildlife and habitat<br />
conservation, animal rights advocates are<br />
irresponsible, s<strong>in</strong>gle issue activists who have failed<br />
to take on the issue <strong>of</strong> species ext<strong>in</strong>ction and who<br />
embark on emotionally driven activities without<br />
due consideration <strong>of</strong> their consequences. For<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, the “liberation” <strong>of</strong> thousands <strong>of</strong> farmed<br />
animals (such as m<strong>in</strong>k) contributes to the already<br />
precipitous decl<strong>in</strong>e to near ext<strong>in</strong>ction <strong>of</strong> native<br />
species. Almost total opposition to captive<br />
breed<strong>in</strong>g and scientific research on animals<br />
harms, <strong>in</strong> the long run, the chances <strong>of</strong> species<br />
FROM ANIMAL RIGHTS AND<br />
SHOCK ADVOCACY TO<br />
KINSHIP WITH ANIMALS<br />
<strong>The</strong> visual cultures manifested <strong>in</strong> the advertis<strong>in</strong>g and communication activities <strong>of</strong> animal rights activists and those<br />
concerned with the conservation <strong>of</strong> species may be counter-productive, creat<strong>in</strong>g an ever-<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g cultural<br />
distance between the human and the animal. By cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g to position animals as subjugated, exploitable others,<br />
or as creatures that belong <strong>in</strong> a romanticized ‘nature’ separate from the human, communications campaigns may<br />
achieve effects that are contrary to those desired. <strong>The</strong> unashamed, cheaply voyeuristic nature <strong>of</strong> shock imagery<br />
may w<strong>in</strong> headl<strong>in</strong>es while worsen<strong>in</strong>g the overall position <strong>of</strong> the animal <strong>in</strong> human culture. We <strong>of</strong>fer an alternative<br />
way <strong>of</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g about visual communication concern<strong>in</strong>g animals – one that is focused on enhanc<strong>in</strong>g a sense <strong>of</strong><br />
k<strong>in</strong>ship with animals. Based on empirical evidence, we suggest that cont<strong>in</strong>ued progress both <strong>in</strong> conservation and<br />
<strong>in</strong> animal rights does not depend on cont<strong>in</strong>ued castigation <strong>of</strong> the human but rather on embedd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> our cultures<br />
the type <strong>of</strong> human-animal relationship on which positive change can be built.<br />
Text by Joe Zammit-Lucia and L<strong>in</strong>da Kal<strong>of</strong><br />
98<br />
survival. <strong>The</strong> animal rights focus on sentience as<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> criterion for award<strong>in</strong>g rights to animals<br />
leads to the follow<strong>in</strong>g position: “What the rights<br />
view denies, at least <strong>in</strong> its current articulation, is<br />
that plants and <strong>in</strong>sects are ‘subjects-<strong>of</strong>-a-life;’ and<br />
it denies as well that these forms <strong>of</strong> life have been<br />
shown to have any rights, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a right to<br />
survival” (Regan 2004, xl) – a position that is<br />
anathema to the conservation biologist and the<br />
environmental philosopher.<br />
For the animal rights advocate, on the<br />
other hand, conservationists are more concerned<br />
with science and with abstract technical<br />
concepts such as “species” and “ecosystems”<br />
than they are with the actual animals. <strong>The</strong><br />
keep<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> captivity, the chas<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
sedat<strong>in</strong>g, tagg<strong>in</strong>g, biopsy-<strong>in</strong>g and constant<br />
study<strong>in</strong>g, monitor<strong>in</strong>g and otherwise harass<strong>in</strong>g<br />
animals <strong>in</strong> the wild causes pa<strong>in</strong> and suffer<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
subord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g the very real everyday lives <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual animals to <strong>in</strong>tangible and uncerta<strong>in</strong><br />
species and ecosystem benefit – not to mention<br />
that a significant proportion <strong>of</strong> studies are <strong>of</strong><br />
doubtful benefit to the animals themselves, but<br />
rather serve either to feed the publication<br />
requirements <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>volved researchers or the
perpetuation <strong>of</strong> the self image <strong>of</strong> the<br />
conservation biologist as <strong>in</strong>trepid field explorer.<br />
<strong>The</strong> sanctioned cull<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>terests<br />
<strong>of</strong> preserv<strong>in</strong>g “ecosystem <strong>in</strong>tegrity” is difficult to<br />
reconcile with the rights view. <strong>The</strong> animal rightist<br />
would also argue that beyond abstract and farfrom-conv<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g<br />
arguments, the wildlife<br />
conservation community has, to date, failed to<br />
come up with persuasive ethical and<br />
philosophical underp<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>gs for the preservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> endangered species. Absent such<br />
underp<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>gs, it is unacceptable to subord<strong>in</strong>ate<br />
the rights <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual animals to abstract and<br />
<strong>in</strong>tangible concepts.<br />
Our aim <strong>in</strong> this paper is not to enter <strong>in</strong>to, or<br />
take sides <strong>in</strong>, the above debate. Rather, our<br />
<strong>in</strong>tention is to show that, <strong>in</strong> spite <strong>of</strong> fundamentally<br />
different underly<strong>in</strong>g values, there are similarities <strong>in</strong><br />
the visual cultures <strong>of</strong> animal rights activists and<br />
those concerned with the preservation <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
species and spaces, and that, <strong>in</strong> both cases,<br />
those visual cultures may be counterproductive to<br />
their goals <strong>of</strong> persuasion. Based on the results <strong>of</strong> a<br />
study <strong>of</strong> animal imagery, we <strong>of</strong>fer an alternative<br />
approach to visual communication that, we<br />
believe, can have important positive implications<br />
for human-animal relationships to the benefit <strong>of</strong><br />
both animal rights advocacy and endangered<br />
species preservation and recovery.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Human vs. <strong>The</strong> Animal<br />
<strong>The</strong> narratives and visual cultures <strong>of</strong> animal rights<br />
groups and wildlife conservation groups reveal<br />
similar attitudes about the relationship between<br />
humans and other animals. Much <strong>of</strong> the visual<br />
99<br />
language adopted by animal rights groups<br />
highlights the sorry plight <strong>of</strong> the animal at the<br />
hands <strong>of</strong> the human. Images are largely<br />
designed to be distress<strong>in</strong>g to the viewer and to<br />
engender support through a comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong><br />
outrage and guilt. This is a visual culture that<br />
Fig. 1. <strong>The</strong> Humane Society International<br />
Seal slaughter. Image courtesy <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong> Humane Society<br />
International<br />
Fig. 2. & 3.<br />
Human destruction <strong>of</strong> Indonesian forests as the cause <strong>of</strong> orphan<strong>in</strong>g orangutans and lead<strong>in</strong>g to their decl<strong>in</strong>e towards ext<strong>in</strong>ction. Left: Photography by<br />
David Gilbert, Ra<strong>in</strong>forest Action Network (Creative Commons). Right: Photography by Lam Thuy Vo (Creative Commons)
Fig. 4. Joe Zammit-Lucia<br />
I Am Series #1, photography, 2007 Joe Zammit-Lucia<br />
creates a divisive dichotomy – and a distance –<br />
between the Human and the Animal: the Human<br />
as the callous aggressor; the Animal as the<br />
helpless victim.<br />
A similar set <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples governs the<br />
conservationist’s visual culture. Here the Animal<br />
occupies an idyllically untamed space – the<br />
animal “runn<strong>in</strong>g free <strong>in</strong> our imag<strong>in</strong>ary and<br />
mythical wild” (Baker 1993, 294). This is part <strong>of</strong> a<br />
romanticized vision <strong>of</strong> a “<strong>Nature</strong>” that is separate<br />
from <strong>Culture</strong>, with the<br />
Human as the <strong>in</strong>truder, aggressor and destroyer<br />
<strong>of</strong> spaces and species that need to be<br />
protected.<br />
While com<strong>in</strong>g at the issues from almost<br />
opposite poles, the animal rights and the wildlife<br />
conservation movements end up <strong>in</strong> essentially<br />
the same place. <strong>The</strong> animal is portrayed as<br />
someth<strong>in</strong>g separate and distant from the human<br />
– <strong>in</strong> one case separate as a captive or<br />
persecuted victim, <strong>in</strong> the other, separate as part<br />
<strong>of</strong> a romanticised nature – and, <strong>in</strong> both cases, a<br />
casualty <strong>of</strong> an undesirable human disposition and<br />
reprehensible human activity.<br />
100<br />
Is this visual culture the optimal way to encourage<br />
the sort <strong>of</strong> human-animal relationships that might<br />
lead to altered human behaviours that br<strong>in</strong>g<br />
unnecessary pa<strong>in</strong> and suffer<strong>in</strong>g to other animals?<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g Animal Portraiture<br />
To address this question, we exam<strong>in</strong>ed a different<br />
approach to animal representation and the<br />
impact that approach has on viewers. “Animal<br />
Portraiture” is a broad term that can cover a<br />
multitude <strong>of</strong> artistic approaches, each hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
potentially different effects on viewers. We<br />
evaluated the specific approach taken to animal<br />
portraiture by photographic artist Joe Zammit-<br />
Lucia. Zammit-Lucia explores the use <strong>of</strong> animal<br />
portraits to exam<strong>in</strong>e the human ability to see<br />
animals as <strong>in</strong>dividuals with character and<br />
personality, rather than as generic specimens <strong>of</strong><br />
species (see also Zammit-Lucia 2008a). Rather<br />
than traditional animal imagery, the artist uses, as<br />
his start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t, the techniques <strong>of</strong> classical<br />
human studio portraiture and applies them to<br />
animals.
<strong>The</strong> Human Portrait<br />
Portraiture is deeply embedded <strong>in</strong> human culture.<br />
When view<strong>in</strong>g a human portrait, we reflexively<br />
project imag<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> personality onto the subject<br />
portrayed. We “see” characteristics like wisdom,<br />
vulnerability, power, glamour, and so forth,<br />
depend<strong>in</strong>g on the particular portrait. <strong>The</strong> portrait<br />
has been used over the ages as a powerful<br />
propaganda tool. From the sculpted portraits <strong>of</strong><br />
Roman emperors, to the recent, and now<br />
<strong>in</strong>famous, Shepard Fairey/Associated Press “Hope”<br />
image <strong>of</strong> presidential candidate Barack Obama,<br />
the portrait has been used to create strong,<br />
positive images <strong>of</strong> the subject portrayed. In<br />
achiev<strong>in</strong>g such positive projections, the physical<br />
likeness <strong>of</strong> the portrait to the subject is a small<br />
and largely <strong>in</strong>significant part <strong>of</strong> the whole. Rather<br />
it is the overall form and content <strong>of</strong> the portrait<br />
that constitute the repository <strong>of</strong> the message<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g conveyed.<br />
For <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong> the Obama “Hope”<br />
poster, the message is largely conveyed by the<br />
overall composition <strong>of</strong> the image. <strong>The</strong> central<br />
position<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the portrait comb<strong>in</strong>es with the tilted<br />
stance <strong>of</strong> the face to create a diagonal<br />
composition that leads to a feel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> strength<br />
and dynamism (Condit, 2010). <strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong><br />
repeat<strong>in</strong>g blocks <strong>of</strong> red and blue not only<br />
heighten the diagonal composition, but are used<br />
to evoke the American flag and, <strong>in</strong> Fairey’s own<br />
words, “convey the idea <strong>of</strong> blue and red states,<br />
Democrats and Republicans, converg<strong>in</strong>g” (Fairey<br />
and Gross, 2009, p7).<br />
Context, on the other hand, conveys the<br />
message <strong>in</strong> Jacques-Louis David’s famous<br />
“Bonaparte Cross<strong>in</strong>g the Great St Bernard<br />
Pass.” Here Napoleon’s “greatness” is implied as<br />
he follows <strong>in</strong> the footsteps <strong>of</strong> Hannibal and<br />
Charlemagne - the unstoppable hero on a<br />
symbolic white horse (Welch, 2005).<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuality, or what Pope-Hennessy<br />
(1979) describes as “<strong>The</strong> Cult <strong>of</strong> Personality” that<br />
we read <strong>in</strong> a portrait, is not a result <strong>of</strong> physical<br />
likeness, but is transmitted through symbolism –<br />
be that symbolism conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> physiognomic<br />
codes and ciphers; <strong>in</strong> the carriage, bear<strong>in</strong>g or<br />
gestures <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dividual portrayed; or <strong>in</strong> the<br />
ancillary elements <strong>of</strong> dress, jewellery, context, or<br />
allegorical or other symbols.<br />
Animal Imagery<br />
Animal images can also create strong, positive<br />
values. For example, experimental work has<br />
established that animal “attractiveness” <strong>in</strong>creases<br />
101<br />
Fig. 5. Shepard Fairey<br />
Hope, 2008 Fairey/Garcia<br />
people’s support for protection and conservation.<br />
More support is expressed for large animals and<br />
those who resemble humans (Gunnthorsdottir<br />
2009). However, traditionally, “animal art” has<br />
been about humans not about animals. In large<br />
part, animals have been shown as symbolic<br />
icons, as decorative items, or as human<br />
companions. “Portraits” <strong>of</strong> companion animals or<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g animals provide a commentary on<br />
human achievement or human possession. In<br />
contemporary art, many artists are concerned<br />
with social commentary. Aga<strong>in</strong>, much <strong>of</strong> this<br />
engages with human behaviours <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />
animals, and with human social and cultural<br />
frameworks as they affect animals rather than with<br />
the essence <strong>of</strong> the animal.<br />
<strong>The</strong> animal becomes more central <strong>in</strong><br />
genres such as wildlife photography, wildlife<br />
illustration, and <strong>in</strong> art which is concerned with the<br />
natural world. Here the animal is predom<strong>in</strong>ant,<br />
but <strong>in</strong> a way that is detached from the human.<br />
Scientific illustration objectifies the animal as a<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> study, whereas wildlife photography,<br />
while glorify<strong>in</strong>g the animal, treats him as a
Fig. 6. Joe Zammit-Lucia<br />
#2, photography, 2008 Joe Zammit-Lucia<br />
specimen <strong>of</strong> species and, as we shall see later,<br />
places him or her <strong>in</strong> a “nature” that is separate<br />
from the human.<br />
Few artists depict animals as “specific<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals.” Instead they “use animals as<br />
metaphors or symbols for the human condition,<br />
or as generic signifiers for the natural world” (Watt<br />
2010, 77). In fact, “most forms <strong>of</strong> contemporary<br />
animal representation, whether or not <strong>in</strong> lensbased<br />
media, fail effectively to communicate an<br />
animal’s <strong>in</strong>dividuality, s<strong>in</strong>gularity or particularity”<br />
(Baker 2000, 179) [1] .<br />
Zammit-Lucia’s animal art focuses<br />
unashamedly on animals as unique <strong>in</strong>dividuals <strong>in</strong><br />
the same way as the human studio portrait<br />
focuses on the <strong>in</strong>dividual portrayed. <strong>The</strong> artist’s<br />
hypothesis is that our embedded, reflexive<br />
reaction to human portraiture can be turned to<br />
an advantage when used <strong>in</strong> animal<br />
representation. Focus<strong>in</strong>g largely on threatened or<br />
endangered species, the artist adopts a<br />
representational approach that (i) alters the<br />
context <strong>in</strong> which the animal is presented (i.e., a<br />
studio-like sett<strong>in</strong>g vs. <strong>in</strong> the wild or <strong>in</strong> a captive<br />
102<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>g), and (ii) frames the animal representation<br />
to mimic a human studio portrait (i.e., <strong>in</strong> a way<br />
that is culturally more <strong>of</strong>ten associated with<br />
human representation). <strong>The</strong> idea <strong>of</strong> animal<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuality <strong>in</strong> these images, therefore, does not<br />
depend exclusively (nor even primarily) on the<br />
representational form <strong>of</strong> the animal – the<br />
recognition <strong>of</strong> the specific features <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual animal – but rather on the<br />
appropriation <strong>of</strong> the general style <strong>of</strong> the human<br />
studio portrait and the impact <strong>of</strong> that style on the<br />
viewer’s spontaneous reactions to the imagery.<br />
This approach builds on the fundamentals <strong>of</strong><br />
human portraiture where, as we have discussed<br />
above, <strong>in</strong>dividuality, personality and status are not<br />
communicated through uniqueness <strong>of</strong> features,<br />
but through the overall form, composition,<br />
context, and other features <strong>of</strong> the complete<br />
portrait.<br />
Zammit-Lucia uses other devices to<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence the subject-viewer <strong>in</strong>teraction. Direct<br />
eye contact is common and can create a<br />
tension between the observed and the observer<br />
<strong>in</strong> the viewer-portrait <strong>in</strong>teraction. <strong>The</strong> subject’s
Fig. 7. Joe Zammit-Lucia<br />
Hunted, photography, 2008 Joe Zammit-Lucia<br />
stance is also chosen to allow viewers to project<br />
character and personality on the <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
animal portrayed, while the overall composition –<br />
central composition or, alternatively, the use <strong>of</strong><br />
large negative spaces – are used to enhance<br />
visual impact, substitut<strong>in</strong>g for the ancillary<br />
elements conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> human portraiture.<br />
A further important element dist<strong>in</strong>guishes<br />
animal portraiture from human portraiture: human<br />
portraiture suffers from a strong undercurrent <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>authenticity, driven by the fact that the subject<br />
tends to engage <strong>in</strong> a performance. As Roland<br />
Barthes (1981) puts it: “I do not stop imitat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
myself, and because <strong>of</strong> this, each time I am (or<br />
let myself be) photographed, I <strong>in</strong>variably suffer<br />
from a sensation <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>authenticity, sometimes <strong>of</strong><br />
imposture.” (p13-14). What has been variously<br />
described as “Fictions <strong>of</strong> the Pose” (Berger, 1994)<br />
or the “<strong>The</strong> <strong>The</strong>atre <strong>of</strong> the Face” (Kozl<strong>of</strong>f, 2007) is<br />
absent from the portrait <strong>of</strong> the animal. <strong>The</strong> animal<br />
is not complicit <strong>in</strong> the creation <strong>of</strong> his or her own<br />
image, thereby lend<strong>in</strong>g the portrait an<br />
unavoidable feel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> authenticity absent from<br />
the human portrait.<br />
103<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g this approach, Zammit-Lucia<br />
hypothesizes that such images emphasize the<br />
very animality <strong>of</strong> the subjects portrayed. <strong>The</strong><br />
imagery uses our own embedded cultural<br />
responses to human portraiture to enhance the<br />
viewer’s sense <strong>of</strong> k<strong>in</strong>ship with animals, while<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g respect for the animal for what he or<br />
she is (Zammit-Lucia 2008b). In his artist’s<br />
statement, Zammit-Lucia (2010) states:<br />
In creat<strong>in</strong>g images <strong>of</strong> animals, I have<br />
little <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> what the animal looks<br />
like; <strong>in</strong> the animal merely as observed<br />
object. Rather my <strong>in</strong>terest is <strong>in</strong> the<br />
deeper reality <strong>of</strong> what the animal<br />
might possibly be. Through these<br />
images, I am <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> explor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
questions: How do I feel <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />
this animal? Can I relate to this animal<br />
as an <strong>in</strong>dividual rather than as a mere<br />
specimen <strong>of</strong> species? And, more<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>gly, what could be the<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g this animal?
Fig. 8. Joe Zammit-Lucia<br />
Untitled, photography, 2010 Joe Zammit-Lucia<br />
Does it Work?<br />
We were <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> test<strong>in</strong>g whether the artist’s<br />
hypotheses were borne out when viewers<br />
<strong>in</strong>teracted with these animal portraits. While<br />
animal visual imagery has been the focus <strong>of</strong> a<br />
substantial body <strong>of</strong> research, to our knowledge<br />
there are no studies that have collected<br />
empirical data on whether animal visual imagery<br />
has the potential to change cultural perceptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> animals. Indeed, given the widespread use <strong>of</strong><br />
visual material to persuade audiences to change<br />
attitudes and behaviours, it is surpris<strong>in</strong>g that there<br />
is a paucity <strong>of</strong> research on the impact <strong>of</strong> visual<br />
material on the public’s view <strong>of</strong> any s<strong>in</strong>gle issue<br />
(J<strong>of</strong>fe 2008). Our study was designed to fill some<br />
<strong>of</strong> the gap <strong>in</strong> our knowledge <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong><br />
animal imagery on viewers’ perceptions <strong>of</strong><br />
animals. We evaluated visitor experiences <strong>of</strong> the<br />
artist’s work mounted as an exhibit entitled Monde<br />
Sauvage: Regards et Emotions, which was<br />
displayed dur<strong>in</strong>g Fall 2008 and W<strong>in</strong>ter 2009 at the<br />
National Museum <strong>of</strong> Natural History <strong>in</strong> Paris,<br />
France. <strong>The</strong> detailed methodology and<br />
104<br />
approach to the study have been described<br />
elsewhere (Kal<strong>of</strong>, Zammit-Lucia and Kelly, 2011).<br />
Here we focus on the ma<strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs and their<br />
potential implications for animal rights and other<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> animal imagery.<br />
Our f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs showed that the widespread<br />
traditional imagery and methods <strong>of</strong><br />
communication about endangered species <strong>in</strong><br />
Western <strong>Culture</strong> do seem to convey the<br />
expected messages. Prior to view<strong>in</strong>g the animal<br />
portraiture exhibit, visitors def<strong>in</strong>ed animals<br />
primarily as wild, free and sometimes violent and<br />
dangerous creatures that are part <strong>of</strong> “<strong>Nature</strong>.”<br />
Pre-exhibit, the thematic cluster <strong>of</strong> “<strong>Nature</strong>,”<br />
“Wild/Free” and “Violence” accounted for 60% <strong>of</strong><br />
respondents’ overall perceptions <strong>of</strong> the Animal.<br />
After view<strong>in</strong>g the exhibit, visitors gave a<br />
different mean<strong>in</strong>g to the word “Animal”<br />
compared to the mean<strong>in</strong>gs they expressed<br />
before enter<strong>in</strong>g the exhibit. <strong>The</strong> biggest s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
change was seen <strong>in</strong> the significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the<br />
attribution <strong>of</strong> “Personality” to animals. However,<br />
the impact <strong>of</strong> this artwork was seem<strong>in</strong>gly much<br />
broader than the <strong>in</strong>creased attribution <strong>of</strong>
Fig. 9.<br />
Animal Portraiture Exhibit Flyer Image courtesy Muséum<br />
national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris<br />
.<br />
personality to the concept <strong>of</strong> “Animal.” We saw a<br />
wholesale shift from the Animal be<strong>in</strong>g perceived<br />
as someth<strong>in</strong>g wild, natural and hostile – and<br />
therefore separate from the Human – to a<br />
perception <strong>of</strong> closeness and k<strong>in</strong>ship between<br />
animal and human. Post-exhibit, the relevance to<br />
visitors <strong>of</strong> the thematic cluster <strong>of</strong> “<strong>Nature</strong>,”<br />
“Wild/Free” and “Violence” fell to 25% from the<br />
pre-exhibit level <strong>of</strong> 60%. Conversely, the<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> “Personality,” “K<strong>in</strong>ship” and<br />
“Vulnerable” now accounted for a full 75% <strong>of</strong> the<br />
aggregate <strong>in</strong>tensity scores (a measure <strong>of</strong> the<br />
depth and emotion <strong>in</strong> the visitors’ perception <strong>of</strong><br />
“Animal” based on the degree <strong>of</strong> elaboration and<br />
detail given <strong>in</strong> their response). <strong>The</strong>se changes<br />
suggest that the effect <strong>of</strong> the exhibit went beyond<br />
isolated changes <strong>in</strong> perceptions around <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
themes, to changes <strong>in</strong> the overall cultural<br />
perception <strong>of</strong> the Animal with possible<br />
implications for the nature <strong>of</strong> the relationship<br />
between the Human and the Animal.<br />
105<br />
Implications for Animal Rights and<br />
Conversation Imagery<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> endangered animals, we believe<br />
that, <strong>in</strong> the long run, it is counterproductive to<br />
perpetuate a visual culture that portrays animals<br />
as wild, free creatures who are part <strong>of</strong> a <strong>Nature</strong><br />
that is not only separate, but <strong>in</strong> conflict with<br />
human culture. We believe that this simply<br />
embeds the classical Cartesian dichotomy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
animal as <strong>in</strong>ferior “other,” creat<strong>in</strong>g a sense <strong>of</strong><br />
distance between the Human and the Animal – a<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> distance that is <strong>in</strong>creased further by the<br />
scientism that is so prevalent <strong>in</strong> the conservation<br />
culture.<br />
We suggest that this dualism between the<br />
Human and the Natural has no productive<br />
future. Successful conservation efforts can only<br />
be built on a greater sense <strong>of</strong> closeness and<br />
k<strong>in</strong>ship between the Human and the Animal (and<br />
the Natural) – a sense <strong>of</strong> k<strong>in</strong>ship that fosters<br />
support for expanded conservation efforts and<br />
sees such efforts <strong>in</strong> a positive cultural light, rather<br />
than as the result <strong>of</strong> the job-kill<strong>in</strong>g, economystifl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
efforts <strong>of</strong> an environmental lobby wedded<br />
to the politics <strong>of</strong> “No.”<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are similar questions to be<br />
considered <strong>in</strong> evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the long-term<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> the visual culture associated with<br />
animal rights. <strong>The</strong>re is little doubt that the heartrend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
images that form the staple diet <strong>of</strong><br />
animal rights groups represent effective fund<br />
rais<strong>in</strong>g fodder. Indeed, research has found that<br />
animal rights protestors are directly recruited to<br />
the animal rights agenda by moral shocks from<br />
visual imagery (Jasper and Poulsen 1995), and<br />
empirical work confirms that animal advocacy<br />
messages <strong>in</strong>tensify pre-exist<strong>in</strong>g dispositions toward<br />
animals and animal abusers (Scudder and Mills<br />
2009). Animal rights advocacy images are based<br />
on good versus evil, with clubbed baby seals and<br />
neurotic monkeys presented as the <strong>in</strong>nocent<br />
victims <strong>of</strong> evil. Victimized animals who are furry,<br />
whimper<strong>in</strong>g, cry<strong>in</strong>g, and spill<strong>in</strong>g red blood elicited<br />
more sympathy because viewers could more<br />
easily anthropomorphize them (Jasper 1997).<br />
Yet, animal rights organizations that use<br />
images <strong>of</strong> animal abuse <strong>in</strong> their own campaigns<br />
have also been critical <strong>of</strong> pictur<strong>in</strong>g animal<br />
suffer<strong>in</strong>g when they consider it gratuitous or when<br />
they do not feel that the context justifies it. In<br />
2008, the artist Adel Abdessemed exhibited a<br />
video that <strong>in</strong>cluded footage <strong>of</strong> six animals be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
bludgeoned to death with a sledgehammer on a<br />
farm <strong>in</strong> Mexico. His exhibition was closed down<br />
after protests from animal rights groups (Watt
2010). <strong>The</strong> web site for People for the Ethical<br />
Treatment <strong>of</strong> <strong>Animals</strong> (PETA) encourages people<br />
to take action aga<strong>in</strong>st portrayals <strong>of</strong> animal cruelty<br />
on the <strong>in</strong>ternet, but makes a clear dist<strong>in</strong>ction<br />
between animal cruelty imagery that is<br />
“educational, depict<strong>in</strong>g the cruel beh<strong>in</strong>d-thescenes<br />
reality <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustries that thrive on animal<br />
exploitation and abuse” and “(o)ther sources<br />
(that) are merely depict<strong>in</strong>g cruelty for shock<br />
value” (PETA, 2011). When is shock advocacy<br />
legitimately “educational?” When does art that<br />
depicts animal cruelty as part <strong>of</strong> its social<br />
commentary become simply gratuitous? Surely it<br />
is not simply a question <strong>of</strong> who is do<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
dissem<strong>in</strong>ation that determ<strong>in</strong>es the acceptability<br />
<strong>of</strong> shock imagery.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is no doubt that pictur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
suffer<strong>in</strong>g animal has legitimacy as part <strong>of</strong> what<br />
we might call <strong>in</strong>vestigative journalism. Expos<strong>in</strong>g –<br />
and document<strong>in</strong>g – animal abuse must be an<br />
essential component <strong>of</strong> the work <strong>of</strong> animal rights<br />
organizations. But it is a big step from that to<br />
creat<strong>in</strong>g a visual monoculture <strong>of</strong> grisly imagery<br />
and justify<strong>in</strong>g its widespread dissem<strong>in</strong>ation as<br />
educational. What are the long-term effects <strong>of</strong><br />
these shock advocacy images on the cultural<br />
relationship between the human and the animal<br />
– particularly now that exposure to acts <strong>of</strong> animal<br />
cruelty has moved beyond the still image to the<br />
almost ubiquitously available graphic video? In<br />
the context <strong>of</strong> exhibit<strong>in</strong>g captive animals <strong>in</strong> a zoo<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>g, it has been argued that such a sett<strong>in</strong>g<br />
only serves to conv<strong>in</strong>ce visitors that humans<br />
106<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ate the natural world (Kellert, 1997) and<br />
substantiates “the dualism at the very orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
relation between man and animal” (Berger 1980,<br />
28). Is this effect also possible when we are<br />
bombarded with constant imagery show<strong>in</strong>g<br />
human dom<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> other contexts –<br />
such as images <strong>of</strong> factory farm<strong>in</strong>g, seal culls, or<br />
dog fight<strong>in</strong>g? Could these images serve to<br />
underm<strong>in</strong>e further the stand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong><br />
human culture by confirm<strong>in</strong>g them as the objects<br />
<strong>of</strong> human subjugation, enterta<strong>in</strong>ment and<br />
cruelty?<br />
It could be argued that generat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
shock<strong>in</strong>g visual imagery is the easy option. It takes<br />
little thought and gets attention – and sometimes<br />
headl<strong>in</strong>es – simply by its sheer awfulness. Yet it<br />
does so because <strong>of</strong> its unashamed, cheaply<br />
voyeuristic nature. To paraphrase Randy<br />
Malamud’s commentary about the zoo-go<strong>in</strong>g<br />
experience (1998), these images <strong>of</strong> animal<br />
abuse can be considered m<strong>in</strong>imally imag<strong>in</strong>ative,<br />
cheaply vicarious and <strong>in</strong>hibitive, rather than<br />
generative <strong>of</strong> a positive experience <strong>of</strong> the animal<br />
and its valued place <strong>in</strong> human culture. Further,<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to Sontag (2003, 109) “our capacity to<br />
respond to our experiences with emotional<br />
freshness and ethical pert<strong>in</strong>ence is be<strong>in</strong>g sapped<br />
by the relentless diffusion <strong>of</strong> vulgar and appall<strong>in</strong>g<br />
images.”<br />
It may be undeniable that outrage is an<br />
important element <strong>in</strong> the fight aga<strong>in</strong>st cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
cruelty to animals. But how does it work and for<br />
how long? Myers (2006) po<strong>in</strong>ts out that imagery,
Fig. 10.<br />
Animal farmed for his fur <strong>in</strong> Kemijärvi, F<strong>in</strong>land. This photograph was published by the F<strong>in</strong>nish animal rights organisation Oikeutta<br />
eläimille ("Justice for <strong>Animals</strong>") after an undercover <strong>in</strong>vestigation <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish fur farms (Source:<br />
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oikeutta_el%C3%A4imille_-_Fur_farm<strong>in</strong>g_<strong>in</strong>_F<strong>in</strong>land_02.jpg)<br />
Fig. 11.<br />
Sharks after F<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g (Source:<br />
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shark_f<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g.j<br />
pg)<br />
107<br />
Fig. 12.<br />
A baby monkey before be<strong>in</strong>g removed from the University <strong>of</strong><br />
California, Riverside (Source:<br />
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Britches.jpg)
.<br />
Fig. 13.<br />
Pig and piglets <strong>in</strong> a gestation crate (Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schwe<strong>in</strong>e-lsz61.jpg)<br />
Fig. 14.<br />
Elephant killed by poachers, Voi area, Kenya<br />
(Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Elephant0567.JPG)<br />
. Fig. 15.<br />
Edith, a chimpanzee born <strong>in</strong> the Sa<strong>in</strong>t Louis Zoo, found<br />
by a PETA <strong>in</strong>vestigator 37 years later <strong>in</strong> a roadside zoo<br />
<strong>in</strong> Texas called the Amarillo Wildlife Refuge<br />
(Source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edith,_PETA.jpg)<br />
108
particularly highly disturb<strong>in</strong>g imagery, is not<br />
immune to hav<strong>in</strong>g un<strong>in</strong>tended consequences.<br />
Such imagery may generate a form <strong>of</strong> mild posttraumatic<br />
stress disorder <strong>in</strong> viewers and evoke selfprotective<br />
responses. <strong>The</strong>se responses are both<br />
immediate (turn<strong>in</strong>g away, shutt<strong>in</strong>g the eyes, etc.)<br />
and long-term adaptation mechanisms that may<br />
<strong>in</strong>volve pre-emptive avoidance <strong>of</strong> such imagery<br />
as well as habituation to it. “(T)he “reality” <strong>of</strong> the<br />
image will count for noth<strong>in</strong>g if that reality seems<br />
too horrific to be countenanced” (Baker 2001,<br />
220). Further, at the emotional level, the effects <strong>of</strong><br />
such imagery become attenuated over time<br />
and/or, at the cultural level, the idea <strong>of</strong> violence<br />
may become normalized.<br />
Myers po<strong>in</strong>ts out that such imagery does<br />
not work on its own, but as part <strong>of</strong> a complex<br />
<strong>in</strong>teraction with people’s moral and cultural<br />
values. He suggests that “(e)ven ‘hard hitt<strong>in</strong>g’<br />
images need to be analyzed for their nuanced<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the context <strong>of</strong> the moral narrative that<br />
is constructed” (Myers 2007, 30). Absent such<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g, one may end up only appeal<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to those who are essentially already conv<strong>in</strong>ced.<br />
Conclusions<br />
Although animal rights groups and conservation<br />
groups are seem<strong>in</strong>gly at odds on many <strong>of</strong> their<br />
fundamental values, they display remarkable<br />
similarities <strong>in</strong> their visual cultures and narratives.<br />
Both display the animal as separate from, and a<br />
victim <strong>of</strong>, the human. In an attempt to ga<strong>in</strong><br />
attention through shock, outrage and guilt, visual<br />
imagery constantly re<strong>in</strong>forces the negative<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> human behaviour, and creates an<br />
ever-<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g cultural distance between the<br />
human and the animal.<br />
We believe that such approaches are, <strong>in</strong><br />
the long run, counterproductive as people adapt,<br />
tune out, or even accept, the portrayed<br />
negativity both emotionally and<br />
culturally. Worrisome trends <strong>in</strong> the direction <strong>of</strong><br />
cultural adaptation can already be seen. For<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, mobile platforms us<strong>in</strong>g the Android<br />
operat<strong>in</strong>g system have recently seen the release<br />
<strong>of</strong> KG Dogfight<strong>in</strong>g - a video game application<br />
that allows players to “feed, water, tra<strong>in</strong> and fight”<br />
their virtual dog aga<strong>in</strong>st other players (Android<br />
Market, 2011) [2] .<br />
We suggest that cont<strong>in</strong>ued progress both<br />
<strong>in</strong> conservation efforts and <strong>in</strong> animal rights<br />
advocacy does not depend on cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
castigation <strong>of</strong> the human, but rather on<br />
embedd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> our cultures the type <strong>of</strong> humananimal<br />
relationship on which positive change can<br />
be built. Rather than position<strong>in</strong>g animals as<br />
109<br />
subjugated, exploitable others, we believe that<br />
visual and narrative approaches that culturally<br />
position animals as our k<strong>in</strong>, while hav<strong>in</strong>g their own<br />
“personality” and their own visible worth based on<br />
their unique animality, are more likely to<br />
encourage the development <strong>of</strong> the sort <strong>of</strong><br />
human-animal relationships that could resolve<br />
some <strong>of</strong> our most devastat<strong>in</strong>g animal<br />
exploitations.<br />
This approach f<strong>in</strong>ds support <strong>in</strong> the<br />
philosophy literature. It has been suggested that<br />
humans have “nested communities” <strong>of</strong> relations<br />
to others, some <strong>of</strong> which are closer to us and<br />
some further away (Callicott 1992). An ethics <strong>of</strong><br />
care approach to this issue would suggest that it<br />
could be productive to explore ways that<br />
encourage humans to extend their more <strong>in</strong>timate<br />
circles <strong>of</strong> care outwards, develop<strong>in</strong>g greater<br />
k<strong>in</strong>ship with animals – be they farm animals or<br />
those who are threatened or endangered.<br />
“Appropriate” animal representation may be a<br />
valuable tool to achieve k<strong>in</strong>ship with animals with<br />
whom we cannot so easily develop a day to day<br />
relationship based on direct contact. A similar<br />
concept arises <strong>in</strong> Warwick Fox’s <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> General<br />
Ethics where, as part <strong>of</strong> a much broader theory <strong>of</strong><br />
ethics, he proposes that we have “an obligation<br />
to <strong>of</strong>fer sav<strong>in</strong>g help only to supersignificant and<br />
significant others” (Fox 2006, 3838). He <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
companion animals <strong>in</strong> these categories. While it is<br />
unlikely that we can elevate animals, other than<br />
companion animals, to the status <strong>of</strong> significant<br />
others, cultural constructs that emphasize<br />
concepts <strong>of</strong> personality, k<strong>in</strong>ship and vulnerability<br />
are more likely to move us <strong>in</strong> that direction than<br />
the more distanc<strong>in</strong>g concepts <strong>of</strong> the animal as a<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated, violated other, or as a wild, free and<br />
violent creature who belongs <strong>in</strong> a distant, nonhuman<br />
<strong>Nature</strong>.<br />
Some animal advocacy groups are<br />
mov<strong>in</strong>g away from, or try<strong>in</strong>g alternative<br />
approaches to, shock imagery as the bread-andbutter<br />
approach to highlight<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
communicat<strong>in</strong>g the very real issues <strong>in</strong> animal<br />
exploitation that need to be tackled. We could<br />
not f<strong>in</strong>d any shock imagery on the web site for the<br />
American Society for the Prevention <strong>of</strong> Cruelty to<br />
<strong>Animals</strong> (www.aspca.org). <strong>The</strong> web site for <strong>The</strong><br />
Humane Society <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong> United<br />
States (www.humanesociety.org) conta<strong>in</strong>s a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> sections clearly targeted at build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
positive relations with animals – though many <strong>of</strong><br />
these sections still conta<strong>in</strong> embedded videos <strong>of</strong><br />
animal abuse. PETA has for some time added a<br />
“glamour” approach to broadcast their animal<br />
advocacy messages – especially when these<br />
messages are targeted at younger audiences.
.<br />
Fig. 15.<br />
PETA anti-fur campaign (Image courtesy <strong>of</strong> People for the<br />
Ethical Treatment <strong>of</strong> <strong>Animals</strong>)<br />
We have shown that one particular<br />
approach to animal imagery has the potential to<br />
promote a shift <strong>in</strong> how the animal is perceived.<br />
Our aim is not to promote any one approach<br />
over others, but rather to use our f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs to raise<br />
questions about how different visual cultures may<br />
affect the human-animal relationship over the<br />
long term. We suggest that animal advocacy<br />
groups, like wildlife conservation groups, could<br />
usefully exam<strong>in</strong>e different approaches to their<br />
visual cultures and narratives. <strong>The</strong>re may be<br />
opportunities to create more productive<br />
approaches before the easy option <strong>of</strong> shock<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
voyeuristic imagery beats our audience <strong>in</strong>to<br />
numbness and runs out <strong>of</strong> steam, even as it<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ues to embed the Animal’s position as a<br />
subjugated, exploitable object <strong>in</strong> our society.<br />
Notes<br />
1 Baker also argues that the self-consciously serious post-modern<br />
artist may fear that attempts at <strong>in</strong>dividualiz<strong>in</strong>g the animal will be<br />
read as a sentimental over-<strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> the animal’s appearance,<br />
thereby underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the perceived “seriousness” <strong>of</strong> a piece <strong>of</strong> art<br />
based on rationality with a rather distasteful <strong>in</strong>dulgence <strong>in</strong> emotional<br />
content.<br />
110<br />
2<strong>The</strong> publishers <strong>of</strong> this application make the follow<strong>in</strong>g comments:<br />
“We are confident this game will be a net benefit to dogs as it has<br />
been <strong>in</strong> our operat<strong>in</strong>g agreement from the start <strong>of</strong> this project that a<br />
portion <strong>of</strong> the proceeds go to animal rescue organizations. Further,<br />
this is a satire about the ridiculousness <strong>of</strong> dog fight<strong>in</strong>g and we<br />
believe <strong>in</strong> the power <strong>of</strong> a modern media tool to educate and raise<br />
awareness <strong>of</strong> the real horrors.”<br />
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Anti-Nuclear Protests. Social Problems 42(4), 493-512.<br />
Kal<strong>of</strong>, L<strong>in</strong>da; Joe Zammit-Lucia and Jennifer Rebecca Kelly. 2011.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Animal Portraiture <strong>in</strong> a Museum Sett<strong>in</strong>g: Implications<br />
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www.jzlimages.com<br />
Dr Joe Zammit-Lucia is an artist, author and <strong>in</strong>dependent scholar.<br />
Work<strong>in</strong>g at the <strong>in</strong>tersection <strong>of</strong> many discipl<strong>in</strong>es he explore issues<br />
relat<strong>in</strong>g to the relationship between how we organize human<br />
societies and our <strong>in</strong>teraction with the non-human world around us. A<br />
widely recognized animal portrait artist, his work has been featured <strong>in</strong><br />
the lead<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>e art photography magaz<strong>in</strong>es worldwide and his<br />
exhibition <strong>of</strong> photographic art entitled “Experience, Personality,<br />
Emotion” is currently tour<strong>in</strong>g across museums and public exhibition<br />
spaces <strong>in</strong> Europe. He is the President <strong>of</strong> WOLFoundation.org, a<br />
member <strong>of</strong> the Dean’s Advisory Board at the College <strong>of</strong> Arts and<br />
Sciences, Florida International University, and has served as Special<br />
Adviser to the Director General <strong>of</strong> the International Union for<br />
Conservation <strong>of</strong> <strong>Nature</strong>. He is a Board Member <strong>of</strong> the African<br />
Ra<strong>in</strong>forest Conservancy and a Fellow <strong>of</strong> the Royal Society <strong>of</strong> Arts.<br />
L<strong>in</strong>da Kal<strong>of</strong> is Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Sociology and Found<strong>in</strong>g Director <strong>of</strong><br />
Michigan State University’s <strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary doctoral specialization <strong>in</strong><br />
Animal Studies (http://animalstudies.msu.edu). She has published<br />
widely <strong>in</strong> animal studies and currently edits <strong>The</strong> Oxford Handbook <strong>of</strong><br />
Animal Studies (Oxford University Press) and <strong>The</strong> Animal Turn<br />
(Michigan State University Press). She is serv<strong>in</strong>g a three year<br />
appo<strong>in</strong>tment to the National Academy <strong>of</strong> Sciences’ National<br />
Research Council Committee to review the US wild horse and burro<br />
management program, and is co-curator <strong>of</strong> Interspecies, an exhibit<br />
on cross-species cooperation at <strong>The</strong> Gallery Project, Ann Arbor, MI.<br />
111
T<br />
o be clear, a dog rescue centre did not<br />
make the advert, it was made by an<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g agency called Th<strong>in</strong>kbox who use<br />
Harvey as an example to demonstrate how<br />
powerful TV advertis<strong>in</strong>g can be.<br />
In the advert a young couple visit a dog<br />
rescue centre. <strong>The</strong>y look at each dog <strong>in</strong> turn<br />
112<br />
FAD OF THE YEAR<br />
At the end <strong>of</strong> 2010 one <strong>of</strong> the UK’s commercial television channels, ITV, selected twenty <strong>of</strong> the most popular TV<br />
adverts from the year and entered them <strong>in</strong> to their own competition to f<strong>in</strong>d the television ‘Ad <strong>of</strong> the Year’. <strong>The</strong><br />
w<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g advert was one featur<strong>in</strong>g a rescue dog called Harvey who is <strong>in</strong> kennels, hop<strong>in</strong>g somebody will come along<br />
and adopt him.<br />
Text by Natalie Gilbert<br />
Th<strong>in</strong>kbox<br />
Harvey, 2010 Th<strong>in</strong>kbox<br />
through the bars <strong>of</strong> their kennels, clearly look<strong>in</strong>g<br />
make a choice about which <strong>of</strong> them they will<br />
adopt as their pet and take home. <strong>The</strong>y reach<br />
Harvey’s kennel and the dog turns on a TV beh<strong>in</strong>d<br />
him to show them his own advert: <strong>in</strong> the advert he<br />
cooks, cleans, mows the lawn, washes the<br />
w<strong>in</strong>dows, collects the children from school,
Th<strong>in</strong>kbox<br />
Harvey, 2010 Th<strong>in</strong>kbox<br />
enterta<strong>in</strong>s them and tucks them <strong>in</strong> at night; he is<br />
also seen us<strong>in</strong>g the human loo. In essence,<br />
Harvey is the ‘perfect dog’ <strong>in</strong> the eyes <strong>of</strong> most<br />
domesticated households. His advert impresses<br />
the couple and he packs his bag ready to leave<br />
the kennels.<br />
<strong>The</strong> advert is <strong>of</strong> course meant to be light<br />
hearted and humorous, but its very existence tells<br />
a much deeper story about our relationship with<br />
dogs and the outcome <strong>of</strong> their domestication –<br />
the advert could not be a success if there were<br />
not a strong foundation to this story that engaged<br />
a TV view<strong>in</strong>g audience. Th<strong>in</strong>kbox has naturally<br />
chosen an animal and a situation to maximise<br />
impact and Harvey did just this: “Th<strong>in</strong>kbox’s TV ad<br />
has seen Th<strong>in</strong>kbox.tv traffic <strong>in</strong>crease by over<br />
400%, Harvey’s Facebook page attract over<br />
7,000 fans... It has also attracted over a million<br />
onl<strong>in</strong>e views follow<strong>in</strong>g 260 million broadcast TV<br />
views” (th<strong>in</strong>kbox.tv: 2010) and won the ‘Ad <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Year’ competition. It’s doubtful that a cockroach<br />
called Harvey could generate such an enormous<br />
surge <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest and likeability, or the tagl<strong>in</strong>e for<br />
the ad: ‘Every Home Needs a Harvey’.<br />
Harvey is the very idea <strong>of</strong> domesticated<br />
bliss between Man and Dog where the essence<br />
<strong>of</strong> domestication is to operate as part <strong>of</strong> a team.<br />
This “cooperative behavior” (Budiansky, 1992: 54)<br />
is merely a reflection <strong>of</strong> what happens <strong>in</strong> the wild:<br />
“In mixed-species flocks, such as<br />
the herds <strong>of</strong> giraffe, zebra, and<br />
wildebeest that are always graz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on African savannas <strong>in</strong> picture<br />
postcards and wildlife<br />
documentaries, the members <strong>of</strong><br />
the group ga<strong>in</strong> an added<br />
advantage because the<br />
especially acute senses <strong>of</strong> one<br />
species can make up for the<br />
deficiencies <strong>of</strong> another... Pool<strong>in</strong>g<br />
113<br />
Th<strong>in</strong>kbox<br />
Harvey, 2010 Th<strong>in</strong>kbox<br />
their resources gives them a<br />
greater chance <strong>of</strong> detect<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
approach<strong>in</strong>g lion than any one<br />
would have on its own,” (ibid.).<br />
Harvey is form<strong>in</strong>g a contract with his new owners<br />
<strong>in</strong> a domesticated sett<strong>in</strong>g where there is wash<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to be done, clothes to be ironed and children to<br />
be fed. He knows that new owners will feed him<br />
and <strong>of</strong>fer him shelter so, <strong>in</strong> return and to conv<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
them to take him, he advertises his ability to help<br />
around the house.<br />
However, <strong>in</strong> reality, humans are not<br />
keep<strong>in</strong>g their part <strong>of</strong> the barga<strong>in</strong>. It is a sad fact<br />
that <strong>in</strong> the UK <strong>in</strong> 2009 the RSPCA found new<br />
homes for 90,493 abandoned or rescued<br />
animals (rspca.org.uk, 2011) and “<strong>in</strong>vestigated<br />
141,280 cruelty compla<strong>in</strong>ts” (ibid.). Battersea<br />
Dogs & Cats Home looks after 10,600 cats and<br />
dogs every year (battersea.org.uk, 2011), whilst<br />
<strong>The</strong> Dogs Trust is look<strong>in</strong>g after a further 16,000<br />
dogs (dogstrust.org.uk, 2011). <strong>The</strong> advert may be<br />
imag<strong>in</strong>ative and effective, but it only forms a<br />
contract between Th<strong>in</strong>kbox and its clients. Harvey<br />
is a mere tool for enterta<strong>in</strong>ment and to generate<br />
sales. His situation, however, is very real.<br />
Natalie Gilbert has worked pr<strong>of</strong>essionally <strong>in</strong> onl<strong>in</strong>e, market<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
editorial <strong>in</strong> diverse capacities for sixteen years across many different<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustries, but has always found her feet firmly <strong>in</strong> language, creation<br />
and progress. She takes every opportunity to explore the realms <strong>of</strong><br />
artistic, literary and visual possibility. With volunteer experience at<br />
animal care centres around the world, a degree <strong>in</strong> Wildlife<br />
Photography and a postgraduate <strong>in</strong> Anthrozoology, she has followed<br />
a keen <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the human-animal bond and artistic portrayals <strong>of</strong><br />
animal be<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> modern society, on and <strong>of</strong>fl<strong>in</strong>e @Animal <strong>The</strong>ory
S<br />
ensitive to the ris<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> the animal<br />
rights movement and challenged by an<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> local governments who have<br />
enacted bans on animal acts, R<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g Bros. has<br />
adopted what it considers to be a transparent<br />
approach to its tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g methods. On its website<br />
the circus portrays itself as a responsible, ethical<br />
purveyor <strong>of</strong> animal enterta<strong>in</strong>ment, claim<strong>in</strong>g its<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g is “…based on re<strong>in</strong>forcement <strong>in</strong> the form<br />
<strong>of</strong> food rewards and words <strong>of</strong> praise. Verbal or<br />
physical abuse…are strictly prohibited.” <strong>The</strong>re is<br />
even the <strong>in</strong>ference that its elephants enjoy their<br />
place before the cheer<strong>in</strong>g crowds due to “the<br />
mental stimulation <strong>of</strong> perform<strong>in</strong>g.”<br />
But accord<strong>in</strong>g to People for the Ethical<br />
Treatment <strong>of</strong> <strong>Animals</strong> (PETA), a group dedicated<br />
to expos<strong>in</strong>g and end<strong>in</strong>g animal cruelty, R<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Bros. Circus actively engages <strong>in</strong> wrongful animal<br />
handl<strong>in</strong>g. A video obta<strong>in</strong>ed and posted to<br />
Youtube <strong>in</strong> 2009 exposes what PETA describes as<br />
“relentless abuse”. However, the limitation <strong>of</strong> such<br />
shock videos is that they fail to reach the<br />
audience most likely to <strong>in</strong>fluence ticket sales:<br />
middle <strong>in</strong>come parents who have little <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
to search out gruesome footage expos<strong>in</strong>g such<br />
<strong>in</strong>convenient truths.<br />
114<br />
THE SADDEST<br />
SHOW ON EARTH<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce 1884, children across the United States have been dazzled by the sequ<strong>in</strong>ed wonders <strong>of</strong> the R<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g Bros.<br />
Circus. For many a youngster the spectacle <strong>of</strong> costumed elephants perform<strong>in</strong>g myriad tricks under the big top is a<br />
highlight <strong>of</strong> the show. Yet the bright spotlight <strong>of</strong> the center r<strong>in</strong>g casts a dark shadow across this American<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitution. Persistent allegations <strong>of</strong> elephant abuse have trailed the travell<strong>in</strong>g show for years.<br />
Text and <strong>in</strong>terview questions to Jeremy Smallwood and Pam Mufson by Chris Hunter<br />
In late 2010 PETA contacted Y&R Chicago, the<br />
Midwestern hub <strong>of</strong> the global Y&R advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
network with an assignment to pull back the<br />
curta<strong>in</strong> on R<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g Bros’ animal cruelty <strong>in</strong> a way<br />
more likely to break through to parents. <strong>The</strong><br />
response was a series <strong>of</strong> circus posters that<br />
showed a ticket to the Greatest Show on Earth<br />
comes at a great price <strong>in</strong>deed.<br />
Recently <strong>Antennae</strong> spoke with Y&R<br />
Creative Directors Jeremy Smallwood and<br />
Pamela Mufson, who created the campaign,<br />
about the challenges <strong>of</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g PETA’s message<br />
to moms and dads — and the Cannes awardw<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
campaign that resulted.<br />
Chris Hunter: What are your memories <strong>of</strong><br />
the circus as children? Did you ever go to<br />
a circus?<br />
Jeremy Smallwood: I actually have very fond<br />
memories <strong>of</strong> go<strong>in</strong>g to the circus as a child. I<br />
mean other than the general fear <strong>of</strong> clowns, I<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k most kids th<strong>in</strong>k it’s a great time. And that's<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> what drove us to make this work. It's difficult<br />
for a child to understand exactly what's go<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
beh<strong>in</strong>d the scenes, but if parents know, maybe
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115
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they'll skip that activity.<br />
Pam Mufson: I actually never went to the circus<br />
as a child. But I always wanted to. That's why it's so<br />
imperative to <strong>in</strong>form parents <strong>of</strong> the truth. After all,<br />
they're the ones who decide what enterta<strong>in</strong>ment<br />
their kids take <strong>in</strong>.<br />
CH: Did it occur to you then – or as a<br />
parent now – that circus animals may <strong>in</strong><br />
fact not want to be part <strong>of</strong> these<br />
performances?<br />
JS: I th<strong>in</strong>k most parents know that someth<strong>in</strong>g isn't<br />
right. But the idea <strong>of</strong> depriv<strong>in</strong>g their kids <strong>of</strong> that<br />
experience overrules their <strong>in</strong>st<strong>in</strong>cts. With a little<br />
push though, and armed with the right<br />
knowledge, its an easier decision.<br />
CH: What happens to elephants when<br />
they’re tra<strong>in</strong>ed by R<strong>in</strong>gl<strong>in</strong>g Bros.?<br />
JS: A pretty traumatic experience to start. I mean,<br />
it's not a stretch to tra<strong>in</strong> an animal, <strong>of</strong> any k<strong>in</strong>d, to<br />
do amaz<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong>gs with the right motivation.<br />
116<br />
Sadly, it's almost always the fear <strong>of</strong> pa<strong>in</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>flict<strong>in</strong>g for an unwanted action. Elephants are<br />
very communal animals. Remove them from<br />
each other, isolate them, and you completely<br />
shatter their nature. That, even more than the<br />
physical pa<strong>in</strong>, might be the cruelest part <strong>of</strong> it all.<br />
CH: What was the key <strong>in</strong>sight on the<br />
creative brief that struck you as the most<br />
surpris<strong>in</strong>g?<br />
JS: That such a historicized bus<strong>in</strong>ess hasn't<br />
evolved, hasn't even tried. <strong>The</strong>y assume that<br />
parents don't care - that the public doesn't care.<br />
CH: In many such campaigns, it’s<br />
common practice to put up a real<br />
photograph <strong>of</strong> an animal be<strong>in</strong>g abused<br />
along with a very straightforward<br />
plea. Your campaign has the look <strong>of</strong><br />
cheerful circus posters that, on closer<br />
view<strong>in</strong>g, reveal a very dark twist. Why did<br />
you choose this approach?<br />
JS: It's so hard to break through the familiar, the
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already established idea <strong>of</strong> what the circus is -<br />
the idyllic vision. We see what we want to see, it<br />
makes us feel better, makes buy<strong>in</strong>g that ticket a<br />
little easier to stomach. <strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> the cheerful,<br />
celebrated illustration style played <strong>in</strong>to that<br />
construct and then turned it on its head.<br />
CH: In a world where Youtube shockvideos<br />
and stories <strong>of</strong> animal abuse<br />
spread like wildfire through social media<br />
why is traditional advertis<strong>in</strong>g — old<br />
fashioned posters <strong>in</strong> this case — still a<br />
powerful way to raise awareness <strong>of</strong> this<br />
subject?<br />
JS: Youtube and most videos onl<strong>in</strong>e are<br />
consumed at such a stagger<strong>in</strong>g rate, that it all<br />
blends together. We've become desensitized to<br />
all those videos, noth<strong>in</strong>g r<strong>in</strong>gs authentic and true<br />
– just enterta<strong>in</strong>ment. I th<strong>in</strong>k effectiveness <strong>in</strong> rais<strong>in</strong>g<br />
awareness is all about context; that<br />
becomes paramount. Where did I see it and how<br />
was it served up to me? If I'm expect<strong>in</strong>g the shock<br />
and awe video, the message isn't likely to stick <strong>in</strong><br />
the same way as a less <strong>in</strong>-your-face approach<br />
117<br />
that catches you <strong>of</strong>f guard.<br />
PM: It all comes down to how you use<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g. We chose to make the poster <strong>in</strong>teract<br />
with its surround<strong>in</strong>gs. Just see<strong>in</strong>g around the<br />
corner changes how you see someth<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> this<br />
case the circus. That can be just as powerful as<br />
any video.<br />
CH: Now did PETA and the general public<br />
react to your concept?<br />
JS: Like most causes worth fight<strong>in</strong>g for, it's not<br />
go<strong>in</strong>g to be one magical solution that solves the<br />
problem, but many. PETA is a great organization<br />
that knows you can't just say the same th<strong>in</strong>g, be <strong>in</strong><br />
the same places all the time and expect the<br />
result to change. <strong>The</strong>y are nimble <strong>in</strong> how they act<br />
and flexible with their tactics. <strong>The</strong>y liked, I th<strong>in</strong>k,<br />
that this was one unique approach to both the<br />
problem and target. Hopefully, the folks that saw<br />
it decided aga<strong>in</strong>st buy<strong>in</strong>g tickets that year. And<br />
maybe <strong>in</strong>stead just had a fun day at the park.
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118
Jeremy Smallwood and Pam Mufson have worked together for<br />
nearly 9 years. <strong>The</strong>y met at LBWorks, an agency with<strong>in</strong> Leo Burnett,<br />
which specialized <strong>in</strong> technology and oddly enough, m<strong>in</strong>ts. Jeremy<br />
was a designer <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> switch<strong>in</strong>g to art direction. Pam was a<br />
writer who needed a new partner. <strong>The</strong>y jo<strong>in</strong>ed forces and voilà, a<br />
team was born. At Leo Burnett, they worked on many brands<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Altoids, Turner Classic Movies, Kellogg’s, Maytag, N<strong>in</strong>tendo<br />
and when they were really lucky, Tampax and Always.<br />
After 6 years, they moved to mcgarrybowen. <strong>The</strong>ir first<br />
year, they found themselves work<strong>in</strong>g on everyth<strong>in</strong>g from JP Morgan<br />
to Kraft Salad Dress<strong>in</strong>gs to Chevron. Eventually, they were handed<br />
the reigns <strong>of</strong> Lunchables and Oscar Mayer. <strong>The</strong>y ran the meat<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess for a year and a half. <strong>The</strong>y enjoyed their time, but no longer<br />
eat cold cuts.<br />
Currently, <strong>The</strong>y’re Creative Directors at Y&R Chicago. For<br />
the past year and half, they’ve managed DieHard Batteries, Greater<br />
Chicago Food Depository and most recently, BMO Harris Bank. Every<br />
day is filled with adventure, challenges and <strong>of</strong> course, adjustable<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest rates.<br />
Chris Hunter is an SVP Group Creative Director at the Chicago <strong>of</strong>fice<br />
<strong>of</strong> Y&R Midwest<br />
119
W<br />
hat we see <strong>in</strong> their place is the red blood<br />
which streamed from their slit throats.<br />
Thus, <strong>in</strong> the same way, the lambs who<br />
crowd abattoirs before Easter (and not only then)<br />
are absent - as liv<strong>in</strong>g, sentient be<strong>in</strong>gs – from the<br />
discourses and the consciousness <strong>of</strong> those who<br />
eat them. In other terms, we could say that lambs<br />
are either “lamb meat”, “Easter roast”, or do not<br />
exist.<br />
In antiquity, Marcus Aurelius emphasized<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> “representations” <strong>in</strong> guid<strong>in</strong>g our<br />
approach to the world: “how marvellous useful it is<br />
for a man to represent <strong>in</strong>to himself meats, and all<br />
such th<strong>in</strong>gs that are for the mouth, under a right<br />
apprehension and imag<strong>in</strong>ation! As for example:<br />
this is the carcass <strong>of</strong> a fish; this is <strong>of</strong> a bird; and<br />
this <strong>of</strong> a hog (…)” (Marcus Aurelius). <strong>The</strong> way we<br />
represent th<strong>in</strong>gs, th<strong>in</strong>k about and speak <strong>of</strong> them<br />
(our metanarratives) is a form <strong>of</strong> our thoughts <strong>in</strong><br />
action. Ma<strong>in</strong>ly for this reason, farm-animals<br />
dest<strong>in</strong>ed to the abattoir must be thought <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
terms <strong>of</strong> “slaughterable” objects or food matter.<br />
As George Bataille wrote: “(…) to kill an animal<br />
and alter it as one pleases is not merely to<br />
change <strong>in</strong>to a th<strong>in</strong>g that which doubtless was not<br />
120<br />
HAPPY EASTER<br />
Even if we are talk<strong>in</strong>g about this image as an “advertisement”, it is clear that its scope is not bus<strong>in</strong>ess, but to<br />
<strong>in</strong>form and raise consciousness about the slaughter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals. <strong>The</strong> message itself is rather peculiar: It is<br />
obviously about animals, but without <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g any image <strong>of</strong> them <strong>in</strong> the picture. If a contradiction exists, it has<br />
noth<strong>in</strong>g to do with the message conveyed by the advertisement, but rather with ambiguous attitudes <strong>of</strong> humans<br />
towards animals. In this case, it is the lambs who are not portrayed <strong>in</strong> the advertisement.<br />
Text by Sabr<strong>in</strong>a Tonutti<br />
a th<strong>in</strong>g from the start; it is to def<strong>in</strong>e the animal as<br />
a th<strong>in</strong>g beforehand” (George Bataille). However,<br />
despite this process <strong>of</strong> serial slaughter<strong>in</strong>g be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
embedded <strong>in</strong> our socio-cultural system, there are<br />
many highly controversial elements <strong>in</strong> it, which<br />
have to do with the act <strong>of</strong> tak<strong>in</strong>g the life <strong>of</strong> a liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g, an act that always needs to be culturally<br />
legitimized, and “properly” codified with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
cultural context. <strong>The</strong> legitimization process relies<br />
on several <strong>in</strong>tegrated actions:<br />
- the classification <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> specific<br />
categories regard<strong>in</strong>g the animals’ use (“meat<br />
animals”, “farm animals”, etc.);<br />
- the projection onto these categories <strong>of</strong><br />
utilitarian-mechanistic connotations (these<br />
animals are portrayed as, and transformed <strong>in</strong>,<br />
“animal mach<strong>in</strong>es”, quot<strong>in</strong>g Ruth Harrison);<br />
- the exclusion <strong>of</strong> any form <strong>of</strong> familiarization with<br />
farm animals (which might enable the<br />
emergence <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dividual, biographical<br />
dimension <strong>of</strong> animals, and, <strong>in</strong> the same way,<br />
stimulate <strong>in</strong> humans possible forms <strong>of</strong> empathy);
Campagne Per Gli Animali<br />
Buona Pasqua, 2011 CA<br />
- and, last but not least, the dissociation <strong>of</strong><br />
different levels and dimensions <strong>of</strong> reality.<br />
Dissociation only works if we compartmentalise<br />
elements which belong to the same<br />
phenomenon, and concur to the same process.<br />
<strong>The</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> slaughterhouses enacts<br />
several forms <strong>of</strong> dissociation.<br />
A spatial dissociation, to beg<strong>in</strong> with: the processes<br />
<strong>of</strong> rais<strong>in</strong>g and slaughter<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals take place<br />
far from the public eye, and rema<strong>in</strong> almost<br />
completely unknown to those who don’t belong<br />
to the farm<strong>in</strong>g sector.<br />
Parallel to this, there is an iconic<br />
dissociation regard<strong>in</strong>g the presentation <strong>of</strong> animal<br />
food: while <strong>in</strong> many countries <strong>in</strong> the past etiquette<br />
requested whole animals to be presented on the<br />
table, with no need to disguise the orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
food, nowadays the opposite tendency guides<br />
cul<strong>in</strong>ary habits and also the plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> food<br />
commercials and market<strong>in</strong>g. In advertisements<br />
for meat, animals either do not appear (and so<br />
121<br />
what is shown is only the “products” <strong>in</strong> which their<br />
bodies have been transformed), or are portrayed<br />
<strong>in</strong> a fake bucolic context, evok<strong>in</strong>g a natural,<br />
healthy life and freedom.<br />
A l<strong>in</strong>guistic dissociation concurs with this<br />
same process: people eat pork, not pig, at a<br />
supermarket they buy sausages, m<strong>in</strong>ce, ham,<br />
and so forth, and many are <strong>of</strong>ten at a loss when<br />
they try to guess which animal some products<br />
have belonged to.<br />
This process is rooted more deeply <strong>in</strong><br />
ideology: a teleological representational process<br />
operates, <strong>in</strong> that it implies that animals are “born<br />
to” be eaten, no matter what we feel about it,<br />
that are “dest<strong>in</strong>ed” to be used by humans, “ends”<br />
<strong>of</strong> the “creation” (as Aristotle dixit and Kant<br />
underl<strong>in</strong>ed).<br />
Just because lambs are absent from the<br />
image above, they allow us to argue, <strong>in</strong> a<br />
metonymic way, about the entire farm-animal<br />
category, s<strong>in</strong>ce we are deal<strong>in</strong>g with animals who<br />
share the same status (objects, <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong>
subjects-<strong>of</strong>-a-life, <strong>in</strong> Tom Regan’s words), as a<br />
consequence <strong>of</strong> human attitudes and practices<br />
towards them. Be<strong>in</strong>g “animal” is a condition, not<br />
an essence. However, even if we can th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>of</strong><br />
lambs <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> a species representative <strong>of</strong> a<br />
wider category (farm-animals), their tender age<br />
and some relevant morphological and<br />
behavioural traits which characterize them add<br />
complexity to the legitimization <strong>of</strong> their<br />
slaughter<strong>in</strong>g (and tells us someth<strong>in</strong>g significant on<br />
humans as well): these traits - white vellum<br />
(symbolically recall<strong>in</strong>g the idea <strong>of</strong> purity, and<br />
<strong>in</strong>nocence), their cries resembl<strong>in</strong>g those <strong>of</strong><br />
human babies, and also their neotenic<br />
morphologies (like rounded heads and features,<br />
typical <strong>of</strong> babies and young animals) - all these<br />
elements constitute et-epimeletic signals<br />
(appeals for care and protection), which (ought<br />
to!) elicit <strong>in</strong> adult human be<strong>in</strong>gs the appropriate<br />
epimeletic behaviour: nurtur<strong>in</strong>g. To ignore this<br />
“appeal” and suppress the potential expressions<br />
<strong>of</strong> human epimeleia (car<strong>in</strong>g behaviour) constitute<br />
another obstacle <strong>in</strong> the dissociation process on<br />
which the acceptance <strong>of</strong> slaughter<strong>in</strong>g is based.<br />
<strong>The</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> campaigns like “Campagne<br />
per gli animali” is to br<strong>in</strong>g “obstacles” and<br />
contradictions to the surface, to denounce the<br />
silence which surrounds certa<strong>in</strong> practices, such as<br />
the sacrificial slaughter <strong>of</strong> lambs, to give faces,<br />
names and voices to animal suffer<strong>in</strong>g. Aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
this background, the choice <strong>of</strong> not portray<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
lambs <strong>in</strong> an image which speaks about them is<br />
unusual, but, at the same time, appropriate, <strong>in</strong><br />
that it epitomizes the absence <strong>of</strong> animals per se<br />
<strong>in</strong> people’s thoughts and the cultural removal <strong>of</strong><br />
those practices which every s<strong>in</strong>gle person, with<br />
their daily choices, contribute either to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g or chang<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Bibliography<br />
Marcus Aurelius, Meditations, Filiquarian Publish<strong>in</strong>g 2006.<br />
George Bataille, <strong>The</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Religion, Zone Books 1989.<br />
Ruth Harrison, Animal Mach<strong>in</strong>es: <strong>The</strong> New Factory Farm<strong>in</strong>g Industry,<br />
V<strong>in</strong>cent Stuart, London 1964.<br />
Tom Regan, <strong>The</strong> Case for Animal Rights, University <strong>of</strong> California Press,<br />
1983.<br />
122<br />
Dr Sabr<strong>in</strong>a Tonutti, PhD, is a Lecturer and a Researcher <strong>in</strong> Cultural<br />
Anthropology at the University <strong>of</strong> Ud<strong>in</strong>e, Italy. Her studies focus on<br />
human-animal relationships, new social movements, anthropology<br />
<strong>of</strong> food, and epistemological reflections on the human-animal<br />
divide <strong>in</strong> anthropology. Sabr<strong>in</strong>a carried out ethnographic research<br />
on the animal rights movement <strong>in</strong> Italy, Switzerland, and Great<br />
Brita<strong>in</strong>, which resulted <strong>in</strong> the publication <strong>of</strong> the book Diritti Animali.<br />
Storia e antropologia di un movimento (Forum Ed. 2007).<br />
Among her other publications on these subjects: Manuale<br />
di zooantropologia (Meltemi 2007, with R. Marches<strong>in</strong>i), ‘Umano,<br />
troppo umano’. Riflessioni sull’opposizione natura/cultura <strong>in</strong><br />
antropologia, ed. by Tonutti, S., Lutri, A. and Acerbi, A. (SEID 2009),<br />
the book chapters: “Cruelty, Children, and <strong>Animals</strong>: Historically One,<br />
not Two, Causes”, <strong>in</strong> L<strong>in</strong>zey, A. (ed by), <strong>The</strong> L<strong>in</strong>k between Animal<br />
Abuse and Human Violence (Sussex Academic Press 2009);<br />
“Anthropocentrism and the def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> ‘culture’ as a marker <strong>of</strong> the<br />
human/animal divide”, <strong>in</strong> Boddice, R. (ed. by), Anthropocentrism.<br />
Humans, <strong>Animals</strong>, Environments (Brill 2011); and the entry “Reform”<br />
for the Cultural Encyclopedia <strong>of</strong> Vegetarianism, ed. by M. Puskar-<br />
Pasewicz (Greenwood Publish<strong>in</strong>g Group 2010).<br />
Sabr<strong>in</strong>a Tonutti is a Fellow <strong>of</strong> the Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics.
A<br />
lready very early on <strong>in</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> the<br />
poster, animals were depicted, mostly <strong>in</strong><br />
purely illustrative form without educational<br />
goals. Still, it is worth exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g examples from<br />
this medium <strong>in</strong> order to see <strong>in</strong> what ways the<br />
animal came to be represented, how the view on<br />
the animal has changed, and for which products<br />
the animal will be seen as suitable for advertis<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Be it for alcohol, floor wipes or an even<strong>in</strong>g at the<br />
ballet, animals are extremely eye-catch<strong>in</strong>g<br />
figures <strong>in</strong> advertisement and <strong>of</strong>ten earn the<br />
important “ahhh”-effect <strong>in</strong> a market<strong>in</strong>g strategy.<br />
However, the humanization <strong>of</strong> the animal world<br />
on posters has also been extensively explored.<br />
<strong>The</strong> tooth brush<strong>in</strong>g squirrel and the clothed<br />
pengu<strong>in</strong> belong to a former fantasy and fairytale<br />
world <strong>of</strong> illustrated posters. In addition to posters<br />
where the animals become the ma<strong>in</strong><br />
protagonists, there are also many depictions <strong>of</strong><br />
the animal-human relationship. <strong>The</strong> extravagant<br />
woman, who advertised for the fur fashion l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong><br />
Paul Rückmar <strong>in</strong> 1924, completely tamed her<br />
wildcat. She symbolized the dom<strong>in</strong>ion <strong>of</strong> people<br />
over animals, which had not been deeply<br />
questioned for centuries. In 1913 the PKZ-Mann,<br />
with the company <strong>of</strong> dogs, was her male<br />
counterpart, and the trendy punch advertisement<br />
from 1960 was her successor.<br />
123<br />
ANIMALS ON THE<br />
RUNWAY<br />
<strong>The</strong> discussion <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> graphic art has radically changed s<strong>in</strong>ce about 1950. In contemporary performances<br />
and <strong>in</strong>stallations, even liv<strong>in</strong>g animals are displayed, which <strong>of</strong>ten leads to ethical discussions. Recent work, however,<br />
reflects a new societal view <strong>of</strong> animals: A strictly anthropocentric view has had its day, now animals have come to<br />
be seen as equal creatures and have emancipated themselves <strong>in</strong> artistic representation.<br />
Text by Bett<strong>in</strong>a Richter<br />
<strong>The</strong> dog as faithful friend <strong>of</strong> man is seen on many<br />
poster images. As the devoted guardian <strong>of</strong> an<br />
Olivetti, he stands <strong>in</strong> the center <strong>of</strong> the picture, but<br />
<strong>in</strong> pass<strong>in</strong>g he mostly appears at the people’s feet.<br />
<strong>The</strong> cat is presented completely differently, based<br />
on its assumed characteristic as an <strong>in</strong>dependent,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividualistic animal. With enormous eyes for the<br />
“Black Cat” liquor advertisement, the cat almost<br />
appears s<strong>in</strong>ister. <strong>The</strong> trunk <strong>of</strong> the mighty, goodnatured<br />
elephant is f<strong>in</strong>ally not only a picture motif<br />
found <strong>in</strong> children’s books, but also <strong>in</strong> a particularly<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al image used by the Pirelli-Reifen tire<br />
company.<br />
What the cultural scholar Thomas Macho<br />
has asserted about the use <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong><br />
contemporary art applies as well to their portrayal<br />
<strong>in</strong> posters: “<strong>The</strong> animals are not used exclusively<br />
for reasons alien to themselves as animals. In<br />
many cases, they also demonstrate how much<br />
the animal is not merely a fantasy <strong>of</strong> our m<strong>in</strong>ds,<br />
but also a possibility <strong>of</strong> creaturl<strong>in</strong>ess, existence,<br />
and happ<strong>in</strong>ess that we ourselves may have lost.”<br />
Dr. Bett<strong>in</strong>a Richter is Curator, Museum für Gestaltung Zürich,<br />
Plakatsammlung. Orig<strong>in</strong>al Exhibit Co-Curators: Dr. Bett<strong>in</strong>a Richter and<br />
Alessia Cont<strong>in</strong> (Registrar), Museum für Gestaltung Zürich,<br />
Plakatsammlung. <strong>The</strong> above text was translated by Abigail Gott<strong>in</strong>ger,<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Wiscons<strong>in</strong>-Milwaukee. With special thanks to Dr Nigel<br />
Rothfels for <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g and co-ord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g this adaptation <strong>of</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
exhibition project for <strong>Antennae</strong>.
Paul Rückmar<br />
Pelzwaren Fourrures, 1924 Paul Rückmar<br />
124
Schwarzer Kater<br />
Garantie für gute Laune, 1966 Schwarzer Kater<br />
Tierschutz!<br />
Tierschutz!, 1925 Tierschutz!<br />
125<br />
Gordon’s<br />
It Must be Gordon’s, Gordon’s Dry G<strong>in</strong>, 1967 Gordon’s<br />
PKZ<br />
Die Nuance vom Mann zum Gentleman, 1971 PKZ
Co-op<br />
Bodenwichse, 1946 Co-op<br />
126
Laboratories Ed. Mottier<br />
Colle M Elephant, 1952 Laboratories Ed. Mottier<br />
127
Zimmerli Tricots<br />
Zimmerli Tricots, 1943 Zimmerli Tricots<br />
128
PKZ<br />
Burgher, Kehl & Co, 1913 PKZ<br />
Lupolen Basf<br />
Hausgerät aus Lupolen, 1955 Lupolen Basf<br />
129<br />
Pirelli<br />
Atlante, 1954 Pirelli<br />
Setter Set<br />
Nylons, 1959 Setter Set
Punch Boutique<br />
Pumch, 1960 Punch<br />
130
Télévision Ducastel<br />
Satisfaction réelle, 1955 Télévision Ducastel<br />
131
L<br />
ike most New Deal projects, the jobs and<br />
government spend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the agency were<br />
too modest to end the Great Depression.<br />
Nonetheless, the WPA employed a small army <strong>of</strong><br />
photographers, writers, pa<strong>in</strong>ters, poets and<br />
illustrators that left beh<strong>in</strong>d a cache <strong>of</strong> creative<br />
work that is an <strong>in</strong>valuable w<strong>in</strong>dow <strong>in</strong>to the culture<br />
and politics <strong>of</strong> the decade. Among that work is<br />
the famed WPA art posters and its “Zoo”<br />
promotional series, which endeavored to boost<br />
the local economy <strong>of</strong> a given city by promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the urban tourism <strong>of</strong> zoo attendance. Housed at<br />
the Library <strong>of</strong> Congress, today these beautiful<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g tools mark out for us the moment <strong>in</strong><br />
American public culture when zoos and wild<br />
animals became modern <strong>in</strong> a twentieth-century<br />
sense.<br />
<strong>The</strong> WPA series ordered American citizens<br />
to collect the kids and “Visit the Zoo.” <strong>The</strong><br />
silkscreened posters <strong>of</strong>fered such <strong>in</strong>stitutions as<br />
both portal <strong>in</strong>to the natural world and modern<br />
enterta<strong>in</strong>ment option featur<strong>in</strong>g wild animals as<br />
embellishments to urban American life. Indeed, <strong>in</strong><br />
the “Zoo” series we sense no bars or cement or<br />
feces, no stereotypic pac<strong>in</strong>g, no jostl<strong>in</strong>g zoo<br />
patrons, no man-made noise or overflow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
garbage b<strong>in</strong>s, no bread l<strong>in</strong>es or homeless<br />
camps, that is, none <strong>of</strong> the troubl<strong>in</strong>g realities <strong>of</strong><br />
animal captivity, city liv<strong>in</strong>g or the Depression.<br />
What we do see are idealized creatures<br />
‘WORKS PROGRESS<br />
ADMINISTRATION’ POSTERS<br />
In 1933 and 1934, as part <strong>of</strong> the “New Deal” economic plan for the United States, President Frankl<strong>in</strong><br />
Roosevelt’s adm<strong>in</strong>istration created a new federal agency called the Works Progress Adm<strong>in</strong>istration (WPA) to<br />
hire artists to document and promote American cultural life.<br />
Text by Susan Nance<br />
132<br />
set <strong>in</strong> artist’s canvas-style backdrops that eschew<br />
detail <strong>in</strong> favor <strong>of</strong> stylish efficiency. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
advertisements seem aimed at question<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
perceived divid<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>e between nature and<br />
culture, which we <strong>of</strong>ten associate with modernity,<br />
because they portray nature as culture. Here<br />
animals captured from wild or foreign places are<br />
extracted from those histories and geographies<br />
and presented as liv<strong>in</strong>g works <strong>of</strong> art. Be<strong>in</strong>g statefunded,<br />
with no advertis<strong>in</strong>g agency account<strong>in</strong>g<br />
department to answer to, the WPA artists created<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g posters that were <strong>in</strong>deed experimental<br />
and sleek, although they may have seemed too<br />
high-m<strong>in</strong>ded for many zoo patrons.<br />
What is more, the WPA “Zoo” animals<br />
come across as works <strong>of</strong> modern art with speciesspecific<br />
personalities. Indeed, the ads depict the<br />
conventional characters that each <strong>of</strong> these<br />
species carries even today: panda bear as cute<br />
stuffed toy, hippo as rotund comic, herons as<br />
silently elegant posers, panther as lithe stalker,<br />
polar bear as ice berg, stamped<strong>in</strong>g bull elephant<br />
as powerful provocateur who addresses the<br />
viewer directly and dares him or her to stare <strong>in</strong><br />
awe as long as possible before jump<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>of</strong><br />
the way. Each <strong>of</strong> these artistic animal essences<br />
represents a particular emotion, be it<br />
(anthropocentric) paternalism, delight, mirth, or<br />
awe. And, here is advertis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> its most powerfully<br />
efficient and democratic mode. <strong>The</strong> WPA zoo
WPA<br />
Brookfield Zoo WPA<br />
ads edit out the complexities <strong>of</strong> product and<br />
consumer context <strong>in</strong> order to get across a simple,<br />
user-friendly message about each animal that<br />
flatters the viewer as a person amused and<br />
enriched by his or her consumption <strong>of</strong> animal<br />
images.<br />
133<br />
To be sure, the WPA zoo was a museum <strong>of</strong><br />
animals seen as natural art for a deserv<strong>in</strong>g public;<br />
it was a “New Deal for <strong>Animals</strong>” zoo. Why portray<br />
zoos that way? In those days, many <strong>in</strong> the zoo<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess were reimag<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g captive animal
WPA<br />
Brookfield Zoo, WPA<br />
134
displays as a modern enterta<strong>in</strong>ment that could<br />
help support both local public education and a<br />
broader conservation agenda. WPA artists<br />
supplied ways <strong>of</strong> conceptualiz<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
communicat<strong>in</strong>g this l<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> show bus<strong>in</strong>ess and<br />
uplift <strong>in</strong> accessible ways that still gave a nod to<br />
the American elites, government <strong>of</strong>ficials and<br />
social eng<strong>in</strong>eers who worried that most urban<br />
Americans were ignorant <strong>of</strong> animals. Advocates<br />
for conservationism, they believed most city<br />
dwellers were unfamiliar with the idea that wild<br />
animals were <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sically valuable parts <strong>of</strong><br />
national and global ecosystems. If impressed with<br />
the artistry <strong>of</strong> nature—even <strong>in</strong> a zoo animal—<br />
citizens might be less likely to support activities<br />
that destroyed habitat and more likely to see a<br />
connection between zoos and state-supported<br />
conservationism, the th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g went. Of course, the<br />
ta<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> old s<strong>in</strong>s rema<strong>in</strong>ed as the modern zoo <strong>of</strong><br />
the WPA was an educational <strong>in</strong>stitution<br />
advocat<strong>in</strong>g for conservation although it rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
a net consumer <strong>of</strong> wild-born liv<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Viewed up-close by citizens who saw them<br />
on walls <strong>in</strong> the subway, the post <strong>of</strong>fice or the zoo<br />
lobby itself, the WPA posters attempted to<br />
persuade by portray<strong>in</strong>g tourism at zoos and<br />
national parks as patriotic, educational, modern.<br />
<strong>The</strong> WPA would similarly supply workers and<br />
fund<strong>in</strong>g to various zoos for the repair and<br />
expansion <strong>of</strong> their facilities. That <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
development worked <strong>in</strong> tandem with the<br />
enhanced advertis<strong>in</strong>g and rebrand<strong>in</strong>g provided<br />
by the “Zoo” art posters and other WPA funded<br />
promotional publications like Who’s Who <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Zoo (1937), a $1.69 gift shop pamphlet that<br />
expla<strong>in</strong>ed the natural history <strong>of</strong> species common<br />
to American zoos. It came with a cover depict<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a cartoon monkey smil<strong>in</strong>g at the viewer while<br />
hang<strong>in</strong>g by one foot and one hand from the “Z”<br />
and f<strong>in</strong>al “O” <strong>in</strong> the title. Thus did many American<br />
zoos re<strong>in</strong>vent themselves dur<strong>in</strong>g the hard times <strong>of</strong><br />
the 1930s – perhaps not as famously as the<br />
movie theatres <strong>in</strong> these years – but successfully<br />
enough that they flourished by rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g relevant<br />
<strong>in</strong> age when Frank Buck movies and other<br />
popular “tamer or wild beasts”-type<br />
enterta<strong>in</strong>ments <strong>of</strong>fered wild animals, too,<br />
although with less modern sensibility and style.<br />
135<br />
WPA<br />
Visit the Zoo WPA<br />
Back Cover Image: Olivetti, Valent<strong>in</strong>e, 1972
T<br />
he last decade has witnessed a re<strong>in</strong>vigoration<br />
<strong>in</strong> studies <strong>of</strong> human – animal relations. In the<br />
field <strong>of</strong> animal geographies this development<br />
has been particularly significant, with animals<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly recognised as significant players <strong>in</strong><br />
social worlds across diverse places and scales,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g across urban and rural locations, and<br />
even with<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>timate spaces that are traditionally<br />
the site <strong>of</strong> close human relations, such as with<strong>in</strong><br />
home and family. Yet despite these<br />
developments some animals cont<strong>in</strong>ue to occupy<br />
a fr<strong>in</strong>ge position <strong>in</strong> the scholarly imag<strong>in</strong>ation. In<br />
particular, microscopic creatures and those that<br />
are slimy, scaly, or with an exoskeleton have<br />
received little attention <strong>in</strong> scholarly studies (see<br />
Bear 2011 for discussion and an important<br />
exception), and are a particular absence <strong>in</strong><br />
studies <strong>of</strong> home, which have predom<strong>in</strong>ately<br />
focused on domestic pets (see for example<br />
Frankl<strong>in</strong> 2006; and Power 2008; Power 2012a).<br />
<strong>The</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> these organisms contrasts with<br />
the significant place that many such animals<br />
have <strong>in</strong> everyday human activity. For example, <strong>in</strong><br />
the context <strong>of</strong> home these animals are typically<br />
categorised as pests and are a key target <strong>of</strong><br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g activity. Kill<strong>in</strong>g and the death <strong>of</strong><br />
KILL ‘EM DEAD!: THE<br />
ORDINARY PRACTICES OF<br />
PEST CONTROL IN THE<br />
HOME<br />
In recent years critical animal geographies have po<strong>in</strong>ted to dearth <strong>of</strong> stories about the small, the microscopic, the<br />
slimy and the abject. <strong>The</strong> exoscheleton, though pa<strong>in</strong>fully present to anyone bitten by a bedbug or disgusted by a<br />
cockroach, has been all but absent <strong>in</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant animal geographies. Death and the kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals is a further<br />
notable absence. However, this scholarly absence is not parallel with<strong>in</strong> the popular imag<strong>in</strong>ation, where<br />
cockroaches, files and dust mites loom large at the centre <strong>of</strong> a homemak<strong>in</strong>g war focused on the eradication <strong>of</strong><br />
house pests.<br />
Text by Emma Power<br />
136<br />
animals – the outcome <strong>of</strong> these homemak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
practices – is a further notable absence <strong>in</strong> animal<br />
geographies as well as with<strong>in</strong> geographies <strong>of</strong><br />
home, a curious absence given that many <strong>of</strong> the<br />
animals that people come <strong>in</strong>to contact with <strong>in</strong><br />
the context <strong>of</strong> home are dead <strong>in</strong> the form <strong>of</strong> food<br />
and cloth<strong>in</strong>g, or will die as a direct result <strong>of</strong><br />
human activities rang<strong>in</strong>g from the euphemistically<br />
termed ‘pest removal’ to the euthanasia <strong>of</strong> loved<br />
pets (see Animal Studies Group 2006 for an<br />
exception that does exam<strong>in</strong>e kill<strong>in</strong>g practices,<br />
though does not exam<strong>in</strong>e domestic pests or<br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g practices). In this paper I br<strong>in</strong>g<br />
attention to relations between people and animal<br />
pests <strong>in</strong> the context <strong>of</strong> homemak<strong>in</strong>g, look<strong>in</strong>g at<br />
the normalised practice <strong>of</strong> pest removal with<strong>in</strong><br />
the home and the ways that it is represented and<br />
promoted through advertisements <strong>in</strong> Australian<br />
homemaker magaz<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
Pest removal processes typically entail the<br />
exclusion and kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals categorised as<br />
pests. <strong>The</strong>y are an essential component <strong>of</strong><br />
everyday homemak<strong>in</strong>g practice and are a key<br />
way that a house is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed as home.<br />
However, at the same time that these practices<br />
consolidate home, <strong>in</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g practices <strong>of</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>to the home pest removal also connects home<br />
and homemakers to practices (kill<strong>in</strong>g and death)<br />
that are practically and conceptually separate<br />
from the ideas <strong>of</strong> warmth, cos<strong>in</strong>ess and security<br />
that underp<strong>in</strong> representations <strong>of</strong> the domestic as<br />
a ‘homey’ space. <strong>The</strong> necessary violence is<br />
ignored through the necessity <strong>of</strong> the act. <strong>The</strong><br />
apparent tension between ideas <strong>of</strong> home and<br />
practices <strong>of</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g through pest removal are the<br />
focus <strong>of</strong> this paper. <strong>The</strong>se practices are<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ed through advertisements from popular<br />
Australian homemaker magaz<strong>in</strong>es from the<br />
1950s, 70s and 2000s to highlight the popular<br />
discourses that surround pest kill<strong>in</strong>g and the ways<br />
that they seek to normalise and make pest kill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
an essential part <strong>of</strong> everyday domestic practice.<br />
<strong>The</strong> ways that ‘pest’ animals are made available<br />
for kill<strong>in</strong>g and that kill<strong>in</strong>g is managed with<strong>in</strong><br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g are exam<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
<strong>Nature</strong>-culture separations <strong>in</strong><br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
In the western imag<strong>in</strong>ation home is a human<br />
place: a place <strong>of</strong> culture <strong>in</strong> opposition to nature<br />
and wildness, elements that are imag<strong>in</strong>ed to lie<br />
outside <strong>of</strong> home. This view <strong>of</strong> home has its orig<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> the Neolithic when home was first constituted <strong>in</strong><br />
opposition to nature, a construction captured <strong>in</strong><br />
the oppositional concepts <strong>of</strong> domus and agrios.<br />
Domus is literally the house-as-home, but also<br />
references the symbolic and material processes<br />
through which wildness was brought with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
sphere <strong>of</strong> human <strong>in</strong>fluence through practices<br />
around pottery, plants and animals. Agrios, by<br />
contrast, lay outside <strong>of</strong> home and was<br />
associated with mascul<strong>in</strong>ity and practices around<br />
hunt<strong>in</strong>g, weapons and death (Hodder 1990; and<br />
see Power 2012b). S<strong>in</strong>ce the Neolithic these<br />
separations have underp<strong>in</strong>ned understand<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
home as a safe, secure, and comfortable space,<br />
and provided practical and conceptual<br />
guidel<strong>in</strong>es for what does, and does not, belong <strong>in</strong><br />
home. <strong>The</strong>se separations do not simply exist, but<br />
rather are made through conceptual, symbolic<br />
and practical relations around nature and the<br />
nonhuman world, and <strong>in</strong>form homemak<strong>in</strong>g at<br />
multiple scales. At the scale <strong>of</strong> the house,<br />
elements perceived as not belong<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong><br />
home are excluded to create and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><br />
home as a safe, secure space.<br />
Separations between home and nature<br />
are most strongly articulated with<strong>in</strong> the modern<br />
home, which is separated from nature and the<br />
outside through an array <strong>of</strong> practices from the<br />
city scale and the <strong>in</strong>stitutional to the everyday.<br />
137<br />
Reflect<strong>in</strong>g the modernist ideal <strong>of</strong> separat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
spheres and functions, home – nature<br />
separations are written <strong>in</strong>to the city through<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g processes such as land zon<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
restrictions around the presence <strong>of</strong> livestock<br />
(Gaynor 1999; Philo 1998) and webs <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure that regulate the flow and supply <strong>of</strong><br />
natural resources such as energy and water<br />
(H<strong>in</strong>chliffe 1997; Kaika 2004). <strong>The</strong>se symbolic and<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutional relations with nature are consolidated<br />
<strong>in</strong> the material structures <strong>of</strong> home, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g walls<br />
and rooves, which at the most basic level<br />
manage the <strong>in</strong>terface between home and its<br />
immediate outside through the exclusion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
elements. Infrastructure that supplies water and<br />
electricity consolidates this separation, lend<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> home as a site that is autonomous from<br />
broader environmental rhythms (Kaika 2004),<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g seasonal weather changes and the<br />
diurnal rhythms <strong>of</strong> daylight and darkness (Power<br />
2009b), and facilitat<strong>in</strong>g the clean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> home.<br />
Such structures are further supported by everyday<br />
practices such as clean<strong>in</strong>g that strengthen and<br />
secure home – nature separations through the<br />
localised exclusion <strong>of</strong> undesirables such as dirt,<br />
pests and germs (Berner 1998; Ger and<br />
Yenicioglu 2004; Martens and Scott 2005). In<br />
effect<strong>in</strong>g this exclusion the modern home is<br />
made to appear as a secure space that is<br />
separate from nature and the outside world.<br />
Through the apparent exclusion <strong>of</strong> nature the<br />
material dwell<strong>in</strong>g place is transformed <strong>in</strong>to a<br />
home, a site that is shaped by feel<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
belong<strong>in</strong>g and security.<br />
Practices <strong>of</strong> clean<strong>in</strong>g are an important,<br />
localised practice through which nature-culture<br />
separations are produced and (re)secured with<strong>in</strong><br />
home, and are <strong>in</strong>strumental to the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance<br />
<strong>of</strong> home as a safe and clean space. Crucially,<br />
this everyday practice not only secures home, but<br />
can also compensate for leaks <strong>in</strong> home’s borders<br />
through the identification and removal <strong>of</strong><br />
undesirable and disorderly elements such as dust,<br />
pet excrement and hair, and <strong>in</strong>sects and other<br />
pests that are discovered with<strong>in</strong> home.<br />
Clean<strong>in</strong>g practices are historically and<br />
culturally situated. Understand<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> what is<br />
‘clean’ and hygienic, and conversely what<br />
constitutes ‘dirt’, <strong>in</strong> the domestic sphere, are<br />
culturally cont<strong>in</strong>gent and have changed over<br />
time (Douglas 1966). <strong>The</strong> discovery <strong>of</strong> the germ <strong>in</strong><br />
the late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century was a watershed <strong>in</strong><br />
these practices and has significantly impacted<br />
domestic practice, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g categorisations and<br />
perceptions <strong>of</strong> ‘pest’ species. In particular, the<br />
discovery <strong>of</strong> the germ affirmed the centrality <strong>of</strong>
Fig.1<br />
Advertisement for Cyclone Screenwire (AWW, October 13, 1954, p.68)<br />
clean<strong>in</strong>g to the production and ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong><br />
home and saw scientific concepts <strong>of</strong> germ theory<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong>form everyday domestic practice<br />
(Martens and Scott 2005), from clean<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
broader practices such as <strong>in</strong>terior design and<br />
furnish<strong>in</strong>g (Berner 1998). Historically these<br />
practices have had broad social and cultural<br />
implications. In addition to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the safety<br />
and security <strong>of</strong> home, effective and ‘correct’<br />
clean<strong>in</strong>g and home ma<strong>in</strong>tenance also speaks to<br />
the identity and character <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>habit<strong>in</strong>g<br />
household. In the Victorian era a clean home<br />
spoke to the moral fortitude <strong>of</strong> the household and<br />
was a sign <strong>of</strong> “competence and social<br />
respectability” (Berner 1998: 318). Such values<br />
have also been significant <strong>in</strong> the construction <strong>of</strong><br />
contemporary middle-class identities, with the<br />
appearance <strong>of</strong> order through a clean and tidy<br />
home becom<strong>in</strong>g central to this construction (see<br />
for example Berner 1998 on the Victorian era;<br />
Lauster 2010 for a discussion <strong>of</strong> American<br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g from the 1940s; and Dowl<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
Power <strong>in</strong> press; and Power 2012a for<br />
contemporary Australian practices).<br />
Germ theory prompted a pr<strong>of</strong>ound shift <strong>in</strong><br />
the focus <strong>of</strong> clean<strong>in</strong>g activities. While clean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
had historically been oriented toward dirt that was<br />
visible, the <strong>in</strong>visibility <strong>of</strong> the germ made clean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a complex task and saw a shift <strong>in</strong> the nature and<br />
orientation <strong>of</strong> clean<strong>in</strong>g practices. Products that<br />
dis<strong>in</strong>fect and destroy <strong>in</strong>visible organisms<br />
138<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> significance, but constituted a<br />
significant challenge to cleaners by draw<strong>in</strong>g<br />
attention to the presence <strong>of</strong> dirt with<strong>in</strong> even the<br />
most visually clean spaces. Marketers managed<br />
this tension by conflat<strong>in</strong>g visual order with an<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> germs. As Martens (2007: 39) has<br />
shown, ‘In a context where practitioners could not<br />
know that germs had been effectively<br />
eradicated, this priority emerged and fused <strong>in</strong><br />
complex ways with a specific aesthetic <strong>of</strong> sh<strong>in</strong>y,<br />
white, sparkl<strong>in</strong>g and pleasantly smell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>teriors.”<br />
In their research on clean<strong>in</strong>g products with<strong>in</strong><br />
homemaker magaz<strong>in</strong>es Martens and Scott (2006:<br />
53) show that pest animals became part <strong>of</strong> this<br />
narrative through products which targeted<br />
‘airborne’ germs, a concept they argue<br />
“suggests the equation <strong>of</strong> germs with <strong>in</strong>sects and/<br />
or dust, as germs are themselves not airborne<br />
and they do not leave an odour.” In this<br />
framework pests, as visual evidence <strong>of</strong> disorder<br />
with<strong>in</strong> home, become an appropriate target <strong>of</strong><br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g activity: they were no longer simply<br />
a nuisance or dirt <strong>in</strong> and <strong>of</strong> themselves, but also<br />
represented the presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>visible disorder <strong>in</strong><br />
the form <strong>of</strong> germs. Pest removal processes <strong>of</strong>fer a<br />
means <strong>of</strong> combat<strong>in</strong>g this threat through the reorder<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> home.<br />
However, the relationship between pest<br />
control and the production <strong>of</strong> home as a clean<br />
and safe space is not straightforward: pest control<br />
entails the use <strong>of</strong> chemicals that can themselves
Fig.2<br />
Advertisement for Morte<strong>in</strong> Plus (AWW, February 10th, 1954, p.44)<br />
be dangerous to human residents and even to<br />
the material structures <strong>of</strong> home. Martens and<br />
Scott’s (2006) work has been important <strong>in</strong><br />
underl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the significant threats that clean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
products import <strong>in</strong>to the home and po<strong>in</strong>ts to the<br />
related threats <strong>of</strong> pest oriented products, such as<br />
DDT, which was conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> most <strong>in</strong>secticides <strong>in</strong><br />
the 1950s. In addition to chemical dangers, and<br />
as explored <strong>in</strong> this paper, pest removal also<br />
connects home with a more conceptual danger:<br />
practices <strong>of</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g and death, which have been<br />
separated from home s<strong>in</strong>ce the Neolithic, appear<br />
as central homemak<strong>in</strong>g practices that are<br />
effected with<strong>in</strong> home and are at the heart <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> home as a secure space. This is<br />
a paradox which sees a dist<strong>in</strong>ctly unhomey<br />
activity situated at the heart <strong>of</strong> the home and<br />
challenges long-stand<strong>in</strong>g cultural<br />
conceptualisations <strong>of</strong> home as a site that is<br />
separate from kill<strong>in</strong>g practices. Historically<br />
practices <strong>of</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g have been materially and<br />
conceptually removed from home: <strong>in</strong> the early<br />
twentieth Century this separation was<br />
consolidated <strong>in</strong> western cities through the<br />
removal <strong>of</strong> slaughterhouses, which had formerly<br />
been located <strong>in</strong> the centre <strong>of</strong> town <strong>in</strong> many<br />
major cities. At the time, as Philo (1998) shows,<br />
these spaces were associated with the<br />
degeneration <strong>of</strong> the city through imag<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
connections with undesirable and purportedly<br />
139<br />
immoral activities such as prostitution and<br />
gambl<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> slaughterhouses was<br />
an important component <strong>of</strong> the modernisation <strong>of</strong><br />
the city and the concomitant production <strong>of</strong><br />
home. Such separations cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be culturally<br />
significant <strong>in</strong> the contemporary era. Today,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals and households that are associated<br />
with the kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> animals <strong>in</strong> the domestic space,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g for cultural/ religious purposes, are<br />
frequently viewed as backward, uncultured,<br />
dangerous and uncivilised (see for example<br />
Wolch, et al. 2000). Dom<strong>in</strong>ant constructions <strong>of</strong><br />
home and the perversity <strong>of</strong> animal kill<strong>in</strong>g belie the<br />
very significant place that pest removal practices<br />
assume with<strong>in</strong> everyday homemak<strong>in</strong>g. Despite<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the destruction <strong>of</strong> large numbers <strong>of</strong><br />
animals these practices are an <strong>in</strong>visible yet<br />
central component <strong>of</strong> the production and<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> home. <strong>The</strong> ways that these<br />
tensions are managed with<strong>in</strong> pest control<br />
market<strong>in</strong>g is the topic <strong>of</strong> the rema<strong>in</strong>der <strong>of</strong> the<br />
paper.<br />
Methods<br />
<strong>The</strong> paper draws on a critical <strong>in</strong>-depth review <strong>of</strong><br />
four popular Australian homemaker and women’s<br />
magaz<strong>in</strong>es, conducted as part <strong>of</strong> a broader<br />
project about animals and homemak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
practices. Reviewed were the Australian Women’s
Weekly (AWW), Australian House & Garden (AH&G)<br />
and Australian Home Beautiful (AHB) <strong>in</strong> the periods<br />
1951-55, 1971-75 and 2001-05, as well as Better<br />
Homes & Gardens (BH&G) 2001-05. <strong>The</strong><br />
magaz<strong>in</strong>es were chosen for their historical and<br />
contemporary significance and popularity <strong>in</strong><br />
Australia. Each magaz<strong>in</strong>e is a top sell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
magaz<strong>in</strong>e its category, the ‘women’s’ market for<br />
AWW and the ‘homemaker’ markets for AH&G,<br />
AHB and BH&G. <strong>The</strong> magaz<strong>in</strong>es are published<br />
monthly and all editions <strong>of</strong> magaz<strong>in</strong>es were<br />
analysed with<strong>in</strong> the study period. <strong>The</strong> exception is<br />
the Australian Women’s Weekly, which was<br />
published weekly <strong>in</strong> the first two time periods: <strong>in</strong><br />
these years only the summer editions (January –<br />
March and October – December) were reviewed<br />
as this was when the majority <strong>of</strong> animals as pests<br />
appeared.<br />
<strong>The</strong> reviewed magaz<strong>in</strong>es are diverse <strong>in</strong><br />
content. <strong>The</strong> AWW is oriented toward the<br />
‘women’s’ market. Traditionally it has had a strong<br />
focus on women’s roles as mother and<br />
homemaker; although this focus has broadened<br />
<strong>in</strong> the contemporary period themes around<br />
motherhood and homemak<strong>in</strong>g cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be<br />
strong. It is <strong>in</strong> this context that the majority <strong>of</strong><br />
references to animals, whether as pet or pest, are<br />
made. <strong>The</strong> AH&G and AHB are both home<br />
focused <strong>in</strong> the contemporary period with an<br />
emphasis on high end design and products,<br />
whereas <strong>in</strong> the 1950s their depictions <strong>of</strong> ‘ideal’<br />
homes were complemented with a stronger<br />
focus on Do It Yourself and ‘ord<strong>in</strong>ary’<br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g tasks. BH&G is the contemporary<br />
version <strong>of</strong> these magaz<strong>in</strong>es, provid<strong>in</strong>g more price<br />
accessible products and a strong emphasis on<br />
Do It Yourself tasks from home decorat<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
basic ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and build<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Magaz<strong>in</strong>es provide an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
<strong>in</strong>sightful w<strong>in</strong>dow <strong>in</strong>to popular constructions <strong>of</strong><br />
‘ideal’ homes as well as provid<strong>in</strong>g practical<br />
advice, advertisements and images that depict<br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g practices. As such, magaz<strong>in</strong>es<br />
have frequently been used <strong>in</strong> research about<br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g research <strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cultures <strong>of</strong> consumption and house design (Greig<br />
1995; Leslie and Reimer 2003; Lloyd and Johnson<br />
2004), constructions <strong>of</strong> housework and the<br />
‘housewife’ (Johnson and Lloyd 2004), and<br />
cultures and practices around kitchens and<br />
clean<strong>in</strong>g (Berner 1998; Martens and Scott 2004;<br />
2005; 2006). Studies that use home magaz<strong>in</strong>es<br />
typically <strong>of</strong>fer a discursive read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> magaz<strong>in</strong>es<br />
and document changes <strong>in</strong> the ways that they<br />
represent home over time (Blunt and Dowl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
2006: 54). This paper <strong>of</strong>fers a related but dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />
140<br />
read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> these magaz<strong>in</strong>es by foreground<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
place <strong>of</strong> nonhuman actors <strong>in</strong> the relations <strong>of</strong><br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g, with a particular focus on domestic<br />
pests <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>sects and rodents.<br />
Written and pictorial depictions <strong>of</strong> pest<br />
animals were the focus <strong>of</strong> the analysis.<br />
Advertisements and articles, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g editorials<br />
and reader advice columns that mentioned pest<br />
animals were transcribed and analysed, with a<br />
particular focus on advertis<strong>in</strong>g which is where the<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> references occurred. For the purposes<br />
<strong>of</strong> this paper, strategies that constructed <strong>in</strong>sects<br />
and other animals such as rodents as ‘pests’<br />
with<strong>in</strong> home and that emphasised the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> their removal and/ or kill<strong>in</strong>g were<br />
foregrounded, with particular attention given to<br />
the communicative practices and<br />
representations that sought to make the<br />
destruction <strong>of</strong> pest animals a normal, essential<br />
and urgent task. Advertisements typically<br />
appeared multiple times throughout the study<br />
period, appear<strong>in</strong>g on a monthly basis and also<br />
regularly reappear<strong>in</strong>g across a number <strong>of</strong> years.<br />
Discussions <strong>of</strong> these advertisements are<br />
referenced to one appearance <strong>in</strong> a particular<br />
magaz<strong>in</strong>e. Images and quotes from<br />
advertisements have been selected as typical<br />
examples. Across each period a small number <strong>of</strong><br />
brands predom<strong>in</strong>ated. Morte<strong>in</strong>, a company<br />
sell<strong>in</strong>g pest control chemicals, was the major<br />
advertiser across each period <strong>of</strong>ten advertis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
multiple times with<strong>in</strong> each reviewed edition.<br />
Represent<strong>in</strong>g pests and the urgency <strong>of</strong><br />
pest removal - Practical asymmetry<br />
A key way that advertis<strong>in</strong>g constructs the kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
pests as not just morally neutral but essential is by<br />
establish<strong>in</strong>g a practical asymmetry between<br />
human residents <strong>of</strong> home and pests as <strong>in</strong>vaders.<br />
Ideas about disease and the dirt<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
are key to these depictions, with pests<br />
constructed as a threat to the safety and security<br />
<strong>of</strong> home and <strong>of</strong> particular danger to children who<br />
are represented as <strong>in</strong>nocent and vulnerable.<br />
Depictions <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>sect pests such as the<br />
cockroach and fly most strongly reflect this<br />
theme. In the 1950s flies were the key organism<br />
depicted as responsible for import<strong>in</strong>g dirt, disease<br />
and death <strong>in</strong>to the domestic sphere. Images and<br />
text captured a sense <strong>of</strong> flies as wily and mobile<br />
creatures, br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g germs <strong>in</strong>to the house and<br />
connect<strong>in</strong>g food, toys and rubbish b<strong>in</strong>s as they<br />
flew through the home. <strong>The</strong>se fly-borne<br />
connections were shown to challenge home’s<br />
safety and security by contam<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g food and
Fig.3<br />
Advertisement for Morte<strong>in</strong> Plus (AWW, January 6th, 1954, p.36)<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g family members sick, with children<br />
particularly vulnerable to illness (see similarly<br />
Martens and Scott 2006 on germs and clean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
more broadly). Concerns about flies’ disease<br />
carry<strong>in</strong>g capacity proliferated across<br />
advertisements and ranged from the generalised<br />
concern that flies would br<strong>in</strong>g ‘sickness’ <strong>in</strong>to the<br />
home, to more specific concerns about<br />
gastroenteritis and polio that referenced broader<br />
public health campaigns and the perspectives <strong>of</strong><br />
health experts, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g doctors. Public health<br />
authorities were concerned about the spread <strong>of</strong><br />
polio at this time, but it was the product marketers<br />
that most readily mobilised and carried this fear<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the public doma<strong>in</strong>, depict<strong>in</strong>g flies as carriers<br />
<strong>of</strong> death rather than simply illness. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
representations were enacted across a range <strong>of</strong><br />
products from fly screen like barriers (59 per cent<br />
<strong>of</strong> advertisements) to poisons and baits (41 per<br />
cent <strong>of</strong> advertisements). An advert for AGCO<br />
Supascreens, for <strong>in</strong>stance, po<strong>in</strong>ted to the<br />
imm<strong>in</strong>ence <strong>of</strong> death and its place at the d<strong>in</strong>ner<br />
table – the conceptual heart <strong>of</strong> the 1950s family,<br />
observ<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
‘<strong>The</strong> filthy annoy<strong>in</strong>g fly can carry<br />
death to your d<strong>in</strong>ner table. Shut him<br />
out – for if he enters, typhoid and<br />
polio may be rid<strong>in</strong>g with him.’<br />
(AWW, Dec 23, 1953: 32).<br />
141<br />
Advertisements were never subtle. Headl<strong>in</strong>es like<br />
that accompany<strong>in</strong>g Cyclone’s popular<br />
screenwire product: “You may be revolted but<br />
that’s better than be<strong>in</strong>g dead!” (see Figure 1)<br />
were common, and sought to consolidate and<br />
build upon homemakers’ senses <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>security<br />
with<strong>in</strong> home.<br />
Allusions to the capacity <strong>of</strong> flies to carry<br />
death <strong>in</strong>to the home decl<strong>in</strong>ed over the reviewed<br />
periods <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with their decreased public health<br />
threat, and parallel<strong>in</strong>g the decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g prevalence<br />
<strong>of</strong> diseases such as polio. More recent<br />
advertisements shifted attention to cockroaches,<br />
with flies appear<strong>in</strong>g predom<strong>in</strong>ately amongst lists<br />
<strong>of</strong> other <strong>in</strong>sect pests. However, despite the shift <strong>in</strong><br />
the type <strong>of</strong> pest depicted, these adverts played<br />
on similarly exaggerated themes that placed<br />
emphasis on the violence caused by pests and<br />
their <strong>in</strong>evitable connection with disease (rather<br />
than death). All advertisements emphasised the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g cockroaches found <strong>in</strong>side<br />
the home and sett<strong>in</strong>g up poisonous barriers so<br />
that those outside could not enter. <strong>The</strong> mult<strong>in</strong>ational<br />
company Morte<strong>in</strong> was responsible for the<br />
vast majority <strong>of</strong> these advertisements, appear<strong>in</strong>g<br />
multiple times <strong>in</strong> key positions throughout<br />
magaz<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> each year and edition. As <strong>in</strong> the<br />
earlier periods the <strong>of</strong>fend<strong>in</strong>g pest was<br />
represented as disturb<strong>in</strong>g the cleanl<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong><br />
home, an outcome affected by connect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
home’s cleanest spaces with its dirtiest. A series <strong>of</strong>
Fig.4<br />
Advertisement for Morte<strong>in</strong> Plus (AWW, January 9th, 1953, p.68)<br />
advertisements for ‘Morte<strong>in</strong> home pest control<br />
products’, for example, observed that:<br />
<strong>The</strong> worst th<strong>in</strong>g about cockroaches is<br />
that they can be everywhere. Even <strong>in</strong><br />
the cleanest <strong>of</strong> kitchens. Nocturnal<br />
creatures, they scuttle about after dark<br />
feed<strong>in</strong>g on anyth<strong>in</strong>g from garbage to<br />
sewerage and even dead sk<strong>in</strong> cell<br />
debris. (Morte<strong>in</strong>, AHB, January 2001,<br />
p131).<br />
DIY Pest control: Advice from pest<br />
Control, Reg Mercer, on how to target<br />
outdoor problem areas and stop pests<br />
from com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to your home. […]<br />
Cockroaches: Feed<strong>in</strong>g on garbage<br />
and debris, cockroaches spread<br />
bacteria that can cause food<br />
poison<strong>in</strong>g and dysentery, and their<br />
dropp<strong>in</strong>gs can trigger asthma attacks.<br />
(Morte<strong>in</strong>, BH&G, March 2002, p111).<br />
PEST CONTROL MADE EASY:<br />
PREVENT OUTDOOR CRAWLING INSECTS<br />
COMING INSIDE NO MATTER WHAT<br />
YOUR CRAWLING INSECT PROBLEM<br />
ANTS, SPIDERS OR COCKROACHES<br />
MORTEIN HAS AN EFFECTIVE SOLUTION<br />
142<br />
BEST OF ALL, NEW PRODUCTS MEAN<br />
YOU CAN KEEP PESTS OUTDOORS,<br />
WHERE THEY BELONG! Is there anyone<br />
who doesn’t f<strong>in</strong>d cockroaches<br />
disgust<strong>in</strong>g? Not only do they seem<br />
<strong>in</strong>destructible, but they spread disease<br />
and germs, and can even trigger<br />
asthma attacks. <strong>The</strong>re are two types <strong>of</strong><br />
roaches American and German and<br />
your house doesn’t need either.<br />
Luckily, Morte<strong>in</strong> can help you elim<strong>in</strong>ate<br />
cockroaches. (Morte<strong>in</strong>, AH&G, March<br />
2002, p131).<br />
As <strong>in</strong> these three examples, cockroaches were<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ked with germs and disease that orig<strong>in</strong>ate from<br />
sites that are either practically or conceptually<br />
outside <strong>of</strong> home. <strong>The</strong> former appears through<br />
broad statements such as <strong>in</strong> the third<br />
advertisement that pests are com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> from<br />
outside; the latter appears through connections<br />
that are charted between pest animals and<br />
unhomey spaces and products with<strong>in</strong> home,<br />
such as garbage and sewerage.<br />
Across each period connections with<br />
disease are substantiated through highly<br />
evocative descriptions <strong>of</strong> the very unhomey<br />
places that pest animals visit. Advertisements play<br />
on the imag<strong>in</strong>ed geographies <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>sect lives to<br />
chart connections between sites <strong>of</strong> refuse and<br />
waste – particularly garbage b<strong>in</strong>s, tips and<br />
manure – and homey, family spaces such as<br />
kitchen benches, food and even children (see<br />
Figure 2).<br />
Stop that fly - he’s<br />
dangerous …<br />
Every fly is a dirt-and-disease-laden<br />
menace. His favourite crawl<strong>in</strong>g places<br />
… outside your home … are<br />
loathsome. His hairy legs are efficient<br />
<strong>in</strong>struments for collect<strong>in</strong>g and carry<strong>in</strong>g<br />
filth and germs. (Cyclone screenwire,<br />
AWW, Feb 24, 1951: 56).<br />
I’m safe beh<strong>in</strong>d SCREEN WIRE<br />
Flies breed <strong>in</strong> refuse and filth and br<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>to your home the germs <strong>of</strong> gastroenteritis<br />
and other dangerous<br />
diseases. You’re right to be frightened<br />
every time a fly touches Baby or the<br />
family foods. Just ask your doctor!<br />
(Cyclone Screenwire AWW 1954)<br />
As <strong>in</strong> these and previous examples, notions <strong>of</strong><br />
home as a secure space <strong>in</strong> opposition to a<br />
dangerous outside world are evoked. Flies were
Fig.5<br />
Advertisement for Morte<strong>in</strong> Plus (AWW, March 16th, 1953, p.49)<br />
connect<strong>in</strong>g home to spaces “outside your<br />
home”, and br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g germs “<strong>in</strong>to your home”;<br />
cockroaches similarly are “outdoor crawl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>sects” that come from “outdoor problem areas”<br />
(see examples <strong>in</strong> previous paragraph). Screen<strong>in</strong>g<br />
products and chemical boundary sprays were<br />
promoted as the first l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> defence aga<strong>in</strong>st this<br />
threat, secur<strong>in</strong>g home’s leaky borders aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
<strong>in</strong>sect pests and extend<strong>in</strong>g the homemakers’<br />
reach through time and space so that they could<br />
relax with<strong>in</strong> the security <strong>of</strong> the domestic. Topical<br />
fly sprays (and more recently cockroach sprays)<br />
consolidate these borders; they are promoted as<br />
enabl<strong>in</strong>g the homemaker to quickly and<br />
efficiently kill any pest that manages to cross the<br />
border <strong>in</strong>to home. Associated images depict<br />
homemakers arm<strong>in</strong>g themselves and deploy<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cans <strong>of</strong> spray aga<strong>in</strong>st flies <strong>in</strong> the 1950s and<br />
cockroaches <strong>in</strong> the 2000s (examples <strong>of</strong> these are<br />
<strong>in</strong> Figures 2, 4 and 6).<br />
Magaz<strong>in</strong>e representations suggest that the<br />
power <strong>of</strong> domestic pests is <strong>in</strong> their capacity to<br />
rupture and contam<strong>in</strong>ate home through<br />
connections to sites <strong>of</strong> disorder, which <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
rubbish t<strong>in</strong>s and bathrooms, through dra<strong>in</strong>s and<br />
sewerage: even as the homemaker identifies<br />
143<br />
waste products and places them <strong>in</strong> sites <strong>of</strong><br />
disposal the pest disrupts this activity, br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g<br />
waste back <strong>in</strong>to circulation with<strong>in</strong> the home as it<br />
travels the domestic space. Through this activity<br />
pests highlight the presence <strong>of</strong> waste products<br />
with<strong>in</strong> home, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those shed from an<br />
unstable human body. In touch<strong>in</strong>g this waste and<br />
travell<strong>in</strong>g through the home pests are shown to<br />
connect waste with the productive and central<br />
sites <strong>of</strong> domesticity such as the kitchen, food<br />
preparation areas, and even family members. At<br />
the same time advertisements, and the activities<br />
<strong>of</strong> pests themselves, highlight the capacity <strong>of</strong><br />
home to not just accommodate, but also nourish<br />
the Other. Capable <strong>of</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g and provid<strong>in</strong>g<br />
nutrition to pests the domestic is an always less<br />
than secure and more than human space, an<br />
idea drawn upon to build and consolidate the<br />
homemaker’s sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>security and anxiety.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, the natural and animalistic dimensions <strong>of</strong><br />
the human body are foregrounded. Even the<br />
most cultured human body is at risk and<br />
vulnerable to <strong>in</strong>visible germs that penetrate from<br />
outside; the body also creates dirt and disorder<br />
as it sheds sk<strong>in</strong> cells and other forms <strong>of</strong> waste<br />
which are themselves shown to have a
Fig.6<br />
Advertisement for Morte<strong>in</strong> Plus (AWW, January 19th, 1955, p.35)<br />
productive capacity <strong>in</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g the life<br />
opportunities <strong>of</strong> pest species who consume them.<br />
Highlight<strong>in</strong>g these flows, <strong>in</strong>sect pests foreground<br />
the always limited reach <strong>of</strong> human culture over<br />
the boundaries <strong>of</strong> the body. In travell<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
connect<strong>in</strong>g the conceptual and material spaces<br />
<strong>of</strong> home, the human body and waste sites, pests<br />
l<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong>side with outside, culture with nature,<br />
challeng<strong>in</strong>g the homemakers control over home,<br />
and disrupt<strong>in</strong>g perceptions <strong>of</strong> home’s autonomy<br />
and safety. <strong>The</strong>se actions afford <strong>in</strong>sect pests a<br />
power over the human homemaker so that they<br />
constitute a constant and <strong>in</strong>visible threat to<br />
human homemak<strong>in</strong>g activity and the security <strong>of</strong><br />
home, an asymmetrical threat that these<br />
creatures hold over all but the most vigilant<br />
homemaker. <strong>The</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> pest animals appears<br />
as the natural and responsible endpo<strong>in</strong>t, a way <strong>of</strong><br />
restor<strong>in</strong>g the security <strong>of</strong> home and protect<strong>in</strong>g its<br />
<strong>in</strong>habitants.<br />
Scalar threat<br />
A second and related way that pests such as<br />
<strong>in</strong>sects are substantiated as a significant threat<br />
with<strong>in</strong> home <strong>in</strong>volves the use <strong>of</strong> exaggerated and<br />
out <strong>of</strong> scale depictions that highlight the revolt<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
unfamiliar and abject qualities <strong>of</strong> these pests.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se depictions play with numbers and scale,<br />
144<br />
associat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividual nonhumans with a<br />
population threat, connect<strong>in</strong>g visible pests with<br />
hidden hordes, and provid<strong>in</strong>g large scale images<br />
<strong>of</strong> microscopic creatures.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first type <strong>of</strong> representations are<br />
exaggerated, anthropomorphised and cartoonish<br />
depictions that foreground the cann<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>sect pest and its love <strong>of</strong> human spaces. Flies <strong>in</strong><br />
particular are shown to enjoy the home and the<br />
easy opportunities that it affords. As the human<br />
homemaker secures, tidies and cleans home, the<br />
fly delights <strong>in</strong> its destruction. Figure 3 is an<br />
example <strong>of</strong> these types <strong>of</strong> depictions. Here the fly<br />
is shown magnified and as a chariot for germs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> reader is rem<strong>in</strong>ded that “Germ warfare isn’t a<br />
myth!”, a reference to broader geopolitical<br />
concerns and a rem<strong>in</strong>der that pest removal with<strong>in</strong><br />
home is a vital task. <strong>The</strong> germs themselves are<br />
depicted with unpleasant and evil gr<strong>in</strong>s. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
anthropomorphised features, coupled with their<br />
gesticulations <strong>in</strong> the direction that the fly is<br />
head<strong>in</strong>g, afford a sense that their journey <strong>in</strong>to the<br />
home is planned and <strong>in</strong>tentional. Another<br />
significant example is Louie the Fly, a human-like<br />
creature <strong>in</strong>troduced by Morte<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1957. Although<br />
rarely appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the reviewed pr<strong>in</strong>t depictions<br />
Louie is important to consider due to his<br />
significant position <strong>in</strong> the public imag<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong><br />
Australia, which most recently placed him at the
centre <strong>of</strong> a large social media campaign <strong>in</strong> early<br />
2012 (and see Morte<strong>in</strong>’s website for historic and<br />
contemporary depictions<br />
http://www.morte<strong>in</strong>.com.au/louie_the_fly.php).<br />
Louie is the epitome <strong>of</strong> the canny pest. He is<br />
afforded <strong>in</strong>tentionality and a wilful<br />
destructiveness; he has chosen to be <strong>in</strong> the home<br />
and delights <strong>in</strong> the havoc and sickness that he<br />
can wreak <strong>in</strong> this space. Louie’s sneak<strong>in</strong>ess is<br />
effected through his very personable yet dirty<br />
character and appearance. His large eyes look<br />
out at the reader, and he is depicted with a<br />
sneaky gr<strong>in</strong> and <strong>of</strong>ten carry<strong>in</strong>g a piece <strong>of</strong> rubbish<br />
picked out <strong>of</strong> the garbage: a vagrant with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
domestic. In endow<strong>in</strong>g pest animals with a<br />
thoughtfulness and <strong>in</strong>tentionality advertisements<br />
afford pests a wilfulness, which establishes them<br />
as a worthy and significant foe with<strong>in</strong> home, one<br />
whom it would be foolhardy to ignore. <strong>The</strong>se are<br />
smart pests who threaten to outwit the human<br />
homemaker. Despite their personal charm, they<br />
seem <strong>in</strong>tent on liv<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> home and express<br />
delight <strong>in</strong> their capacity to connect home to dirt<br />
and disease.<br />
Related depictions magnify the <strong>in</strong>sect<br />
form, foreground<strong>in</strong>g their bodily Otherness<br />
through text and images. Pests are either shown <strong>in</strong><br />
large form, or <strong>in</strong> multiple. Figure 4, an<br />
advertisement for Morte<strong>in</strong> Plus which appeared <strong>in</strong><br />
1953, is characteristic <strong>of</strong> these advertisements. In<br />
this image the fly is magnified to capture the<br />
bristly hair that protrudes from its body, as well as<br />
its large, multiple eyes. Such depictions highlight<br />
the essential nonhuman nature <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>sect.<br />
Similar adverts build upon visual representations<br />
with detailed and evocative textual descriptions<br />
that capture ‘disgust<strong>in</strong>g’ bodily behaviours. <strong>The</strong><br />
descriptions seen <strong>in</strong> Figure 1, and reproduced<br />
below, are characteristic <strong>of</strong> this practice.<br />
Each fly is covered with myriads <strong>of</strong><br />
t<strong>in</strong>y, sticky hairs and each hair can<br />
carry enough <strong>in</strong>fection to wipe out<br />
your whole family.<br />
<strong>The</strong> eat<strong>in</strong>g habits <strong>of</strong> flies are even<br />
more disgust<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> moment the<br />
toothless fly lands on your food, it<br />
vomits an <strong>in</strong>fection-charged fluid to<br />
liquefy it before eat<strong>in</strong>g, then sucks<br />
through its hairy, syphon-like mouth.<br />
Cyclone Screenwire (AWW, October<br />
13, 1954, p68).<br />
<strong>The</strong> first element <strong>of</strong> this description establishes the<br />
magnitude <strong>of</strong> the threat posed by the flies’ ‘t<strong>in</strong>y’<br />
145<br />
hairs which, although <strong>in</strong>visible to the human eye,<br />
are charged with the power to eradicate an<br />
entire human family. <strong>The</strong> second element <strong>of</strong> this<br />
description plays with the Otherness <strong>of</strong> the fly: its<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> teeth, siphon like mouth and practice <strong>of</strong><br />
regurgitat<strong>in</strong>g its food. <strong>The</strong>se descriptions seek to<br />
generate senses <strong>of</strong> disgust and horror <strong>in</strong> the<br />
human reader and lend the fly an otherworldly<br />
edge, a creature not just physically dist<strong>in</strong>ct from<br />
humans, but also culturally. <strong>The</strong> idea that food<br />
should be liquefied, regurgitated and then re<strong>in</strong>gested<br />
stands clearly outside <strong>of</strong> western cultural<br />
constructions <strong>of</strong> appropriate eat<strong>in</strong>g practices. It<br />
also plays with human horror about non-solid,<br />
leaky and wet bodily forms and processes (see for<br />
example Longhurst 2001). <strong>The</strong>se descriptions are<br />
particularly effective <strong>in</strong> establish<strong>in</strong>g flies and<br />
cockroaches as out-<strong>of</strong>-place by activat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
senses <strong>of</strong> disgust and fear that research has<br />
shown characterise human encounters with these<br />
types <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>vertebrates (for example Arr<strong>in</strong>dell 2000;<br />
Bjerke and Ostdahl 2004; Kellert 1993).<br />
A second and related technique employs<br />
‘iceberg’ representations, where one visible or<br />
even partially visible ‘enemy’ is sure sign <strong>of</strong> a<br />
takeover. An example <strong>of</strong> this is an advertisement<br />
that appeared throughout editions published <strong>in</strong><br />
the 2000s promot<strong>in</strong>g Morte<strong>in</strong>’s rat kill products.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se ‘rat packs’ are designed to be thrown <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the ceil<strong>in</strong>g and floor cavities <strong>of</strong> homes, where the<br />
rat would encounter and eat them and then die<br />
after receiv<strong>in</strong>g a fatal dose <strong>of</strong> poison. <strong>The</strong><br />
advertisements for this product are strik<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong>y<br />
use a bright, fire eng<strong>in</strong>e red background which<br />
covers a full glossy magaz<strong>in</strong>e page.<br />
Superimposed on this background is the foot and<br />
tail <strong>of</strong> a rat, protrud<strong>in</strong>g from the edge <strong>of</strong> the page<br />
as though the creature has been caught as it<br />
scurries back <strong>in</strong>to its secret, hidden liv<strong>in</strong>g spaces.<br />
<strong>The</strong> image <strong>of</strong> the rat captures the scaly otherness<br />
<strong>of</strong> its tail, dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g this animal from a<br />
domestic pet or any associated imag<strong>in</strong>ary <strong>of</strong> a<br />
cute and furry creature. <strong>The</strong> accompany<strong>in</strong>g text<br />
states simply “Makes you want to hurl”, allud<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
the way that the poison pack is hurled, or thrown,<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the ceil<strong>in</strong>g space, and us<strong>in</strong>g the vernacular<br />
term for vomit to capture the sense <strong>of</strong> horror and<br />
disgust that a homemaker would feel upon<br />
sight<strong>in</strong>g one <strong>of</strong> these animals <strong>in</strong> the home. <strong>The</strong><br />
advertisement also operates with<strong>in</strong> the context <strong>of</strong><br />
the broader magaz<strong>in</strong>e: the alarm<strong>in</strong>g red <strong>of</strong> the<br />
background image stands out aga<strong>in</strong>st the<br />
otherwise neutral surround<strong>in</strong>g images which,<br />
through advertisements and editorial pieces,<br />
capture and promote the ‘ideal’ home. This<br />
advertisement and the sudden appearance <strong>of</strong>
the scaly rat seek to disturb the reader, rem<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the many lim<strong>in</strong>al spaces and creatures that<br />
are part <strong>of</strong> home and <strong>in</strong> do<strong>in</strong>g so generat<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>security and disgust. This is a visual and<br />
very catch<strong>in</strong>g rem<strong>in</strong>der <strong>of</strong> the unhomey spaces<br />
and creatures that are part <strong>of</strong> home. Similar<br />
advertisements focused on cockroaches,<br />
allud<strong>in</strong>g to their: seem<strong>in</strong>gly endless number <strong>of</strong><br />
‘friends’ lurk<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> cracks and crevices, beh<strong>in</strong>d the<br />
fridge, underneath the cupboards etc. (Morte<strong>in</strong><br />
and Australian Home Beautiful promotion, AHB,<br />
Jan 2001, p131), and <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g products that “get<br />
rid <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>sects you can see and those you can’t.”<br />
(Morte<strong>in</strong> DIY control bomb, Feb 2005, p106). In<br />
these types <strong>of</strong> advertisements, visual evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
pests is connected to home’s lim<strong>in</strong>al places, the<br />
ceil<strong>in</strong>g and wall cavities and sub-floor spaces that<br />
house electrical, water and waste <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
and threaten to rem<strong>in</strong>d the homemaker <strong>of</strong><br />
home’s connection and dependence upon sites<br />
<strong>of</strong> nature and waste outside home. <strong>The</strong> hidden<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> home are foregrounded to play on the<br />
uncanny sense that these spaces and unhomey<br />
pests evoke (see Kaika 2004 and ; Power 2009a<br />
for a broader discussion <strong>of</strong> these spaces as the<br />
domestic uncanny).<br />
A scientised death: Speed, time and<br />
cl<strong>in</strong>ical precision<br />
A third set <strong>of</strong> representations focus on the<br />
practice <strong>of</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g. Interest<strong>in</strong>gly although terms like<br />
kill<strong>in</strong>g and death are widely utilised with<strong>in</strong><br />
advertisements, and illustrations <strong>of</strong> dead <strong>in</strong>sect<br />
pests are provided, the practice and process <strong>of</strong><br />
the death itself is absent. Further, the techniques<br />
suggest a kill<strong>in</strong>g that is largely hands <strong>of</strong>f: they do<br />
not require that people come <strong>in</strong>to contact (and<br />
hence conversation) with the <strong>in</strong>sect pests. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
are purified accounts <strong>of</strong> the kill<strong>in</strong>g process that<br />
make the moment <strong>of</strong> contact <strong>in</strong>visible. This is <strong>in</strong><br />
contrast to the <strong>of</strong>ten very embodied and sensory<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> an actual kill<strong>in</strong>g: the bloody residue<br />
<strong>of</strong> a mosquito’s last victim, or the cockroach: it’s<br />
popp<strong>in</strong>g crunch when squashed, or its body<br />
slowed after walk<strong>in</strong>g over a barrier poison, or <strong>in</strong> an<br />
animated frenzy after be<strong>in</strong>g misted with a<br />
contact spray.<br />
Advertisements create a sense <strong>of</strong> urgency<br />
around pest removal practices through the<br />
evocative descriptions <strong>of</strong> pest’s otherness, their<br />
sneak<strong>in</strong>ess and threat to home, as outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the<br />
previous sections <strong>of</strong> this paper. <strong>The</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> fear<br />
and <strong>in</strong>security ideally generated <strong>in</strong> the<br />
homemaker are designed to precipitate <strong>in</strong>to the<br />
purchase <strong>of</strong> pest removal products and their<br />
deployment with<strong>in</strong> home. Marv<strong>in</strong> (2006) provides<br />
146<br />
a useful frame for understand<strong>in</strong>g these kill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
practices, counterpos<strong>in</strong>g what he terms ‘cold’<br />
and ‘hot’ kill<strong>in</strong>gs. <strong>The</strong> former are practices<br />
associated with <strong>in</strong>dustrial agriculture and medical<br />
laboratories where animals are removed from<br />
their liv<strong>in</strong>g space to the highly ordered kill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
spaces <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustrial slaughterhouse or<br />
laboratory. <strong>The</strong>se places “are governed by rules,<br />
rout<strong>in</strong>es, repetition and predictability related to<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imiz<strong>in</strong>g suffer<strong>in</strong>g but more importantly related<br />
to efficiency and hygiene.” (Marv<strong>in</strong> 2006: 16).<br />
‘Hot’ kill<strong>in</strong>gs by contrast are associated with the<br />
kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> pests and are argued to be driven by<br />
“emotional reactions rang<strong>in</strong>g from annoyance or<br />
anger to repulsion and disgust.” (Marv<strong>in</strong> 2006: 17).<br />
Marv<strong>in</strong> couches these ‘hot’ kill<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> a language<br />
<strong>of</strong> violence, not<strong>in</strong>g that the kill<strong>in</strong>g is “usually<br />
expressed <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> destruction, removal,<br />
eradication, exterm<strong>in</strong>ation, annihilation, or<br />
cleans<strong>in</strong>g” and uses “a variety <strong>of</strong> weapons, traps,<br />
poisons, and other chemicals, and they may<br />
even use other animals for this purpose” (Marv<strong>in</strong><br />
2006: 17). <strong>The</strong>se ‘hot’ kill<strong>in</strong>gs are characterised by<br />
passion, aggression and pursuit and stand <strong>in</strong><br />
clear dist<strong>in</strong>ction to the “unemotional, cl<strong>in</strong>ical<br />
kill<strong>in</strong>g” that characterise the former set <strong>of</strong><br />
practices.<br />
Representations <strong>of</strong> pest kill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
homemaker magaz<strong>in</strong>es are <strong>of</strong> a third, or<br />
<strong>in</strong>termediate type that comb<strong>in</strong>e Marv<strong>in</strong>’s<br />
categories. <strong>The</strong> motivation for the kill<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
represented as be<strong>in</strong>g underp<strong>in</strong>ned and<br />
necessitated by a sense <strong>of</strong> fear, <strong>in</strong>security and<br />
disgust, a hot kill<strong>in</strong>g that pits homemaker aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
a destructive and pollut<strong>in</strong>g pest. However, the<br />
practice and moment <strong>of</strong> death is framed as one<br />
<strong>of</strong> cl<strong>in</strong>ical, scientific coldness: a very modern<br />
process <strong>in</strong> which animal and human are held<br />
apart by safe, scientific and modern products.<br />
Advertisements across each period employ this<br />
idea though it is framed differently. Adverts <strong>in</strong> the<br />
1950s emphasised products as new, scientific<br />
and modern. <strong>The</strong>se terms were used widely<br />
throughout advertisements and the specific<br />
chemicals employed <strong>in</strong> products were identified<br />
to the reader. By contrast, more recent<br />
advertisements focused on the cl<strong>in</strong>ical and tidy<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> the process <strong>of</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g, while connections<br />
with science such as through the chemical<br />
make-up <strong>of</strong> products is a notable absence. This<br />
perhaps reflects the grow<strong>in</strong>g public distrust <strong>of</strong><br />
chemical use with<strong>in</strong> home. Instead, the<br />
<strong>in</strong>telligence <strong>of</strong> products is foregrounded, with<br />
emphasis on the capacity <strong>of</strong> poisons and baits to<br />
attract pests.<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g on contrasts between motivation<br />
and practice advertisements across each period
construct subject positions that counterpose ‘hot’<br />
and ‘cold’ kill<strong>in</strong>gs. In the 1950s these position the<br />
female homemaker as fearful mother. An<br />
example <strong>of</strong> this is seen <strong>in</strong> Figure 5 with its headl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
“every wise mother is afraid <strong>of</strong> flies”. <strong>The</strong>se types<br />
<strong>of</strong> advertisements encouraged a ‘hot’ kill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
motivated by feel<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> fear, hate and even<br />
dread. <strong>The</strong> second subject position was that <strong>of</strong><br />
the mother as armed warrior. As seen for example<br />
<strong>in</strong> Figure 6 these advertisements created the<br />
mother as armed warrior tak<strong>in</strong>g a stand aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />
pests as her baby sleeps. Aga<strong>in</strong> motivated by a<br />
hatred, the kill<strong>in</strong>g itself here is shown as cold,<br />
necessary, calculated and pre-meditated, a<br />
kill<strong>in</strong>g that makes use <strong>of</strong> the most modern<br />
products. More recent advertisements create this<br />
<strong>in</strong>terplay <strong>in</strong> a different way, counterpos<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
panic that would be experienced if the house<br />
was not correctly and thoroughly protected<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>in</strong>cursions with the recommended<br />
cl<strong>in</strong>ical, calculated and multi-pronged, multilayered<br />
approach where homemakers are<br />
prompted to <strong>in</strong>stil a range <strong>of</strong> barrier sprays<br />
alongside traps, surface sprays and quick knock<br />
‘em down sprays as a last l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> defence <strong>in</strong> the<br />
homemak<strong>in</strong>g war. One Morte<strong>in</strong> promotion, for<br />
example, describes the American Cockroach as<br />
a creature “that can send a normally placid<br />
homeowner <strong>in</strong>to a roach-whack<strong>in</strong>g frenzy”, a<br />
panic that contrasts with the calm possible if a<br />
recommended comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> barrier sprays,<br />
surface sprays, traps, bombs and baits are<br />
employed with<strong>in</strong> the home (Morte<strong>in</strong>, AHB, January<br />
2001, p131). <strong>The</strong>se layers <strong>of</strong> poisonous barriers<br />
co-create home, mirror<strong>in</strong>g and solidify<strong>in</strong>g its<br />
material form through their chemical boundaries<br />
and <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g to seal even the most microscopic<br />
<strong>of</strong> places aga<strong>in</strong>st the pest <strong>in</strong>cursion. Aga<strong>in</strong>,<br />
although <strong>in</strong>spired by a fear or dread the process<br />
itself is disembodied and mediated by chemical<br />
products that are shown to safely and silently<br />
destroy the household pest.<br />
<strong>The</strong> scientised and modern nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
kill<strong>in</strong>g process is a key tactic through which kill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
practices are established as appropriate with<strong>in</strong><br />
home. <strong>The</strong>y purport to separate the homemaker<br />
from the practice and moment <strong>of</strong> kill<strong>in</strong>g through<br />
chemicals that are deployed remotely. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
separate the homemaker from the kill<strong>in</strong>g through<br />
time and space: kill<strong>in</strong>g occurs <strong>in</strong> the hidden<br />
spaces that pest animals <strong>in</strong>habit and is affected<br />
around the clock <strong>in</strong> the absence <strong>of</strong> the human<br />
homemaker. <strong>The</strong> disembodied nature <strong>of</strong> this<br />
process is critical, afford<strong>in</strong>g a detached<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> the kill<strong>in</strong>g. In this process success is<br />
gauged circuitously through an absence <strong>of</strong> pests<br />
147<br />
and the good health <strong>of</strong> human residents rather<br />
than through the sight<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> dead animals.<br />
Conclusions<br />
As previous research has shown <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />
practices <strong>of</strong> clean<strong>in</strong>g and germ management,<br />
popular market<strong>in</strong>g activities have kept the pest<br />
threat at the forefront <strong>of</strong> domestic concern. <strong>The</strong><br />
‘iceberg’ threat is perhaps the most <strong>in</strong>sidious and<br />
effective <strong>of</strong> these representations, equat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual pest <strong>in</strong>cursions with vast numbers <strong>of</strong><br />
hidden pests and the dis<strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>of</strong> home. In<br />
these depictions the presence <strong>of</strong> one <strong>in</strong>sect pest<br />
signifies these hordes and highlights the limitations<br />
<strong>of</strong> human control over home and the easy<br />
permeability <strong>of</strong> home’s borders. In this context<br />
pests are creatures that unstitch home,<br />
highlight<strong>in</strong>g the constructed and always <strong>in</strong>secure<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> boundaries between home and its<br />
dangerous and disordered outside. More than<br />
this, they po<strong>in</strong>t to home’s enormous underbelly –<br />
the lim<strong>in</strong>al spaces that accommodate pest<br />
species with<strong>in</strong> home and allow these animals to<br />
feed <strong>of</strong>f the home itself. Pests represent the<br />
<strong>in</strong>adequacies <strong>of</strong> homemak<strong>in</strong>g and clean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
activity, signify<strong>in</strong>g the presence <strong>of</strong> dirt with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
domestic, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the dirt<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> the human<br />
itself. Kill<strong>in</strong>g practices thus become an essential<br />
component <strong>of</strong> homemak<strong>in</strong>g, a tension that is<br />
managed through reference to the scientific and<br />
modern nature <strong>of</strong> pest removal processes and<br />
through practices that separate human from pest<br />
by facilitat<strong>in</strong>g disembodied and detached<br />
kill<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> gender politics <strong>of</strong> pest removal<br />
advertis<strong>in</strong>g are strik<strong>in</strong>g. Advertisements are<br />
targeted at women and construct two key subject<br />
positions: the woman as fearful and the woman<br />
as warrior. Women’s role as homemaker is<br />
activated through each <strong>of</strong> these positions which<br />
place responsibility for pest management and<br />
home protection <strong>in</strong> the hands <strong>of</strong> the mother. <strong>The</strong><br />
mascul<strong>in</strong>e subject position has not been<br />
discussed <strong>in</strong> this paper, but is significant <strong>in</strong><br />
position<strong>in</strong>g the male figure <strong>in</strong> three key roles. First,<br />
the mascul<strong>in</strong>e subject position is tied to DIY home<br />
construction: men are depicted as fathers and<br />
husbands who have the responsibility to choose<br />
construction products that are pest resistant to<br />
ensure a solid and stable home environment.<br />
Second, men are positioned as expert through a<br />
range <strong>of</strong> advertisements: they are the scientist,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional pest controller and public health<br />
authority rolled <strong>in</strong>to one who warn women about<br />
the risks that pests afford with<strong>in</strong> home. Third, and
perhaps most <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>gly, pests themselves are<br />
gendered as male. Advertisements refer to pests<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g male pronouns such as ‘him’ and ‘he’ (see<br />
for example Figure 2) and, as shown <strong>in</strong> Figure 4<br />
even as a ‘guy’. <strong>The</strong> threat to home is a<br />
mascul<strong>in</strong>e one. This connects with broader<br />
discourses <strong>of</strong> home as a domestic and fem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e<br />
space that is separate from the outside and<br />
‘public’ spaces, which are associated with men<br />
and mascul<strong>in</strong>ity. <strong>The</strong> pest as male <strong>of</strong>fers an<br />
enhanced threat to the domestic, a threat that<br />
husbands and fathers must combat through the<br />
provision <strong>of</strong> a solid and stable home and that<br />
women as mothers and wives must combat<br />
through ongo<strong>in</strong>g and vigilant homemak<strong>in</strong>g. In this<br />
way pest advertis<strong>in</strong>g connects with broader<br />
discourses <strong>of</strong> home and homemak<strong>in</strong>g, perhaps<br />
underp<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g the efficacy <strong>of</strong> these<br />
advertisements and the importance <strong>of</strong> pest<br />
control with<strong>in</strong> everyday understand<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> home.<br />
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Emma Power is a Lecturer <strong>in</strong> Geography and Urban Studies at the<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Western Sydney.<br />
Emma is a cultural geographer. Her research exam<strong>in</strong>es urban<br />
natures, everyday practices <strong>of</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>ability and homemak<strong>in</strong>g, and<br />
human – animal relations. She teaches cultural and social<br />
geographies, human-nature relations and urban susta<strong>in</strong>ability and<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g as part <strong>of</strong> the Bachelor <strong>of</strong> Social Science and Master <strong>of</strong><br />
Urban Management and Plann<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Her PhD titled ‘A more-than-human geography <strong>of</strong> homemak<strong>in</strong>g’<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ed the ways that people <strong>in</strong>teract with nature and nonhuman<br />
animals <strong>in</strong> the home and garden. It used qualitative methodologies<br />
to exam<strong>in</strong>e the experiences <strong>of</strong> people liv<strong>in</strong>g with dogs <strong>in</strong> the home,<br />
and people cohabit<strong>in</strong>g with un<strong>in</strong>vited common brushtail possums.
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