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<strong>Copyright</strong><br />
<strong>by</strong><br />
<strong>Jeffrey</strong> <strong>Michael</strong> <strong>Grimes</strong><br />
<strong>2008</strong>
<strong>The</strong> Dissertation Committee for <strong>Jeffrey</strong> <strong>Michael</strong> <strong>Grimes</strong><br />
certifies that this is the approved version <strong>of</strong> the following dissertation:<br />
<strong>The</strong> Geography <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Music: <strong>The</strong><br />
Influence <strong>of</strong> Region and Regionalism on<br />
<strong>The</strong> North Indian Classical Tradition<br />
Committee:<br />
____________________________________<br />
Stephen M. Slawek, Supervisor<br />
____________________________________<br />
Veit Erlmann<br />
____________________________________<br />
Ward Keeler<br />
____________________________________<br />
Robin Moore<br />
____________________________________<br />
Shanti Kumar
<strong>The</strong> Geography <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Music: <strong>The</strong><br />
Influence <strong>of</strong> Region and Regionalism on<br />
<strong>The</strong> North Indian Classical Tradition<br />
<strong>by</strong><br />
<strong>Jeffrey</strong> <strong>Michael</strong> <strong>Grimes</strong>, M.M., B.M.<br />
Dissertation<br />
Presented to the Faculty <strong>of</strong> the Graduate School <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Texas</strong> at Austin<br />
in Partial Fulfillment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Requirements<br />
for the Degree <strong>of</strong><br />
Doctor <strong>of</strong> Philosophy<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Texas</strong> at Austin<br />
December <strong>2008</strong>
Acknowledgements<br />
I would like to briefly thank a few individuals for making this project possible.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first are my parents, Tom and Kay <strong>Grimes</strong>, who have supported me emotionally and,<br />
as necessary, financially through the dissertation writing process (and earlier, as well).<br />
Next, I would like to thank my mentor and dissertation supervisor Dr. Stephen M.<br />
Slawek. All that I know <strong>of</strong> Indian music (even the things he didn’t teach me directly) is<br />
due to him, both as my academic adviser and as my long-time sitar Guru. Especially<br />
crucial for the current project, though, has been his unwavering moral and intellectual<br />
support. Dr. Slawek encouraged me from day one to pursue the work I wanted to pursue,<br />
and I cannot be more grateful for this. All <strong>of</strong> his advisees that he has shepherded through<br />
the process <strong>of</strong> writing a report or dissertation, I am sure, would say the same. Also, I<br />
would like to thank all the musicians I spoke with while doing the research for this<br />
project. Some had more to say or were more interested in my topic than others, but all <strong>of</strong><br />
them were uniformly kind, generous, and hospitable. As many others before me have<br />
pointed out, this is absolutely one <strong>of</strong> the best aspects <strong>of</strong> working in South Asia.<br />
I cite every musician and scholar (and musician/scholar) who have contributed<br />
any thoughts or ideas to this project at the end <strong>of</strong> the dissertation. I would like to mention<br />
a few particular individuals, though. First, I would to thank Dr. Ram Deshpande <strong>of</strong><br />
Bombay and Pandit Deepak Choudhury <strong>of</strong> Calcutta. As I state numerous times in the<br />
following, the most pr<strong>of</strong>ound and important lessons one can learn regarding Hindustani<br />
music come on a very personal and intimate basis. While I studied with these two<br />
musicians for a relatively short time, I will remain forever grateful for their kindness and<br />
iv
great musical knowledge, which both demonstrated time and time again on each occasion<br />
that I sat with them. Also, I would like to thank Smt. Veena Sahasrabuddhe in Bombay<br />
and Pandit Anindo Chatterjee in Calcutta for putting in touch with these two fine<br />
musicians and teachers. Others who were particularly important in helping me to find<br />
and contact other musicians as possible interview subjects include Dr. Bhushan Nagdive<br />
(<strong>of</strong> Bombay <strong>University</strong>), Dr. Neera Grover (<strong>of</strong> S.N.D.T. college, Bombay), Ishwar Lal<br />
Mishra in Benares, Samarth Nagarkar in Calcutta, and Gaurishankar Karmakar in<br />
Calcutta. Along the same lines, I would like to thank the American Institute <strong>of</strong> Indian<br />
Studies for their summer Hindi language program and for their nine-month Marathi<br />
program, as the former brought me to India for the first time and the latter to Maharashtra<br />
for the first time. In particular, I would like to thank the entire staff <strong>of</strong> the Pune A.I.I.S.<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice and <strong>of</strong> the Marathi program while I was there. Mr. Madhav Bhandare, Bagyeshree<br />
Bhandare, Manjiri Bhalerao, Mrs. Kalika Mehta, and Gautam Brahmme were all<br />
incredibly helpful and friendly; I never during the nine months I stayed in Pune (from<br />
9/2002 to 5/2003) had any doubt that their #1 priority was making sure that I had the best<br />
and most edifying experience possible. Similarly, I would like to thank Dr. Vidya<br />
Purandare and her son Rahul who were my host family during that first long trip to Pune<br />
(and with whom I have stayed on each subsequent visit there). I know that whenever I<br />
visit Pune, I will always have friends and a place to stay.<br />
I would also like to thank some friends and colleagues in the U.S. <strong>The</strong>re is no<br />
better moral support than that provided <strong>by</strong> the people who have gone through or are<br />
going through the same things you are. Deserving <strong>of</strong> specific mention, though, are<br />
v
Dennis Rathnaw, Andy Hicken, Ryan McCormack, Ian Eagleson, Sidra Lawrence, Justin<br />
Patch, David Diers, Ajay Kalra, Kim Kattari, Javier Leon, Leah Hesla, Molly White,<br />
Ramon Versage, Joyce Chueng, Min Jung-Son, Steve Azcona, and, especially, my guru<br />
bhaaii Peter Kvetko (and I am sure there are more I am forgetting that I should mention).<br />
Outside <strong>of</strong> the UT ethnomusicology program and school <strong>of</strong> music I would like to thank<br />
my friends Jason Storey, Daniel Sanchez, and Ken Bodden for being my friends all these<br />
years and for encouraging me to be me (sometimes in the face <strong>of</strong> prevailing opinion).<br />
Also, I would like to thank my friend and colleague at Indiana <strong>University</strong>, Bloomington,<br />
Aditi Deo, for acting as a valuable sounding board during the writing process.<br />
Finally, I would like to thank all my committee members, Dr. Slawek, Ward<br />
Keeler, Robin Moore, Shanti Kumar, and Veit Erlmann for actually reading the whole<br />
thing.<br />
vi
<strong>The</strong> Geography <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Music: <strong>The</strong><br />
Influence <strong>of</strong> Region and Regionalism on<br />
<strong>The</strong> North Indian Classical Tradition<br />
<strong>Jeffrey</strong> <strong>Michael</strong> <strong>Grimes</strong>, PhD<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Texas</strong> at Austin, <strong>2008</strong><br />
Supervisor: Stephen M. Slawek<br />
Abstract<br />
This dissertation explores the influence <strong>of</strong> regional cultures and, more<br />
specifically, <strong>of</strong> regionally based and regionally determined aesthetic preferences, on the<br />
Hindustani classical music tradition. <strong>The</strong> period from the late 19th century up through<br />
the decades following independence in 1947 saw a great deal <strong>of</strong> change both in Indian<br />
society as a whole and, <strong>by</strong> extension, within the Hindustani tradition. One <strong>of</strong> these<br />
changes was a transition in the demographic pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> the average Hindustani performer<br />
from Muslim, essentially low-caste, and hereditary, to Hindu, middle-class, and largely<br />
high caste. <strong>The</strong> other aspect <strong>of</strong> this demographic transition, namely that there was also a<br />
shift in the regional origins <strong>of</strong> the average classical musician from those native to North<br />
India to those native to the two historical regions <strong>of</strong> Bengal and Maharashtra, has largely<br />
been neglected <strong>by</strong> scholars, including ethnomusicologists. <strong>The</strong> primary assumption<br />
informing this study, then, is that, as almost every aspect <strong>of</strong> Indian culture varies<br />
markedly from region to region (including language, food habits, etc.), the regional<br />
vii
cultures <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra and Bengal must have impacted classical music as it migrated to<br />
these regions.<br />
I approach this issue in two ways, which I term as the “Inside View” and the<br />
“Outside View.” <strong>The</strong> first represents a combination <strong>of</strong> the most common approach<br />
favored <strong>by</strong> scholars <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, a generally objectivist approach that focuses<br />
primarily on biographies <strong>of</strong> individual musicians and on description and analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
specifically musical processes, along with the viewpoint <strong>of</strong> the average Hindustani<br />
performer. <strong>The</strong> answers provided <strong>by</strong> this approach are partial. I complement this view <strong>of</strong><br />
modern Hindustani music with the “Outside View,” which examines change in the<br />
tradition through the lens <strong>of</strong> larger social processes, particularly the influence <strong>of</strong> the tastes<br />
or aesthetic preferences <strong>of</strong> audience members native to these two regions, as well as <strong>by</strong><br />
other aspects <strong>of</strong> regional culture, including the impact <strong>of</strong> semi-classical music genres<br />
native to these regions. As such, I not only demonstrate that specifically regional factors<br />
have impacted the style <strong>of</strong> classical music practiced in each <strong>of</strong> these regions, but also<br />
attempt to quantify and describe these changes.<br />
viii
Chapter:<br />
Table <strong>of</strong> Contents<br />
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...….1<br />
1. Possible Objections to the Association <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Classical Music with<br />
Regional Culture(s)…………….…………………………………………….... 37<br />
A. Hindustani music as a National Tradition: Bhatkhande and Paluskar………..38<br />
B. Regionalism as Regressive……………………………………………………58<br />
C. Regionalism vs. Globalism and Homogeneity………………………………..78<br />
Part One : the “Inside View”<br />
2. Gharana in the 21st Century……………...………..……………………………….96<br />
Gharana defined; Current musicians’ views on Gharana; Gharana as musical style<br />
3. Khyal in Maharashtra ……………………………………………………………..123<br />
Gwalior, Agra, Jaipur, & Kirana; Non-Gharana Stalwarts; Typology <strong>of</strong> Marathi<br />
Khyaaliya-s<br />
4. Khyal in Bengal……………………………………………………………………..164<br />
Vishnupur Gharana; Calcutta’s historical legacy as India’s “Marketplace <strong>of</strong><br />
Music”; Dominance <strong>of</strong> the Amir Khan/Kirana style; Non-Gharana Stalwarts;<br />
Agra Gharana & the ITC-SRA; Influence <strong>of</strong> Thumri<br />
5. Tabla in the Regional Context……………………….…………………………….194<br />
Specificities <strong>of</strong> the Gharana concept in relation to tabla; tabla in Maharashtra:<br />
Munir Khan tradition; Punjab Gharana in Bombay; Tabla in Bengal: Masit Khan<br />
& the Farukhabad Gharana; Some conclusions on modern tabla style: usefulness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the traditional Purab/Pashchim distinction<br />
6. Dominance <strong>of</strong> Bengal in Modern Instrumental Music…..……………………….256<br />
Part Two: the “Outside View”<br />
7. Regional Music Genres & <strong>The</strong> Social Nature <strong>of</strong> Taste……..…………………….327<br />
A. Thumri: the “Classical” Semi-Classical Genre……………………………...332<br />
B. Bourdieu and the Social Nature <strong>of</strong> Taste…………………………………....338<br />
C. Rabindrasangiit: <strong>The</strong> Pinnacle <strong>of</strong> Bengali ‘Regional’ Music……………….348<br />
D. Marathi <strong>The</strong>atre Music and the Push toward Classicism……………………381<br />
E. Conclusion: Newcomers and Inheritors……………………………………..401<br />
ix
8. Regional Musical Aesthetics…………………..…………………………………...422<br />
Conclusion…………………………………………..…………………………………464<br />
References……………………………………………………………………………..473<br />
Vita..................................................................................................................................483<br />
x
Introduction<br />
Region as a Factor in Understanding Modern Hindustani Music<br />
In analyzing any “classical” or “cultivated” music tradition, undoubtedly the most<br />
important (non-musical) factor in shaping the tradition is its source <strong>of</strong> patronage.<br />
Ethnomusicologists who study these traditions are, in particular, attracted to this side <strong>of</strong><br />
the issue as it is this, looking beyond the internal dynamics <strong>of</strong> the art in order to explain<br />
it, that for many ethnomusicologists defines the discipline or field as such. And <strong>of</strong><br />
course, the specifically economic side is what most interests those ethnomusicologists<br />
who work from a broadly Marxist perspective. 1 Further, musicians belonging to the<br />
Hindustani classical tradition (to limit it to those with whom I have personally had<br />
contact) will themselves readily say that, for them, economic concerns prevail over all<br />
others. After all, without making enough money to survive, there can be no music career.<br />
What separates the outlook <strong>of</strong> these two very broad groups, though, is that these<br />
musicians tend to see economics as the only non-musical factor in their lives and careers<br />
that has any importance other than music. In other words, other variables such as<br />
religion, caste, economic class, ethnicity, regional origin, and, to a large extent, gender,<br />
are regarded as relatively, if not entirely, unimportant. It is clear that this ideology or<br />
discourse is one that has been shaped and influenced <strong>by</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> people over<br />
time and which has its roots both in South Asia and in the West. At this point, though, I<br />
simply wish to point this out, not to explain it, a much more difficult and time-consuming<br />
1 see Qureshi (2002) for a South Asianist example<br />
1
task.<br />
To return to the scholarly side <strong>of</strong> the equation, their (our) analyses tend to be<br />
much more nuanced and careful, which is not at all surprising, considering that this is<br />
stock and trade <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>ession. For musicians, on the other hand, this kind <strong>of</strong><br />
discussion is at best a hob<strong>by</strong> or intellectual sideline. As many musicians have pointed out<br />
to me, their job is to sing or play, not to write or speak. However, scholars <strong>of</strong> Hindustani<br />
music have <strong>of</strong>ten been guilty <strong>of</strong> their own type <strong>of</strong> reductionism. Most, as I have said,<br />
focus on the economic base <strong>of</strong> the tradition, but beyond this, the only other factors seen to<br />
be worth discussing are religion (i.e. the Hindu-Muslim communal divide), and, much<br />
less <strong>of</strong>ten, gender. 2 It is one <strong>of</strong> these neglected factors, the regional origins <strong>of</strong> today’s<br />
musicians, that I will take as the focus <strong>of</strong> this dissertation. In placing region and regional<br />
culture in the foreground, my intention is not to disregard the other aforementioned<br />
factors, or even to claim a particularly privileged place for region over the others. Rather,<br />
I intend to prove that region is important in its own right, and, perhaps more importantly,<br />
that it interacts with other economic and social factors as it has helped and continues to<br />
help shape the Hindustani classical music tradition.<br />
To begin to justify why region and regionalism are important for the study<br />
Hindustani music, I briefly to turn the work <strong>of</strong> Janaki Bakhle whose recent book Two<br />
Men and Music is perhaps the most thorough and lengthy examination <strong>of</strong> the issue<br />
Hindu-Muslim communalism in the context <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical music. While<br />
2 see Masciszewski (1998)<br />
2
Bakhle’s work is not musicological or ethnographic, and is strictly historical (unlike the<br />
present study), her reasoning for focusing on this issue in many ways echoes the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> the topic at hand, namely region and classical music. Bakhle’s goal in her<br />
work is an “ideological critique” <strong>of</strong> the recent history <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, meaning the<br />
last few decades <strong>of</strong> the 19th century up to, approximately, the time <strong>of</strong> independence from<br />
the British Raj. This critique centers on the aforementioned notion that religion is <strong>of</strong> no<br />
importance in the context <strong>of</strong> music. Speaking about classical music performances in her<br />
native Maharashtra, Bakhle writes:<br />
I began <strong>by</strong> noting that it was not easy to compare the development <strong>of</strong> Indian<br />
classical music with the history <strong>of</strong> Western classical music because <strong>of</strong> the absence<br />
<strong>of</strong> easy separations between the secular and sacred in the former. In<br />
contemporary Indian classical music performances, the milieu is hybrid: it is<br />
neither entirely religious nor genuinely secular…Without the historical<br />
perspective provided <strong>by</strong> this book, the milieu at the performance could lead to the<br />
easy conclusion that syncretism and secularism had weathered both colonial<br />
influence and the more recent Hindu nationalist storm (2005:261).<br />
Bakhke’s conclusion then is that, in spite <strong>of</strong> the ideology <strong>of</strong> religious tolerance held <strong>by</strong><br />
musicians and the apparent atmosphere <strong>of</strong> religious tolerance at current and past musical<br />
performances, the reality is that modern classical music, at least the tradition as shaped <strong>by</strong><br />
Bhatkhande and V.D. Paluskar, Bakhle’s two primary targets, is suffused with communal<br />
prejudice (be it direct or indirect), notions <strong>of</strong> “colonial religiosity,” and in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
Maharashtra (the home <strong>of</strong> both Bhatkhande and Paluskar), “Marathi Chauvinism.”<br />
At another point in her work, Bakhle takes ethnomusicologists to task for the<br />
secondary position accorded to “critical history” in their work. Bakhle explains,<br />
History, within an ethnomusicological domain, <strong>of</strong>ten appears as either<br />
background information, a theoretical gesture, or predominantly local, remaining<br />
relatively unconnected to larger historical events. Because ethnomusicological<br />
3
understanding has been structurally founded on a relationship between<br />
interlocutor and ethnographer, a relationship made even more difficult <strong>by</strong> the fact<br />
the ethnographer’s interlocutor is <strong>of</strong>ten his or her music teacher (guru), to whom a<br />
great deal <strong>of</strong> respect is afforded, this is to a large extent inevitable. What can<br />
sometimes result, however, is insufficiently critical attention to the histories that<br />
musicians and their hagiographers tell (2005:16).<br />
So, while I would like to point out that I disagree with many <strong>of</strong> Bakhle’s conclusions,<br />
there are important implications contained in the citations above for the present<br />
discussion. To put the matter into more simple terms, Bakhle is arguing that, for a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> reasons, the performers’ stated ideology <strong>of</strong> tolerance becomes a sort <strong>of</strong><br />
smokescreen which conceals the reality <strong>of</strong> the situation. This is not to say that, for<br />
Bakhle, religious tolerance is totally absent from the tradition, but in her view the<br />
tolerance modernizing Hindus like Bhatkhande held for Muslim musicians was<br />
ambivalent at best. <strong>The</strong> corollary to this is that ethnomusicologists have simply repeated<br />
the party line, if you will, <strong>of</strong> their Gurus. Of course, how this squares with the fact that<br />
many <strong>of</strong> the musicians that Western musicologists have learned with have been Muslim<br />
is another question. While I myself have studied with music with Gurus both in the<br />
United States and in India and certainly hold these men in high esteem, I have been<br />
careful not to imbibe any <strong>of</strong> their views uncritically. I would suspect that this is the case<br />
with most Western ethnomusicologists who have learned from Indian Gurus,<br />
notwithstanding the merits <strong>of</strong> Bakhle’s critique.<br />
To put it in a different way, Bakhle is urging scholars never to take the ideological<br />
claims <strong>of</strong> any group, classical musicians or otherwise, at face value. This remark would<br />
seem to be especially intended for ethnomusicologists who are “structurally” so<br />
4
dependent on their informants. Keeping this in mind, it becomes easier to understand<br />
why region has never been thoroughly examined as an important variable in<br />
understanding modern classical music. Certainly, the reaction I met most <strong>of</strong>ten when I<br />
queried a performing musician in India about the importance <strong>of</strong> region in the classical<br />
tradition was that, rather simply, it has no importance. I feel there are a number <strong>of</strong><br />
reasons for this response, and I will examine these in greater detail in chapter one.<br />
However, one <strong>of</strong> the most important reasons for this that I could deduce, albeit one that is<br />
not specific to the issue <strong>of</strong> regional associations or origins, is that musicians feel that<br />
personal background is unimportant in music (as noted above), and that to compare<br />
musicians on the basis <strong>of</strong> regional origin would inevitably lead to highlighting the<br />
achievements <strong>of</strong> one group and downplaying those <strong>of</strong> another, just as if one were<br />
comparing Hindu and Muslim musicians as Hindu and Muslim. This is understandable,<br />
and although I tried to make it clear that this was in fact not my goal, it was difficult to<br />
dissuade many.<br />
Perhaps the more valuable lesson one can take from Bakhle’s work, though, is not<br />
only that the analyst should always interrogate the words and actions <strong>of</strong> those he or she is<br />
studying, whether we are dealing with historical or current figures. Rather, Bakhle has<br />
demonstrated a more simple but abiding truth through her work. That is that no aspect <strong>of</strong><br />
culture, in particular no classical art form, can be assumed to exist in a vacuum cut <strong>of</strong>f<br />
from other influences in society, whether they be politics or film music. Again, this is a<br />
rudimentary lesson, but one that must be repeated because the idea is so strong among<br />
performers that classical music is, in a way, cut <strong>of</strong>f from other such influences. Bakhke’s<br />
5
asic point seems to be that, if religious communalism is present in every sphere <strong>of</strong><br />
Indian life, it must be present in classical music as well. One needs only to search for it.<br />
So, while I again do not necessarily agree with all <strong>of</strong> Bakhle’s assertions, I can orient<br />
myself similarly to the issue I am examining. If region affects every aspect <strong>of</strong> Indian life<br />
(a point to which I will return), it must affect classical music also. It is my task to argue<br />
how, why, and to what extent region really is important in Hindustani raga music.<br />
It is common knowledge that the homeland <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music is North India,<br />
and that due to the patronage <strong>of</strong> the Muslim aristocracy, particularly the Moghuls, the<br />
performers belonging to this tradition have historically been Muslim. That large numbers<br />
<strong>of</strong> middle-class Hindus began to learn music starting in the last decades <strong>of</strong> the 19th<br />
century, to the point where they became numerically dominant in the field <strong>by</strong> the second<br />
half <strong>of</strong> the last century, is a well-documented fact. Indeed, as in Bakhle’s monograph,<br />
this transitional period has been the focus <strong>of</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> scholarly works. 3 What I<br />
would argue has been neglected in recent examinations <strong>of</strong> this period in Hindustani<br />
music’s history was that, not only were the newcomers to the field middle-class Hindus,<br />
they were also mostly Bengalis and Maharashtrians (as well as members <strong>of</strong> some other<br />
regional/linguistic groups, notably Kannadigas). <strong>The</strong>se are groups that historically have<br />
had much different lifestyles, food habits, religious practices, and, most importantly,<br />
aesthetic preferences, than those <strong>of</strong> the North Indian Muslims whom they succeeded (or<br />
supplanted, depending on your perspective). That these differing tastes and aesthetic<br />
practices must play a role in shaping the tradition in a variety <strong>of</strong> ways is the core<br />
3 see also Kobayashi (2003)<br />
6
assumption on which this study is based.<br />
Review <strong>of</strong> Relevant Scholarship<br />
To proceed, I would like now to turn to discussing the concept <strong>of</strong> region, both in<br />
the Indian context and on a more general theoretical level. Regarding the literature that<br />
deals with region in the Indian setting, one finds that the largest number <strong>of</strong> studies has<br />
been concerned with the notion <strong>of</strong> regionalism as a political movement. As the demand<br />
for linguistic states was strongest (and the most intense in terms <strong>of</strong> rioting and other<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> violence) in the years after Independence, we find many studies either written in<br />
that period, 4 up to approximately the 1970s, or which focus on that period. 5 As I already<br />
have stated, however, regionalism continues to be a factor in Indian politics, and there is<br />
no dearth <strong>of</strong> studies from the last 10-20 years. <strong>The</strong>se studies are generally concerned<br />
with regionalisms which develop from notions <strong>of</strong> marginality, most commonly economic,<br />
but cultural as well. <strong>The</strong> ongoing unrest in the Northeastern states (Assam, Mizoram,<br />
etc.) is the most common starting point for the more recent <strong>of</strong> such studies. This is, to a<br />
certain extent, problematic for this particular project as we are, after all, dealing primarily<br />
with two states, Maharashtra and West Bengal, that are in no way marginalized,<br />
economically or politically, in the context <strong>of</strong> modern India. On the contrary, these are<br />
two <strong>of</strong> the most prosperous states in India, and Maharashtrians and Bengalis have played<br />
critical roles as leaders in Indian politics and culture since the 19th century. To mention<br />
4 <strong>The</strong> most notable I have consulted, in terms <strong>of</strong> strictly academic sources, is Regions and Regionalism in<br />
South Asian Studies: An Exploratory Study; Papers Presented at a Symposium held at Duke <strong>University</strong>,<br />
April 7-9, 1966. (ed., Crane), which features Bernard Cohn’s piece on region mentioned below.<br />
5 see King (1998)<br />
7
Subhas Chandra Bose and Rabindranath Tagore from Bengal and B.G. Tilak and G.K.<br />
Gokhale from Maharashtra would be only to list the very best, most outstanding such<br />
figures from their respective regions/states. And <strong>of</strong> course, that these two groups<br />
dominate classical music is just another indicator <strong>of</strong> their cultural strength. 6<br />
Rather, what is needed for this project, without ignoring the powerful but diffuse<br />
influence (speaking in terms <strong>of</strong> classical music) <strong>of</strong> political regionalisms, is to look at<br />
regionalism as a cultural concept. Perhaps the most concise and well thought out<br />
discussion <strong>of</strong> region as a cultural (and political and economic) concept in the Indian<br />
setting is Bernard Cohn’s 1967 essay “Regions Subjective and Objective: <strong>The</strong>ir Relation<br />
to Modern Indian History and Society.” <strong>The</strong> argument Cohn puts forth in this essay is, as<br />
he states, “a simple and probably self-evident one – there are regional differences in<br />
South Asia, just as there is a reality to thinking about South Asia as a geographic and<br />
historical entity, or Indian civilization as a cultural unity”(1967:100). More than this,<br />
however, Cohn states that the real question to be asked is, in what (analytical) case does it<br />
make sense to emphasize regional distinctness and/or diversity and in what case should<br />
one underline national or pan-Indian (or even pan-South Asian) unity or similarity? In<br />
other words, Cohn feels that one should go case <strong>by</strong> case in evaluating whether or not<br />
region or regionalism needs to invoked in any particular analytical context.<br />
As with most studies that deal with region as classificatory tool, Cohn lays down<br />
what he sees the most important factors in defining a region. He lists the most important<br />
6 One could point to the Shiv Sena in Maharashtra, as an example <strong>of</strong> an aggrieved, ‘sons-<strong>of</strong>-the-soil’<br />
movement which very Maharashtrian and Marathi-centric in nature but then we must consider that Shiv<br />
Sainiks (their rank and file members) and Maharashtrian khyaaliya-s come from very, very different social<br />
strata.<br />
8
as “basically non-linguistic phenomena” – namely, historic, linguistic, cultural, social,<br />
and structural factors, and/or the interrelations among these (102). Cohn then takes these<br />
key phenomena and establishes different categories <strong>of</strong> regions. Thus, an example <strong>of</strong> a<br />
historical region, “one in which there are sacred myths and symbols, held <strong>by</strong> significant<br />
groups within the area, regarding the relationship <strong>of</strong> people to their ‘past’ and the<br />
geographical area,” would be Bundelkhand, now a portion <strong>of</strong> the modern state <strong>of</strong> Uttar<br />
Pradesh. A linguistic region, however, assuming that one takes the literary standard <strong>of</strong> a<br />
language as the determining factor, would likely be a much larger unit such as<br />
Maharashtra or Tamil Nadu, or, if one were to emphasize language families rather<br />
individual languages, North and South India. This nuance, that there are different types<br />
<strong>of</strong> regions based on different (or sometimes overlapping) criteria which are not always<br />
comparable is among the most important contributions <strong>of</strong> Cohn’s essay. <strong>The</strong> more<br />
typical approach to region in India is to establish a more rigid definition <strong>of</strong> region and<br />
then debate what is or is not a region, and Cohn is one <strong>of</strong> the few scholars who has not<br />
fallen into this trap when discussing region and regionalism in India. 7<br />
A second contribution <strong>of</strong> Cohn’s essay to the literature on this subject is his<br />
emphasis on the need to historicize both specific and generally agreed-upon regions (such<br />
as Bengal or Andhra) and the concept <strong>of</strong> region. Cohn’s first move in this direction is to<br />
set forth an additional three sub-categories <strong>of</strong> the “historical region”; these are the<br />
“nuclear” region, the “shatter zone” and the “cul-de-sac,” or area <strong>of</strong> relative isolation.<br />
7 Stein (1967), in a response to Cohn’s piece, takes him to task precisely for not basing his ideas on region<br />
and types <strong>of</strong> region on objectively observable and quantifiable features, such as language. <strong>The</strong> strength <strong>of</strong><br />
Cohn’s framework, however, is that he takes into account not only the fact regions change over time, but<br />
also that regions are also socially defined and thus subjective in many respects.<br />
9
<strong>The</strong>se are respectively defined as regions which have retained their identity over time<br />
generally because they are river basins which provide the basis for large-scale,<br />
agriculturally-based civilizations; regions that serve as connections between the nuclear<br />
zones; and regions that, due to geographical features, are left isolated from processes that<br />
affect other regions. While the implications <strong>of</strong> this further categorization are not so<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ound in the case <strong>of</strong> modern day classical music (as compared to an historical study <strong>of</strong><br />
political institutions), it is worth noting how Cohn categorizes the two regions that are<br />
most important for the present study, Maharashtra and Bengal. For Cohn, Maharashtra is<br />
a “nuclear region,” but Bengal is given as a noteworthy example <strong>of</strong> a “cul-de-sac.” This<br />
categorization has important consequences that I will examine in depth in chapter 8. I<br />
will point out at this juncture, however, that, if nothing else, the history <strong>of</strong> Hindustani<br />
music in West Bengal and Maharashtra is both the history <strong>of</strong> contact between North<br />
Indians (primarily Muslim) and Bengalis and Maharashtrians (mostly Hindu) and the<br />
history <strong>of</strong> attitudes and perceptions that each <strong>of</strong> these groups hold toward each other and<br />
themselves. <strong>The</strong> value <strong>of</strong> Cohn’s observation is that it points to the much different<br />
histories <strong>of</strong> Bengal and Maharashtra relative to the dominant North Indian culture.<br />
<strong>The</strong> broader point that Cohn seems to be driving at regarding the history <strong>of</strong><br />
regions, however, is that, as much as the scholar should be careful to invoke the concept<br />
<strong>of</strong> region or nation depending on the relevance <strong>of</strong> the concept to the specific matter at<br />
hand, regions deserve to be designated as such only if they operate as one, currently or<br />
during the historical period in question. This is, again, in opposition to other scholars<br />
who like to ground their analyses <strong>of</strong> regions in India on the oldest possible evidence<br />
10
available in attempts to establish the continuity <strong>of</strong> said region over the course <strong>of</strong><br />
centuries. Of course, writing now, almost 40 years after Cohn, there is much less need to<br />
question the antiquity <strong>of</strong> any particular aspect <strong>of</strong> Indian culture, as a significant amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> work has been done that has proven that the tendency amongst Indians and Indianists<br />
to exaggerate something’s age is very much a product <strong>of</strong> the Orientalist’s predilection to<br />
valorize the past and devalue the present. However, in the world <strong>of</strong> classical music, this<br />
tendency is as strong as in any other area <strong>of</strong> Indian culture, so we must always take a<br />
skeptical mindset towards such claims, whether they are on behalf <strong>of</strong> a gharana, an<br />
instrument or type <strong>of</strong> composition, or even for the history <strong>of</strong> classical music in one region<br />
or area. It is to Cohn’s credit that he outlines the processes <strong>by</strong> which a particular<br />
geographical unit becomes a region, so to speak. For Cohn, this involves the existence <strong>of</strong><br />
a “symbol pool,” the historical circumstances in which these symbols can be utilized<br />
(Cohn emphasizes here the conditions created <strong>by</strong> colonialism, such as the introduction <strong>of</strong><br />
printing and mass education), and the emergence <strong>of</strong> regional elites who can manipulate<br />
these symbols to encourage and develop feelings <strong>of</strong> regional identification. This idea <strong>of</strong><br />
region as a process is quite different from the more objective classificatory concept <strong>of</strong><br />
region, where, for instance, Maharashtra is Maharashtra because it is the place where<br />
Marathi is spoken.<br />
Ethnomusicologist Mark Slobin, in his 1993 monograph Subcultural Sounds:<br />
Micromusics <strong>of</strong> the West, <strong>of</strong>fers a valuable definition <strong>of</strong> region that in many ways<br />
corresponds to Cohn’s, even while Slobin’s work concerns neither India nor classical<br />
music <strong>of</strong> any sort. A large portion <strong>of</strong> Slobin’s book is devoted to establishing a<br />
11
theoretical framework in order to help better analyze and explain different types <strong>of</strong> pop<br />
music from around the world, particularly the amount <strong>of</strong> “visibility,” in other words, “the<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> being known to an audience,” these musics receive (17). In Slobin’s scheme,<br />
there are three levels <strong>of</strong> visibility, local, regional, and transregional. Concerning his<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> region, Slobin writes, “Regional musics are less easy to define, since I am<br />
using the term…in an <strong>of</strong>fbeat way. If local can be bounded <strong>by</strong> a village or valley, then<br />
region, intuitively, is a somewhat larger zone <strong>of</strong> contiguous territory”(ibid.:18). By his<br />
view, there are still “classic regions” (he gives the mono-ethnic nation states <strong>of</strong> Slovakia<br />
and Slovenia as examples), but in some cases, much larger areas which comprise several<br />
nations can be a region, as long as they form the audience for the music in question. <strong>The</strong><br />
rationale for this, as Slobin explains, is that recordings and broadcasting have greatly<br />
increased the visibility <strong>of</strong> many types <strong>of</strong> music, to the extent that the audience for any<br />
music is seldom confined to one country or one region <strong>of</strong> one country. Another<br />
consequence is that the different geographic units that comprise one <strong>of</strong> Slobin’s regions<br />
need not be neighbors or even located in the same hemisphere.<br />
An additional factor that comes into play in this context is migration. In the<br />
Indian context, this means, for example, the region that is defined <strong>by</strong> the audience that<br />
consumes Tagore songs would include not only Calcutta or West Bengal, but also all the<br />
(mostly metropolitan) areas outside <strong>of</strong> Bengal where there exists an audience for<br />
Rabindrasangiit. Or, to give an example more to the point, I would argue that, if we<br />
consider Maharashtra as a classical music region, then we must include the border<br />
regions that Maharashtra shares with Karnataka, namely Belgaum, Karwad, Darwad, and<br />
12
Hubli, as well as Goa. <strong>The</strong>re are a number <strong>of</strong> reasons for this. First and foremost, a large<br />
number <strong>of</strong> the most important “Maharashtrian” classical musicians, which is to say those<br />
that have been patronized <strong>by</strong> Marathi-speaking audiences or who perhaps even performed<br />
in Marathi Sangiit NaaTak-s (music dramas), have been natives <strong>of</strong> what is now Karnataka<br />
state. This list includes, but is not limited to, Bhimsen Joshi (from Gadag), Kumar<br />
Gandharva (from Belgaum), and Jitendra Abhisheki (from Goa). Many others came from<br />
the other, Maharashtrian, side <strong>of</strong> today’s Maharashtra-Karnataka border, including many<br />
<strong>of</strong> the pioneers <strong>of</strong> classical music in Maharashtra such as Balkrishna Ichalkaranjikar<br />
(from Ichalkaranji) and V.D. Paluskar (from Miraj). If I were to adhere more to closely<br />
to Slobin’s emphasis on the audience as a defining factor, then I could out point that these<br />
areas, which are not part <strong>of</strong> the modern state <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, and whether they belong<br />
now to Goa or Karnataka, also included a large part <strong>of</strong> the audience for Marathi Sangiit<br />
NaaTak-s, at least until the genre fell out <strong>of</strong> fashion in the decades following<br />
independence.<br />
Contained in the above example are a number <strong>of</strong> implications regarding my use <strong>of</strong><br />
Cohn’s and Slobin’s theories that I feel I should make explicit. First, I do not feel that the<br />
regions that I will be analyzing in forthcoming chapters are necessarily defined <strong>by</strong> the<br />
state boundaries <strong>of</strong> modern India, nor are they necessarily mono-ethnic or linguistic.<br />
Yes, the classical scene in Calcutta is composed primarily <strong>by</strong> Bengalis, along with some<br />
North Indians, mostly from U.P. or Bihar. <strong>The</strong> scene in Maharashtra, though, is much<br />
more diverse. If we were to exclude Bombay, Maharashtra has a large number <strong>of</strong><br />
Kannadigas, Goans, and others from northern and eastern India such as Bengalis and<br />
13
U.P.-wallas (natives <strong>of</strong> Uttar Pradesh). <strong>The</strong> point is that, for the purposes <strong>of</strong> this study,<br />
regions are defined as much <strong>by</strong> stylistic affinities between musicians, familial and Guru-<br />
disciple connections, and shared aesthetic tendencies, than solely <strong>by</strong> membership in an<br />
ethnic group, or, as Slobin would have it, which audience supports the music, although I<br />
include this factor as well. A second point to be made regarding my Southern<br />
Maharashtra/Northern Karnataka example, is that, <strong>by</strong> any criteria, it is difficult, if not<br />
impossible, to define clear-cut boundaries between regions. In the Indian case, not only<br />
are there many overlapping border areas where two languages are spoken side-<strong>by</strong>-side,<br />
but, as Cohn points out, there are cases where, as with Hindi and Urdu in UP and Urdu<br />
and Telegu in Hyderabad, “two well established and associated cultural traditions” stand<br />
“intertwined and side <strong>by</strong> side”(1967:106). <strong>The</strong> point, then, is that, although I have taken<br />
the dominance <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrians and Bengalis in modern Hindustani music as a starting<br />
point, I am in no way limiting my discussion to musicians that belong to those two<br />
groups. <strong>The</strong> picture is considerably more complicated than that.<br />
As I have said before, my primary interest in this dissertation is in the aesthetic<br />
tendencies and preferences <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrians and Bengalis as regionally-based ethnic<br />
and linguistic groups (which are both well-defined and universally recognized in India)<br />
and how these factors have influenced classical musical style as the tradition shifted to<br />
these two regions due to broader economic, political, and historic changes. However, as<br />
we shall see, some <strong>of</strong> the key figures in determining which styles/stylistic approaches<br />
have become most prevalent and popular in each respective region have been outsiders to<br />
those regions. Outsiders in this sense, I should note, would exclude those who are not<br />
14
ethnically Bengali or Marathi, but are from near<strong>by</strong> states or regions, such as Kannadigas<br />
(from Karnataka) in Maharashtra or Oriyas (from Orissa) in Bengal. To name one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
most prominent examples <strong>of</strong> such an outsider, Ustad Amir Khan, who hailed originally<br />
from Indore, Madhya Pradesh, has been perhaps the most influential figure in Hindustani<br />
classical vocal music in Calcutta and greater Bengal in the last 40 years (as I will further<br />
explain in chapter 4). Most scholars, I feel, if they were to assign any significance to this<br />
fact would likely either state that the popularity <strong>of</strong> a distinctly North Indian musician in<br />
Bengal either proves that the tradition is becoming more stylistically homogenous (or<br />
always has been) or proves the universal quality <strong>of</strong> artistic greatness. However, from my<br />
perspective, what is important about the influence <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan in Bengal is that his<br />
music struck such a chord, so to speak, with Bengalis, over and above other comparable<br />
figures who were equally as familiar to Calcutta audiences and Calcutta-based musicians<br />
as Amir Khan was.<br />
Keeping this in mind, I should explain how I define each <strong>of</strong> the regions relevant to<br />
this study in musical terms. Of course, as Cohn has explained, there is little debate when<br />
it comes to the integrity <strong>of</strong> Bengal and Maharashtra as distinct regions, <strong>by</strong> whatever<br />
criteria, be it history, geography, language, and culture. Bengal and Maharashtra as<br />
classical music regions, though, are slightly different. <strong>The</strong>y certainly encompass the<br />
modern states <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra and West Bengal. Beyond this, though, Maharashtra, at<br />
least in these terms, should be seen as including Goa and the Karnataka side <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Karnataka-Maharashtra border regions (some portions which are still thought <strong>by</strong> some<br />
Maharashtrians to ‘belong’ to Maharashtra), as significant numbers <strong>of</strong> performers<br />
15
historically and currently have migrated from these two areas into the musical centers <strong>of</strong><br />
Maharashtra. It should be noted that, to a certain extent, Northern Karnataka is more<br />
properly a part <strong>of</strong> this musical region than is Goa, simply because, as my Goan<br />
interlocutors have attested, there has never been much classical music activity, whether in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> performances or educational institutions, in Goa. This is as opposed to key<br />
districts in Karnataka such as Darwad, Hubli, and Belgaum, which continue to be active<br />
(though minor) centers <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical music. Maharashtra also, in this sense,<br />
includes the former Maratha-ruled princely states, most importantly Baroda, Indore, and<br />
Gwalior. <strong>The</strong>se cities are now located in the states <strong>of</strong> Gujarat (Baroda) and Madhya<br />
Pradesh, but there are large communities <strong>of</strong> ethnic Maharashtrians in each <strong>of</strong> these cities<br />
that continue to hold on to Marathi customs and the Marathi language, and, more<br />
importantly, maintain ties between themselves and the musical centers in modern<br />
Maharashtra state. I noted this quite clearly in Pune, as a number <strong>of</strong> performers with<br />
Maharashtrian surnames from these cities continue to go there and to Bombay to perform<br />
and learn. This goes as well for other cities in South India which have large communities<br />
<strong>of</strong> ethnic Maharashtrians, such as Bangalore and Hyderabad. In this sense, in musical<br />
terms, the Maharashtrian region has not fluctuated a great deal since the 19th century.<br />
Bengal, although a much more clearly circumscribed geographical region, has<br />
changed as a musical region in the last century more drastically than Maharashtra, as East<br />
Bengal, the birthplace and former home <strong>of</strong> both a number <strong>of</strong> 20th century musical<br />
legends and a handful <strong>of</strong> important patronage sites, was partitioned <strong>of</strong>f from western and<br />
northern Bengal <strong>by</strong> the British Raj and then later permanently severed from the rest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
16
egion after Independence. Perhaps the biggest difference between Bengal (as in West<br />
Bengal state) and Maharashtra currently, though, is that, besides the fact that Bengal only<br />
has strong historical musical ties with the cities <strong>of</strong> eastern U.P. and Bihar (and Benares is<br />
now the only proper center <strong>of</strong> classical music in eastern India that has any classical music<br />
connections with Bengal), Bengal only has one major urban center <strong>of</strong> classical music<br />
currently, namely Calcutta, while in Maharashtra there is much more activity in the<br />
smaller and medium sized cities, outside <strong>of</strong> the major centers <strong>of</strong> Pune and Bombay.<br />
At this point, having discussed the concept <strong>of</strong> region in a more generally<br />
theoretical fashion, I will move to looking at region as a specific factor in the Hindustani<br />
classical tradition. As I mentioned earlier, the belief amongst most <strong>of</strong> today’s musicians<br />
is that regional origin is as unimportant as caste or religious background in the world <strong>of</strong><br />
classical music. This is not to say that no musicians agreed with my emphasis on looking<br />
classical music through the concept <strong>of</strong> region, so to speak, because some, for example<br />
Smt. Shruti Sadolikar-Katkar, wholeheartedly agreed that it was a factor in shaping <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tradition. However, for the majority that rejected this emphasis on region, the one<br />
concession they were <strong>of</strong>ten willing to make is that sometimes an artist’s regional origins<br />
do show through in his or her music. Even while this regional flavor was most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
described as defect, 8 it does show, not surprisingly, that most artists are aware <strong>of</strong> their<br />
and other artists’ regional origins. It may be a negative factor, something to aspire not to<br />
be, but it is there.<br />
8<br />
“If you can make out that someone is a Maharashtrian when they are singing, they are doing something<br />
wrong.” – D. Pandit (interview, 2005)<br />
17
If we move back sometime in history, well before days <strong>of</strong> the British Raj, we find<br />
that there has always been an awareness <strong>of</strong> region, or at least <strong>of</strong> center and periphery, in<br />
the Hindustani tradition, centralized as it was until the mid 19th century. 9 In my<br />
interview <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad singer and Benares Hindu <strong>University</strong> faculty member Dr. Ritwik<br />
Sanyal, he pointed out the shashtric (and thus ancient) concept <strong>of</strong> desh-kaaku, the<br />
regional flavor <strong>of</strong> a musician’s vocal style (personal comm. 10/2005). <strong>The</strong> most direct<br />
and thorough discussion <strong>of</strong> region in Hindustani music in the corpus <strong>of</strong><br />
ethnomusicological literature, whether it be the ancient, medieval, or modern context, is<br />
Richard Widdess’s article “<strong>The</strong> Geography <strong>of</strong> raga in Ancient India”(1993). 10 Here<br />
Widdess opens with a discussion <strong>of</strong> the processes <strong>by</strong> which classical music has<br />
assimilated musical material, in this case melodic material, since he is dealing with ragas<br />
from folk and tribal traditions. In this context Widdess notes, “Ragas and other modes<br />
have been named after peoples and regions ever since the earliest recorded stages in the<br />
evolution <strong>of</strong> modal theory and practice in South Asia”(36). <strong>The</strong> bigger question,<br />
however - why was this the case? - is precisely what Widdess seeks to answer in the<br />
remainder <strong>of</strong> the article. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> Widdess’s evidence is drawn from the ancient<br />
theorist Matanga’s Brhaddesi, a work likely produced in the late first millennium AD<br />
which is “the first [treatise] to acknowledge the essentially localized character <strong>of</strong> practical<br />
music”(ibid.:39). In this treatise the important distinction is made between maarg music,<br />
9 I intend here to demonstrate that there has been a notion <strong>of</strong> center and periphery in Indian classical music<br />
since well before the Muslim Era. I do not feel that <strong>by</strong> doing so, I am indulging in the tendency, noted <strong>by</strong><br />
ethnomusicologist Ashok Ranade, to try to trace certain aspects <strong>of</strong> the music back to ancient times when<br />
the history <strong>of</strong> the subject in question is almost certainly much shorter.<br />
10 Widdess also includes most <strong>of</strong> this material from this piece in his monograph Ragas <strong>of</strong> Early Indian<br />
Music: Modes, Melodies, and Musical Notations from the Gupta period to c.1250 (1995).<br />
18
music that leads to the discovery <strong>of</strong> universal truths and enlightenment, and desii music<br />
which is regional and more secular in nature. 11 <strong>The</strong> task that Matanga had set for himself<br />
was to develop a system <strong>of</strong> classification that would accommodate both the core maarg<br />
repertory and the newer desii music. <strong>The</strong> raga names that Matanga includes in his<br />
classificatory system is the evidence that Widdess draws in order to reach some<br />
conclusions about what this naming practice really signified. In the case <strong>of</strong> those ragas<br />
that are named for regions or inhabitants <strong>of</strong> certain “cultured provinces,” Widdess finds<br />
that the names given are probably genuine in the sense that the melodies really did come<br />
from those places, thus lending credence to the notion <strong>of</strong> regional interchange at this<br />
point in history. Leaving these aside, though, the picture becomes cloudier. This is<br />
because, first, many ragas are named after “tribes and low-caste social groups,” groups<br />
whose music likely would have been entirely disregarded <strong>by</strong> the more “civilized,” courtly<br />
culture that supported and maintained the classical tradition in the central Ganges valley<br />
region. As Widdess writes, “One cannot imagine that the music <strong>of</strong> such peoples would<br />
have been taken any more seriously <strong>by</strong> the educated urban elite <strong>of</strong> ancient India than <strong>by</strong><br />
that <strong>of</strong> modern India”(44). Second, as further regional melodies, called bhaashaa-s, or<br />
dialects, were integrated into the theoretical system (and the desii ragas became the<br />
central portion <strong>of</strong> the classical repertoire) we not only find more tribal names, but also<br />
names <strong>of</strong> more exotic regions, which were likely not in regular contact in any sense <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word with the Ganges valley region. While noting that this discussion is merely<br />
“speculative,” Widdess concludes that the map produced <strong>by</strong> these early raga names is not<br />
11 See McNeil (1992) for an extended discussion <strong>of</strong> the Maarg-Desii paradigm.<br />
19
a literal, but, instead, a conceptual map. That is to say, ragas were perhaps given these<br />
exotic names because the belief held at that time (and held <strong>by</strong> many still today) was that<br />
all knowledge was given <strong>by</strong> the Hindu creator deity Brahma at the beginning <strong>of</strong> time,<br />
meaning new innovations were to be viewed only as “discoveries.” Thus, new melodies<br />
were to be considered as the products <strong>of</strong> exotic lands or peoples because their actual<br />
novelty, if acknowledged, would undermine this philosophy.<br />
Widdess’s work is valuable to the present discussion for several different reasons.<br />
On the one hand, Widdess presents evidence that there very likely was some regional<br />
exchange <strong>of</strong> melodies between the Ganges valley and neighboring areas as early as the<br />
late first millennium A.D., if not earlier. Equally as important, though, is that Widdess<br />
provides the historical basis <strong>of</strong> a notion that lives on today - that there is a central, core<br />
area that is the home <strong>of</strong> the tradition while other areas are perceived as being peripheral,<br />
and to a certain extent marginal, in the realm <strong>of</strong> classical music. Again, this a point to<br />
which I will later return, but I would like to note the durability <strong>of</strong> this notion, considering<br />
that in the modern period, say from the turn <strong>of</strong> the 20th century. forward, the Ganges<br />
valley, or even the broader area stretching from Delhi to Gaya, Bihar, is the center <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tradition only conceptually, not in actuality. It is important that I mention in this context<br />
that many scholars would object to this move <strong>of</strong> turning to ancient sources in order to<br />
explain a basically modern phenomenon. Dr. Ashok Ranade is one scholar among many<br />
who have argued against this need to establish the antiquity <strong>of</strong> a current practice when it<br />
is unnecessary to do so. As Dr. Ranade told the assembled gathering at the 2005 ITC-<br />
Sangeet Research Academy, “one should only go back as far as is necessary to address<br />
20
the question at hand.” I would agree with this, to the extent that, quite clearly, many<br />
Indian musicologists have been influenced <strong>by</strong> the Orientalist notion that everything <strong>of</strong><br />
value which is Indian happened or was created in ancient times, and everything today is,<br />
at best, a corrupt, degenerate form <strong>of</strong> what happened in India in the ancient “Golden<br />
Age.” However, unlike many <strong>of</strong> the more revisionist historians <strong>of</strong> India, I accept this<br />
Orientalist bias as a very real aspect <strong>of</strong> Indian culture, regrettable as it might seem to<br />
some. Similarly, I believe that ideas contained in Sanskrit musical treatises continue to<br />
exercise a certain influence over modern musicians, and this center-periphery idea is one<br />
portion <strong>of</strong> that influence. This is again speculative, but it certainly makes sense because<br />
now, as much as at any point in history since the establishment <strong>of</strong> the Mughal Empire,<br />
musicians are being drawn from the ranks <strong>of</strong> educated, generally high-caste Hindus,<br />
many <strong>of</strong> whom take these ancient works quite seriously. Senior vocalist Dinkar Kaikini<br />
is clearly among this number, as he communicated to me his belief in the origins <strong>of</strong><br />
Hindustani raga music (as he calls it) in the Sama Veda (interview, 2005). In other<br />
words, pointing out the Orientalist basis <strong>of</strong> an idea (which is always a subjective<br />
evaluation) does not in any way erase its existence, as some would have it.<br />
<strong>The</strong> one other study outside <strong>of</strong> Widdess’s work that deals with region and<br />
Hindustani music in a meaningful way, as I see it, is Allyn Miner’s monograph Sitar and<br />
Sarod in the 18 th and 19 th Centuries (1993). Unlike Widdess, however, (but very much<br />
like most other studies that deal with region in Hindustani music to any extent) Miner<br />
does not foreground region or regionalism as an important factor in her analyses. Rather,<br />
based on a variety <strong>of</strong> primary sources from the period, primarily music instructional<br />
21
manuals, Miner discusses the evolution <strong>of</strong> both the construction <strong>of</strong> and the respective<br />
repertories <strong>of</strong> the sitar and sarod in the period in question. One <strong>of</strong> Miner’s means <strong>of</strong><br />
organizing her data is to discuss how instrumental music developed in specific regional<br />
centers, such as Lucknow, Benares, Rampur, Jaipur, etc. What emerged from these<br />
centers in the latter part <strong>of</strong> the 19th century, as Miner rightly notes, were two broad<br />
streams or styles <strong>of</strong> sitar playing (this applies to sitar only, as sarod is more thoroughly<br />
eastern-based). <strong>The</strong>se two styles <strong>of</strong> sitar were designated as the Purab Baaj, or Eastern<br />
style, and the Pashchim Baaj, or Western style. 12 Gottlieb (1993), among others, has also<br />
noted the very similar east-west stylistic division (also known in Hindi as Purab-<br />
Pashchim) present in the style <strong>of</strong> the paired tabla drums, the primary percussion<br />
instrument used in accompaniment <strong>of</strong> Khyal and sitar and sarod music. I will examine the<br />
validity <strong>of</strong> this broad, bipartite division <strong>of</strong> style in more detail in my respective chapters<br />
on tabla (chapter 5) and instrumental music (chapter 6). To a certain extent, Maharashtra<br />
has become the west and Bengal the east in terms <strong>of</strong> classical music. However, these<br />
older divisions (which, <strong>by</strong> their names and respective locations, again point to the Delhi<br />
region as the historical center <strong>of</strong> the tradition), are also limited in certain ways. Most<br />
notably, to give one example, in instrumental music, the distinction has become<br />
meaningless, as Bengalis now thoroughly dominate the field and the vast majority <strong>of</strong><br />
instrumentalists in Bombay (the only true current center <strong>of</strong> instrumental music west <strong>of</strong><br />
Delhi) are ethnically Bengali and North Indian.<br />
Beyond these studies, however, most other studies <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical music,<br />
12 Cohn argues that, in terms <strong>of</strong> the largest number <strong>of</strong> variables, an east-west split is at least as logical in<br />
understanding India as a whole as is the conventional north-south division (1967:19).<br />
22
ethnomusicological or otherwise, deal with region in a limited and <strong>of</strong>ten tangential<br />
fashion, if at all. Wade, in her landmark monograph Khyal: Creativity Within North<br />
India’s Classical Music Tradition (1984), discusses a large number <strong>of</strong> Marathi Khyal<br />
singers (which could not be avoided in a work on the history <strong>of</strong> Khyal), and discusses, in<br />
a general way, the crucial linkages between Marathi Brahman singers and the traditional<br />
Ustads (maestros) <strong>of</strong> Khyal. However, she assigns no further significance to this<br />
transition, other than, once again, that it was a transition from Muslim to Hindu.<br />
Interestingly, in her introduction to her chapter on the Gwalior gharana (stylistic<br />
school/lineage), Wade writes that, “Gwalior again became a focal point in the history <strong>of</strong><br />
Hindustani vocal music when in 1726 the territory came under the rule <strong>of</strong> the Rajput<br />
house <strong>of</strong> Scindia”(36). <strong>The</strong> designation Rajput is not entirely incorrect in this case, as the<br />
Scindias no doubt filled the same political and military role as the Rajputs had and<br />
operated in the same broad geographical region (and were also Hindu), but the Scindias<br />
were in fact Marathas (the soldier/agricultural caste native to Maharashtra) – their<br />
surname was originally Shinde, one which is very identifiably Maharashtrian. This<br />
distinction is not crucial for Wade’s study, to be fair, but it does obscure one <strong>of</strong> the more<br />
obvious (but not indisputable) reasons why Marathi Brahmans would so frequently<br />
choose distant Gwalior as a destination among all the different princely states in the late<br />
19th century that had a significant and well-known tradition <strong>of</strong> patronizing some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
finest singers in all <strong>of</strong> India.<br />
Besides this type <strong>of</strong> approach, there are other studies that deal with traditions <strong>of</strong><br />
Hindustani music that are geographically bounded, but these studies almost always deal<br />
23
with traditions based in urban centers. Thus, Hamilton (1989) deals with sitar music in<br />
Calcutta, Kippen (1988) examines tabla playing in Lucknow, Neuman (1990) examines<br />
the social organization <strong>of</strong> Khyal singers, along with saarangii and tabla players in Delhi<br />
itself, etc. Of course, many <strong>of</strong> these studies (including those <strong>of</strong> Kippen and Neuman) are<br />
located within the North Indian region (in Uttar Pradesh) and are considered ‘traditional’<br />
and historically significant centers, so a discussion <strong>of</strong> regional tendencies or differences<br />
likely would not suggest themselves in such contexts. However, even Hamilton, while he<br />
both discusses the fact that Calcutta is a relatively new center for classical music and that<br />
many musicians have migrated there from outside Bengal in the last century, and<br />
summarizes the history <strong>of</strong> Calcutta and some <strong>of</strong> its unique and uniquely Bengali cultural<br />
features, he makes no explicit connections between the style <strong>of</strong> classical music practiced<br />
in Calcutta and Bengali culture per se.<br />
To these studies that either (like Wade) deal with region briefly in a broader<br />
discussion <strong>of</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> the tradition or specific genres or musicians or focus on<br />
traditions based in specific urban centers, could be added those that deal with an<br />
essentially regional phenomenon (or simultaneously regional and national), but<br />
consistently argue that these phenomena are <strong>of</strong> national import and/or are representative<br />
or parallel to processes that take place in other regions. Bakhle’s aforementioned<br />
monograph Two Men and Music (2005) (which deals with Maharashtra and<br />
Maharashtrian musicians and music reformers) and McNeil’s Inventing the Sarod (2004),<br />
are two examples, although McNeil’s study, which covers the history <strong>of</strong> the sarod, does<br />
deal with a much larger cultural zone than just Bengal (even if Bengal has been the most<br />
24
important region for the cultivation <strong>of</strong> the sarod from the early 20th century forward).<br />
<strong>The</strong> term “regional exceptionalism” is <strong>of</strong>ten bandied about in academic studies <strong>of</strong> Indian<br />
culture, particularly <strong>by</strong> left-wing intellectuals like Bakhle or Partha Chatterjee (to name a<br />
non-musicologist). It is always used in passing <strong>by</strong> such writers and is <strong>of</strong>fered in such a<br />
manner that the reader, evidently, must only assume that this is both something negative<br />
and something so apparently obvious that it can be taken for granted. Part <strong>of</strong> this, as I<br />
will argue in chapter 1, is that there is a general tendency on the part <strong>of</strong> members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
social and cultural elite in post-independence India to feel, at best, ambivalent about the<br />
value and importance <strong>of</strong> region relative to the larger nation. It is also, though, a rather<br />
clear attempt on the part <strong>of</strong> these scholars to increase the significance <strong>of</strong> their analyses, a<br />
sin which most academics are guilty <strong>of</strong> at one point or another in their career.<br />
Research and Methodology<br />
<strong>The</strong> research on which this study is based was done over the course <strong>of</strong> two trips to<br />
India. <strong>The</strong> first trip was made so that I could take part in the American Institute <strong>of</strong> Indian<br />
Studies’ Year-Long Marathi language program in Pune (which actually spanned nine<br />
months from August 2002 to May 2003). Although this program was the primary<br />
purpose for my visit and certainly occupied most <strong>of</strong> my time during that period, it was<br />
also my first time to visit either <strong>of</strong> the two regions that were to serve as the geographical<br />
foci <strong>of</strong> this study. This period was invaluable because, not only did I get to learn the<br />
language from scratch in the historical capital <strong>of</strong> Marathi culture, I was also able to spend<br />
ample time observing both the musical culture <strong>of</strong> Pune as well as the larger Marathi<br />
25
culture (and particularly the Brahman culture dominant in Pune), both <strong>of</strong> which have<br />
proven useful for the present study. In 2005, I returned for my <strong>of</strong>ficial period <strong>of</strong> research.<br />
My time during this ten month period (from February to December 2005) was divided<br />
between Bombay and Calcutta; I spent five months in the former city and four in the<br />
latter. <strong>The</strong>se two cities, then, served as my home bases. I also, though, spent significant<br />
time in several other important cities in classical music terms, including Delhi (10 days),<br />
Benares (10 days), and Pune again (3 weeks). I should also note that during my visits, I<br />
made an effort to see as many historical, cultural, and/or religious sites as possible in<br />
order, to again, increase my general understanding <strong>of</strong> these two regions. Thus, during my<br />
visit to Pune, I made brief visits to Kolhapur, Miraj, Pandharpur, Aundh, Aurangabad,<br />
and Jalgaon, as well as to a number <strong>of</strong> sites in the immediate vicinity <strong>of</strong> Pune, such as<br />
Alandi, Dehu, and Saswad. This was supplemented <strong>by</strong> visits in 2005 to Shirdi, Satara,<br />
Akkalkot, and Gangapur (an essentially Maharashtrian pilgrimage site in Karnataka).<br />
While in Calcutta, I made visits to Vishnupur, Srirampur (a historical settlement now<br />
located in the Calcutta suburban area), and Darjeeling.<br />
My research consisted <strong>of</strong> three broad activities. First, I made an effort to attend<br />
as many musical performances (and occasionally performances <strong>of</strong> dance and theatre) as<br />
possible in order both to familiarize myself with the performers that were active during<br />
this time span in Pune, Bombay, and Calcutta and to begin to grasp the stylistic<br />
tendencies <strong>of</strong> these performers taken as a group. As I explain in chapter 1 (and as I have<br />
already mentioned), a number <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors, particularly the Marathi musicians I<br />
met with in Bombay and Pune, were resistant to the idea <strong>of</strong> discussing Hindustani music<br />
26
in the context <strong>of</strong> region. Thus, it <strong>of</strong>ten proved quite useful in the interview setting when I<br />
was able to point out a particular and clearly observable tendency <strong>of</strong>, for example, not<br />
only Marathi singers generally (or musicians belonging to similarly defined<br />
regional/linguistic groups), but also <strong>of</strong> members <strong>of</strong> particular gharanas and stylistic<br />
lineages. Along these same lines, I also made a concerted effort to build up a library <strong>of</strong><br />
recordings <strong>of</strong> musicians relevant to this study, both current and historic. This includes a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> recordings I myself recorded during live performances in India, but the lion’s<br />
share consists <strong>of</strong> widely available commercial recordings that I purchased at each <strong>of</strong> my<br />
stops in 2002-2003 and 2005. All the recordings that I utilize for the purposes <strong>of</strong> musical<br />
analysis are recordings <strong>of</strong> this type. Considering that this study focuses on vocal music<br />
and instrumental music in Bengal and Maharashtra, the second broad source <strong>of</strong> data for<br />
this study came from my one-one-one lessons with reputable musicians that, I felt, were<br />
representative <strong>of</strong> each region. Thus, as Bengalis numerically dominate the field <strong>of</strong><br />
instrumental music and Maharashtrians Khyal vocal music, I learned sitar with Pandit<br />
Deepak Chaudhury (a well-known senior disciple <strong>of</strong> Pandit Ravi Shankar) in Calcutta<br />
and vocal music from Dr. Ram Deshpande (a disciple <strong>of</strong> Ulhas Kashalkar, V.R Athavale,<br />
and Yashwantbua Joshi) in Bombay. Beyond the fact that I was able to learn Hindustani<br />
music firsthand from these two top-ranking musicians, 13 I also was also able to spend a<br />
good deal <strong>of</strong> time with each <strong>of</strong> them conversing about a variety <strong>of</strong> subjects, both music<br />
and non-music related. In this regard, Deepakda and Ramji complemented each other<br />
well, as not only is one a Bengali sitarist and the other a Marathi singer, they belong to<br />
13 My vocal music lessons were particularly crucial for the present study, as I am a life-long instrumentalist<br />
who had only briefly studied vocal music in any context prior to 2005.<br />
27
distinctly different generations <strong>of</strong> musicians, as Ramji was 38 during my visit (only seven<br />
years my senior), while Deepakda is elder to him <strong>by</strong> some 20 years.<br />
My primary source <strong>of</strong> data for the present study, though, is the 50 odd<br />
ethnographic interviews I conducted mostly during my <strong>of</strong>ficial period <strong>of</strong> research in 2005<br />
(although a handful were done in Pune in 2002-2003). My subjects for these interviews<br />
included scholars, music critics, and connoisseurs who were not active performers, but<br />
the vast majority (approximately 45 <strong>of</strong> the 50 I interviewed) were. <strong>The</strong> views <strong>of</strong> current<br />
performers are especially critical in this particular case, for two broad reasons. <strong>The</strong> first<br />
is that, as explained above, secondary sources (in both English and the two Indian<br />
languages <strong>of</strong> which I have working knowledge, Hindi and Marathi) that deal with<br />
Hindustani music in the context <strong>of</strong> region and/or regional culture are greatly limited. Of<br />
course, as this project has a substantial historical component, a number <strong>of</strong> historical<br />
accounts (including biographies) have proven useful. Even then, though, it was the<br />
opinions, views, and theories <strong>of</strong> my informants which guided me in understanding how<br />
this body <strong>of</strong> history, including both general political information and history and history<br />
specific to the Hindustani music tradition, had impacted the music and its performers.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second reason for the crucial importance <strong>of</strong> my interviews is that my focus is not<br />
only on musical style but also on understanding how and why musicians make the<br />
creative and stylistic choices that they do. As I will reiterate at several point throughout<br />
the following chapters, it is through such choices that musicians reveal their regionally-<br />
based aesthetic preferences, much as audiences make their preferences known <strong>by</strong> the<br />
performers whose performances they attend and/or whose recordings they purchase.<br />
28
In terms <strong>of</strong> who I interviewed, there is certainly a pr<strong>of</strong>ile that was more or less the<br />
same for almost all the performers I met with in Pune, Bombay, and Calcutta. Most <strong>of</strong><br />
the musicians I interviewed were either faculty members at a music college or university<br />
or had strong interest in scholarly research, and, as such, had perhaps authored book-<br />
and/or article-length studies on various aspects <strong>of</strong> the tradition. Also, the vast majority<br />
were middle or upper economic class Hindus who were fluent in English, 14 though, as in<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> my two music teachers, my interlocutors represented several different<br />
generations and several different regional/ linguistic groups besides Bengalis and<br />
Maharashtrians alone. This relative homogeneity in terms <strong>of</strong> the demographic pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong><br />
my interlocutors was largely due to the manner in which I arranged my interviews.<br />
Briefly, my primary method was that after each interview, I would ask my interview<br />
subject if he or she could put me in touch with other performers and/or scholars who<br />
might have something informative to say about my topic. As a result, I was most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
put in touch with English speakers who had academic and scholarly backgrounds. Some<br />
might object that I have not included the views <strong>of</strong> any musician who was a hereditary<br />
performer or even simply a Muslim. However, I would argue that, even though I had not<br />
foreseen that this type <strong>of</strong> “scholarly musician” would be the ideal interview subject for<br />
my research, they indeed proved to be the right people to help me with my pursuit. Most<br />
<strong>of</strong> my interlocutors, particularly those who were the most sympathetic to my research<br />
goals, seemed to feel rather strongly that those musicians who were not <strong>of</strong> a scholarly<br />
mindset would not be interested in talking about such an abstract and subjective topic,<br />
14 My only interview conducted in an Indian language (in this case, Hindi) was with senior vocalist Pandit<br />
Yashwantbua Joshi in Bombay, and I was assisted in this case <strong>by</strong> two <strong>of</strong> his English speaking disciples.<br />
29
and my brief experience interviewing such musicians certainly bore out the truth <strong>of</strong> this<br />
view. In terms <strong>of</strong> the issue <strong>of</strong> religious community, I should make it clear that I neither<br />
avoided interviewing non-Hindu musicians, nor do I discount their importance in terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> the tradition or in the current period. However, it also should be noted<br />
that there are very, very few native (i.e. ethnic) Bengalis or Maharashtrians who are both<br />
Muslim and a practicing musician. To the extent that such musicians are present in the<br />
cities I visited, however, I will apologize now for inadvertently overlooking them and/or<br />
their views.<br />
<strong>The</strong> other aspect <strong>of</strong> my interviews that I should note here is the actual questions<br />
that I asked. <strong>The</strong>se tended to revolve around four or five broad topics: family and<br />
musical background; the importance <strong>of</strong> gharana for modern Hindustani music; regional<br />
semi-classical genres and their influence on classical music; how audiences differed in<br />
the major cities in each region; and, more generally, how region or regional culture has<br />
impacted classical music. In terms <strong>of</strong> the last <strong>of</strong> these, I <strong>of</strong>ten would directly ask my<br />
interlocutors if they felt that there was anything distinctly Maharashtrian or Bengali about<br />
the style <strong>of</strong> music as practiced <strong>by</strong> performers in those two regions. However, as many <strong>of</strong><br />
my interlocutors, as noted, were resistant to talking about region and classical music in<br />
such general terms (although for several <strong>of</strong> my interviewees, this broad question was<br />
enough <strong>of</strong> a starting point), I would point out the relative disparity <strong>of</strong> instrumentalists<br />
versus vocalists in Bengal as compared to Maharashtra and vice-versa as a starting point<br />
for our dialogue. Eventually, again due to the frequent skepticism I encountered when<br />
explaining my research topic to potential interview subjects, I began using this<br />
30
observation as the starting point for the entire interview. Along these same lines, I should<br />
note that my questions about each musician’s musical and family background, in a certain<br />
sense, were neutral questions, as each individual could talk about their own experiences<br />
and personal history as they chose, without me forcing them to, for example, determine<br />
or argue whether their experiences were typical or not typical for a Bengali or for all<br />
Indians who study classical music. By looking at all my different interlocutors’ answers<br />
in this area, I could then discern certain patterns, including some regional tendencies.<br />
At the same time, though, while this was the broad framework that I tried to<br />
follow in every interview, each one was fairly different. <strong>The</strong> power dynamic between a<br />
researcher such as myself who, at least during my period <strong>of</strong> fieldwork, represents him- or<br />
herself as a student in the West and a student <strong>of</strong> the tradition as well, is a much different<br />
situation then when a western researcher is dealing with a member <strong>of</strong> a disenfranchised or<br />
economically disadvantaged group, however defined. That is, there were many times<br />
during my interviews when my interlocutor was in sole control <strong>of</strong> the conversation and I<br />
was simply expected to listen. Without being unfair or cynical, I think it is fair to say that<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the performers I met had, for lack <strong>of</strong> a better term, some sort <strong>of</strong> agenda they<br />
wanted to pursue, and it was more or less a foregone conclusion that they would be<br />
discussing this topic at some point in the interview, irregardless <strong>of</strong> my line <strong>of</strong><br />
questioning. Mostly, though, this was not a problem because I, like most researchers,<br />
was as much interested in what each person wanted to say as I was getting very direct<br />
answers to my preconceived questions. Indeed, the best and most revelatory observations<br />
I was given <strong>by</strong> my interlocutors came totally <strong>by</strong> surprise and were not direct answers to<br />
31
any specific question I had asked. Beyond these differences which came about due to the<br />
direction each interviewee chose to go with their answers, I also, as noted, tinkered with<br />
my batch <strong>of</strong> questions as I went along. Most notably, I stopped asking directly about my<br />
interlocutors’ perceptions about audiences in different cities, as I was consistently getting<br />
uninformative answers. Also, though, I began to tailor my questions better to suit each<br />
individual, as I began to understand that certain musicians were not likely to answer<br />
certain questions.<br />
I should also note at this point that I see my informants’ ideas and observations as<br />
the framework for the analyses I will <strong>of</strong>fer in the following chapters. To the extent<br />
possible, I have allowed what they have told me to guide the way I have organized and<br />
presented my material. As such, each chapter is based, in a sense, on one common (or, in<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> the last chapter, chapter 8, uncommon) approach to understanding Hindustani<br />
music in the last 100 years. <strong>The</strong> only exception to this is my first chapter, which seeks to<br />
explain why so many <strong>of</strong> my informants were resistant to discussing Hindustani music in<br />
regional terms. Since so few such interviewees were both willing and able to explain this<br />
resistance, I have had arrive some answers strictly based on my own observations. All<br />
the other chapters, though, use ideas from my interlocutors as at least a jumping <strong>of</strong>f point.<br />
Of course, ultimately, the final product here is mine and mine alone, as I only I determine<br />
what is included or not. At any rate, I believe it is essentially an ethical responsibility<br />
(for myself if not for others) to, to the extent possible, give a voice to those individuals<br />
who have taught me about the tradition and have generously helped me to find some<br />
answers to the questioned I have posed. I understand, as in Bakhle’s case, the value <strong>of</strong><br />
32
more critical studies which seek to interrogate every action and every statement <strong>of</strong> each<br />
and every musician, either currently or historically, thus not taking for granted that every<br />
utterance is what it appears to be on the surface. This is particularly true if, as Bakhle<br />
argues <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music scholarship, few if any such critical studies have ever been<br />
attempted. At the same time, though, I also feel that there is much to be recommended<br />
about an approach which is based on sympathy and respect, particularly in a tradition<br />
such as this one where interpersonal relationships and a sense <strong>of</strong> mutual trust are so<br />
crucial if one is to have meaningful dialogue, which, <strong>of</strong> course, is not every researcher’s<br />
intention.<br />
Chapter breakdown<br />
I have divided the following into two broad sections, with chapter 1, in which I<br />
discuss the reasons why some were to resistant to discussing the tradition in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
region, working in essence as an extended introduction. <strong>The</strong> first larger section<br />
corresponds to what I term the “Inside View,” which, as I will explain in greater detail in<br />
the next two chapters, is something like the common sense view <strong>of</strong> how the tradition has<br />
progressed and changed over time. Considering that a number <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors were<br />
academics, some even holding college or university posts, it should not be surprising to<br />
find a correspondence between this common sense view and the objectivist mode which<br />
is so typical <strong>of</strong> Indian musicology. Most importantly, this translates to a belief that,<br />
among other things, musical structure is the only proper concern <strong>of</strong> academic studies <strong>of</strong><br />
the tradition, that vocal music is the only or most pure form <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical<br />
33
music, and that the only factor external to the tradition which has any real impact on the<br />
tradition is economics, not in any theoretical sense, but to the extent that, for example,<br />
financial needs may force a musician compromise the amount they can practice or teach<br />
or even compromise their artistic integrity <strong>by</strong> deliberately playing to the less discerning<br />
members <strong>of</strong> the mass audience. By this view, the only story to be told about the<br />
migration <strong>of</strong> musicians from North India to Maharashtra and Bengal is that in the past,<br />
patronage was available in the courts <strong>of</strong> North India, and now it is available in the ‘major<br />
metros,’ the most important <strong>of</strong> which are Bombay and Calcutta, and due to this, these<br />
musicians subsequently propagated their style in their new region and built up a base <strong>of</strong><br />
listeners and followers there. Based on this view, then, in chapters 3 through 6, I<br />
examine the tradition in this light, discussing the history and current musical scene in<br />
Bengal and Maharashtra in terms <strong>of</strong> whom my interlocutors saw as the most important<br />
and influential musicians and lineages <strong>of</strong> musicians in each region. Thus, in chapter 3, I<br />
discuss Khyal in Maharashtra; in chapter 4, I look at Khyal in Bengal; chapter 5 concerns<br />
traditions <strong>of</strong> tabla playing in both regions; and chapter 6 discusses in instrumental music<br />
in Bengal and, to a lesser extent, the dearth <strong>of</strong> instrumental music in Maharashtra.<br />
Chapter 2 serves as introduction to this larger section, where I discuss the gharana<br />
concept, as so many <strong>of</strong> interlocutors explained the scenes in each region in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
gharana-based styles. In each chapter, I attempt to make some generalizations about the<br />
most common musical styles in the case <strong>of</strong> each genre in each region.<br />
In the second broad section, which consists <strong>of</strong> two chapters, one quite lengthy, I<br />
examine the tradition in terms that only a handful, if any, <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors suggested.<br />
34
This is the “Outside View,” an approach that understands the changes that have occurred<br />
in the tradition in the last century to be the result <strong>of</strong> broader and perhaps more abstract<br />
forces or influences, be they social, cultural, economic, political, or otherwise. And, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, as Bernard Cohn has made clear, region intersects with all these factors in a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> ways. More specifically, then, in chapter 7, I look at the what I, again based<br />
on my informants’ observations, see as the key respective semi-classical genres in each<br />
region in order to determine how these genres have interacted with and possibly even<br />
influenced, directly or indirectly, the classical tradition in that region. To this extent, I<br />
am staying true to my goal <strong>of</strong> basing my analyses on explanations provided to me <strong>by</strong><br />
practicing musicians. However, in this same chapter, I depart from my interlocutors’<br />
views as radically as at any point in this study. This is as I will use Pierre Bourdieu’s<br />
work on the social nature <strong>of</strong> taste in order to better understand the aesthetic preferences<br />
<strong>of</strong> Bengalis and Maharashtrian audiences and, <strong>by</strong> implication, musicians as well, in light<br />
<strong>of</strong> economic class, caste, and the distinctive histories <strong>of</strong> each region. Finally, in the last<br />
chapter, number 8, I will attempt to tie together all the observations and generalizations I<br />
make in the preceding chapters regarding stylistic tendencies and aesthetic preferences,<br />
and explain them in light <strong>of</strong> a metaphorical comparison between the respective<br />
landscapes <strong>of</strong> Bengal and Maharashtra on one hand, and the language and musical styles<br />
present in each region on the other. This metaphor, as I will explain, was originally<br />
suggested to me <strong>by</strong> tabla player and sitarist Nayan Ghosh <strong>of</strong> Bombay. However, while<br />
he did an admirable job <strong>of</strong> quickly explaining what he saw as the most important<br />
correspondences between these different realms, so to speak, I will draw on the work <strong>of</strong><br />
35
James Fernandez, Robert Plant Armstrong, and Charles Keil in order to further tease out<br />
the implications <strong>of</strong> this metaphor.<br />
36
1. Possible Objections to the Association <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Classical Music with<br />
Regional Culture(s)<br />
When we take a bit more in-depth look at why the musicians who were my<br />
interlocutors so frequently denied the importance <strong>of</strong> region in their music specifically or<br />
in Hindustani music generally, we find a few recurring themes amongst their beliefs<br />
about their own personal background, regionalism, and the nature <strong>of</strong> the tradition itself.<br />
<strong>The</strong> etiquette <strong>of</strong> Hindustani performers, namely their aforementioned hesitation to speak<br />
about other artists in a fashion that even approaches criticism in a public or semi-public<br />
context, is one <strong>of</strong> the most important factors. As with any generalization, this does not<br />
apply to every performer, or even everyone I spoke with, but it is true <strong>of</strong> the vast majority<br />
<strong>of</strong> artists. This hesitancy leads us to another factor, one that no one I interviewed openly<br />
stated, but one that I will argue is crucial in this context – that regionalism is a regressive<br />
force in Indian politics and society and one that is generally the province <strong>of</strong> marginalized<br />
groups, i.e. those <strong>of</strong> low caste or low economic class. Beyond this, there is a very<br />
strongly held, though again rarely stated, belief amongst almost all members <strong>of</strong> Indian<br />
society who are familiar with Hindustani music that it is primarily a national tradition<br />
with consistency, continuity, and coherence that cuts across regional or state boundaries.<br />
Third, there is the notion that modernity and/or globalism have worked as a<br />
homogenizing forces in Indian music and culture generally to the extent that classical<br />
music has not only become more standardized across India but even has started to lose its<br />
37
distinctness relative to other types <strong>of</strong> music, popular or otherwise. 15 I will discuss each <strong>of</strong><br />
these three themes in turn, starting with the idea that Hindustani music is a national<br />
tradition.<br />
A. Hindustani Music as a National Tradition: Bhatkhande and Paluskar<br />
Undoubtedly, no two historical figures have done more to establish Hindustani<br />
music as a national tradition than have the aforementioned musicologist Vishnu Narayan<br />
Bhatkhande and the aforementioned Guru, music promoter, performer, and activist<br />
Vishnu Digambar Paluskar. 16 This is not to say that many others, whether affiliated with<br />
one <strong>of</strong> these two or not, have not played a role in nationalizing the tradition, but certainly<br />
these are the two men most <strong>of</strong>ten credited for achieving this goal. Along these lines, it is<br />
important to note that Bhatkhande and Paluskar began their respective careers at a time<br />
when the movement for Indian independence was rapidly growing and nationalist<br />
feelings were on the rise. As Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy writes,<br />
Art music in India began to outgrow its associations with pr<strong>of</strong>essional performers<br />
and the leisured classes, and began to reach the middle classes largely as a result<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Nationalist movement in the second half <strong>of</strong> the 19 th century. <strong>The</strong><br />
indigenous performing arts, especially music and theatre, began to be recognized<br />
as cultural symbols <strong>of</strong> the movement. Bengal and Maharashtra were the two<br />
primary centers <strong>of</strong> this new vision (1993:276).<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> both Bhatkhande and Paluskar, there seems to have been an underlying<br />
belief that music had degenerated since the beginning <strong>of</strong> the colonial period, both in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> the lifestyle and morals <strong>of</strong> the performers and their patrons and in terms <strong>of</strong> more<br />
15<br />
No one I spoke with who voiced this opinion would say exactly how it had changed or what features it<br />
had absorbed from outside <strong>of</strong> the tradition, however.<br />
16<br />
Kobayashi (2003) is one <strong>of</strong> the few studies that discuss other early 20th century ‘music reformers’<br />
besides the ‘Two Vishnus.’<br />
38
strictly musical criteria. Of these two notions, the latter is more easily refuted. As<br />
various recent studies have proven, 17 the music <strong>of</strong> the latter half <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century<br />
in no way paled in comparison to the periods that preceded or followed it. Rather, it was<br />
demonstrably a period <strong>of</strong> high technical achievement and great innovation in the field <strong>of</strong><br />
classical music. More arguably, it was also the period when the Hindustani tradition took<br />
its modern form musically, leaving aside political debates or public perception.<br />
However, there is perhaps a bit more truth to the former <strong>of</strong> the above two ideas, that the<br />
performers and patrons <strong>of</strong> the music were a degenerate, immoral class <strong>by</strong> then current<br />
standards. <strong>The</strong> reason for this is hard to dispute. During the latter half <strong>of</strong> the 19th<br />
century, the British Raj set about reforming the system <strong>of</strong> land tenure in India, removing<br />
the hereditary aristocracy from power (along with dismantling many royal darbaar-s, the<br />
primary context for musical performance), and placing control in the hands <strong>of</strong> a new class<br />
<strong>of</strong> landlords, the zamiindaar-s, who in essence were nouveau-riche, and not educated in<br />
the nuances <strong>of</strong> classical, raga-based music. 18 From a musical standpoint, this is<br />
important, as these patrons demanded a lighter, less esoteric type <strong>of</strong> performance idiom,<br />
but not crucial as, again, technical standards remained high and musicians continued to<br />
cultivate more rigidly classical genres <strong>of</strong> music (particularly those performers who were<br />
able to find patronage in one the <strong>of</strong> the princely states). However, it does seem that<br />
practices such as alcohol and drug use took place in this new milieu, along with the<br />
transition <strong>of</strong> the tawaaif from high-class royal courtesan to something more closely<br />
17 such as Miner (1993) and Kippen (1998)<br />
18 <strong>The</strong>re was also an established class <strong>of</strong> Mughal appointed landlords, also called Zamindars, who held their<br />
positions prior to the advent <strong>of</strong> British power, but most during the 19 h century gained their position due to<br />
the re-organized British system <strong>of</strong> revenue assessment (see also chapter 7).<br />
39
esembling a common prostitute. I want to be very careful in making these statements, as<br />
I am well aware that so many <strong>of</strong> these developments took place because <strong>of</strong> both the<br />
ideological and practical influence <strong>of</strong> the British. Certainly the degraded status <strong>of</strong> the<br />
courtesan was due as much as anything to the Victorian morality inculcated <strong>by</strong> the<br />
colonial government post-Mutiny in the second half <strong>of</strong> the 19th century. <strong>The</strong> point to be<br />
made, though, is that a rather wide gap had opened up between the beliefs <strong>of</strong> the<br />
emerging Indian middle classes on one side and the performers and especially the patrons<br />
<strong>of</strong> music during this period.<br />
For all the above reasons, the performer <strong>of</strong> classical music him- or herself had<br />
very low social status in the eyes <strong>of</strong> Indian society at large at this time. And, when we<br />
examine historical accounts <strong>of</strong> Vishnu Digambar’s (henceforth VDP) life, we find that it<br />
was his own realization early in life <strong>of</strong> this low status that ostensibly spurred him on to<br />
take up what became his life’s work. VDP was born in the princely state <strong>of</strong> Kurundwad,<br />
on the Maharashtrian side <strong>of</strong> the modern day Maharashtra-Karnataka border to a low<br />
economic class Brahman family. <strong>The</strong> hereditary occupation <strong>of</strong> VDP’s family was<br />
kiirtankaar or haridaas, which B.R. Deodhar defines as “a person who goes about giving<br />
religious discourses comprising recitations <strong>of</strong> poetry and devotional songs” (1993:133).<br />
However, as VDP was, <strong>by</strong> all accounts, an exceptionally bright student, and until he<br />
suffered an accident (involving firecrackers) at the age <strong>of</strong> fifteen that greatly<br />
compromised his eye-sight, he was likely headed for a different career than his forebears.<br />
This limitation prevented him from doing any serious reading or writing and put him on<br />
the path <strong>of</strong> becoming a singer, albeit a classical singer, after all. VDP came under the<br />
40
tutelage <strong>of</strong> the raaj gaayak (chief court singer) <strong>of</strong> the court in near<strong>by</strong> Miraj. This was the<br />
well known khyaaliya (Khyal singer) Balkrishnabua Ichalkaranjikar, considered <strong>by</strong> most<br />
to have been the premier classical performer in Maharashtra at that time. VDP quickly<br />
noticed the low status accorded to Balkrishnabua and other musicians both <strong>by</strong> the general<br />
public and, more importantly, <strong>by</strong> the ruler himself. This was all the more apparent to<br />
VDP, as he not only was from a Brahman family, but also had been a childhood friend <strong>of</strong><br />
the son <strong>of</strong> the ruler <strong>of</strong> Kurundwad, and had also quickly become a favorite <strong>of</strong> Balasaheb<br />
Patwardhan, the then ruler <strong>of</strong> Miraj. <strong>The</strong> accounts <strong>of</strong> B.R. Athavale and Ram Avtar<br />
place special emphasis on one example <strong>of</strong> the poor treatment doled out to Balkrishnabua,<br />
which had a particularly dramatic effect on young the VDP, and which occurred at the<br />
end <strong>of</strong> VDP’s time in Miraj. This occurred when VDP and Balkrishnabua had gone for<br />
an evening stroll together. During this stroll, Balasaheb happened to pass in his carriage.<br />
Upon seeing the pair, he asked the young singer to join him in the carriage, but did not<br />
extend the same <strong>of</strong>fer to Balkrishnabua (Athavale 1967:9). However, as Bakhle rightly<br />
asserts, it was the general preferential treatment VDP had received, along with<br />
Balkrishnabua’s resentment toward this special treatment, that had likely spurred on<br />
VDP’s eventual departure from Miraj. More specifically, VDP very likely had a fear <strong>of</strong><br />
being called on <strong>by</strong> Balasaheb to sing after Balkrishnabua in the darbaar, which would<br />
have been a great insult to the venerable singer (Bakhle 2005:142).<br />
It was after setting out from Miraj, ending up first in Baroda and eventually in<br />
Lahore, Punjab, that he started pursuing his goals in earnest, chief among them “to make<br />
North Indian classical music available to the developing middle class audience..”<br />
41
(Jairazbhoy 1993:277). VDP went about this in several ways, but his basic idea was to<br />
create a completely new scenario in which respectable (<strong>by</strong> VDP’s standards, <strong>of</strong> course)<br />
middle class children, especially girls, could learn, perform, and/or listen to classical<br />
music without having to compromise their moral or ethical beliefs. <strong>The</strong> first step, then,<br />
was to create an institution for learning classical music where students could learn music<br />
without being subject to the capricious and <strong>of</strong>ten unreasonable demands <strong>of</strong> the hereditary<br />
Ustad (or Guru, in VDP’s case) <strong>of</strong> the time who asked much from their students in the<br />
way <strong>of</strong> household chores and other menial tasks but <strong>of</strong>ten gave very little actual taaliim. 19<br />
VDP’s first college opened in Lahore in 1901, under the name Gandharva<br />
Mahavidyalaya. A second, much larger branch was opened in Bombay in 1908. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
schools flourished over time (though the Lahore branch was closed after partition in<br />
1947) and grew into a system that has endured to this day, in spite <strong>of</strong> criticisms that such<br />
institutions have never produced a first-rate performer <strong>of</strong> note, which is likely due to the<br />
relatively short length <strong>of</strong> time required to obtain a degree. As all <strong>of</strong> VDP’s biographers<br />
note, he laid special emphasis on developing a system <strong>of</strong> notation which could be utilized<br />
in the process <strong>of</strong> teaching music in his GMVs. VDP was hardly unique in his fervent<br />
desire to develop such a system, 20 but in this context I should emphasize that VDP<br />
desired to make clear, correct notations <strong>of</strong> all the ragas taught in his college, so students<br />
could learn the correct form <strong>of</strong> a raga or composition, again in contradistinction to old-<br />
school performers such as his own Guru who, it seems, <strong>of</strong>ten refused to divulge important<br />
19 Taaliim is the Hindi word for education or instruction.<br />
20 Others notable figures who attempted to develop systems <strong>of</strong> notation for Hindustani music include<br />
Sourindro Mohun Tagore and Bhatkhande.<br />
42
details <strong>of</strong> what they were teaching (for ex., the name <strong>of</strong> the raga) and sometimes even<br />
passed on misinformation to their disciples whom they felt were unworthy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
knowledge the master regarded as his sacred inheritance from his own Guru or Ustad.<br />
As Bakhle mentions, this again is no doubt due to the many difficulties VDP encountered<br />
in learning with Balkrishnabua (2005:141). One last innovation <strong>of</strong> VDP, one that<br />
obviously has been crucial to the growth and development <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music post<br />
1947, was to begin organizing ticketed public performances <strong>of</strong> classical music, the first <strong>of</strong><br />
which occurred in Gwalior in 1897 (Bakhle 2005:144). Although the evidence is not<br />
conclusive, it seems VDP was the first to initiate this practice. 21<br />
While VDP certainly encountered some difficulties and hardships in his lifetime,<br />
primarily <strong>of</strong> the financial kind, 22 it is hard to argue that he was not largely successful in<br />
his aforementioned goals <strong>of</strong> raising the status <strong>of</strong> classical musicians in the eyes <strong>of</strong> the<br />
general public and <strong>of</strong> creating a standardized system <strong>of</strong> music education which allowed<br />
students to learn in a context free from the stigmas associated with the hereditary<br />
musicians <strong>of</strong> the day. We can quantify VDP’s success in a number <strong>of</strong> ways, perhaps not<br />
the least <strong>of</strong> which is Bakhle’s own grudging admission <strong>of</strong> his success (grudging<br />
considering her Marxist/deconstructionist agenda). Certainly, as I have mentioned, the<br />
most important aspect <strong>of</strong> VDP’s success is that his network <strong>of</strong> music colleges continues<br />
to thrive and grow to this day. <strong>The</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> these colleges is no more apparent than<br />
in Pune where it seems that every amateur performer, every teacher, and even several <strong>of</strong><br />
21 van der Meer (1980) gives partial credit to Gwalior gharaanedaar vocalist Rehimat Khan for this<br />
development, as he had created a type <strong>of</strong> music “based on direct emotional response” which would prove to<br />
be more palatable for new middle class audiences (155).<br />
22 Paluskar was in debt nearly all <strong>of</strong> his life.<br />
43
the pr<strong>of</strong>essional performers, have either learned at GMV or from a graduate <strong>of</strong> a GMV<br />
and betray this influence through the obvious Gwalior flavor in their singing. Likewise,<br />
if we expand our scope and take both Bombay and Pune together, one can easily see that<br />
an equal number, if not a majority, <strong>of</strong> prominent, pr<strong>of</strong>essional vocalists in these two cities<br />
are female. 23 When summing up VDP’s accomplishments, Bakhle speaks <strong>of</strong> his<br />
“cooptation <strong>of</strong> the public sphere” where<strong>by</strong> he was able to combine “religious instruction<br />
with musical education”(2005:177). Certainly, VDP introduced a number <strong>of</strong> Brahmanic<br />
rituals and other Hindu trappings into his system <strong>of</strong> music education, particularly his<br />
emphasis on the Guru-Shishya Paramparaa, which resembled the style <strong>of</strong> instruction <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Sanskrit paaThshaalaa (or school) more than the method <strong>of</strong> instruction favored <strong>by</strong><br />
hereditary Muslim Ustads. However, I take exception to one aspect <strong>of</strong> Bakhle’s<br />
argument here, namely that VDP was not only agentive <strong>of</strong> but largely responsible for this<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> reformed, nationalist Hinduism and classical music. In my view, VDP<br />
was as much a product <strong>of</strong> the times as he was a visionary. In other words, VDP had a<br />
ready made audience for his brand <strong>of</strong> ‘Bhakti nationalism,’ particularly in his home<br />
region <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, and would not have been as successful (or successful at all)<br />
without this audience. Reviewing the historical accounts, including Bakhle, it is hard to<br />
dispute that VDP did not receive support and encouragement at every turn, whether it<br />
came from the public, from nationalist leaders, or even from the aristocracy in<br />
Maharashtra, the Punjab, and elsewhere.<br />
23 A list <strong>of</strong> notable female singers from or based in Pune or Bombay would include, among others, Kishori<br />
Amonkar, Shruti Sadolikar-Katkar, Veena Sahasrabuddhe, Aaarti Ankalikar-Tikekar, Ashwini Bhide-<br />
Deshpande, and Manjusha Kulkarni-Patil.<br />
44
Considering VDP’s nationalist credentials, we find that more than anything else,<br />
he nationalized music <strong>by</strong> associating music with nationalist causes, most famously <strong>by</strong><br />
performing the nationalist song Vande Mataram at the meetings <strong>of</strong> the Indian National<br />
Congress from 1915 forward (Athavale 1967:52). Along these lines, Bakhle recounts<br />
what she refers to as “the second mythic story about him”(2005:165). Briefly stated, this<br />
was when, at the I.N.C. session in Kakinada in 1923, VDP refused to abide <strong>by</strong> the rule<br />
that singers should perform without the accompany <strong>of</strong> instruments, a compromise rule<br />
that had been put into effect in response to a controversy surrounding Parsis performing<br />
music outside mosques in Bombay, much to the displeasure <strong>of</strong> Bombay’s Muslim<br />
community. VDP also maintained ties with both the Sanatan Dharma and the Arya<br />
Samaj, organizations that battled each other on many doctrinal accounts but shared an<br />
enmity towards proselytizing religions like Islam and Christianity, during his time in the<br />
Punjab. In more strictly musical terms, though, VDP’s contribution was to somewhat<br />
standardize musical instruction, primarily because, overtime, so many students have gone<br />
through GMV training, and as a result, share a basic orientation toward factors such as<br />
musical style and the use <strong>of</strong> VDP’s system <strong>of</strong> notation. It is V.N. Bhatkhande, however,<br />
that made much more <strong>of</strong> an effort to unify the theory and practice <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music,<br />
and it is to his life and work that I now turn.<br />
In comparing the respective nationalist agendas <strong>of</strong> Paluskar and Bhatkhande, we<br />
find several similarities, among other things, the belief that classical music in the<br />
emerging nation <strong>of</strong> India would best be propagated through institutions (rather than<br />
45
through the traditional one-on-one style <strong>of</strong> instruction employed <strong>by</strong> hereditary<br />
musicians), and a desire to develop a practical system <strong>of</strong> notation for Hindustani music.<br />
However, perhaps the most basic common denominator was that both conducted their<br />
efforts at reform on a national basis. In early 20th century India as much if not more as in<br />
the India <strong>of</strong> today, great prestige has been accorded those who have chosen to venture out<br />
<strong>of</strong> the comfort zone <strong>of</strong> their home town or region in order to pursue pr<strong>of</strong>essional goals.<br />
<strong>The</strong> hardships encountered in doing so were all the greater for Paluskar considering that<br />
he could hardly speak Hindi or Urdu when he chose to begin his work in the Punjab.<br />
However, once we go beyond the surface level, we find many more differences than<br />
similarities between the ‘Two Vishnus.’ While contrasting the two and their agendas and<br />
methods, Bakhle explains rather succinctly their chief difference – “Bhatkhande wished<br />
to nationalize music; Paluskar wanted music to be nationalist”(2005:177). In other<br />
words, Paluskar wanted to make Hindustani music a symbol <strong>of</strong> the nation, while<br />
Bhatkhande wanted to shape Hindustani music into one unified tradition which was both<br />
standardized and systematized. This notably included the belief that the Northern and<br />
Southern (Carnatic) classical traditions should be reformed and, in essence, combined to<br />
form one tradition, an idea which, judging from autobiographical accounts, was never an<br />
issue for VDP.<br />
Bhatkhande, like Paluskar, was a Maharashtrian Brahman, albeit one born and<br />
raised in the rapidly modernizing British colonial capitol <strong>of</strong> Bombay, rather than in the<br />
semi-feudal context <strong>of</strong> Kurundwad. Unlike Paluskar, though, Bhatkhande’s father was<br />
employed <strong>by</strong> a local business man. Bhatkhande was exposed to music from an early age<br />
46
as his parents were music lovers, and he eventually took to studying the sitar.<br />
Particularly crucial for Bhatkhande’s musical education was the Gayan Uttejak Mandali,<br />
a Parsi run music appreciation society which Bhatkhande joined in 1884 while in college.<br />
Ratanjankar writes,<br />
As a member <strong>of</strong> the Gayan Uttejak Mandali, Vishnu [Bhatkhande] had the<br />
advantage <strong>of</strong> listening to the performances <strong>of</strong> great artistes like<br />
Tanras Khan, Inayat Hussain Khan, Natthan Khan, Ali Hussain Khan Beenkar.<br />
Besides, he started collecting traditional and authoritative<br />
compositions <strong>of</strong> music: Dhrupads, Horis, Khayals, Taranas, Thumris, etc. from<br />
Ustads who were in the service <strong>of</strong> the Gayan Uttejak Mandali (1967:9)<br />
This passage hints at the interest which later became an obsession for Bhatkhande,<br />
collecting and notating classical compositions with a view toward establishing<br />
standardized, demonstrably correct (on the basis <strong>of</strong> textual evidence if possible) forms <strong>of</strong><br />
both individual compositions and <strong>of</strong> ragas themselves. While there is no dramatic<br />
episode from Bhatkhande’s life, a’ la Paluskar, which explains his great interest in textual<br />
authority, it seems quite understandable given Bhatkhande’s caste background, his legal<br />
training, as well as certain Western ideas current at the time, such as the belief in the<br />
infallibility <strong>of</strong> science and the value <strong>of</strong> logic and rationality. Further, while Bhatkhande’s<br />
parents apparently feared for some time that his study <strong>of</strong> music might lead him astray, to<br />
the extent that he initially learned and practiced the sitar without their knowledge (Nayar<br />
1989:46), the social status <strong>of</strong> musicians was never the issue for Bhatkhande that it was for<br />
Paluskar. His chief concern was instead that the classical tradition could not survive<br />
without a standardized, textually-based body <strong>of</strong> theory that would guide musicians and<br />
ensure the future survival <strong>of</strong> the tradition.<br />
Bhatkhande’s work consisted <strong>of</strong> roughly four broad activities: research, which<br />
47
included both a thorough study <strong>of</strong> primarily Sanskrit texts as well as several national<br />
tours conducted to seek such out texts and other musicians and scholars who might be<br />
able either to recommend texts to Bhatkhande or perhaps even help to elucidate them; the<br />
writing <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> musicological works, primarily in Sanskrit and Marathi; the<br />
organization <strong>of</strong> music conferences; and the promotion <strong>of</strong> music institutions, both as a<br />
founder (<strong>of</strong> two colleges) and as an advisor to others. Bhatkhande did pursue a career as<br />
a lawyer for sometime, and whatever influence his training might have had on his <strong>of</strong> way<br />
thinking, it was undoubtedly crucial to his efforts as a musicologist, as he was able to live<br />
<strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong> his legal earnings for the latter half <strong>of</strong> his life. Bhatkhande conducted three major<br />
tours, to South, East, and North India, in 1904, 1907, and 1908, respectively (Nayar<br />
1989:68-69). While there were some highlights for Bhatkhande on his fact-finding tours,<br />
including his meeting with a sympathetic Raja Sourindro Mohun Tagore in Calcutta, for<br />
the most part, they would have been a failure in terms <strong>of</strong> what he had set about to do<br />
initially, which was to draw definitive links between the theoretical systems propounded<br />
in the ancient texts and the current musical practice <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande’s day. Rather, his<br />
experiences on his tours proved conclusively to Bhatkhande that no such links could be<br />
found between ancient theory and current practice, something he seems to have suspected<br />
much earlier. It was at this point that Bhatkhande began to conceive <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani<br />
tradition as a modern one, dating back perhaps two hundred years (Bakhle 2005:106). 24<br />
This realization was key for Bhatkhande because he then shifted his focus from<br />
connecting the music <strong>of</strong> the pre-Muslim past with the music <strong>of</strong> his day to instead<br />
24<br />
Bakhle attributes this to his meeting with Subbaram Dikshitar, an authority on South Indian music<br />
(2005:105).<br />
48
formulating a new body <strong>of</strong> theory which would accurately describe current musical<br />
practice, no mean feat considering the variety <strong>of</strong> approaches practiced <strong>by</strong> members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
various gharanas. 25 To be able accomplish this task, musical practice had then to be<br />
standardized, which in turn meant convincing performers to make changes in their<br />
gharana-based, <strong>of</strong>ten idiosyncratic approaches. Kobayashi links this desire for<br />
standardization to the influence <strong>of</strong> Western concepts <strong>of</strong> science, particularly influential at<br />
the time in colonial India:<br />
To be agreed upon, the theories or explanatory models must be standardized, and<br />
practitioners should use them systematically in the same manner. Likewise the<br />
music reformers [such as Bhatkhande] aimed to “systematize” Hindustani<br />
classical music. That is, they called for constructing a “system,” which was<br />
organized <strong>by</strong> rules that govern all ragas and talas, and, therefore, also defined all<br />
ragas and talas. Such a “system” would work as an explanatory model, which<br />
everybody hopefully would accept (2003:61)<br />
It was precisely in order to achieve this standardization, that Bhatkhande began<br />
organizing his All-India Music Conferences (AIMC). In all Bhatkhande organized six<br />
conferences, 26 which were held in various cities, such as Rampur and Lucknow, and<br />
mostly sponsored <strong>by</strong> one or another wealthy, aristocratic patron <strong>of</strong> classical music. At<br />
each <strong>of</strong> these conferences Bhatkhande gathered together some <strong>of</strong> the leading lights<br />
amongst performers <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani tradition in order to expose them to a wider<br />
audience than had been possible prior to this time, but also so that they could engage in<br />
debate with him and with each other regarding the idea <strong>of</strong> standardization <strong>of</strong> musical<br />
practice. Kobayashi discusses Bhatkhande’s methods in the context <strong>of</strong> the first AIMC:<br />
25<br />
Gharanas developed distinct musical styles in order differentiate themselves from other, competing<br />
lineages <strong>of</strong> musicians.<br />
26<br />
Nayar (1989) lists five conferences and one ‘Interim’ conference.<br />
49
At the 1916 All-India Music Conference, Bhatkhande had hereditary mastermusicians<br />
sit on the stage, in a semicircle. An empty chair was placed<br />
<strong>by</strong> each artist for Bhatkhande to sit and ask the questions. He asked each singer<br />
to sing a certain raga and took notes on analytical aspects such as<br />
scale, stressed notes, typical note combinations, and so forth. Bhatkhande<br />
repeated the exercise for each musician, compared the obtained data, and<br />
announced the largest common denominators. <strong>The</strong>se largest common<br />
denominators, Bhatkhande suggested, should be accepted as the standard forms <strong>of</strong><br />
each raga. In other words, Bhatkhande announced the most commonly used raga<br />
scale, and proposed that the scale should be considered the standard. Those who<br />
used variant scales were asked to conform (2003:61-62).<br />
It was through this process that Bhatkhande began to arrive at his new theoretical system<br />
designed to describe modern musical practice. His writings were an elaboration on this<br />
new system, culled from his debates with musicians, his study <strong>of</strong> the older treatises, and<br />
the knowledge he had gleaned from his painstaking efforts over the years to collect as<br />
many ‘authentic’ compositions as possible. 27 As Nayar explains, his Shreemallakshya<br />
Sangeetam was an outline <strong>of</strong> the theory which had he laid out in greater detail in the four<br />
volume work Hindustani Sangeet Paddhati (System <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Music) and illustrated<br />
in his other works such as Lakshan Geet Sangraha and Kramik Pustak Mallika (1989:98).<br />
Undoubtedly, Bhatkhande is revered <strong>by</strong> modern day musicians and musicologists<br />
as the greatest modern theorist <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, if not the greatest ever. However, as<br />
Bakhle explains, many <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande’s achievements and successes have turned out to<br />
be hollow victories at best. His efforts at institutionalized education in classical music<br />
collectively have to seen as one <strong>of</strong> his greatest failures. This failure, as with VDP’s<br />
successes, can be measured in practical terms, for example that Marris College in<br />
27 Bhatkhande famously had to use his wits in order to collect compositions form traditional musicians, for<br />
example, <strong>by</strong> becoming a disciple <strong>of</strong> Nawab Hamid Ali, so that the latter would compel his chief court<br />
musician, Wazir Khan, to share some <strong>of</strong> his gharana compositions with Bhatkhande.<br />
50
Lucknow (later re-named Bhatkhande Sangeet Vidyapith) “confronted virtual<br />
bankruptcy” three years after it opened and remains financially troubled. However,<br />
perhaps the bigger failure is that the philosophy <strong>of</strong> the college has strayed so far from<br />
Bhatkhande’s personal and pr<strong>of</strong>essional ideas, such as scientific objectivity and<br />
secularism. As Bakhle states, Bhatkhande likely would have been quite dismayed to see<br />
“his future students and supporters paying homage to his memory <strong>by</strong> garlanding his<br />
photograph with flowers and laying beside it a stand <strong>of</strong> agarbatti (incense) before doing<br />
namaskar to his painting…(2005:135). However, as Bakhle also notes, the more<br />
disappointing legacy <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande’s work has been the absence <strong>of</strong> scholars who have<br />
followed in his footsteps according to his methods and scholarly orientation. 28<br />
For the purposes <strong>of</strong> the present discussion, what should be emphasized is that<br />
Bhatkhande never succeeded in creating a standardized body <strong>of</strong> theory which was or has<br />
been accepted <strong>by</strong> musicians as a guide for their performances. This is both because<br />
Bhatkhande’s theories were in many cases contrary to modern performance practice and<br />
also because the majority <strong>of</strong> gharaanedaar musicians had no real interest standardizing<br />
their performances. As all the above writers make clear, Bhatkhande always saw<br />
gharanas as an impediment to his agenda, and thus failed to gain the support <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong><br />
the notable musicians <strong>of</strong> the day. 29 As Daniel Neuman persuasively argues in his classic<br />
study on hereditary classical musicians in Delhi, <strong>The</strong> Life <strong>of</strong> Music in North India,<br />
gharanas arose in the middle <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century in response to wide societal and<br />
28<br />
One exception to this generalization would be current day ethnomusicologist Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy.<br />
29<br />
Kobayashi mentions the Khyal singer Krishnarao Shankar Pandit as one example <strong>of</strong> such musicians<br />
(2003:61).<br />
51
cultural changes, primarily improvements in communication and transportation.<br />
Gharanas served the dual purpose <strong>of</strong> controlling musical knowledge, as membership in a<br />
gharana was determined <strong>by</strong> membership in a family <strong>of</strong> musicians, and <strong>of</strong> giving these<br />
musicians a distinctive musical identity, a necessity when musicians began traveling<br />
extensively and performing before audiences not familiar with them or their music<br />
(Neuman 1990:168-169). Keeping this in mind, it is not surprising that many musicians<br />
would have objected to Bhatkhande’s attempts to smooth out the differences in style that<br />
made them distinct from other musicians from other gharanas. This objection would<br />
have held even if the demand for standardization was limited only to certain key aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> performance such as how ragas are interpreted, for example which notes are used, a<br />
position held <strong>by</strong> Bhatkhande’s closest disciple and biographer, Srikrishna Ratanjankar<br />
(Kobayashi 2003:63). Whatever misgivings Bhatkhande (or Paluskar) had about the<br />
secrecy <strong>of</strong> gharaanedaar Ustads, their possibly objectionable lifestyles, or their religion,<br />
the reality is that the Hindustani tradition was coterminous with gharanas before and<br />
during the ‘Two Vishnus’’ lifetimes. As such, Bhatkhande’s efforts not only to change<br />
the perception <strong>of</strong> the public regarding classical musicians, as Paluskar did so<br />
successfully, but to change the way that Hindustani music was performed were always<br />
doomed <strong>by</strong> this refusal accept to gharanas as central to the Hindustani tradition.<br />
To conclude this section, it is important to gauge, to the extent possible, the<br />
impact <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande and Paluskar on the thinking <strong>of</strong> current musicians about the<br />
tradition as a whole. To be sure, the most tangible legacy <strong>of</strong> Paluskar has been the<br />
continuing activities <strong>of</strong> the system <strong>of</strong> music colleges he founded. Of course, as I have<br />
52
already mentioned, music colleges in India <strong>of</strong> whatever ilk have never produced a first<br />
rate performer <strong>of</strong> note. In Paluskar’s defense, he was well aware <strong>of</strong> this fact and not<br />
terribly concerned about it. As he famously stated, his colleges were meant to produce<br />
‘Kansens,’ not ‘Tansens,’ 30 in other words devotees and supporters <strong>of</strong> music who would<br />
further Paluskar’s ideology rather than concertizing performers. In these terms, Paluskar<br />
was, again, very successful. However, as we are primarily concerned with performing<br />
musicians, the legacy <strong>of</strong> both Bhatkhande and Paluskar is much harder to determine. As<br />
stated above, a great number <strong>of</strong> musicians in Maharashtra have direct links to Paluskar<br />
through teacher-student relationships, however many links in the chain there might be<br />
between a particular musician and Paluskar himself. <strong>The</strong> biographical information I have<br />
collected from my interlocutors in the Bombay and Pune areas certainly bears this out,<br />
although I can hardly argue that the 20 odd musicians I spoke to can be considered a<br />
representative sample. And, the fact remains that whether or not any <strong>of</strong> the musicians I<br />
interviewed had any training in a music college, or any one-on-one training from a music<br />
college graduate, each one <strong>of</strong> them received the bulk <strong>of</strong> their training in a Guru-disciple<br />
relationship with a pr<strong>of</strong>essional musician who him- or herself had learned from a Guru or<br />
Ustad in the same fashion.<br />
What I argue, then, is that Paluskar’s and Bhatkhande’s greatest impact on today’s<br />
performers is an almost purely ideological one. In the most general sense this means that<br />
today’s musicians typically believe that Hindustani music is a national tradition and<br />
should properly be viewed as such. <strong>The</strong> fact that the majority <strong>of</strong> today’s performers<br />
30 Tansen is the singer revered as the greatest in the history <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical music. ‘Kansen’ is a<br />
play on Tansen based on the Hindi word for ‘ear,’ kaan.<br />
53
(certainly all that I interviewed) are not from the part <strong>of</strong> India where the tradition<br />
originated can only serve to reinforce this notion. After all, how could Hindustani music<br />
in any way be Maharashtrian or Bengali when it was born and nurtured for some 2000<br />
years in North India? That being said, it is also hard to argue that any <strong>of</strong> today’s<br />
performers have been inspired in any very specific fashion <strong>by</strong> Bhatkhande or Paluskar, or<br />
can be seen to be carrying out or continuing with either <strong>of</strong> their missions or agendas,<br />
other than in the loosest <strong>of</strong> senses. During the research I conducted for the present study,<br />
the only reference any <strong>of</strong> the musicians I interviewed made to Paluskar or Bhatkhande<br />
was when D.K. Datar, the well-known violinist <strong>of</strong> Bombay, mentioned that he was<br />
related to Paluskar. I never asked about Paluskar or Bhatkhande directly, but considering<br />
that I discussed in detail with almost all <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors the broad issue <strong>of</strong> how<br />
classical music had taken root in Bengal and Maharahstra from the 19th century forward,<br />
it is telling, I feel, that the ‘Two Vishnus’ were never mentioned, particularly <strong>by</strong> any<br />
Maharashtrian musician. Leaving aside explicit references, the one example <strong>of</strong><br />
particularly Bhatkhandian or Paluskar-esque thinking I recorded came from Mita Nag,<br />
the daughter <strong>of</strong> the famous Vishnupur gharana sitarist Manilal Nag. This was when she<br />
mentioned that although the Vishnupur gharana traditionally had cultivated variant<br />
versions <strong>of</strong> standard ragas, for ex. Purvi or Vibhas, these days the Vishnupur musicians<br />
perform the standardized versions <strong>of</strong> such ragas. MN stated that the reason for this is that<br />
when they play outside India, foreign listeners “get very <strong>of</strong>ten confused” when they<br />
present these variant raga forms (interview, 2005). Thus, as Bhatkhande had desired,<br />
these musicians have standardized their repertoire (to a certain extent) in order to present<br />
54
a united front, if you will, to foreign listeners. Certainly there are echoes <strong>of</strong><br />
Bhatkhande’s work in the experiments carried out <strong>by</strong> such musicians as Ravi Shankar<br />
and Zakir Hussain, where they have attempted to incorporate elements <strong>of</strong> Carnatic music,<br />
such as Southern ragas or the taani-avartanam 31 into their presentation <strong>of</strong> North Indian<br />
classical music. 32 Even Shankar, though, staunch nationalist that he is, has never<br />
campaigned for the end <strong>of</strong> stylistic differences between gharanas or between the Carnatic<br />
and Hindustani traditions. Shankar does mention Bhatkhande in his 1968 book My<br />
Music, My Life, and I feel that his brief discussion <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande is, again, telling.<br />
Shankar mentions Bhatkhande in the context <strong>of</strong> an explanation <strong>of</strong> the classification <strong>of</strong><br />
ragas in the Northern tradition writing,<br />
At the turn <strong>of</strong> this century, an attempt was made <strong>by</strong> VN Bhatkhande, the noted<br />
musicologist, to recodify the system. He proposed an order consisting <strong>of</strong> ten<br />
thats, or primary scales, and this order has gained fairly wide acceptance. I<br />
myself, however, as well as a number <strong>of</strong> other musicians, do not feel that these ten<br />
scales adequately accommodate a great variety <strong>of</strong> ragas, for there are many ragas<br />
that use notes not contained in these ten thats. We therefore think it is more<br />
reasonable and scientific to follow the old melakarta system <strong>of</strong> the South, because<br />
it can sustain almost any raga, no matter how unusual its ascending and<br />
descending structures (1969:21).<br />
Perhaps it is a bit ironic that Shankar would compare the southern melakaarta system <strong>of</strong><br />
raga classification to Bhatkhande’s system, because as Bakhle attests, Bhatkhande’s<br />
attempt to create such a system was largely inspired <strong>by</strong> the order and precision he saw in<br />
Carnatic music generally. <strong>The</strong> point to be made, though, is that Shankar obviously<br />
respects Bhatkhande as a scholar <strong>of</strong> music, but at the same time politely discusses the<br />
31 Taani avartanam is the percussion section solo featured in Carnatic music recitals.<br />
32 Other such North-South experiments include jugalbaandii-s, or duets, with one musician from each<br />
tradition, such as Hindustani slide guitarist Vishwa Mohan Bhatt and Carnatic violinist L Subramaniam.<br />
55
shortcomings <strong>of</strong> his theories. I would argue that, for musicians who know about<br />
Bhatkhande to any extent, this is a representative attitude. Any performing musician will<br />
readily recognize the flaws in Bhatkhande’s theory if he chooses to examine what he said<br />
and wrote, but in a general way most musicians would also agree that Bhatkhande’s<br />
mission to provide a scientific basis for the tradition was and is a good thing. That they<br />
do believe this, however, in no way means that they will necessarily take any practical<br />
steps to further this agenda. Likewise with Paluskar, most musicians would agree that<br />
Hindustani classical music is a symbol <strong>of</strong> the Indian nation, but would rarely endorse<br />
music colleges as a means <strong>of</strong> training performing musicians or take an active role in any<br />
political movement (although, to be fair, it is hard to imagine that any political cause<br />
might emerge that would in any way resemble the independence movement in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
overall popularity with the vast majority <strong>of</strong> the Indian people). It is worth keeping in<br />
mind that the above passage from Ravi Shankar was written in the 1960s. Those<br />
performers who are now in their 30s or 40s would be less likely to have such knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> either Bhatkhande or Paluskar, reinforcing my claim that their true legacy has been to<br />
promote a very the diffuse and non-specific notion that Hindustani music is, at its core, a<br />
national tradition. That Bhatkhande should not have had a pr<strong>of</strong>ound and abiding effect<br />
on performance practice as such is not surprising considering his disdain both for many<br />
musicians and for gharanas generally, but it should be noted that Vishnu Digambar’s<br />
impact in this realm has also not been great. As Wim van der Meer writes, “Vishnu<br />
Digambar Paluskar is [an] outstanding figure whose influence cannot be overestimated.<br />
However, this influence has been much more a social one than a directly musical<br />
56
one”(1980:155). I will discuss what I see as Vishnu’s Digambar’s musical legacy in<br />
chapter 2 in the context <strong>of</strong> the classical music scene in Paluskar’s home state <strong>of</strong><br />
Maharashtra.<br />
Before proceeding, however, there is one more aspect <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande’s influence<br />
that should be mentioned here. This regards the scope <strong>of</strong> what Bhatkhande considered<br />
germane to his scholarly endeavors. Dr. Ashok Ranade, in his short monograph<br />
Reflections on Musicology and History (2001) discusses what he sees as a narrowing <strong>of</strong><br />
the range <strong>of</strong> subject <strong>of</strong> matter accorded importance <strong>by</strong> Indian musicology in the 20th<br />
century. Ranade first brings up this idea relative to the notion that Sangiit, a word most<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten translated as ‘music’ in English, was traditionally considered to be a more inclusive<br />
term covering the fields <strong>of</strong> dance, drama, and music, both instrumental and vocal.<br />
However, in more recent times, the term has been, in essence, narrowed primarily to<br />
classical vocal music, at least in terms <strong>of</strong> what Indian musicologists see as worthy <strong>of</strong><br />
study. As Ranade states, “It would not be an exaggeration to say that this narrowing<br />
down has been mainly due to Pt. V.N. Bhatkhande’s extremely focused and systematic<br />
exposition <strong>of</strong> the discipline in the modern period”(2001:12). Later in the same work,<br />
Ranade notes a similar narrowing down effected <strong>by</strong> Bhatkhande and followers in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
restricting musicology to “an entirely grammatical interpretation <strong>of</strong> music”(2001:51). 33<br />
<strong>The</strong> point to be made here, then, is that the difficulty I experienced in my attempts to<br />
have current performers discuss the Hindustani tradition can be attributed to a number <strong>of</strong><br />
factors, but certainly this idea that socio-cultural factors such as regional culture are not<br />
33 Purohit (1988) makes the same point at several junctures in his own discussion <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande.<br />
57
important in understanding music is one <strong>of</strong> them. So, not only would musicians be<br />
hesitant to discuss music in terms <strong>of</strong> region for the broader reasons outlined above and<br />
below, there is also the tendency to believe that the only legitimate area <strong>of</strong> concern for<br />
the field <strong>of</strong> musicology in India is musical structure, or the “music itself.” I believe this<br />
is particularly important in this case because so many <strong>of</strong> the musicians I interviewed were<br />
what might be termed as “scholarly musicians,” even if, in many cases, these individuals<br />
were not active writers and/or did not hold an <strong>of</strong>ficial post at any institution. Further, <strong>of</strong><br />
these “scholarly musicians,” perhaps only one or two were not singers, the prime<br />
exception being tabla and sitar player Nayan Ghosh <strong>of</strong> Bombay.<br />
B. Regionalism as Regressive<br />
To say India is a regional place is a truism. Even to the most undiscerning tourist<br />
visiting India for first time, the differences from region to region between language and<br />
food, to name the most obvious examples, are readily apparent. This then brings to mind<br />
the problematic assertions <strong>of</strong>ten made <strong>by</strong> individuals who have only seen one region or<br />
city in India, yet based on that limited evidence, generalize about the country as a whole.<br />
In other words, seeing Delhi and Agra does not equate to seeing India. Further, although<br />
the modern Indian states are, to a certain extent, modern constructs that do not necessarily<br />
correspond to any enduring linguistic or natural geographic markers (though in some<br />
cases there is a correspondence), it is clear that many <strong>of</strong> the major regions <strong>of</strong> today do<br />
have a continuous history that stretches back for several hundred years, if not more.<br />
However, as the issue here is to understand the importance <strong>of</strong> regional culture in modern<br />
58
Indian life, particularly in contrast to nationalism in India, we need only go back some<br />
120 years in history to begin our discussion. This is because regionalism as a<br />
phenomenon really only came about in the last decades <strong>of</strong> the 19th century, and not<br />
coincidentally this coincides with the period when the centers <strong>of</strong> patronage for Hindustani<br />
classical music began to shift from North India to places outside North India, particularly<br />
to Bombay and Calcutta, the capitols and economic centers <strong>of</strong> British India. As Ainslee<br />
Embree explains in his article “Indian Civilization and Regional Cultures: <strong>The</strong> Two<br />
Realities,” “…the debate on regionalism is scarcely a hundred years old because in that<br />
period it becomes a part <strong>of</strong> the meanings <strong>of</strong> the lives <strong>of</strong> the people in India”(1985:20).<br />
<strong>The</strong> debate in question is the one which took place in various forums concerning India’s<br />
existence as a cohesive nation, with British imperialists on one side and Indian<br />
nationalists on the other. That the British would assert that India had no existence as<br />
such without the imperialists themselves holding it together is not surprising, considering<br />
that this was the period when the movement for Indian independence first started to take<br />
shape. On the strength <strong>of</strong> this argument the British Raj could claim that Indians across<br />
the different regions <strong>of</strong> the subcontinent had nothing in common that could unite them,<br />
while at the same time emphasizing the success that British colonialism had had in doing<br />
just that. Thus, <strong>by</strong> this logic, India could do nothing without the British save to<br />
disintegrate into the “great natural regions” and political chaos. It is worth noting the<br />
thesis <strong>of</strong> Embree’s article, because, as he explains, two prime factors are responsible for<br />
the unity <strong>of</strong> India, a unity which has proved much stronger than whatever centrifugal<br />
pressures have been created <strong>by</strong> the different regions. <strong>The</strong> first <strong>of</strong> these is the Brahamanic<br />
59
tradition; 34 the second is “the great historic fact <strong>of</strong> the intrusion <strong>of</strong> two powerful alien<br />
civilizations, the Islamic and the European, both <strong>of</strong> which produced empires that<br />
encompassed much <strong>of</strong> the subcontinent”(1985:32). So, while the British argued against<br />
the unity <strong>of</strong> India as the Indian Nationalist movement grew, they were simultaneously<br />
helping to preserve and extend a unity that was very real in practical terms. <strong>The</strong>y also<br />
gave an ideological boost to this unity, and here Embree’s two prime factors dovetail to a<br />
large extent. As he explains, “‘India’ as a designation <strong>of</strong> a cultural region is a Western<br />
construct”(1985:24). It is a construct that can be traced back as early as the 5th century<br />
BCE through to imperialist writers like Kipling and that, at its core, views India as an<br />
undifferentiated and monolithic society fundamentally different from Europe, whether the<br />
contrast is specifically made between Greece and India, France and India, or England and<br />
India. Turning to the Indian side <strong>of</strong> the equation, Embree discusses the influence <strong>of</strong><br />
Brahmanic culture in terms <strong>of</strong> the ideological unity it has provided throughout its history.<br />
He writes,<br />
To sum up the content <strong>of</strong> this Brahmanical ideology is difficult, because it<br />
includes the whole vast corpus <strong>of</strong> the classical texts as well as the inheritance <strong>of</strong><br />
many centuries <strong>of</strong> historical experience, but some items may be mentioned. One<br />
is a sense <strong>of</strong> order throughout the cosmos, linking all <strong>of</strong> its elements in a<br />
continuous and understandable pattern. Immediately related to this is the peculiar<br />
role <strong>of</strong> the possessor <strong>of</strong> knowledge, the Brahman, in maintaining the cosmic<br />
order. <strong>The</strong>n there is the concept <strong>of</strong> many levels <strong>of</strong> truth, the assertion that while<br />
there is “truth” in the sense <strong>of</strong> an over-arching reality, and there are “true” actions,<br />
there are many possibilities and contradictions, all <strong>of</strong> which may be true in some<br />
sense. It is no accident that Gandhi spoke <strong>of</strong> “his experiments with truth.” <strong>The</strong><br />
pervasive doctrines <strong>of</strong> karma and reincarnation are clearly part <strong>of</strong> the Brahmanic<br />
core, as is, above all, the concept <strong>of</strong> dharma, perhaps the center <strong>of</strong> the tradition.<br />
Closely linked to these concepts, as well as the others, is the sense <strong>of</strong> a<br />
34<br />
In Embree’s terms, Hinduism and Brahmanism are not identical. Rather, Brahmanical ideology is but<br />
one element <strong>of</strong> Hinduism (1985:22).<br />
60
hierarchical structure in which each entity occupies a necessary and logical place.<br />
<strong>The</strong> result, at least for those who live within it, is a wholly rational universe<br />
(1985:23-24).<br />
Within the “vast corpus <strong>of</strong> classical texts,” which have served to promote and perpetuate<br />
the Brahmanic ideology, one then can find a similar construction <strong>of</strong> India as a cultural<br />
unity as is found in Orientalist literature. According to the Sanskrit texts, India was a<br />
land clearly demarcated <strong>by</strong> the Himalayas to the north and the oceans to the south. 35 Of<br />
course, this is a sacred geography, a unity based on religion, not politics, and it is worth<br />
mentioning that many <strong>of</strong> the major historical regions have their own sacred geography,<br />
where the boundaries are demarcated <strong>by</strong> shrines, centers <strong>of</strong> religious learning, and places<br />
<strong>of</strong> pilgrimage. 36 <strong>The</strong> point to be made, though, is that, as Embree states, in the minds <strong>of</strong><br />
the Indian Nationalist leaders these two conceptions <strong>of</strong> India, mythic or not, supported<br />
and resonated with each other to form a powerful support for the Nationalist ideology.<br />
This is owing to the fact that many <strong>of</strong> the Nationalist leaders, e.g. Nehru, due to their<br />
upper caste stature and their English education, were well familiar with both <strong>of</strong> these<br />
views <strong>of</strong> India as a unity.<br />
Thus, it should not be surprising that this tension between the view <strong>of</strong> India as a<br />
whole or as an artificial concatenation <strong>of</strong> regions never played a factor in the campaign<br />
for Indian independence. On the contrary, “[o]ne can argue, there are few other<br />
nationalist movements in modern times where regional differences played so small a part<br />
as they did in India, where they seem at first glance so obvious and so important”<br />
35 Embree notes a “White paper prepared <strong>by</strong> the Historical Division <strong>of</strong> the Ministry <strong>of</strong> External Affairs”<br />
that cited the Vishnu Purana (an ancient Sanskrit text) in order to prove the historical provenance <strong>of</strong> this<br />
view (1985:26).<br />
36 see Feldhaus (2006)<br />
61
(Embree 1985:36). However, the debate on regionalism or region versus nation did not<br />
end with the exit <strong>of</strong> the British Raj from India, it actually grew in intensity. This is due to<br />
the political movements that arose in various regions <strong>of</strong> India to form the states <strong>of</strong> the<br />
newly independent country along linguistic lines. What India inherited from the British<br />
in the way <strong>of</strong> political subdivisions were those that had come about for reasons <strong>of</strong><br />
political expediency devoid <strong>of</strong> any other logic. This meant a combination <strong>of</strong> the<br />
provinces <strong>of</strong> British India, for example the Bombay Presidency, that were very large and<br />
that each encompassed several <strong>of</strong> the present states <strong>of</strong> the Republic <strong>of</strong> India, along with<br />
numerous princely states that were scattered across the subcontinent and that in some<br />
cases were very, very small in size. So, there was no doubt in the minds <strong>of</strong> any <strong>of</strong> the<br />
leaders <strong>of</strong> independent India that these provinces or states needed to be re-organized and<br />
the boundaries redrawn. <strong>The</strong> issue was to determine on what basis this should happen. It<br />
should be noted that the idea <strong>of</strong> redrawing India’s internal boundaries had been discussed<br />
in the context <strong>of</strong> the meetings <strong>of</strong> the Indian National Congress (INC) as early as 1920.<br />
Robert D. King in his excellent monograph Nehru and the Language Politics <strong>of</strong> India,<br />
explains that Gandhi at the 1920 INC session in Nagpur “accepted the general principle<br />
that provincial boundaries should be drawn on language lines and that the political<br />
machinery <strong>of</strong> the Indian National Congress should be organized according to language,”<br />
although he had concerns that this might conflict with his goal <strong>of</strong> making Hindustani<br />
(colloquial Hindi/Urdu) the national language (1997:61). <strong>The</strong> prime factor in the<br />
eventual acceptance <strong>of</strong> this notion was the political pressure created <strong>by</strong> Telegu speakers’<br />
and their representatives’ demands for an Andhra dominated, Telegu speaking state to be<br />
62
carved from the multi-linguistic Madras Presidency, the idea being that Telegu speakers<br />
would have been politically and culturally dominated <strong>by</strong> Tamil speakers if the Madras<br />
Presidency was not divided into separate Tamil and Telegu speaking states. Once this<br />
demand was recognized, other demands from regional linguistic groups quickly followed,<br />
namely from Sindhi speakers demanding a Sindh state and Kannada speakers demanding<br />
a Karnataka state. This “domino effect” would foreshadow a similar course <strong>of</strong> events<br />
when Andhra Pradesh became the first new linguistically based state post-independence.<br />
By 1927 the INC passed a resolution for the ‘redistribution <strong>of</strong> provinces on a linguistic<br />
basis,’ and <strong>by</strong> 1937, Nehru himself accepted the idea <strong>of</strong> linguistic provinces, although in<br />
a “very subdued” fashion (ibid.:62). <strong>The</strong> British, despite their interest in divide and rule<br />
politics, were not particularly interested, or arguably even very aware, <strong>of</strong> these language<br />
issues. <strong>The</strong>y did create two essentially linguistic provinces, Sind and Orissa, in 1936<br />
(Schwartzberg 1985:158). It seems, though, that these were created as much for, in the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> Sind, religious reasons (because Sind was a majority Muslim region being ruled<br />
<strong>by</strong> a majority Hindu Bombay Presidency) and, in the case <strong>of</strong> both, geographic reasons, as<br />
the capitols <strong>of</strong> both the Bombay Presidency and the Madras Presidency were quite far<br />
from the Sind or Orissa, respectively. Regardless, due the crises and other demands first<br />
<strong>of</strong> World War II and then <strong>of</strong> the final push towards independence the issue <strong>of</strong> linguistic<br />
states or provinces was left on the back burner.<br />
In the immediate years following independence and the partition <strong>of</strong> British India<br />
into the separate states <strong>of</strong> Pakistan and India, Nehru began to reverse his position on<br />
linguistic states, both because <strong>of</strong> more pressing issues, such as the horrendous communal<br />
63
violence between Hindus and Muslims and the need for economic development in a<br />
largely impoverished and industrially underdeveloped nation, and because he had begun<br />
to feel that regional, language-based politics would create unnecessary dissention in a<br />
country struggling to unify itself. However, a committee was appointed <strong>by</strong> the central<br />
government to “study the desirability <strong>of</strong> creating four, and only four, new provinces:<br />
Andhra, Karnataka, Kerala, and Maharashtra”(King 1997:103). When this commission<br />
(known as the Dar commission after its chairman, S.K. Dar) issued a report on its<br />
findings in 1948, they were “considerably at variance with the pre-independence position<br />
<strong>of</strong> Congress”(Schwartzberg 1985:162). <strong>The</strong> commission had concluded that language<br />
should be only one factor, and one <strong>of</strong> the least important at that, in determining how the<br />
map <strong>of</strong> India should be reorganized. Geography, administrative efficiency, and history<br />
were among the factors that were to take precedence over language. In light <strong>of</strong> this<br />
commission’s findings, a committee was formed with Nehru as a member in order to<br />
modify the government’s position on linguistic states. As King explains, the findings <strong>of</strong><br />
this committee were very similar to those <strong>of</strong> the Dar commission, although it went further<br />
in underlining the problems posed <strong>by</strong> the possibility <strong>of</strong> organizing India along linguistic<br />
lines (1997:107-108). For King, this was clear pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> Nehru’s desire to postpone<br />
discussing the issue, a policy King feels was ultimately successful, even if Nehru was<br />
forced <strong>by</strong> events to create the first linguistic state, Andhra Pradesh, much sooner than he<br />
had hoped he would have to, in 1952. <strong>The</strong> success <strong>of</strong> this policy, King argues, lay in the<br />
fact that it both allowed the central government to address some <strong>of</strong> the aforementioned<br />
problems confronting India in 1947 and perhaps diffused some <strong>of</strong> the violence and unrest<br />
64
which the country might have faced if the process <strong>of</strong> creating linguistic states was entered<br />
into earlier.<br />
When Nehru did finally give in, it was in response to an incident which had<br />
stirred the unreasoning passion and violence he had feared in regard to the whole issue <strong>of</strong><br />
linguistic states. As King explains, many <strong>of</strong> the demands for language-based states were<br />
based on issues other than language. Nehru, even while appreciating the possibility for<br />
divisiveness that could be created <strong>by</strong> the division <strong>of</strong> Indian territory according to<br />
language, likely did not initially understand to what extent other issues, such as caste<br />
rivalries, were masquerading as linguistic movements. In the case <strong>of</strong> the demand for a<br />
Telegu-speaking Andhra state, the “vying <strong>of</strong> Brahmans, Kammas, and Reddis for power<br />
in Madras, the slipping <strong>of</strong> control <strong>of</strong> Congress from the hands <strong>of</strong> Brahmans, educational<br />
jealousy, all dwarfed in actuality everything else that played a role in the Andhra<br />
movement, and language most particularly” (ibid.:71). However, <strong>by</strong> 1952, Nehru seemed<br />
to have a better grasp <strong>of</strong> all the different reasons for such demands, and, as such, had only<br />
become more determined to delay taking action; his popularity and prestige in these first<br />
years after independence had, fortunately, allowed him the freedom to do so. Nehru<br />
changed his mind with an uncharacteristic quickness, though, after Andhra leader and<br />
Gandhian Sri Potti Sriramulu fasted until death in December <strong>of</strong> 1952. Sriramulu had<br />
been an untiring campaigner in the fight against untouchablilty and apparently felt<br />
strongly that without the support <strong>of</strong> an Andhra-led state government, which <strong>of</strong> course<br />
would not have been possible without the creation <strong>of</strong> an Andhra majority state, he would<br />
not have been able to carry on his fight with any effectiveness. Nehru, as King notes,<br />
65
was not eager to be blamed for the death <strong>of</strong> beloved figure, especially a follower <strong>of</strong><br />
Gandhi (Nehru’s mentor) using Gandhian methods <strong>of</strong> protest, but he also felt that<br />
Sriramulu’s demands were unreasonable, in particular his insistence that Madras city<br />
should either be made a part <strong>of</strong> the Andhra state or be administered <strong>by</strong> the central<br />
government. Madras, <strong>of</strong> course, eventually became a part <strong>of</strong> Tamil-speaking Tamil<br />
Nadu, and rightly so, as it was a Tamil dominated city all along and was geographically a<br />
part <strong>of</strong> Tamil territory. After Sriramulu died, though, “looting and rioting and major<br />
destruction <strong>of</strong> property followed apace”(ibid.:115). In response to the kind <strong>of</strong> violence he<br />
had anticipated might be stirred up <strong>by</strong> this issue, Nehru set in motion the process for<br />
creating the new state <strong>of</strong> Andhra Pradesh, only one day after Sriramulu’s death. After<br />
this decision, it was inevitable that action should be taken to finally redraw the map along<br />
linguistic lines. Andhra Pradesh was “<strong>of</strong>ficially constituted” in 1953, and shortly<br />
afterward a Commission on States Reorganization was formed. After taking into account<br />
the findings <strong>of</strong> this commission, the majority <strong>of</strong> today’s Indian states were created in<br />
1956, 37 save for Haryana, which was created through the partition <strong>of</strong> the Punjab into a<br />
Sikh/Punjabi dominated Punjab and a Hindu/Hindi dominated Haryana, Maharashtra and<br />
Gujurat which together composed the initially created Bombay state, and the four new<br />
states created in 2000. An especially controversial decision was made in regard to<br />
Bombay city, which had been claimed <strong>by</strong> both Marathi and Gujurati speakers. <strong>The</strong><br />
Commission had recommended that a bilingual (Gujurati and Marathi) Bombay state<br />
37 <strong>The</strong> initial states created <strong>by</strong> this act were Andra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Bombay State, Jammu and<br />
Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and<br />
West Bengal.<br />
66
should be created. This decision was “acceptable to no one, and all parties to the matter<br />
were extreme, bitter, and uncompromising”(ibid.:120). After a period which saw,<br />
amongst other things, linguistic riots in Bombay and the creation <strong>of</strong> the Samyukta<br />
Maharashtra Samithi (<strong>The</strong> Committee for Undivided Maharashtra), Bombay state was<br />
divided in 1960 into Gujurati-speaking Gujurat and Marathi-speaking Maharashtra, with<br />
the Mahrashtrians taking the prize that was the city <strong>of</strong> Bombay. As I will explain shortly,<br />
this was not the last time that Bombay would serve as the background for regional<br />
language battles. It is also worth mentioning that two areas, namely the Belgaum and<br />
Karwad districts, which had been part <strong>of</strong> the demand for the new state <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra,<br />
were ceded to Karnataka (then Mysore state). <strong>The</strong> decision to incorporate these areas<br />
into Karnataka remains a political issue in Maharashtra at present.<br />
I have included this account <strong>of</strong> King’s work on the history <strong>of</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> India’s<br />
linguistic states and Nehru’s involvement with this process for two reasons: the first is to<br />
illustrate through concrete examples how regional political movements have shaped the<br />
modern nation <strong>of</strong> India. <strong>The</strong> second, and more important reason, is that I feel that an<br />
examination <strong>of</strong> Nehru’s actions in both delaying and eventually implementing this<br />
process reveals quite a bit regarding how the elite in India has historically viewed region<br />
vis-a-vis the nation. King attributes Nehru’s mode <strong>of</strong> operation as much as anything to<br />
his inherent and strongly held sense <strong>of</strong> rationalism, along with his attendant belief in the<br />
power <strong>of</strong> science to cure the ills <strong>of</strong> humanity. Thus, for Nehru, language “as a political<br />
issue, like religion, belonged to the pre-rational impulses. <strong>The</strong>y engendered passion,<br />
pointless bickering, deflection from higher purpose”(ibid.:170). King also feels that<br />
67
Nehru owed a debt to socialist thinkers, specifically Lenin, specifically in how he<br />
handled the issue <strong>of</strong> language-based states, even while describing Nehru’s belief in the<br />
Soviet way as “naïve.” Lenin, himself facing the problems that came with trying to unify<br />
a very large, multi-ethnic, multi-linguistic nation, had maintained that no nation (in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> an ethnic group) or language should be privileged over any other, that no<br />
coercion should be used in promoting one national language, and that, as a general<br />
principle, there were always more pressing issues to be faced in the USSR than language<br />
(ibid.:174). However, while Nehru’s socialist tendencies or leanings have largely fallen<br />
out <strong>of</strong> favor in the India <strong>of</strong> today, it is important to emphasize the impact specifically that<br />
English education and English thought had made on Nehru’s philosophy and style <strong>of</strong><br />
governance. Rationalism and the belief in progress through science are certainly part, but<br />
not all, <strong>of</strong> the equation here. Harold Gould, in his article “On the Apperception <strong>of</strong> Doom<br />
in the Indian Political Process”(1985), has addressed the subject <strong>of</strong> the consistent<br />
perception <strong>of</strong> critics, mostly journalists, in post-independence India that India is a<br />
fundamentally fragile nation that is always on the verge <strong>of</strong> encountering a threat to its<br />
stability that it can no longer survive. 38 Gould reaches three broad conclusions regarding<br />
this trend, two <strong>of</strong> which concern us here. 39 <strong>The</strong> first is that this pessimism is rooted in a<br />
stereotypical idea <strong>of</strong> British politics which was inculcated precisely <strong>by</strong> the Westernized<br />
education system “originated <strong>by</strong> Englishmen and Anglicized Indians…” <strong>The</strong> stereotype<br />
is a highly idealized one, and <strong>by</strong> comparison, Indian politics, with its backroom dealings,<br />
its “trading favors for loyalties,” its “winking at a certain amount <strong>of</strong> larceny,” inevitably<br />
38 <strong>The</strong> most outstanding example being Selig Harrison’s India: the Most Dangerous Decades (1960)<br />
39 <strong>The</strong> other is the “aura <strong>of</strong> moral preoccupations” attributable to Gandhi’s political influence (1985:295).<br />
68
comes up short. All these phenomena are, <strong>of</strong> course, absolutely a part <strong>of</strong> British politics,<br />
as they are everywhere, but this reality, Gould argues, has never been recognized <strong>by</strong> the<br />
critics to which he is referring. Thus, this “apperception <strong>of</strong> doom…arises from a deep-<br />
seated belief that [Indian] politics have never measured up to a British ideal which was<br />
transmitted to them through British education for the express purpose <strong>of</strong> trying to<br />
persuade them that they never could”(Gould 1985:297). <strong>The</strong> second <strong>of</strong> Gould’s broad<br />
conclusions that is relevant to this discussion concerns the high caste and middle or upper<br />
class economic background <strong>of</strong> the critics in question. Gould asserts that these individuals<br />
who were accustomed to a position <strong>of</strong> leadership prior to independence feel quite<br />
uncomfortable “emotionally and intellectually dealing with the entry into the political<br />
process…<strong>of</strong> people whose values, tastes and even conceptions <strong>of</strong> what is moral and<br />
conscionable <strong>of</strong>ten diverge pronouncedly” from their own (ibid.:296). 40 This difficulty,<br />
then, results in a certain amount <strong>of</strong> trepidation regarding the politics practiced <strong>by</strong> such<br />
people who never had participated in politics to any degree before the 1950s. This is<br />
largely a cultural matter, notwithstanding the political ramifications posed <strong>by</strong> high<br />
caste/upper class critics, and the point is that it is the style and manner <strong>of</strong> low caste and/or<br />
low economic class politicians which truly is shocking or worrisome to these critics. As<br />
Gould makes clear, however, it is this new breed <strong>of</strong> leaders that make a difference in<br />
“[r]apidly modernizing societies,” not “leaders whose identities still rest in the old<br />
aristocracies…,” who are unable or unwilling to dirty their hands <strong>by</strong> engaging with the<br />
realities <strong>of</strong> politics in a modern, democratic society.<br />
40<br />
Nandy makes a similar point in his article “Final Encounter: <strong>The</strong> Politics <strong>of</strong> the Assassination <strong>of</strong> Gandhi”<br />
(1998).<br />
69
To return to the specific issue <strong>of</strong> regional political movements, many authors,<br />
including the majority <strong>of</strong> those I have cited here, explain that, at their root, regional<br />
politics are based in a sense <strong>of</strong> inequality, generally economic inequality, whether it is<br />
real or perceived. As K.C. Pande writes, “[b]ecause <strong>of</strong> the size <strong>of</strong> the country, uneven<br />
distribution <strong>of</strong> resources and different levels and rates <strong>of</strong> development in different parts,<br />
certain problems do arise which are mainly concerned with seeking to remove the<br />
disparity between the economically well <strong>of</strong>f and poor parts”(1976:3). Even when a<br />
symbolic matter such as language cum regional identity becomes the rallying cry for a<br />
political movement, economic issues remain the root cause. As we have seen in the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> the movement for the creation <strong>of</strong> Andhra Pradesh, the demand for a Telegu-speaking<br />
state was based on caste rivalries which themselves were founded on the perception (or<br />
reality) <strong>of</strong> economic inequalities. However, to attribute regional politics entirely to<br />
economic causes is reductive and ahistorical, so one must be careful not to lose sight <strong>of</strong><br />
the complexity <strong>of</strong> these issues while trying to isolate one factor analytically. Regional<br />
demands can manifest themselves in different ways. At the highest level they can surface<br />
as movements either for independence from India or, more frequently, for the creation <strong>of</strong><br />
new states within India. Another manifestation <strong>of</strong> these feelings <strong>of</strong> perceived inequality<br />
are the so-called ‘sons <strong>of</strong> the soil’ movements. Pande explains this phenomenon as<br />
follows,<br />
Generally, the skilled or semi-skilled workers in a textile or steel industry are<br />
Muslims from U.P., Delhi and some other places. <strong>The</strong>y have gone to these old<br />
industrial centres [for ex. Ahmedabad, Gujurat or Bombay] and almost settled<br />
down there for more than two or three generations, but they have not yet become<br />
‘sons <strong>of</strong> the soil’ in the sense the term is now-a-days used. <strong>The</strong> emerging middle<br />
class <strong>of</strong> the soil in the urban areas has a strong sense <strong>of</strong> loyalty to one’s own<br />
70
language and region. Along with this push factors working in the rural areas are<br />
throwing out large numbers <strong>of</strong> agriculturalists particularly agricultural workers to<br />
the urban areas. <strong>The</strong>se workers think more employment opportunities are<br />
available in these industrial centres. But soon they realize that they have to be<br />
content with inferior jobs because the ‘outsiders’ have already occupied better<br />
jobs. This leads to frustration and disappointment. This frustration on the one<br />
hand and urban middle classes’ strong regional and linguistic bias on the other<br />
create a situation in which their joint fury is directed against the ‘outsiders’ who<br />
constitute a fair section <strong>of</strong> the working class population (1976:9).<br />
<strong>The</strong> most well-known, within India and internationally, longest lived, and, in some ways,<br />
the most successful <strong>of</strong> these ‘sons <strong>of</strong> the soil’ movements is the Shiv Sena <strong>of</strong> Bombay, a<br />
subject to which I will now turn.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Shiv Sena (literally, the army <strong>of</strong> Chhatrapati Shivaji, the great Maratha<br />
chieftain and contemporary <strong>of</strong> the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb) could be described as a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> things. It is, variously, a youth empowerment movement (as its main<br />
constituency has always been the young), a political party, a crime syndicate, and a<br />
cultural organization. As such, it encourages its young members to start their own small<br />
businesses, most <strong>of</strong>ten vaDaa paav 41 stalls or carts; it supports candidates for municipal<br />
and state elections; it runs protection rackets in certain neighborhoods <strong>of</strong> Bombay; and it<br />
organizes and/or bankrolls popular music concerts (Eckert 2003 mentions performances<br />
<strong>by</strong> both <strong>Michael</strong> Jackson and Lata Mangeshkar) and traditional Maharashtrian festivals,<br />
i.e. GaNeshotsav. It also provides services (such as facilitating water or electric service)<br />
to citizens living in lower class and slum areas that the inefficient and generally<br />
overwhelmed local government is unable to provide them itself. <strong>The</strong> Shiv Sena was<br />
founded in 1966 <strong>by</strong> Balasaheb ‘Bal’ Thackeray, originally a cartoonist, first for the Free<br />
41 VaDa paav is a type <strong>of</strong> fast food snack associated particularly with Bombay.<br />
71
Press Journal, and later for his own weekly publication Marmik. As Dipankar Gupta<br />
explains, it was through his work as cartoonist that he developed and began to promote<br />
his essentially populist message, which was that ‘native’ Maharashtrians (i.e. Marathi<br />
speakers) were being unfairly deprived <strong>of</strong> economic opportunities <strong>by</strong> ‘non-<br />
Maharashtrians’(Gupta 1982:40). In the early days <strong>of</strong> the organization ‘outsiders’ meant<br />
South Indians and Gujuratis, although the Sena’s attention has been focused much more<br />
on Muslims from North India since the early 1980s. That Bombay has blossomed since<br />
Independence as the economic capital <strong>of</strong> India, and indeed as one <strong>of</strong> the largest economic<br />
centers in Asia, has only helped exacerbate the frustration felt <strong>by</strong> lower-middle class<br />
Marathi speakers in Bombay, while simultaneously bolstering the appeal <strong>of</strong> a nativist<br />
leader like Bal Thackeray. It is important to note here that the appeal <strong>of</strong> the Shiv Sena is<br />
truly one <strong>of</strong> the unintended consequences <strong>of</strong> the movement for linguistic states. This is<br />
because Bombay was a city built and developed primarily through the efforts both <strong>of</strong><br />
native Indian groups, i.e. Parsis and Gujuratis, and <strong>of</strong> the British, which is to say that<br />
Maharashtrians were never a crucial force in the economic growth and development <strong>of</strong><br />
the city. Bombay was included in the state <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra primarily because <strong>of</strong> two<br />
factors: its geographical location and the status <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrians as the most numerous<br />
linguistic group demographically (although Marathi speakers have never comprised much<br />
more than 50% <strong>of</strong> the total population <strong>of</strong> the city). It is, thus, not hard to imagine that if<br />
the political wrangling post-Independence had taken a slightly different turn, Bombay<br />
could have just as well been ceded to Gujarat, in which case the Shiv Sena would likely<br />
have never come into existence. This in turn brings up the related point that it was in fact<br />
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the Samyukta Mahrashtra Samithi (SMS) that was responsible for “crystallizing” (to use<br />
Gupta’s term) Maharashtrian regional sentiments and, thus, providing the ideological<br />
base for the nascent Shiv Sena.<br />
<strong>The</strong> setting in motion <strong>of</strong> Marathi sentiments <strong>of</strong> linguistic regionalism and<br />
parochialism was done systematically and pointedly for the first time <strong>by</strong> the<br />
SMS…This movement...was principally bolstered <strong>by</strong> the pride and consciousness<br />
among Maharashtrians <strong>of</strong> their culture and history. This consciousness as well as<br />
the glorification <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian heroes <strong>of</strong> yore, the struggle for the inclusion <strong>of</strong><br />
Belgaum and Karwar, and the feeling that Maharashtrians were being<br />
discriminated against <strong>by</strong> the Central Government, were excited and ingrained<br />
among the Maharashtrians <strong>by</strong> the SMS. <strong>The</strong> SMS was one <strong>of</strong> the largest and most<br />
cogent political movements in contemporary Indian history, which based itself<br />
almost exclusively on regional and linguistic sentiments (Gupta 1982:45).<br />
From this passage we can glean the main two ideological elements which Thackeray and<br />
his associates have used to appeal to the rank and file Sena member (Shiv sainik): a belief<br />
in the superiority <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian history, culture, tradition, and language and a certain<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> paranoia mixed with xenophobia.<br />
<strong>The</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> Shivaji and his legend as a symbol for the Shiv Sena cannot be<br />
underestimated. This goes well beyond the significance <strong>of</strong> naming the movement after<br />
this great historical figure. First and foremost, Shivaji is a name that inspires pride in<br />
every Maharastrian, and it is hard to argue that there is any other historical Maharashtrian<br />
that is more frequently remembered, revered, and invoked than is Shivaji. Certainly, the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> Shivaji as symbol for both Maharashtrians and other Indians to rally around for<br />
political causes was a well established practice <strong>by</strong> the time Thackeray founded the Shiv<br />
Sena in the late ‘60s. As Purandare writes, “[d]uring India’s freedom struggle from the<br />
British, the Shivaji icon injected new dynamism among the nationalists and was used <strong>by</strong><br />
Lokmanya Tilak, Jyotirao Phule, Sri Aurobindo, Rabindranath Tagore, Lokahitwadi,<br />
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Wasudeo Balwant Phadke, and Bipin Chandra Pal, among others, to inspire the ideal <strong>of</strong><br />
nationalism among the masses and impart instruction to the people about the political<br />
programme <strong>of</strong> the national movement”(1999:53-54). And, more to the point, “Shivaji is<br />
a coin that never fails to work”(ibid.:55). However, it is important to point out that<br />
Shivaji himself was a Maratha <strong>by</strong> caste, a Maratha that transcended the agrarian/Shudra<br />
role traditionally ascribed <strong>by</strong> the Brahmanic establishment to Marathas and even became<br />
sanctified as a Kshatriya <strong>by</strong> Pandits from Benares. <strong>The</strong> significance <strong>of</strong> this then is that<br />
the main constituency for the Sena has always been middle and working class Marathas,<br />
a group politically dominant (<strong>by</strong> virtue <strong>of</strong> numbers and land ownership) in the rest <strong>of</strong><br />
Maharashtra state, but that historically has been economically marginalized in Bombay.<br />
Another important aspect <strong>of</strong> Shivaji’s symbolic value is his legacy as military<br />
leader. As Eckert explains, the main tool the Sena has used in promoting itself is<br />
violence, a rather sensationalistic use <strong>of</strong> violence, targeted variously at South Indian<br />
restaurants, Muslims, government <strong>of</strong>fices (during periods when the Sena is not in power),<br />
and political rivals. Lastly, while some have debated the sometimes taken for granted<br />
notion that Shivaji fought to create not only a Maratha empire but a specifically Hindu<br />
empire, 42 this is definitely the understanding that the average Indian has <strong>of</strong> his legacy,<br />
and because <strong>of</strong> this, Shivaji has remained a potent symbol for the Sena movement even<br />
when it shifted in the early 1980s from being a primarily pro-Maharashtrian movement<br />
and organization to being a primarily pro-Hindu Nationalist movement and organization<br />
(which is not to say that the Sena’s regionalism and its nationalism are necessarily<br />
42 see Laine (2003)<br />
74
incompatible or contradictory).<br />
Julia M Eckert’s <strong>The</strong> Charisma <strong>of</strong> Direct Action: Power, Politics, and the Shiv<br />
Sena is perhaps the most theoretically sophisticated analysis among the body <strong>of</strong> literature<br />
concerning the Shiv Sena. Eckert describes the Sena’s modus operandi as “militant<br />
enmity” which she describes in abstract terms. She writes,<br />
Militant enmity, it is suggested, keeps the movement going <strong>by</strong> constructing the<br />
conflict-whatever conflict-to be existential. <strong>The</strong> contention is that militant<br />
ideologies propounding an essential (and <strong>of</strong>ten existential) opposition between<br />
friend and foe have a particular perpetuating potential because they construct a<br />
conflict to be irresolvable. <strong>The</strong> non-negotiability <strong>of</strong> essentially defined conflicts<br />
is in the interest <strong>of</strong> those that propound them: for the movement to keep moving<br />
the conflict needs to remain unresolved or rather: irresolvable (2003:5).<br />
In other words, the Shiv Sena has no real intention to decisively end any conflict, whether<br />
it be against South Indians or Gujaratis who supposedly have taken economic oppor-<br />
tunities from Maharashtrian ‘sons <strong>of</strong> the soil’ or against ‘anti-Hindu’ and thus ‘anti-<br />
national’ Muslims, because without an enemy there is no conflict and without conflict<br />
there is no reason for the Sena to exist and no power for Thackeray and his minions.<br />
This, then, as Eckert argues, explains why the Sena has shifted its targets so willingly and<br />
effortlessly. By way <strong>of</strong> example, South Indians who early on were not only accused <strong>of</strong><br />
stealing jobs from Maharashtrians but even vilified as “criminals, thieves and smugglers”<br />
later proved to be “bad enemies” when the the Sena worked to increase its political/<br />
electoral base as it grew as a party. This is because, on the one hand, Thackeray has<br />
always promoted a version <strong>of</strong> regionalism which is compatible with nationalism, rather<br />
than one based on a separatist mentality, and on the other because South Indians<br />
“‘willingly learned Marathi and spoke it fluently, put up busts or portraits <strong>of</strong> Shivaji in<br />
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their...restaurants, some even joined the Shiv Sena’” (a Sena informant, quoted in Eckert<br />
2003:88-89). <strong>The</strong> Shiv Sena has no true program, political or otherwise, because that<br />
would constitute a limitation to their appeal and their scope for action. <strong>The</strong>ir only interest<br />
is to define the ‘in-group,’ which has been variously characterized as Marathas,<br />
Maharashtrians, Hindus, or most <strong>of</strong>ten the ambiguous ‘common man,’ in contrast to the<br />
enemy, which has been equally as various.<br />
To conclude, I would like to return to the basic point <strong>of</strong> this section which is to<br />
explain how the historical factors I have described above have impacted what I take to be<br />
the common sense understanding <strong>of</strong> regionalism, much in the same way that I have<br />
argued that the work <strong>of</strong> nationalist music reformers like Bhatkhande and Paluskar have<br />
shaped the perception <strong>of</strong> Indian public such that most believe Hindustani music to be, at<br />
its core, a national tradition. I do not believe that most middle- or upper-class or upper-<br />
caste Indians are in any way ashamed <strong>of</strong> the regional aspect <strong>of</strong> their identities. On the<br />
contrary, I have hardly met an Indian, musician or otherwise, who did not take some<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> pride in their place <strong>of</strong> origin. <strong>The</strong> point is rather that many members <strong>of</strong> India’s<br />
economic and cultural elite are predisposed in most cases to be wary <strong>of</strong> putting their state<br />
or linguistic region above the nation whether symbolically or politically. In terms <strong>of</strong><br />
Nehru’s influence, I think it is more important to emphasize that many <strong>of</strong> today’s middle<br />
class Hindu musicians share his basic viewpoint and his moral and ethical orientation due<br />
to the similarities in their educational, cultural, and economic backgrounds, rather than<br />
asserting that middle class Indians base their political beliefs to a large degree<br />
specifically on what Nehru believed or said. This may be true to a certain extent (and<br />
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difficult to assess at any rate), but it is hard to see that Nehru has anything like the<br />
prestige or influence that he did during his lifetime or shortly after. It is instructive,<br />
though, to both compare Nehru’s philosophy versus Bal Thackeray’s as well as to see<br />
how Thackeray and the Shiv Sena have reacted to or dealt with Nehru’s legacy. I should<br />
reiterate that Bal Thackeray has never been intentionally anti-national and has never<br />
advocated that Maharashtra break <strong>of</strong>f from India to form it’s own nation. On the<br />
contrary, the Shiv Sena has become more nationalistic, and thus more cooperative with<br />
Gujaratis and South Indians, over time. It is a form <strong>of</strong> nationalism that, while<br />
accommodating a larger ‘in group’ than when the Sena was founded in the 1960s, is still<br />
opposed to the single largest minority group in India, Indian Muslims, and has no place<br />
for them in their vision <strong>of</strong> a fundamentally Hindu India. This is in clear contradistinction<br />
to the value Nehru placed on national unity, as evidenced <strong>by</strong> his opposition to and then<br />
delay <strong>of</strong> the creation <strong>of</strong> linguistic states. Also, as I mentioned earlier, Nehru valued<br />
nothing more than rationalism, and he would have no doubt been horrified <strong>by</strong> the Shiv<br />
Sena’s manipulation <strong>of</strong> the emotions that can be stirred <strong>by</strong> appeals to regional or<br />
communal pride, not to mention the Sena’s reliance on violence as its key political tool.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most explicit connection between Nehru’s policies and the activities <strong>of</strong> the Shiv<br />
Sena, though, comes again through the Samyukta Maharashtra Samithi. It was the<br />
Nehru-led government, after all, that recommended the creation <strong>of</strong> a bilingual Bombay<br />
state and that later, while bowing to the pressure for a Marathi speaking state, pressure<br />
created and applied largely <strong>by</strong> the SMS, deprived Maharashtra state <strong>of</strong> the<br />
aforementioned border areas <strong>of</strong> Karwad and Belgaum, a slight that has yet to be<br />
77
forgotten. Along these lines, Purandare recounts the “considerable consternation” created<br />
when Maharashtrian Congress leader (and Nehru’s ally) Yashwant Chavan stated that<br />
“‘Nehru is greater than Maharashtra’ and <strong>by</strong> terming the Samyukta Maharashtra<br />
movement as ‘home-grown colonialism’”(1999:52).<br />
We can see, then, that from the beginning <strong>of</strong> India’s history as an independent<br />
nation there has been an ideological and sometimes very practical conflict between the<br />
view <strong>of</strong> India as a unified nation and as a collection <strong>of</strong> regions. Lest some conclude that<br />
these conflicts are now in the past, geographer Emma Mawdsley discusses some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ramifications, ideological and otherwise, <strong>of</strong> the creation <strong>of</strong> four new Indian states in<br />
2000. Among other things, Mawdsley asserts that “Successive central governments have<br />
tended to view assertions <strong>of</strong> regional identity with suspicion, and to stigmatize them as<br />
parochial, chauvinist and even anti-national”(2002:1). What I argue, then, is that this is<br />
the elite view <strong>of</strong> regionalism in India, and that while my interlocutors, who I deem as<br />
elite both in economic and cultural terms, may not subscribe 100% to this negative view<br />
<strong>of</strong> regionalism or ‘assertions <strong>of</strong> regional identity,’ they certainly are aware that this is a<br />
common view. As such, this would certainly act as a deterrent to any musician who<br />
would be predisposed to make any claim that Hindustani music had become Bengali-ized<br />
or Marathi-ized in the last 50 years.<br />
C. Regionalism vs. Globalism and Homogeneity<br />
Finally there is the notion that because <strong>of</strong> various factors, identified as<br />
“modernization” or, more <strong>of</strong>ten, “globalization,” however imprecisely or ambiguously<br />
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these terms might be utilized in every day conversation, regional differences, musical or<br />
otherwise, have nearly ceased to exist. <strong>The</strong> eminent vocalist Dr. Prabha Atre <strong>of</strong> Bombay<br />
was perhaps the strongest advocate <strong>of</strong> this position among the musicians I met during my<br />
field research. As she told me during our interview in her Bombay apartment,<br />
Yeah, climate [which we had been discussing], yeah, it must have some influence<br />
on your thinking, but then now that with this globalization, so much<br />
is…everything is available everywhere, so that isolation is not there and so you<br />
cannot say that because <strong>of</strong> this now…you have to think <strong>of</strong> today’s generation,<br />
how they are” (2005)<br />
<strong>The</strong>se types <strong>of</strong> statements were generally put forward with the accompanying notion that,<br />
if I had come to do my research 20 or 30 years earlier, I would have found much more<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> regional influence in classical music then. Again, as this is really the crux <strong>of</strong><br />
this entire project, I will be addressing this issue throughout. What I will say at this<br />
point, though, is that one should look rather carefully at the historical progression <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tradition (and <strong>of</strong> culture in India generally) before making blanket statements to the effect<br />
that globalization has effaced (or started to efface) the differences between all music in<br />
India or the world. <strong>The</strong>re are some bits <strong>of</strong> evidence I would point to on the contrary.<br />
First, it is not the case that we can look to some point in the past, be it a century or ten<br />
centuries ago, and trace a straight line from region being very important to becoming<br />
progressively less important. On the contrary, as many scholars have pointed out (and as<br />
I have explained above), it was only in the 19th century when printing was introduced on<br />
a widespread basis that regional languages started to take on anything resembling the<br />
importance they have today. Second, in the political arena, region undoubtedly remains<br />
a factor. While language perhaps is no longer the “hot-button” issue it was in the first<br />
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two decades after independence, regional movements, language-based or not, are alive<br />
and well in modern India. One could point to the xenophobic, “sons <strong>of</strong> the soil” agenda<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Shiv Sena, the continuing unrest in the Northeastern states, 43 or the ongoing<br />
process <strong>of</strong> “internal Balkanization,” where new states are carved out <strong>of</strong> existing ones, to<br />
name a few examples. That regionalism (in this case meaning regionally-based political<br />
movements), is still a force in India is hard to argue. In the case <strong>of</strong> North Indian classical<br />
music one has to be a bit more specific.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are two aspects <strong>of</strong> today’s Hindustani music which are both common to<br />
every part <strong>of</strong> India where you find any Hindustani musician and which are the bane <strong>of</strong><br />
many musicologists, old-school performers, and traditionalists/purists – speed/virtuosity<br />
and, in the case <strong>of</strong> vocal music, an undesirable sameness in terms <strong>of</strong> vocal quality. I will<br />
discuss both these aspects <strong>of</strong> modern Hindustani music in greater detail in a later<br />
chapters, but it will suffice here for me to say that these are phenomena that, whatever<br />
their causes (which are many, and <strong>by</strong> no means clear cut), are in no way based on the<br />
regional origins <strong>of</strong> today’s musicians. Beyond these aspects <strong>of</strong> today’s classical music,<br />
though, I would argue that there indeed are regional differences in the way music is<br />
actually performed <strong>by</strong> today’s musicians. Again, however, this is a point I will return to<br />
in chapters 3 through 5 where I will address the issue <strong>of</strong> how and to what extent gharana-<br />
based styles <strong>of</strong> performances have been assimilated <strong>by</strong> musicians in Maharashtra and<br />
West Bengal, and in chapters 7 and 8, where I will address the issue <strong>of</strong> how regionally-<br />
based aesthetic preferences influence classical music. This, in a sense, will be my<br />
43 see Phukon (1996) for an example <strong>of</strong> the literature on Regionalism in the Indian Northeast<br />
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positive evidence in proving the importance <strong>of</strong> region for understanding modern<br />
Hindustani music. However, we can also take the opposite approach and look at some<br />
evidence which proves that Hindustani music, <strong>by</strong> its nature, is not particularly susceptible<br />
to the homogenization which is generally thought to be one <strong>of</strong> the prime effects or<br />
symptoms <strong>of</strong> globalization.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first point I would like to address, then, concerns the nature <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani<br />
musical system itself. It is true that the situation that Indian classical music has found<br />
itself in since the early decades <strong>of</strong> the twentieth century, i.e. that royal patronage no<br />
longer exists and has been replaced <strong>by</strong> both government funding and, to a much greater<br />
extent, patronage <strong>by</strong> the mass audience, has hurt the tradition in certain ways. <strong>The</strong>re are<br />
two aspects <strong>of</strong> this current day scenario which are generally thought to be to the<br />
detriment <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music. First, because musicians no longer have the luxury <strong>of</strong><br />
doing nothing but practicing, performing, and teaching (as in the feudal set-up), the<br />
transmission <strong>of</strong> music to the young, developing musician has been greatly compromised.<br />
In short, mature musicians, particularly those who travel frequently across India or<br />
internationally, have less time to teach, and the students have less time to practice due the<br />
fact that they have to earn a living, unlike the situation in former times where the student<br />
was essentially taken in and supported as part <strong>of</strong> the Guru’s household. Similarly, young<br />
musicians <strong>of</strong> today feel much greater pressure than ever before to start performing before<br />
they have fully matured as musicians, at least <strong>by</strong> traditional standards. This situation is<br />
then exacerbated <strong>by</strong> mass audiences who are far less knowledgeable than the aristocratic<br />
patrons <strong>of</strong> classical music in <strong>by</strong>gone eras who were raised in the courtly milieu and had<br />
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an intimate knowledge <strong>of</strong> music (among the other classical arts), to the extent that many<br />
kings and princelings were actually competent performers themselves. So, while young<br />
musicians receive, on the whole, less training before starting their performing career than<br />
in the past, the audiences <strong>of</strong> today are in no position to demand a higher caliber <strong>of</strong> music<br />
because the vast majority <strong>of</strong> them has no idea what this means or what this would entail.<br />
This is not to question the fact that there are a large number <strong>of</strong> people in India who love<br />
and appreciate classical music. <strong>The</strong> problem is that, for lack <strong>of</strong> education in the subject,<br />
many simply have to take it on good faith that musicians who are booked into the various<br />
concert halls across the country are presenting them with the genuine article. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
points have been discussed <strong>by</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> scholars and other writers and are hard<br />
to dispute. Speed, as I have mentioned, is one aspect <strong>of</strong> the music that has not been<br />
neglected in recent years <strong>by</strong> up-and-coming musicians, and this is one area where perhaps<br />
the standards have been raised in the last 50 years. However, this is really a mechanical<br />
form <strong>of</strong> virtuosity and in no way compensates for a shallow repertoire <strong>of</strong> compositions or<br />
ragas or a lack <strong>of</strong> knowledge in terms <strong>of</strong> how to properly perform any particular raga.<br />
So, if this is one aspect <strong>of</strong> modernity, then, yes, modernity has affected the Hindustani<br />
tradition in a fairly pr<strong>of</strong>ound way.<br />
<strong>The</strong> point to be made, though, is that the above factors entail changes in the<br />
standard <strong>of</strong> performance, not to the musical system itself - that is a much different<br />
proposition. <strong>The</strong> reason why I state as much is because if Hindustani music has been<br />
affected <strong>by</strong> globalization (the term Dr. Atre used), one can only take that it has been<br />
homogenized, in the sense that it has been influenced <strong>by</strong> and, thus, has grown closer to<br />
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the most ubiquitous type <strong>of</strong> music in the world today, Western pop music or Western-<br />
influenced or Western–styled pop music. If it has, these changes are largely<br />
imperceptible. This is because the Hindustani tradition is fundamentally different from<br />
Western music, in terms <strong>of</strong> its instrumentation, its tuning system, and its concept <strong>of</strong><br />
melody, which is monophonic and based on the modal raga system. This makes the<br />
tradition fundamentally unsuited to the addition <strong>of</strong> harmony, the calling card <strong>of</strong> Western<br />
music that has been imported into or added onto the musics <strong>of</strong> so many other cultures, for<br />
example in sub-Saharan Africa where the indigenous musics are generally much more<br />
amenable to the use <strong>of</strong> both harmony and equally-tempered instruments. Marxist scholar<br />
Vinyak Purohit, in volume two <strong>of</strong> his monumental work Arts <strong>of</strong> Transitional India<br />
(1988), expands on this notion at length. Purohit is the type <strong>of</strong> Marxist critic (perhaps the<br />
most common type) who feels that petty insults, ad hominem attacks, and general disdain<br />
for everyone and everything outside <strong>of</strong> himself and his own theories are an essential<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> scholarly analysis, but, all the same, he has much to say that is valuable<br />
regarding both the nature <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani raga system and the general historical<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the tradition. Discussing the differences between Western and<br />
Hindustani music he writes,<br />
<strong>The</strong> contrast provided <strong>by</strong> Indian music with Western music is…not a contrast<br />
between succession and simultaneity <strong>of</strong> sounds, but that between two differently<br />
conceived projections <strong>of</strong> simultaneously propagated sound patterns. In the Indian<br />
system one pattern is held steady and the other varied. In the Western system,<br />
several patterns are simultaneously projected against an assumed, falsified and<br />
corrupted, tempered standard scale. Since all the instruments in an orchestra with<br />
or without voices are based upon this tempered standard scale, the simultaneous<br />
variations are performed in a many-sided manner. Lacking the tempered scale,<br />
Indian music elaborates simultaneity in sound pattern through the device <strong>of</strong> one<br />
steady set sounded against another variable set. In other words, the drone is<br />
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fundamental to Indian music, and there cannot be any Indian music in the<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> the drone. In other words, finally, without simultaneity <strong>of</strong> sound,<br />
without the tonic scale held firmly and steadily against variations, we cannot have<br />
the raga system <strong>of</strong> Indian music (emphasis is the author’s – 1988:821-822).<br />
In other words, the two systems are, again, fundamentally incompatible, unless one or the<br />
other is changed to the extent that it is no longer recognizable as itself. Harmony cannot<br />
accommodate raga, and raga cannot accommodate harmony. Unfortunately, as he is<br />
wont to do, Purohit moves from this insightful summary <strong>of</strong> the differences between these<br />
two musical systems to concluding in a later passage that, due to these differences,<br />
“Indian classical music can remain only an exoticism attractive to some sections <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Western youth…, in the same way as Western music in India is an exoticism restricted to<br />
selected groups <strong>of</strong> the comprador elite”(1988:919), thus indulging in a racially-based<br />
essentialism that would seem to contradict his general stance <strong>of</strong> attacking those whom he<br />
sees as holding on to outdated, particularly feudalistic or colonial, notions (at another<br />
point Purohit ponders whether “Euro-America will turn to some other cult, for instance,<br />
African voodoo with its associated complex drumming patterns, before capitalist society<br />
finally collapses…”) .<br />
Daniel Neuman in his article “<strong>The</strong> Ecology <strong>of</strong> Indian Music in North America”<br />
(1984), <strong>of</strong>fers a bit more optimistic and an undeniably less politically biased account <strong>of</strong><br />
how the Hindustani tradition has managed to retain its uniqueness while coming into<br />
contact with Western culture and Western music. Neuman approaches the issue slightly<br />
differently than does Purohit, as Neuman is interested in looking at the dynamics <strong>of</strong> this<br />
encounter in the context <strong>of</strong> North America itself (as the title <strong>of</strong> the piece indicates) rather<br />
than in the Indian context. Neuman begins <strong>by</strong> stating, “…Indian music in North America<br />
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has become an established force on its own terms, no longer relying – if it ever did –<br />
upon listeners seeking instant salvation, endless bliss and perpetual truth”(1984:9). So,<br />
right from the start Neuman contradicts Purohit’s assertion that Westerners are incapable<br />
<strong>of</strong> fully understanding and appreciating on its own terms, not merely as one manifestation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a faddish interest in Eastern spiritualism. Leaving this point aside, though, what<br />
Neuman sets out to do in this article is to determine how a foreign music tradition could<br />
find or make a “niche” for itself in North America, a phenomenon which, as Neuman<br />
notes, is “unprecedented in world music history”(ibid.:14). <strong>The</strong> reasons for the success<br />
<strong>of</strong> Indian Music in finding this niche are many. Among these are a quality <strong>of</strong> adaptability<br />
which manifests itself both in the broader sense <strong>of</strong> the musicians <strong>of</strong> the tradition being<br />
able to adapt to changes in sources <strong>of</strong> patronage and in a more strictly musical sense, as<br />
Hindustani music is improvised and thus “allows much freedom for rapid adjustment to<br />
the perceived changes in an audience’s mood”(ibid.:13). Also, Neuman attaches<br />
significance to the fact that there are some parallels between Hindustani music and<br />
Western music genres, such as “metered performances” common to Indian music, jazz,<br />
and classical music, and the small ensemble format, which is common to Indian music<br />
and Western pop and jazz. <strong>The</strong> point to emphasize here, though, is that while Indian<br />
classical music might have benefited from resembling Western music in certain ways, it<br />
has never had to change any <strong>of</strong> its core features even in establishing itself in a totally<br />
foreign context.<br />
So, if we want to discuss how Hindustani music has changed in recent years due<br />
to media (radio, television, sound recordings, internet) and the exposure media has given<br />
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to all types <strong>of</strong> music, Indian and foreign, we clearly have to restrict ourselves to less<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ound changes than have been experienced <strong>by</strong> other traditional musics in their<br />
encounter with Western culture and the global capitalist system. I should be clear,<br />
however, that I am not arguing that this homogenization effect has not occurred to any<br />
degree in Hindustani music. What I am arguing is that, due to the nature <strong>of</strong> the musical<br />
system, change can only take place along certain lines and outside influences (i.e.<br />
influences from other types <strong>of</strong> music) can only manifest themselves in limited cases.<br />
Vocal timbre and delivery, a factor I have already mentioned, is perhaps the aspect <strong>of</strong><br />
Hindustani music most prone to non-classical influences. <strong>The</strong> fact that Kishori Amonkar,<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the great superstars <strong>of</strong> the tradition in recent years, has admitted to modeling her<br />
vocal delivery in part on that <strong>of</strong> Bollywood playback singer Lata Mangeshkar confirms<br />
this assertion to a large degree. Beyond this, though, if we want to look at<br />
homogenization and Hindustani music it must be homogenization within the tradition.<br />
And again, this is a seemingly intuitive argument. That is, it would be hard to argue that<br />
a Hindustani musician in training would not be more likely to adhere to their Guru’s style<br />
if they never got the chance to hear any musician performing in a different style until,<br />
say, they have become a mature performer than if they are constantly exposed to different<br />
styles from their earliest years, which is now the reality for most musicians. Obviously<br />
this has changed the way musicians learn, perform, and conceive <strong>of</strong> music and their own<br />
approach to the music.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are two important caveats, however, to keep in mind when we examine this<br />
homogenization taking place in Hindustani music. First, as we are limiting our<br />
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discussion primarily to performing musicians, we need to remember that, while<br />
musicians in training might be subject to a whole host <strong>of</strong> influences outside <strong>of</strong> their<br />
individual Gurus’ music, the actual firsthand training they receive is much more<br />
important and enduring than anything that they might pick up from simply hearing<br />
another artist’s music. That is, everything that a musician tries to appropriate from the<br />
performers that they have not learned from directly is filtered through what they have<br />
received from their Guru. Also, specifically regarding regional influences, if we take that<br />
in the past there were singers with uniquely regional styles (some <strong>of</strong> whom had a national<br />
following, some who did not), then these musicians certainly must have passed at least<br />
some aspects <strong>of</strong> these regional styles down to their disciples. To give a more concrete<br />
example, the Marathi Sangiit NaaTak (Music-Drama) is basically an obsolete genre. If<br />
and when these dramas are performed today, they are done as historical exercises (or for<br />
the sake <strong>of</strong> nostalgia) and are performed largely <strong>by</strong> amateur singers, unlike in the heyday<br />
<strong>of</strong> the genre when great stalwarts such as Vinyakrao Patwardhan or Master Krishnarao or<br />
Hirabai Barodekar played the lead roles. Further, not only have today’s young musicians<br />
not grown up with Sangiit NaaTak, even many <strong>of</strong> today’s veteran performers would not<br />
even have seen Sangiit NaaTak at its height. However, many <strong>of</strong> today’s young<br />
Maharashtrian musicians not only sing naaTyapad (theatre songs), they also sing them in<br />
their unique style, which means utilizing certain taan patterns and a certain type <strong>of</strong> vocal<br />
delivery. So, Sangiit NaaTak-s are a thing <strong>of</strong> the past, but NaaTya Sangiit (Marathi<br />
theatre music) has become a part <strong>of</strong> the classical tradition in Maharashtra (but not<br />
elsewhere). <strong>The</strong> second caveat is that although media such as sound recordings have<br />
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expanded the options a young musician can choose from in terms <strong>of</strong> musical style, each<br />
musician does have to make choices. Despite the fact that many musicians state that they<br />
would like to take the best from every musician, this is impossible in practical terms.<br />
Every choice that a musician makes means rejecting another alternative. What I argue is<br />
that it is actually these types <strong>of</strong> choices that reveal regional biases or aesthetic preferences<br />
most clearly. In the past, a musician could learn their Guru’s/gharana’s style without the<br />
distraction <strong>of</strong> hearing other artists, but they had no choice but to learn that style only.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re was little in the way <strong>of</strong> choice even in terms <strong>of</strong> which Guru to learn from, if one<br />
was lucky enough to find a competent Guru at all. Now, musicians can imitate or reject<br />
the different aspects <strong>of</strong> the styles <strong>of</strong> the musicians they hear just as audiences can choose<br />
or not choose to attend the performance <strong>of</strong> any particular artist. While it may not be<br />
immediately apparent, not every classical musician, even <strong>of</strong> the superstar variety, is<br />
equally popular in every part <strong>of</strong> India. Bhimsen Joshi has a large and dedicated following<br />
in Calcutta, but the late Kumar Gandharva, a singer equally as famous on the whole and<br />
arguably better as a singer, never had a following in Calcutta. I argue that the same holds<br />
true in terms <strong>of</strong> the influence any great musician has in terms <strong>of</strong> inspiring imitators across<br />
the country. Choices are made, and these choices are telling.<br />
<strong>The</strong> last factor, then, that I feel is important in discussing how Hindustani music<br />
has changed in recent years is the idea <strong>of</strong> individuality, both in general and in a musical<br />
sense. Of course, individuality has always been important in Indian classical music.<br />
Hindustani music, after all (and Carnatic music, as well), is solo, improvised music. <strong>The</strong><br />
solo aspect means that the soloist, or featured singer or instrumentalist, controls almost<br />
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every aspect <strong>of</strong> the performance, from choosing the SA, or tonic note, and tuning the<br />
drone instruments, to selecting the tala, raga, and composition to be performed, to<br />
allotting short solos for the accompanying musician(s). <strong>The</strong> improvised aspect means<br />
that outside <strong>of</strong> the short compositions (which are generally traditional, but could be<br />
written <strong>by</strong> the performer him- or herself) which serve as a framework for the performance<br />
<strong>of</strong> a raga, all the other musical materials are generated <strong>by</strong> the musician. Improvisation in<br />
a raga is <strong>by</strong> definition very much rule-bound, and as such, the amount that a musician<br />
truly improvises in a performance (in the sense that the material presented is generated on<br />
the spot) depends on his or her own level <strong>of</strong> training, knowledge, and experience. Very<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten with less experienced and or less skilled musicians, much <strong>of</strong> what is played is<br />
something the performers learned from their Guru(s) or something that they have<br />
composed in advance. Even with these qualifications, though, it is clear that a<br />
performance <strong>by</strong> a Hindustani musician is suffused with that performer’s own personality.<br />
This is as opposed to traditions such as Western classical music, where the performer’s<br />
job is to faithfully reproduce what has been written <strong>by</strong> a composer who is not involved in<br />
the actual performance <strong>of</strong> the music. On a broader level, we can also observe that larger<br />
changes and innovations that occur in the Hindustani tradition are also the contribution <strong>of</strong><br />
individuals. At its core, gharana is founded on the idea <strong>of</strong> a family or lineage, the<br />
khaandaan. However, even gharanas are founded <strong>by</strong> and based on the styles <strong>of</strong><br />
individual musicians. For this reason, it is not surprising that Bonnie Wade would<br />
include a chapter in her monograph Khyal: Creativity Within North India’s Classical<br />
Music Tradition (1984) titled “On Individuality,” where she discusses “artists who<br />
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studied gharana styles formally but chose to remain independent <strong>of</strong> association with any<br />
one <strong>of</strong> them”; the Delhi gharana, where singers <strong>of</strong> different generations have specialized<br />
in different Khyal styles; and Amir Khan, a singer who “developed his own style without<br />
formal study with any khyaliya and whose style has been influential…”(1984:255). In<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> gharana, it also worth mentioning that the bottom line in Hindustani music is<br />
that each musician has to prove him or herself worthy to be a performer and to carry on<br />
the tradition <strong>of</strong> his or her Guru or gharana.<br />
Individualism, then, is nothing new in North Indian classical music. However, I<br />
feel that the individuality that is part and parcel <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music has received a great<br />
boost due to larger cultural and societal trends in India in recent years. It is true that,<br />
within the realm <strong>of</strong> classical music, gharana has faded in importance in recent years.<br />
Gharana is a product <strong>of</strong> the Islamic courtly milieu <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century, but the vast<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> musicians today are Hindu and thus have no blood ties to these lineages. This<br />
is not to say that musicians do not take pride in or make use <strong>of</strong> their ties to the gharana<br />
traditions, but there is not the sense <strong>of</strong> ownership or obligation that necessarily compels<br />
middle class Hindus to preserve and perpetuate these traditions in the same way that past<br />
generations <strong>of</strong> Muslim musicians have. This is only one example, however, <strong>of</strong> a larger<br />
trend in India where individual identity and individual achievement is becoming more<br />
and more emphasized and valued than one’s membership in any larger group, such as a<br />
religious sect, caste, or linguistic group. In this sense, we should speak then <strong>of</strong><br />
individualism rather than simply individuality. Now, at least judging <strong>by</strong> my own<br />
discussions and interviews with my interlocutors, individuality is not only a structural<br />
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aspect <strong>of</strong> the tradition, but musicians are now approaching the music with an attitude that<br />
being an individual, being unique, is one the most important artistic values one can aspire<br />
to. Although the idea <strong>of</strong> individuality came up in a variety <strong>of</strong> contexts during my<br />
research, two <strong>of</strong> the musicians I interviewed, vocalist Neela Bhagwat and tabla player<br />
Anish Pradhan, both <strong>of</strong> Bombay, articulated their views on the subject at length during<br />
my interviews with them. Anish Pradhan, for his part, is a disciple <strong>of</strong> the well-known<br />
tabla maestro <strong>of</strong> Bombay, the late Nikhil Ghosh, and a first generation performer. AP’s<br />
mother was a lawyer and an amateur musician, and his father was a journalist. Both were<br />
involved in “political and trade union movement[s],” undoubtedly shaping AP’s own<br />
views on politics and society in important ways (for ex., when I asked AP about his caste<br />
he replied that he is a “complete atheist”). AP addressed the notion <strong>of</strong> individuality (in<br />
musical terms) at several points in our interview. At one point, for example, while<br />
discussing the importance <strong>of</strong> gharana in current times, he lamented the musicians<br />
(vocalists, specifically) who were “trying to make a carbon copy <strong>of</strong> an icon.” He<br />
addressed the notion most pointedly, though, when I began approaching some <strong>of</strong> my<br />
more direct questions regarding the importance <strong>of</strong> regional origin to a musician’s style.<br />
Thus, when asked specifically if he felt that there was a particular character to classical<br />
music as a whole in Bombay he replied,<br />
Once again there is no specific character as such. <strong>The</strong>re are more avenues open<br />
for musicians here than there are perhaps elsewhere because <strong>of</strong> the, uh, plethora<br />
<strong>of</strong> channels…and, you know, television channels and radio and <strong>of</strong> course not<br />
many recordings take place <strong>of</strong> classical music now, but somewhere or the other<br />
people manage to find some kind <strong>of</strong> space for themselves, and if not they open<br />
some class or something like that. So, maybe in smaller areas it is less possible to<br />
do…why, you see Washi [a suburb in Navi, or “New”, Mumbai, northeast <strong>of</strong><br />
Bombay proper], in Washi it may be less, less uh, fortunate circumstances than in<br />
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the main city. So, but, apart from the economics <strong>of</strong> it, I don’t see anything<br />
directly related to the music making because <strong>of</strong> the character <strong>of</strong> a city or because<br />
<strong>of</strong> the character <strong>of</strong> a caste group or community. And, one thing I would like ask,<br />
that…because we, this, this hierarchical thing and because <strong>of</strong> the talk <strong>of</strong> caste and<br />
community, I am repeatedly saying that we have to tread very gingerly here<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the unfortunate circumstances in which the country finds itself now<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the fundamentalist groups on both sides, uh, just acting as vultures<br />
waiting for the right moment to capture. And, you know, the easiest thing from to<br />
go from here is to ask, “What does <strong>Jeffrey</strong> know <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music? He is<br />
white. He is an American.” But for me it is not important what your color is.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re may be Americans that are more Hindustani musically minded than an<br />
upper caste Maharashtrian…(interview, 2005).<br />
So, for AP not only are factors such as regional origin and caste less important today than<br />
in earlier times, particularly in urban areas (where most classical musicians in India now<br />
reside), it is politically irresponsible and perhaps dangerous to judge people according to<br />
these categories, even in a scholarly context. This is not to say that I agree with him<br />
unambiguously, but certainly his views are representative <strong>of</strong> many middle class Indians<br />
today, musician or otherwise.<br />
<strong>The</strong> vocalist Neela Bhagwat approached the notion <strong>of</strong> individuality in a slightly<br />
different fashion. NB, like AP, subscribes to generally leftist politics. She, as she<br />
mentioned to me, is a feminist, a Marxist, and “…a part <strong>of</strong> the left parties and left<br />
ideology <strong>of</strong> this country.” However, while politics in the traditional sense did enter into<br />
our dialogue at times, she approached the idea <strong>of</strong> individuality more as an artistic issue.<br />
When I asked her about singers imitating famous role models, or if she had been<br />
influenced in such manner, she responded, “I am not a copying machine. I am an<br />
individual. I am a person. I am a human being…with my own ideas. I cannot forget that<br />
– that is me.” Likewise, when I asked NB about gharana, she felt gharana was absolutely<br />
necessary, but as a means to an end:<br />
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Another thing I liked about classical music was the blending <strong>of</strong> discipline and<br />
freedom that…that one grows into…because one is learning a traditional art, one<br />
is also learning from a traditional guru many times. One has to adopt that<br />
discipline, at the same time, if you want to express yourself, then you have to<br />
think <strong>of</strong> what you feel as a person and then try to put it in your own form, so there<br />
is freedom. Once you have mastered the discipline, you are free and you are<br />
liberated to do anything. That is what I like about the classical tradition in India<br />
(Interview, 2005)<br />
So, while perhaps these two musicians represent the left, or even perhaps the extreme<br />
left, in terms <strong>of</strong> their political views amongst the musician community, their views do<br />
represent, as I have said, a certain percentage <strong>of</strong> educated, middle class, but politically<br />
aware persons in modern India. And beyond that, the statements I have quoted above<br />
would likely not be taken as unreasonably leftist <strong>by</strong> most middle class musicians – in<br />
detail perhaps, but not in their basic message that in modern India one is what one has<br />
experienced and what one makes <strong>of</strong> oneself as an artist and a person.<br />
Conclusion<br />
To sum up, I have discussed three prime factors that I feel have greatly reduced<br />
the likelihood that the average classical musician <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani tradition would be<br />
willing to discuss the influence <strong>of</strong> regional culture in Hindustani music in a positive light,<br />
if at all: first, the notion that Hindustani classical music is essentially national and<br />
nationalist; the notion that regionalism, in both the broadest sense <strong>of</strong> the word and in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> its specifically political meaning, is the province <strong>of</strong> marginalized, low caste, or<br />
low economic class groups; and the relatively diffuse and non-specific notion that, due to<br />
political, economic, and technological developments worldwide, India has moved beyond<br />
the historical stage in which distinct regional cultures and cultural forms have any<br />
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elevance, or, in the estimation <strong>of</strong> some, even continue to exist. <strong>The</strong> difficulty in<br />
asserting the importance <strong>of</strong> such factors is that, unlike in most cases in this study where<br />
the information and opinions <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors have largely shaped and guided my<br />
analyses, <strong>of</strong> these three issues I have discussed, only one was explicitly mentioned <strong>by</strong> one<br />
or more <strong>of</strong> interlocutors, namely the idea that regionalism and regional cultures have<br />
faded in importance due to the homogenizing influence <strong>of</strong> globalism and modernity. As I<br />
mentioned above, the real problem was that when any particular musician that I met with<br />
denied the validity <strong>of</strong> positing any sort <strong>of</strong> relationship between regional culture and<br />
classical music, they most <strong>of</strong>ten declined to state why they would deny such a<br />
connection. Of course, I was and remain grateful that all my interlocutors agreed to<br />
devote the time they did for my study (in all but a handful cases, they did so without<br />
remuneration), and I feel strongly that all <strong>of</strong> them were well within their rights to speak<br />
or not speak about whatsoever they chose. However, from the perspective <strong>of</strong> a<br />
researcher, this could be frustrating at times, and, most importantly, it meant that I was<br />
left to my own devices in determining why it was that so many musicians would dismiss<br />
the focus <strong>of</strong> my study as irrelevant. Along these same lines, I would be remiss if (beyond<br />
the direct quotes I provided from Anish Pradhan, Prabha Atre, and Neela Bhagwat that<br />
make their views fairly clear) I were to state or imply that any one <strong>of</strong> these factors was<br />
more or less influential on the views <strong>of</strong> any particular musician I interviewed. <strong>The</strong>re is a<br />
possibility that one, two, all three, or even none <strong>of</strong> these factors, have influenced the<br />
beliefs <strong>of</strong> any specific performer. I only intend to suggest that all <strong>of</strong> these factors have<br />
played some role in shaping the apparently fairly common belief that there is, basically,<br />
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nothing regional about Hindustani music. In the rest <strong>of</strong> this dissertation, I intend to do<br />
my best to provide some evidence, if not conclusively prove, that there have indeed been<br />
important influences traceable to the regional cultures <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra and Bengal that<br />
have manifested themselves in the style <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical music and its constituent<br />
genres from the late 19th century up to the present.<br />
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Part One: the “Inside View”<br />
2. Gharana in the 21st Century<br />
In Chapter One, I briefly discussed the tendency within Indian musicology, as<br />
mentioned <strong>by</strong> Ashok Ranade, to adhere closely to Pandit Bhatkhande’s approach <strong>of</strong><br />
viewing Hindustani music only in terms <strong>of</strong> musical structure. This, again, means<br />
disregarding any ‘peripheral’ factors, such as culture, politics, religion, etc., as important<br />
in understanding the tradition. Certainly this tendency has exercised a pr<strong>of</strong>ound effect on<br />
the way not only musicologists but also scholarly minded musicians in India have viewed<br />
the history and development <strong>of</strong> the tradition, as evidenced <strong>by</strong> the conversations I had with<br />
my interlocutors during my period <strong>of</strong> research in India. Thus, while the musicians who<br />
agreed that regional culture has had or does have a noticeable effect on Hindustani music<br />
<strong>of</strong> any shade (whether it be Khyal, Dhrupad, or instrumental music) are relatively few,<br />
almost every one I interviewed pointed out that if there were any differences between<br />
classical music in different regions, it was largely due to two factors: one, which<br />
important North Indian musicians had chosen to settle where, and two, which among<br />
those musicians had been the most successful in training disciples and, thus, propagating<br />
and popularizing their tradition and/or individual style in the city or region where they<br />
lived. Admittedly, this is not precisely the same thing as Bhatkhande’s “narrowly<br />
grammatical” interpretation <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, but I feel strongly that it is very much<br />
an extension <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande’s approach, whether or not the influence <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande on<br />
any <strong>of</strong> the musicians I spoke with was direct or indirect. In other words, I think the<br />
tendency <strong>of</strong> most musicians and scholars, with the exception <strong>of</strong> Ashok Ranade and some<br />
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others who identify themselves as ethnomusicologists, is to view the Hindustani music<br />
tradition as a closed system, so to speak, where all changes comes from the inside. Now,<br />
I should be clear that although I do not agree with this approach as an exclusive means <strong>of</strong><br />
understanding Hindustani music in the regional context - indeed, the main contribution<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered <strong>by</strong> the present study is hopefully to expand the range <strong>of</strong> factors which have<br />
traditionally been included in studies <strong>of</strong> this music - I do feel that viewing the tradition in<br />
these terms is certainly the most concrete and quantifiable way <strong>of</strong> looking at regional<br />
differences in classical music. Also, it is the first logical step in beginning to analyze the<br />
factors that are more subjective and interpretive, such as the arguable influence <strong>of</strong><br />
regional semi-classical forms on Hindustani music in these two regions or the influence<br />
<strong>of</strong> broader, regionally-based aesthetic preferences on the same. In this and the four<br />
following chapters, then, I will take the “Inside View” <strong>of</strong> the history and development <strong>of</strong><br />
Hindustani music in both Bengal and Maharashtra. As such, I will define and discuss the<br />
gharana concept; I will examine what current day performers feel about gharana and its<br />
importance for the tradition in light <strong>of</strong> issues such as the impact <strong>of</strong> media, particularly<br />
audio recordings; I will examine the respective histories <strong>of</strong> mainstream, i.e. gharana-<br />
based, classical music in Maharashtra and Bengal; and finally, I will discuss some<br />
specific stylistic tendencies in order to demonstrate the different ways in which<br />
Maharashtrian and Bengali classical musicians incorporate gharana-based techniques into<br />
their individual styles <strong>of</strong> performance.<br />
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As I noted in chapter 1, Daniel Neuman has argued that gharanas arose in the<br />
middle <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century both as a means to keep musical knowledge within the<br />
hands <strong>of</strong> particular lineages <strong>of</strong> musicians and in order to provide these musicians with an<br />
identity which made it easier for newer audiences (both elite and, as the nineteenth<br />
century crossed over into the twentieth, increasingly non-elite) to understand who they<br />
were and how their music might sound. To reiterate, this seems to have been a direct<br />
response to wider changes in technology such as the growth and expansion <strong>of</strong> the railway<br />
system and the creation <strong>of</strong> speedier and more efficient means <strong>of</strong> long distance<br />
communication. In the present context, however, we need to step back and more closely<br />
examine what this concept means. <strong>The</strong> classic definition <strong>of</strong> gharana, <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>by</strong> Neuman,<br />
is as follows: “…minimally, a lineage <strong>of</strong> hereditary musicians, their disciples, and the<br />
particular musical style they represent”(1990:146). Deshpande, in Indian Musical<br />
Traditions, 44 adds one more important factor - that a tradition must last for at least three<br />
generations if it is to be considered a gharana (1987:120). It is also important to note that<br />
all major gharanas, with the noteworthy exception <strong>of</strong> the Vishnupur gharana <strong>of</strong> Bengal<br />
(which I will discuss in detail later in chapter 4, and which is perhaps only a major<br />
gharana now in the field <strong>of</strong> sitar), were founded in the royal courts <strong>of</strong> North India,<br />
primarily in the vicinity <strong>of</strong> Delhi but throughout the Hindi/Urdu regions, and were<br />
founded <strong>by</strong> Muslim performers <strong>of</strong> the Khyal vocal genre, which in the nineteenth century<br />
(as today), was the most widespread and popular <strong>of</strong> the purely classical Hindustani forms.<br />
<strong>The</strong> demographic aspect is important for a variety <strong>of</strong> reasons, but most importantly<br />
44 This is the English translation <strong>of</strong> the original Marathi title Gharandaaj Gayaki.<br />
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ecause, as the early gharaanedaar musicians (musicians who belonged to a recognized<br />
lineage) were Muslims, membership in the gharana, and thus access to the gharana<br />
repertoire, could be greatly restricted <strong>by</strong> the practice <strong>of</strong> cousin marriage (which generally<br />
means the marriage <strong>of</strong> first cousins), a custom which is taboo for Hindus (Neuman 1990).<br />
It is this aspect <strong>of</strong> exclusiveness that undoubtedly led some observers, mostly Hindu<br />
musicologists and reformers like Bhatkhande to look upon gharanas with suspicion. In<br />
the eyes <strong>of</strong> these critics, Hindustani music was a national inheritance and belonged to all<br />
Indians. For gharana musicians, whose livelihood was solely derived from music, their<br />
intention was simply to preserve and maintain their specialist knowledge both for the<br />
sake <strong>of</strong> future generations <strong>of</strong> their families and for the sake <strong>of</strong> preserving the music they<br />
had, at least to some extent, created. <strong>The</strong> last part <strong>of</strong> the definition <strong>of</strong> gharana is that<br />
they, with the partial exception <strong>of</strong> the Alladiya Khan gharana (partial because this<br />
gharana is also called the “Jaipur gharana,” after Alladiya Khan’s ancestral home), are<br />
named after the city in which their distinctive style was originally created. This tie to the<br />
courts where the gharanas were originally established is certainly an important historical<br />
and geographical distinction, although not crucial as a means <strong>of</strong> distinguishing the<br />
different identities and styles <strong>of</strong> the gharanas, since again most <strong>of</strong> these cities are located<br />
within close proximity to each other and as such belong to the same broader region.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is one very, very important caveat to this definition, which is that the<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> gharana is just that, a concept. “<strong>The</strong>re are no gharana celebrations, virtually<br />
no political organization, no campus or central headquarters, and no administrative<br />
structure”(Neuman 1990:146). Gharana status is solely based on the authority and<br />
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prestige <strong>of</strong> the musicians who founded and have perpetuated them, and recognition <strong>of</strong> this<br />
status is granted <strong>by</strong> a consensus <strong>of</strong> various individuals, including patrons, scholars,<br />
critics, and, most importantly, other performers <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani tradition. As a result,<br />
much time and ink have been spent <strong>by</strong> members <strong>of</strong> all these groups in debating which<br />
gharanas should properly be considered gharanas and which should not. One very high<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ile incident along these lines is related <strong>by</strong> BR Deodhar, a musicologist and student <strong>of</strong><br />
VD Paluskar, in his book Pillars <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Music (1993). Deodhar, in his chapter on<br />
Alladiya Khan, relates a story in which Bhatkhande himself questioned the origins <strong>of</strong><br />
Alladiya Khan’s (AK) music. Bhatkhande apparently felt rather strongly that AK’s<br />
singing style was largely his own creation, a notion which, not incidentally, most would<br />
not argue today. As Deodhar writes,<br />
I discussed this point [the origins <strong>of</strong> AK’s style] with Pandit Bhatkhande…one<br />
day. I suspected the Panditji was not excessively fond <strong>of</strong> Khansaheb. He<br />
described Khansaheb as extremely crafty and businesslike. He added, “If<br />
Khansaheb had entered politics he would have made a name for himself. I do not<br />
question his scholarship but the style <strong>of</strong> music with which he is associated was<br />
created <strong>by</strong> Khansaheb himself; however, he persistently denies this.” Panditji<br />
next said, “On this very beach (at Chowpatty) [in Bombay] I once found myself<br />
sitting next to Alladiya Khan. He said ‘What I sing has been taught in my family<br />
for generations. It is not my personal creation.’ I asked, ‘A number <strong>of</strong> your<br />
people continue to dwell in Rajasthan. Is their style <strong>of</strong> singing identical to<br />
yours?’ Khansaheb’s reply was,-‘the music <strong>of</strong> the older members <strong>of</strong> my family is<br />
the same. You can go to Rajasthan and satisfy your self on that count.’ I was<br />
given one or two names <strong>of</strong> Khansaheb’s relations still residing at Uniyara. Since<br />
<strong>by</strong> then I was determined to go to the bottom <strong>of</strong> the whole affair I went all the<br />
way to Rajasthan and heard the musicians in question. When I met Khansaheb<br />
again at the same spot, after I returned from Rajasthan, I told him bluntly that the<br />
music I had heard was distinctly closer to that <strong>of</strong> the Gwalior tradition than to his<br />
own music. ‘Why do you not confess now that what you sing is something you<br />
yourself have developed?’ As a consequence Khansaheb was very displeased<br />
with me and we were alienated from each other because <strong>of</strong> the<br />
incident.”(1993:34-35)<br />
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That performing musicians should engage in such debates is readily understandable, as<br />
membership in a recognized gharana can have very real consequences in terms,<br />
ultimately, <strong>of</strong> how much money they earn. In the case <strong>of</strong> scholars and critics, though, it<br />
is a slightly different case. While most scholars and journalists are ostensibly objective<br />
and impartial and few would admit otherwise, closer scrutiny will reveal that almost<br />
every individual who has any first hand experience with Hindustani music has learned<br />
from or at least has had close contact with a musician who represents or is aligned with a<br />
gharana and, thus, promotes that musician’s gharana on some level to at least a certain<br />
extent. 45 I would be remiss if I also did not clearly state here that this applies as much to<br />
foreign scholars <strong>of</strong> the tradition as to Indian scholars, and I myself am included in this<br />
group.<br />
One other observation can be made concerning Alladiya Khan and the gharana he<br />
founded that is significant in this context. For the most orthodox denizens <strong>of</strong> the world <strong>of</strong><br />
Hindustani music, a gharana has to be based on an actual lineage, meaning blood<br />
relations. As Neuman mentions, disciples are certainly included as gharana members, but<br />
many feel that these outsiders to the central lineage <strong>of</strong> the gharana cannot carry on the<br />
gharana per se, although they can, <strong>of</strong> course, pass on the style to their own disciples.<br />
However, the Alladiya Khan gharana seemingly disproves this notion. As Bonnie Wade<br />
explains, AK was, as mentioned in Deodhar’s anecdote, from a family <strong>of</strong> hereditary<br />
musicians, but “no other members <strong>of</strong> his family contributed to the cultivation <strong>of</strong> his khyal<br />
style; two <strong>of</strong> his preeminent successors, however, are mother and daughter <strong>of</strong> a different<br />
45 Bhatkhande is one <strong>of</strong> the few who have posed such questions who did not have a bias in favor <strong>of</strong> one<br />
gharana over others, although he <strong>of</strong> course had his own biases.<br />
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family [Hindus Mogubai Kurdikar and Kishori Amonkar]”(1984:3). It seems that, in<br />
AK’s lifetime, he felt it important to stress his status as a hereditary musician and his<br />
membership in the gharana <strong>of</strong> that lineage, even if, in truth, he had made fairly radical<br />
changes to the style <strong>of</strong> his forebears. Today, though, as there are clearly three<br />
generations <strong>of</strong> musicians who follow Alladiya Khan’s style (the style he created, that is),<br />
there is no reason not to call the gharana <strong>The</strong> Alladiya Khan Gharana, or at least<br />
acknowledge that the style <strong>of</strong> this gharana, whatever its name, was founded <strong>by</strong> AK, not<br />
<strong>by</strong> any <strong>of</strong> his ancestors. Some would argue that the same situation applies in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
the late sitarist Ustad Vilayat Khan. He was also a hereditary musician, and both his<br />
father and grandfather, Enayet and Imdad Khan, respectively, were well-known sitar<br />
maestros. As such, his gharana is conventionally referred to as the Imdad Khan gharana.<br />
However, many claim, as with AK, that VK substantially altered the music he learned<br />
from his family (like AK, VK’s father died before he had completed his musical<br />
training), and thus, should be looked upon as the founder <strong>of</strong> a new style, one that will<br />
eventually be called <strong>The</strong> Vilayat Khan gharana once the condition <strong>of</strong> three generations is<br />
met, a situation which has not yet come about. Again, though, those who pose this<br />
argument undoubtedly have ulterior motives, as claiming that VK has created his own<br />
style is tantamount to saying that he and his successors have no gharana, at least not yet.<br />
At any rate, it remains to be seen if in, say, fifty years from now this lineage will be<br />
labeled as the Vilayat Khan gharana.<br />
One additional way that the ‘classic’ definition <strong>of</strong> gharana <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>by</strong> both<br />
Deshpande and Neuman can be refined regards the use <strong>of</strong> the term for classical genres<br />
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outside <strong>of</strong> Khyal. According to Neuman, “Recognized and named gharanas are specific<br />
socio-musical identities which are properly those <strong>of</strong> soloists” (1990:120). This means<br />
that accompanist musicians, including both tabla and saarangii players, cannot properly<br />
belong to a gharana, but are said, rather, to play in a certain baaj, or technical style. A<br />
baaj includes the criterion <strong>of</strong> musical style (and are associated with geographical<br />
locations or areas) but not <strong>of</strong> being organized around a lineage. In the case <strong>of</strong> saarangii<br />
players, this is more understandable, as the repertoire <strong>of</strong> this stringed instrument is<br />
derived entirely from vocal music and as saarangii players essentially learn to play in all<br />
the major gharana styles as a necessity <strong>of</strong> making themselves as attractive as possible to<br />
singers who would choose them for a given performance. According to DK Datar, well-<br />
known senior Hindustani violinist <strong>of</strong> Bombay, both <strong>of</strong> these statements are true <strong>of</strong> the<br />
violin as well (interview, 2005), although, to be sure, the violin is a much less established<br />
instrument in the Hindustani tradition than the saarangii and is not burdened with the<br />
saarangii’s negative social connotations. 46 In the case <strong>of</strong> tabla, though, there are<br />
generally accepted gharanas, most notably those <strong>of</strong> Benares, Farukhabad, Punjab, Ajrada,<br />
Delhi, and Lucknow, and it is certainly worth mentioning that while tabla is most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
an accompanying instrument, there is a very rich tradition <strong>of</strong> solo tabla which is totally<br />
independent <strong>of</strong> and separate from vocal or instrumental (sitar/sarod) music. James<br />
Kippen, for one, takes issue with Neuman’s argument that there are no tabla gharanas,<br />
saying that “Neuman’s ideas are more a consequence <strong>of</strong> his own concern for clarity than<br />
46 <strong>The</strong> violin is frequently used as an accompanying instrument in South Indian or Carnatic classical music,<br />
but only a handful <strong>of</strong> musicians have cultivated it in the Hindustani context, the most notable being V.G.<br />
Jog.<br />
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<strong>of</strong> an attempt to understand the ways in which musicians themselves perceive gharana.”<br />
Or, more to the point, “[Neuman’s] conclusions may conceivably reflect the views <strong>of</strong> his<br />
informants, but they certainly do not reflect the views <strong>of</strong> the people with whom I worked”<br />
(1988:64), namely members <strong>of</strong> the Lucknow tabla gharana. This, then, is the point that<br />
needs to be emphasized – that different groups with different motivations at times make<br />
very different claims, particularly when the prestige which accompanies gharana status is<br />
at stake. Wade makes a very similar point when she explains, again in the context <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Alladiya Khan gharana, that the “implications <strong>of</strong> discipleship” can be the same as in an<br />
Ustaad-shaagird relationship which is also father-son (or uncle-nephew), if the teacher<br />
chooses to treat the unrelated disciple as they would treat their own son, i.e. if they teach<br />
their disciple the full repertoire <strong>of</strong> their gharana (Wade 1984:2). In the case <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Alladiya Khan gharana, very few, especially now, would question whether this tradition<br />
is a gharana. In the case <strong>of</strong> musicians less famous than Alladiya Khan and Mogubai<br />
Kurdikar, it is likely that this lack <strong>of</strong> a central lineage could be used as grounds for<br />
criticism. To be sure, even a tradition as distinguished and important as the Gwalior<br />
Khyal gharana is sometimes said to be extinct, as there is no living member <strong>of</strong> the<br />
original khaandaan who still represents the gharana, although there are a number <strong>of</strong><br />
notable singers who still perform in the Gwalior style.<br />
Neuman frequently in <strong>The</strong> Life <strong>of</strong> Music in North India compares the socio-<br />
musical organization <strong>of</strong> musicians, featuring, among other things gharanas and baaj, to<br />
the caste system (for ex., 1990:204), and it is true that there are many parallels along<br />
these lines. To extend this analogy, we can see that that if we were to rank the different<br />
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types <strong>of</strong> musicians in caste terms according to their traditionally prescribed status,<br />
vocalists would no doubt rank at the top, the Brahmans <strong>of</strong> the music world, so to speak.<br />
As such, the conclusions that Neuman reaches bear more than a passing resemblance to<br />
the sweeping statements a scholar like Louis Dumont has made about caste, while<br />
consulting only Brahmans for information. 47 <strong>The</strong> resulting analyses are not incorrect or<br />
invalid, but their bias should be taken into account. At any rate, <strong>by</strong> this logic,<br />
accompanists such as tabla and sarangi players would fall near the bottom <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hierarchy. However, the middle class <strong>of</strong> the classical music world is comprised <strong>of</strong> the<br />
solo instrumentalists, most <strong>of</strong>ten sitar and sarod players. Regarding instrumental<br />
gharanas, Neuman acknowledges, as with tabla players, that sitar and sarod players use<br />
the term gharana in different senses, but while he does not reject these claims in the same<br />
sense as he rejects the claims <strong>of</strong> tabla players to gharana status, he does argue that the<br />
only meaningful pedigree is a link to the great singer Tansen, whose descendants are<br />
referred to as Seniyas. As Neuman writes, “Virtually all instrumentalists belong in one<br />
sense or another to the Seniya gharana…,” and “To the extent that association with the<br />
Seniya tradition is used, it is in the sense that some musicians are more Seniya then<br />
others”(1990:107-108). Thus, it seems that Neuman again is judging non-gharaanedaar<br />
khyaaliya musicians <strong>by</strong> gharaanedaar khyaaliya standards. This is not to say that the<br />
musicians who belong to the traditions founded <strong>by</strong> the sarod players Allaudin Khan and<br />
Hafeez Ali Khan (who both studied with one <strong>of</strong> the last known descendants <strong>of</strong> Tansen,<br />
Wazir Khan <strong>of</strong> Rampur), for example, do not themselves at times emphasize their Seniya<br />
47 Vamanrao Deshpande, for his part, actually is a Brahman, musically and literally.<br />
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credentials. However, these two traditions are generally referred to as the Maihar and<br />
Gwalior gharanas, respectively, and, at least in my experience, neither the general public<br />
nor other current musicians dispute the existence <strong>of</strong> these two gharanas. Similarly, very<br />
few would claim that the Imdad Khan gharana <strong>of</strong> Enayet and Vilayat Khan is in any way<br />
inauthentic, even though these musicians have only a peripheral tie to the Seniya<br />
tradition. Again, though, for traditional Muslim musicians, particularly vocalists, perhaps<br />
the only meaningful claim an instrumentalist can make is to have a connection with<br />
Tansen, the vocalist generally thought <strong>of</strong> as the greatest in the history <strong>of</strong> North Indian<br />
classical music (albeit one whose ancestors were instrumentalists). In Neuman’s case<br />
one is tempted to think that his conclusions might seem slightly skewed because he<br />
gathered his information in the 1970s when the imbalance <strong>of</strong> power and status between<br />
vocalists and other musicians was greater than it is today. However, at one point,<br />
Neuman does write, “In practice, however, instrumental music in the north seems<br />
currently the predominant form, as gauged <strong>by</strong> the popularity <strong>of</strong> musicians like Ali Akbar<br />
Khan, Vilayat Khan, and Ravi Shankar” (1990:108). Despite this, I would argue that<br />
there is an issue with the scene shifting over time, but it is not so much that<br />
instrumentalists have gained more power or higher status over the last thirty years,<br />
although they perhaps have. Instead, it can be argued that gharaanedaar vocalists have<br />
much, much less importance in the classical music scene in the twenty-first century than<br />
they did fifty or even thirty years ago. This is not to say that vocalists are not still<br />
considered to be the most important <strong>of</strong> all musicians <strong>by</strong> many traditionalists in India, but<br />
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the importance <strong>of</strong> heredity as an indicator <strong>of</strong> authenticity is now greatly diminished, at<br />
least among the musicians I encountered in Pune, Bombay, and Calcutta.<br />
Turning briefly to the light classical form which is most <strong>of</strong>ten performed <strong>by</strong><br />
classical singers and instrumentalists, the Thumri genre, we find no mention either in<br />
Neuman or Deshpande <strong>of</strong> gharanas corresponding to this form, and rightly so.<br />
Deshpande instead uses the term baaj, mentioning the Lucknow, Purab, and Benares baaj<br />
(1987:11), though the Punjabi Thumri, the style created and popularized <strong>by</strong> Bade Ghulam<br />
Ali <strong>of</strong> Patiala gharana could be added to this list. Thus, in keeping with Neuman’s<br />
definition, there are Thumri styles that correspond to these geographical locations, but not<br />
specific lineages that have propagated these styles <strong>of</strong> Thumri. 48 <strong>The</strong>re are several reasons<br />
for this. One might be that Thumri historically has been dominated <strong>by</strong> female vocalists,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten <strong>of</strong> low caste, while gharanas have traditionally been centered on lineages <strong>of</strong> male<br />
musicians. More importantly, though, the Thumri is not considered a classical form as<br />
such. This is because in Thumri, ragas are treated loosely, and performances feature the<br />
free substitution <strong>of</strong> pitches and phrases foreign to a particular raga. <strong>The</strong> main musical<br />
process featured in the performance <strong>of</strong> a Thumri is not the exposition <strong>of</strong> a raga in an<br />
ordered and systematic fashion; it is instead bol banaao, the combination <strong>of</strong> fragments <strong>of</strong><br />
the lyric with various melodic phrases for emotive effect.<br />
It should also be noted that classical vocalists do not specialize in Thumri – they<br />
specialize in either Khyal or Dhrupad, but many do perform Thumri on stage as one part<br />
48<br />
Ranade uses the term “thumri gharana” in Music and Musicians <strong>of</strong> Hindoostan (1994) without<br />
explanation.<br />
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<strong>of</strong> their presentation. 49 It is useful here to cite Neuman’s definition <strong>of</strong> a classical<br />
musician. He writes, “By classical musician, I mean specifically one who plays music<br />
set within the framework <strong>of</strong> ragas, and compositions set to talas. In practice this means<br />
the individual musician performs in dhrupad or khyal or corresponding instrumental<br />
styles as the primary classical forms, in addition to styles such as thumri, ghazal, and<br />
tarana, as auxiliary forms”(1990:91). In other words, certain gharanas might feature the<br />
singing <strong>of</strong> Thumris generally, or even the singing <strong>of</strong> a specific style <strong>of</strong> Thumri, as one<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> their overall presentation, but no gharana can be established or perpetuated <strong>by</strong><br />
singers who specialize primarily in Thumri or any other semi-classical form.<br />
Hindustani music scholar Deepak Raja states this proposition most clearly, emphasizing<br />
the artistic versatility <strong>of</strong> courtesans (historically the primary exponents <strong>of</strong> Thumri) and<br />
their teachers:<br />
Vocalists, instrumentalists, and even Kathak dancers are known to claim<br />
membership <strong>of</strong> the “Benares gharana”. <strong>The</strong> term “gharana” is, however,<br />
inappropriate in this context. <strong>The</strong> so-called Benares gharana is an entire culture<br />
that revolved around the salons <strong>of</strong> the courtesans supported <strong>by</strong> the aristocracy <strong>of</strong><br />
the region during the 18th and 19th centuries. Its performing arts were Kathak<br />
dance, and the semi-classical genres <strong>of</strong> vocal music. Its accompaniment arts were<br />
those <strong>of</strong> the Sarangi and the Tabla. <strong>The</strong>se were supported <strong>by</strong> a group <strong>of</strong><br />
composers, choreographers, and teachers. <strong>The</strong> culture <strong>of</strong> the salons required all<br />
performers to study dance as well as music, irrespective <strong>of</strong> their pr<strong>of</strong>ession.<br />
Teachers, choreographers and composers also cultivated a similar versatility.<br />
(http://swaratala.blogspot.com/ – 9/25/2007).<br />
Raja also notably eschews the apparent elitism <strong>of</strong> Neuman (at least in this case), as he<br />
explains that the term gharana might be appropriate for the tabla players and Kathak<br />
dancers <strong>of</strong> Benares, but not for Thumri singers, while at same time crediting the great<br />
49<br />
Patiala and Kirana gharanas are most famous for their Thumri renderings, but most Khyal singers sing<br />
Thumri or an equivalent genre.<br />
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musicianship <strong>of</strong> the individual practitioners <strong>of</strong> Thumri singing who live in or hail from<br />
Benares.<br />
Considering that Dhrupad, the oldest extant form <strong>of</strong> Indian vocal music, is a<br />
properly classical form practiced <strong>by</strong> classical musicians, do we then find gharanas <strong>of</strong><br />
musicians specializing in Dhrupad? Judging from Neuman and Deshpande, the answer<br />
might be no, as neither mentions explicitly the name <strong>of</strong> a Dhrupad gharana or uses the<br />
term “Dhrupad gharana.” However, neither author specifically denies their existence<br />
either. In the case <strong>of</strong> Deshpande, this is quite easy to understand, as Dhrupad has never<br />
had much <strong>of</strong> a presence in Maharashtra at any point in time, at least not since Balkrishna<br />
Ichalkaranjikar popularized Khyal there starting in the late 19th c. 50 In Neuman’s case,<br />
though, it seems that this is an instance where his conclusions do decidedly bear the<br />
imprint <strong>of</strong> the time period in which his work was conducted. That is, in the 1970s,<br />
Dhrupad was not nearly as popular or visible (in the conext <strong>of</strong> public performances) as it<br />
is today; although, as Widdess (1994) explains, the lowest ebb for Dhrupad in these terms<br />
was around 1950. As Widdess writes, public Dhrupad festivals (which are the main<br />
focus <strong>of</strong> his article) were initiated in the 1970s to serve as a new context for Dhrupad,<br />
primarily “because the previous context for dhrupad performance – the palaces and<br />
temples <strong>of</strong> Hindu and Sikh provincial rulers and religious authorities during the 19 th and<br />
early 20 th centuries – had effectively ceased to function in that capacity <strong>by</strong> 1950”(91).<br />
However, considering that Neuman states <strong>of</strong> the Dhrupad performers at the time, “[t]hose<br />
who perform it today see themselves <strong>of</strong> the last <strong>of</strong> their kind” (1990:118), it is tempting<br />
50<br />
Saiduddin Dagar and Uday Bhawalkar are two notable Dhrupad singers who live and regularly perform<br />
in Pune.<br />
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to think that, if he was aware <strong>of</strong> these developments in terms <strong>of</strong> shifting Dhrupad to new<br />
performance contexts, he did not consider them particularly important, or at least did not<br />
see the potential for growth, which, in retrospect, we can now see was always there. He<br />
does, though, reference the Dagar family, easily the most well-known lineage <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad<br />
musicians in the period spanning from the early twentieth century to the present and<br />
grants them the status <strong>of</strong> a khaandaan, or recognized lineage <strong>of</strong> classical musicians. So,<br />
while he does not use the phrase “Dagar gharana,” he seems to be more or less<br />
recognizing that that lineage meets the prerequisites <strong>of</strong> being a gharana. 51 However, in<br />
examining Widdess and Sanyal’s recent work (2004) on the subject, we find that the<br />
gharana designation is used for several groups <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad musicians, including the<br />
Dagars. If gharana has not been traditionally used <strong>by</strong> Dhrupad musicians, it is not a<br />
statement about the status <strong>of</strong> the genre, as everyone knowledgeable <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music<br />
knows that Dhrupad is indeed the most classical and prestigious, if not the most popular,<br />
form <strong>of</strong> North Indian classical music. It is more likely that it simply has not (or, again,<br />
had not, <strong>by</strong> the time Neuman’s research was conducted) become customary as yet to<br />
associate gharana with Dhrupad.<br />
One last factor concerning Dhrupad which is notable in this context and which<br />
perhaps explains why gharana has not been connected with Dhrupad more frequently is<br />
the existence <strong>of</strong> a concept very similar to gharana, but not identical, baanii. Baanii, like<br />
gharana, is a style or stylistic school. Unlike gharana, though, each baanii is not<br />
coterminous with one lineage <strong>of</strong> musicians and their disciples. As Neuman writes,<br />
51 Neuman does reference the Vishnupur gharana, one which was founded <strong>by</strong> Dhrupad singers, but is now<br />
made up Khyal singers and instrumentalists.<br />
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“Dhrupadiyas [Dhrupad singers] and binkars [instrumentalists who perform Dhrupad on<br />
the biin, or stick zither] are identified with one <strong>of</strong> four traditional dhrupad styles (bani),<br />
known as dagarbani, khandarbani, nauharbani, and gaudharbani. <strong>The</strong>y are thought to<br />
be the precursors <strong>of</strong> gharana styles, and the ancestors <strong>of</strong> today’s khandani musicians are<br />
said to have been specialists in at least one <strong>of</strong> them”(1990:119). So, to <strong>of</strong>fer another<br />
answer to the above question <strong>of</strong> why the term gharana is not <strong>of</strong>ten used in reference to<br />
Dhrupad musicians, one can ascertain that it is because baanii is seen <strong>by</strong> many as the<br />
predecessor to gharana (as Neuman notes), and as such might be thought <strong>by</strong> some to be<br />
the Dhrupad equivalent <strong>of</strong> gharana. Another point to be made is that <strong>by</strong> bringing baanii<br />
into the equation, we find that the tradition <strong>of</strong> style categories is a very old one in India<br />
(the baanii-s are said to have originated with the musicians <strong>of</strong> Akbar’s court, thus dating<br />
them back to approximately the 16th century). Gharanas are unique in certain regards,<br />
owing to the time and circumstances under which they came into existence, but it can be<br />
argued that they are also the latest manifestation <strong>of</strong> an older concept. Widdess and<br />
Sanyal confirm this view <strong>by</strong> connecting baanii with giiti, a concept <strong>by</strong> which styles <strong>of</strong><br />
melody were classified in Sanskrit treatises <strong>of</strong> the ninth and thirteenth centuries, i.e. in<br />
Sarngadeva’s Sangiita-ratnaakara. In both cases, the nature <strong>of</strong> the categories are very<br />
similar, as in both cases there is a “primary or ‘pure’(suddha) type and a number <strong>of</strong><br />
variant types, the last <strong>of</strong> which is ‘mixed’”(2004:69).<br />
<strong>The</strong> most concrete connection between baanii-s and gharanas is that singers <strong>of</strong><br />
two <strong>of</strong> the most important Khyal gharanas, Agra and Jaipur/Alladiya Khan (not<br />
coincidentally the two gharanas most <strong>of</strong>ten said to be based on the Dhrupad style, or<br />
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dhrupad ang), claim to cultivate two <strong>of</strong> the banis, Nauhar and Dagar, respectively<br />
(Widdess and Sanyal 2004:65). Also, while the specific content <strong>of</strong> the four baanii-s does<br />
not concern us at this juncture, it is worth mentioning that baanii not only refers to<br />
strictly melodic style, but also to factors such as the choice <strong>of</strong> raga, rhythmic structure,<br />
instrumental and vocal technique, and the dominance <strong>of</strong> a particular ras, or aesthetic<br />
mood (ibid.:61). To give a specific example, then, Widdess and Sanyal describe the<br />
principal characteristics <strong>of</strong> the Khandar baanii, based on the consensus they have derived<br />
from a variety <strong>of</strong> historical sources, thusly:<br />
1. <strong>The</strong> predominant embellishment is gamak.<br />
2. <strong>The</strong> tempo is faster than in the Gaudahar and Dagar banis.<br />
3. <strong>The</strong> aesthetic effect is one <strong>of</strong> vigour, masculinity and the Heroic ethos (vir ras),<br />
to which is sometimes added Wonder (adbhut ras)(ibid.:80).<br />
Thus, as with gharana (and in contradistinction to giiti, which only concerns melodic<br />
style), baanii covers a whole range <strong>of</strong> aesthetic choices. However, I would argue that the<br />
baanii concept is most germane in terms <strong>of</strong> Khyal gharanas when we examine the<br />
differences between baanii and gharana, not their similarities.<br />
Elaborating on the point I mentioned above, that baanii represents style but is not<br />
thought to be the property or inheritance <strong>of</strong> one lineage, Widdess and Sanyal write:<br />
Another term for style is gayaki, from gayak singer. This denotes the particular<br />
vocal style <strong>of</strong> a gharana or <strong>of</strong> an individual singer. Gayaki embraces every aspect<br />
<strong>of</strong> musical presentation, including voice quality. A good disciple can <strong>of</strong>ten create<br />
the impression that his teacher is singing: he has mastered the gayaki <strong>of</strong> that<br />
particular teacher.<br />
<strong>The</strong> term gayaki in this sense is significant to khyal singers because, for them,<br />
gharana is the primary focus <strong>of</strong> musical identity and authenticity: to be an Agra<br />
gharana singer is to present the gayaki <strong>of</strong> that gharana. Thus there is a direct<br />
relationship between gharana and gayaki. In dhrupad, however, the relationship is<br />
less close: however many schools <strong>of</strong> dhrupad there are or were, there have only<br />
ever been four banis, so far as is known. One cannot speak <strong>of</strong> the bani <strong>of</strong> a<br />
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gharana or <strong>of</strong> an individual singer as something unique to that gharana or<br />
individual. <strong>The</strong>re are, or at least there were in the past, other gharanas <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Dagar bani besides that now known as ‘the Dagar gharana’. What is more, while<br />
some gharanas are associated with one particular bani, others have been known to<br />
cultivate two, or even all four. Even today, different members <strong>of</strong> the Mallick<br />
family <strong>of</strong> Darbhanga claim to sing Khandar and Gaudahar banis; the Betiya<br />
gharana was a gharana <strong>of</strong> four banis, and in a recent recording Indra Kishor<br />
Mishra <strong>of</strong> that gharana claims to be singing a combination <strong>of</strong> the Khandar and<br />
Nauhar banis (ibid.:62).<br />
To sum up then, some Dhrupad gharanas sing in more than one baanii style; some, i.e.<br />
the Dagar gharana, identify with one baanii to the extent that they derive their<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional name from it; and sometimes two musicians from the same gharana, that is,<br />
the same lineage, claim to cultivate different baanii-s, or different combinations <strong>of</strong><br />
baanii-s, than other members <strong>of</strong> the same gharana. Beyond this, as Widdess and Sanyal<br />
also note, many musicians and musicologists argue that baanii-s have no contemporary<br />
relevance at all and are only <strong>of</strong> historical significance, owing to a mixing <strong>of</strong> styles which<br />
has blurred their individuality beyond recognition and left us with one universal Dhrupad<br />
style. This dismissal <strong>of</strong> baanii, however, is very much contradicted <strong>by</strong> the musicians<br />
themselves, who attest to its continuing importance. What I would like to argue here,<br />
though, is that although the fundamental difference in the traditional definitions <strong>of</strong><br />
gharana and baanii is that baanii-s lack the identification with one specific lineage <strong>of</strong><br />
musicians, the reality today on the ground is that, over time, gharana is becoming more<br />
and more like baanii. True, the hereditary component <strong>of</strong> the gharana concept as applied<br />
to all classical genres, not only Khyal, remains to at least some extent, particularly in the<br />
realms <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad and instrumental music. However, in the case <strong>of</strong> Khyal itself, where<br />
the concept was created, we can note a resemblance with Widdess and Sanyal’s definition<br />
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<strong>of</strong> baanii in modern Dhrupad. Thus, in Khyal we find singers that have learned from a<br />
gharana stalwart and remain loyal to that style; singers who have trained with a gharana<br />
stalwart but openly incorporate the influences <strong>of</strong> other gharanas and individual<br />
musicians; singers who have not trained with a notable guru but attempt to imitate a well-<br />
known individual singer; and singers who have no ties, real or stylistic, to any gharana at<br />
all. <strong>The</strong> point I would like to stress here, though, is that, while certain lineages <strong>of</strong><br />
musicians feel it important to highlight either the tradition <strong>of</strong> music within their family<br />
or, for non-hereditary musicians, their ties with such a lineage, for the most part, the<br />
archetypical Khyal gharanas (i.e. Gwalior, Agra, Kirana, Jaipur, Patiala), with all the<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> their musical presentation, have become relatively abstract stylistic categories<br />
from which artists can draw as they so choose.<br />
An alternate way <strong>of</strong> looking at Khyal gharanas is to consider them primarily as<br />
lineages, placing less emphasis on their having a distinct style relative to other lineages.<br />
If, as I mentioned, gharanas are stronger in instrumental music and Dhrupad, it is largely<br />
because in these areas, most <strong>of</strong> the well-known gharanas are still represented <strong>by</strong> members<br />
<strong>of</strong> the original family that founded the gharana. So, in instrumental music the Imdad<br />
Khan, Shajahanpur, Gwalior, and Maihar gharanas and in Dhrupad, the Dagar, Betiah,<br />
and Darbhanga gharanas are all represented currently <strong>by</strong> heridary, khaandaanii members.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> the instrumental gharanas this is because even the oldest <strong>of</strong> them is<br />
relatively recent compared to the age <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> the major Khyal gharanas. In the case <strong>of</strong><br />
the surviving Dhrupad lineages, though, credit goes to the various generations <strong>of</strong> Gurus<br />
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cum performers who have managed to train their sons and nephews and, thus, keep the<br />
tradition alive in their family. In Khyal, though, we find that most <strong>of</strong> the major gharanas<br />
are represented <strong>by</strong> singers who are not only not members <strong>of</strong> the founding khaandaan, but<br />
are also mostly Hindus from non-musician families (in caste terms). <strong>The</strong> Gwalior<br />
gharana, the original Khyal gharana and the most important musical tradition in<br />
Maharashtra, notably has no living members <strong>of</strong> the founding khaandaan, much less one<br />
that is a respectable, pr<strong>of</strong>essional level performer. It is not hard to imagine, then, that<br />
these non-hereditary Hindus simply do not have as much invested in “their” gharanas or<br />
any gharana as would a hereditary member. This much is hard to argue.<br />
However, it is not the case simply that Muslims care about gharana and Hindus do<br />
not. Rather, there is a whole range <strong>of</strong> feelings amongst the musicians I interviewed<br />
regarding the importance <strong>of</strong> gharana. For example, Shruti Sadolikar was definitely the<br />
most outspoken advocate <strong>of</strong> remaining loyal to one’s own gharana and style, even while<br />
agreeing with most <strong>of</strong> her colleagues that individual thought and creativity is crucial to a<br />
mature artist. When I asked her about the tendency I had noticed among Marathi Khyal<br />
singers to mix the gaayakii-s <strong>of</strong> various gharanas in order to create a more individualistic<br />
style, she replied thusly:<br />
Unfortunately, there have been people from many different gharanas, even other<br />
gharanas, who have taken the liberty <strong>of</strong> straying into the pastures <strong>of</strong> other<br />
gharanas and tried to imbibe that style <strong>of</strong> singing into their own gharanas, and this<br />
happens with every gharana because people have, you know, creativity, and those<br />
who are blessed with creativity they are taking this liberty, and the artist’s liberty<br />
cannot be denied. <strong>The</strong> only thing is that, uh, I would definitely say, if you are<br />
singing a particular composition from a particular gharana, don’t dilute it. Try to<br />
present it as far as possible as best to the knowledge that you have. I don’t feel<br />
you should feel insulted or you should feel shy <strong>of</strong> admitting that this is my<br />
boundary, this is my limit, and I can’t go beyond it…Because you pr<strong>of</strong>ess to say<br />
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that, you pr<strong>of</strong>ess that, “I have broken the boundaries <strong>of</strong> my gharana and I have<br />
created my own style.” <strong>The</strong>n why do you need the compositions <strong>of</strong> your old<br />
Gurus, that are a hundred and four hundred years old? You can experiment with<br />
your own compostions – go ahead, have your own compositions. But, when you<br />
sing that particular composition from that particular Guru and particular gharana,<br />
you have to adhere to the rules. It’s like you know, in Maharashtra or in India, we<br />
take a big pride in saying that, “yes, I belong to this khaandaan, I am a daughter<br />
<strong>of</strong> Sadolikars.” So what Sadolikars meant in a society, what is the Sadolikar<br />
household known for? I cannot totally break those traditions and say, “yes, I am a<br />
Sadolikar.”(interview, 2005).<br />
So, the persons Shrutiji is taking issue with here are clearly those artists that claim<br />
allegiance to one gharana but then take things from other gharanas without crediting the<br />
source and without respecting the musical integrity <strong>of</strong> compostions, for example. <strong>The</strong><br />
important point, though, is that she feels this loyalty largely because she is the daughter<br />
<strong>of</strong> a father who was a well-known Khyal maestro and famous Marathi stage performer<br />
that not only was a disciple <strong>of</strong> a core gharana but also learned directly from the khaliifaa<br />
<strong>of</strong> that gharana.<br />
Needless to say, though, when I encountered a musician that did not have such an<br />
illustrious family history and/or such a direct link the central musicians <strong>of</strong> their gharana,<br />
they generally had correspondingly less faith in and loyalty to whatever tradition they<br />
might belong to. Further, even though the one-on-one Guru-disciple relationship is as<br />
important as ever in Hindustani music, particularly in terms <strong>of</strong> training future<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional performers, even the loyalty most musicians show to their Guru is perhaps<br />
not what it once was either. Part <strong>of</strong> this, <strong>of</strong> course, is a matter <strong>of</strong> Western-<br />
influenced/modern values that do not place the same emphasis on respect and reverence<br />
for elders, teachers, etc., as is the case in traditional Indian society, especially considering<br />
that much <strong>of</strong> my work was done in Bombay, undoubtedly the most Westernized city in all<br />
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<strong>of</strong> India. <strong>The</strong> other factor <strong>of</strong> import here, however, is the very basic one that most<br />
musicians these days train with several Gurus, <strong>of</strong>ten starting out in an institutionalized<br />
setting, and it is rare that any musician in training in such a context spends more than a<br />
few hours a week with their Guru (the prime exception being the ITC-SRA gurukul in<br />
Calcutta). Keeping this in mind, it would be more surprising if today’s young<br />
performers saw their Gurus as a mother or father figure, as this is not the reality in most<br />
Guru-disciple relationships these days, again if my group <strong>of</strong> interlocutors can at all be<br />
taken as representative. <strong>The</strong>re is a range, I should reiterate, from someone like Shruti<br />
Sadolikar, who is the <strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong> a well-known performer who was a disciple <strong>of</strong> a<br />
prestigious gharana, at one end, to lesser-known musicians who both are not sons or<br />
daughters <strong>of</strong> well-known performers and have learned from multiple Gurus at the other.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the musicians I met in 2005 fall closer to the latter pole or extreme than the<br />
former. This is not to say that any <strong>of</strong> the musicians I interviewed were not respectful to<br />
the tradition, the music, or to their elders and the stalwarts <strong>of</strong> the field. It is more that the<br />
respect they hold is a more general respect for Hindustani music and the great musicians<br />
who have inspired them in some way, rather than a pronounced reverence for their own<br />
Guru or gharana.<br />
For most musicians these days the stylistic path they pursue and the teachers they<br />
learn from are a matter <strong>of</strong> calculated and rational choice. Again, if they have no tradition,<br />
family or otherwise, which they feel they are carrying on in their own music, then they<br />
are fairly free to make use <strong>of</strong> whatever educational resources are available. In Bombay<br />
(and to a lesser extent Pune) such resources are ample, in terms <strong>of</strong> both music institutions<br />
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and knowledgeable Gurus who have had gharana taaliim. Even amateurs and dilettante-<br />
types have access to ‘name’ Gurus in these cities. In Calcutta specifically, there is no<br />
shortage <strong>of</strong> practicing musicians, particularly tabla, sitar, and sarod players, but also<br />
Khyal singers. As I will discuss further below, however, even many <strong>of</strong> the top Khyal<br />
singers in Calcutta have never learned from a gharana-trained Gurus and many singers<br />
perform in (approximately) the style <strong>of</strong> a nationally famous musician rather than the style<br />
that their own Guru follows. For many young musicians in Calcutta, this means that the<br />
style they follow is purely a matter <strong>of</strong> choosing among any <strong>of</strong> the styles <strong>of</strong> any <strong>of</strong> the<br />
musicians they have been exposed to, which is, <strong>of</strong> course, thanks to modern media, a<br />
large pool. <strong>The</strong> downside in that situation, though, is that no one can learn from<br />
recordings what they can learn from a proper Guru. In Bombay and Pune, students have<br />
the opportunity to learn from respected practitioners <strong>of</strong> almost any major Khyal style and<br />
can supplement that with whatever they can learn from the musicians they do not study<br />
with directly. At the same time, though, Calcutta is home to the majority <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
well-respected and successful instrumentalists in India, so aspiring instrumentalists there<br />
have an advantage over their Maharashtrian counterparts, as in Maharashtra, excluding<br />
Bombay, there is hardly a sitar or sarod player <strong>of</strong> note (and even in Bombay they cannot<br />
be said to be plentiful), so aspiring sitarists there have few options when it comes to<br />
receiving proper training. <strong>The</strong> point I would like to make here is not simply that Bengalis<br />
have access to good Gurus in the instrumental realm, so they become instrumentalists,<br />
and Maharashtrians have access to good Khyal Gurus, so they become singers, as many<br />
<strong>of</strong> my interlocutors would have it. This certainly is an important factor, but even beyond<br />
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the access to good Gurus, I feel that Bengalis tend to have a different attitude relative to<br />
their Gurus and the styles their Gurus teach them than do their Marathi counterparts. I<br />
will define these differences in this and the following chapters which deal with gharana<br />
and the classical music scenes in both regions.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first and perhaps most decisive step in determining how and to what extent<br />
musicians <strong>of</strong> today preserve the styles originally cultivated <strong>by</strong> the traditional Khyal<br />
gharanas, as noted above, is to examine both which musicians migrated to Maharashtra<br />
and Bengal from North India and how and to what extent those musicians were able to<br />
spread their music among the non-hereditary Hindu musicians in each <strong>of</strong> those<br />
regions/states. It should be reiterated at the outset that the respective situations in these<br />
two states are not really parallel or even complementary. It is true that, as I will argue, in<br />
many ways these two states are complementary as they have, in a sense, split the heritage<br />
<strong>of</strong> North Indian classical music between the two <strong>of</strong> them (which is not to say that no<br />
classical music remains in North India, I should note). Maharashtrians now dominate<br />
Khyal and Bengalis dominate, even more thoroughly, instrumental music, i.e. in sitar,<br />
sarod, and tabla. While this is a key distinction and one <strong>of</strong> the reasons why I chose to<br />
undertake this project in the first place, it does not adequately describe the actual musical<br />
scene in either place. In Maharashtra there are currently two centers for classical music,<br />
Pune and Bombay, and in West Bengal there is one, Calcutta. In Pune, we find that<br />
Khyal is entirely dominant and that there are tabla players who certainly perform at a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional level but who mainly specialize in accompanying vocal music. Harmonium<br />
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players are also much in demand as accompanists, as there are no performing saarangii<br />
players there. Otherwise there are a handful <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad singers, a recent development,<br />
and a handful <strong>of</strong> sitar players, none <strong>of</strong> all-India repute. 52 In Bombay, we find musicians<br />
representing every major classical music tradition and genre and who are from all parts <strong>of</strong><br />
India, including Bengalis, Maharashtrians, and North Indians, Muslim and Hindu. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
are sitar players, a very few sarod players, many tabla players, and many Khyal singers.<br />
Also, Bombay possesses perhaps India’s largest collection <strong>of</strong> non-traditional<br />
instrumentalists, such as baansurii (bamboo flute) and santuur (hammered dulcimer)<br />
players. 53 Closer examination, though, reveals that the split we see between Bengal and<br />
Maharashtra in terms <strong>of</strong> instrumentalists versus vocalists plays out within Bombay itself.<br />
Almost all <strong>of</strong> the notable instrumentalists in Bombay are from Bengal or North India,<br />
save for some Maharashtrian tabliya-s, and most but not all Khyal singers are<br />
Maharashtrian. In Calcutta, again the only major center <strong>of</strong> classical music in Bengal (and<br />
arguably the only major center in India east <strong>of</strong> Benares), we find a majority <strong>of</strong> the best<br />
sitar players in India, a majority <strong>of</strong> the best tabla players, and almost all the sarod players<br />
<strong>of</strong> repute in India. <strong>The</strong>re are some Dhrupad singers, although most sing a modified,<br />
distinctly Bengali variety <strong>of</strong> the genre, and there are some Khyal singers, albeit only a<br />
handful that have a name or following outside <strong>of</strong> Calcutta.<br />
From this brief synopsis, we can readily see that the only notable areas <strong>of</strong> overlap<br />
between the two states in question are primarily in terms <strong>of</strong> Khyal singers, and<br />
52<br />
Well-known sitarist Shahid Parvez maintains a residence in Pune but is not much involved in the local<br />
music scene there.<br />
53<br />
This is mostly due to the fact bamboo flutist Hariprasad Chaurasia and santoor maestro Shiv Kumar<br />
Sharma live in Bombay.<br />
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secondarily in terms <strong>of</strong> tabla players. At the same time, even in restricting ourselves to<br />
examination <strong>of</strong> the distribution <strong>of</strong> Khyal gharanas, we find two very different cases. This<br />
is due to the rather simple fact that very few gharaanedaar Ustads ever settled<br />
permanently in Calcutta, while most <strong>of</strong> the Ustads <strong>of</strong> Khyal who left North India found<br />
their way to Maharashtra, whether it was to Bombay, Pune, or one <strong>of</strong> the many small<br />
princely states that once dotted the current day border between Maharashtra and<br />
Karnataka states. This fact determined a situation where the Marathi musicians learned<br />
their music directly from gharana musicians, while Bengalis have developed their Khyal<br />
from a combination <strong>of</strong> limited direct learning, much imitation, and more innovation.<br />
Following my examination <strong>of</strong> the diffusion <strong>of</strong> Khyal in each region I will contrast tabla<br />
playing in both states, although we will find much less regional differentiation in this<br />
realm than in Khyal singing. Finally, then, I will examine the traditions <strong>of</strong> string<br />
instrument playing in Bengal. While in the case <strong>of</strong> sitar and sarod, there is no real room<br />
for comparison between Maharashtra and Bengal, it is important to give them due<br />
consideration as they determine so much about the nature <strong>of</strong> classical music in Calcutta<br />
and greater Bengal.<br />
Considering that I have already stated that there is a sizeable community <strong>of</strong><br />
instrumentalists in Bombay, one might question my overlooking this aspect <strong>of</strong> the scene<br />
in Bombay (though I will detail the very brief history <strong>of</strong> instrumental music there in my<br />
chapter in instrumental music). However, as many <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors have stated, and<br />
as my own observations confirm, instrumental music has never really taken root in<br />
Bombay. This means, most importantly, that instrumentalists in Bombay <strong>by</strong> and large<br />
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have yet to found enduring traditions there. Many <strong>of</strong> the musicians I have interviewed<br />
(including a number <strong>of</strong> musicians in Bombay) suggested rather frankly that this<br />
represents a failure on the part <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>essional-level instrumentalists there. Certainly<br />
the inclination and ability to teach is not present in every musician, regardless <strong>of</strong> their<br />
place <strong>of</strong> residence, but beyond this, there are a number <strong>of</strong> factors unique to Bombay that<br />
have contributed to this situation. <strong>The</strong> most important is that since classical musicians,<br />
particularly instrumentalists, in Bombay can find a number <strong>of</strong> outlets for performance<br />
and recording (as Bombay is the home <strong>of</strong> the Indian film and recording industry), it<br />
seems that for many, teaching at all or teaching more than a handful is simply not an<br />
economic imperative. 54 Another is that, while a large number <strong>of</strong> musicians in Pune and<br />
Calcutta are native to those cities or at least have some ties to them - indeed as several<br />
musicians in Calcutta told me, no one would live in Calcutta if it was not their home -<br />
Bombay is a very transitory place where people come and go according to economic<br />
opportunity. At any rate, one exception to all these points is Annapurna Devi, sitarist and<br />
daughter <strong>of</strong> Baba Allaudin Khan, the fountainhead <strong>of</strong> the Maihar gharana, who has lived<br />
and taught in Bombay for several decades now and trained a number <strong>of</strong> fine musicians<br />
such as bamboo flautist Hariprasad Chaurasia.<br />
54 By contrast, there are many who derive most or all their income from teaching.<br />
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3. Khyal in Maharashtra<br />
Considering that Maharashtra was a much greater beneficiary in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
inheriting gharaanedaar musicians from North India than was Bengal, I will start <strong>by</strong><br />
detailing Maharashtra’s side <strong>of</strong> the story first. <strong>The</strong> history <strong>of</strong> modern classical music in<br />
Maharashtra properly begins in the mid 19th century when a handful <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian<br />
Hindus, mostly Brahmans, began, first, to travel to Gwalior to study the Khyal gayaki <strong>of</strong><br />
the gharana named after that important (particularly in music historical terms) princely<br />
state and then later propagated the Gwalior tradition both in Gwalior and back home in<br />
Maharashtra. <strong>The</strong>re are two primary reasons for this phenomenon <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian<br />
Brahmans traveling so far from their homeland to learn a Muslim dominated genre from<br />
Muslim Ustads. <strong>The</strong> first is that in 1726 Gwalior, which previously had been ruled <strong>by</strong> the<br />
Tomar Rajputs, important patrons <strong>of</strong> the Dhrupad genre, came under the control <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Scindias, a Maratha dynasty. 55 While none <strong>of</strong> the available sources states this explicitly,<br />
it seems likely that Maharashtrians desirous <strong>of</strong> learning classical music felt more<br />
welcome and more at home there than in the princely states <strong>of</strong> North India, which were<br />
ruled <strong>by</strong> Muslim kings and princes or even <strong>by</strong> non-Marathi Hindus. <strong>The</strong> second reason is<br />
that, although again, we cannot be sure <strong>of</strong> specific details, it is clear that Haddu and<br />
Hassu Khan, founders <strong>of</strong> the Gwalior gharana, while Muslim themselves, felt a special<br />
affinity for these Marathi Hindus and trained a number <strong>of</strong> them as their disciples. As<br />
G.H. Ranade writes, “[w]e are told that the famous brothers, Haddukhan and Hassukhan<br />
<strong>of</strong> Gwalior, used to be proud <strong>of</strong> their Maharashtrian disciples for their unstinted loyalty<br />
55 Scindia is an altered version <strong>of</strong> the Maratha surname Shinde.<br />
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and veneration for their ‘Guru’ the Ustad, whom they revered even more than their<br />
parents. It became an unwritten rule with them to teach music preferably to Hindus and<br />
to Maharashtrian Brahmins in particular”(1967:34).<br />
This early dominance <strong>by</strong> Brahmans in terms <strong>of</strong> being the first Maharashtrians to<br />
learn Khyal is an interesting aspect <strong>of</strong> the story at this point, and I asked most <strong>of</strong> my<br />
Maharashtrian interlocutors why they felt that Brahmans had been and continue to be so<br />
pervasive in classical music in that region. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> musicians I queried along<br />
these lines objected to my introducing caste into the equation in the first place, and I was<br />
not surprised, considering that most musicians do not believe that caste or religious<br />
community is <strong>of</strong> any importance in becoming a musician (as noted above). Not all<br />
reacted as strongly as Anish Pradhan to this line <strong>of</strong> questioning (see chapter 1), but most<br />
saw it as a non-factor. One who did see some significance to the role <strong>of</strong> Brahmans in<br />
popularizing Khyal in Maharashtra was aforementioned Smt. Shruti Sadolikar-Katkar<br />
(SS), daughter <strong>of</strong> Jaipur vocalist Vamanrao Sadolikar and (at the time <strong>of</strong> my research)<br />
faculty member at ITC Sangeet Research Academy in Calcutta. SS, echoing G.H.<br />
Ranade’s sentiments, felt that Maharashtrian Brahmans had been successful in learning<br />
classical music from Muslim Ustads primarily due to their unstinting devotion to their<br />
Guru, even if that Guru was a Muslim, and their willingness to suffer hardships in the<br />
process. Along these lines she related an anecdote to me about her father’s desire to learn<br />
a composition from a sarangi player in Jalgaon, MH.<br />
Once or twice I have heard references about being Brahman. My father wanted…<br />
when he was in Yashwant NaaTak ManDalii [a well-known music-drama<br />
company], the owner <strong>of</strong> the naaTak company used to patronize the local artists.<br />
He had one saarangiya brought to the place where they were putting up, and this<br />
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saarangiya started playing a particular composition in raag Bhimpalaasi and he<br />
started singing it. Once he sang the asthaaii [1 st line <strong>of</strong> a composition], the<br />
second time he was singing and looking up, and he saw my father’s lips moving.<br />
So he knew that my father was trying to pick up the asthaaii. He put the gaj<br />
[bow] down, and he said, “Abhii meraa man nahi lag rahaa hai [I am not<br />
remembering it right now]. I will sing it some other time.” My father asked for<br />
his address. My father went the next day to him. <strong>The</strong>y were in Jalgaon, in the<br />
month <strong>of</strong> May, and Jalgaon is a very, very hot place in the month <strong>of</strong> May. My<br />
father was the hero <strong>of</strong> the NaaTak company. He used to have at least 3-4 shows a<br />
week, and he had to go for his make-up and all from 6:30, 7:00 onwards because<br />
the show used to start from 9:00. My father went to this old saarangiya who was<br />
staying very far away from the main Jalgaon city. He used to live with a<br />
courtesan, and he used to play saarangii there. He was sitting with a rope cot,<br />
wooden cot, and a neem tree, and my father would sit just waiting for him to open<br />
his mouth and sing the antaraa. <strong>The</strong> first time my father went to him he asked<br />
him, “Kyaa chhaahiye?[What do you want?]” My father said, “Aap nahi antaraa<br />
gaayaa. Astaai mujhe bahut achchaa lag rahaa hai. Aap anataraa ek baar gaa<br />
diijiye. [You didn’t sing the second line <strong>of</strong> the composition. I liked the first part<br />
very much – please sing the antaraa one time.] ” He said, “Ah, mujhe pataa thaa<br />
[I know what happened]. I saw you picking up my ashtaaii. I knew you have got<br />
it. Antaraa nahi mil gayaa [You didn’t get the antara].” My father said, “Aap jo<br />
bolo [please tell me], I will do every sevaa [service] that you want. I won’t be<br />
able to give too much <strong>of</strong> money, but I will do any kind <strong>of</strong> sevaa that you want me<br />
to.” “Hukkaa bhar kelaa [Fill my hookah].” At 12:00 in the afternoon he would<br />
make him go to the city, and bring back the hookah full <strong>of</strong> the coals. [SS makes a<br />
puffing sound, as if blowing on lit coals] My father would come doing this all the<br />
way to the place where he was living, in the heat. My father did it for the whole<br />
month, for about 28-29 days my father did that. And this man would keep him<br />
sitting in the sun, he wouldn’t even <strong>of</strong>fer him a glass <strong>of</strong> water. My father being a<br />
Brahman, he never asked him. My father said, “I am not here for a glass <strong>of</strong> water<br />
- I am there only for the antaraa, give me the antaraa.” And my father would sit<br />
there, in the evening he would have his eyes totally red because <strong>of</strong> the heat, and<br />
he had to go sometimes, to go and perform on the stage. And behind his back,<br />
people were talking about him being, going to the prostitutes’ area and sitting<br />
there and spending his whole day there. And they started writing to my<br />
grandfather, “Your son is being seen in the prostitutes’ area.” <strong>The</strong>y did all the<br />
back-biting, but my father never gave up. <strong>The</strong> day my father…one day my father<br />
went to get the hookah, and his fingers had burnt and he was bleeding. That old<br />
man opened his eyes and saw my father’s dhoti was red with blood. “Kyaa ho<br />
gayaa [What happened]?” He [Vamanrao Sadolikar] said, “Jal gayaa [they’re<br />
burnt].”…“You’re a Brahman; you will not leave me unless I give you the<br />
antaraa. And if I don’t give you the antaraa now, Allah will punish me, I have to<br />
give it to you.”(interview, 2005)<br />
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Another way to express this idea, though in less colorful terms perhaps than in this<br />
anecdote about Vamanrao Sadolikar, is that, as opposed to Marathas (again, we are<br />
limiting the discussion here to Maharashtra) who were primarily agriculturists and<br />
soldiers, Brahmans were long accustomed to learning in the guru-disciple tradition, with<br />
its intellectual rigor and extended period <strong>of</strong> student-hood, and although there were<br />
important differences between learning Sanskrit and learning classical vocal music in that<br />
period, Brahmans would have had a real advantage in these terms over other caste<br />
groups. Of course, traditionally Chitpaavan/KonkaNastha (coastal) Brahmans such as<br />
Bhatkhande were not priests or scholars as their primary occupation, 56 but they also were<br />
habituated to working in intellectual fields. Considering, then, that learning under<br />
traditional Ustads was notoriously difficult, Haddu and Hassu Khan must have<br />
appreciated the persistence, patience, and stamina <strong>of</strong> their Marathi Brahman disciples.<br />
Mukherjee (2006) states rather straightforwardly both that Haddu Khan preferred<br />
Brahmans as disciples because “they were supposed to be brighter than members <strong>of</strong> other<br />
castes” and favored Hindus to Muslim students (Muslims from outside Haddu and<br />
Hassu’s khaandaan) generally because, in Haddu’s view, Muslims tended to be disloyal<br />
to their Guru/Ustad, crediting their knowledge and ability once they had attained success<br />
to their fathers or uncles, i.e. to their own family and lineage (71-72). It might be too<br />
much to speculate that either Haddu or Hassu ever anticipated that Hindus would be the<br />
future <strong>of</strong> their tradition (and classical music generally), but their willingness to teach<br />
56 KonkaNastha Brahmans (also called ‘Chitpaavan’) are associated with the KoNkan coastal belt <strong>of</strong><br />
Maharashtra, while Deshastha Brahmans, the other primary Brahman sub-caste in the region, are native to<br />
the desh, or Deccan Plateau.<br />
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Hindus has proven to have been fortuitous in terms <strong>of</strong> spreading the Gwalior gaayakii<br />
more widely than that <strong>of</strong> any other gharana. Bayly (1999) notes that in the Maratha-ruled<br />
princely states, which included Gwalior and a number <strong>of</strong> other important centers outside<br />
<strong>of</strong> Maharashtra like Baroda and Indore, Brahmans were generally accorded a great deal<br />
<strong>of</strong> respect and were <strong>of</strong>ten even employed in key administrative and political positions,<br />
certainly more <strong>of</strong>ten than in any Muslim-ruled princely state. Although this would not<br />
explain why Haddu-Hassu Khan taught so many more Hindu students than their average<br />
contemporary, it might help to explain why they preferred Brahmans over other Hindu<br />
castes.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are essentially two branches <strong>of</strong> the Gwalior Khyal tradition, and as Wade<br />
among others points out, these can be distinguished as the lines <strong>of</strong> Haddu Khan and his<br />
disciples and, on the other side, that <strong>of</strong> Hassu Khan. Further, although owing to his<br />
relative early death, Hassu Khan himself taught fewer students, his line has turned out to<br />
be both larger and more important specifically in the Maharashtra region, thanks largely<br />
to Balkrishnabua and his disciple V.D. Paluskar. <strong>The</strong> Haddu Khan tradition, on the other<br />
hand, has primarily been propagated <strong>by</strong> a family <strong>of</strong> ethnic Maharashtrian Brahmans<br />
(ethnic in the sense that the family has been residing outside Maharashtra since before the<br />
time they became involved with the Gwalior tradition) with the surname Pandit. In<br />
musical terms this line begins with Natthe Khan, the ‘cousin brother’ <strong>of</strong> Nathan Pir<br />
Baksh, Haddu and Hassu’s father. As Wade explains, owing to political intrigue in the<br />
Lucknow court where Nathan Pir Baksh had previously resided, he and his sons shifted to<br />
Gwalior, likely because Natthe Khan was their relative and encouraged their move,<br />
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although neither the relationship between Nathan Pir Baksh and Natthe Khan nor why<br />
Nathan Pir Baksh chose Gwalior as a new home can be definitively proven (Wade<br />
1984:40). <strong>The</strong> link between Natthe Khan and the Pandit family comes through Natthe<br />
Khan’s son Nissar Hussain, who received training both from his father and from Haddu<br />
Khan. Nissar Hussain succeeded Natthe Khan as court musician in the Scindia court, but<br />
when Jayajji Rao Scindia died in 1886, Nissar Hussain was out <strong>of</strong> a job, as the successor<br />
as ruler Madhava Rao was “too young to rule and all patronage was suspended”(ibid.:48).<br />
Nissar Hussain then ended up living (still in Gwalior) with the aforementioned Pandit<br />
family, the patriarch <strong>of</strong> which, Vishnu Pandit, was a kiirtan [devotional song] singer and<br />
a friend <strong>of</strong> Haddu, Hassu, and Natthe Khan. Two <strong>of</strong> Vishnu Pandit’s sons, Eknath and<br />
Shankarrao then subsequently studied classical singing with Nissar Hussain. This<br />
tradition has been further propagated <strong>by</strong> Shankarao’s son Krishnarao, Shankarrao’s<br />
disciple Rajabhaiyya Poochwale (who was born in Satara in southern Maharashtra but<br />
settled in North India), and then in the next generation <strong>by</strong> Krishnarao’s son Lakshman<br />
Krishnarao and today L.K. Pandit’s daughter Meera. For the most part, I will leave this<br />
line here because, although they have Maharashtrian roots, these musicians properly<br />
belong to North India. <strong>The</strong>re are two exceptions to this: first, the important singer<br />
Ramkrishnabua Vaze (d.1945), a native Maharashtrian disciple <strong>of</strong> Shankarrao Pandit, and<br />
Neela Bhagwat, my aforementioned interlocutor who learned her music from<br />
Sharatchandra Arolkar, a disciple <strong>of</strong> Krishnarao Pandit (Neela Bhagwat:interview, 2005).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Hassu line, as Wade refers to it, has been popularized <strong>by</strong> Vishnu<br />
Digambar’s efforts to reform and spread classical music through the medium <strong>of</strong> his music<br />
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institutions, to the extent that musicians generally refer to it as the ‘Paluskar line’ (as<br />
opposed to the ‘other line,’ the Pandit line). Balkrishnabua <strong>of</strong>ten is seen as the starting<br />
point in the Khyal tradition <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, and rightly so, in the sense that he<br />
popularized the genre in that region and paved the way for the work done <strong>by</strong> his disciple<br />
Paluskar. As Vamanrao Deshpande writes,<br />
Balkrishnabuwa was the doyen <strong>of</strong> musicians and a Khyaliya <strong>of</strong> a high order <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Haddu-Hassu-Khan style. It is to him that we owe the dawn <strong>of</strong> the Khyal era in<br />
Maharashtra. Not that there were no earlier Khyaliyas in Maharashtra. But their<br />
influence was so slight that they can at best be said to have paved the way for<br />
Balkrishnabuwa’s arrival. Effectively, Balkrishnabuwa was the founder and<br />
father <strong>of</strong> that style in this part <strong>of</strong> the country (1972:11).<br />
That being said, it is important that we note some <strong>of</strong> these earlier Marathi Khyal singers,<br />
as they, after all, provide the link between Balkrishnabua and Haddu-Hassu Khan<br />
themselves. <strong>The</strong>re are two Maharashtrian students <strong>of</strong> Hassu that are noteworthy in this<br />
context, and indeed they are the only two disciples <strong>of</strong> Hassu that Wade discusses in her<br />
account. <strong>The</strong> first was Vasudevbua Joshi, a KonkaNastha Brahman from the Bombay<br />
area who traveled <strong>by</strong> foot to Gwalior as a teenager, eventually becoming a student <strong>of</strong><br />
Hassu. As Ranade notes, Vasudevbua settled in Gwalior and served as a Guru for a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> other Maharashtrian students, including Balkrishnabua, who later came there<br />
to learn Khyal (1967:35). <strong>The</strong> second was Ramkrishna Deva Paranjape (a.k.a.<br />
Devjibua), a KonkaNastha Brahman from the Pune area who shifted to Gwalior and<br />
became a student <strong>of</strong> Hassu after having had some initial training in Dhrupad with one<br />
Chintamani Mishra. As with Nissar Hussain, Devjibua left Gwalior after his patron’s<br />
death, although in this case it was Jankojirao Scindia, not Jayajirao, and took up a<br />
position as court musician in another Maratha-ruled princely state, Dhar, in the southern<br />
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part <strong>of</strong> modern day Madhya Pradesh state (Deodhar 1993:7). Both <strong>of</strong> these two were<br />
eventually to serve as Guru for Balkrishnabua.<br />
Balkrishnabua Ichalkaranjikar (henceforth BI) was born in the Kolhapur area <strong>of</strong><br />
southern Maharashtra in 1849. As Wade notes, his father was a good singer, but his<br />
mother disapproved <strong>of</strong> BI’s musical interests (1984:41). His childhood and early<br />
adolescent years were tempestuous, as his mother died when he was five and his father<br />
died when he was fifteen (Deodhar 1993:4). Also, there was a great deal <strong>of</strong> conflict both<br />
between BI and his mother and between him and his uncle, who served as his guardian<br />
for some time while his father was away performing. Both were set on BI becoming a<br />
bhikshuk, a priest who lives on alms begged from local householders, but BI, it seems,<br />
found both the begging and the scriptural study distasteful. BI, then, after receiving an<br />
embarrassing beating in front <strong>of</strong> his friends and others from his uncle for failing to collect<br />
alms from a local wedding, ran away and was eventually reunited with his father. After<br />
two years <strong>of</strong> training in classical singing, however, his father passed. Arrangements were<br />
made <strong>by</strong> the Raja <strong>of</strong> Jat for BI to learn from Alidat (or Ali Datta) Khan, and then after<br />
leaving Jat, a high ranking <strong>of</strong>ficial in Kolhapur made similar arrangements for BI to learn<br />
there with a famous singer <strong>of</strong> the time, Bhaurao Khagwadkar. In both cases, BI’s<br />
relationship with his would-be Guru soured quickly, and he learned little from either one.<br />
After a short stint in a theatrical company, BI met one <strong>of</strong> his father’s old friends in<br />
Bombay who helped him to go ahead with plans to proceed to Dhar to learn with<br />
Devjibua, although he first had to dodge an attempt <strong>by</strong> his uncle to compel him to marry<br />
a girl back in his home village. Eventually, though, BI made it to Dhar and began his<br />
130
period <strong>of</strong> discipleship under Devjibua. By all accounts, Devjibua was fond <strong>of</strong> BI and<br />
taught him openly for four years (Deshpande 1972:12). However, this relationship also<br />
became problematic, as Devjibua’s wife apparently was not as fond <strong>of</strong> BI as her husband<br />
was. As Deodhar explains, BI’s guru’s wife intensely disliked him, and one day she<br />
threatened to burn their house down if Devjibua did not turn the boy out. 57<br />
“Consequently, Devjibuwa had no alternative but to give his blessings to Balkrishnabua<br />
and ask him to leave the house” (Deodhar 1993:7).<br />
Although BI had learned much in Dhar, his training was not complete. Neither,<br />
though, were his troubles in finding a Guru who would teach him. He resolved to go to<br />
Gwalior and learn from Vasudevbua Joshi, and he did make it there in due time.<br />
However, Joshibua refused to teach BI, apparently because there was some sort <strong>of</strong> rivalry<br />
or lingering bad blood between Devjibua and Joshibua, the two disciples <strong>of</strong> Hassu Khan.<br />
As with the instances I noted in the story <strong>of</strong> Vishnu Digambar, BI’s story at this point<br />
takes a mythic turn. Both Deshpande and Deodhar state that, in his despondence over<br />
being rejected <strong>by</strong> Joshibua, BI began a 28 day period <strong>of</strong> fasting and meditation where he<br />
subsisted only on leaves and/or bel fruit. At the end <strong>of</strong> this period, BI was visited <strong>by</strong> a<br />
goddess in a dream who advised him to make another attempt at becoming Joshibua’s<br />
disciple. According to Deodhar, the goddess advised him to travel to Benares to meet<br />
with Joshibua there. He did just that, and won Joshibua’s favor <strong>by</strong> performing some<br />
sevaa for his future guru, specifically preparing his buuTii, a mixture <strong>of</strong> cannabis and<br />
other substances which Joshibua regularly consumed (Deodhar 1993:10). When Joshibua<br />
57 Wade (1984) curiously omits this detail in her account.<br />
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left to return to Gwalior, BI accompanied him, and embarked on an arduous course <strong>of</strong><br />
training that would prepare him to become the singer many regard as the most important<br />
in the early history <strong>of</strong> Khyal in Maharashtra.<br />
I should note here that I have delved into greater detail in discussing BI’s musical<br />
training than in the case <strong>of</strong> some other musicians I mention above or below for a very<br />
specific reason. Balkrishna is, <strong>of</strong> course, a crucial figure and merits extended discussion.<br />
More than this, however, I feel it is important to emphasize the troubles BI had in<br />
learning music and becoming a musician because to a large degree they disprove a<br />
common sense notion that many people have in Maharashtra regarding the early history<br />
<strong>of</strong> classical music (i.e. Khyal singing) in that region. Many seem to believe that at a<br />
certain point in the 19th century, Maharashtrians began traveling north to learn Khyal<br />
from Muslim gharaanedaar singers, and succeeded <strong>by</strong>, in effect, wresting the music from<br />
the hands <strong>of</strong> the orthodox, intransigent, and perhaps even illiterate and/or drug addicted<br />
Ustads through their (the Maharashtrians’) incredible perseverance and hard work.<br />
Again, there is some truth to this. What I would like to point out, though, is that as BI’s<br />
story proves, the Hindu musicians <strong>of</strong> this time shared most <strong>of</strong> the flaws attributed to<br />
Muslim musicians <strong>of</strong> the day to a greater or lesser extent. BI learned, or attempted to<br />
learn, from only one Muslim singer, Alidat Khan; all his other Gurus were Hindu. We<br />
can see, though, that these Hindus were every bit as difficult and temperamental as ‘old-<br />
school’ Muslim musicians are thought to have been. After all, Bhaurao Khagwadkar<br />
dismissed BI simply for failing to complete a household chore properly, and Joshibua<br />
rejected him (at first) due to some grudge he held against BI’s previous Guru, Devjibua.<br />
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Joshibua also was a regular user <strong>of</strong> cannabis (as BI would himself later become). In other<br />
words, Hindu musicians were clearly as narrow-minded and prejudiced as their Muslim<br />
counterparts at this point in history. It is clearly not true, as some would have it, that the<br />
pioneers <strong>of</strong> Khyal in Maharashtra struggled to learn their music but then subsequently<br />
were all uniformly open-minded and totally magnanimous with their disciples <strong>by</strong><br />
comparison to their own Ustads. One <strong>of</strong> the most dominant traits shared <strong>by</strong><br />
Maharashtrian musicians (and Maharashtrians generally) is their reverence for tradition,<br />
and certainly the early Maharashtrian khyaaliya-s preserved their Gurus’ and Ustads’<br />
vices and prejudices as much as they preserved the music they learned from them.<br />
Although Vishnu Digambar was to make some decisive breaks with this traditionalism, it<br />
continued well into the 20th century.<br />
To finish with Balkrishnabua’s story, after taking a year <strong>of</strong> taaliim (training) from<br />
Haddu Khan’s son Mohammed Khan (though not as an <strong>of</strong>ficial disciple) and Joshibua’s<br />
subsequent death, BI returned to Maharashtra to stay, and settled first in Bombay. His<br />
stay there was short but eventful. BI took on a number <strong>of</strong> famous personages there as<br />
students including Orientalist R.G. Bhandarkar and K.T. Telang, justice <strong>of</strong> the Bombay<br />
high court. Also during this time he founded a monthly music publication entitled<br />
Sangiit DarpaN jointly with sitarist VR Kale (Deodhar 1993:15). In accounts <strong>of</strong> Vishnu<br />
Digambar’s life, BI is portrayed as generally old-fashioned and orthodox, but we can see<br />
that in many ways BI’s work foreshadowed that <strong>of</strong> his famous disciple. As Deshpande<br />
writes, “…everything that Pandit Vishnu Digambar did on a big scale later can be traced<br />
to the inspiration he got from the modest beginnings made <strong>by</strong> this great savant…”<br />
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(1973:14). BI left Bombay because <strong>of</strong> the asthma he had contracted earlier on a visit to<br />
Nepal. He first went to Aundh to sing in the darbaar, but his asthma grew worse there.<br />
So, he then finally settled in his home region <strong>of</strong> southern Maharashtra in Ichalkaranji. He<br />
stayed for some thirty years and trained most <strong>of</strong> his well-known disciples during that<br />
period. Besides V.D. Paluskar, some <strong>of</strong> BI’s notable disciples were Anant Manohar Joshi<br />
(Antubuwa), Neelkanthbuwa Jangam (Shenaiyya), Vamanbua Chaphekar, and Yashwant<br />
Mirashi Buwa. Antubuwa was, among other things, an early Guru <strong>of</strong> Jaipur gharana<br />
stalwart Mallikarjun Mansur. Pandit Mirashibua was to serve as Guru to the veteran<br />
singer Yashwantbua Joshi <strong>of</strong> Bombay, a musician I interviewed for this project and one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Gurus <strong>of</strong> my vocal teacher in Bombay, Dr. Ram Deshpande. Deodhar notes that,<br />
according to Antubuwa, BI had had as many as 15-20 disciples living in his household at<br />
one time living free <strong>of</strong> charge (though they did have to take care <strong>of</strong> household duties, in<br />
the traditional arrangement) during his own period <strong>of</strong> discipleship, so it is clear that BI<br />
taught many more students than just these aforementioned maestros (1993:16). In terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> later Gwalior singers in Maharashtra, things are a bit less clear, largely because the<br />
primary available sources on the subject, i.e. Wade (1984), Deodhar (published in 1993,<br />
but mostly written much earlier) and Deshpande (1973), are now at least 20 years old.<br />
Certainly, it is well-known that Vishnu Digambar trained a number <strong>of</strong> talented, respected,<br />
and well-known disciples including Narayanrao Vyas, Vinayakrao Patwardhan,<br />
Omkarnath Thakur, and his son D.V. Paluskar. Beyond this generation the numbers are<br />
fewer, but there do remain notable singers <strong>of</strong> this style in Maharashtra today, although<br />
most do not sing in the pure Gwalior style (which is true <strong>of</strong> the singers <strong>of</strong> nearly every<br />
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Khyal gharana). Besides Yashwantbua Joshi, there are two other very notable stalwarts<br />
performing today, Ulhas Kashalkar (who now teaches at ITC-Sangeet Research Academy<br />
in Calcutta, but started his career in Bombay and hails originally from Nagpur) and<br />
Veena Sahasrabuddhe, both <strong>of</strong> whom trained at some point with the late Gajananbua<br />
Joshi, a disciple <strong>of</strong> both Ramkrishnabua Vaze and his father Pandit Antubuwa and an<br />
underrated figure notable as a singer and violinist who developed his own brand <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Gwalior gayaki which mixes that style with elements <strong>of</strong> the Jaipur and Agra styles. It is<br />
also worth noting that Veena Sahasrabuddhe’s father, Shankarrao Bodas, was himself a<br />
disciple <strong>of</strong> Vishnu Digambar (Veena Sahasrabuddhe:interview, 2005).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Gwalior gharana can in a very real sense be labeled the style <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra<br />
because it was that style that penetrated all parts <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra and northern Karnataka<br />
the earliest and most pr<strong>of</strong>oundly <strong>of</strong> all. One can quibble about the number <strong>of</strong> truly great<br />
figures that have sung in this style in the past 50 years, as there are not as many as there<br />
are performers who sing in the Kirana, Jaipur, or Agra styles, or even as there are<br />
individualistic, essentially non-gharana figures (like Kumar Gandharva) or singers <strong>of</strong><br />
smaller gharanas (like Pandit Jasraj <strong>of</strong> the otherwise obscure Mewati gharana). However,<br />
the Gwalior style is, in fact, the foundation <strong>of</strong> Khyal in Maharashtra, again thanks to<br />
Vishnu Digambar’s Gandharva Mahavidyalayas. <strong>The</strong> most common pattern in the<br />
Maharashtra region is that, at least for artists who are not the son or daughter <strong>of</strong> a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional musician, aspiring singers most <strong>of</strong>ten learn with a local, possibly amateur<br />
Guru who sings in the Gwalior style (and is perhaps even a Gandharva Mahavidyalaya<br />
graduate) to begin their training. <strong>The</strong>n when that aspiring singer reaches a certain point<br />
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<strong>of</strong> maturation, i.e. when they decide they want to be a pr<strong>of</strong>essional or at least proceed to<br />
learn at a higher level, they move on to learn with a more notable Guru who very <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
sings in the Jaipur, Kirana, or Agra styles. This results in a certain mixing <strong>of</strong> styles<br />
which has been a common phenomenon in Maharashtra for quite some time now. This<br />
applies specifically to the “rank and file” or middle-tier musician, who might be a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional <strong>of</strong> regional or local fame or an amateur who performs regularly. However,<br />
even in the case <strong>of</strong> the greats who are not Gwalior singers as such, we find that many<br />
started out with Gurus who sang in the Gwalior style, leaving a lasting imprint on their<br />
music. A short list <strong>of</strong> such musicians would include heavyweights like Mallikarjun<br />
Mansur (Jaipur), Bhimsen Joshi (Kirana), Kumar Gandharva, and Vasantrao Deshpande.<br />
I will discuss the different gharana styles below, but it is worth noting here that Gwalior<br />
is the first and original gharana, with all the other major gharanas being essentially<br />
<strong>of</strong>fshoots <strong>of</strong> the Gwalior tradition. It is also, at least theoretically, the most complete<br />
style in the sense <strong>of</strong> emphasizing each portion <strong>of</strong> a raga performance equally. This is not<br />
an inarguable statement as the late Kumar Prasad Mukherjee among others has stated that<br />
traditional Gwalior singers have never put much emphasis on aalaap and emphasize the<br />
taan portion in particular, but, regardless, the Gwalior style works quite nicely as<br />
preparation for learning one <strong>of</strong> the other styles which specialize in developing one or<br />
another more specific aspect <strong>of</strong> the music.<br />
To continue, the Gwalior style was one that Maharashtrians learned in North India<br />
and brought back to their homeland. However, after Balkrishnabua prepared the ground,<br />
so to speak, <strong>by</strong> popularizing the Gwalior gaayakii and Khyal generally, a number <strong>of</strong><br />
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gharaanedaar stalwarts themselves shifted to Maharashtra, either to the growing British<br />
presidency capital Bombay or to one <strong>of</strong> the many princely states in or close <strong>by</strong><br />
Maharashtra proper. <strong>The</strong> first gharana to make an appearance in this fashion was the<br />
Agra gharana. Wade notes that Sher Khan <strong>of</strong> the Agra gharana had moved to Bombay to<br />
teach for some time (Wade does not say how long) as early as 1840, and for at least some<br />
<strong>of</strong> these years he was accompanied <strong>by</strong> his young son Nissar Hussain, more commonly<br />
known as Natthan Khan. Sher Khan eventually returned to Agra, but Natthan Khan<br />
would later make Bombay his home base for a longer period (1984:93). Natthan Khan’s<br />
first pr<strong>of</strong>essional assignment was as a court singer in Jaipur, but after 10-12 years there<br />
he again shifted to Bombay. Wade cites Vilayat Hussain Khan in explaining that Natthan<br />
chose Bombay in large part because a particular “female pr<strong>of</strong>essional singer,” Bawali<br />
Bai, both took him as her Ustad and was willing to support him financially. Bawali Bai<br />
was from Goa, and was only one <strong>of</strong> many female musicians from that area who were both<br />
notable artists themselves and sources <strong>of</strong> income for gharaanedaar Ustads who served as<br />
their teachers. Natthan, though, was eventually to move to Mysore to sing in the darbaar<br />
there. <strong>The</strong> Agra artist who was to have the greatest impact in terms <strong>of</strong> teaching<br />
Maharashtrian disciples, though, was Natthan Khan’s son, the aforementioned Vilayat<br />
Hussain Khan. VHK spent his earliest years with his father in Mysore, but moved to<br />
Jaipur after his father’s death. In Jaipur, his musical training started with his great-uncle<br />
Mohammed Baksh, but he learned with a large number <strong>of</strong> other relatives during that time.<br />
It was in 1914, at the age <strong>of</strong> nineteen, that he moved to Bombay. <strong>The</strong>re he earned a<br />
reputation as a generous teacher and “one <strong>of</strong> the most authentic exponents <strong>of</strong> Agra<br />
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gharana”(Wade 1984:99). Among his more notable students were Gajananbua Joshi,<br />
Ram Marathe, a classical vocalist perhaps more well-known as a singer <strong>of</strong> Marathi<br />
NaaTyaa Sangiit (and one <strong>of</strong> Ulhas Kashalkar’s Gurus), Jagannathbua Purohit (Guru to<br />
Yashwantbua Joshi and the late Jitendra Abhisheki), and Mogubai Kurdikar, also from<br />
Goa, who later became a disciple <strong>of</strong> Alladiya Khan.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most famous Agra singer <strong>of</strong> them all was <strong>of</strong> course the great Faiyaz Hussain<br />
Khan, the ‘Aftaab-i-Musiqi,’ or ‘Sun <strong>of</strong> Music.’ Faiyaz toured widely, visiting a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> cities, but he did stay for a number <strong>of</strong> years in Baroda (in the court <strong>of</strong> Maratha king<br />
Sayajirao Gaekwad) and in Bombay for several shorter stints. As Wade notes, he did not<br />
like to teach, and although he did in fact teach many students, there were few notable<br />
Maharashtrian singers who learned from him. <strong>The</strong> most important torchbearer for Faiyaz<br />
Khan’s style in the Maharashtra region was Srikrishna Ratanjankar, who had learned with<br />
Antubuwa <strong>of</strong> the Gwalior gharana and Bhatkhande, among others, before his five years<br />
<strong>of</strong> taaliim with Faiyaz Khan. Ratanjankar spent most <strong>of</strong> his pr<strong>of</strong>essional life in Lucknow<br />
at Bhatkhande’s college, but his continuing ties to the Maharashtra region have come<br />
though his disciples, the late K.G. Ginde and Dinkar Kaikini, both <strong>of</strong> whom have spent<br />
time teaching on the staff <strong>of</strong> the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan in Bombay (Kaikini is still<br />
involved with that institution at present).<br />
While the number <strong>of</strong> more recent Agra vocalists are few in Maharashtra, however,<br />
it should be emphasized the great contribution Faiyaz Khan made simply <strong>by</strong> helping to<br />
popularize classical music in a general way. Dinkar Kaikini, in the interview I conducted<br />
with him in his Bombay home, recounted the attraction he had felt to Faiyaz Khan’s<br />
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music upon first hearing the great maestro perform in Bombay, an attraction which must<br />
have been felt <strong>by</strong> so many other admirers upon first hearing the great Ustad’s music.<br />
Kaikini explained that he had originally thought he would follow Abdul Karim Khan’s<br />
Kirana style, but he changed his mind after hearing both perform in the same concert.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second artist came, was Ustad Faiyaz Khansaheb, and his personality was<br />
very great. He came with black, uh, what do you call?…sherwaani, so many<br />
medals, and fez cap. And his voice was very bass…at the same time there was<br />
tenor also, the quality, timbre. When he started singing…it went inside me. So<br />
then I decided, all I want to sing, I must sing like him. I was… at that time I was<br />
seven years old. So, that was the first impression <strong>of</strong>, you can say, heavy music<br />
(interview, 2005).<br />
It was for this reason that Kaikini went to Chidanand Nagarkar, a young singer at the<br />
time who sang in Faiyaz Khan’s style. Nagarkar subsequnetly directed Kaikini to his<br />
eventual Guru, Ratanjankar. Two other noteworthy Agra style singers, both in Bombay,<br />
are veteran Guru and amateur performer Srikrishna ‘Babanrao’ Haldankar, who studied<br />
with Agra gharanedar Khadim Husssain (who also settled permanently in Bombay after<br />
shifting from Jaipur), and Aarti Anklikar-Tikekar who has learned from Vasant Kulkarni<br />
(<strong>of</strong> Agra and Gwalior gharanas) and from Kishori Amonkar, and currently studies with<br />
Dinkar Kaikini.<br />
More influential in the Maharashtra region than the Agra gharana style have been<br />
the respective gaayakii-s <strong>of</strong> the Kirana and Jaipur gharanas, at least in terms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
numbers <strong>of</strong> noteworthy Maharashtrian followers. In the cases <strong>of</strong> both these gharanas,<br />
the driving musical force <strong>of</strong> each moved from North India to settle in Maharashtra,<br />
eventually within a short distance <strong>of</strong> one another. In the case <strong>of</strong> the Kirana gharana it<br />
was gharana doyen Abdul Karim who moved south; in the case <strong>of</strong> the Jaipur gharana, it<br />
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was founder Alladiya Khan who made Maharashtra his new home. In both cases, Baroda<br />
was their first destination in the region. Abdul Karim, for his part, was born and raised in<br />
Kirana, now in Uttar Pradesh state, and was trained in music <strong>by</strong> his father Kale Khan and<br />
his cousin Nanne Khan (Wade 1984:85). When Abdul Karim was starting his career, he<br />
went on a series <strong>of</strong> tours with his brother Abdul Haque, and the two subsequently ended<br />
up in Baroda, as they had been brought there to teach music to the women <strong>of</strong> the<br />
household. During this stay, the two young Kirana singers were unexpectedly called on<br />
to sing at a concert featuring some <strong>of</strong> the great singers <strong>of</strong> the day. <strong>The</strong>ir performance<br />
earned them some notoriety in musical circles, as well as a better appointment in the<br />
court (ibid.:186). Abdul Karim’s next destination was Bombay, and from there he went<br />
to Miraj, the location <strong>of</strong> the tomb <strong>of</strong> Muslim saint Qwajja Mirasaheb. Although Abdul<br />
Karim would for a few years move between Sholapur, Kolhapur, and a few other cities in<br />
southern Maharashtra, he would more or less permanently settle in Miraj. Abdul Karim<br />
taught his disciples in the traditional fashion with them living in his home, but he also did<br />
much to further the cause <strong>of</strong> institutionalized classical music education. He opened his<br />
first school in 1910 in Belgaum (now in Karnataka), and later shifted it to Pune. A<br />
second branch was then opened in Bombay. This is somewhat speculative, but it seems<br />
logical to think that, as the Kirana style is arguably the second most common style in<br />
Maharashtra historically (it could be most popular today, again arguably), it must have<br />
also benefited from the larger numbers <strong>of</strong> students that could be exposed to the style in<br />
the music school context, as the Gwalior style undoubtedly had.<br />
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As Wade notes, Abdul Karim initially left Baroda for Bombay to be with one <strong>of</strong><br />
his students, Tarabai, who later would become his wife. Two <strong>of</strong> their children, Abdul<br />
Rehman, later known as Suresh Babu Mane (Mane was Tarabai’s maiden name), and<br />
Champutai, known as Hirabai Barodekar, later became famous performers. That these<br />
two were Abdul Karim’s children seems to have been something <strong>of</strong> an open secret in<br />
Maharashtra over the years - neither Deodhar in his article on Abdul Karim nor V.H.<br />
Deshpande in his piece on Suresh Babu (and Deshpande was Suresh Babu’s disciple for a<br />
time, we should note) mention these relationships. At any rate, Suresh Babu went on to<br />
train Manik Verma, among others. Hirabai’s notable students include the aforementioned<br />
Dr. Prabha Atre. Hirabai herself was also trained for five years <strong>by</strong> Abdul Wahid Khan, a<br />
younger cousin <strong>of</strong> Abdul Karim’s, who settled in Lahore, Punjab after a few years in<br />
Bombay. Abdul Wahid was a crucial influence on Amir Khan <strong>of</strong> Indore, who would, in<br />
effect, later spread the Kirana style to Bengal (I say ‘in effect’ because Amir Khan never<br />
formally trained with a Kirana singer). <strong>The</strong> most notable Kirana singers <strong>of</strong> the last fifty<br />
years, though, have been those trained <strong>by</strong> Abdul Karim’s most famous disciple, Rambhau<br />
Kundgolkar, known popularly as Sawai Gandharva. Sawai Gandharva trained Bhimsen<br />
Joshi, Gangubai Hangal (both from Karnataka like their Guru), and the Parsi singer Firoz<br />
Dastur. Gangubai has subsequently groomed her daughter Krishna as a vocalist and still<br />
lives today in Hubli in northern Karnataka. Bhimsen Joshi, originally from Gadag,<br />
Karnataka, is unquestionably the most famous and influential <strong>of</strong> Kirana vocalists today.<br />
Bhimsenji has not trained any disciples who have made a name for themselves nationally,<br />
but, like Faiyaz Khan, he has been important in terms <strong>of</strong> popularizing classical music<br />
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(although he is perhaps most famous outside classical circles for singing bhajan-s, Hindu<br />
devotional songs) and inspiring young singers to pursue classical music. By my own<br />
observation, Bhimsenji is easily the most influential musician in Pune, his home for over<br />
fifty years, where every singer, regardless <strong>of</strong> their stylistic affiliation or Guru, seems to<br />
have taken something from his style, a statement none <strong>of</strong> my interviewees disagreed with.<br />
This is not, <strong>of</strong> course, to say that he has not inspired imitators and followers in Bombay<br />
and elsewhere, including even in Calcutta, because he certainly has. Bhimsen Joshi has<br />
also has done service to Hindustani music <strong>by</strong> founding the Sawai Gandharva music<br />
festival in Pune, now one <strong>of</strong> the most prestigious music festivals in India, if not one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
largest.<br />
<strong>The</strong> aforementioned Alladiya Khan was the founder <strong>of</strong> the gharana variously<br />
known as the Jaipur gharana (after his family’s home city/region for two generations<br />
before Alladiya was born), the Atrauli gharana (after his family’s ancestral home in Uttar<br />
Pradesh), the Jaipur-Atrauli gharana, or the Alladiya Khan gharana. Of these, the latter is<br />
most appropriate in the sense that, as explained above, Alladiya created a style uniquely<br />
his own which was a departure from the music in which he had been trained in his<br />
youth. 58 Alladiya Khan was born in Uniyara, Rajasthan in 1855 (Deodhar 1993:27). As<br />
with many <strong>of</strong> the other musicians I have discussed, Alladiya’s father was a respected<br />
singer but passed before Alladiya had begun learning music in earnest. Most <strong>of</strong> his<br />
training, then, came with his uncle Jehangir Khan, a musician “equally adept in dhrupad-<br />
dhamar and khyal singing,” according to Deodhar. Alladiya Khan is <strong>of</strong>ten referred to in<br />
58<br />
By my observation, Jaipur is the most frequent designation used <strong>by</strong> musicians and connoisseurs today in<br />
Maharashtra.<br />
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Maharashtrian musical circles as ‘avgaD daas’ (‘servant <strong>of</strong> the difficult’ in Marathi) for<br />
his attraction not only to difficult and complex music, but also for his marathon practice<br />
sessions and his high expectations and standards for his disciples (and perhaps also for<br />
his penchant for politicking, as noted <strong>by</strong> Bhatkhande). This tendency, in large part, must<br />
have been due to the influence <strong>of</strong> his uncle, who, as Deshpande notes in discussing<br />
Alladiya’s family tradition <strong>of</strong> intensive training and practice, “had developed a deformity<br />
in his shoulder through lifelong playing on the tanpura” (1989:65). A key influence<br />
from Alladiya’s early days was the music <strong>of</strong> Mubarak Ali Khan, the son <strong>of</strong> Gwalior<br />
gharanedar Bade Mohammed Khan. Alladiya never learned from Mubarak Ali as a<br />
disciple, 59 but it seems likely that the intricate taan patterns which were to become a<br />
hallmark <strong>of</strong> Alladiya’s music later in life were inspired at least in part <strong>by</strong> those <strong>of</strong><br />
Mubarak Ali. As Deodhar notes, Alladiya frequently discussed Mubarak Ali and his<br />
musical influence throughout his life (1993:28). So, while Alladiya could be <strong>of</strong>fended<br />
when certain individuals (i.e. Bhatkhande) questioned the authenticity <strong>of</strong> his music in<br />
gharana terms, he was equally as likely to publicly acknowledge his heroes, even if they<br />
belonged to a different gharana than his own.<br />
During the early part <strong>of</strong> his career, Alladiya traveled frequently and performed at<br />
locations as distant as Nepal, Calcutta, Patna (in Bihar), and Allahabad, and spent several<br />
stints as a court musician in various locales. <strong>The</strong> turning point in his story, however,<br />
came at age 40 when he was in the service <strong>of</strong> the court <strong>of</strong> Amlata (Wade says Ambetha),<br />
59 As Deodhar (1993:28) notes, Alladiya could not learn from Mubarak Ali due to the objections <strong>of</strong> his<br />
family members, objections likely due to their relatively high social standing based on their legacy as part<br />
<strong>of</strong> a family <strong>of</strong> Brahmans converted to Islam and as a member <strong>of</strong> a lineage <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad singers.<br />
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now in Madhya Pradesh state. <strong>The</strong> Raja <strong>of</strong> Amlata, as all the various accounts <strong>of</strong><br />
Alladiya’s life explain, was very fond <strong>of</strong> music, to the extent that when he brought<br />
Alladiya there, he persuaded him to sing as much as 7-8 hours a day on a regular basis<br />
(Deodhar 1993:30). After two years <strong>of</strong> this grueling routine, Alladiya’s voice gave out.<br />
Initially he had hoped it would return to normal after some rest, but when it did not, he<br />
was forced to rethink his style. <strong>The</strong> result <strong>of</strong> this was the gaayakii he proceeded to make<br />
famous, which mostly employed medium tempos and featured extensive use <strong>of</strong> his<br />
intricate and rhythmically complex taan patterns, in order to de-emphasize the sweetness<br />
and flexibility which his voice had lost. Alladiya’s first move into the Maharashtra<br />
region as a permanent resident was, again, to Baroda. He had planned to stay on there,<br />
but due to the “machinations”(to use Deodhar’s term) <strong>of</strong> another court musician, one<br />
Maula Bux, 60 who clearly did not want Alladiya (or any powerful rival) there, he then<br />
subsequently moved to Bombay. In Bombay he was heard <strong>by</strong> Shahu, the raja <strong>of</strong><br />
Kolhapur, who brought him back there as a court musician. His stay in Kolhapur was to<br />
be longest at any one stop; it lasted, according to Wade, 15 years (1984:165). 61 He spent<br />
his remaining years after Kolhapur back in Bombay.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian disciples, Alladiya trained a number <strong>of</strong> singers who<br />
were to become the finest <strong>of</strong> their respective generations. However, other than Kesarbai<br />
Kerkar, it is unclear which students he taught directly and/or for how long. 62 Kesarbai,<br />
60 Bakhle (2005) portrays Maula Bux as an innovative, politically savvy figure that, with more support,<br />
could have developed a system <strong>of</strong> institutionalized Hindustani music education without the Hindu<br />
nationalist trappings added <strong>by</strong> Paluskar and Bhatkhande.<br />
61 Susheela Mishra, in her undocumented account, says he stayed in Kolhapur for 25 years, 1895-1920, a<br />
figure also given <strong>by</strong> several <strong>of</strong> my informants (1990:69).<br />
62 Wade quotes Kesarbai Kerkar as stating that Alladiya had no other disciples (1984:170-171).<br />
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for her part, was another singer from Goa who trained with Alladiya for some 16 or 17<br />
years, according to Deodhar (1993:33), and she was inarguably Alladiya’s finest protégé<br />
and in the minds <strong>of</strong> many, was one <strong>of</strong> the finest, if not the finest, Khyal singers <strong>of</strong> the<br />
second half <strong>of</strong> the twentieth century. Kesarbai was another musician not fond <strong>of</strong><br />
teaching, however, and never produced a disciple <strong>of</strong> note. Alladiya’s second most well-<br />
known disciple was Moghubai Kurdikar. Even in the case <strong>of</strong> Moghubai, though, there<br />
were rumors that she was not an <strong>of</strong>ficial disciple, a rumor which, as Wade explains,<br />
Alladiya once publicly refuted (1984:180-171). Beyond these two, though, it is difficult<br />
to say who else learned directly from Alladiya. Deodhar lists Seth Gulubhai Jasdanwalla<br />
(Bombay businessman and Guru <strong>of</strong> Jitendra Abhisheki for a time), Shankarrao Sarnaik<br />
(also the owner <strong>of</strong> Yashwant Natak Mandali), and Leela Shirgaonkar as students having<br />
taken lessons from the great Ustad “in his declining years,” and says that Nivruttibua<br />
Sarnaik and Vamarao Sadolikar are others who “also claimed to have received tuition<br />
from Khansaheb”(1993:33). Part <strong>of</strong> the confusion is due to the fact that much <strong>of</strong> the<br />
actual training <strong>of</strong> students in Alladiya’s style <strong>of</strong> music was done <strong>by</strong> his youngest son<br />
Bhurji Khan, a good teacher who had a lackluster voice. This explains why Vamanrao<br />
Sadolikar, for one, has <strong>of</strong>ten been denied the status <strong>of</strong> Alladiya’s disciple in historical<br />
accounts. As his daughter Shruti Sadolikar explained to me, Vamanrao had taken an<br />
interest in learning the Jaipur style after hearing the riyaaz (practice) <strong>of</strong> Shankarrao<br />
Sarnaik. However, becoming a disciple <strong>of</strong> Alladiya proved difficult, as he charged a very<br />
high initial fee for the ganDaa-bandh ceremony (in which a young student became a<br />
master musician’s <strong>of</strong>ficial disciple), and because Alladiya apparently had had trouble<br />
145
with a previous Brahman student and swore <strong>of</strong>f teaching any more <strong>of</strong> them. Vamanrao<br />
then became the disciple <strong>of</strong> Bhurji Khan. After a few years with Bhurji, Vamanrao<br />
learned directly from Alladiya for a period <strong>of</strong> ten years (Shruti Sadolikar-Katkar:<br />
interview, 2005). Govindbua Shaligram <strong>of</strong> Kolhapur would count as one more <strong>of</strong> the<br />
uncertain disciples <strong>of</strong> Alladiya. He would go on to teach his niece Smt. Padmavati<br />
Shaligram-Gokhle (b.1920), 63 who performed regularly until the 1980s when she retired,<br />
but made an appearance that I was fortunate to witness at 2005’s 13th annual ITC<br />
Sangeet Sammelan in Calcutta. Ms. Gokhle continues to sing in a fairly pure version <strong>of</strong><br />
the Jaipur style. She is the beneficiary <strong>of</strong> having learned from Alladiya’s brother Haider<br />
Khan and his nephew Natthan Khan, in addition to the taaliim she received from her<br />
uncle.<br />
Alladiya’s second son, Manji Khan, was also a singer, and a fine one at that.<br />
However, he and his father never saw eye to eye, largely because, as Wade notes, Manji<br />
was a great admirer <strong>of</strong> Rehmat Khan (a.k.a. Bhugandharva) <strong>of</strong> the Gwalior gharana, and<br />
Alladiya did not tolerate the open-mindedness <strong>of</strong> his son in this regard (even though he<br />
himself had been likewise influenced <strong>by</strong> Mubarak Ali from outside <strong>of</strong> his khaandaan)<br />
(Wade 1984:166). Manji taught very little it seems, but one noteworthy student was<br />
Mallikarjun Mansur from the Darwad district <strong>of</strong> northern Karnataka, who also studied<br />
with Bhurji. Mallikarjun Mansur was obscure in terms <strong>of</strong> national fame for much <strong>of</strong> his<br />
life, but went on to become a celebrity later in his later years, primarily because he<br />
remained faithful to the style he had been taught <strong>by</strong> Alladiya’s sons even as the more<br />
63 Soman (2004)<br />
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well-known Kishori Amonkar was incorporating elements <strong>of</strong> other gharanas into the<br />
Jaipur gaayakii she had inherited from her mother. Mallikarjun’s son Rajshekhar now<br />
carries the tradition forward, albeit as an amateur living in Darwad. Other notable singers<br />
<strong>of</strong> later generations are the aforementioned Shruti Sadolikar, Padma Talwalkar (disciple<br />
<strong>of</strong> Moghubai, Nivruttibua Sarnaik, and Gajananbua Joshi), and Ashwini Bhide-<br />
Deshpande, a Bombay native and resident who received her training largely from her<br />
mother, Manik Bhide. It is the Guru <strong>of</strong> Manik Bhide, Kishori Amonkar, however, that<br />
has been the leading exponent <strong>of</strong> the Jaipur style for the last 30 odd years. Indeed, in the<br />
eyes <strong>of</strong> most, Kishori is the finest female Khyal singer post Kesarbai, and, as most <strong>of</strong> my<br />
interlocutors agreed, is the analogue <strong>of</strong> her male counterparts like Bhimsen Joshi, Jasraj,<br />
and Kumar Gandharva in terms <strong>of</strong> being one <strong>of</strong> the most widely emulated female<br />
classical singers in India today.<br />
One more Khyal singer, I feel, merits discussion here, one who also had the<br />
benefit <strong>of</strong> learning with Alladiya Khan. This is the great Bhaskarbua Bhakle, who<br />
besides Balkrishnabua and Vishnu Digambar was perhaps the greatest figure <strong>of</strong><br />
Maharashtrian classical music in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However,<br />
Bhaskarbua is not generally thought <strong>of</strong> as belonging to the Alladiya/Jaipur gharana, nor<br />
to the Gwalior or Agra gharanas, though he also studied with Gurus <strong>of</strong> those two<br />
traditions. For Wade, Bhaskarbua is the earliest <strong>of</strong> the individualistic khyaaliya-s that<br />
“studied gharana styles formally but chose to remain independent <strong>of</strong> association with any<br />
one <strong>of</strong> them”(1984:255). Indeed, Bhaskarbua is one <strong>of</strong> the musicians who likely could<br />
have been looked upon in retrospect as, if not the founder <strong>of</strong> a new gharana, the creator <strong>of</strong><br />
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a new style - if only he had had the followers to carry his unique style forward. As it<br />
happened, though, Bhaskarbua’s most notable students in historical terms were Master<br />
Krishnarao (Krishna Phulambrikar), a singer who sang Khyal but was more famous as a<br />
singer <strong>of</strong> Marathi NaaTyaa Sangiit; Govindrao Tembe, writer/actor/harmonium player;<br />
and Bal Gandharva (Narayan Rajhans), a singer only <strong>of</strong> NaaTyaa Sangiit, albeit the most<br />
revered NaaTyaa Sangiit singer in the history <strong>of</strong> the Marathi stage. Another notable<br />
disciple is Punjabi musician-scholar Dilip Chandra Vedi. Without denying his<br />
importance in a general sense, D.C. Vedi does not concern us here, as his life and<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional career was spent entirely in North India, with his discipleship under<br />
Bhaskarbua being his only real tie to the Maharashtra region. For what it is worth,<br />
though, D.C. Vedi also did not pass down what he learned from Bhaskarbua in the strict<br />
manner in which an orthodox gharana musician would have handed down what they had<br />
learned from their Guru/Ustad. This is perhaps because the most important thing D.C.<br />
Vedi learned from Bhaskarbua was the value <strong>of</strong> open-mindedness. Wade quotes him as<br />
explaining to her in a 1978 interview that “I am not a blind follower <strong>of</strong> any gharana. God<br />
is not purchased <strong>by</strong> anyone. Music cannot be claimed <strong>by</strong> anyone. All artists take from<br />
all, but few admit it” (ibid.:257). At any rate, the only real link between Bhaskarbua and<br />
any <strong>of</strong> today’s notable Maharashtrian performers comes through the late Ram Marathe, a<br />
disciple <strong>of</strong> Master Krishnarao, among others, who taught Ulhas Kashalkar for a time.<br />
Bhaskar Bakhle was born in Kathor in Baroda state in 1869 to a poor Brahman<br />
family (Deodhar 1993:92). His father’s meager salary was not enough to send young<br />
Bhaskar to an English school, so instead he was sent to a Sanskrit paaThshaalaa (school).<br />
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While he did well with Sanskrit, it was noticed <strong>by</strong> his teachers that Bhaskar had a great<br />
fondness and aptitude for music. He was then sent, after some lessons from a haridaas 64<br />
named Pingle, to learn at the music school run <strong>by</strong> Maula Bux <strong>of</strong> the Baroda court. After<br />
six months <strong>of</strong> training there, Bhaskar auditioned for and was accepted <strong>by</strong> the famous<br />
Sangiit NaaTak Company run <strong>by</strong> Annasaheb Kirloskar; he was to play a female character<br />
in the drama that the company was about to begin rehearsing. However, as Deodhar<br />
writes, Bhaskar knew “that when his voice broke [due to the onset <strong>of</strong> puberty] his value<br />
to the company would be next to nothing”(ibid.:93). For this reason, Bhaskar spent much<br />
<strong>of</strong> his time while touring with the Natak company trying to find a proper Guru - learning<br />
classical music remained his ultimate goal. It seems that while performing in Indore,<br />
Bhaskar caught the ear <strong>of</strong> the great biinkaar Bande Ali Khan, and succeeded in having<br />
the Ustad accept him as his disciple. After a few lessons, though, the Kirloskar company<br />
had to leave Indore for its next destination, and Bhaskar’s training was over for the time<br />
being.<br />
<strong>The</strong> turning point in Bhaskarbua’s story came when he was, according to all<br />
accounts, insulted <strong>by</strong> the leading man <strong>of</strong> the company, Sangiit NaaTak legend Bhaurao<br />
Kolhatkar. What exactly Kolhatkar said to Bhaskarbua varies according to different<br />
sources, but all agree that he insulted the boy’s cracking voice. According to Deshpande,<br />
Kolhatkar told Bhaskarbua, “With your broken voice, you are no good to us except for<br />
menial jobs”(1972:23). In Deodhar’s more detailed account, though, Bhaskar had begun<br />
a routine <strong>of</strong> extensive practicing in order to help his voice through its transitional phase,<br />
64 A haridaas is, according to Deodhar, a “person who gives discourses on religious subjects and includes<br />
prose as well as poetry and music”(1993:92n).<br />
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and due to this, Kolhatkar suggested that Bhaskar was shirking his duties with the<br />
company in order to make time to practice, while also insulting his voice (1993:94).<br />
Regardless <strong>of</strong> the details, Bhaskarbua left the company at this time, and set about finding<br />
a Guru. He found one in the person <strong>of</strong> Faiz Mohammed Khan <strong>of</strong> the Gwalior gharana, a<br />
singer employed in the Baroda darbaar. According to Deodhar it was the<br />
aforementioned high court justice <strong>of</strong> Bombay (and student <strong>of</strong> Balkrishnabua) K.T. Telang<br />
who made the arrangements for Bhaskarbua to learn with Faiz Mohammed, and Telang<br />
would again intercede a few months later when on a visit to Faiz Mohammed, he had<br />
discovered that the Ustad had not been teaching (or feeding) the teenaged Bhaskar, whose<br />
time was mostly filled with doing chores in Faiz Mohammed’s home (ibid.:95). After<br />
this intercession, though, Faiz Mohammed began teaching Bhaskar in earnest, and their<br />
relationship lasted eight years, until 1894. Regarding the guru-bhakti (devotion for the<br />
Guru) that Bhaskarbua felt for Faiz Mohammed, Deshpande gives an anecdote in which,<br />
during a lesson, Faiz Mohammed, while chewing paan and tobacco, unexpectedly<br />
coughed out what he had been chewing. As there was no spittoon around, Bhaskarbua<br />
caught the “sputum” in his hands, threw it out the window and “resumed his lesson as if<br />
nothing had happened”(1972:23).<br />
Faiz Mohammed returned the affection that Bhaskarbua felt for him in full<br />
measure, evidenced not only <strong>by</strong> the careful training he provided Bhaskarbua, but also <strong>by</strong><br />
willingly sending Bhaskarbua to another Ustad, one <strong>of</strong> a different gharana no less, when<br />
he felt that he had taught everything he could to Bhaskarbua. This second Guru was<br />
Ustad Natthan Khan <strong>of</strong> Agra gharana, who at the time was employed <strong>by</strong> the Mysore<br />
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darbaar. He heard Bhaskarbua sing a bit when he had come to visit Faiz Mohammed,<br />
and agreed to teach him when Faiz Mohammed suggested it. This period <strong>of</strong><br />
Bhaskarbua’s education lasted six more years, though the time the two spent together was<br />
limited <strong>by</strong> the fact that Bhaskarbua was staying mostly in Bombay and Dharwad and<br />
could only learn when Natthan Khan was passing through. Natthan was as fond <strong>of</strong> his<br />
student as Faiz Mohammed had been, and he likewise recommended (reputedly while on<br />
his deathbed) that Bhaskar move on and learn from Alladiya Khan, his third and final<br />
Guru. This relationship was to last until Bhaskarbua’s untimely demise at the age <strong>of</strong> 52;<br />
during this period both Bhaskarbua and Alladiya were staying at Bombay. It is again<br />
worth mentioning that this willingness on the part <strong>of</strong> Bhaskarbua’s Ustads to send him to<br />
learn from singers <strong>of</strong> other gharanas again contradicts the stereotype <strong>of</strong> gharaanedaar<br />
musicians who withheld their best music from outsiders and placed their gharana above<br />
everything else. This is not to say that Faiz Mohammed and Natthan did not have their<br />
flaws – we know Faiz Mohammed did – but they certainly seemed to have taught<br />
Bhaskarbua as if he was their own son. Likewise, when Bhaskarbua died, Alladiya<br />
reportedly was disconsolate. Deshpande quotes AK as saying, “‘Bhaskar is gone – whom<br />
shall I now sing for?’”(1972:25).<br />
Bhaskarbua’s career is <strong>of</strong> special significance here for two reasons. First, as with<br />
Vishnu Digambar, Bhaskarbua succeeded in making a name for himself in areas <strong>of</strong> India<br />
far away from his home base <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra. As Deshpande explains,<br />
While Balkrishnabua, the doyen, had brought the art <strong>of</strong> music to Maharashtra<br />
from outside, Bhaskarbua, it may be said, took it out <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, to other<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> the country. In fact, Bhaskarbua was the first Maratha musician whose<br />
musicianship crossed the frontiers <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra in recent times and commanded<br />
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equal respect in the home province and in other provinces such as Gujurat, Sind,<br />
Punjab, Kashmir, Mysore, Karnatak, etc. (1972:22).<br />
By all accounts, Bhaskarbua was loved <strong>by</strong> audiences in the Punjab in particular, for<br />
example in Jalandhar, where women reputedly dressed in men’s clothing in order to hear<br />
Bhaskarbua sing at the festival there (at Devi Talao) which allowed admission only to<br />
men. <strong>The</strong> affection North Indian audiences felt for Bhaskarbua was duplicated <strong>by</strong> the<br />
Ustads <strong>of</strong> North India. One Mubarak Ali (not the Mubarak Ali <strong>of</strong> Gwalior, mentioned<br />
above in connection with Alladiya Khan) was particularly noted for his love <strong>of</strong><br />
Bhaskarbua’s singing. According to Deshpande, “Ustads like Mubarak Ali Khan <strong>of</strong><br />
Karachi felt themselves honored in doing personal service such as rubbing oil on his head<br />
or massaging him”(ibid.:25). He also, again according to Deodhar, followed Bhaskarbua<br />
around India in order to hear him sing as <strong>of</strong>ten as possible. Wim van der Meer notes that<br />
Rehmat Khan used to refer to Bhaskarbua as “Khansaheb Bhaskarbua, or Bhaskar Khan,<br />
thus denoting that he considered Bhaskar as the only Hindu musician worth being called<br />
that name”(1980:153). All in all, then, Bhaskarbua helped to establish the reputation <strong>of</strong><br />
Maharashtrian musicians outside <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, especially among the gharaanedaar<br />
establishment <strong>of</strong> North India, even if his legacy now is limited to historical accounts and<br />
anecdotes regarding his greatness. His music was either never recorded, as was the case<br />
with Alladiya Khan, or no recordings survive. 65<br />
<strong>The</strong> greater significance <strong>of</strong> Bhaskarbua in the present context concerns the<br />
manner in which he successfully combined the styles <strong>of</strong> three gharanas into an admixture<br />
65 Amlan Dasgupta, music connoisseur and English pr<strong>of</strong>essor at Calcutta’s Jadavpur <strong>University</strong>, has a 78<br />
rpm recording that he strongly believes to be Bhaskarbua.<br />
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that was universally admired. It should be apparent that most Marathi khyaaliya-s <strong>of</strong> the<br />
last 50-60 years have learned their music from Gurus representing at least two different<br />
gharanas. As I mentioned above, the most common pattern has been for a singer to begin<br />
with a Guru who sings the Gwalior style and then move to a Guru who sings the gaayakii<br />
<strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the other major gharanas, whether it is Kirana, Agra, or Jaipur (these being the<br />
relevant gharanas in Maharashtra – the Rampur-Sahaswan and Patiala styles have not<br />
made much an <strong>of</strong> impression with Marathi vocalists). Certainly, there have been other<br />
combinations, but this has been the most common, as the Gwalior style is most prevalent<br />
and most compatible with other styles. Although performers representing other gharanas<br />
might object, it is frequently stated that Gwalior is the most balanced style in the sense<br />
that it places equal emphasis on all the broad divisions <strong>of</strong> a performance, while the others<br />
emphasize one aspect, perhaps to the detriment <strong>of</strong> the others. By this view, Kirana<br />
focuses most on aalaapii, the opening part <strong>of</strong> a raga performance when the different<br />
melodic combinations permissible within a raga are systematically explored; Agra<br />
emphasizes the middle portion or bol-ang which is the most rhythmically oriented portion<br />
<strong>of</strong> a performance; and Jaipur emphasizes taan, as I explained in my discussion <strong>of</strong><br />
Alladiya Khan. Of these three, the Kirana style is most limited in the sense that not only<br />
is aalaapii emphasized, the other elements are noticeably deemphasized, particularly the<br />
bol-ang. Deshpande feels that the Agra style is similarly limited but lies on the other end<br />
<strong>of</strong> his swara-laya spectrum, foregrounding rhythm at the expense <strong>of</strong> melody.<br />
Babanrao Haldankar, for one, strongly rejects this view. In our interview, he<br />
vehemently asserted that the Agra gaayakii was versatile and could be used to sing “any<br />
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kind <strong>of</strong> raag” (interview, 2005). Deshpande, not coincidentally a disciple <strong>of</strong> Jaipur<br />
stalwart Moghubai Kurdikar, similarly argues that not only is the Jaipur style not limited<br />
in any way, it is actually as balanced as Gwalior and is complex where the Gwalior style<br />
is simplistic. This is in spite <strong>of</strong> the fact that B.R. Deodhar testifies that he “failed to find<br />
any bol-tana” in Alladiya’s music on the two occasions he heard the great master on<br />
stage (1993:36), and in spite <strong>of</strong> the fact that a cursory listen to a recording <strong>of</strong> Kesarbai’s<br />
or Mallikarjun Mansur’s recordings will demonstrate that these artists devoted a large<br />
portion <strong>of</strong> their performances to taan.<br />
At any rate, the result <strong>of</strong> this differential emphasis on the different aspects <strong>of</strong> the<br />
music has been that when singers became willing and desirous <strong>of</strong> crossing gharana lines,<br />
so to speak, in order to improve their own music and make it more individualistic and<br />
personal, they could look to the music <strong>of</strong> other gharanas in order to improve the under-<br />
developed aspects <strong>of</strong> their own gharana’s style. Again, this can be seen in the music <strong>of</strong><br />
some <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra’s most legendary singers. Bhimsen Joshi is known as the doyen <strong>of</strong><br />
the Kirana gharana, but he learned initially from a Gwalior-affiliated Guru and has<br />
augmented what he has learned from Sawai Gandharva with elements <strong>of</strong> the more<br />
rhythmically vigorous Agra style. Kishori Amonkar has gone the opposite direction,<br />
adding the Kirana aalaap to the Jaipur style she has learned from her mother.<br />
Bhaskarbua, though, stands out as the first and possibly the greatest Marathi khyaaliya<br />
who successfully blended the gaayakii <strong>of</strong> three gharanas. In this way he is very much a<br />
prototype for the vocalists who would follow him historically.<br />
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I would argue that there are two broad types <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian Khyal singer, 66<br />
those that favor or have favored a more simplistic, emotionally expressive, and bhakti-<br />
based idiom, a category which would include not only Vishnu Digambar and many <strong>of</strong> his<br />
followers (particularly his son D.V. Paluskar and disciples Narayanrao Vyas and<br />
Vinayakrao Patwardhan), but also many <strong>of</strong> the Kirana singers, including Abdul Karim<br />
himself, who had a strongly devotional element in his music. <strong>The</strong> common denominator<br />
amongst this group may well be the influence <strong>of</strong> Rehmat Khan, the son <strong>of</strong> Haddu Khan <strong>of</strong><br />
the Gwalior gharana. I equivocate a bit on this point due to the fact that the available<br />
sources differ greatly in their appraisal <strong>of</strong> Rehmat’s historical significance and influence.<br />
Wade (1984) does mention Rehmat as having had a great deal <strong>of</strong> influence on Alladiya’s<br />
son Manji, which, as I mentioned above, apparently created a rift between Manji and his<br />
father. However, in Wade’s section on the Gwalior gharana in which she enumerates the<br />
accomplishments <strong>of</strong> the various members <strong>of</strong> that lineage, she states that Rehmat “is not<br />
among the best remembered musicians <strong>of</strong> his time”(48). Wim van der Meer (1980),<br />
basing his account mostly on the testimony <strong>of</strong> his own teacher D.C. Vedi (who was able<br />
to see Rehmat perform in person), feels rather that Rehmat was one <strong>of</strong> the crucial figures<br />
in classical vocal music at the turn <strong>of</strong> the 20th century. As van der Meer writes, “[h]is<br />
greatness was acclaimed generally and all musicians sought his favor at the beginning <strong>of</strong><br />
the century” (1980:152-153). Among the incidents which van der Meer cites as evidence<br />
<strong>of</strong> his greatness was a “musical contest” in which Rehmat defeated the great Alladiya<br />
Khansaheb “<strong>by</strong> unanimous consent.”<br />
66 <strong>The</strong>se broad categories do not cover all singers in Maharashtra; there are some that sing ‘pure’ Gwalior<br />
or Jaipur or Kirana, for example Jaipur maestro Mallickarjun Mansur.<br />
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Wim van der Meer asserts, again based on the recollections <strong>of</strong> D.C. Vedi, that<br />
Rehmat was a key influence not only on Manji Khan, but also on Abdul Karim Khan,<br />
who heard Rehmat sing after the latter had settled in Kurundwad (near Miraj where<br />
Abdul Karim lived at the time), and on Omkarnath Thakur, well-known disciple <strong>of</strong><br />
Vishnu Digambar, who on several occasions provided tanpura accompaniment for<br />
Rehmat’s performances. If we take that Omkarnath drew much from Rehmat’s music,<br />
which is not unquestionable <strong>by</strong> any means, then it would seem that this influence<br />
continued into the music <strong>of</strong> Kumar Gandharva, who, <strong>by</strong> all accounts, was greatly<br />
influenced <strong>by</strong> Omkarnath. Wim van der Meer describes Rehmat Khan’s style thusly:<br />
According to Vedi the characteristics <strong>of</strong> Rehmat Khan’s style were in the first<br />
place a fabulous standard <strong>of</strong> intonation and voice production, secondly, a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ound, emotional style <strong>of</strong> rendering alapa or barhata, marked <strong>by</strong> a deep<br />
insight into the raga and, thirdly, a great ease and freedom paired with the most<br />
original and aesthetic tanas. <strong>The</strong> essential point is that Rehmet Khan liberated<br />
himself from the rather meticulous and methodical approach to music which<br />
predominated in the Gwalior gharana. Instead, his music poured out <strong>of</strong> his soul,<br />
and spoke <strong>of</strong> total understanding <strong>of</strong> and union with the raga he performed<br />
(1980:153-154).<br />
Why then would Wade make the statement that Rehmat is not among the better<br />
remembered musicians <strong>of</strong> his generation? Her own answer to this question is that<br />
Rehmat was simply overshadowed <strong>by</strong> his father, the great Haddu Khan (1984:48). A<br />
more convincing answer is provided <strong>by</strong> van der Meer, who explains that Rehmat refused<br />
an appointment as a court musician in Gwalior, and then left altogether after the death <strong>of</strong><br />
his father and brother, ending up in Benares. As van der Meer writes, “[Rehmat] must<br />
have been quite a phenomenon there [in Benares], singing in the streets, living on alms<br />
and constantly drugged <strong>by</strong> opium”(1980:153). For a time, then, Rehmat was totally lost<br />
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to the Hindustani music establishment, until Vishnupant Chhatre, a pioneer <strong>of</strong> circus in<br />
India and disciple <strong>of</strong> Haddu, found Rehmat and brought him back to Maharashtra (to<br />
Bombay), thus earning Chhatre his place in the history <strong>of</strong> Indian classical music<br />
(Deodhar 1993). It was after Vishnu Chhatre’s death that Rehmat ended up in<br />
Kurundwad, under the care <strong>of</strong> Chhatre’s younger brother. So, not only was Rehmat<br />
largely forgotten during what should have been the prime <strong>of</strong> his career, he also apparently<br />
had few initiated disciples. Again, many were influenced <strong>by</strong> his singing, but he did not<br />
leave behind a group <strong>of</strong> dedicated followers who could have preserved his legacy and<br />
memory.<br />
<strong>The</strong> other type <strong>of</strong> khyaaliya would include those performers who have combined<br />
the Jaipur style with either the Gwalior and/or the Agra styles. Bhaskarbua was the first<br />
<strong>of</strong> these. As Deshpande explains,<br />
…Bhaskarbua was a unique singer in his time in the sense that he had attained<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>iciency <strong>of</strong> the highest order in all aspects <strong>of</strong> Indian classical music and he was<br />
able to present his art in a perfectly balanced manner. In other words, his<br />
uniqueness lay in a gayaki (style) which was perfectly developed in all respects<br />
and perfectly presented…For instance, everybody has praised Buwa’s alapi,<br />
design <strong>of</strong> cheej and vilambit, all <strong>of</strong> which he had picked up from Faiz-mahammed<br />
Khan. Similarly, many writers have commented on the rhythmic accuracy,<br />
layakari, boltan and tana he had picked up from Naththan Khansaheb Agrawale.<br />
Govindro Tembe has talked about the complex, intricate and arcane gayaki picked<br />
up <strong>by</strong> Buwa from Alladiya Khansaheb. He has also used the metaphor <strong>of</strong> a fully<br />
grown luxuriant tree with spreading branches and sub-branches to describe the<br />
beauty <strong>of</strong> Buwa’s fast passages (1989:53).<br />
So, completeness is the <strong>by</strong>word here, along with the combination <strong>of</strong> a reverence for<br />
tradition and a desire for uniqueness and individuality. Clearly, then, this is a style (in<br />
the broadest sense <strong>of</strong> the word) that can only be perfected <strong>by</strong> performers <strong>of</strong> a high caliber,<br />
whereas the (Balkrishnabua version <strong>of</strong>) Gwalior and Kirana styles are, to a large extent,<br />
157
appropriate for both amateurs and experts, another factor which helps explain why they<br />
are more common in the Maharashtra region (and across India) than the Agra and Jaipur<br />
styles. I should be clear that, if I were to be placing Rehmat himself in one <strong>of</strong> these two<br />
categories, which is not my intent as I am dealing here with the music <strong>of</strong> the non-<br />
hereditary singers in the Maharashtra region, he would belong more in this latter group.<br />
He, like Bhaskarbua, who he seems also to have pr<strong>of</strong>oundly influenced, had a complete<br />
and balanced approach. What Abdul Karim, Omkarnath, and others took from him was<br />
the heart-rending, emotional quality <strong>of</strong> his singing (conveyed primarily through aalaap),<br />
not his entire approach.<br />
We also should not lose sight <strong>of</strong> the fact that the Gwalior, Agra, and Jaipur styles<br />
have in common one very important element – the centrality <strong>of</strong> the bandiish or<br />
composition. I believe this is important both as a legacy <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian musicians’<br />
contact with North Indian Ustads and as an example <strong>of</strong> the classicism <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian<br />
singers which, in turn, is indicative <strong>of</strong> the value they place on tradition and their<br />
reverence toward their predecessors, a reverence visible in all realms <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian<br />
culture. In this regard, the Maharashtrian khyaaliya-s who still practice in this broad style<br />
are swimming against the tide, as the most pervasive styles across India these days are, in<br />
instrumental music, the late sitar maestro Vilayat Khan’s gaayakii ang and, in vocal<br />
music, the Kirana style, particularly Amir Khan’s version <strong>of</strong> it. In these styles, the<br />
composition takes a back seat, and the ragas are developed in a somewhat stereotyped<br />
manner regardless <strong>of</strong> the composition being performed or the specific aesthetic <strong>of</strong> the<br />
raga being performed. Also <strong>of</strong>ten neglected <strong>by</strong> followers <strong>of</strong> these styles is layakaari.<br />
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Systematic rhythmic variations are prominent element in Dhrupad music, so it is not<br />
surprising that the three gharanas with Dhrupad roots would include this in their Khyal.<br />
It is important to keep in mind that layakaarii is, in Khyal music, inextricably tied to the<br />
text <strong>of</strong> the composition, hence the name bol-ang, the section (lit. “limb”) featuring words,<br />
or bol.<br />
I will elaborate on these points more below (particularly in chapter 8), but before<br />
proceeding, I should mention some other names who belong to this broad stylistic<br />
category. <strong>The</strong> first is Ram Marathe. As I mentioned before, Ram Marathe (d.1989)<br />
stands as the one link between Bhaskarbua and the present day singers <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, as<br />
Ram Marathe was a disciple <strong>of</strong> Master Krishnarao. However, whether his catholic<br />
approach to musical style was an inheritance, second-hand, from Bhaskarbua, or was<br />
totally due to his own temperament, Ram Marathe also fused a number <strong>of</strong> styles in his<br />
music, namely Gwalior, Agra, and Jaipur (as Bhaskarbua had). Besides Krishnarao, he<br />
learned from Bal Gandharva, Mirashibua (Gwalior), B.R. Deodhar (student <strong>of</strong> Vishnu<br />
Digambar), Vamanrao Sadolikar (Jaipur), Vilayat Hussain Khan (Agra), and<br />
Jagannathbua Purohit (Agra), and was strongly influenced <strong>by</strong> other Jaipur singers<br />
(Nivruttibua Sarnaik and Mallikarjun Mansur) and Gwalior singers (Rehmat Khan,<br />
Ramkrishnabua Vaze, and Gajananbua Joshi). 67 Gajananbua Joshi, as mentioned above,<br />
also blended these traditions in his music, as have Ulhas Kashalkar (student <strong>of</strong><br />
Gajananbua and Ram Marathe) and his disciples Dr. Ram Deshpande (who has also<br />
learned from Yashwantbua Joshi <strong>of</strong> Gwalior and V.R. Athavale and Babanrao Haldankar<br />
67 see Soman (2000)<br />
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<strong>of</strong> Agra gharana) and Shashank Maktedar. One more singer <strong>of</strong> this type would be the late<br />
Jitendra Abhisheki who learned from Azmat Hussein and Jagannath Purohit <strong>of</strong> the Agra<br />
gharana and Gulubhai Jasdanwalla and Azizuddin Khan (Alladiya Khan’s grandson) <strong>of</strong><br />
the Jaipur gharana. Jitendra Abhisheki has passed his music on to his son Shaunak, a<br />
resident <strong>of</strong> Pune.<br />
It is tempting to include the late Vasantrao Deshpande in this group, as he<br />
definitely combined the styles <strong>of</strong> more than two gharanas in his music, and like many <strong>of</strong><br />
the above singers was known as a high quality Marathi stage performer and singer as well<br />
as a khyaaliya. When we examine the elements that make up Vasantrao’s music,<br />
however, we find a very different combination than in the case <strong>of</strong> the ‘Bhaskar Bakhle<br />
type’ singers. Vasantrao again began his musical education with a Gwalior singer,<br />
Shankarrao Sapre, a disciple <strong>of</strong> Vishnu Digambar, in Vasantrao’s hometown <strong>of</strong> Nagpur<br />
(Mishra 1990:219). After this, however, he would go on to study with Gurus <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Kirana gharana (Sureshbabu Mane), Patiala gharana (Asad Ali Khan), and the so-called<br />
‘Bendibazaar gharana’ (Aman Ali Khan and Anjanibai Malpekar). 68 As such,<br />
Vasantrao’s music had many <strong>of</strong> the elements more commonly found in the Bade Ghulam<br />
Ali and Amir Khan influenced khyaaliya-s <strong>of</strong> Calcutta. <strong>The</strong> most notable <strong>of</strong> such<br />
elements are the MerkhanD style alap (from the Bendibazaar singers) 69 and the extensive<br />
use <strong>of</strong> sargam (primarily from the Kirana singers, but from the Bendibazaar side also).<br />
This is not to say that Vasantrao Deshpande’s music does not resemble that <strong>of</strong> any <strong>of</strong> his<br />
68<br />
<strong>The</strong> Bendibazaar gharana is actually an <strong>of</strong>f-shoot <strong>of</strong> the older Moradabad gharana based in the<br />
Bendibazaar area <strong>of</strong> Bombay.<br />
69<br />
MerkhanD is a technique <strong>of</strong> aalaap in which every possible permutation <strong>of</strong> note combinations is<br />
systematically explored.<br />
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Maharashtrian contemporaries. It does, in as much as his singing, like so many <strong>of</strong> the<br />
above musicians, was shaped <strong>by</strong> his experience as a stage singer. This means, among<br />
other things, a more intense, pointed delivery than Bengali singers generally utilize, along<br />
with a higher SA pitch. Vasantrao also included a fair amount <strong>of</strong> layakaari in his music<br />
which is much more typical <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian singers than Bengali singers.<br />
Before proceeding I should note what might appear to be a slight inconsistency:<br />
that I have placed Ulhas Kashalkar and his disciples in two different categories, Gwalior<br />
singers and Bhaskarbua-type independent (non-gharana) singers. This inconsistency is<br />
due primarily to the difference between musical style and social identification. In<br />
musical terms, Kashalkar and his Guru Gajananbua, at least in my view, resemble<br />
Bhaskarbua in that they have adopted much <strong>of</strong> the Jaipur style (which includes ragas and<br />
compositions identified with the Jaipur gharana) into their music which otherwise is <strong>of</strong><br />
the Gwalior/Agra mould. However, in lineage terms, these two are tied rather directly to<br />
the early Gwalior singers <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra. To reiterate, Gajananbua was the son <strong>of</strong><br />
‘Antubua,’ Manohar Joshi, disciple <strong>of</strong> Balkrishnabua. So, whatever the different<br />
elements are which are present in their gaayakii, these singers identify with the Gwalior<br />
tradition, again, the foundational style <strong>of</strong> Khyal in Maharashtra. If we look at such<br />
instances <strong>of</strong> self identification where one part <strong>of</strong> a musician’s musical legacy is<br />
emphasized above others as a strategy, we can see that Bhaskarbua’s ‘independent’ status<br />
is a path that not all Maharashtrian singers have followed, even if they have emulated his<br />
catholic approach to style. Kumar Gandharva and Jitendra Abhisheki, to name two<br />
examples, also chose the route <strong>of</strong> independence, but many others, like Bhimsen Joshi and<br />
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Kishori Amonkar, have experimented musically but adhered to their ‘membership’ in<br />
their respective Gurus’ gharanas. I cannot speak as surely <strong>of</strong> Ulhas Kashalkar’s<br />
motivations, but I can say that Ram Deshpande, as I learned through our lessons and<br />
conversations, is a singer that, like many <strong>of</strong> his peers, wants to take the best from every<br />
gharana and is happy to acknowledge his influences outside <strong>of</strong> his direct teachers, yet<br />
identifies himself as a Gwalior singer. Perhaps in this way (and this is, again, only my<br />
observation) he can honor the legacies <strong>of</strong> both Vishnu Digambar and Bhaskarbua Bhakle.<br />
One more apparent inconsistency in my categorizations is that currently almost<br />
every young Khyal singer (young, meaning here below the age <strong>of</strong> 40) in India employs a<br />
style <strong>of</strong> aalaapi which is similar, if not identical, to that <strong>of</strong> the Kirana school. <strong>The</strong><br />
identifying point <strong>of</strong> this style is that it develops the raga slowly note <strong>by</strong> note and register<br />
<strong>by</strong> register (not unlike the Dhrupad-style aalaap in this regard), rather than as in the<br />
Gwalior style where raga development proceeds <strong>by</strong> larger melodic units and, as a result,<br />
is generally performed in a shorter time span. Veena Saharabuddhe humorously<br />
compared the Kirana aalaap style to a local train, where the train stops at every sub-<br />
station, while the Gwalior aalaap more resembles an express train, stopping only at the<br />
major stations (interview, 2005). This common inclusion <strong>of</strong> the Kirana style aalaap in a<br />
singer’s overall stylistic approach is true even <strong>of</strong> relatively young performers such as<br />
Ram Deshpande who I have categorized as ‘Bhaskarbua-type’ khyaaliya-s. <strong>The</strong>re are<br />
two points to be made regarding this phenomenon. First, considering its popularity in<br />
Maharashtra and its complete dominance relative to other Khyal styles in Bengal (as I<br />
will discuss below), it is clear that the Kirana style, in the loosest sense, has become the<br />
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closest thing there is to an all-India Khyal style. In this sense, this very clearly is<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> the homogeneity which so many performers and scholars see as the essential<br />
reality <strong>of</strong> modern Hindustani music. However, at the same time, I feel this adoption <strong>of</strong><br />
the ‘step-<strong>by</strong>-step’ aalaap style is also evidence <strong>of</strong> a particularly Maharashtrian impulse<br />
toward completeness, as evidenced <strong>by</strong> the admiration so many Marathi performers felt<br />
for Rehmat Khan during his lifetime. Along these lines, it can be seen as the last step in<br />
the process <strong>of</strong> augmenting, so to speak, the basic Gwalior style. Bhaskarbua himself<br />
incorporated the rhythmic aspects <strong>of</strong> the Agra style and the taan-s (among other things)<br />
from the Jaipur style, so the only addition that remained for later generations was the<br />
inclusion <strong>of</strong> the Kirana aalaap. This means, then, that if we are to distinguish between<br />
Marathi and Bengali khyaaliya-s <strong>of</strong> the present generation, we have to look beyond this<br />
one aspect <strong>of</strong> the music. <strong>The</strong>re are, indeed, as many differences as similarities between<br />
the general Maharashtrian approach to Khyal and the corresponding Bengali approach,<br />
even if, as many would have it, regional differences in musical style disappeared at some<br />
point in the 1960s or ‘70s. As we examine Khyal in Bengal, we will see that, considering<br />
the very different historical scenario that played out in Bengal as compared to<br />
Maharashtra in the period from the late 19th century until 1947, it would be very<br />
surprising if there were not significant differences in the style <strong>of</strong> Khyal practiced in each<br />
region.<br />
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4. Khyal in Bengal<br />
As stated above, the history <strong>of</strong> gharana, particularly <strong>of</strong> Khyal gharanas, is much<br />
less extensive in Bengal than in Maharashtra. As opposed to Maharashtra, there were not<br />
numerous princely states in Bengal that could attract North Indian Ustads seeking new<br />
sources <strong>of</strong> patronage in the late 19th century, although Calcutta as a commercial center<br />
held out many <strong>of</strong> the same possibilities to musicians as Bombay did in western India,<br />
such as teaching ‘pr<strong>of</strong>essional women artists’ and performing in ticketed concerts. In<br />
Calcutta and elsewhere, there were wealthy merchants and landlords (zamiindaar),<br />
Bengali and non-Bengali, willing to patronize classical music, but their interests ranged<br />
from Thumri to Dhrupad to instrumental music. Also, the general middle-class audience<br />
in Bengal has never developed a taste for Khyal, outside <strong>of</strong> a handful <strong>of</strong> charismatic<br />
singers, i.e. Faiyaz, Bade Ghulam Ali, and Amir Khan, who created temporary surges in<br />
Khyal’s popularity, unlike in Maharashtra where Vishnu Digambar, among others, helped<br />
to cultivate a middle class audience almost exclusively interested in Khyal (among the<br />
classical genres). <strong>The</strong> result <strong>of</strong> this situation has been that Khyal, on the whole, has not<br />
been very popular in Calcutta or Bengal generally (among performers or audiences), and<br />
that <strong>of</strong> the Khyal singers most <strong>of</strong>ten thought to be the best Bengal has produced, very few<br />
have made a name for themselves nationally. Bengal does have the distinction, though,<br />
<strong>of</strong> having birthed the only commonly recognized gharana to have been founded outside<br />
<strong>of</strong> Hindi-speaking North India. This is the Vishnupur gharana which began as, and<br />
remained until the last fifty years, a Dhrupad gharana. I will begin my discussion <strong>of</strong><br />
Khyal in Bengal with this group <strong>of</strong> musicians.<br />
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As Charles Capwell, in his article “<strong>The</strong> Interpretation <strong>of</strong> History and the<br />
Foundations <strong>of</strong> Authority in the Vishnupur Gharana <strong>of</strong> Bengal”(1991) explains, “<strong>The</strong><br />
Vishnupur gharana is considered the one true gharana <strong>of</strong> Bengal <strong>by</strong> virtue <strong>of</strong> the antiquity<br />
<strong>of</strong> its status as a Seniya gharana…,” the aforementioned gharana whose lineage can be<br />
traced back to descendents <strong>of</strong> Tansen, the legendary singer <strong>of</strong> the Mughal emperor<br />
Akbar’s court (97). As with the Khyal gharanas mentioned in chapter 3, the Vishnupur<br />
gharana takes its name from the town in which it was founded, the small former kingdom<br />
in southwestern Bengal where the Mallo dynasty ruled for some 1,250 years. <strong>The</strong> link to<br />
Tansen comes through the ostensible founder <strong>of</strong> the gharana, Bahadur Khan, who,<br />
according to tradition, was brought as a court musician <strong>by</strong> Mallo ruler Ragunath II to<br />
Vishnupur in the early 18th century. <strong>The</strong> succession from Bahadur Khan was then to his<br />
Hindu student Gadadhar Chakraborty, who in turn taught Krishnamohan Goswami, who<br />
in turn taught Ram Shankar Bhattacharya (Capwell 1991:99-100). This is all in line with<br />
the lineage chart <strong>of</strong> the Vishnupur gharana given to me <strong>by</strong> (and drawn up <strong>by</strong>) Vishnupur<br />
doyen Amayaranjan Banerjee, except that, according to that chart, Ram Shankar<br />
Bhattacharya was the direct student <strong>of</strong> Gadadhar Chakraborty. Regardless, as Capwell<br />
(citing evidence from Dilipkumar Mukerjee) explains, it is very unlikely based on the<br />
available historical evidence that any musician <strong>by</strong> the name <strong>of</strong> Bahadur Khan would have<br />
been a contemporary to Ragunath II. It is more logical to deduce that Ram Shankar was<br />
himself the founder <strong>of</strong> the Vishnupur gharana. Amayaranjan’s chart describes Ram<br />
Shankar as the “architect <strong>of</strong> the Vishnupur gharana,” but lists Bahadur Khan as the<br />
gharana’s founder nonetheless. Mita Nag also credited Bahadursen (as she called him) as<br />
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the founder <strong>of</strong> the gharana, noting the liberalism <strong>of</strong> Ragunath II in bringing a Muslim<br />
Ustad to teach music in a “strictly Hindu province” (interview, 2005). <strong>The</strong> point to be<br />
made, however, which is the main thrust <strong>of</strong> Capwell’s short piece, is that the Vishnupur<br />
musicians maintain that Bahadur Khan founded the tradition instead <strong>of</strong> Ram Shankar<br />
Bhattacharya because, not only was this Bahadur Khan from North India, the historical<br />
center <strong>of</strong> Hindu and Indian culture (unlike the marginal backwater that many have<br />
considered Bengal to be), he was also a descendent <strong>of</strong> the greatest Indian musician ever.<br />
<strong>The</strong> latter part <strong>of</strong> the proposition is crucial because Ram Shankar’s teacher was a pilgrim<br />
from North India known now known only as ‘Panditji,’ who himself could have been<br />
given the status <strong>of</strong> gharana founder. However, as Capwell states, “In the eighteenth<br />
century, only a Muslim Ustad carried the necessary authority <strong>of</strong> upcountry music culture<br />
needed for the proper establishment <strong>of</strong> a pr<strong>of</strong>essional lineage…”(1991:101). In other<br />
words, even a gharana <strong>of</strong> Bengali Hindu Dhrupad singers (and composers, scholars, and<br />
instrumentalists) could only be founded on the authority <strong>of</strong> a North Indian, Muslim,<br />
gharaanedaar musician.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second point to be taken from Capwell’s article concerns the musical style <strong>of</strong><br />
the Vishnupur singers. As Capwell explains, the style <strong>of</strong> the Vishnupur dhrupadiya-s<br />
was “recognized as exceptionally plain and lacking in the heavy trills or gamak, the<br />
portamenti or mir [meend], and rhythmic permutations <strong>of</strong> text phrases or bol bamt that<br />
are featured in most styles [<strong>of</strong> Dhrupad]” (ibid.:98). While this is intended to be a<br />
description only <strong>of</strong> the Vishnupur Dhrupad style, I would argue that this is also a fair<br />
general description <strong>of</strong> Bengali Khyal singing as well, particularly the lack <strong>of</strong> layakaarii.<br />
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Of course, it is all the more telling that Bengali singers <strong>of</strong> the Vishnupur school would<br />
forgo bol-baanT in the context <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad, where it is one <strong>of</strong> the most fundamental<br />
techniques, at least in the styles <strong>of</strong> other gharanas. It also notable that, as Capwell states,<br />
many Vishnupur singers were also composers, and composed their dhrupad-s (meaning<br />
Dhrupad compositions) in both Sanskrit and, more importantly, Bengali, to go along with<br />
the more traditional language used for Dhrupad and Khyal, the Braj dialect <strong>of</strong> Hindi. As<br />
I will explain further in chapter 7 when I discuss the regional music <strong>of</strong> Bengal, one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
most common traits <strong>of</strong> Bengali music in general is a heavy reliance on the text <strong>of</strong> any<br />
particular tune or composition. Bengalis, as most would attest, desire meaningful and<br />
poetic texts, and as such, it is not surprising to find that Bengalis have experimented with<br />
setting Bengali lyrics to both Khyal and Dhrupad compositions. Widdess and Sanyal,<br />
while discussing the influence <strong>of</strong> the Betiya Dhrupad gharana <strong>of</strong> Bihar, note the<br />
popularity <strong>of</strong> Betiya compositions in Bengal which is “at least partly because <strong>of</strong> the<br />
poetic qualities <strong>of</strong> dhrupad compositions”(2004:31). <strong>The</strong> fact that Khyal texts are<br />
generally thought <strong>of</strong> as dispensable (and routinely mangled <strong>by</strong> Khyal singers) is, then,<br />
one piece in the puzzle in terms <strong>of</strong> figuring out why Khyal has never thrived in Bengal.<br />
Regarding the Vishnupur gharana specifically, the real question is whether the Vishnupur<br />
gharana has influenced classical music in Bengal in these specific directions, or whether<br />
these stylistic tendencies represent aesthetic preferences specific to Bengali culture. I<br />
would argue that it is some <strong>of</strong> both, although the latter is more likely true. That is,<br />
Vishnupur musicians have certainly been influential in the Bengal region, particularly<br />
gharana stalwarts such as Gyan Prasad Goswami, Girija Shankar Chakraborty, Satya<br />
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Kinkar Banerjee (Amayaranjan’s father and Guru), and Jadu Bhatta (musical Guru <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Rabindranath/Jorashanko branch <strong>of</strong> the Tagore family). At the same time, however,<br />
these traits, particularly the simplification <strong>of</strong> musical form and style, show up in the<br />
music <strong>of</strong> singers who do not have any real ties to the Vishnupur gharana. Indeed, I would<br />
argue that the influence <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan (which I discuss below) in Calcutta is due to the<br />
fact that, in many ways, his music fit very nicely with this Bengali aesthetic.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> gauging the impact Vishnupur musicians and their music have had on<br />
the musical scene in Bengal, it is very arguable that their most enduring legacy comes<br />
through in Rabindrasangiit, the light songs composed <strong>by</strong> Rabindranath Tagore that are<br />
ubiquitous across West Bengal state. I will discuss this genre further in chapter 7, but it<br />
will suffice here to note that Jadu Bhatta, as the Guru <strong>of</strong> the Tagore family, taught<br />
Dhrupad compositions from his repertoire to Rabindranath (many <strong>of</strong> which were Betiah<br />
gharana compositions, one should note), who in turn used these as the primary foundation<br />
for his own unique brand <strong>of</strong> music that draws on many styles and genres besides<br />
Vishnupur-style Dhrupad, including Western songs and melodies. In terms <strong>of</strong> current-<br />
day musicians who belong to this gharana <strong>by</strong> heredity or through their Guru, however,<br />
the numbers are quite limited. <strong>The</strong> Vishnupur gharana was never at any point the<br />
preserve <strong>of</strong> one specific lineage in the same way that most Khyal gharanas were in the<br />
early days <strong>of</strong> their history. Rather, the Vishnupur gharana has always been a more<br />
diffuse collection <strong>of</strong> various Bengali Brahman families. 70 So, while, again, there have<br />
been a number <strong>of</strong> notable lineages (and individual musicians) who were or are members<br />
70 Widdess and Sanyal note that this is a common trait <strong>of</strong> regional Dhrupad traditions (2004:32).<br />
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<strong>of</strong> the Vishnupur gharana, two stand out now: the Nags and the Banerjees (<strong>of</strong> Satya<br />
Kinkar Banerjee’s line). Of these two families, the Nags are seemingly the more well-<br />
known nationally and internationally, primarily because they are sitarists. <strong>The</strong> first<br />
notable musician <strong>of</strong> this line was Gokul Nag, a disciple <strong>of</strong> Ramprasanna Banerjee, a<br />
contemporary <strong>of</strong> Maihar gharana founder Allaudin Khan, and an important early<br />
influence on Ravi Shankar. His son is Manilal Nag, and his granddaughter is the<br />
aforementioned Mita Nag. It is also arguable that these sitarists also have done the most<br />
to preserve the Vishnupur Dhrupad style, although they have certainly incorporated non-<br />
Dhrupad elements into their music. This is in contrast to the Banerjees, who, from<br />
Amiyaranjan forward, have been Khyal singers. Amiyaranjan’s line, it should be noted,<br />
is central to the gharana historically. Amiyaranjan learned from his father, Satya Kinkar,<br />
who had learned from his uncle Gopeshwar Banerjee. Gopeshwar was the son <strong>of</strong><br />
Anantlal, a disciple <strong>of</strong> Ram Shankar Bhattacharya himself, according to the information<br />
given to me <strong>by</strong> Amiyaranjan.<br />
Amiyaranjan was quite forthright in our interview regarding his decision to leave<br />
the Vishnupur Dhrupad style in order to concentrate on singing Khyal:<br />
JG: Well, do you think, uh, something was there in your grandfather’s music, in<br />
his style, that’s still here in your music?<br />
AB: No, no, no.<br />
JG: Your music is completely different than his? What about compared to your<br />
father?<br />
AB: Ah, yes, completely different – otherwise today’s audience will not take<br />
my…will not accept my music. If I do not change the form, if I do not revise the<br />
form…If I do not…reorganize, the audience will not accept.<br />
JG: Because your gharana is a…<br />
AB: It is a relation between the music and the audience. What audience demands,<br />
we have to, we have to understand what they want…what is their demand. Uh,<br />
so, we have to innovate in the style in that way (interview, 2005).<br />
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As Amiyaranjan then explained, his primary influences have been Tarapada Chakraborty,<br />
an important khyaaliya in the Bengal region (but little known outside), and the late Amir<br />
Khan <strong>of</strong> Indore (as Amiyaranjan said, “Amir Khan is the best…he is unparalleled”). In<br />
this regard, Amiyaranjan is not alone. Amir Khan is undoubtedly the most important and<br />
pervasive influence on all current Bengali singers, with any other singer, for example<br />
Bade Ghulam Ali, coming in a distant second. Amiyaranjan’s son Sanatanu Banerjee,<br />
who is carrying on with his father’s Amir Khan-styled Khyal music, is but one example<br />
<strong>of</strong> Amir Khan-influenced Bengali Khyal singers..<br />
I will speak more <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan on the classical music scene in<br />
Bengal shortly, but it is important to note the socio-economic situation that brought Amir<br />
Khan and other Ustads to Calcutta and that determined the ways in which Bengalis were<br />
able to access and learn about the music <strong>of</strong> these Ustads. As more than a few <strong>of</strong> my<br />
interlocutors in Calcutta pointed out to me, Calcutta in the 19th and early 20th centuries<br />
was the “marketplace <strong>of</strong> music” in India. Kumar Prasad Mukherjee explained to me the<br />
economic conditions in Calcutta during this period and the effect these had on the nature<br />
<strong>of</strong> Hindustani music quite succinctly.<br />
You see, Calcutta used to be the marketplace, the biggest marketplace for music<br />
at one stage. This was thanks to what we call ‘Babu culture.’ After the Britishers<br />
came here, and I am talking about the 18th century, the baniyans, the stevedores,<br />
the keepers, they were the people who benefited from the arrival <strong>of</strong> the Britishers,<br />
the traders. Gradually they acquired land and started patronizing music, Sanskrit,<br />
Pandits, wrestling, and, <strong>of</strong> course, women – not necessarily singers but<br />
courtesans. So this is one <strong>of</strong> the reasons that Calcutta developed into a<br />
marketplace. In fact, it was the biggest marketplace for music at one stage. But,<br />
no Ustad, no eminent Ustad – I am talking about vocal music – ever settled down<br />
in Calcutta. <strong>The</strong>y came and sold their wares and went away (interview, 2005)<br />
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<strong>The</strong> season for these North Indian performers to come and sell their musical wares, so to<br />
speak, was the winter season, approximately mid-November through February. <strong>The</strong><br />
climate <strong>of</strong> Calcutta (and <strong>of</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> Bengal) is quite mild during these months, while<br />
during the other two major seasons, the hot season and the monsoon season, it is<br />
unlivable, at least in the estimation <strong>of</strong> most non-Bengalis, due to factors such as intense<br />
heat and humidity, the pervasiveness <strong>of</strong> communicable disease, etc. This pattern <strong>of</strong><br />
copious musical activity for two and a half to three months and very little during the<br />
remainder <strong>of</strong> the year only intensified with the advent <strong>of</strong> music conferences (essentially<br />
music festivals) in the early decades <strong>of</strong> the 20th century and continues to the present day.<br />
<strong>The</strong> result is that Bengalis who were interested in learning Khyal simply did not have<br />
access to proper taaliim from one <strong>of</strong> these Ustads. <strong>The</strong>y could hear the music and<br />
appreciate it, but not learn it correctly from a gharaanedaar Ustad. As Amit Mukherjee<br />
pointed out, it takes years <strong>of</strong> intimate contact with a master musician in order for an<br />
aspiring performer to imbibe that Ustad or Pandit’s knowledge and expertise. This is<br />
especially true for Maharashtrians and Bengalis, as Khyal in the beginning was<br />
essentially an “alien music” for them, music from a different cultural and geographic<br />
region (Amit Mukherjee: interview, 2005). In short, then, Maharashtrians, as I have<br />
explained above, had the advantage <strong>of</strong> long term discipleship with gharaanedaar Ustads,<br />
but Bengalis, for the most part, did not.<br />
I have qualified the above statement with the phrase ‘for the most part’ as there<br />
were a few important Ustads who stayed for a longer period than just one or two months<br />
at a time, and, not coincidentally, these Ustads have had the greatest impact on the style<br />
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<strong>of</strong> singing practiced <strong>by</strong> Bengali khyaaliya-s. I am speaking here <strong>of</strong> Bade Ghulam Ali<br />
Khan <strong>of</strong> Patiala gharana and, <strong>of</strong> course, Amir Khan <strong>of</strong> Indore. As KP Mukherjee<br />
explained to me,<br />
All the major gharanas flourished in Bombay. <strong>The</strong> only gharana which did not<br />
flourish in Bombay was Patiala, and that’s <strong>of</strong> comparatively recent origin. But<br />
Bade Ghulam Ali Khan [the most famous Patiala singer] came, and he became<br />
quite well-known in Bombay…but he never settled there – just for a brief while.<br />
He came and settled down in Calcutta in his last days. So, and Amir Khan used to<br />
be a commuter – he used to commute. So these were the two Ustads whose<br />
influence, and that too sort <strong>of</strong>, uh, not direct influence because very few people,<br />
they taught very few people. But these are the two Ustads whose influence can<br />
be…is noticeable among the vocal musicians <strong>of</strong> Bengal. Other gharanas are not<br />
popular - Jaipur, Gwalior, Agra – these are not popular because no one really<br />
came [to Calcutta]…(interview, 2005).<br />
<strong>The</strong> key point to underline from this quote is that while Ghulam Ali and Amir Khan<br />
stayed much longer in Calcutta overall than many <strong>of</strong> their North Indian contemporaries,<br />
even they did not produce many notable Bengali disciples. <strong>The</strong>y did produce many<br />
‘Sunnii Shaagirds,’ 71 however, particularly Amir Khan. <strong>The</strong> one current ‘name’ Bengali<br />
singer who has a direct tie to either <strong>of</strong> these vocalists is Pandit Ajoy Chakrborty, another<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Gurus <strong>of</strong> ITC-SRA (and a graduate), and one <strong>of</strong> the top male Khyal singers<br />
nationally. Ajoyda is a disciple <strong>of</strong> Munnawar Ali Khan, son <strong>of</strong> Ghulam Ali, as well as <strong>of</strong><br />
the late Gyan Prakash Ghosh, noted tabla player and music educator <strong>of</strong> Calcutta. While<br />
Bade Ghulam is <strong>of</strong>ten cited (as above) as one <strong>of</strong> the main Khyal influences for Bengali<br />
singers <strong>by</strong> performers and non-performers alike, Ajoy Chakraborty is, to my knowledge,<br />
only one <strong>of</strong> perhaps two singers in Calcutta whose singing resembles the pure Patiala<br />
style to any extent, the other being Meera Banerjee, a senior disciple <strong>of</strong> Munnawar Ali.<br />
71 Sunnii Shaagird literally means ‘disciple who has learned <strong>by</strong> listening,’ i.e. not <strong>by</strong> proper first-hand<br />
instruction. Sunnii comes from the Hindi word sunnaa, ‘to listen.’<br />
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<strong>The</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> Bade Ghulam is there, no doubt, but it does not seem that many<br />
vocalists have based their entire presentation on his style in the way that so many have<br />
emulated Amir Khan’s gaayakii. If nothing else, though, Bade Ghulam’s sweet, flexible,<br />
melodious, and yet powerful voice remains the ideal for many Bengali singers.<br />
Amiyaranjan Banerjee, as noted earlier, is one <strong>of</strong> the many Calcutta vocalists who<br />
have based his style on Amir Khan’s music. However, while openly acknowledging<br />
Amir Khan’s influence, Amiyaranjanda felt that his style was more less the same as the<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> Khyal singers across India; he termed this as the “modern Khyal style.”<br />
According to his conception, this style could be described as “melody based,” with little<br />
prominence given to layakaarii, and containing taan and sargam (interview, 2005).<br />
Although for him, this is a style that has developed relatively recently and does not<br />
correspond exactly to the style <strong>of</strong> any <strong>of</strong> the major gharanas, the Kirana influence, he<br />
noted, is there. This Kirana influence, <strong>of</strong> course, comes through Amir Khan himself, who<br />
never had Kirana taaliim but was highly influenced <strong>by</strong> Abdul Wahid Khan <strong>of</strong> that<br />
gharana. Several other <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors, though, felt rather that, first, Amir Khan was<br />
the one and only influence on this style; second, that it is not an “All-India” style, but<br />
instead a very Bengali one; and, third, that this style, at least as practiced <strong>by</strong> most Bengali<br />
singers, is a poor approximation <strong>of</strong> how Amir Khan himself sang. 72 Amit Mukherjee, the<br />
former director <strong>of</strong> ITC-SRA and himself a disciple <strong>of</strong> Shankar Mazumdar <strong>of</strong> Patna (who<br />
received some taaliim from Amir Khan), feels that almost all Bengali vocalists, save for a<br />
72 I should note that, while I take Amiyaranjan Banerjee as a prime example <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan-influenced<br />
singing, none <strong>of</strong> my other interlocutors singled him out as a particularly bad performer, as far as these<br />
singers go.<br />
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few exceptions (and not just Amir Khan followers, although, again, these have been the<br />
majority in recent decades), are “xerox copies <strong>of</strong> something not very definite”(interview,<br />
2005). KP Mukherjee, speaking with characteristic candor, was altogether less charitable<br />
to the style practiced <strong>by</strong> most Bengali vocalists, particularly the Amir Khan followers:<br />
It’s a, uh, poor imitation <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan’s gayaki, consisting only <strong>of</strong> three facets,<br />
three angas: MerkhanD vistaar, which is what I call a mechanical approach, “NI<br />
RE GA,” “GA RE NI,” “RE GA NI,” “NI GA RE,” this is not music…This kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> thing even a child can do, and this is not music. And in any case it is a<br />
mechanical, at best, an arithmetical exercise. So this is how they develop a raga,<br />
without the raga anga. You see, every raga, the anatomy <strong>of</strong> a raga is recognized<br />
<strong>by</strong> its main phrases. Every raga has its main phrase and subsidiary phrases. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
are the phrases which highlight the topography <strong>of</strong> the raga, the anatomy <strong>of</strong> a<br />
raga…Now, even a child <strong>of</strong> eight when he draws an elephant, he doesn’t, the<br />
trunk <strong>of</strong> the elephant is certainly not as long as the tail. He knows the difference,<br />
but these people don’t. That is because they have not learned music, none <strong>of</strong><br />
them has learned music. Amayaranjan Bandopadyaya has learned Dhrupad and<br />
Dhamar from his father, but he sings in a style that has nothing to do with his<br />
father or his ancestors. It’s a pale imitation <strong>of</strong> Ustad Amir Khan’s gaayakii –<br />
without Amir Khan’s virtuosity. Amir Khan’s style without Amir Khan can be a<br />
pretty boring affair. I mean, in my book I have written, the Proustian<br />
introspection <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan has become a labor <strong>of</strong> Sisyphus with his disciples…<br />
Remember, the stone was to be taken to the top <strong>of</strong> hill?…that is MerkhanD<br />
vistaar. And the other thing is, this is followed <strong>by</strong> sargam-s. And the sargam-s<br />
are followed <strong>by</strong> taan-s which are based on the same sargam-s. I am talking about<br />
the general practice <strong>of</strong> these people. <strong>The</strong>re may be exceptions – there probably<br />
are. I, naturally at my age, I fail to notice the exceptions. I am guided more <strong>by</strong><br />
my reaction to the average follower <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan. I find this extremely boring,<br />
boring and simplistic and mechanical (interview, 2005).<br />
Thus, for the most part, KP Mukherjee’s description matches up with Amiyaranjanda’s<br />
“modern Khyal style,” except that what for Amiyaranjan are virtues, are vices for<br />
Mukherjee.<br />
<strong>The</strong> one aspect not discussed <strong>by</strong> KP Mukherjee in our interview was the<br />
conspicuous absence <strong>of</strong> layakaarii, again a feature (or lack there<strong>of</strong>) <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan’s style.<br />
Amit Mukherjee, however, provided a detailed description <strong>of</strong> how, in his opinion, many<br />
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Bengali singers have distorted what Amir Khan actually did while attempting to imitate<br />
him:<br />
That melody follows a strict tala and maatraa pattern. <strong>The</strong>re is a distinct, you<br />
know, very subtle…the best way to understand is to listen to Amir Khan very<br />
closely. You’ll find intricate, the most intricate layakaarii has been done <strong>by</strong> him.<br />
People like Suresh Talwalkar, who is a tabaliya <strong>of</strong> such…he says that, because<br />
certain kinds <strong>of</strong> mukraa-s and all that I did, because I am a follower <strong>of</strong> Amir<br />
Khan’s music, I learned from his close disciple, I also knew him, I have been with<br />
him in his riyaaz and all…So, it took me many years to understand this, how to<br />
put this highly melodic form into the structured form as well. It is not so easy –<br />
you have to use a lot <strong>of</strong> this [pointing to his head]. And, Sureshji told me, these<br />
small, that tabla bol-s, which do not exist even in North Indian tabla, but came<br />
from the South Indian tala system. Also, the expanded jhuumraa, the ati-vilambit<br />
jhuumraa, now it doesn’t mean that you do not have divisions, and very subtly<br />
there are inflections, there are vowels, and you know, consonants which you use<br />
to maintain this meter. While the consonants, how does this come? You know<br />
the Kirana gaayakii came from Bande Ali Khan who was a biinkaar. So, while<br />
this slided, he had to pluck, and this could not be out <strong>of</strong> rhythm, so he did this.<br />
Kirana gaayakii took the vowels to slide, which are in meters which change and<br />
flow…And the consonants are used for this. So, continuous maintenance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
meter is what is required, as well as the melodic part. <strong>The</strong> Bengalis did not go<br />
into this deep enough; they did not understand this (interview, 2005).<br />
This is really the crux <strong>of</strong> how Amir Khan’s subtlety has been lost in translation, so to<br />
speak. Amir Khan’s rhythm/layakaarii, as with the rest <strong>of</strong> his music, was subtle, but<br />
complex. In the music <strong>of</strong> his Bengali followers, layakaarii is altogether absent.<br />
Likewise, Amir Khan generally did not sing a great deal in the upper octave (taar<br />
saptak), as he felt that “the mandra saptak [low register] was more important for serious<br />
effects”(Wade 1984:269), and many <strong>of</strong> his Bengali followers continue this practice,<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> the quality <strong>of</strong> their own voice, i.e. even if their own low register is weak or<br />
their own high register is polished and impressive, as Bengali sitarist Partho Bose pointed<br />
out to me (interview, 2005). In other words, Amir Khan’s approach was limited in some<br />
ways, but he transcended these limitations with his own genius and personality. Many <strong>of</strong><br />
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his followers, though, take on his limitations but do not have the resourcefulness or talent<br />
to overcome these artificially (artificial for them, not Amir Khan) imposed limitations.<br />
Hence KP Mukherjee’s statement, “Amir Khan’s style without Amir Khan can be a pretty<br />
boring affair.”<br />
This having been said, I would remiss if I made it seem that most <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan’s<br />
imitators were and are amateurish and despised <strong>by</strong> all vocalists who have had proper<br />
taaliim with an established gharana singer. On the contrary, many <strong>of</strong> Bengal’s most<br />
beloved singers have been highly influenced <strong>by</strong> Amir Khan without having studied with<br />
him directly. This list would include, among others, Pandit A.T. Kanan, a Tamil<br />
musician who shifted to Calcutta after a short career with Indian Railways and<br />
subsequently became one <strong>of</strong> the early and very influential Gurus <strong>of</strong> Calcutta’s ITC-<br />
Sangeet Research Academy. A.T. Kanan was <strong>of</strong>ficially a disciple <strong>of</strong> Girija Shankar<br />
Chakraborty, but his music bore the distinct stamp <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan’s style. This also is true<br />
<strong>of</strong> Arun Bhaduri, a current Guru <strong>of</strong> ITC-SRA. He studied with Ishtiaq Hussein Khan <strong>of</strong><br />
Rampur-Sahaswan gharana and Pandit Gyan Prakash Ghosh, but is heavily indebted to<br />
Amir Khan’s style. Sandipan Samajpati is a vocalist <strong>of</strong> the younger generation who is<br />
currently establishing himself as a nationally known vocalist and who also sings very<br />
much like Amir Khan, although his Guru is Manas Chakraborty, son <strong>of</strong> the<br />
aforementioned legendary Bengali khyaaliya Tarapada Chakraborty. <strong>The</strong>se singers are<br />
exceptional in the sense that they have maintained some <strong>of</strong> the purity <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan’s<br />
music and perhaps added to it (in contradistinction to most Amir Khan imitators), but the<br />
point to be emphasized is that in Calcutta, Amir Khan’s style remains preeminent.<br />
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If we look back to some <strong>of</strong> the notable Bengali khyaaliya-s <strong>of</strong> previous<br />
generations who are generally cited as the best Bengal has produced historically, the most<br />
notable being Bishmadeb Chatterjee and Tarapada Chakraborty (leaving aside Girija<br />
Shankar and Gyan Prasad Goswami <strong>of</strong> Vishnupur gharana), we find that they also<br />
imitated and appropriated aspects <strong>of</strong> the music <strong>of</strong> the Ustads that they heard and admired<br />
and/or devised their own personal style. In other words, this phenomenon <strong>of</strong> imitation<br />
and invention in lieu <strong>of</strong> gharana taaliim did not begin with the arrival <strong>of</strong> Bade Ghulam<br />
Ali and Amir Khan in the 1960s. Neither Bishmadeb nor Tarapada ever gained much<br />
popularity outside Bengal, and perhaps because <strong>of</strong> this are rarely mentioned in any<br />
English language sources. K.P. Mukherjee, in his posthumously published monograph<br />
<strong>The</strong> Lost World <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Music (2006), is one <strong>of</strong> the very few authors who <strong>of</strong>fer any<br />
account <strong>of</strong> either <strong>of</strong> these two musician’s lives or their musical style or anything more<br />
than a few brief anecdotes about them. In the case <strong>of</strong> Bishmadeb Chatterjee, Mukherjee<br />
explains only that his style was largely his own invention. <strong>The</strong> reason for this is that<br />
Bishmadeb’s Ustad was Badal Khan <strong>of</strong> Sonepat (now in Haryana state), a saarangii<br />
player who had immigrated to Calcutta from Lucknow along with his patron, the exiled<br />
Nawab <strong>of</strong> Oudh, Wajid Ali Shah. However, as Mukherjee writes, “No sarangi player can<br />
give a vocalist his gayaki. Bishma Deb invented a style <strong>of</strong> his own that resembled no<br />
school <strong>of</strong> singing before or after. <strong>The</strong> cognoscenti <strong>of</strong> Calcutta who heard him at his peak<br />
swore he was potentially no inferior to the luminaries <strong>of</strong> his time”(2006:7). Tarapada<br />
Chakraborty, according to Mukherjee, was a “self-taught musician <strong>of</strong> phenomenal<br />
talent,” who, like Bishmadeb Chatterjee, had a “remarkable gift for imitation”(8). In<br />
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chronological order, Tarapada had imitated the respective gaayakii-s <strong>of</strong> Narayanrao Vyas<br />
<strong>of</strong> Gwalior gharana; Omkarnath Thakur, a disciple <strong>of</strong> Vishnu Digambar who himself<br />
developed unique, idiosyncratic style independent <strong>of</strong> any gharana; Abdul Karim <strong>of</strong><br />
Kirana; and, finally, Faiyaz Khan <strong>of</strong> Agra. <strong>The</strong> last two proved to be the most influential<br />
as Tarapada settled on a style combining Abdul Karim’s slow vistaar with the nom tom<br />
aalaap, rhythmic bol-baanT, and bol-taan-s taken from Faiyaz Khan. Tarapada has been<br />
succeeded <strong>by</strong> his previously mentioned son Manas Chakraborty who currently teaches<br />
and performs in Calcutta. Bishmadeb, for his part, never trained a notable successor,<br />
although he did teach, among others, the legendary light classical singer Begum Akhtar<br />
and the famous film singer and music director S.D. (Sachin Deb) Burman.<br />
Although this pattern <strong>of</strong> imitating the greats rather than taking direct taaliim from<br />
them has been quite common among Bengali Khyal singers since at least the early<br />
decades <strong>of</strong> the 20th century, it would be incorrect to state that no Bengali singer has ever<br />
learned directly from any great gharaanedaar Ustad. My interlocutors in Calcutta most<br />
frequently stated that Bade Ghulam Ali and Amir Khan taught “a few students” directly.<br />
Again, though, determining who these individuals were is much harder to answer,<br />
considering that there are and have been, without a doubt, a large number <strong>of</strong> individuals<br />
who have claimed to have learned directly from these two, but in reality have not.<br />
Leaving aside these two most influential singers, we find that a handful <strong>of</strong> singers were<br />
able to learn directly from a few <strong>of</strong> the stalwarts <strong>of</strong> the Agra gharana, a gharana which<br />
otherwise was never very popular in Calcutta or Bengal generally. This group includes<br />
Kumar Prasad Mukherjee himself, Dipali Nag, Purnima Sen, and Kashmiri businessman<br />
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and longtime Calcutta resident Vijay Kichlu. I was fortunate enough to speak with all<br />
four <strong>of</strong> these artists during my research. KP Mukherjee, as he explains in <strong>The</strong> Lost World<br />
<strong>of</strong> Hindustani Music, began as an imitator <strong>of</strong> Faiyaz Khan, but eventually received proper<br />
taaliim with two Agra gharaanedaar-s, Ata Hussain and Latafat Hussain, both <strong>of</strong> whom<br />
learned with Faiyaz Khan. 73 As Mukherjee states, “Between the two <strong>of</strong> them, I received<br />
sustained talim fourteen years…”(2006:25), although he also states that he remained true<br />
to his Faiyaz Khan-influenced, imitative style even after his time with these two Agra<br />
maestros. Dipali Nag, a Bengali who was raised in Agra, learned from Faiyaz Khan,<br />
Tassaduq Hussain, and Bashir Ahmed, and notably performed with Faiyaz Khan in her<br />
early years (Wade 1984:101). Purnima Sen, for her part, learned with Vilayat Hussain<br />
Khan in her youth, and then with Ata Hussain (Vilayat Hussain’s cousin), and finally<br />
with Ata Hussain’s nephew, Sharafat Hussain. Vijay Kichlu, like K.P. Mukherjee, also<br />
learned from Latafat Hussain after being inspired to take up the Agra gaayakii <strong>by</strong> Faiyaz<br />
Khan’s music, taaliim that supplemented training in Dhrupad from the “senior” Dagar<br />
Brothers, Nasir Moinuddin and Nasir Aminuddin (interview, 2005).<br />
Besides their background <strong>of</strong> Agra gharana taaliim, these four share two other<br />
important commonalities. First, all but Purnima Sen were raised in Uttar Pradesh (K.P.<br />
Mukherjee was raised in Lucknow, Kichlu in Allahabad, Dipali Nag in Agra itself),<br />
although both Dipali Nag and K.P. Mukherjee are ethnic Bengalis. While this aspect <strong>of</strong><br />
their background owes more to the vicissitudes <strong>of</strong> their own and their parents’ lives and<br />
careers than to their musical ambitions, the Agra training they received likely would not<br />
73 Ata Hussain was Faiyaz Khan’s brother-in-law; Latafat was his nephew.<br />
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have been possible had they not lived outside Calcutta, as, <strong>of</strong> all their collective Ustads,<br />
only Ata Hussain had ever settled permanently in Calcutta (though Latafat and Sharafat<br />
were frequent visitors). Besides the access that their U.P. background granted these three<br />
to their Agra Gurus, it perhaps also enabled them to better understand and appreciate the<br />
Agra gaayakii and Khyal singing generally. Amit Mukherjee, himself a Bengali raised in<br />
Bihar (where he learned from Amir Khan disciple Shankar Mazumdar), strongly<br />
advocated this notion during our interview. While speaking <strong>of</strong> the striking difference<br />
between the numbers <strong>of</strong> nationally successful Bengali instrumentalists versus nationally<br />
successful Bengali khyaaliya-s, Mukherjee told me,<br />
Barring <strong>of</strong> course one or two persons – there are always exceptions – there were<br />
tremendously talented people, and yet because they didn’t go into the entirety <strong>of</strong><br />
this music that they did not, I mean, you do not know <strong>of</strong> very great Bengali<br />
singers. Whereas, if you talk about the sitar/sarod, why is it that almost all <strong>of</strong><br />
them are from this part <strong>of</strong> the country? One <strong>of</strong> the main reasons is Enayet Khan.<br />
Enayet Khan, that means, say, almost a hundred years, he came to Gauripur as a<br />
state musician, and he had a whole lot <strong>of</strong> Bengali disciples. And, language wasn’t<br />
a barrier. And because he was staying here, they could associate with him, you<br />
know, continuously, and not like the Ustads who came for three-three and a half<br />
years – although many <strong>of</strong> the Ustads later on like Amir Khan and all have stayed<br />
here also at times for four or five years and have again gone out, again stayed –<br />
but, in this respect, sitar. And then came Allaudin Khan who was from Bengal,<br />
went to Rampur, learned from Wazir Khan, although he migrated to Maihar, but<br />
he had a close link, his family were here, so all <strong>of</strong> them were going to Maihar and<br />
learning, sitar, sarod, biin, whatever. So Nikhil Banerjee went, and so many other<br />
people, <strong>of</strong> course Ravi Shankar. Ravi Shankar is again a person from Benares,<br />
although Bengali. So again he was different. You talk to him, you find he reacts<br />
like a Hindi speaking person, if you speak to him in Hindi. And even now he will<br />
speak in the dialect, the Benaresi dialect, and I don’t know if you have been to<br />
Benares, but the body language <strong>of</strong> a Benaresi is very different from a Bengali, but<br />
for that music you need that body language, the mind works that way. So, what I<br />
am trying to say is you have to get into the music…and it’s the entirety <strong>of</strong> the<br />
expression. So that has been a very big drawback <strong>of</strong> Bengal (interview, 2005)<br />
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So, within this excerpt, we find two intertwined notions regarding the limitations <strong>of</strong><br />
Bengalis as Khyal singers. <strong>The</strong> first, which I have already discussed, is having limited<br />
time with one’s Guru or Ustad, even if the opportunity is there to study with a<br />
gharaanedaar singer, which again has been relatively rare compared to cases <strong>of</strong> Bengali<br />
vocalists who are essentially self-taught. A very important concept in Hindustani music,<br />
as my vocal music teacher Dr. Ram Deshpande explained to me, is sahvaas, a Hindi word<br />
roughly translated as “co-residence.” In the context <strong>of</strong> music, it means spending time<br />
with one’s Guru outside <strong>of</strong> periods <strong>of</strong> formal instruction, for example going on walks<br />
with the Guru, observing their lessons with other students, listening to their<br />
performances, etc. (personal communication, 2005). In Ramji’s view, the majority <strong>of</strong> an<br />
aspiring musician’s education actually comes in these contexts, but even some <strong>of</strong> the best<br />
Bengali singers historically have not had this extended contact with their respective<br />
mentors. <strong>The</strong> other limitation <strong>of</strong> Bengali singers has been, as Amit Mukherjee explained,<br />
that they simply do not have the same innate feeling for Hindustani music as does a<br />
person who was born and raised in the North Indian homeland <strong>of</strong> the tradition. Although<br />
Mukherjee’s reference in this connection was Ravi Shankar, an instrumentalist, it is not<br />
hard to imagine that this lack <strong>of</strong> the appropriate (North Indian) habitus would be a greater<br />
limitation for a singer than an instrumentalist, considering that vocal quality and<br />
pronunciation, like body language, are much more innate and subconscious than the skills<br />
required to play an instrument (though no more or less difficult to master). <strong>The</strong> relative<br />
number <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>icient foreign (i.e. non-Indian) instrumentalists compared to pr<strong>of</strong>icient<br />
foreign Khyal singers is further pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> this. Thus, individuals like K.P. Mukherjee,<br />
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Dipali Nag, and Amit Mukherjee, in essence, serve as bridges between the North Indian<br />
and Bengali cultures, having intimate knowledge <strong>of</strong> both.<br />
<strong>The</strong> other connection worth noting between this group <strong>of</strong> Calcutta-based Agra<br />
singers is that all <strong>of</strong> them have had some association with the ITC-Sangeet Research<br />
Academy, either as executive directors (Vijay Kichlu and also Amit Mukherjee, as<br />
mentioned above), as members <strong>of</strong> the expert committee (K.P. Mukherjee and Purnima<br />
Sen), or in an advisory capacity (Dipali Nag). Leaving aside Amit Mukherjee, it is no<br />
coincidence that all these vocalists with Agra gharana taaliim have had a connection with<br />
this well-known and respected institution, as one <strong>of</strong> the primary goals <strong>of</strong> the SRA has<br />
been to preserve and promote the traditional gharana styles and these four represent a<br />
very small handful <strong>of</strong> Calcutta-based vocalists who have been trained in the Agra<br />
gaayakii, one <strong>of</strong> the oldest, most important, and most prestigious <strong>of</strong> gharana styles.<br />
To explain, SRA, or the ITC (Indian Tobacco Company) Sangeet Research<br />
Academy is a private trust founded in 1978 in Calcutta as a gurukul-style music academy<br />
that, according to the SRA website (www.itcsra.org), was “modeled as an institution to<br />
epitomize the best <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Classical Music.” By gurukul is meant the traditionally<br />
Indian arrangement referenced above where disciples live in close quarters with their<br />
Gurus for long periods (some past scholars at the SRA have learned for periods<br />
exceeding ten years) as de facto members <strong>of</strong> their Gurus’ families, immersing themselves<br />
in learning music year-round, including daily direct instruction from their Guru and a<br />
rigorous schedule <strong>of</strong> practice, without outside responsibilities or distractions. This<br />
traditional plan <strong>of</strong> instruction is also supplemented <strong>by</strong> more modern methods such as the<br />
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analysis <strong>of</strong> audio recordings <strong>of</strong> past masters and classes dedicating to studying the<br />
theoretical aspects <strong>of</strong> music, i.e. raga structure. <strong>The</strong> three “basic objectives” <strong>of</strong> SRA,<br />
then, are as follows:<br />
1. Creation <strong>of</strong> on an effective training system<br />
2. To rationalize traditional data with the help <strong>of</strong> modern research methods and<br />
technology<br />
3. Promotion and propagation <strong>of</strong> music<br />
In other words, the SRA aims to improve the quality <strong>of</strong> Indian music, the heritage <strong>of</strong><br />
which, as the website explains, had become “imperceptibly diluted” <strong>by</strong> the time <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Academy’s founding in the late 1970s thanks to the lingering ill effects <strong>of</strong> the shift in<br />
patronage from aristocratic to public. <strong>The</strong> way the SRA seeks to improve music is, first<br />
and foremost, to train high quality performers with a background in a traditional gharana<br />
gaayakii and with a sound knowledge <strong>of</strong> the theory <strong>of</strong> the music. In this way, the<br />
academy attempts to combine the best aspects <strong>of</strong> the Paluskar-style music schools and the<br />
aforementioned traditional set-up. By improving the quality <strong>of</strong> musicianship through its<br />
graduates, the SRA can then better present classical music to the public and raise the<br />
general level <strong>of</strong> musical knowledge and, thus, the critical faculties <strong>of</strong> audience members,<br />
so that they will in turn demand better music. Certainly, the influence <strong>of</strong> both<br />
Bhatkhande and Paluskar can be seen in these various objectives <strong>of</strong> the academy. <strong>The</strong><br />
‘modern gurukul’ concept, with its semi-Sanskritized values, could be seen as part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Paluskar heritage. <strong>The</strong> primary emphasis on vocal music could attributed to both<br />
Vishnus, and the emphasis on identifying “the correct structures <strong>of</strong> all major Ragas,” in<br />
other words standardizing raga structure, was a major goal <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande, one that the<br />
SRA has addressed with its “Raga analysis project.” However, the SRA is primarily (and<br />
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firmly) directed towards producing performers, so there are no degrees as such, and the<br />
only examinations are performance-based and geared towards deciding only whether a<br />
scholar has progressed adequately enough to justify continuing with their education at the<br />
academy. Hence the open-ended nature <strong>of</strong> the training, made possible <strong>by</strong> funding from<br />
the Indian Tobacco Company, one <strong>of</strong> the pioneers <strong>of</strong> corporate patronage <strong>of</strong> Hindustani<br />
music in India. Needless to say, with his life-long financial problems, Paluskar could<br />
only have dreamed <strong>of</strong> running an establishment like the SRA with such ample private<br />
funding.<br />
In the context <strong>of</strong> the present discussion, what is most notable about the ITC-SRA<br />
are its efforts to promote authentic gharana gaayakii-s, and now, traditional styles <strong>of</strong><br />
instrumental music, as it has recently added sitarist Manilal Nag and sarodiya Buddhadev<br />
Dasgupta as the first Gurus <strong>of</strong> its relatively new instrumental division, established in<br />
2005. To fulfill this objective, the SRA has, throughout its history, employed Gurus<br />
representing all the major Khyal gharanas and from all parts <strong>of</strong> India. SRA’s original<br />
faculty included a number <strong>of</strong> luminaries, many <strong>of</strong> whom I have already mentioned above.<br />
This first batch <strong>of</strong> Gurus included Maharashtrians Hirabai Barodekar <strong>of</strong> Kirana gharana<br />
(Abdul Karim’s daughter) and Nivrutti Sarnaik <strong>of</strong> Jaipur Gharana; renowned light<br />
classical singer Girija Devi <strong>of</strong> Benares; and North Indian khaandaanii vocalists Ishtiaq<br />
Hussain (Sahaswan), Nissar Hussain (Rampur), and Latafat Hussain (Agra). <strong>The</strong><br />
question, then, is that, considering that the SRA is essentially a nationalizing force in<br />
Hindustani music, as it seeks to restore the prominence <strong>of</strong> traditional gharana gaayakii-s<br />
and to standardize the theoretical side <strong>of</strong> the music, and considering that it is based in<br />
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Calcutta, has the SRA helped to de-regionalize the Calcutta music scene? This is a<br />
difficult question, one that I have limited information with which to answer and that<br />
would be best addressed <strong>by</strong> a more focused study on the SRA and its graduates. It’s hard<br />
to imagine that the SRA could not have but had a positive effect on the community <strong>of</strong><br />
specifically Bengali musicians, as it <strong>of</strong>fers them (or those qualified for admission to<br />
academy, at least) a dependable source <strong>of</strong> top class gharana taaliim, which had rarely<br />
been available in Calcutta before the SRA’s inception in 1978.<br />
However, there is some evidence that suggests that the regional patterns I have<br />
discussed above are continuing to play out in the context <strong>of</strong> the SRA. On the Bengali<br />
side, the top Bengali vocalist ever to be involved with the SRA is surely Ajoy<br />
Chakraborty, who not only is a current Guru at the SRA but is also likely the SRA’s most<br />
well-known and visible graduate. <strong>The</strong> second most well-known former student (perhaps<br />
the most well-known in the eyes <strong>of</strong> some) is Rashid Khan who, <strong>by</strong> all accounts, grew up<br />
on the SRA campus training under the guidance <strong>of</strong> his now late uncle Nissar Hussain.<br />
When we look at the styles <strong>of</strong> these two musicians we find, as explained above, that Ajoy<br />
Chakraborty sings in the Patiala style <strong>of</strong> Bade Ghulam Ali and that Rashid Khan has a<br />
large amount <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan in his style. So, even with these two renowned khyaaliya-s,<br />
who, not incidentally, are easily the most famous Calcutta-based Khyal singers nationally<br />
(Rashid Khan is ethnically North Indian, but has lived most <strong>of</strong> his life in Calcutta, it<br />
should be noted), we find that they follow the same two styles, the styles <strong>of</strong> Calcutta’s<br />
favorite two gharaanedaar vocalists, despite their SRA background. This is not to say<br />
that the gaayakii <strong>of</strong> either <strong>of</strong> these singers has the flaws pointed out <strong>by</strong> K.P. Mukherjee<br />
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when explaining what he called the “synthetic gaayakii” <strong>of</strong> most Calcutta singers – Ajoy<br />
Chakraborty arguably sings in a purer version <strong>of</strong> the Patiala style than almost any other<br />
singer in India these days – but they certainly do not stand out as major exceptions<br />
stylistically compared to other Calcutta musicians. On the Maharashtrian side, the most<br />
notable recent Guru at the SRA has been Ulhas Kashalkar, <strong>by</strong> consensus the leading<br />
exponent <strong>of</strong> the Gwalior style in the last 10-15 years. If any Guru could be seen as<br />
nationalizing the Calcutta musical scene it would be Kashalkar, who, after all, sings in a<br />
style I have labeled as characteristically Maharashtrian, the Gajananbua version <strong>of</strong><br />
Gwalior mixed with Jaipur and Agra, three styles that are otherwise notably absent in<br />
Calcutta and that have been rare in eastern India historically. Ulhas Kashalkar certainly<br />
is not without his followers amongst the listeners in the city; indeed, Calcutta, like the<br />
rest <strong>of</strong> India, has started to realize the greatness <strong>of</strong> this reserved and thoroughly<br />
traditional singer. What struck me upon first meeting Ulhasji and some <strong>of</strong> his pupils in<br />
his bungalow on the SRA campus, though, was that almost all <strong>of</strong> his students were<br />
Maharashtrians. I even asked Ulhasji, and he told me, “Yes, there are a few others, from<br />
the South or from Bengal, but the largest number are Maharashtrian”(personal<br />
communication, 2005). So, even in Calcutta, a Maharashtrian singer attracts<br />
Maharashtrian followers. <strong>The</strong> point, I feel, is that while the situation in India for last 50<br />
years does promote a certain degree <strong>of</strong> homogeneity, it also <strong>of</strong>fers choice to the young<br />
aspiring musician, unprecedented choice, and it is through such choices that each<br />
musician makes that regional aesthetic preferences and tendencies are most clearly<br />
revealed.<br />
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Before concluding this section on Khyal in Bengal, it is important to note that<br />
while Bengal has never inherited many first-rate Khyal singers from the North, it has<br />
inherited musicians representing other traditions <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music. <strong>The</strong> most<br />
important <strong>of</strong> these is <strong>of</strong> course instrumental music, i.e. music <strong>of</strong> the sitar, sarod, and tabla,<br />
an area where Bengal has dominated on a national basis since at least the middle <strong>of</strong> the<br />
20th century. I will devote a larger amount time to discussing these instrumental<br />
traditions below, but here I wish to mention Bengal’s largest inheritance in terms <strong>of</strong> vocal<br />
music: Thumri, specifically the Lucknowi form <strong>of</strong> the genre. One might object to this<br />
point, as I have already ruled out Thumri, so to speak, as a “classical” genre. This is<br />
rather the point. It is this type <strong>of</strong> singing (and other light-classical forms similar to it),<br />
not the raga-based forms like Khyal and Dhrupad, which has had the largest audience and<br />
the largest number <strong>of</strong> adherents in terms <strong>of</strong> performers from the turn <strong>of</strong> the 20th century<br />
forward in Calcutta and the rest <strong>of</strong> the region. In this sense, Thumri has a rather<br />
important relationship with Khyal, as it has both competed with Khyal for audiences and<br />
has crucially affected the style <strong>of</strong> Khyal singing in Calcutta.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are a number <strong>of</strong> tawaaif-s (the main practitioners <strong>of</strong> the genre), tabla<br />
players, and saarangii players, the latter two groups serving as the teachers and<br />
accompanists <strong>of</strong> the tawaaif-s, who made their way from the North, primarily from<br />
eastern U.P., down to Calcutta around the turn <strong>of</strong> the 20th century in order to exploit the<br />
opportunities <strong>of</strong> the growing commercial center that Calcutta was at the time, a<br />
movement which was precipitated the slow drying-up <strong>of</strong> princely patronage in the Hindi-<br />
speaking regions. However, <strong>by</strong> far the most important migration in musical terms from<br />
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U.P. to Bengal was due to the exile <strong>of</strong> Nawab Wajid Ali Shah <strong>of</strong> Lucknow to Metiaburuj<br />
near Calcutta, along with his full retinue <strong>of</strong> actors, dancers, and musicians. Wajid Ali is<br />
well-known as the epitome <strong>of</strong> the princes <strong>of</strong> the declining feudal era in India who spent<br />
their time indulging themselves in ‘frivolous’ pastimes, be it sport or music or poetry –<br />
anything other than ruling or administering to their kingdom. At the same time, Wajid<br />
Ali is also remembered as a great patron <strong>of</strong> the arts and as an accomplished dancer and<br />
poet who also learned music. However, his time on the throne in Lucknow was to come<br />
to an end somewhat prematurely in 1856. As ethnomusicologist and Lucknow<br />
afficianado James Kippen explains,<br />
<strong>The</strong> British Governor-General, Lord Dalhousie (1848-56), had already annexed a<br />
large number <strong>of</strong> states in India, and he saw the decedent behavior <strong>of</strong> Wajid Ali<br />
Shah and his court a plausible excuse to add Awadh to his list <strong>of</strong> appropriated<br />
territories. <strong>The</strong> British took over complete administration <strong>of</strong> the kingdom in 1856<br />
<strong>by</strong> sending an armed force to Lucknow and issuing the king with the instruction<br />
that Awadh was no longer under his rule. Intending to plead with Queen Victoria<br />
in London for reinstatement, Wajid Ali Shah departed from Lucknow with his<br />
retinue to travel to Calcutta, from where members <strong>of</strong> his family left for a royal<br />
audience in England. During their absence, new and momentous events shook<br />
Lucknow and the deposed king was to never see the city again. He remained until<br />
his death in Matiya Burj, Calcutta, pursuing his eccentricities and fulfilling his<br />
taste for the arts and luxurious living (1988:6).<br />
<strong>The</strong> important part <strong>of</strong> this story is not that Wajid Ali himself landed in Calcutta, although<br />
he did continue to patronize musicians (including some Bengali musicians), but rather<br />
that all <strong>of</strong> his musicians did. K.P. Mukherjee singles out three <strong>of</strong> Wajid Ali’s darbaar<br />
musicians as significant, the khyaaliya-s Taj Khan (Seni), Ali Baksh Khan, originally <strong>of</strong><br />
Gwalior, and the aforementioned saarangiya Badal Khan, who served as Guru to<br />
Bishmadeb Chatterjee and Girija Shankar Chakraborty (2006:8). Chhaya Chatterjee<br />
(1996), in a more carefully enumerated and less anecdotal account, adds a number <strong>of</strong><br />
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others to the list, including Niyamatulla Khan, sarodiya and father <strong>of</strong> the well-known<br />
Karamatulla Khan; Pyar Khan, shahnaaii player; tabliya Nanhe Khan; and Sajjad<br />
Mohammed, sitar, who as Ray notes, both give taaliim to Sourindromohun Tagore while<br />
under the employ <strong>of</strong> that branch <strong>of</strong> the Tagore family and also influenced the playing <strong>of</strong><br />
Imdad Khan (212-213).<br />
Again, though, the largest number <strong>of</strong> musicians that came from UP to Bengal<br />
were tawaaif-s, including those in employ <strong>of</strong> Wajid Ali and others who were not. “<strong>The</strong><br />
Nawab [Wajid Ali] and the Baijis [tawaaif-s] <strong>of</strong> his court were trained musicians and<br />
excelled especially in thumri. <strong>The</strong>y influenced the music culture <strong>of</strong> 19 th -20 th century<br />
Bengal <strong>by</strong> developing the taste and appreciation <strong>of</strong> music, particularly in the styles <strong>of</strong><br />
thumri and dadra”(Chatterjee 1996:213). KP Mukherjee, while discussing Calcutta’s<br />
role as a marketplace for music and the relative paucity <strong>of</strong> khyaaliya-s who settled in<br />
Calcutta explained,<br />
Of course, tawaaif-s…courtesans…women singers, there were plenty because<br />
they were part <strong>of</strong> the market, they settled down here. Right from Nikkibai <strong>of</strong> Raja<br />
Ram Mohun’s time, down to Gauharjan…<strong>The</strong>re were five Malkajans:<br />
Gauharjan’s mother was Badi Malkajan, then there was Agra gharana Malkajan,<br />
and there Chulbuliwali Malkajan, there was Chappachule Malkajan, I mean, there<br />
were…Jaddanbai, Nargis’s mother, she stayed here for a long time (interview,<br />
2005).<br />
Ray and Mukherjee (2006) both also mention Zohrabai Agrewale as another notable<br />
tawaaif transplanted from U.P.; according to Mukherjee, she was “possibly the most<br />
accomplished female musician <strong>of</strong> her time”(9). <strong>The</strong>se are among the most famous, but<br />
undoubtedly there were many others, whose artistry was perhaps not on the level <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Gauharjan or Zohrabai, who have been forgotten. Certainly, as many have pointed out,<br />
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the historiography <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music in India has not been particularly partial to<br />
discussing the contributions <strong>of</strong> singers who were also considered prostitutes, although it<br />
should be noted that courtesans are more frequently included in discussions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Calcutta music scene than their counterparts in western India have been.<br />
Regardless <strong>of</strong> the individual legacies <strong>of</strong> these women, their collective impact was<br />
to establish a level popularity for Thumri which far exceeded that <strong>of</strong> Khyal from the<br />
earliest days <strong>of</strong> the last century. As Purohit, in his inimitable style, explains,<br />
<strong>The</strong> thumri was carried from Avadh and physically and firmly planted on the soil<br />
<strong>of</strong> Calcutta. <strong>The</strong> zamindars and the residents <strong>of</strong> the red light districts greeted this<br />
importation with enthusiasm. In fact, so strong was the influence <strong>of</strong> the thumri<br />
ang on Calcutta that real classical music was completely swamped, and<br />
throughout the princeling and zamindar periods <strong>of</strong> our recent art history,<br />
respectively 1860-1905 and 1905-23, light classical and light music remained<br />
predominant. It was not until the industrial bourgeois phase <strong>of</strong> 1934-56, that a<br />
serious interest developed in Calcutta in khyal gayaki through the proliferation <strong>of</strong><br />
middle class music circles (1988:863).<br />
However, as both Purohit and Sukumar Ray argue, Thumris were even more influential<br />
as components <strong>of</strong> or models for the compositions created <strong>by</strong> Bengali poet-composers<br />
such as Atulprasad Sen, Kazi Nazrul Islam, and Rabindranath Tagore than in their<br />
original, Hindi language form. That Thumri, as a genre, should have been incorporated<br />
in such an indirect and piecemeal fashion should not be surprising, as it is itself a<br />
“fundamentally anti-classical” style (Purohit 1988:861). 74 It is also worth mentioning in<br />
this connection that Girija Shankar Chakraborty, doyen <strong>of</strong> the Vishnupur gharana and one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the most prolific vocal music Gurus in the history <strong>of</strong> classical music in Bengal<br />
(Mukherjee calls him “acharya <strong>of</strong> acharyas”), took taaliim from both saarangiya Badal<br />
74<br />
As Purohit notes, Gauharjan “managed to include in her repertoire the war tune ‘It’s a long, long way to<br />
Tipperary’”(1988:861).<br />
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Khan, who had migrated with Wajid Ali from Lucknow and had a long standing<br />
association with Bhaiya Saheb Ganapat Rao, the illegitimate son <strong>of</strong> the Maharaja <strong>of</strong><br />
Gwalior and renowned harmonium player, and from his disciple Moijuddin Khan, who<br />
was to become the most respected Thumri singer in Calcutta in the early decades <strong>of</strong> the<br />
20th century. 75 Girijababu, as Bengalis fondly call him, was known as a singer <strong>of</strong> Khyal,<br />
Dhrupad, and Thumri. It seems, then, that he passed on his fondness for the genre to his<br />
many notable students, such as Gyanendra Prasad Goswami, Tarapada Chakraborty,<br />
Pannalal Ghosh, Gyanprakash Ghosh, Chinmoy Lahiri, A.T. Kanan, Sunil Bose, and<br />
Dipali Nag (Chatterjee 1996:364), both helping to make Thumri popular in its own right<br />
and, more importantly, establishing it as a key influence on the more classical genres <strong>of</strong><br />
Hindustani music.<br />
So, to briefly conclude, we can see from the above that the story <strong>of</strong> Khyal in<br />
Bengal is a much more convoluted and complex one than is the case in Maharashtra,<br />
where Ustads, rather simply, came to Maharashtra in search <strong>of</strong> royal patronage in the<br />
waning years <strong>of</strong> the feudal era and passed their art on to Maharashtrian Hindu disciples,<br />
who in turn propagate those styles up to the present day, albeit in <strong>of</strong>ten highly modified<br />
forms. Indeed, if anything is complex about Khyal in Maharashtra, it is the numerous<br />
ways in which musicians <strong>of</strong> the present and preceding generations have taken the styles<br />
handed down to them <strong>by</strong> the gharaanedaar Ustads and combined them into something<br />
more distinct, (ostensibly) individualistic, and, <strong>of</strong>ten, more Maharashtrian than the styles<br />
75 Bhaiya Saheb Ganapat Rao and Moijuddin Khan are generally credited for popularizing the Benaresi,<br />
rather than the Lucknowi, variety <strong>of</strong> Thumri.<br />
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as practiced <strong>by</strong> those hereditary Ustads. In Calcutta, though, the situation is reversed –<br />
the history, again, is complex, but the style <strong>of</strong> Khyal practiced <strong>by</strong> Bengali musicians in<br />
Calcutta and elsewhere is remarkably homogenous, all things considered. <strong>The</strong> main<br />
reason for this, <strong>of</strong> course, is that most Bengali Khyal singers since the 1960s have drawn<br />
on the music <strong>of</strong> two key maestros as the primary source(s) for their own style. <strong>The</strong>se two<br />
musicians were, again, Ustad Amir Khan <strong>of</strong> the ‘Indore gharana’ (though in practice his<br />
style was essentially identical to the Kirana approach), and, secondarily, Bade Ghulam<br />
Ali Khan <strong>of</strong> Patiala. This side <strong>of</strong> the equation is deceptively simple because this certainly<br />
has not always been the case. Earlier, other great Khyal maestros such as Faiyaz Khan,<br />
Abdul Karim Khan, and V.D. Paluskar, similarly served as the models for aspiring<br />
Bengali singers. However, as they passed on, other heroes and role models came along<br />
and replaced them. One can never foresee the future, but it seems likely that yet another<br />
batch <strong>of</strong> musical heroes will come along one day and replace AK and BGAK. <strong>The</strong> more<br />
enduring factor in this case is the Bengali temperament, which, as in any case, is a<br />
response or adaptation to their environment and circumstances, but is also, in a very real<br />
sense, unique to Bengal alone. Some evidence supporting this view is the fact that, even<br />
in the realm <strong>of</strong> classical instrumental music, where (in the Bengali context specifically)<br />
there are a number <strong>of</strong> home grown, pr<strong>of</strong>essional-level Gurus with whom students can<br />
study directly, Bengali musicians continue to seek out and emulate famous role models,<br />
even in cases where their own Guru is a very respectable, even regionally famous,<br />
musician who plays in a different style than that <strong>of</strong> the aspiring musician’s role model.<br />
This kind <strong>of</strong> emulation is present all over India, no doubt, but, in comparison to<br />
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Maharashtra, this specific phenomenon <strong>of</strong> a student studying with a Guru but, at the same<br />
time, actually playing or singing in a style associated with another musician, seems much<br />
more common to Bengal.<br />
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5. Tabla in the Regional Context<br />
While in the case <strong>of</strong> both vocal music (Dhrupad & Khyal) and instrumental<br />
music, we find very uneven distribution both <strong>of</strong> performers and <strong>of</strong> the different gharana<br />
styles in Maharashtra and Bengal (i.e. Khyal is present in Bengal to a limited extent but is<br />
dominant in Maharashtra, the sarod is common in Bengal but extremely scarce in<br />
Maharashtra, etc.), it is not at all surprising that the paired tabla drums are present<br />
wherever any Hindustani music is practiced. <strong>The</strong> tabla, after all, is a sine qua non for the<br />
performance <strong>of</strong> every type <strong>of</strong> North Indian classical and semi-classical genre, save for<br />
Dhrupad, which utilizes the larger, barrel-shaped pakhaawaj drum. However, while the<br />
tabla is almost indisputably <strong>of</strong> West Asian origin, it can be seen as the ancestor <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pakhaawaj as well, in the sense that it fulfills the musical role <strong>of</strong> the pakhaawaj and<br />
replicates with its two drums the high-low pairing <strong>of</strong> the two differently sized heads <strong>of</strong><br />
the cylindrical pakhaawaj. Also, as in the case <strong>of</strong> the Khyal gharanas that are based in<br />
Dhrupad traditions, there are a number <strong>of</strong> traditions <strong>of</strong> tabla which have been based in<br />
specific pakhaawaj playing traditions and retain that influence to the present, so there is<br />
that further connection between the two.<br />
In classical music theory in India, there are said to be two major aspects <strong>of</strong> music,<br />
swara and laya, or melody and rhythm. As in so many other areas <strong>of</strong> Indian culture,<br />
these two aspects are not equally valued but rather stand in hierarchical relation to each<br />
other, with melody taken to be superior to rhythm. This relationship finds its parallel in<br />
the relationship between the performers who are responsible for each aspect <strong>of</strong> the music.<br />
In other words, it is the soloist, whether singer or (melodic) instrumentalist, that is<br />
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esponsible for the melodic aspects <strong>of</strong> a performance. <strong>The</strong> tabla player, however, while<br />
largely responsible for the tala, or rhythmic cycle, the specific, practical manifestation <strong>of</strong><br />
laya, is subordinate even in that area. This is because, all other factors such as age or<br />
seniority being equal, it is the soloist who determines the tala to be performed, the initial<br />
tempo and any changes in tempo as the performance progresses, and when (and if) the<br />
tabla player is allowed to perform a solo in the course <strong>of</strong> a raga performance. Thus, it<br />
may be more appropriate to say that melody is the domain <strong>of</strong> the soloist, but rhythm is the<br />
province <strong>of</strong> both soloist and tabla player. This notion is further supported <strong>by</strong> the fact that<br />
many performers, particularly performers <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad or Dhrupad-derived styles, include<br />
a more explicitly rhythm-oriented element (generally termed layakaarii) in their own<br />
improvisations. At the same time, however, there are Hindustani soloist musicians who<br />
almost totally eschew the rhythmic side <strong>of</strong> the music and even expect their tabla<br />
accompanists to restrict their performance to nothing outside <strong>of</strong> playing a relatively<br />
simple <strong>The</strong>kaa. 76 This arrangement is most <strong>of</strong>ten present when the soloist is a singer<br />
from a non-Dhrupad based Khyal gharana or is a sitar or sarod player who plays in a<br />
mostly Khyal-derived style. It is only with this type <strong>of</strong> relationship that we can discern<br />
something like the idealized separation suggested <strong>by</strong> the classical swara/laya dichotomy.<br />
When we further refine our focus and begin to examine tabla in the context <strong>of</strong> the<br />
regional classical music scenes in Maharashtra and Bengal, however, we find that, while<br />
in some cases the history <strong>of</strong> tabla playing in these two regions can be seen as parallel to<br />
76<br />
<strong>The</strong>kaa is the basic pattern a tabla player plays in order to clearly establish each beat <strong>of</strong> the rhythmic<br />
cycle being performed.<br />
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the other musical traditions I have discussed and will discuss below, the fact that the tabla<br />
is primarily an accompanying instrument has greatly impacted the way the various styles<br />
and traditions have been preserved, changed, and/or represented <strong>by</strong> the successive<br />
generations <strong>of</strong> tabla players from the late 19th century to the present. Certainly, as with<br />
Khyal, we can trace the migration <strong>of</strong> particular charismatic and influential tabliya-s from<br />
the North into Maharashtra and Bengal and gauge from the number <strong>of</strong> notable current<br />
exponents <strong>of</strong> each style which tradition has been most important in each region generally<br />
and in Bombay and Calcutta particularly. <strong>The</strong> musical role <strong>of</strong> the tabla, though, has<br />
meant that tabla players have had to pursue versatility and a ‘horizontal’ depth <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> different solo and especially accompaniment styles to an extent unknown<br />
to most soloist musicians. A sitar player or Khyal singer might develop an eclectic style<br />
<strong>by</strong> necessity to substitute for traditional gharana taaliim, or even develop an eclectic style<br />
with gharana taaliim as its foundation, but ultimately soloists make their stylistic<br />
decisions based on what they feel will emphasize their strengths and, more importantly,<br />
what will make them most attractive to ticket- and CD/cassette-buying audiences. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
are certainly tabla players who are stars and audience pullers in their own right, with<br />
Ustad Zakir Hussain at the top <strong>of</strong> the list, but these star tabliya-s represent a tiny fraction<br />
<strong>of</strong> all the pr<strong>of</strong>essional and pr<strong>of</strong>essional-level tabla players in India and abroad. In this<br />
sense, the tabla is much more similar to the saarangii than any <strong>of</strong> the ‘soloist’<br />
instruments.<br />
As noted above, the gharana concept is not applicable to saarangii playing<br />
because saarangii players have to, in essence, learn every gharana style so that they can<br />
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potentially accompany singers from each and every gharana. A very distinctive ‘voice’<br />
for saarangii players is not a virtue, as saarangii accompaniment largely consists <strong>of</strong> the<br />
saarangii echoing whatever the singer sings note for note. This would be the case for<br />
tabla as well, were it not for the tradition <strong>of</strong> solo tabla playing. In this realm, there are<br />
gharana traditions, gharana repertoire (including ‘secret’ and unusual compositions),<br />
gharana techniques, etc., although this is not to say that there are not accompaniment<br />
styles that correspond to specific tabla gharanas. I will return to this point shortly, but for<br />
now, it will suffice to emphasize that accompaniment styles are, <strong>by</strong> nature, adaptable,<br />
and, in modern tabla playing, relatively non-specific in comparison to solo performance<br />
styles.<br />
Regarding solo tabla playing, though, it is also important to note that this side <strong>of</strong><br />
the tabla tradition has been in decline for some time. Considering that the artistic pr<strong>of</strong>ile<br />
<strong>of</strong> tabla players has greatly risen in the last fifty years, thanks in large part to the great<br />
popularity that tabla and tabla players have enjoyed outside <strong>of</strong> India, it may seem<br />
counter-intuitive that traditions <strong>of</strong> specifically solo tabla playing would have declined<br />
(i.e. become less popular with audiences) in recent years. Kippen (1988) argues that solo<br />
tabla has declined for two reasons. <strong>The</strong> first is simply that the proper contexts for solo<br />
tabla playing are no longer there. As Kippen writes,<br />
Neuman (1980:70) has quoted Ahmedjan Thirakwa as saying that tabla solos<br />
were, in fact, less common in the past and were heard only in mahfils [small<br />
gatherings] <strong>by</strong> an audience <strong>of</strong> ‘brother musicians’. <strong>The</strong> evidence I collected in<br />
fact points to the opposite being the case. Tabla solo was, I was frequently told,<br />
more commonly heard in the past and was a feature not only <strong>of</strong> mahfils but also <strong>of</strong><br />
the courts and houses <strong>of</strong> the aristocracy, as well as being a popular item in the<br />
early music conferences (100).<br />
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<strong>The</strong> days <strong>of</strong> aristocratic and semi-aristocratic patronage are over, but music ‘conferences’<br />
are still prevalent. So why then are tabla solos no longer popular even in that context?<br />
<strong>The</strong> issue here, which was the common denominator between the courtly milieu and the<br />
early music conferences, is the knowledge level <strong>of</strong> the listeners. Most middle-class<br />
listeners today simply do not have the knowledge to appreciate the less frequently heard<br />
genres performed in solo tabla recitals, or at least that is the belief <strong>of</strong> enough concert<br />
promoters, artists, and/or patrons/audience members to keep solo tabla recitals rare in<br />
comparison to Khyal or instrumental music performances. Another factor lacking<br />
specifically in the music conference cum festival setting is a certain level <strong>of</strong> intimacy and<br />
performer-audience interaction which characterized classical music performances during<br />
the feudal and colonial eras. <strong>The</strong> most notable example <strong>of</strong> such interaction was the<br />
farmaa’ish (request), in which an audience member would test the skill <strong>of</strong> the performer.<br />
Kippen writes, “[r]equests were made for rare examples <strong>of</strong> certain types <strong>of</strong> composition,<br />
or conditions and limitations were imposed upon the musician within which he had to<br />
play. If the tabla player was unable to draw on material from his repertoire, he was<br />
forced to compose spontaneously”(1988:101). In most modern ticketed performances,<br />
neither the appropriate knowledge level on the part <strong>of</strong> the listeners nor the necessary<br />
closeness and intimacy are present, and, as such, the farmaa’ish has become an all but<br />
obsolete practice.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most crucial factor in what Kippen calls the “demise <strong>of</strong> the tabla solo,”<br />
however, is not simply the lack <strong>of</strong> a knowledgeable audience and/or appropriate context<br />
for performance because, after all, other difficult and esoteric classical forms (most<br />
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notably Dhrupad singing) have survived the changes <strong>of</strong> the 20th century and even<br />
increased in popularity in recent years. Solo tabla, in Kippen’s view, has been most<br />
affected <strong>by</strong> the changes in the manner in which tabla players have chosen (or have been<br />
encouraged) to provide accompaniment to instrumental music recitals. As Kippen<br />
explains, in the past (in the early 20th century or earlier), tabla players <strong>of</strong>ten provided<br />
very simple, straightforward accompaniment that, as noted above, consisted <strong>of</strong> simply<br />
providing the <strong>The</strong>kaa with minor embellishments, if any. Historically, this style has been<br />
particularly characteristic <strong>of</strong> tabla accompaniment <strong>of</strong> Khyal and remains so today. A<br />
much different but also common style was referred to as laRant (fighting) or saath sangat<br />
(playing together) which most <strong>of</strong>ten featured in instrumental recitals. In this style, which<br />
is rarely heard these days, the tabla player tries his best to shadow the soloist <strong>by</strong><br />
attempting to play strokes on the tabla that sound similar to the patterns being played on<br />
the sitar or sarod; this can be done as an echo, as in saarangii accompaniment, or, if<br />
possible, almost simultaneously. Which <strong>of</strong> these two styles would have been preferred<br />
<strong>by</strong> a particular soloist was <strong>of</strong> course dependent on that individual’s tastes (the two names<br />
for this style would seem to reflect inter alia the differing opinions <strong>of</strong> musicians<br />
regarding this type <strong>of</strong> accompaniment), but it also had much to do with the perceived<br />
status <strong>of</strong> the tabliya relative to the soloist. <strong>The</strong> laRant style <strong>by</strong> nature involves much<br />
more influence on and input in a performance on the part <strong>of</strong> the tabla player than is<br />
otherwise the case, and not surprisingly, many soloists have found this to be undesirable.<br />
However, in a situation where the tabla player outranked the soloist in terms <strong>of</strong> age<br />
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and/or fame and popularity, the tabla player could choose to indulge in laRant style<br />
playing whether the soloist desired this type <strong>of</strong> accompaniment or not.<br />
Another, third style <strong>of</strong> tabla accompaniment arose in the last 50 years, again<br />
primarily in the realm <strong>of</strong> instrumental music, one that Kippen refers to as the<br />
“alternating” style. Kippen describes this style as “non-interference with the soloist’s<br />
improvisations, thus allowing for the potentially unhindered development <strong>of</strong> the rag, and<br />
the full exploitation <strong>of</strong> the many opportunities given for short, interposed tabla<br />
solos”(1988:104). Kippen gives primary credit to Pandit Ravi Shankar for this<br />
innovation. 77 Kippen seems to feel this development (in large part due to his informants’<br />
opinions on the matter, to be fair) is largely a negative one, in that it has resulted in both<br />
the laRant style <strong>of</strong> accompaniment and the tabla solo proper both becoming largely<br />
obsolete, as tabla players can feature their skills in the context <strong>of</strong> a sitar or sarod recital<br />
through the shorter solos they play that are interpolated into the raga performance without<br />
the need for their own separate recital and without the need to “interfere” in what the<br />
soloist is playing. My own feeling, however, is that while RS does deserve credit for<br />
elevating the role <strong>of</strong> the tabla player generally (and for turning a few, such as his<br />
longtime musical partner the late Ustad Alla Rakha, into bona fide superstars), he does<br />
not necessarily deserve blame for marginalizing either solo tabla playing or the older<br />
styles <strong>of</strong> accompaniment. From my own experience as a listener, I can testify that both<br />
RS and other notable Maihar gharana exponents such as Ali Akbar Khan include all three<br />
77 <strong>The</strong> idea <strong>of</strong> expanding the role <strong>of</strong> the tabla player started with Ravi Shankar’s Guru, Ustad Allaudin<br />
Khan, but it was RS who undoubtedly refined and popularized this new way <strong>of</strong> featuring the tabla player<br />
during a performance; see Shankar (1969 & 1999).<br />
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styles <strong>of</strong> accompaniment, straight <strong>The</strong>kaa, (at least some) saath sangat, and the<br />
‘alternating’ style in their performances. This is not to mention that RS has made a<br />
practice over the years <strong>of</strong> allowing his tabla accompanists to play longer, ‘proper’ tabla<br />
solos (where the sitar plays leharaa accompaniment) between items in his concerts and<br />
on his recordings. If the recent live performances and recordings <strong>of</strong> RS and Ali Akbar<br />
Khan feature less saath sangat now than in the 1960s, it is perhaps as much due to the<br />
tabla players themselves than to what soloists have expected from them. It should be<br />
noted, though, that the strictest version <strong>of</strong> the ‘alternating’ style can be found more<br />
commonly in the performances <strong>of</strong> heavily Khyal influenced instrumentalists such as<br />
sarodist Amjad Ali Khan and the late sitar maestro Vilayat Khan. In the music <strong>of</strong> this<br />
type <strong>of</strong> artist, the short tabla solos are mostly extraneous in terms <strong>of</strong> the overall<br />
performance, outside <strong>of</strong> perhaps creating a sense <strong>of</strong> excitement and forward motion. In<br />
this way, gayaakii ang instrumentalists, as in many other regards, can be seen as<br />
occupying middle ground between Dhrupad musicians and strongly Dhrupad-influenced<br />
instrumentalists on the one hand and Khyal singers on the other.<br />
However, it is not only that all the credit or blame for this change in relative<br />
emphasis on instrumental accompaniment rather than on solo tabla performance should<br />
not go to Ravi Shankar or the Maihar gharana alone; it is unfair, I feel, to place the<br />
blame even on instrumental soloists generally. To be sure, soloists have their<br />
preferences, and <strong>by</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> the relationship, there is more likelihood that a soloist<br />
will impact the way a tabla player accompanies him than vice versa. Again, though, I<br />
would like to emphasize that tabla players have never had more status and prestige or<br />
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more commercial appeal than they do today, even if the disparity between the stars and<br />
the rank and file pr<strong>of</strong>essionals among tabla players is even more pronounced than in the<br />
realm <strong>of</strong> instrumental soloists. Thus, it again seems somewhat surprising to find that, at<br />
least in the eyes <strong>of</strong> some, today’s superstar tabla players have settled for what is actually<br />
a more subservient musical position now than 50 or 100 years ago. <strong>The</strong> tabla player most<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten criticized for accepting this arguably diminished role is Ustad Zakir Hussain, the<br />
son <strong>of</strong> the aforementioned late Punjab tabla gharana maestro Alla Rakha. Pandit Shankar<br />
Ghosh, senior tabla Guru and veteran performer <strong>of</strong> Calcutta, spoke most openly and<br />
explicitly <strong>of</strong> the tabla players I interviewed regarding this subject. When I asked about<br />
Zakirji’s accompaniment style (as a factor in his popularity among aspiring tabliya-s),<br />
Shankarda responded thusly,<br />
…in my time, it was, uh, he [Zakir] has brought a style…it is, he has diminished<br />
the scope, uses <strong>of</strong> the tabla while in accompaniment. In my, you see, there is<br />
one…did you see this one? [showing me the recently released Shankar Ghosh CD<br />
boxed set] You can get in the Music World. You can see all these<br />
accompaniment was so different than nowadays accompaniment, it was so<br />
different! Because it was free – I was not being told like this and I was not being<br />
told like this and when to play. I was the master <strong>of</strong> mine. So what was lacking in<br />
that way is that it was only the instrumentalist’s own idea which was being given<br />
to the audience. But what about the idea <strong>of</strong> the tabla player? It was not being<br />
added. So that the result was that was not helping the music to grow. One side <strong>of</strong><br />
music was not there – which was the sport…which was the sport. Do you hear<br />
me playing with Vilayat Khan in raga Darbari Kanada which is very famous?<br />
Playing with Ali Akbar Khan? Playing with Ravi Shankarji? It was always like,<br />
“He is doing something, I am doing something.” In that way we used to…that,<br />
Zakir did not do that (interview, 2005).<br />
This having been said, I should again note that this development (which is widespread<br />
amongst tabla players across India) cannot be solely attributed to ZH because even if he<br />
was the first play in the “alternating” accompaniment style - which is demonstrably not<br />
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the case - other tabla players have had to choose to emulate him in that regard and clearly<br />
many have.<br />
Considering that I have not interviewed Zakir Hussain first hand, it is difficult for<br />
me to speculate regarding why he would be content to play less <strong>of</strong> an active role in the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the music <strong>of</strong> the soloist he is playing with than his predecessors had,<br />
other than that perhaps he plays in this style to be deferent to the great, senior artists he<br />
frequently accompanies. Shankar Ghosh touched on this as our interview proceeded.<br />
“Many times people told that he played under…like he played ‘underdog’ - he did not<br />
use it [his popularity ],” Shankarda stated. In other words, he felt that Zakirji has the<br />
clout, so to speak, and the musical skill and ability to impose himself on performances<br />
much more than he generally does, or to use Shankar Ghosh’s words, “should do.” SG<br />
did note that, at times, particularly when playing with santuur player Shiv Kumar Sharma<br />
or flautist Hari Prasad Chaurasia, Zakir does assert himself more in accompaniment.<br />
This would seem to somewhat confirm the idea that Zakir Hussain is more apt to take a<br />
more active role while playing with musicians he considers his peers and equals, as Shiv<br />
Kumar and Hari Prasad are not much older than Zakir 78 and both have worked with him<br />
frequently in various musical endeavors since the 1970s. An examination <strong>of</strong> ZH’s<br />
recordings with Sultan Khan would seem to suggest that this is true <strong>of</strong> the relationship<br />
between these two as well. While the nature <strong>of</strong> mass or public patronage has, to a certain<br />
extent, leveled the hierarchy between the prestige and respect accorded Khyal singers<br />
relative to instrumentalists or sitar and sarod players relative to saarangii or tabla players,<br />
78 Both Shiv Kumar Sharma and Hari Prasad Chaurasia are 13 years older than Zakir Hussain.<br />
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there is no doubt that a tabla player <strong>of</strong> ZH’s stature is closer to the level <strong>of</strong> prestige <strong>of</strong> a<br />
santuur, saarangii, or baansurii player than a sitarist or a sarodist, particularly a great<br />
maestro like Ali Akbar or Vilayat Khan. At the risk <strong>of</strong> sounding cynical, perhaps ZH has<br />
found that a stance <strong>of</strong> somewhat exaggerated humility before the great maestros has<br />
gained him more opportunities to play with such high level musicians over time.<br />
Certainly, if ZH seems to be utilizing such a strategy (which is <strong>by</strong> no means a fact), his<br />
fellow (but lower pr<strong>of</strong>ile) tabla-playing brethren are more than happy to follow his<br />
example. Due to their <strong>by</strong> nature subservient musical position, tabla players, especially in<br />
the current era, are relatively likely, it would seem, to take a conservative approach when<br />
dealing with soloists, onstage and <strong>of</strong>f.<br />
Bikram Ghosh, Shankar Ghosh’s son and disciple, himself a successful performer<br />
in both the classical and pop/fusion fields, addressed many <strong>of</strong> the same points as his<br />
father had during my interview with him. Bikram Ghosh’s comments differed in tone,<br />
however, as he approached the issues from the perspective <strong>of</strong> a (relatively) young<br />
performer who is still trying to ‘climb the ladder,’ so to speak, and make himself<br />
attractive as an accompanist to the top-level, ‘star’ instrumentalists. Thus, while he was<br />
at times critical <strong>of</strong> other specific artists, he more frequently included himself as being<br />
very much a part <strong>of</strong> whatever was happening in the field <strong>of</strong> tabla, good or bad. This is a<br />
subject position much different from his father’s, a senior and well-established musician<br />
who has earned the right to be critical <strong>of</strong> (relatively) younger performers who he sees as<br />
having compromised the tradition. Bikram Ghosh did not focus on how or to what extent<br />
current tabla players were or were not contributing to classical instrumental recitals<br />
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outside <strong>of</strong> their allotted solos as his father had, and perhaps this is understandable as the<br />
‘alternating’ style has been prevalent since well before the beginning <strong>of</strong> his musical<br />
training. Along these lines, I found it telling when he explained to me rather<br />
straightforwardly that tabla players were defined <strong>by</strong> their work as accompanists. As he<br />
stated, “<strong>The</strong> person who is successful as a tabla player is basically successful as an<br />
accompanist, not as soloist necessarily. Your first success as a tabla player comes with<br />
all the people you are playing with.” Bikram Ghosh instead wanted to emphasize how<br />
he felt that current players were compelled <strong>by</strong> the demands <strong>of</strong> soloists to compromise<br />
their gharana identity (if they had had that background) and perhaps even their overall<br />
musical identity. In explaining this notion, Bikram again pointed to Zakir Hussain as an<br />
example <strong>of</strong> this current trend:<br />
Today for us, we play with Pandit Ravi Shankar, he will want Alla Rakha<br />
Khansheb’s accompaniment. You know - “Yeah, he used to play that.” That is a<br />
specialty <strong>of</strong> Punjab gharana. So what do I do? I come home and quickly practice,<br />
and I go play with him. You play with Amjad Ali Khansaheb, a fan <strong>of</strong> Benares<br />
gharana. So you come home and practice Kishen Maharajji and all that. You<br />
play with Buddhadev Das Guptaji – “Farukhabad tabla is the best!” So fine, you<br />
are a Farukhabad tabla player. So at the end <strong>of</strong> the day you are performing with<br />
all these artists who have different demands and needs, who believe in differentdifferent<br />
styles, you know. And the tabla player has to deliver, so he goes and he<br />
delivers. <strong>The</strong> tabla players who are the most successful today are actually the<br />
least committed to the gharanas – it’s a strange irony, today. Zakirji…you listen<br />
to Zakirji, I am not talking about solo playing, accompaniment.- sometimes you<br />
will not be able to make out where he is coming from (interview, 2005).<br />
And, it should again be emphasized that BG feels that he adapts his style <strong>of</strong><br />
accompaniment to please each artist just as he felt Zakir Hussain does (“I find myself<br />
going south with Amjad Ali and north with Raviji.”)<br />
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<strong>The</strong> larger point to be made here, though, as the primary concern <strong>of</strong> this study is<br />
musical style, is that, as with the baani-s <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad, tabla gharanas have become<br />
abstract style categories and have been largely shorn <strong>of</strong> their hereditary and certainly<br />
their geographical associations. In the case <strong>of</strong> tabla, this transition happened apparently<br />
much later than with Dhrupad, and although it seems impetus for this change was<br />
basically the same for tabla as for Khyal and instrumental music, the process is almost<br />
complete with tabla, while soloists (both vocalists and instrumentalists) <strong>by</strong> comparison<br />
hold more tightly to their gharana identifications, even if in some cases this is merely<br />
rhetoric. <strong>The</strong>re are some tabla players who identify closely with their gharana, no doubt,<br />
but most <strong>of</strong> these individuals are actual members (frequently <strong>by</strong> blood) <strong>of</strong> a recognized<br />
lineage and, thus, are few in number. <strong>The</strong>re seems to be a consensus among non-<br />
hereditary tabla players, though, in terms <strong>of</strong> recognizing that today gharana in tabla<br />
represents nothing more than style. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> the tabla players I spoke with during<br />
my research unequivocally subscribed to this view. “<strong>The</strong> gharana distinction [in tabla]<br />
comes clearly in technique only…and compositions”(Nayan Ghosh). “Actually, gharana<br />
doesn’t mean anything other than style”(Shankar Ghosh). “<strong>The</strong> only relevance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
gharana today has remained in information. ‘So, this bol came from Firoz Khan <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Punjab gharana.’ - That is the only way it survived”(Bikram Ghosh).<br />
Style and repertoire are associated with gharana in vocal music and sitar/sarod<br />
music as much as in tabla. <strong>The</strong> Agra gharana has its bandiish-s which are traditional to<br />
that gharana (and that were perhaps composed <strong>by</strong> a maestro <strong>of</strong> that gharana) and its own<br />
distinct style, both in terms <strong>of</strong> voice production and approach to the development <strong>of</strong><br />
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agas. <strong>The</strong>re is an important distinction, however, between tabla and soloist gharanas, in<br />
that in tabla, style is determined <strong>by</strong> the gharana background <strong>of</strong> the composition itself, not<br />
the gharana <strong>of</strong> the performer necessarily. So, a Lucknow tabla composition has to be<br />
played with Lucknow technique, but a Kirana bandiish (Khyal composition) can be<br />
performed in the Kirana style but in other styles as well. This is particularly crucial<br />
because not every tabla gharana’s traditional repertoire includes every type <strong>of</strong><br />
composition. As Nayan Ghosh explained to me, this has been a major factor in gharana<br />
mixing in tabla, as tabliya-s who want to build up a complete repertoire in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
playing most or all prevailing types <strong>of</strong> compositions <strong>by</strong> necessity have to turn to other<br />
gharanas (interview, 2005). Anish Pradhan, disciple <strong>of</strong> the late Pandit Nikhil Ghosh,<br />
explained this concept stating,<br />
I have been lucky in that I have learned repertoire from all these gharanas and<br />
have learned the approach to those compositions also. That means if I am playing<br />
Delhi gharana, then I have been taught to approach those compositions in a<br />
particular manner, both technically as well as aesthetically. So, whether or not I<br />
can really do it in performance, that’s for the listeners to decide and for my<br />
seniors to decide. But yes, I have been trained in that manner, if you play Ajrada,<br />
then you have to [play in the Ajrada style]…(interview, 2005).<br />
<strong>The</strong> term used for the technique identified with each compostion is nikaas (Hindi –<br />
source; origin), and a repeating theme that arose in my conversations with the various<br />
tabla players I met in 2005 was that if any aspect <strong>of</strong> tabla was being compromised <strong>by</strong><br />
younger tabla players, it was this. Arvind Mulgaonkar, senior performer, teacher, and<br />
scholar <strong>of</strong> tabla, 79 in particular felt that this aspect <strong>of</strong> the general repertory was being<br />
compromised, largely because students neglect proper technique, i.e. proper production<br />
79 Arvind Mulgaonkar has authored a Marathi-language book on tabla, entitled Tabala (2004).<br />
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<strong>of</strong> the individual strokes, in the name <strong>of</strong> pushing for more and more speed. <strong>The</strong> fact that<br />
individuals rarely specialize in or identify strongly with one gharana was never portrayed<br />
<strong>by</strong> any <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors as a negative development, however.<br />
It is rather clear, then, that the shift in emphasis in tabla playing from solo playing<br />
to accompanying has sped up the process where<strong>by</strong> gharana has generally receded in<br />
importance and been reduced to simply an indicator <strong>of</strong> musical style. Gharana, as<br />
detailed above, has become similarly less important in the realm <strong>of</strong> soloist musicians, but<br />
for slightly different reasons. <strong>The</strong> soloist in current day Indian music has an unparalled<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> freedom in terms <strong>of</strong> choosing which style to pursue as a classical artist. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
have never been more instructional books, cheap instruments, websites, videos,<br />
recordings, live performances, music classes, music colleges, and/or independent<br />
classical music teachers than now. Considering that this music was largely unavailable to<br />
the general public less than a century ago, this statement is somewhat less impressive, but<br />
true all the same. All these resources cannot substitute for innate talent and ability or,<br />
more importantly, for finding one or more competent Gurus who can properly guide a<br />
young musician as a performer and a budding pr<strong>of</strong>essional. Rudimentary training is<br />
easily had, but pr<strong>of</strong>essional level training is much harder to find. For the musician who<br />
has the talent and the training, though, there is abundant access to the music <strong>of</strong> all the<br />
important performers in India, historical and current, and there is abundant choice in<br />
deciding how to incorporate the strong points <strong>of</strong> their different role models’ music into<br />
their own. <strong>The</strong> difference between tabla players who specialize in accompaniment and<br />
soloists, vocal and instrumental, is again that soloists make their stylistic choices<br />
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positively, so to speak, in order to create the style <strong>of</strong> presentation that will help them to<br />
achieve their goals, whether that means making money on stage or earning the respect <strong>of</strong><br />
connoisseurs and fellow musicians (or both). For tabla players, though, they have to<br />
consider the demands <strong>of</strong> both the audience and the soloists who might choose them for a<br />
concert or a tour. As Bikram Ghosh explained, this means that today’s tabla players have<br />
to be chameleons who adapt to the demands <strong>of</strong> the top level instrumentalists, potentially<br />
providing accompaniment in any <strong>of</strong> the major gharana styles.<br />
<strong>The</strong> upshot <strong>of</strong> all this in the regional context is that it makes generalizations about<br />
stylistic tendencies in Maharashtrian tabla playing and Bengali tabla playing more<br />
difficult to arrive at than in the case <strong>of</strong> Khyal. To be sure, tabla players in any particular<br />
location tailor their skills to fit the musical demands <strong>of</strong> the place where they live and<br />
play. Pune tabla players play mostly with Khyal singers, Calcutta tabla players play<br />
mostly with instrumentalists, Bombay and Benares tabla players play with both. So even<br />
a distinction as broad as this one has had a hand in shaping tabla playing in each region.<br />
Also, as mentioned above, there are certainly key historical figures in tabla playing in<br />
each region, for example Gyan Prakash Ghosh in Calcutta and Munir Khan in Bombay,<br />
who were crucial in terms <strong>of</strong> training disciples and spreading their style <strong>of</strong> tabla<br />
throughout their respective regional bases <strong>of</strong> operation. In the next section I will detail<br />
these figures and the differences in their stylistic approaches, but it is worth mentioning<br />
now that almost all <strong>of</strong> the key figures in early 20th century tabla playing had a fairly<br />
catholic approach to style (especially compared to their contemporaries in Khyal<br />
singing), and definitely played their own roles in pushing tabla playing generally towards<br />
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versatility and perhaps even homogeneity in terms <strong>of</strong> style. However, there is a parallel<br />
with Khyal in that in tabla you have certain gharana styles that flourish in one area and<br />
certain others that flourish in a different place, and in that the various styles that are<br />
prevalent in one area are <strong>of</strong>ten related, stylistically if not genealogically. This is a<br />
crucial point, as one <strong>of</strong> the larger assumptions guiding this study is that the gharana styles<br />
that are popular or common in one region are popular as much because <strong>of</strong> the tastes and<br />
preferences <strong>of</strong> the local musicians and audiences as because <strong>of</strong> historical happenstance,<br />
as some would have it. As with the previous chapters on Khyal, however, I will limit<br />
myself in this chapter to detailing the styles <strong>of</strong> tabla that are present and arguably most<br />
important in Maharashtra and Bengal.<br />
Before proceeding it is worth noting a few important differences, some that I have<br />
already briefly discussed, that arise when similar questions are posed in regards to Khyal<br />
singing and tabla playing. I have explained why I believe tabla players have to approach<br />
their style differently than does a soloist. Tabliya-s, more than ever before, are<br />
accompanists first and foremost and thus, to a degree unknown to soloists, have to at least<br />
attempt to learn to how to play accompaniment in all the major styles. Many Khyal<br />
singers try to take the best things from the music <strong>of</strong> their heroes/role models, but no<br />
Khyal singer (outside <strong>of</strong> a incredibly talented mimic like a young Kumar Gandharva) has<br />
ever mastered or attempted to master all the major gharana gayakis or tried to incorporate<br />
elements <strong>of</strong> every gharana gaayakii in their composite style. Tabla players in modern<br />
India are not unlike session players in the pop/film music world in as much as they have<br />
to be able to replicate the style and sound <strong>of</strong> any major performer on their respective<br />
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instrument, but also play their own original music where and when they can express<br />
themselves in a more individualistic manner. Considering that many tabla players<br />
(particularly in Bombay) actually do session work, this may also contribute to the<br />
mindset <strong>of</strong> versatility, since the ability to able to play in different styles within the<br />
classical tradition is not unlike having the ability to play many distinctly different styles<br />
<strong>of</strong> music (pop, film music, jazz, devotional, fusion, etc.).<br />
<strong>The</strong> interesting thing, though, is that while tabla players seem much more<br />
resigned than any other similarly defined group <strong>of</strong> musicians in the Hindustani tradition<br />
to the fact that gharana distinctions have collapsed and that the gharana styles are all part<br />
<strong>of</strong> a shared repertoire common to all tabla players, they also recognized regional<br />
distinctions much more frequently than any Khyal singers or sitar or sarod players I<br />
interviewed. This was generally couched in terms <strong>of</strong> “Bombay tabliya-s” versus<br />
“Calcutta tabliya-s” (or less frequently Delhi or Benares tabla players), but it was a<br />
recognized distinction nonetheless. This is in marked contrast to Khyal singers who<br />
might point out that one gharana gaayakii might be found in one place but not another or<br />
that certain individual Maharashtrians or Bengalis might distort some aspect <strong>of</strong> the music<br />
in a certain way, but at the same time maintain that good, properly executed Khyal is the<br />
same wherever it is found. At the time, there certainly were cases where one <strong>of</strong> my tabla<br />
playing interlocutors would assert that there are no regional distinctions in the field <strong>of</strong><br />
classical tabla but then later spoke <strong>of</strong> the contrast between Bombay and Calcutta players<br />
in the same interview. In other words, when we are examining a subjective issue such as<br />
the influence <strong>of</strong> regional culture on classical music, this type <strong>of</strong> ambiguity comes as no<br />
211
surprise. It can reasonably be taken to be the result <strong>of</strong> the contradiction inherent between<br />
the ‘on the ground’ reality <strong>of</strong> regional variation and the pervasive ideology <strong>of</strong> music “as a<br />
national tradition.” One very important fact aiding the regional view <strong>of</strong> tabla is that the<br />
actual instruments are constructed out <strong>of</strong> different materials and are made differently in<br />
Bombay and Calcutta. This creates a very audible difference in the sound <strong>of</strong> the tabla<br />
players from each <strong>of</strong> these cities, and even determines the way that they produce the<br />
sound, i.e. the way that they strike the drums. In the second section <strong>of</strong> this chapter, then,<br />
I will detail what I see as the differences between tabla playing in Bombay and Calcutta<br />
(and <strong>by</strong> extension in Maharashtra and West Bengal).<br />
I will attempt first to provide an account <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> tabla in<br />
Maharashtra and Bengal in the last century, which will include a discussion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
foundational figures in each <strong>of</strong> these two regions, a broad outline <strong>of</strong> their musical<br />
contributions, and a summation <strong>of</strong> current tabla style. This task is again altogether more<br />
difficult in the case <strong>of</strong> tabla than in Khyal, however, for two primary reasons. First, as I<br />
mentioned above, many <strong>of</strong> the key figures in tabla in the early to mid-20th century,<br />
particularly those who are most crucial in the Bombay and Calcutta scenes, most notably<br />
Ustad Munir Khan, were students <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> different Gurus (and are <strong>of</strong>ten said to<br />
‘belong’ to multiple gharanas) and combined the established gharana styles into their<br />
more eclectic and personal forms <strong>of</strong> expression. Due to this, the boundaries between<br />
tabla styles began to disappear approximately a generation before the same phenomenon<br />
began to happen on a large scale in Khyal. Broadly speaking, in the case <strong>of</strong> Khyal, the<br />
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Ustads brought their comparatively pure gharana gaayakii-s to Maharashtra (primarily)<br />
and to Calcutta, and then their Hindu disciples, who <strong>of</strong>ten learned with multiple Gurus,<br />
began to shape these gharana styles into their own personal styles, which have since been<br />
even further diluted. In the case <strong>of</strong> tabla, however, many <strong>of</strong> the Ustads themselves began<br />
combining the core gharana styles together before or during their time spent in<br />
Maharashtra or Bengal. It is, thus, somewhat difficult to catalogue these notable tabla<br />
players according to gharana with much precision, at least in comparison to soloist<br />
musicians and lineages.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second and more important difficulty in tracing this stylistic progression from<br />
the early 20th century to the present is a comparative paucity <strong>of</strong> available secondary<br />
sources on tabla in English. Gottlieb (1993) has presented a summary <strong>of</strong> the major<br />
gharana styles illustrated mostly <strong>by</strong> means <strong>of</strong> transcribing recorded performances <strong>by</strong><br />
prominent tabliya-s representing each established gharana. However, Gottlieb does not<br />
venture far beyond musical style (which, to his credit, he covers thoroughly), only<br />
addressing the historical progression <strong>of</strong> the field and giving biographical information <strong>of</strong><br />
the major figures to a limited extent. Kippen’s <strong>The</strong> Tabla <strong>of</strong> Lucknow (1988) is the only<br />
major study <strong>of</strong> tabla which is truly ethnomusicological in approach, tying together<br />
musical style with an ethnographic account <strong>of</strong> the Lucknow tabla gharana and its socio-<br />
cultural context. Unfortunately, there are not similar studies <strong>of</strong> the other major tabla<br />
gharanas, although Roach (1972) has contributed a shorter, article-length account <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Benares gharana. <strong>The</strong> only other relatively comprehensive account <strong>of</strong> tabla and its<br />
gharanas which I have located outside <strong>of</strong> Gottlieb’s study is Aban Mistry’s Pakhawaj &<br />
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Tabla: History, Schools, and Traditions (1999). 80 Mistry’s work is not<br />
ethnomusicological as such, but she does do a very exhaustive job <strong>of</strong> detailing the history<br />
and style <strong>of</strong>, not only the six “major” tabla gharanas (Delhi, Ajrada, Lucknow,<br />
Farrukhabad, Benares, and Punjab), but also <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the important schools <strong>of</strong><br />
pakhaawaj playing and numerous other smaller, regional traditions <strong>of</strong> tabla and<br />
pakhaawaj. Beyond Mistry’s and Gottlieb’s work, however, the only studies I am<br />
familiar with that attempt to cover the basics <strong>of</strong> musical style and/or the history <strong>of</strong> the<br />
major tabla gharanas comprehensively are instructional books (such as Aloke Dutta’s<br />
Tabla: Lessons and Practice [2 nd ed., 1995]) which provide such information briefly as<br />
introductory material. What is most lacking in comparison to the available studies on<br />
Khyal singers and instrumentalists, though, are biographies on more recent figures in<br />
tabla and even the most basic biographic detail concerning the founding fathers <strong>of</strong><br />
gharana tabla playing (i.e. those who died before the 20th century), and this then has<br />
limited the few scholars who have aimed at presenting a detailed history <strong>of</strong> any or all <strong>of</strong><br />
the notable tabla gharanas.<br />
It is not difficult to assess why tabla has been a neglected subject among scholars<br />
<strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, particularly among Indian scholars. As is well known (and as I<br />
have detailed above), tabla players occupy the lowest niche in terms <strong>of</strong> prestige among all<br />
classical musicians. Some <strong>of</strong> this is ‘built in,’ so to speak, to the instrument. First, the<br />
tabla is used primarily as an accompanying instrument and is thus subservient in purely<br />
musical terms. Likewise, because its heads are made from animal hide, there has<br />
80 Mistry’s monograph was originally written and published in Marathi.<br />
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historically been a prohibition against upper caste musicians performing on these<br />
instruments due to the issue <strong>of</strong> ritual purity (the animal skin, as a <strong>by</strong>-product <strong>of</strong> the life<br />
process, was formally considered to be a polluting factor), although today many upper<br />
caste tabla players can found. <strong>The</strong>se are factors that have been in place long before the<br />
tabla was either invented or introduced into India. In the colonial period, i.e. during the<br />
period when, thanks largely to the popularity <strong>of</strong> Khyal and to a lesser extent kathak dance<br />
and sitar music, it became the chief percussion instrument used in Hindustani music, the<br />
tabla became associated with the courtesan tradition as tabla players accompanied and<br />
were <strong>of</strong>ten the ‘business associates’ <strong>of</strong> courtesans. So, as the social standing <strong>of</strong> courtesans<br />
declined thanks to the <strong>of</strong>t-discussed Victorian morality inculcated <strong>by</strong> the British<br />
colonists, the tenuous position <strong>of</strong> tabla players similarly declined. Tabla players did not<br />
suffer from their association with courtesans as much as saarangiya-s, perhaps because<br />
tabla is necessary for the performance <strong>of</strong> even the chastest classical music and/or because<br />
no workable replacement or substitute (like the harmonium for saarangii) for the tabla<br />
has ever come into common use, but the social stigma remains. 81 Arguably the most<br />
important issue, which can be seen as an extension <strong>of</strong> the above factors, has been that<br />
Bhatkhande, as noted above, focused his scholarly attention totally on vocal music, and<br />
most Indian scholars have followed in his footsteps. Taking this into consideration, it is<br />
not at all surprising that, as in the case <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad, scholars outside India have seemingly<br />
taken a greater interest in tabla than those in India.<br />
81 Kippen relates an anecdote from his research where, after finding an apartment in Lucknow and agreeing<br />
to terms with the owner, he was then subsequently refused upon explaining that he would be researching<br />
and maintaining social relations with tabla players (1988:89).<br />
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As with my discussion <strong>of</strong> Khyal, I will begin here with the Maharashtrian side <strong>of</strong><br />
the equation. Keeping in mind the limited historical and biographical information<br />
available even for important tabliya-s, I will only attempt to present information<br />
regarding either tabliya-s who my informants mentioned as being particularly important<br />
and/or influential or tabliya-s who have genealogical or discipular ties to my informants<br />
or to other notable tabla players in Bombay (or Calcutta). One can only assume, as in the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> “women singers” in the 19th and early 20th centuries, that there have been many<br />
very talented tabla players outside those few whose names have been preserved in the<br />
historical record or in the memories <strong>of</strong> current senior tabla players. And, long these lines,<br />
it is important to remember that, unlike in the case <strong>of</strong> Khyal, there is no figure we can<br />
point to with confidence as the first Maharashtrian tabla maestro and as the starting point<br />
<strong>of</strong> classical tabla in the region. So, again, I will begin with the earliest generation <strong>of</strong> tabla<br />
players who can be seen to have ties to the current tabla scene.<br />
<strong>The</strong> one North Indian Ustad <strong>of</strong> the tabla who could most appropriately be seen as<br />
the godfather <strong>of</strong> tabla in Bombay and the founder <strong>of</strong> the only lineage that is truly native<br />
to Bombay 82 is Ustad Munir Khan. Munir Khansaheb was born in Laliyana in the Meerut<br />
district <strong>of</strong> Uttar Pradesh in the mid to late 19th century; Gottlieb (1993:14) gives his birth<br />
year as 187? And Naimpalli (2005:94) lists 1863. Munir Khan was the son <strong>of</strong> Delhi<br />
gharaanedaar tabliya Kale Khan, and for this reason is <strong>of</strong>ten referred to as a member <strong>of</strong><br />
the Delhi gharana. However, like many <strong>of</strong> the Maharashtrian khyaliya-s a generation or<br />
82 Arvind Mulgaonkar, a disciple <strong>of</strong> Munir Khan’s tradition, prefers the term ‘Bombay gharana’ (interview,<br />
2005), while others use the more commonly encountered designation ‘Laliyana gharana.’<br />
216
more later, MK studied for significant periods <strong>of</strong> time with Ustads <strong>of</strong> several different<br />
gharanas. After his lessons with his father, MK studied with Ustad Hussain Ali Khan <strong>of</strong><br />
Farukhabad gharana (for 15 years, according to Naimpalli) and then with Ustad Boli<br />
Baksh, also <strong>of</strong> Delhi gharana. Gottlieb also notes that some Farukhabad tabliya-s<br />
maintain that MK also studied with Nanne Khan, another Farukhabad maestro. While it<br />
is difficult to determine who exactly MK studied with and/or was a disciple <strong>of</strong>, all agree<br />
that MK studied with many different Ustads, with most authorities putting the number <strong>of</strong><br />
MK’s gurus at 24, a figure cited to me <strong>by</strong> Shri Arvind Mulgaonkar, the aforementioned<br />
senior tabla maestro <strong>of</strong> Bombay who is a disciple <strong>of</strong> the Munir Khan tradition. It is for<br />
this reason that some deny the existence <strong>of</strong> a separate gharana with MK as the founder.<br />
As Mr. Mulgaonkar explained, there were elements <strong>of</strong> MK’s style and compositions in<br />
his repertoire from every major tabla gharana outside <strong>of</strong> Benares (interview, 2005).<br />
Perhaps, then, it is better to look at MK’s major contribution to the field <strong>of</strong> tabla as one <strong>of</strong><br />
breaking down barriers between gharanas rather as founding an altogether new gharana.<br />
Munir Khan moved to Bombay in his youth and lived there performing and<br />
teaching for the rest <strong>of</strong> his 60 odd years (although he frequently performed outside<br />
Bombay), and his contribution specifically to the musical scene in Bombay can be most<br />
accurately assessed <strong>by</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> outstanding disciples he trained. <strong>The</strong> most famous<br />
<strong>of</strong> these are Ahmedjan Thirakwa, Amir Hussain Khan, Shamsuddin Khan, and<br />
Habbibuddin Khan, though <strong>by</strong> all accounts, there were many others. <strong>The</strong> most<br />
productive <strong>of</strong> these disciples in terms <strong>of</strong> producing his own noteworthy disciples was<br />
Amir Hussain Khan. AHK was born in Meerut, but, as his father was a saarangii player<br />
217
in the service <strong>of</strong> the Hyderabad court, he spent his childhood there. He received his early<br />
musical training from his father, but later became a disciple <strong>of</strong> his maternal uncle Munir<br />
Khan, who began teaching the boy on his visits to Hyderabad. Later, however, AHK<br />
shifted to Bombay to be with his Guru, and stayed there from 1942-1967, according to<br />
his direct disciple Arvind Mulgaonkar. As Mr. Mulgaonkar explained to me, after<br />
moving to Bombay, AHK rarely visited Hyderabad or North India, largely restricting his<br />
sphere <strong>of</strong> activities to Maharashtra, Goa, and Karanataka, where he taught “thousands <strong>of</strong><br />
disciples”(interview, 2005). Nayan Ghosh, the son and disciple <strong>of</strong> the tabla maestro<br />
Nikhil Ghosh, who himself was also a direct disciple <strong>of</strong> Amir Hussain, spoke during our<br />
interview <strong>of</strong> AHK’s personality and temperament. Nayanda explained that his father had<br />
heard Amir Hussain in the former’s early days in Bombay more or less <strong>by</strong> accident but<br />
was “blown away” AHK’s playing. After this, Nikhil Ghosh sought permission from his<br />
then Guru Gyan Prakash Ghosh to begin learning with AHK. 83 With Gyanbabu’s<br />
permission then, he met with AHK and “found him absolutely disarming. He was such a<br />
simple, affectionate person, and he had no qualms about teaching just anyone… whoever<br />
came to him. He found him like a very simple, naïve, I would say, saintly kind <strong>of</strong> a<br />
person”(Nayan Ghosh: interview, 2005). That his personality was suited for teaching<br />
many students was fortunate, because, as Mr. Mulgaonkar explained to me, early in his<br />
career Amir Hussain grew tired <strong>of</strong> the low pay and subservient status generally granted to<br />
tabliya-s <strong>of</strong> the day in their accompanist role and chose to make his living from then<br />
forward primarily as a teacher and a solo player.<br />
83<br />
It is customary in India to seek permission from one’s current Guru before beginning study with another<br />
musician.<br />
218
Turning to Amir Hussain’s disciples, Nikhil Ghosh was born in Barisal in East<br />
Bengal (now Bangladesh). According to Nayan Ghosh, Nikhil and his older brother,<br />
Pannalal, the pioneer <strong>of</strong> the bamboo flute (baansurii) in Hindustani classical music, were<br />
the first pr<strong>of</strong>essional musicians in their family, although Nikhil’s father was a sitarist and<br />
his grandfathers were a dhrupadiya and a pakhaawaj player, respectively. Nikhil Ghosh<br />
began his training in vocal music in Barisal, but after shifting to Calcutta in 1939, he met<br />
Gyan Prakash Ghosh who was to become his first tabla Guru and who was also the<br />
individual that eventually helped the young Nikhil Ghosh to settle on tabla playing as his<br />
primary musical pursuit. As Nayan Ghosh related to me,<br />
My father was perhaps very talented, uh, musically – there was a great deal <strong>of</strong><br />
musicality in him already as a child. And that is why, even before he found his<br />
first Guru Gyanbabu, he was pretty good enough, as a tabla player and as a singer,<br />
and it was at a point in his life when he began performing careers in both, that a<br />
point came when he felt it that may not be wise to carry two careers at the same<br />
time, vocal and tabla, and after long discussion spread out over many weeks with<br />
his guru Gyan Prakash Ghosh, he finally decided that he would opt for tabla – he<br />
was equally brilliant in both. <strong>The</strong> reason he opted for tabla was, uh, he agreed to<br />
all the desires and requests or ideas that Gyan Prakash Ghosh had. Gyanbabu said<br />
at that time, there was, he couldn’t see around for any academically educated<br />
musician and especially a tabla player. So tabla was still kind <strong>of</strong> relegated to, you<br />
know, the, uh, the traditional, especially the Muslim families who kind <strong>of</strong> seemed<br />
to be clinging to their art and their knowledge so possessively and wouldn’t part<br />
with it so easily…it had to come out from their clutches and reach, you know,<br />
further, so he felt my father perhaps was the right medium to achieve that<br />
(interview, 2005).<br />
Nikhil Ghosh then was carrying out very much the same task in the field <strong>of</strong> tabla that<br />
Balkrishnabua and Vishnu Digambar had earlier carried out in the field <strong>of</strong> vocal music,<br />
which was to help improve the social standing <strong>of</strong> tabla players (largely <strong>by</strong> showing that a<br />
middle-class Hindu from a respectable family could be a pr<strong>of</strong>essional tabla player) and to<br />
make knowledge regarding the tabla available to a wider public. Like his Maharashtrian<br />
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predecessors, Nikhil Ghosh had to sacrifice much to accomplish his goals in this arena,<br />
only his sacrifice was not surrendering himself to a whimsical, manipulative, deceitful,<br />
and/or sadistic Ustad (although he also did this to a certain extent while studying with a<br />
later Guru, Ahmedjan Thirakwa), but rather that, <strong>by</strong> committing himself to tabla, it would<br />
always mean “playing second fiddle” to another artist, one that on occasion might even<br />
be less talented and less skilled as a singer or instrumentalist than Nikhil Ghosh himself.<br />
It, <strong>of</strong> course, goes without saying that it also meant getting paid much less in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
performance fees.<br />
After only two years in Calcutta, Nikhil Ghosh moved to Bombay where he<br />
would stay for the rest <strong>of</strong> his life and career. Nikhil Ghosh made this move for two<br />
reasons. <strong>The</strong> first was that Gyan Prakash himself was frequently traveling to Bombay<br />
during that period as he had taken up work as a music director (arranger/composer) for<br />
Bombay films. <strong>The</strong> second was because older brother Pannalal who, according to<br />
Nayanda, served as a guardian figure for Nikhil after the early deaths <strong>of</strong> their parents, had<br />
also already moved to Bombay. It was shortly after moving to Bombay that Nikhil<br />
Ghosh made the aforementioned decisions to focus his efforts exclusively on tabla<br />
playing and then to learn with Amir Hussain Khan. After an extended period <strong>of</strong> learning<br />
with Amir Hussain (some 15 years), a period in which Nikhil Ghosh established himself<br />
as one <strong>of</strong> the leading young tabliya-s in Bombay and the rest <strong>of</strong> India, Nikhil Ghosh<br />
began a period <strong>of</strong> study with yet another Guru, this time the great Ahmedjan Thirakwa, a<br />
guru-bhaaii (co-disciple) <strong>of</strong> Amir Hussain under Munir Khan and one <strong>of</strong> the great<br />
legends <strong>of</strong> tabla playing. It was Thirakwa, however, that initially took an interest in<br />
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Nikhil Ghosh, not vice-versa. Thirakwa frequently heard Nikhil Ghosh play and became<br />
an admirer <strong>of</strong> the young tabliya. When he eventually <strong>of</strong>fered to teach NG, however, NG<br />
was hesitant, as Thirakwa had a reputation as being a somewhat difficult person and a<br />
poor teacher, in the sense that he had little patience for most students. Nayan Ghosh,<br />
who himself studied briefly with the master as a child, had the following to say regarding<br />
Ahmedjan Thirakwa:<br />
Khansaheb was a very interesting, very colorful personality…On the one hand,<br />
people respected and revered him for being without doubt the finest tabla player,<br />
<strong>of</strong> his times and perhaps <strong>of</strong> all times. On the other hand, he had a very majestic<br />
and a very regal way <strong>of</strong> carrying himself. And, he appeared to be a very serious<br />
person, and so people feared him also. And then, there was another side to him –<br />
he was notorious as a very bad teacher. He was a great performer, but he had no<br />
patience as a teacher – which we realized much later, because people kept saying,<br />
you know, he would not part with all his knowledge in tabla to anyone. Much,<br />
much later, decades later, we came to know that that was not the case. It was<br />
because he just was looking for the right kind <strong>of</strong> a disciple, you know. He was<br />
very choosy about giving those things into [the] right hands. And certainly he<br />
didn’t have much patience because he wouldn’t sit and teach someone, you know,<br />
repeat something a few times. He would just play it once and you had to play it<br />
right, exactly, then and there, or he would just shoo you out (interview, 2005).<br />
This was a move that was again supported <strong>by</strong> Nikhil Ghosh’s Gurus, both <strong>by</strong> Gyan<br />
Prakash Ghosh and Amir Hussain. Gyanbabu had had his own problems with Thirakwa,<br />
having essentially attempted to bribe with him countless gifts <strong>of</strong> money, expensive liquor,<br />
jewelry, etc., in order to get Thirakwa to teach him, but to no avail. Even having had<br />
these frustrating experiences, Gyanbabu encouraged Nikhil to learn with Thirakwa,<br />
telling Nikhil, “what I couldn’t achieve, I hope you will achieve”(Nayan Ghosh:<br />
interview, 2005).<br />
For Nikhil Ghosh, his time with Thirakwasaheb (and I will return to the topic <strong>of</strong><br />
Ahmedjan Thirakwa shortly) was the final polish that made him one <strong>of</strong> the great tabla<br />
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players <strong>of</strong> the 2nd half <strong>of</strong> the 20th century. Susheela Mishra quotes Keramatullah Khan,<br />
late doyen <strong>of</strong> the Farukhabad tabla gharana, as telling Nikhil Ghosh after a performance<br />
in 1971, “Brother, Uncle Thirakwa has literally poured tabla art down your throat”<br />
(2001:146). 84 Beyond his activities as a solo performer and accompanist, Nikhil Ghosh<br />
was also a prolific teacher and scholar. Most notably, he founded the degree-granting<br />
music institution Sangeet Mahabharati in Juhu (Vile Parle West), Bombay, a school<br />
which is still run <strong>by</strong> his sons, Nayan and Dhruba. Also, he authored a number <strong>of</strong><br />
musicological works, including Fundamentals <strong>of</strong> Raga and Tala, With a New System <strong>of</strong><br />
Notation (1968) and a massive encyclopedia project on Indian music, dance, and theatre<br />
which is only now nearing completion. As a Guru, he produced many fine disciples<br />
including his son Nayan, a leading tabliya in Bombay and a pr<strong>of</strong>icient sitarist (both <strong>of</strong><br />
which he learned from his father), his other son Dhruba, a well-known saarangii soloist<br />
who also received his early training from his father, and the aforementioned Anish<br />
Pradhan. Dhruba Ghosh is a particularly interesting case because he sees himself as<br />
extending his father’s mission <strong>of</strong> making the tabla socially acceptable and respectable to<br />
the saarangii. <strong>The</strong> saarangii is no doubt the last ‘unreformed’ instrument or niche in<br />
Hindustani music, in the sense that the general perception is that the saarangii is only<br />
played <strong>by</strong> illiterate Muslims who are, for the most part, pimps. This is not to stay that<br />
this stereotype is at all true or fitting (or that Nikhil or Dhruba Ghosh ever believed these<br />
sorts <strong>of</strong> stereotypes) or to be disrespectful <strong>of</strong> the great saarangii maestros <strong>of</strong> the past, but<br />
the point remains. Dhruba Ghosh then has combated this, not only <strong>by</strong> setting an example<br />
84 <strong>The</strong> original quote in Hindi is “Bhaaiyaa, aapko to chaachaa Thirakwa ne tabla pilaa diiyaa.”<br />
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as a respectable, middle class saarangii player, but also <strong>by</strong> focusing his attention on<br />
further developing the saarangii as a solo instrument, building on the work <strong>of</strong> others,<br />
especially Pandit Ram Narayan, the first great solo saarangii player in the estimation <strong>of</strong><br />
most.<br />
To continue with Amir Hussain’s teaching line, the one other disciple <strong>of</strong> AHK’s I<br />
would like to mention is Pandarinath Nageshkar. According to Naimpalli, Nageshkar<br />
was born in 1913 in Nageshi, Goa (2005:108). As in the field <strong>of</strong> vocal music, Goa has<br />
produced many fine pakhaawaj and tabla players who, like their counterpoints in vocal<br />
music, made their way out <strong>of</strong> Goa to such destinations as Pune and Bombay to make their<br />
mark in the field <strong>of</strong> classical music, since, as several <strong>of</strong> my informants with Goan roots<br />
explained, historically and currently there is relatively little interest in classical music<br />
there. Pandarinath Nageshkar learned from a handful <strong>of</strong> Gurus before coming under the<br />
tutelage <strong>of</strong> Amir Hussain. Pandarinath’s first Guru was a tabla player attached to a local<br />
music school, but his second, Guru, “Laya Bhaskar” “Khaprumama” Laxman Parvatkar,<br />
another Goan, is particularly notable in this context. Parvtakar was born in Paravati, Goa<br />
in 1880 (Deodhar 1993:285). Parvatkar is the only tabla player and one <strong>of</strong> the few non-<br />
khyaliya-s that are featured in BR Deodhar’s collection <strong>of</strong> biographical sketches Thor<br />
Sangeetkar (Pillars <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Music). Although this is mostly due to the fact that<br />
Deodhar based these short biographies on personal familiarity with his subjects and it so<br />
happened that Khaprumama was an acquaintance <strong>of</strong> his, it is worth mentioning that<br />
Deodhar’s piece, even at a scant six pages, is one <strong>of</strong> the longest biographies available on<br />
any tabla player <strong>of</strong> that generation, even if the subject is basically a regional figure.<br />
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Khaprumama did not study with a famous Ustad; most <strong>of</strong> his training came with his<br />
uncle, an amateur musician. Khaprumama must have been a prodigious talent, though, as<br />
he apparently had an unmatched mastery <strong>of</strong> layakaarii, or rhythm play, though another<br />
factor, as Deodhar makes clear, is that the young Khaprumama was obsessed with<br />
solving whatever various rhythmic “problems” he could pose to himself. His primary<br />
method, as demonstrated to Deodhar, was to practice fitting various numbers <strong>of</strong> equal<br />
pulsations into the length <strong>of</strong> four beats, so 5 beats over four (1 ¼ speed), 6 over four (1 ½<br />
speed), etc., all the way up to 64 over four, or in the space <strong>of</strong> four. <strong>The</strong> feat most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
mentioned in connection with Laxmanrao Paravatkar, however, is that he could tap out<br />
four different talas with his hands and feet while reciting a fifth, all simultaneously. 85<br />
Although his renown was limited to the Maharashtra region, it is noteworthy that artistes<br />
<strong>of</strong> the caliber <strong>of</strong> Alladiya Khan (who <strong>of</strong>ten performed with Parvatkar and who gave him<br />
the title Laya Bhaaskar, or ‘sun <strong>of</strong> rhythm’) reportedly recognized his mastery.<br />
Besides Khaprumama, Pandarinath Nageshkar also learned, according to Mistry,<br />
from yet another Goan, Subbra Ankolkar, a disciple <strong>of</strong> Munir Khan about whom little<br />
other information is available. However, Pandarinathji is perhaps more noteworthy for<br />
who he taught. One <strong>of</strong> his prominent disciples was the late Vasant Achrekar, longtime<br />
accompanist <strong>of</strong> Kumar Gandharva and yet another Goan. A second was Pandarinath’s<br />
brother Shripad. <strong>The</strong> most important in terms <strong>of</strong> the current music scene, though, is<br />
Suresh Talwalkar. Sureshji has learned from a number <strong>of</strong> Gurus, including Pandarinath<br />
Nageshkar, Vinayakrao Gangrekar (another Goan disciple <strong>of</strong> Ankolkar), and Carnatic<br />
85<br />
Both Naimpalli and Mistry also mention this in their accounts, with Deodhar as the likely but uncited<br />
source.<br />
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mRidaangam (barrel-shaped drum) player Ramnad Ishwaran. <strong>The</strong> latter has been<br />
particularly important in shaping Sureshji’s style, as he includes much from Carnatic<br />
rhythm in his own music. His most interesting innovation, though, (which I saw<br />
performed twice in 2005, in Bombay and in Calcutta) is his solo tabla presentation where<br />
he utilizes a vocalist singing a bandiish in place <strong>of</strong> the usual saarangii or harmonium<br />
player who would provide leharaa, a simple melody meant to aid the tabla soloist in<br />
keeping tala. Besides his solo playing, though, Suresh Talwalkar is also a popular choice<br />
as an accompanist. He has accompanied many <strong>of</strong> the well-known artists in vocal and<br />
instrumental music, but is a particular favorite <strong>of</strong> Pandit Ulhas Kashalkar. Finally,<br />
Sureshji is also a prolific teacher. His disciples who are now active as accompanists in<br />
Pune and Bombay (Sureshji’s twin home bases) are Vijay Ghate, Ramdas Palsule,<br />
Vishwanath Shirodkar (one <strong>of</strong> my interviewees), and Charudatta Phadke.<br />
Returning briefly to Munir Khan’s other disciples, there are a few more<br />
noteworthy names to mention. <strong>The</strong> first is Habbibuddin Khan (b.1918 in Meerut), son<br />
and disciple <strong>of</strong> Shammu Khan <strong>of</strong> the Ajrada gharana, the gharana Habbibuddin is most<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten said to belong to. HK started learning from his father at the age <strong>of</strong> 12 and<br />
continued for 15 years (Naimpalli 2005:105). After that, Habbiuddin studied under both<br />
Ustad Natthu Khan <strong>of</strong> Delhi gharana and finally Ustad Munir Khan. Habbiddudin stands<br />
as one <strong>of</strong> the few noteworthy Ajrada players (although his style was, again, a mixture <strong>of</strong><br />
other gharanas) mentioned <strong>by</strong> either my informants or <strong>by</strong> the written sources I have<br />
consulted as an important historical tabliya in Bombay. Currently, there seem to be no<br />
adherents to this style in Bombay or Pune; Habbibuddin’s son Ramzan Khan is carrying<br />
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on the Ajrada tradition but is based in Delhi. Ustad Shamsuddin Khan was born in<br />
Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, but spent his childhood in Moradabad, a town famous primarily<br />
as the home <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> prominent saarangii players. As Sadanand Naimpalli, who is<br />
himself a disciple <strong>of</strong> Shamsuddin’s tradition, explains, in Moradabad Shamsuddin began<br />
learning with Ustad Faiyaz Khan (not to be confused with the vocalist) <strong>of</strong> the Farukhabad<br />
gharana. Shamsuddin’s Ustad also happened to be the maternal uncle <strong>of</strong> one Ahmedjan<br />
(not yet “Thirakwa,” a nickname he earned later)(2005:96). When Shamsuddin went to<br />
Bombay to seek his fortunes as a young man, Ahmedjan went together with him and both<br />
were to become shaagird-s <strong>of</strong> Munir Khan. Shamsuddin also learned under Ustad Tega<br />
Jaffer Khan <strong>of</strong> Delhi gharana, to complete his taaliim. Naimpalli notes that Shamsuddin<br />
was famous for his tabla solos, as most <strong>of</strong> the great tabla players <strong>of</strong> his generation were,<br />
but also that Shamsuddin did most <strong>of</strong> his accompanying for Abdul Karim Khan, doyen <strong>of</strong><br />
the Kirana Khyal gharana. Shamsuddin apparently had few disciples, but among them<br />
were the late Taranathrao Hattiangadi <strong>of</strong> Mangalore, Karanataka, Naimpalli’s Guru, and<br />
Ravi Bellare, a South Indian who lives in the USA who, in Naimpalli’s estimation, is the<br />
only true representative <strong>of</strong> Shamsuddin’s style currently.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most famous <strong>of</strong> Munir Khan’s disciples, <strong>of</strong> course, is Thirakwa, one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
legendary figures <strong>of</strong> 20th century tabla. Thirakwa was born in Moradabad, the son <strong>of</strong><br />
saarangii player. Besides Faiyaz Khan, Thirakwa also received taaliim in his early years<br />
from two <strong>of</strong> his other uncles, Baswa Khan and Sher Khan. Mishra quotes Thirakwa as<br />
stating that he only became truly interested in tabla when he heard his future Guru, Munir<br />
Khan (1981:91). It was Munir Khan’s father who gave Thirakwa his nickname, though it<br />
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was originally ‘Thirku’ (from the Hindi verb thiraknaa, “to dance”) and was then later<br />
modified to the more dignified, ‘Thirakwa.’ As most sources agree, Thirakwa made his<br />
debut as a soloist at the age <strong>of</strong> 16 in Bombay, and would go on to become not only<br />
arguably the greatest soloist in recent memory (Thirakwa died in the 1970s) but also a<br />
regular accompanist <strong>of</strong> both instrumental and vocal music. Also, despite his limitations<br />
as a teacher (noted above), Thirakwa taught both at Bhatkhande’s Marris College in<br />
Lucknow and Bombay’s National Center <strong>of</strong> the Performing Arts (NCPA) (Naimpalli<br />
2005:95). Thirakwa had a notable tenure as a court musician in Rampur, a tenure which<br />
lasted for some thirty years starting in 1936 (Mishra 1981:92). As such, Thirakwa taught<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> students both in North India and in the Maharashtra region. Among<br />
Thirakwa’s more well-known disciples associated with Bombay or Maharashtra are<br />
Nikhil Ghosh, Laalji Gokhale, vocalist/tabliya Jagannathbua Purohit (‘Gunidas’), and<br />
Bhai Gaitonde. As Kippen points out, Thirakwa (who was most likely born in the 1880s)<br />
was one <strong>of</strong> the few old-school tabliya-s who successfully made the transition to public<br />
patronage, but did so as much on the strength <strong>of</strong> his impressive and charismatic<br />
personality as on his prodigious skills and encyclopedic knowledge <strong>of</strong> the tabla repertory<br />
(1988:78). It is notable also that he achieved such public acclaim as a tabla soloist,<br />
considering that many people, even during Thirakwa’s heyday, believed and continue to<br />
believe the middle class audience to be <strong>by</strong> nature uninterested in solo tabla playing. <strong>The</strong><br />
extent <strong>of</strong> his fame in Maharashtra can be partially gauged <strong>by</strong> the fact that he was<br />
famously given nearly top billing (as an accompanist) while performing with<br />
Balgandharva’s Marathi Music-<strong>The</strong>atre company.<br />
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Concerning the prominent tabla traditions in Bombay which are unrelated to the<br />
Munir Khan tradition (in the sense <strong>of</strong> having no discipular ties), there are very few that<br />
my informants deemed worthy <strong>of</strong> mention. <strong>The</strong>re are basically two. <strong>The</strong> first is the<br />
Gamme Khan branch <strong>of</strong> the Delhi gharana, although there are few representatives <strong>of</strong> this<br />
lineage currently. Gamme Khan, the son <strong>of</strong> Delhi gharaanedaar Chote Khan is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
cited as one <strong>of</strong> the great masters <strong>of</strong> the early 20th century and spent much <strong>of</strong> his<br />
performing career in Bombay. His son was Inam Ali, also a notable tabliya who served<br />
as Gottlieb’s model for the Delhi gharana and who also spent his life and career in<br />
Bombay. <strong>The</strong> only Delhi gharana tabliya I encountered in Bombay was Shiv Narayan,<br />
the son <strong>of</strong> saarangii maestro Ram Narayan, who plays in the style <strong>of</strong> his late uncle<br />
Chatur Lal, well-known as an accompanist <strong>of</strong> Ravi Shankar and a disciple <strong>of</strong> Haji<br />
Mohammed Khan. Chatur Lal died young at the age 40 in 1965 (Naimpalli 2005:107).<br />
Kippen has opined that the Delhi gharana, after the death <strong>of</strong> stalwarts Inam Ali and Latif<br />
Ahmed, is basically obsolete as an important tabla tradition.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most important tradition in Bombay outside <strong>of</strong> the Munir Khan ‘Laliyana’<br />
tradition, however, is the Alla Rakha branch <strong>of</strong> the Punjab gharana, although more in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> influence and popularity than in terms <strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> currently practicing<br />
disciples. Alla Rakha, according to Naimpalli, was born in Rattangadh, Gurudaspur,<br />
Punjab in 1915 (2005:102). He was not from a musical family; they instead were<br />
farmers. However, he was attracted to music and performing early in life, and both<br />
joined a “roving drama company” and started to learn tabla as a teen. Alla Rakha’s first<br />
Guru was Laal Mohammed Khan, a disciple <strong>of</strong> Punjab gharana khaliifaa Kadir Baksh II.<br />
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After a later visit to Lahore where he heard Kadir Baksh II perform, he became a disciple<br />
<strong>of</strong> the great master himself. It was in 1936 that Alla Rakha left the Punjab for Delhi to<br />
work as a tabla accompanist for All-India Radio. A few years later, he moved to take a<br />
similar position in Bombay, where he also worked as a music director and where he<br />
based himself for most <strong>of</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> his life and career.<br />
Alla Rakha undoubtedly achieved his greatest fame as the regular accompanist <strong>of</strong><br />
Pandit Ravi Shankar. Alla Rakha provided accompaniment for many <strong>of</strong> Ravi Shankar’s<br />
most memorable performances during the 1960s and 70s, including the George Harrison<br />
co-organized Concert for Bangladesh and the appearances at the massive Monterey Pop<br />
and Woodstock festivals. Much as Ravi Shankar inspired many non-Indians to take up<br />
sitar seriously (and sometimes less than seriously), one can assume that Alla Rakha<br />
served as the role model and inspiration for many <strong>of</strong> the earliest non-Indian tabla players.<br />
It is also worth mentioning that Alla Rakha was one <strong>of</strong> the first tabla players to be<br />
consistently taken as a regular accompanist <strong>by</strong> a famous soloist, a pattern which has<br />
become much more common since that time. Beyond this, Alla Rakha, along with his<br />
son Zakir Hussain, Ravi Shankar’s other regular accompanists, such as Chatur Lal and<br />
Kannai Dutta, Ravi Shankar himself, and many other prominent instrumentalists, has<br />
helped to pr<strong>of</strong>oundly change the way tabla typically accompanies sitar, sarod, and other<br />
instruments, as discussed above. As I have explained, this change in the style <strong>of</strong> tabla<br />
accompaniment, which has arguably resulted in the decline in popularity and visibility <strong>of</strong><br />
solo tabla playing, has not been viewed universally as a positive development, nor has the<br />
“linear, virtuosic” (Dutta 1995:5) style - in contrast to the slower developing, more<br />
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cyclical style <strong>of</strong> the older stalwarts like Thirakwa - practiced <strong>by</strong> his son Zakir and his<br />
many followers, which has become a popular model for emulation <strong>by</strong> young tabla<br />
players. Regardless, whether any <strong>of</strong> the changes that have taken place in regards to the<br />
classical tabla is for the better or for the worse, the point to be made here is that whatever<br />
changes have taken place, Alla Rakha and Zakir Hussain have been at the forefront <strong>of</strong> all<br />
them since the late 1950s. Regarding Zakir Hussain specifically, nearly all <strong>of</strong> my tabla<br />
playing interviewees agreed that he was <strong>by</strong> far the most imitated tabla player in India<br />
today. Several <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors, for example Nayan Ghosh, however, felt that too<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten this imitation consisted <strong>of</strong> “aping,” in other words copying his appearance and his<br />
mannerisms, not how he plays or not only how he plays. It should also be mentioned that<br />
although Alla Rakha (during his lifetime) and Zakir have been busy and enthusiastic<br />
teachers over the years, in spite <strong>of</strong> their <strong>of</strong>ten overwhelming schedules <strong>of</strong> international<br />
travel, recording, and performing. Besides Zakir himself, Alla Rakha’s prominent<br />
disciples include his younger sons Fazal and Taufiq Qureshi, Annuradha Pal, and Yogesh<br />
Samsi, who continues his studies with Zakir. Aditya Kalyanpur is another noteworthy<br />
young tabla player who has learned under Zakir.<br />
Shifting our focus to the tabla scene in Calcutta and West Bengal generally, we<br />
find another parallel between Khyal singing and tabla playing. That is, while in Bombay<br />
we find nearly all the tabla gharanas represented, historically if not currently, as is the<br />
case in Khyal, in Calcutta there seems to be one dominant gharana, just as the Amir<br />
Khan-Kirana style dominates vocal music there. <strong>The</strong> dominant tabla style and gharana<br />
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in Calcutta has basically always been Farukhabad, from the early 20th century up to the<br />
present day. I will speak more about the parallels between Khyal and tabla in concluding<br />
this chapter, but I should point out one important difference. While the number <strong>of</strong><br />
khyaliya-s in Maharashtra far exceeds the number in Calcutta, the opposite is true in<br />
tabla. Bombay may have had greater stylistic variety for most <strong>of</strong> the last century, but<br />
Calcutta, in the estimation <strong>of</strong> most, has more tabla players overall and more top level<br />
tabliya-s than Bombay and has for at least 20-30 years. It may be an exaggerated claim,<br />
but my interlocutors frequently mentioned to me, speaking <strong>of</strong> Calcutta, that there “you<br />
find a tabla player in every other house” or “you hear tabla being played in every lane.”<br />
By contrast, I never heard such statements regarding Bombay or anywhere else in<br />
Maharashtra. It is hard to determine how many tabla players there are per capita in<br />
Calcutta or Bombay, but we certainly can look at the top tabliya-s <strong>of</strong> today and determine<br />
where they are from and where they are based. Choosing which players are currently the<br />
best is no doubt highly subjective, but it is somewhat easier to choose based on the fact<br />
that there seems to be general agreement amongst current musicians regarding who<br />
belongs in this category. Most <strong>of</strong>ten this group includes Zakir Hussain, Swapan<br />
Choudhury, Anindo Chatterjee, and, slightly less <strong>of</strong>ten, Kumar Bose. Of these, two,<br />
Anindo Chatterjee and Kumar Bose, are based in and native to Calcutta and only one,<br />
Zakir, is based in Bombay (and notably spends as much time abroad as in India). <strong>The</strong><br />
fourth, Swapan Choudhury, lives and teaches in the USA, but is a Bengali from Calcutta.<br />
As in the case <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, it is difficult to determine the specifics <strong>of</strong> the early<br />
history <strong>of</strong> tabla playing in Bengal for the reasons stated above, mostly because <strong>of</strong> the lack<br />
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<strong>of</strong> historical documentation. We know that Thumri-singing courtesans began basing<br />
themselves out <strong>of</strong> Calcutta around the mid-19th century, and as tabla is necessary for<br />
Thumri, we can assume that there were tabla players there who filled that role. And, just<br />
as many courtesans found their way to Calcutta as part <strong>of</strong> Wajid Ali’s retinue, many tabla<br />
players must have come from Lucknow as well, even if very few are mentioned <strong>by</strong> name<br />
in historical accounts. Speaking <strong>of</strong> tabla playing, however, as a widespread middle-class<br />
hob<strong>by</strong> or, less <strong>of</strong>ten, career, the history is undoubtedly much shorter. In the estimation <strong>of</strong><br />
Shankar Ghosh, veteran performer and Guru <strong>of</strong> Calcutta, this history properly begins with<br />
the arrival <strong>of</strong> Masit Khan, khaliifaa <strong>of</strong> the Farrukhabad gharana, in Calcutta.<br />
I think, uh, from the late 30s, [tabla] became very popular…in Calcutta. Before<br />
that, throughout India, it was only either the, uh, maestro <strong>of</strong> the gharana or very<br />
few students <strong>of</strong> music who are playing. But in Calcutta it was, really speaking,<br />
uh, it was Masit Khansaheb…who came, settled and not only taught his own son<br />
but was [inclined] to teach many students, and that made tabla a very popular<br />
subject in Calcutta (interview, 2005).<br />
Shankar Ghosh is <strong>of</strong> course part <strong>of</strong> the Farukhabad tradition – Masit Khan is his daadaa-<br />
guru or Guru’s Guru – but it is no exaggeration to say that the history <strong>of</strong> tabla in Calcutta<br />
is the history <strong>of</strong> the Farukhabad gharana in Calcutta. This, again, is easily verifiable, as<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the prominent tabla players historically and currently in Calcutta are not only<br />
Farukhabad style players, but most <strong>of</strong> them also trained directly under Masit Khan, his<br />
disciple Gyan Prakash Ghosh, or from Gyan Prakash’s disciple Shankar Ghosh.<br />
I will list some <strong>of</strong> the names <strong>of</strong> the current stalwarts <strong>of</strong> Calcutta tabla shortly, but<br />
as has been my method heret<strong>of</strong>ore, I will work forward rather than backward.<br />
Interestingly, however, Masit Khan was not the first Farukhabad gharaanedaar to have<br />
settled in Calcutta. That distinction belongs instead to Masit Khan’s father, Nanhe Khan.<br />
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As I noted in Chapter 4, Nanhe Khan was one <strong>of</strong> the few tabliya-s we can be certain<br />
migrated from Lucknow to Calcutta with Wajid Ali. So, when Masit Khan “came” to<br />
Calcutta in the 30s, he was really just following in the footsteps <strong>of</strong> his father and Ustad.<br />
As Gottlieb explains, Masit Khan was taken as a child to live in Rampur (now in western<br />
UP state) with his uncle, Nanhe Khan’s brother Nissar Ali. Rampur, like Calcutta, but<br />
perhaps to an even greater extent, benefited from the exile <strong>of</strong> Wajid Ali since many <strong>of</strong> his<br />
musicians chose to make Rampur their new home and base <strong>of</strong> operations. Rampur was in<br />
a relatively favorable position relative to Lucknow as Rampur had remained loyal to the<br />
British during the ‘Sepoy’ Mutiny <strong>of</strong> 1857. <strong>The</strong> British returned this favor <strong>by</strong> not only<br />
allowing the native rulers to continue patronizing music and the other arts, but also <strong>by</strong><br />
helping Rampur financially, which increased the number <strong>of</strong> performers who could be<br />
supported <strong>by</strong> the darbaar. As a result, Rampur “ultimately became the leading center <strong>of</strong><br />
classical music in North India,” a position it arguably held until 1949 when the princely<br />
courts were <strong>of</strong>ficially dissolved (Gottlieb 1993:13). Masit Khan’s years as a court<br />
musician overlap with what was possibly the pinnacle <strong>of</strong> Rampur as a center <strong>of</strong> classical<br />
music, the reign <strong>of</strong> Navab Hamid Ali (ruled 1899-1930), a great patron <strong>of</strong> classical music<br />
who reputedly was himself a fine performer. Hamid Ali was notably the ruler who took<br />
Pandit Bhatkhande as a disciple when the latter made it known he would like access to<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the traditional compositions <strong>of</strong> Ustad Wazir Khan, the legendary Seniya<br />
biinkaar. However, Hamid Ali’s successor, Raza Ali, was “not very interested in music,”<br />
and many court musicians and dancers left Rampur in search <strong>of</strong> other opportunities after<br />
Hamid Ali’s death (ibid.).<br />
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Masit Khan, <strong>of</strong> course, wound up in Calcutta where he would live, perform, and<br />
teach until his death in 1977 (ibid.). Masit Khansaheb, as all accounts agree, was another<br />
prolific teacher, and, as Shankar Ghosh explained to me, was happy to teach outsiders<br />
(non-family members), both Muslim and Hindu, and taught them to the best <strong>of</strong> his ability.<br />
This is an important point, because for all the talk amongst musicians in India regarding<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> pedigree and family tradition and for all the talk <strong>of</strong> current<br />
anthropologists and ethnomusicologists regarding what many see “accomodationist”<br />
behavior on the part <strong>of</strong> Muslim musicians who have, in their view, had to curry the favor<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Hindu middle classes in post-Independence India, the truth <strong>of</strong> the matter is that it<br />
was due to open-minded musicians like Masit Khan that Hindustani classical music has<br />
become as popular as it has across India. Further, Masit Khan not only helped North<br />
classical music and tabla in a general way, he also paved the way for his gharana to<br />
become the dominant tabla gharana and style in Calcutta. Thus, while many <strong>of</strong> Masit<br />
Khan’s contemporaries likely disapproved <strong>of</strong> his teaching outsiders, as it would have<br />
compromised the “purity” <strong>of</strong> the tradition, we can now see that this has actually<br />
preserved and bolstered the Farukhabad tradition over time, even if in truth the style has<br />
been diluted to some extent in the process. It is well-known that Khyal, tabla, sitar, and<br />
sarod all grew and flourished because dhrupadiya-s, singers and instrumentalists, were<br />
only willing to teach these new instruments and genres to non-family members while<br />
keeping their knowledge <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad (and Dhrupad instruments like biin and rabaab)<br />
within the family, a fact which would nearly doom Dhrupad to extinction. It can be said,<br />
though, that this process has happened on the level <strong>of</strong> gharana style as much as on the<br />
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oader level <strong>of</strong> genre. Also, not to belabor this point, but it should be emphasized that<br />
Muslim musicians have played their role in democratizing Hindustani music as much as<br />
Hindus have. For every Vishnu Digambar or Balkrishnabua, there is an Allaudin Khan,<br />
Masit Khan, or Munir Khan, in other words.<br />
Concerning Masit Khan’s disciples, there were no doubt very many, but only a<br />
handful concern us here. <strong>The</strong> first is R.C (Raichand) Boral, a musician who was most<br />
famous for his work in film music in both Calcutta and in Bollywood, but who came<br />
from a wealthy family that patronized numerous great Ustads, including his Guru Masit<br />
Khan. <strong>The</strong> second is Masit Khan’s son and successor as gharana khaliifaa, Keramatulla<br />
Khan (not to be confused with the sarod player <strong>of</strong> the same name). Like his father,<br />
Keramatulla was one <strong>of</strong> the truly brilliant tabliya-s <strong>of</strong> his day. Although according to the<br />
sources I have consulted, Keramatulla learned only with his father, but both Gottlieb<br />
(1993:51-52) and Naimpalli (2005:98) note that Kermatulla made use <strong>of</strong> the technique <strong>of</strong><br />
modulating the pitch produced <strong>by</strong> increasing or decreasing the amount <strong>of</strong> pressure on the<br />
bayaan, or left handed/bass drum. As this is a technique that this typically associated<br />
with Benares players, it seems reasonable to think that that gharana was the source <strong>of</strong><br />
Keramatulla’s inspiration in this regard. Nayan Ghosh agreed that Keramatulla took<br />
from Benares, but also added that he also “transformed his style completely,” not only<br />
including Benares elements in his style, but also moving “far, far away from” his father’s<br />
style, to the extent that his own mature style bordered on the Ajrada and Delhi styles<br />
(interview, 2005). According to most sources, KK had two noteworthy disciples, his son<br />
Sabir Khan who is currently one <strong>of</strong> the top tabliya-s in Calcutta (and is now, after his<br />
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father’s death, the Farukhabad khaliifaa), and one that he inherited from his father, Pandit<br />
Gyan Prakash Ghosh. Gyanbabu, as he was <strong>of</strong>ten known, was a well-known tabliya and<br />
singer, but his greatest legacy is the number <strong>of</strong> disciples he taught and prepared as<br />
musicians. Gyanbabu was greatly esteemed for the amount <strong>of</strong> repertory he learned and<br />
that he subsequently passed on to his students. Aloke Dutta (1995), who is not<br />
incidentally a disciple <strong>of</strong> Gyanbabu’s disciple Shankar Ghosh, sees Gyanbabu as a<br />
catholic figure who, not unlike Munir Khan, combined several existing traditions into a<br />
new style. Gyanbabu learned most <strong>of</strong> his tabla from Masit Khan and son, but he also<br />
spent time under Feroz Khan <strong>of</strong> Punjab gharana, so that style undoubtedly had the largest<br />
impact on Gyanbabu outside <strong>of</strong> the Farukhabad tradition. <strong>The</strong> amount <strong>of</strong> tabla<br />
knowledge Gyanbabu had acquired was recognized <strong>by</strong> no less a maestro than Ahmedjan<br />
Thirakwa who, according to Nayan Ghosh, once stated that “[Gyan Prakash] is the only<br />
man in Calcutta who knows tabla”(interview, 2005).<br />
Gyanbabu was able to make use <strong>of</strong> his passion for teaching, learning, and<br />
performing music to the extent he did because <strong>of</strong> was from a wealthy, semi-aristocratic<br />
family, and as such, he was able to patronize a number <strong>of</strong> musicians, <strong>by</strong> among other<br />
things, letting them stay in his home whenever they visited Calcutta. In that way,<br />
Gyanbabu could serve as a facilitator for exposing North Indian musicians to the<br />
interested students and patrons <strong>of</strong> music in Calcutta and vice-versa. Bikram Ghosh<br />
referred to Gyanbabu as, for this reason as “one <strong>of</strong> the great patrons <strong>of</strong> classical music in<br />
the 50s and 60s” and referred to Gyanbabu’s Dixon Lane residence in Calcutta as a “kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> nucleus” for the rapidly growing Calcutta music scene. Gyanbabu’s resources enabled<br />
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him to learn from some <strong>of</strong> the greats (besides his Ustads in tabla, he learned vocal music<br />
from Girija Shankar Chakrborty and Seniya Mohammed Dabir Khan, among others) and<br />
to teach many disciples. And, as Bikram Ghosh pointed out, not only did Gyanbabu<br />
teach many very prominent disciples, a short and extremely impressive list that includes<br />
Nikhil Ghosh, Shankar Ghosh, Kanai Dutta, Shyamal Bose, Sanjay Mukherjee, Anindo<br />
Chatterjee, and his son Mallar Ghosh, he also taught many others who may not have been<br />
famous performers, but were good performers and also active teachers. Also, while<br />
Gyanbabu is best known as a tabla Guru, he also was one <strong>of</strong> the early Gurus <strong>of</strong> Ajoy<br />
Chakraborty, perhaps the top Khyal singer in Calcutta and all <strong>of</strong> eastern India. Sitarist<br />
Partho Bose described Gyanbabu as a “reservoir” <strong>of</strong> vocal music knowledge, the<br />
knowledge which he had gleaned from his “close interactions” with Bade Ghulam Ali<br />
and Amir Khan in particular (interview, 2005). Gyanbabu, according to Parthoda,<br />
evidently pursued and embraced this role in vocal music, just as in tabla.<br />
Gyanbabu’s most important disciples in terms <strong>of</strong> teaching the following<br />
generations <strong>of</strong> tabla players and continuing to spread the art have been Nikhil Ghosh,<br />
who made his name in Bombay, and Shankar Ghosh, who I have already referenced<br />
several times above. Shankar Ghosh’s list <strong>of</strong> students includes Sanjay Mukherjee (who<br />
started with Gyanbabu), Tanmoy Bose, Arup Chatterjee, and his son Bikram. Also, as<br />
was the case with Gyanbabu, Shankarda teaches a large number <strong>of</strong> students who are not<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional level performers. Bikram Ghosh testified to the fact that his father continues<br />
even today to teach a “humongous number <strong>of</strong> students.” Shankar Ghosh also resembles<br />
his Guru Gyan Prakash in that he has learned from Gurus <strong>of</strong> different gharanas and has<br />
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developed a unique style <strong>by</strong> drawing on these different influences. Besides Gyan<br />
Prakash, Shankar Ghosh learned, as Gyanbabu had, from Feroz Khan <strong>of</strong> Punjab gharana,<br />
as well as from Anath Bose, a Bengali who played in the Benares style (and father <strong>of</strong><br />
Shyamal Bose), and Sudarshan Adhikari, a disciple <strong>of</strong> the Lucknow gharana. Peter<br />
Lavezzoli, in his book <strong>The</strong> Dawn <strong>of</strong> Indian Music in the West (2005), notes that<br />
Shankarda’s playing is more kinaar- (edge <strong>of</strong> the tabla or dayaan drum) oriented than is<br />
typical <strong>of</strong> Farukhabad players, evincing the influence <strong>of</strong> Delhi gharana technique (208).<br />
However, while Shankar Ghosh’s life and career parallels that <strong>of</strong> Gyan Prakash,<br />
his story also differs in some important ways. First, Shankar Ghosh is not from an<br />
aristocratic background, but is from a solidly middle-class family. This meant that the<br />
decision to pursue music seriously was much more problematic for him than for<br />
Gyanbabu, in that members <strong>of</strong> Shankarda’s extended family were not totally approving <strong>of</strong><br />
his choice to become a pr<strong>of</strong>essional musician, a common experience <strong>of</strong> most non-<br />
hereditary Hindu musicians <strong>of</strong> his generation. More importantly, Shankar Ghosh has<br />
been a much more prominent performer than his Guru had been, which is not necessarily<br />
to say that Shankar Ghosh is far better player than Gyanbabu was. Shankar Ghosh came<br />
along a different historical moment than Gyanbabu, and thanks to a number <strong>of</strong> factors,<br />
including Ravi Shankar’s pioneering work abroad, the work <strong>of</strong> Gyanbabu and many<br />
others in increasing the audience for and social acceptability <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical<br />
music in India, and, more specifically, his musical partnership with Ali Akbar Khan, who<br />
he frequently accompanied in the 50s and 60s. This partnership with Ali Akbar would<br />
eventually lead to Shankar Ghosh becoming a founding faculty member <strong>of</strong> the Ali Akbar<br />
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College <strong>of</strong> Music in San Rafael, California and to collaborating with Western musicians<br />
like the Grateful Dead. Of course, besides Ali Akbar, Shankarda has accompanied all the<br />
great instrumentalists <strong>of</strong> his day, and was one <strong>of</strong> the top accompanists in India for many<br />
years. More recently, though, he has chosen to limit himself to solo playing only, as he<br />
grew tired <strong>of</strong> the way tabla accompanying has changed over the years, as noted above<br />
(interview, 2005). He has also recently added his own wrinkle to the tabla solo <strong>by</strong><br />
performing totally solo, i.e. sans any instrument providing the repetitive leharaa melody.<br />
Bikram Ghosh argued that Calcutta became the true “seat <strong>of</strong> tabla” in<br />
approximately the 1960s, an era which saw both the continuation <strong>of</strong> the tabla boom, so to<br />
speak, in Calcutta and the a beginning <strong>of</strong> what he saw as a decline in the tabla scene in<br />
other places such as Delhi and especially Benares, a decline he attributed in the latter case<br />
to a lack <strong>of</strong> disciples coming along in the 70s and 80s who followed those styles. Bikram<br />
Ghosh mentioned Pandit Kishen Maharaj 86 as the “leading light” <strong>of</strong> that gharana for the<br />
last 40 years or so, and it is worth mentioning that Kumar Bose, one <strong>of</strong> the leading tabla<br />
players in Calcutta and internationally at the present, received much <strong>of</strong> his taaliim from<br />
Kishen Maharaj. Kumar Bose’s father Biswanath was also a disciple <strong>of</strong> the Benares<br />
gharana; his Guru was the great maestro Kanthe Maharaj. Benares tabliya-s are not very<br />
numerous in Calcutta currently, though. Gopal Mishra is a native Benarasi (and the son-<br />
in-law <strong>of</strong> Kishen Maharaj) who is a staff accompanist at ITC-Sangeet Research<br />
Academy, but there are few other examples. <strong>The</strong> most notable Bengali tabla player in the<br />
Lucknow style is Pandit Swapan Choudhury, who learned primarily under Santosh<br />
86 Kishen Maharaj passed in away <strong>2008</strong>, after I completed the research for this project.<br />
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Biswas. Swapan Choudhury is a Calcutta native and, like many musicians, lives overseas<br />
but visits Calcutta frequently. Swapanda has taught for a number <strong>of</strong> years at the Ali<br />
Akbar College and currently teaches at Cal Arts. For the most part, though, the explosion<br />
in tabla playing in Calcutta in the last half century has been thanks to the Masit Khan<br />
branch <strong>of</strong> the Farukhabad gharana. Besides Swapan Choudhury and Kumar Bose, most<br />
notable Bengali tabla players have direct ties to this tradition (even Swapanda is Shankar<br />
Ghosh’s sister’s son). A list <strong>of</strong> the top senior tabla artistes in Calcutta would start with<br />
Shankar Ghosh and, slightly junior to him, Anindo Chatterjee and Kumar Bose, and the<br />
younger generation would be highlighted <strong>by</strong> names like Bikram Ghosh and Tanmoy<br />
Bose. Subhankar Banerjee is a rare example <strong>of</strong> a Farukhabad style player that has no ties<br />
to Gyanbabu or Shankar Ghosh. His Guru was Swapan Shiva, a disciple in turn <strong>of</strong><br />
Keramatulla Khan. It can be safely said, though, that Farukhabad is the tabla gharana in<br />
very much the same way that Gwalior is the Khyal gharana <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra.<br />
As with my discussion <strong>of</strong> Khyal in Maharashtra and Bengal, I would like to<br />
conclude this chapter <strong>by</strong> making some generalizations regarding tabla style in these two<br />
regions. While there are important parallels between tabla playing and Khyal singing in<br />
Maharashtra and Bengal, a topic I have partially addressed above, there are also, needless<br />
to say, some very important differences. <strong>The</strong> first difference, which I explained in the<br />
introduction to this chapter, is that due to various social, cultural, musical, and, most<br />
importantly, economic factors, the role <strong>of</strong> tabliya-s as accompanists for instrumental<br />
music has now superseded their identity as soloists, at least in the eyes <strong>of</strong> the ticket-<br />
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uying public, which in turn has resulted in tabla players performing in a much more<br />
purposefully homogenous style across India than is the case in Khyal or in sitar and sarod<br />
playing. This then is a factor that no doubt serves to obscure regional differences. On<br />
the positive side, current tabliya-s seem much more prepared than soloist musicians<br />
(vocal and instrumental) to recognize that there are notable differences between<br />
themselves and their counterparts on the opposite side <strong>of</strong> India. This, again, was most<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten couched in terms <strong>of</strong> Calcutta versus Bombay than Bengal versus Maharashtra, but<br />
as I have argued, these two cities are the capitals and prime classical music centers <strong>of</strong><br />
their respective regions and in an age where Hindustani music is largely limited to large<br />
urban areas, in the field <strong>of</strong> classical music, Calcutta is Bengal and Bombay is<br />
Maharashtra. In the latter case, one might object that Pune represents an important center<br />
outside <strong>of</strong> Bombay and that there are important differences between the two cities. I<br />
believe that historically this has been true, but now, thanks to the construction <strong>of</strong> the<br />
large, high speed freeway that links the two (and reduces travel time to about 2 hours,<br />
rather than 4-5 hours as before), Bombay and Pune are increasingly becoming one center,<br />
with musicians not only traveling back and forth to perform, which has been the case for<br />
many years, but also with a number <strong>of</strong> musicians maintaining residences in both cities.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second and more crucial factor that makes region-based generalizations easier<br />
in the case <strong>of</strong> tabla than Khyal is that there are visible and audible differences in the way<br />
tabla drums are constructed in Calcutta and Bombay. Mostly these differences can be<br />
attributed to the different materials that are used in the construction <strong>of</strong> the drums. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
are also differences, however, in the size and shape <strong>of</strong> the drums from each city. As a<br />
241
esult <strong>of</strong> these physical differences in the actual drums themselves, it is no stretch to say<br />
that this stands as the most commonly recognized and tangible difference between any<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> classical music in Bengal and Maharashtra. Presumably, if sitar playing was as<br />
popular and prestigious in the eyes <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrians as it is for Bengalis, then we might<br />
be able to observe similar differences between the string instruments constructed in each<br />
region. However, as it is, there is currently only one center for string instrument makers<br />
<strong>of</strong> any repute in Maharashtra. This is Miraj, the aforementioned town in southern<br />
Maharashtra which was the home base for Abdul Karim Khan for a number <strong>of</strong> years.<br />
At any rate, it is, again, commonly acknowledged and understood that tabla are<br />
somewhat differently constructed in terms <strong>of</strong> size, shape, and materials in the different<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> India where the Hindustani tradition is practiced. As Gottlieb explains, tabla<br />
“are constructed according to local customs and individual preferences. Although<br />
particular forms and shapes are adhered to, the dimensions and details vary<br />
considerably.” Interestingly, Gottlieb makes no mention <strong>of</strong> Bombay, Calcutta, and/or<br />
Delhi tabla styles, although, to be fair, his short blurb on tabla construction is <strong>of</strong>fered as<br />
simply a bit <strong>of</strong> introductory information. Gottlieb has this to say regarding the average<br />
measurements <strong>of</strong> a set <strong>of</strong> tabla and the materials that are frequently used for their<br />
construction:<br />
<strong>The</strong> dayan [the higher-pitched, right hand drum] measures about 10 inches in<br />
height. Its body tapers from a diameter <strong>of</strong> approximately 5 ½ inches on top<br />
increasing to about 7 inches near the bottom. <strong>The</strong> core <strong>of</strong> the dayan is hollowed<br />
out leaving a wall thickness <strong>of</strong> approximately ¾ inch. <strong>The</strong> wood <strong>of</strong> the “neem” or<br />
“shishum” tree is used for making the finest drums. <strong>The</strong> deeper sounding bayan<br />
[left hand drum] is about 9 inches in height. Its diameter at the top is 9 to 10<br />
inches. Unlike the dayan, a variety <strong>of</strong> different materials have been used for its<br />
construction. <strong>The</strong> most common is nickel, or some similar metal alloy. Clay has<br />
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also been used, mainly because it produces an excellent sound. It is not practical,<br />
however, since it is too fragile (1993:15).<br />
Concerning the types <strong>of</strong> wood used for the dayan, my interlocutors generally agreed that<br />
shiisham along with khair (catechu), two “heavier” woods, were most <strong>of</strong>ten used for<br />
Bombay drums, while the lighter wood <strong>of</strong> the niim tree was typically used in Calcutta.<br />
<strong>The</strong> downside <strong>of</strong> the lighter wood, though, is that, as Nayan Ghosh mentioned, Calcutta<br />
dayaan drums almost invariably crack, whether it happens “after ten years or fifteen<br />
years,” while the Bombay dayaan-s seldom ever break or crack. For this reason, NG felt<br />
that these heavy woods were “ideal for tabla” (“<strong>The</strong>y’ll be there for centuries,” NG said<br />
<strong>of</strong> the shiisham and khair dayaan-s). Along these lines, Anish Pradhan noted that in<br />
recent years, tabla makers in Bombay have been using a lighter variety <strong>of</strong> shiisham<br />
imported from the Punjab, which is both cheaper and easier to work with. Because <strong>of</strong><br />
this, Pradhan said, many tabla players in Bombay seek older drums made from the more<br />
durable woods.<br />
Besides the types <strong>of</strong> wood used for the dayaan, the other significant difference<br />
between the Bombay and Calcutta tabla set is in the skin used for the heads. <strong>The</strong> basic<br />
difference there is that the Calcutta tabla head (or puDii) is thinner than that used in<br />
Bombay. Mostly this is attributed to using either smaller or younger goats for their hides<br />
in Calcutta than in Bombay. Shankar Ghosh mentioned that the hides <strong>of</strong> the goats<br />
sacrificed in the famous Kali Ghat temple in Calcutta are <strong>of</strong>ten used later for making<br />
tabla heads and that those goats are generally small in size (interview, 2005). It was also<br />
noted <strong>by</strong> most <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors that in Calcutta the tabla makers tend to scrape the<br />
heads much more thoroughly before they are affixed to the drums, again increasing their<br />
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thinness. J. Massey, the veteran tabliya <strong>of</strong> Benares, added that in Calcutta, the heads are<br />
also dipped in lime, improving their sound quality, but also making them more fragile.<br />
Mr. Massey also felt that this difference in the preparation <strong>of</strong> the heads was the extent <strong>of</strong><br />
the differences between Bombay and Calcutta tabla (interview, 2005). Regardless, the<br />
consensus was that, as in the case <strong>of</strong> the different woods used for the dayaan-s, the<br />
different kinds <strong>of</strong> skins used in Bombay and Calcutta translate to the Calcutta head<br />
sounding better but lasting for a shorter period <strong>of</strong> time. Nayan Ghosh gave the average<br />
life span <strong>of</strong> a Calcutta head as “weeks or months” but said Bombay heads, <strong>by</strong> contrast,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten last “years and years.” <strong>The</strong> advantage <strong>of</strong> Calcutta heads, however, is that they, as<br />
all agree, largely sound better. NG felt that Calcutta tabla makers in general have a<br />
“better melodic ear” than their counterparts in Maharashtra and do a better job <strong>of</strong><br />
balancing the different layers <strong>of</strong> the composite tabla head. As a result, he said, they are<br />
easier to tune once on the drum and they produce an “easily more impressive sound” than<br />
the Bombay drums when miked and amplified.<br />
Another result <strong>of</strong> preparing heads in the Calcutta fashion is that they are easier to<br />
play, in the sense that it does not take as much force to produce the same tone as on a<br />
Bombay-made set. Anish Pradhan said that the Calcutta heads were “more sensitive” –<br />
“just a slight touch and you get a very resonant sound.” For Nayan Ghosh, however, this<br />
ease in sound production can be a detriment to young tabla players as they develop:<br />
…because <strong>of</strong> tabla playing becoming so easy due to such good instruments, there<br />
is also – now I’m being a little critical – the tabla players also tend to find shortcuts<br />
and easy ways out in techniques…the Calcutta tabla players. That’s not the<br />
case here in Maharashtra. <strong>The</strong> tabla players here go through the grueling<br />
technique also, and they practice it and they master that (interview, 2005).<br />
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NG frequently used the term “weighty hands” when referring to the technique developed<br />
<strong>by</strong> players who play on Maharashtrian tabla. For him, “the best <strong>of</strong> both worlds” is when<br />
a player with these “weighty hands” performs on the more attractive sounding and<br />
resonant Calcutta drums. Even this can be problematic, though, because heavier,<br />
Bombay-style strokes can damage the Calcutta drums and shorten the already short life-<br />
span <strong>of</strong> Calcutta-made heads. NG explained that when he ordered heads from Calcutta,<br />
he made certain that the heads were made extra thick <strong>by</strong> Calcutta norms. I should be<br />
clear, though, that <strong>of</strong> the eight tabliya-s I interviewed, NG was the only one who felt that<br />
there was more to the Bombay versus Calcutta tabla issues other than simply that the<br />
drums were made <strong>of</strong> different materials in each locale. In NG’s case, part <strong>of</strong> this is that,<br />
as he clearly stated, he wished to be seen as an advocate <strong>of</strong> Bombay tabla, or as he termed<br />
it “Maharashtrian tabla,” <strong>by</strong> which he meant tabla players <strong>of</strong> the Munir Khan tradition in<br />
Maharashtra, not ethnically Marathi tabla players. However, considering that his<br />
argument was a fairly logical one, at least from my perspective as an outsider, it was<br />
surprising that none <strong>of</strong> the others I met would agree with or <strong>of</strong>fer a similar explanation. I<br />
generally asked my interlocutors a slightly different question – if they thought that<br />
Calcutta tabla were designed to facilitate speedier playing (which they do) because that<br />
was more appropriate for accompanying instrumental music, and they all said no. As<br />
Shankar Ghosh explained, decades earlier, when there was more balance in terms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
prevalence <strong>of</strong> vocal music versus instrumental in Calcutta (i.e. when sitar and sarod<br />
players were less prominent and fewer in number), tabla were made essentially the same<br />
way as they are today. Arvind Mulgaonkar, a tabliya senior even to Shankar Ghosh,<br />
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agreed that neither the demands <strong>of</strong> gharana style nor the musical contexts <strong>of</strong> the tabla (i.e.<br />
for use accompanying instrumental versus vocal music) had ever impacted the way tabla<br />
were constructed, in Bombay or Calcutta.<br />
I will return to this question <strong>of</strong> how the sound and sonority <strong>of</strong> tabla drums in<br />
Bengal and Maharashtra affect musical style, but for now, I would like to look briefly at<br />
gharana style in the recent past and currently in order to determine what, if any,<br />
generalizations can be made on this basis about tabla in each <strong>of</strong> these two regions.<br />
Gottlieb begins his short chapter entitled “Style” with the statement, “Tabla players<br />
representing a particular gharana are generally convinced that their own tradition is very<br />
different from that <strong>of</strong> another gharana”(1993:49). This, <strong>of</strong> course points to the age <strong>of</strong><br />
Gottlieb’s study, because as I have made clear earlier in this chapter, not one <strong>of</strong> the tabla<br />
players I interviewed believed any gharana to be distinct from the others, in the sense that<br />
any particular tabliya today follows anything like a pure version <strong>of</strong> the style <strong>of</strong> the<br />
gharana they belong to (if they belong to a gharana). Gharanas do exist in the sense that<br />
there is a style that corresponds to each <strong>of</strong> the six traditional gharanas. However, all the<br />
tabliya-s I interviewed stated that not only did they mix the styles and compositions <strong>of</strong><br />
various gharanas in their own playing, they also believed this to be essentially true <strong>of</strong> all<br />
other current tabla players. This is not to say that all tabliya-s mix the styles <strong>of</strong> all six<br />
gharanas in their own playing equally; each player has his own pedigree in terms <strong>of</strong> what<br />
he inherited from his (or her) own Guru to go along with whatever they have tried to add<br />
from outside sources. And, as I have explained above, this mixing is really the legacy <strong>of</strong><br />
the Gurus and daadaa-guru-s (Guru’s Gurus) <strong>of</strong> the current generation. Gottlieb, <strong>of</strong><br />
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course, follows the above quotation <strong>by</strong> explaining precisely this, that while tabla players<br />
in 1977 (when Gottlieb originally published his book) might have held on to their<br />
gharanas as an important part <strong>of</strong> their musical identity, the reality at that time as much as<br />
now is that no notable tabliya-s were actually following one gharana style exclusively.<br />
This again makes stylistic generalizations difficult, as even players as close as<br />
pupils <strong>of</strong> the same Guru or as close as father and son <strong>of</strong>ten display significant differences<br />
in their playing style. Gottlieb’s solution, likely the most reasonable one, is to focus on<br />
the individuals who most are representative <strong>of</strong> each gharana style, meaning either the<br />
khaliifaa or most famous representative <strong>of</strong> the gharana at the time, and then to examine<br />
their style in detail (<strong>by</strong> transcribing and analyzing solo performances <strong>by</strong> each). All the<br />
same, Gottlieb does <strong>of</strong>fer a few comments that generalize about gharana styles. This type<br />
<strong>of</strong> generalization is crucial in this context, as the primary issue in this study, after all, is to<br />
determine what, if any, generalizations can be made regarding musical style on a regional<br />
basis. Fortunately, however, we are aided here <strong>by</strong> the fact that there are very real<br />
interconnections, historical and to a certain extent geographical, between the six major<br />
tabla gharanas that allow us to place these styles into two or three broad categories based<br />
on technique, repertoire, and style. I am speaking <strong>of</strong> the division <strong>of</strong> tabla styles/gharanas<br />
into, most commonly, either the Purab baaj or Paschimi baaj, the Eastern and Western<br />
styles, respectively. According to this division, Delhi and near<strong>by</strong> Ajrada (in Meerut<br />
district) are the western centers, as they lie on the western end <strong>of</strong> what is traditionally<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> as North India, and Lucknow, Farukhabad, and Benares are the eastern centers<br />
(Mistry 1999:174). Farukhabad is actually fairly centrally located in this region, but it is<br />
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logically included with the eastern group because it is thought to be an <strong>of</strong>fshoot <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Lucknow gharana and the two styles musically are in fact very similar. <strong>The</strong> inclusion <strong>of</strong><br />
Benares in this group, however, points to one inadequacy <strong>of</strong> this categorization for<br />
analytical purposes. As Gottlieb argues, the Benares gharana in stylistic terms has much<br />
more affinity with the Punjab gharana, as both are clearly pakhaawaj-derived styles; the<br />
traditional inclusion <strong>of</strong> Benares in the Purab group is based strictly on geography. This<br />
in turn points to the other inadequacy <strong>of</strong> this Purab-Paschim binary division, that it does<br />
not even acknowledge the Punjab gharana, previously discussed as one <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
influential styles in modern-day tabla. Mistry explains that many <strong>of</strong> “the nation’s<br />
geriatric senior celebrities” in the field <strong>of</strong> tabla denied to her the existence <strong>of</strong> both the<br />
Punjab and Benares gharanas, on the grounds that the former is a pakhaawaj gharana<br />
only and that the latter has not contributed enough to be considered a distinct style<br />
(1999:177). To these skeptical veterans, it apparently is not important where you place<br />
these traditions relative to other tabla gharanas if they are indeed not tabla gharanas.<br />
For our purposes, though, the Punjab and Benares schools are tabla gharanas, as<br />
they are recognized as such <strong>by</strong> most performers, scholars, and listeners across India. I<br />
think it is fair to say that if any current tabla player were to question the gharana status <strong>of</strong><br />
either Benares or Punjab, it would be strictly because that individual had an axe to grind<br />
and/or stood to gain something financially or pr<strong>of</strong>essionally <strong>by</strong> doing so. What is<br />
necessary in this context then is a classificatory scheme that includes all six <strong>of</strong> the major<br />
tabla gharanas, and thankfully Gottlieb provides just this. He argues for three categories,<br />
Purab, Delhi (which includes Ajrada), and ‘Pakhawaj,’ with two gharanas in each<br />
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(1993:50). <strong>The</strong> chief virtue <strong>of</strong> these categories, particularly in this context, is that they<br />
are based primarily on musical style, not on discipular connections between important<br />
figures in the early histories <strong>of</strong> these lineages (which <strong>of</strong>ten cannot be verified) or on<br />
geographical proximity alone. As these are categories that are based on generalizations at<br />
a broad level, the corresponding styles can be fairly easily explained. In terms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
‘Pakhawaj’ gharanas, I feel it is enough here to note they are based in large part on<br />
pakhaawaj techniques and compositions, although the Benares gharana does have some<br />
real connections with the Lucknow gharana. For reasons I will explain below, reasons<br />
that include but go beyond musical style, I see the ‘Pakhawaj’ gharanas as standing apart<br />
from the other four in the Bengali and Maharashtrian contexts.<br />
It is tempting to try to map the old east-west division onto Bengal and<br />
Maharashtra, and state that the modern Purab baaj is now based in Calcutta and the<br />
modern Paschimi baaj is based in Bombay (along with perhaps Delhi). After all,<br />
Calcutta has definitely always been dominated <strong>by</strong> the Farukhabad tradition, and while<br />
Lucknow does not come close in terms <strong>of</strong> popularity or prevalence, it has some presence<br />
in Calcutta while it has very little historical or current presence in Bombay. On the other<br />
side, in Bombay there has been an extensive history <strong>of</strong> Delhi tabla including players <strong>of</strong><br />
both the Munir Khan tradition and Delhi gharaanedaar-s such as Nattu Khan, Gamme<br />
Khan, and Inam Ali Khan. Also, while there are no longer any Ajrada players as such in<br />
Bombay, there have been some historically, while there have been relatively few that<br />
have ever lived and taught in Calcutta.<br />
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Before I explain the limitations <strong>of</strong> this view, I should note the hallmarks <strong>of</strong> each<br />
baaj. <strong>The</strong> tabla, as noted, has composite heads on both the drums <strong>of</strong> the pair, the higher<br />
dayaan and the lower bayaan. As Kippen explains, “[e]ach head is made from a circular<br />
piece <strong>of</strong> treated goat skin partly covered <strong>by</strong> a second skin that is trimmed away to form a<br />
rim (kinaar or chaanti) around its circumference”(1988:xiv). <strong>The</strong> area left exposed is<br />
called the suur, and is composed <strong>of</strong> two parts, the exposed bottom layer hide, called the<br />
maidaan (Hindi – “field”) and a circular patch made <strong>of</strong> metal filings and various other<br />
substances called syaahii that is added in the middle <strong>of</strong> the dayaan and is placed <strong>of</strong>f<br />
center on the bayaan. For the sake <strong>of</strong> this discussion, the important portions are the suur<br />
and kinaar, as the Purab and Paschimi styles are <strong>of</strong>ten referred to as “suur kaa baaj” and<br />
“kinaar kaa baaj,” or “khulaa baaj” and “bandh baaj,” respectively. What these terms<br />
imply is that traditional compositions <strong>of</strong> the Delhi gharana and <strong>of</strong> the Ajrada gharana, a<br />
derivative <strong>of</strong> the Delhi style, heavily emphasize bol-s (strokes) played on the kinaar (the<br />
edge <strong>of</strong> the dayaan), particularly the bol ‘TA,’ a crucial stroke in most tabla pieces. <strong>The</strong><br />
edge <strong>of</strong> a tabla drum, as with any type <strong>of</strong> drum, does not produce as resonant and ringing<br />
a tone when struck as does the portion closer to the center, hence the name “bandh baaj,”<br />
“closed style.” “Closed” in this case also refers to technique as well, as Delhi and Ajrada<br />
players typically use two fingers on the dayaan, and their hand must have a “compact<br />
look with fingers close together”(Naimpalli 2005:43). <strong>The</strong> virtue <strong>of</strong> this style is that the<br />
strokes they play are very clear and sharply enunciated, even at high speeds. <strong>The</strong> suur ka<br />
baaj, then, <strong>by</strong> contrast, features relatively more strokes played on the suur portion,<br />
including ‘TA’ and is <strong>of</strong>ten called “khulaa baaj,” meaning “open style.” In terms <strong>of</strong><br />
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technique, this means lifting the third finger <strong>of</strong> the right hand <strong>of</strong>f the dayaan head to<br />
allow it to reverberate as fully as possible, unlike the Delhi and Delhi-derived styles,<br />
where the third finger is always placed against the head (Kippen 1988:118). Most<br />
authorities agree that this indicates the influence <strong>of</strong> pakhaawaj technique, and keeping<br />
this in mind, it is somewhat more understandable then that Benares would be included in<br />
this group. J. Massey, senior disciple <strong>of</strong> Benares tabla maestro Samta Prasad (aka ‘Godai<br />
Maharaj’), certainly characterized the Benares style as “khulaa haath kaa baaj” (open-<br />
handed baaj) in my interview with him (2005). This does not change the fact, though,<br />
that on these grounds, Punjab should be included in this group also, but generally is not,<br />
due to its location north rather than east <strong>of</strong> Delhi. At any rate, the relative advantage <strong>of</strong><br />
the Purab style is that the open sound is generally more “impressive” and “melodic” (to<br />
borrow Nayan Ghosh’s descriptors), and playing more on the suur allows for greater ease<br />
in playing fast, though the clarity suffers at a high speed.<br />
Considering that vocal music is much more prevalent in Maharashtra and<br />
instrumental music more so in Calcutta, it is tempting to hypothesize that all these<br />
factors, regional instrument construction, the gharana style(s) prevalent in each region,<br />
and the relative amounts <strong>of</strong> vocalists versus instrumentalists in each region, are all<br />
somehow tied together. In Bombay, the Delhi style is pervasive, which means that<br />
aesthetically, the tabla players strive for clarity above speed (Gottlieb 1993:50), and this<br />
is reinforced <strong>by</strong> the thicker Bombay heads which restrict speed regardless <strong>of</strong> other<br />
factors. So, this would seem to be ideal both for vocal music accompaniment, where a<br />
clear, properly articulated <strong>The</strong>kaa (accompaniment pattern) is the number one<br />
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equirement, and for solo tabla playing, at least for the older cyclical style, practiced most<br />
notably <strong>by</strong> Thirakwa, where musical development and subtlety outweigh speed and<br />
technical virtuosity. On the other hand, the Purab style seems ideal for modern<br />
instrumental accompaniment, where the order <strong>of</strong> the day is playing short, rapid fire solos,<br />
and where the tabla player must show his skill in a short burst before again receding into<br />
the background. This seems a style tailor-made for the Calcutta style tabla, as the thinner<br />
heads allow for easier playing at a high speed and as the heads and lighter drum shells in<br />
tandem sound better when filtered through a modern amplification system than does the<br />
typical Bombay set. As I have stated, though, most <strong>of</strong> my informants thought that the<br />
notions that either tabla were at any point in time specifically designed to suit either sitar<br />
or Khyal accompaniment or that tabliya-s in these places had altered their playing style to<br />
suit their instruments were incorrect, even laughable (with Nayan Ghosh as a partial<br />
dissenter). It does, however, lead me to speculate that perhaps someone like Masit Khan<br />
ended up settling in Calcutta because he liked the tabla there and found them to suit his<br />
hand and his gharana’s style better than the drums in other places. This, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
cannot be anything but speculation.<br />
This much is all true, but the problem with reducing the difference in<br />
Bengali/Calcutta tabla and Marathi/Bombay tabla to the old Purab-Paschim distinction is<br />
that it is not inclusive <strong>of</strong> all the tabla traditions that have been important in these two<br />
regions. Specifically, as I mentioned above, it does not acknowledge the role played <strong>by</strong><br />
the Punjab and Benares gharanas in Bombay and Calcutta respectively. It is an arguable<br />
point, but I do not feel that either presents any serious difficulty in making<br />
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generalizations about tabla style in these two regions. <strong>The</strong> reason for this is that while<br />
these two ‘Pakhawaj’ gharanas have been important in the cities <strong>of</strong> Bombay and Calcutta,<br />
they have been less important outside these two large centers. This is more true in the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, where, unlike in West Bengal, there is a significant musical activity<br />
outside <strong>of</strong> the capital and biggest city. So, Allarakha and Zakir have been key figures in<br />
Bombay where they have and have had direct disciples, but it is hard to say their style has<br />
been any more important and influential in places like Pune and Kolhapur than it is<br />
anywhere else in India. <strong>The</strong>se two are no doubt nationalizing figures and Bombay is the<br />
home base for many such musicians. This is again a major difference from Calcutta. In<br />
Bombay, there is a Maharashtrian scene which is similar in many ways to the rest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
region and a very cosmopolitan, national scene. Indeed, it seems that Bombay took over<br />
the role as the chief national center for Hindustani music from Delhi at some point in the<br />
last 20-30 years. In Calcutta, however, there have been many important migrants in the<br />
field <strong>of</strong> music (and other fields) from other regions, particularly eastern Uttar Pradesh and<br />
neighboring Bihar, but, all the same, Calcutta has always remained a Bengali city,<br />
especially in cultural terms. Benares and Calcutta have also had a long historical<br />
relationship, as many wealthy Bengalis own houses and land in Benares and travel there<br />
frequently. Beyond high pr<strong>of</strong>ile examples like sitarist Mushtaq Ali Khan, there must<br />
have been a number <strong>of</strong> Benaresi musicians who have tried their luck in Calcutta, just as<br />
performers from other centers like Lucknow and Rampur had. While they may have<br />
succeeded as individual performers, it is clear that the Benares style has not taken root in<br />
Calcutta as a very prominent style, at least in terms <strong>of</strong> numbers <strong>of</strong> adherents. In a way,<br />
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this proves regional preferences as clearly as any case (and this is not to slight the role<br />
played <strong>by</strong> the great Farukhabad Gurus) because Bengalis have been exposed to Benares<br />
tabla and have not embraced it on a large scale. It clearly shows that it is not as simple an<br />
equation as, “if gharana X is present in city Y, gharana X’s style will be popular there.”<br />
At any rate, Calcutta is always an easier city to generalize about than Bombay because it<br />
is, in fact, such a Bengali city.<br />
<strong>The</strong> bigger problem with taking the Purab-Paschim (or Purab –Delhi, <strong>by</strong><br />
Gottlieb’s categories) distinction as 100% applicable to tabla in Maharashtra and Bengal,<br />
though, is that while Farukhabad (a Purab gharana) undoubtedly dominates Calcutta and<br />
greater Bengal and Munir Khan’s ‘Laliyana gharana’ has played a parallel role in<br />
Bombay and greater Maharashtra, Munir Khan’s style is not purely Delhi, or even Delhi<br />
and Ajrada. His style was Farukhabad and Lucknow as much as Delhi, to the extent that<br />
many refer to him as a Farukhabad tabliya or Lucknow tabliya, even though he belonged<br />
<strong>by</strong> blood to the Delhi gharana. This is true <strong>of</strong> Thirakwa as well. As Gottlieb writes, “In<br />
addition to having been a disciple <strong>of</strong> Nanne Khan <strong>of</strong> the Farukhabad gharana, Ahmedjan<br />
Thirakwa also studied with Boli Baksh <strong>of</strong> the Delhi gharana. He performed the<br />
Farukhabad and Delhi repertoires and also compositions from the Lucknow and Benares<br />
repertoires”(1993:49). Keramatulla Khan stands as a similar example on the Calcutta<br />
side. As Gottlieb explains, the traditional method <strong>of</strong> sound production <strong>of</strong> the Farukhabad<br />
tradition has been the same as its parent gharana, Lucknow, i.e. largely on the suur.<br />
Keramatulla, however, played TA “at the very edge <strong>of</strong> the kinar” in the Delhi fashion<br />
(ibid.:51). Gottlieb notes, though, that “not until the time <strong>of</strong> Munir Khan” was this<br />
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practice present in the Farukhabad. Thus, in the case <strong>of</strong> Munir Khan specifically we can<br />
see that although his style is essentially an admixture <strong>of</strong> the Delhi and Purab gharanas, in<br />
this crucial area his Delhi background won out, so to speak. Similarly, Keramatulla’s son<br />
Sabir Khan, as Gottlieb notes, has reverted to the suur dominated style traditional to the<br />
gharana <strong>of</strong> which he is now the khaliifaa. Whatever the cause is for the apparent stylistic<br />
affinities between the various tabliya-s in Calcutta on the one hand and tabliya-s in<br />
Bombay, on the other, whether they are due to instrument construction, the exigencies <strong>of</strong><br />
modern tabla accompaniment (including the dominance <strong>of</strong> Khyal in Maharashtra and<br />
instrumental music in Bengal), or some other factor(s), these commonalities continue to<br />
be reproduced <strong>by</strong> succeeding generations, including the present. Considering all the<br />
forces which have pushed tabla playing in the direction <strong>of</strong> homogeneity for<br />
approximately a century now, it is, I feel, remarkable that differences in style, technique,<br />
and overall sound that are apparently regional in nature – even if these commonalities and<br />
differences are at a fairly broad level – continue to prevail even in the 21st century.<br />
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6. <strong>The</strong> Dominance <strong>of</strong> Bengal in Instrumental Music<br />
At the outset <strong>of</strong> this chapter, I should explain the rationale behind my decision to<br />
place my observations on the music <strong>of</strong> the North Indian classical plucked string<br />
instruments after the section in which I dealt with tabla. This may seem, if not surprising,<br />
then at least slightly odd, as most academic studies that cover the Hindustani tradition in<br />
a comprehensive manner generally cover each category in the order assigned to it in the<br />
aforementioned hierarchy <strong>of</strong> Indian musical forms and genres: voice before instrument,<br />
instrument before tabla, and more specifically, Dhrupad before Khyal before Thumri, etc.<br />
To be clear, then, I intend neither to challenge this hierarchy nor to implicitly valorize<br />
tabla or devalue instrumental music. <strong>The</strong> issue, as I have noted in previous chapters, is<br />
rather that, while the traditions <strong>of</strong> Khyal singing and tabla playing are well-represented in<br />
both Maharashtra and West Bengal (though Khyal is more commonly associated with the<br />
former and tabla with the latter), instrumental music is almost exclusively associated with<br />
Bengal and eastern India. To be sure, there are a number <strong>of</strong> instrumentalists in Bombay,<br />
but even then, the relevance <strong>of</strong> this fact is lessened <strong>by</strong> three factors: first, sarod, the<br />
second most popular, important, and prevalent stringed instrument in the Hindustani<br />
tradition after the sitar, is almost totally absent from the entire western side <strong>of</strong> India,<br />
including Maharashtra; second, the vast majority <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional-level sitarists who are<br />
based in Bombay and Pune are ethnically North Indian or Bengali; and third, the<br />
instruments most commonly played <strong>by</strong> ethnic Maharashtrians are the baansurii (the<br />
bamboo flute), violin, and the santuur, not the sitar, sarod, or biin. Of these three (the<br />
former three, that is), the music <strong>of</strong> both the flute and violin is most commonly modeled<br />
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on Khyal vocal music rather than on the music <strong>of</strong> the plucked string instruments. <strong>The</strong><br />
music <strong>of</strong> the santuur, for its part, is more akin to what is played on tabla than on vocal<br />
music, but crux <strong>of</strong> the matter in this case is that the santuur is an instrument whose place<br />
in the classical tradition has been carved out <strong>by</strong> and that is solely associated with one<br />
artist, Pandit Shiv Kumar Sharma, a musician originally from Jammu who has spent the<br />
better part <strong>of</strong> his life and career in Bombay. This is not to dismiss Shiv Kumar Sharma,<br />
his Maharashtrian disciples, or the santuur itself. <strong>The</strong> point rather is that at present,<br />
santuur playing in Maharashtra is not a tradition – it is simply one maestro and a handful<br />
<strong>of</strong> disciples. It may well become established as such in the future, but only time will tell.<br />
We need only recall that sitar players have been present in Bombay since at least the<br />
early years <strong>of</strong> the Indian film industry, and yet, to date, there has not been a single<br />
Maharashtrian sitar player who has achieved fame on a regional, much less national,<br />
basis.<br />
Instrumental music is, however, still important in the present context. <strong>The</strong> most<br />
obvious reason for this is that, as instrumental music is dominated <strong>by</strong> Bengalis, an<br />
examination <strong>of</strong> the instrumental music and its most important traditions can tell us much<br />
about the Bengali musician and their aesthetic choices. As we shall see, the approach to<br />
form and musical style taken <strong>by</strong> the majority (though not all) <strong>of</strong> Bengali instrumentalists<br />
in many ways resembles that <strong>of</strong> the average Bengali Khyal singer, thus reinforcing the<br />
significance <strong>of</strong> those tendencies. Similarly, the Bengali passion for instrumental music, I<br />
will argue, tells us much about their willingness to experiment and innovate, rather than<br />
simply adhering to the traditions that were passed down to them, as is also true <strong>of</strong> Bengali<br />
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Khyal singers. As we shall also see, though, instrumental music as a field harbors a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> contradictions. Among the strictly classical genres, instrumental music in the<br />
broad sense <strong>of</strong> the term (i.e. including every type <strong>of</strong> melodic instrument, not only sitar<br />
and sarod) is undoubtedly the most popular form <strong>of</strong> classical music in terms <strong>of</strong> its appeal<br />
to the casual listener (or to the ‘masses,’ as many <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors put it). Partly, or<br />
sometimes solely, because <strong>of</strong> this, many Indian music purists, whether they are<br />
musicians, scholars, or connoisseurs, see instrumental music as the lightest and least<br />
classical form <strong>of</strong> purely classical music. Of course, most <strong>of</strong> these purists, including most<br />
<strong>of</strong> my informants, are vocalists, and thus, the criticisms they pose, however objectively<br />
stated, can and should be interpreted as the viewpoint <strong>of</strong> competitors, just as when<br />
musicians from one gharana give their ‘unbiased, objective’ views on musicians<br />
representing other gharanas. At the same time, though, a short list <strong>of</strong> the greatest<br />
Hindustani musicians <strong>of</strong> the last fifty years would indisputably be dominated <strong>by</strong><br />
instrumentalists, and, as many <strong>of</strong> my non-instrumentalist informants clearly stated, the<br />
ranks <strong>of</strong> instrumentalists include a large number <strong>of</strong> musicians who perform the North<br />
Indian ragas in their chastest, most grammatically correct form, a hallmark <strong>of</strong> orthodox<br />
classicism.<br />
In the following, then, I will discuss this contradiction where <strong>by</strong> instrumental<br />
music as a field includes some <strong>of</strong> both the most and the least classical musicians <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Hindustani tradition. Also, while I briefly discussed the gharana concept as it applies to<br />
instrumentalists in chapter three, I will briefly return to this subject again here, as there<br />
are a handful <strong>of</strong> points remaining to be made in this regard. Finally, parallel to my<br />
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approach in the chapters on Khyal and tabla, I will conclude with a discussion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
primary gharanas <strong>of</strong> instrumental music, including their historical and regional roots;<br />
their stylistic approach, including both each gharana’s unique contributions and the ways<br />
in which they overlap with other gharanas; and the names <strong>of</strong> and, in select cases, some<br />
biographical information regarding key figures in the growth and development <strong>of</strong> each<br />
gharana. While instrumental music is a limited phenomenon in Maharashtra, I will also<br />
examine the brief history <strong>of</strong> instrumental music in that part <strong>of</strong> India. Among other things,<br />
this discussion <strong>of</strong> the various instrumental lineages takes us much <strong>of</strong> the way, though not<br />
all the way, toward arriving at an answer to one <strong>of</strong> the overriding questions posed <strong>by</strong> this<br />
study, i.e. why Bengali musicians have come to dominate this field so thoroughly.<br />
Before proceeding, I should note that I will henceforth restrict myself in this<br />
chapter to an examination <strong>of</strong> three instruments: sitar, sarod, and biin (rudra viiNaa). <strong>The</strong><br />
latter, the biin, is most important as a predecessor or ancestor <strong>of</strong> the sitar and sarod, but it<br />
is also significant in its own right, as the biin tradition continues to survive into the 21st<br />
century (even if the exponents <strong>of</strong> biin are currently few in number). This is as opposed to<br />
the instruments seen as the antecedents <strong>of</strong> the sarod specifically, such as the Afghani and<br />
Senia rabaab-s and the suursingaar, which have been totally superseded <strong>by</strong> the modern<br />
sarod. <strong>The</strong> reason for this restriction in terms <strong>of</strong> instrumental traditions I will cover in<br />
this context is tw<strong>of</strong>old. First, many <strong>of</strong> the instruments outside <strong>of</strong> these three are, like the<br />
santuur, associated with one maestro and cannot described at this point in time as an<br />
established tradition. Other examples <strong>of</strong> this type <strong>of</strong> instrument would include the<br />
shahnaaii, the double reed aerophone introduced into Hindustani classical music <strong>by</strong> the<br />
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late Ustad Bismillah Khan <strong>of</strong> Benares. Other solo instruments, such as the baansurii, the<br />
saarangii (as a specifically solo instrument), and, to a lesser extent, the violin and the<br />
‘Hawaiian’/slide guitar, are slightly more prevalent, but when one examines the approach<br />
taken on these instruments, they will find that these instruments tend to imitate either the<br />
music <strong>of</strong> the sitar/sarod or, as mentioned above, Khyal vocal music, or in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
certain artists, both, although most <strong>of</strong>ten the baansurii, saarangii, and violin imitate vocal<br />
music and the slide guitar sitar and sarod music. This leads to the second reason, which<br />
is that ‘instrumental music’ per se is the music <strong>of</strong> the sitar and sarod. As opposed to<br />
Khyal compositions which are referred to as khyaal or bandiish, instrumental<br />
compositions are called gat and are primarily defined <strong>by</strong> typical patterns <strong>of</strong> plectrum<br />
strokes. That these patterns form the basis <strong>of</strong> the style is rather logical considering that<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the most prominent attributes (or limitations) <strong>of</strong> plucked string instruments is their<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> sustain, which makes them generally unsuitable for imitating the voice (unlike<br />
bowed string instruments or wind instruments). Thanks to improvements in instrument<br />
construction over the course <strong>of</strong> the 20th century, the sustain <strong>of</strong> both the sitar and the<br />
sarod have been greatly improved, allowing certain artists to develop an essentially vocal<br />
style, generally referred to in Hindi as gaayakii ang (vocal style) as opposed to the<br />
traditional sitar and sarod approach, referred to as gat shailii (lit. style based on gat-<br />
playing), or sometimes as tantakaarii ang (style <strong>of</strong> string instruments).<br />
When criticizing instrumental music as a whole (individual artists were rarely<br />
mentioned <strong>by</strong> name), most <strong>of</strong> my informants couched their explanations in terms <strong>of</strong> why<br />
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instrumental music exceeded vocal music in popularity, popularity being a common<br />
index <strong>of</strong> the ‘cheapness,’ ‘vulgarness,’ or ‘lightness’ <strong>of</strong> music in India, as in most<br />
cultures which feature a classical music tradition, though even in speaking generally,<br />
none <strong>of</strong> my informants used such harsh adjectives – the term ‘popular’ itself is a damning<br />
enough epithet. Dr. Prabha Atre <strong>of</strong>fered perhaps the widest range <strong>of</strong> factors for the<br />
popularity <strong>of</strong> instrumental music, though she did not elaborate on any one factor as much<br />
as some <strong>of</strong> the other musicians I spoke with. For PA, the reasons for the mass appeal <strong>of</strong><br />
instrumental music include, first, the expanded role <strong>of</strong> the tabla player in instrumental<br />
recitals (which, not incidentally, is frequently mentioned as a factor in why tabla is so<br />
popular with non-Indian audiences); second, the general emphasis on speed and virtuosity<br />
in instrumental music; and, third, the ‘tonal qualities’ <strong>of</strong> instruments versus the human<br />
voice. In regards to the last <strong>of</strong> these, PA mentioned that the voice tended to be more<br />
fragile in nature than the tone <strong>of</strong> an instrument, while an instrument also typically has<br />
much wider pitch range than does the voice <strong>of</strong> most classical singers. All in all, though,<br />
PA felt that the primary appeal <strong>of</strong> instrumental music was its visual aspect: the dramatic<br />
(and <strong>of</strong>ten exaggerated) gestures and head movements <strong>of</strong> instrumentalists, the blinding<br />
speed <strong>of</strong> their hands, the spectacle <strong>of</strong> the instruments themselves, etc. (interview, 2005).<br />
To be sure, not every critic <strong>of</strong> the perceived excessive emphasis on speed and virtuosity<br />
was a vocalist who singled out instrumentalists as the worst <strong>of</strong>fenders, though many <strong>of</strong><br />
my vocalist informants did. Arvind Parikh, himself a sitar player - albeit one who<br />
follows the Imdad Khani style <strong>of</strong> his Guru the late Vilayat Khan, a style which heavily<br />
identifies with and is strongly influenced <strong>by</strong> Khyal vocal music – also agreed with PA’s<br />
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comments on the whole. As AP stated, today’s artists place style over substance and<br />
emotional comment, preferring “fast music, loud music, bout with tabla, in other words to<br />
somehow impress the people, somehow get claps and applause, somehow become more<br />
popular, somehow become more commercially successful”(interview, 2005). While AP<br />
did not single out instrumentalists, preferring the more general term “today’s artists,” his<br />
comments about “loud music” and “bout with tabla” were clearly in reference to<br />
instrumental music.<br />
Dinkar Kaikini, for one, explained to me in a bit more detail why speed in<br />
particular represented such a challenge to the integrity <strong>of</strong> classical music, beyond being<br />
simply a means <strong>of</strong> pandering to the uninitiated or uneducated listener. Interestingly, DK<br />
was willing to single out one artist for the introduction <strong>of</strong> this element into instrumental<br />
music. DK felt that the credit for this went to Enayet Khan, the father <strong>of</strong> Vilayat Khan,<br />
noting that Enayet Khan made a practice <strong>of</strong> playing aalaap on the surbahaar (or bass<br />
sitar) and speedy, taan-oriented music on the sitar. Although Miner attributes these and<br />
other innovations to Enayet Khan’s father, Imdad Khan, the putative founder <strong>of</strong> this<br />
gharana (1993:152), it is clear that this lineage has placed the greatest stress <strong>of</strong> any on the<br />
sapat taan, or ‘straight taan,’ a straight, scalar movement up and down the main playing<br />
string <strong>of</strong> the sitar, at very high speeds. 87 At any rate, as DK asserted, “Raga means no<br />
speed,” “..if speed comes in, there is no raga, no ang.” While he is certainly not the first<br />
or last to raise this point, it is a crucial one nonetheless. A raga is defined <strong>by</strong> a number <strong>of</strong><br />
factors, its basic scale, the emphasis on particular notes through repetition and structural<br />
87 It largely to due his excellence in this one aspect <strong>of</strong> sitar that Vilayat Khan claimed a “victory” over Ravi<br />
Shankar in a famous jugalbandii (duet) performance between the two in Bombay in the 1950s.<br />
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prominence, the use <strong>of</strong> characteristic raga-identifying phrases, etc., but one <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
important is the melodic shape <strong>of</strong> the raga, which includes not only straight or oblique<br />
movement up and down the scale, but also emphasis on certain registers. In singing<br />
straight, scalar taan-s, however, the tendency is to treat the raga as a scale and nothing<br />
else. Taan-s, as DK said, are like a crown on a king, “not the head or body”; a king is<br />
identified <strong>by</strong> his crown, but it is only one small aspect <strong>of</strong> who he is, in other words.<br />
Vijay Kichlu concurred with this statement, noting that “If you start losing the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> the raga character, and uh,…the raga ras [mood], then you lose a lot,” as<br />
well as that, unfortunately, this happens all too <strong>of</strong>ten - “Today raga is missing, everything<br />
else is there”(interview, 2005). I should be clear, though, that for VK, a Kashmiri raised<br />
in Uttar Pradesh, both Maharashtrians and Bengali “have a flair for speed” and both<br />
groups are, thus, equally culpable <strong>of</strong> neglecting the elaboration <strong>of</strong> the raga. And, <strong>by</strong><br />
including both sides, he was obviously pointing to the flawed approach <strong>of</strong> both<br />
instrumentalists and vocalists.<br />
Having pointed out an artistic flaw which is associated most <strong>of</strong>ten with sitarists,<br />
and particularly with those belonging to the Vilayat Khan/Imdad Khani tradition, I should<br />
also note those excesses that tend to be associated (unfairly or not) with the their chief<br />
rivals, the musicians <strong>of</strong> the Maihar gharana <strong>of</strong> Allaudin Khan, whose membership<br />
includes both sitarists and sarodists, as well as players <strong>of</strong> other instruments, such as<br />
baansurii and slide guitar. 88 <strong>The</strong>se have already been alluded to in the comments <strong>of</strong><br />
Arvind Parikh (when he mentioned the ‘bout with tabla’), but Veena Saharabuddhe<br />
88<br />
Wajahat Khan, son <strong>of</strong> Imrat and nephew <strong>of</strong> Vilayat Khan, is a sarodist, but he seems to be exceptional<br />
within this lineage.<br />
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<strong>of</strong>fered a more detailed critique <strong>of</strong> the artistic flaws or excesses <strong>of</strong> instrumentalists that go<br />
beyond a penchant for speedy taan-s. As she told me,<br />
In instrumental music, actually, there are two or three things I have noticed –<br />
earlier also, that jhaalaa and now that sawaal-jawaab with the tabla. Now these<br />
days the tabla and the sitar, I think it’s just a kind <strong>of</strong> a solo performance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tabla and a solo performance <strong>of</strong> the sitar, or sarod, or flute or whatever, it’s half<br />
and half! <strong>The</strong> sitar plays two or three aavartan-s [repetitions <strong>of</strong> the rhythmic<br />
cycle], after that, the tabla, he says, “OK, I’m now going to keep the leharaa, and<br />
you…” It’s a kind <strong>of</strong> a jugalbandii now, but earlier, my father used to say, it’s<br />
not like that. And this kind <strong>of</strong> a jugalbandii, it’s not there in vocal, when you are<br />
singing. <strong>The</strong> aalaap part is so…the aalaap part is the main part. But here in<br />
instrumental music, what these people are doing now, they have changed the<br />
whole, you know, presentation. First they will do joD aalaap, and joD aalaap<br />
also in a very long manner, quite good amount <strong>of</strong> time. And the same thing again<br />
they will start with the tabla and the jhaala – the last part, the climax! <strong>The</strong><br />
listeners, they just love that. And that is really very irritating to me. <strong>The</strong>y just<br />
kind <strong>of</strong>, “jham, jham, jham, jham, jham”[imitiating sitar playing jhaalaa]. But the<br />
listeners, they like…and that’s very loud. So, that is not there, that ‘show art’ is<br />
not there in our [chuckling]…in our vocal artists (interview, 2005).<br />
It should again be reiterated that neither Veena Sahasrabuddhe, nor any other vocalist<br />
ever mentioned Ali Akbar Khan or Ravi Shankar <strong>by</strong> name, as either responsible for these<br />
perceived excesses or as having committed any <strong>of</strong> these excesses themselves. In VS’s<br />
case, this was clear enough, as at another point in our interview, she spoke in glowing<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> Ravi Shankar and recalled fondly how her father had brought both Ravi Shankar<br />
and Ali Akbar to perform for her father’s music circle in Kanpur, U.P. when she was a<br />
child. Ashwini Bhide-Deshpande and Shruti Sadolikar, two other Maharashtrian<br />
vocalists also were quite happy to praise Ravi Shankar for all the good he had done for<br />
Indian music as a whole. At the same time, these great musicians did introduce these<br />
practices into the instrumental tradition (as the Imdad Khan sitarists had introduced<br />
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Khyal-style taan-s into sitar), and so any criticism <strong>of</strong> these practices is, to a certain<br />
extent, an indirect criticism <strong>of</strong> them.<br />
Though I will speak more about the exact nature <strong>of</strong> these innovations below,<br />
when I detail the stylistic contributions <strong>of</strong> the major sitar and sarod gharanas, I feel it is<br />
worthwhile to cite one more quotation which covers much <strong>of</strong> the same ground. This<br />
quote, however, is from Vamanrao Deshpande’s Indian Musical Traditions (1973), more<br />
specifically from his chapter on Amir Khan:<br />
Lastly one supreme quality <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan deserves particular mention. He<br />
remained strictly uncontaminated <strong>by</strong> the present craze for showiness. He did not<br />
believe in tricks which dazzle the listeners; he kept severely alo<strong>of</strong> from the<br />
modern boisterous jugalbandi-s. Amir Khan was not enticed <strong>by</strong> temptations<br />
which have ruined the art <strong>of</strong> many a senior artist. This fact enhances our respect<br />
for him. He too received numerous invitations to music festivals along with Ravi<br />
Shankar, Ali Akbar Khan or Vilayat Khan. If, therefore, he were to sacrifice his<br />
art at the altar <strong>of</strong> public acclaim, he would have been in good company. But his<br />
artistic sincerity was so austere that the surrounding hullabaloo has not made him<br />
flinch. No master <strong>of</strong> an earlier era indulged in unseemly exhibitions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
jugalbandi or other kinds; nor can all their representatives <strong>of</strong> the present day be<br />
said to have deviated from the strict and narrow path. <strong>The</strong>y merit our pr<strong>of</strong>ound<br />
respect. <strong>The</strong> usual excuse <strong>of</strong>fered on behalf <strong>of</strong> jugalbandi riots and other species<br />
<strong>of</strong> acrobatics is that the listeners want them. Actually no listener ever asks for this<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> fare and the artist <strong>of</strong> genuine merit never needs to pass <strong>of</strong>f a counterfeit<br />
coin (66).<br />
While at several other points in this monograph, Deshpande praises Ravi Shankar for,<br />
among other things, popularizing Indian music with Western audiences and for elevating<br />
the role <strong>of</strong> the tabla player, it is hard to interpret the above passage as anything other than<br />
a direct attack. Apparently, as a senior (though clearly lesser) artist, Deshpande felt no<br />
qualms about mentioning these three maestros <strong>by</strong> name.<br />
So what, then, do we make <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> this? My first observation is that much <strong>of</strong> this<br />
boils down to the fact that vocalists, traditionally the unchallenged kings (and<br />
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occasionally queens) <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, have lost much ground to instrumentalists, not<br />
only in terms <strong>of</strong> commercial or popular appeal, but also in terms <strong>of</strong> artistic influence and<br />
authority, and this is no doubt galling to many <strong>of</strong> them. Also, I regularly observed during<br />
my time Pune and Bombay a general lack <strong>of</strong> respect for instrumental music on the part <strong>of</strong><br />
Marathi audiences and musicians. <strong>The</strong>re is a variety <strong>of</strong> evidence for this: the lack <strong>of</strong><br />
instrumental music recitals scheduled in Pune, including at the prestigious Sawai<br />
Gandharva music festival; inattention on the part <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian audiences when an<br />
instrumentalist performed on the same bill as a vocalist (as I observed first hand); even<br />
very straightforward assertions from musicians and music lovers alike that vocal music is<br />
‘Music’ and sitar playing is simply sitar playing. Also, while, again, none <strong>of</strong> my<br />
informants ever directly criticized Ravi Shankar or Vilayat Khan or any other great<br />
instrumentalist <strong>by</strong> name – if they did mention these artists, it was to praise them – it is<br />
very clear that Maharashtrian artists are much more likely to dismiss instrumental music<br />
altogether than are their counterparts in Calcutta. Thus, as Amit Mukherjee (a Calcutta-<br />
based vocalist) asserted, when I mentioned the sitarists based in Bombay, “<strong>The</strong> best <strong>of</strong><br />
them, you will find at least ten such sitarists here [in Calcutta]”(interview, 2005). K.P<br />
Mukherjee, while delimiting his comments to the Calcutta scene only, tended to criticize<br />
vocalists more in general than sitarists for the defects in their style and performance<br />
practice, noting that “the standard <strong>of</strong> instrumental music in this part <strong>of</strong> the country is<br />
definitely distinctly higher than that <strong>of</strong> vocal music…” and that “Ravi Shankar, Nikhil<br />
Banerjee, and Vilayat Khan were far more conscious about raga than their…counterparts<br />
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in vocal music…not their counterparts - not that there are any counterparts, you see”<br />
(interview, 2005).<br />
This last comment is particularly crucial as most <strong>of</strong> the vocalists who were critical<br />
<strong>of</strong> instrumentalists in particular, rather than all younger musicians (as K.P Mukherjee<br />
was), pointed out that the speed and showmanship <strong>of</strong> most instrumentalists compromised<br />
both raga delineation in general as well as the aalaap itself, the meditative, largely<br />
arrhythmic portion <strong>of</strong> a raga performance which is dedicated specifically to the<br />
elaboration <strong>of</strong> the raga. While a response to this might be that these great sitarists did not<br />
compromise the raga or the music generally, but that many lesser instrumentalists do, this<br />
precisely the point. None <strong>of</strong> these great instrumentalists can be held responsible for<br />
younger artists imitating their ideas and innovations without possessing their overall level<br />
<strong>of</strong> skill, artistry, and taste, but as K.P. Mukherjee attested, this is just as true <strong>of</strong> vocalists.<br />
We need only keep in mind Amit Mukherjee’s comments (cited in chapter 4), about the<br />
ways in which well-meaning but uncomprehending Bengali vocalists have distorted the<br />
complex and subtle gaayakii <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan (he <strong>of</strong> faultless artistic integrity), turning it<br />
into a pale imitation <strong>of</strong> the original. From my perspective, these are totally parallel cases,<br />
and yet, not a single instrumentalist ever told me in an interview or any other context that<br />
vocal music was ruining the Hindustani tradition. It is a rather clear double standard.<br />
Beyond this issue <strong>of</strong> the harsher criteria <strong>by</strong> which instrumentalists are judged in<br />
comparison to vocalists, however, I feel I should also point out that most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
innovations introduced <strong>by</strong> Vilayat Khan and the Maihar stalwarts were modeled on<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong>, if not Khyal itself, then Dhrupad or Carnatic (South Indian) classical music.<br />
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Thus, for example, the sapat taan-s for which the Imdad Khan sitarists are famous came,<br />
as mentioned, from Khyal; the jugalbandii format, although expanded <strong>by</strong> Ravi Shankar<br />
and Ali Akbar, has been present in both Dhrupad and Khyal for hundreds <strong>of</strong> years; and<br />
the sawaal-jawaab ‘question and answer’ technique used <strong>by</strong> Ravi Shankar and other<br />
Maihar or Maihar-style musicians was taken from the Carnatic tradition, more<br />
specifically the taani avartnam or percussion section solo, which features the echo<br />
principle that has existed in Indian music since ancient times. And, lest we assume that<br />
Carnatic influence is somehow distasteful or inappropriate in the Hindustani context, we<br />
need only recall that Abdul Karim Khan, the de facto founder <strong>of</strong> the Kirana gharana,<br />
himself took sargam [solfege] compositions from the Carnatic tradition. This practice<br />
has not only become quite common in the gaayakii <strong>of</strong> singers representing numerous<br />
different gharanas, it was also adopted <strong>by</strong> none other than Amir Khan. Keeping this all in<br />
mind, we can see the truth in Partho Bose’s statement that “[Ravi Shankar] is a very<br />
traditional musician when it comes to playing sitar” whose “style is a very old style based<br />
on Dhrupad,” but who has also been frequently criticized because, although he did not<br />
change the substance <strong>of</strong> the music, he did change the presentation for the benefit<br />
attracting new listeners (for example, <strong>by</strong> playing a short piece first before launching into<br />
the traditional full scale presentation <strong>of</strong> a single raga), and even then, when these new<br />
audiences became more acclimated to the music, he reverted to a more traditional style <strong>of</strong><br />
presentation (interview, 2005).<br />
My point here is not that vocalists are simply jealous, and as such their criticisms<br />
<strong>of</strong> instrumental music are baseless, or that no instrumentalist has ever indulged in speedy<br />
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taan-s or complex, overly intellectual, even unmusical, rhythmic play at the expense <strong>of</strong><br />
melody and raga, because many have. Rather, what I would like to say is that, to the<br />
extent the tradition truly is being compromised or commercialized or diluted, both<br />
vocalists and instrumentalists are responsible. If instrumentalists are more to blame, it is<br />
only because they do in fact have a larger and more diverse audience, which, in my view,<br />
is a credit to them, especially Ravi Shankar, as they, not vocalists, were the ones to<br />
initially reach out to new audiences in hopes <strong>of</strong> bettering the tradition, particularly in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> the financial plight <strong>of</strong> musicians who depend on their earnings as a performer to<br />
make a living. Again, I do not mean to suggest that the comments I quoted from Veena<br />
Sahasrabuddhe and Prabha Atre are in any way baseless, misguided, or to be seen as<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> some sort <strong>of</strong> ulterior motives. What they both said is absolutely true <strong>of</strong> the<br />
performances <strong>of</strong> many instrumentalists, instrumentalists who are, needless to say,<br />
generally not as talented or as skilled as Ravi Shankar is or Vilayat Khan was, nor as<br />
financially secure. I do, however, think that there is a stereotype which holds that<br />
instrumentalists are more likely than not to be motivated strictly <strong>by</strong> money, while<br />
vocalists are the preservers <strong>of</strong> the tradition, the true artists. In reality, though, however<br />
many sitar players there are that are “in it for the money,” so to speak, there are more<br />
than enough who are not, just as there are many celebrity vocalists who are absolutely in<br />
it for the money. Painting all these musicians with the same brush is, as in any case, a<br />
dangerous and damaging proposition.<br />
This bias, I feel, is simply one aspect <strong>of</strong> a larger narrative regarding Hindustani<br />
music which holds that, as time goes on, artistic standards in Hindustani music continue<br />
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to decline and that there is very little that can be done to stop the rot. <strong>The</strong>re is obviously<br />
some truth to this, as the audience for classical music changed in a very drastic manner,<br />
to say the least, during the 20th century. As such, it is hard to deny that untrained<br />
listeners to tend to appreciate musically meaningless virtuosity, flashy kurtaa-s, and<br />
attractive faces more than subtle and intricate raga elaboration. How to fix this, though,<br />
is not only beyond the confines <strong>of</strong> this study, but also is a question that is nearly<br />
impossible to answer. I would like, however, to quote one more <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors,<br />
specifically tabla player Bikram Ghosh, as he was perhaps the only musician I<br />
interviewed who not only mentioned the taste <strong>of</strong> the mass audience for showiness as well<br />
as the penchant some musicians have for giving it to them, but also <strong>of</strong>fered a defense <strong>of</strong><br />
sorts, not just for the performers, but for virtuosic, technical music itself. For BG, it is<br />
not simply that economic pressures have forced classical musicians, especially junior<br />
musicians, to “sell out” and compromise their ‘artistic integrity’:<br />
You have to remember that it’s all about what you are trying to communicate.<br />
Now, if somebody’s practicing more and has achieved a lot <strong>of</strong> speed, and is not<br />
giving enough emotional content, then catch him, bad, he’s a bad artist. So,<br />
emotional content is the main issue. If your emotional content is expressed<br />
through a certain speed, then OK. So let’s not say this generation is only<br />
concentrating on speed. This generation does lack emotional content, I agree with<br />
that. Why? Look at the history. <strong>The</strong> generation <strong>of</strong> the Ravi Shankars, the Ali<br />
Akbar Khans, and my father, Vilayat Khan, and all these people. <strong>The</strong>y, on a<br />
world level, there were these World Wars, the whole world was influenced <strong>by</strong><br />
that. On a national level, there was the independence movement, there were the<br />
riots, there was so much - strife, life was topsy-turvy, they all went through this<br />
whole churning process. And the new India had a focus, so passion levels were<br />
high, automatically. We are monitored animals at the end <strong>of</strong> the day and so, we,<br />
if you tell us, you know, “Independence must come on, give your life,” you know<br />
this “blah, blah, blah,” all those values will come into your music. Automatically,<br />
your passion level will be very high.<br />
<strong>The</strong> 80s generation are scratching their heads for what? “What are we going to be<br />
passionate about?” You can’t find anything to be passionate about. So,<br />
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automatically the emotional content will be low. If…so, it is a generational thing<br />
that will happen, you know. If you look at the history <strong>of</strong> literature, look at, you<br />
know, the Renaissance, the Restoration, the, uh, the Age <strong>of</strong> Reason, the Age <strong>of</strong><br />
the Romantics, it will happen – automatically it’s a cyclic process. When you<br />
have too much <strong>of</strong> passion and too much <strong>of</strong> romance, people will go towards<br />
reason, and then from reason they’re going to go back to romanticism, you know.<br />
So, we are, as a generation, generally, the reason has been the primary influence,<br />
you know, it’s more intellectual. It’s something which I agree with, and I don’t<br />
think it’s right also, because I personally am more <strong>of</strong> a romantic in my musical<br />
approach. It’s true, though, that it’s a trend. But let’s not say that this is better or<br />
that’s better or that’s worse (interview, 2005).<br />
I should note that we reached this point our interview after discussing ITC-SRA’s annual<br />
seminar, where one topic is chosen each year about which a variety <strong>of</strong> experts, mostly<br />
scholars and practicing musicians, <strong>of</strong>fer their views in a lecture format. <strong>The</strong> topic <strong>of</strong><br />
2005 seminar was, as it turned out, the declining standards <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music and what<br />
could be done to fix this decline. What caught my attention most about the seminar was<br />
that the majority <strong>of</strong> the senior musicians’ comments were along the lines <strong>of</strong> “the younger<br />
generation is letting us down.” So, at least from my perspective, the proceedings boiled<br />
down to older musicians blaming the younger, while the younger sat and quietly listened<br />
(and at least <strong>of</strong> a few <strong>of</strong> the academy’s students, who will remain anonymous, thoroughly<br />
agreed with this observation).<br />
BG, then, was one <strong>of</strong> the very few musicians under the age <strong>of</strong> 40 that stood up for<br />
the younger generation during the seminar. I largely agree with him, though at the same<br />
time, as an established pr<strong>of</strong>essional, he certainly had more ground to stand on than the<br />
students still in training at the academy. <strong>The</strong>re is no doubt that the period beginning from<br />
the 20th century forward is uncharted territory for a tradition that was always shielded in<br />
the past from day to day economic realities. His point is well taken, though. Every<br />
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generation has its own set <strong>of</strong> challenges to face which, <strong>of</strong> course, it cannot choose or<br />
avoid, and the kind or style <strong>of</strong> art the times demand is one <strong>of</strong> these. Also, to be sure,<br />
much <strong>of</strong> what is reality for the young musician <strong>of</strong> today is the legacy <strong>of</strong> their<br />
predecessors. Rarely, though, did any <strong>of</strong> the senior musicians I spoke with concede that<br />
their generation or they themselves as individuals had ever made their own mistakes or<br />
that, in retrospect, they could <strong>of</strong> made things better for their disciples or the tradition<br />
generally, though a handful did blame other senior musicians. And yet, for all their<br />
achievements, they clearly are responsible to some extent. We need only recall that many<br />
<strong>of</strong> the WWII generation’s finest musicians have never trained a disciple <strong>of</strong> note. <strong>The</strong>y<br />
may have given their successors “the world,” so to speak, but many have done very little<br />
to show their juniors how to negotiate the economic side <strong>of</strong> business while at the same<br />
time keeping artistic standards high, which is, a difficult balancing act, needless to say.<br />
Thus, as BG in part explained, many young musicians have to decide for themselves what<br />
is right for the tradition and for the times they live in.<br />
At this point, I will step down from my soap box and make some general<br />
comments regarding gharana in the context <strong>of</strong> instrumental music before proceeding to<br />
detail the major gharanas <strong>of</strong> instrumental music and the characteristic styles that they<br />
each propagate. As most <strong>of</strong> the major instrumentalists <strong>of</strong> today are Bengalis, most <strong>of</strong><br />
what can be observed regarding how instrumentalists relate to the concept <strong>of</strong> gharana can<br />
be taken equally as an observation regarding how Bengali musicians relate to the concept<br />
<strong>of</strong> gharana. This might seem surprising considering that, as noted above, Bengali Khyal<br />
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singers have rarely had access to training with top level, gharaanedaar musicians while<br />
instrumentalists have. However, the similarities are there nonetheless, and I feel that this<br />
is another important indicator <strong>of</strong> regional differences between Bengali and Marathi<br />
musicians. Considering that Hindustani music is, if nothing else, defined <strong>by</strong> the<br />
continuity <strong>of</strong> tradition and the manner in which that tradition is handed down from<br />
generation to generation, the crux <strong>of</strong> the matter, in terms <strong>of</strong> the difference between<br />
Maharashtrians and Bengalis, I feel, is this: Bengalis tend to feel a sense <strong>of</strong> loyalty<br />
primarily to a specific musician, whether it be their Guru or even just their idol or hero<br />
who they might never have met, or sometimes the gharana <strong>of</strong> their Guru/idol, while<br />
Maharashtrians generally seem to feel loyalty primarily to their gharana, or more<br />
diffusely, to the Hindustani tradition itself. <strong>The</strong> key word here is generally because there<br />
are exceptions to every generalization, and as I learned first hand, while many <strong>of</strong><br />
musicians I met did not object in principle to generalizations based on region (though<br />
some, as mentioned above, did), most <strong>of</strong> them objected rather vehemently when I <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
a generalization which they themselves did not agree with.<br />
At any rate, there are several pieces <strong>of</strong> evidence I would like to <strong>of</strong>fer in support <strong>of</strong><br />
this assertion. In terms <strong>of</strong> what I observed first hand, I would note that on the<br />
Maharashtrian side, as detailed above, almost every musician (save, <strong>of</strong> course, for the few<br />
exceptional individuals like Shruti Sadolikar who had received their entire training from<br />
one musician) has a list, sometimes a very long list, <strong>of</strong> Gurus from whom they have<br />
learned. This is not only what the musicians who I interviewed told me; it is also they<br />
way they defined and explained themselves and their respective backgrounds in the<br />
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public eye, e.g. in their introductions read out <strong>by</strong> the emcee before a recital or in the liner<br />
notes <strong>of</strong> the cassettes and/or CDs <strong>of</strong> their music. To this I would add that many <strong>of</strong> my<br />
Maharashtrian interlocutors also, both on and <strong>of</strong>f the record, openly disagreed with the<br />
views <strong>of</strong> (one <strong>of</strong>) their Gurus or, less <strong>of</strong>ten, were even openly critical <strong>of</strong> their Guru. It<br />
was never very harsh criticism, but criticism all the same, and I have to say I found this<br />
surprising, as one <strong>of</strong> the cornerstones <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani tradition, as with so many other<br />
Indian traditions, is loyalty to and veneration <strong>of</strong> the Guru. I was tempted at first to think<br />
this was more a generational issue than anything else, but in retrospect, looking back at<br />
my notes and interviews, I do not see that age made a difference in whether or not a<br />
particular musician held this view. <strong>The</strong> word that Maharashtrian musicians most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used to describe themselves whether they were relatively young or old was “modern,”<br />
though the better term might be “rational,” as Bengalis are modern as well, though in a<br />
different fashion. <strong>The</strong> way most Maharashtrian singers described their training to me was<br />
something like, “I started learning from musician X (who might be their parent or a local<br />
musician), then I went to musician Y to learn such and such, and then I went musician Z<br />
to learn something else,” etc. Rarely, though again there were exceptions, did a<br />
Maharashtrian musician tell me that they were inspired to sing <strong>by</strong> one particular artist,<br />
and then subsequently stopped at nothing to eventually learn with that individual. Rather,<br />
their attitude on the whole was not unlike that <strong>of</strong> the Western musician who goes to a<br />
teacher to learn something specific and then moves on when that goal is accomplished.<br />
That is not to say that they are not respectful <strong>of</strong> and grateful to their Gurus; it is simply<br />
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that they clearly do not treat their Gurus as godlike, infallible figures who are immune to<br />
criticism.<br />
This is also not to say that Bengalis always speak <strong>of</strong> or treat their Gurus with such<br />
extreme reverence. I do think it is fair to say, though, that for Bengalis, the issue <strong>of</strong> who<br />
a particular musician has or has not learned from is a much more emotional and, at times,<br />
controversial subject. <strong>The</strong> truth <strong>of</strong> the matter is that, as with most Hindustani musicians<br />
down through the ages and as with most <strong>of</strong> their Maharashtrian counterparts, the majority<br />
<strong>of</strong> current, pr<strong>of</strong>essional-level Bengali musicians have in fact learned from more than one<br />
Guru. <strong>The</strong> difference, however, is unlike the Maharashtrians, Bengalis – and I am again<br />
speaking generally here – do not tend to consistently publicly acknowledge all the Gurus<br />
from whom they have learned, preferring instead to identify with their current or (for a<br />
senior musician) last Guru. Considering their generally more emotional ties to their<br />
Gurus, this is, then, where the controversy comes in. Several musicians from a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
regional backgrounds spoke about this quality <strong>of</strong> the Bengali musician. Arvind Parikh, a<br />
Bombay-based Gujarati sitarist, scholar, and businessman, explained it thusly:<br />
Calcutta people, Bengali people, are more, uh, traditional on one side –<br />
Maharashtrians are also traditional – but they are very emotionally traditional, and<br />
therefore they stick to one Guru, they will not leave him. And they worship<br />
musicians. Here there was a time fifty years back when musicians were<br />
worshipped, but not today – today Bombay city and the influence around, the<br />
modern thinking…but in Calcutta even today people are still orthodoxly<br />
traditional. Uh, they are, uh…and the unfortunate part, <strong>of</strong> course, is this<br />
emotional traditionalism leads to, uh, leads to bickering and pulling down others.<br />
If you are following this gharana, you will say, “All the other gharanas are bad,<br />
and my gharana is the best.” Maharashtra is more tolerant than Calcutta, but then,<br />
you know, there are good and bad things [on both sides](interview, 2005).<br />
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This topic came up as well with Bengali musicians and scholars, though, perhaps<br />
unsurprisingly, they tended to elaborate more on this subject <strong>of</strong>f the record than in the<br />
interview context. To give an example <strong>of</strong> the former, during a conversation with one<br />
Calcutta rasik [connoisseur] who I frequently encountered during my time there both at<br />
concerts and elsewhere, I remarked that I was somewhat surprised when, while attending<br />
a concert which was a double bill <strong>of</strong> two <strong>of</strong> artists <strong>of</strong> approximately same age, status, and<br />
renown, I noticed that after the first performer finished, half <strong>of</strong> the audience promptly got<br />
up and left, only to be replaced <strong>by</strong> approximately the same number <strong>of</strong> listeners who<br />
hadn’t come for the first half. To this, my acquaintance wryly replied, “Of course – those<br />
people who left were his [the first artist’s] devotees. Most <strong>of</strong> them were probably his<br />
students.”<br />
Another anecdote, which perhaps illustrates the controversial side <strong>of</strong> these<br />
extreme loyalties, came when I had an informal meeting with an amateur instrumentalist<br />
in Calcutta whose name I will not divulge, but who obviously had no ties to the Maihar<br />
gharana. In short, this individual proposed to me his that the lineage <strong>of</strong> the great Maihar<br />
sitarist Ravi Shankar was in his words “cursed,” as, according him, RS had, among many<br />
other things, never properly acknowledged all the great musicians who had influenced<br />
him. Of course, I could have corrected him on certain points, such as the fact that RS has<br />
trained some notable disciples (many <strong>of</strong> whom are not based in Calcutta) and has publicly<br />
acknowledged some <strong>of</strong> his early influences, 89 but not only did I tend to avoid arguments<br />
while conducting my interviews, preferring to let my interlocutors speak their peace<br />
89 see Ravi Shankar’s English autobiography Ragamala (1999)<br />
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(even if I disagreed), I also was somewhat in shock because he had only launched into his<br />
tirade after I told him that I was a student <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> RS’s disciples! Curiously, though,<br />
the other Maihar gharana stalwart, sarodist Ali Akbar Khan, was evidently OK in his<br />
book, and thus not cursed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> late Nikhil Banerjee, also <strong>of</strong> the Maihar gharana, could perhaps be termed the<br />
paradigmatic case <strong>of</strong> a controversial shift from one Guru to another, even more than<br />
twenty years after his death. Even ethnomusicologist Peter Manuel has entered the fray<br />
on this account, stating in his 1989 monograph Thumri in Historical and Stylistic<br />
Perspectives that NB received most <strong>of</strong> his training from sarodist Radhika Mohan Moitra,<br />
in spite <strong>of</strong> the fact that he was “generally publicized as a student <strong>of</strong> Allaudin Khan”(176).<br />
Manuel’s source on this issue was Moitra’s disciple and Manuel’s Guru, Dr. Kalyan<br />
Mukherjee, and Manuel, it should be noted, is <strong>by</strong> no means alone in making this<br />
assertion. I myself heard this claim - namely that NB learned first from Moitra and then<br />
shifted to Allaudin Khan, essentially disavowing any connection to Moitra - repeated at<br />
several points <strong>by</strong> several different individuals, including those both affiliated and those<br />
unaffiliated with these two gharanas, during my period <strong>of</strong> research in Calcutta.<br />
Interestingly, according to Nikhil Banerjee himself, though, before Baba Allaudin, his<br />
Gurus were Mushtaq Ali Khan, who NB learned sitar with “for three months only,” Gyan<br />
Prakash Ghosh, who taught him some tabla and vocal music, and Birendra Kishore Roy<br />
Chaudhuri, amateur musician and zamiindaar, from whom NB also learned some sitar<br />
(Landgarten 1991). If we are to take NB at his word (and there is no reason not to, to my<br />
knowledge), he never formally learned from Radhika Mohan Moitra. It is difficult to<br />
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understand, then, why certain individuals continue to harbor some amount <strong>of</strong> bitterness<br />
on this account when, again, NB has been gone for many years now. If nothing else, the<br />
durability <strong>of</strong> this apparent rumor is testimony to the hard feelings that can be created<br />
when a Guru and/or his loyal followers feel, for whatever reason, that that Guru has not<br />
been properly credited for whom and for what he or she has taught.<br />
Considering, then, that Bengalis indisputably dominate instrumental music in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> numbers and stylistic influence, as well as that Bengalis, as my informants have<br />
suggested, also tend to form very strong emotional bonds with their Gurus and even, <strong>by</strong><br />
extension, with their idols who they may have never learned with directly, then we can<br />
better understand the general attitude among instrumentalists regarding gharana. No<br />
doubt, the social and cultural conditions in modern India – including the democratization<br />
<strong>of</strong> the tradition, both in terms <strong>of</strong> listeners and musicians, the influence <strong>of</strong> modern media<br />
(perhaps the single most homogenizing factor per se), and even the expansion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tradition into South India and, more crucially, overseas – have taken their toll on all the<br />
gharanas <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, vocal and instrumental, and their stylistic integrity.<br />
Keeping in mind, though, that as I mentioned in passing in chapter 3, most sitar and/or<br />
sarod gharanas have been relatively recently founded and that, as such, most <strong>of</strong> them are<br />
still represented hereditary members <strong>of</strong> their respective central lineages, it should come<br />
as no surprise that Bengali instrumentalists are generally more loyal to ‘their’ gharana<br />
than are their Maharashtrian Khyal-singing counterparts. I still maintain, based on the<br />
ethnographic evidence I have collected, that Bengalis most <strong>of</strong>ten hold their primary<br />
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allegiance to their Guru. <strong>The</strong> point here, though, is that the great Bengali instrumentalists<br />
are, in a manner <strong>of</strong> speaking, identical to their gharana. This is not to say all the<br />
members <strong>of</strong> each gharana are identical in their stylistic approach – this has never been the<br />
case, even when the original Muslim khaandaan-s <strong>of</strong> Khyal were at their respective<br />
peaks. Rather, if one has studied with Ravi Shankar or Ali Akbar Khan or Vilayat Khan,<br />
then they have studied with the prime exponents <strong>of</strong> the Maihar and Imdad Khani<br />
gharanas, their living embodiments, so to speak. In Maharashtra, conversely, musicians<br />
who have very direct ties to khaandaanii vocalists <strong>of</strong> their gharana are relatively rare.<br />
Even those who are removed <strong>by</strong> one generation (i.e. those who have studied with a non-<br />
hereditary disciple <strong>of</strong> a khaandaanii vocalist) are relatively uncommon. In Bengal,<br />
though, most top level sitar and sarod are, at most, one generation removed from a<br />
khaandaanii maestro. Of course, I am expanding the definition <strong>of</strong> khaandaanii<br />
somewhat here to include, as in the aforementioned case <strong>of</strong> the Alladiya Khan gharana,<br />
non-hereditary disciples, who, as with Mogubai Kurdikar, have received the full gharana<br />
taaliim from their Ustads. As I shall detail shortly, this goes for both the Maihar and<br />
Shahjahanpur gharanas.<br />
Based on all this, it is tempting to think that as these instrumental gharanas<br />
continue to grow and expand, eventually their ‘membership,’ as it were, will begin to feel<br />
less and less attachment to gharana qua gharana, as the Maharashtrian khyaaliyaa-s have.<br />
One bit <strong>of</strong> evidence for this is that, although I did not interview enough Marathi<br />
khyaaliyaa-s who had learned from a bona-fide gharaanedaar Ustad, those that had<br />
seemed to feel a stronger sense <strong>of</strong> loyalty than those (especially the many <strong>of</strong> the members<br />
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<strong>of</strong> the Gwalior tradition) who had no such ties. Srikrishna ‘Babanrao’ Haldankar is one<br />
such vocalist, as he studied with the Agra gharaanedaar Ustad Khadim Hussain.<br />
Srikrishna-ji exhibited a rather interesting mix <strong>of</strong> views, at one extolling the virtues <strong>of</strong><br />
open-mindedness (“Music doesn’t end with gharana – music is beyond gharana”), while<br />
at the same time arguing for the superiority <strong>of</strong> the Agra gaayakii over its competitors in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> completeness and balance, though, to be fair, this was as much a defense <strong>of</strong> the<br />
most common criticisms <strong>of</strong> the Agra style as an unabashed declaration <strong>of</strong> its superiority<br />
(interview, 2005). While it is hard to generalize based on such scant evidence, it seems<br />
that this might be termed as the representative outlook <strong>of</strong> a Marathi artist <strong>of</strong> his<br />
generation. Whether or not gharana will similarly recede in importance in the Calcutta<br />
instrumental music scene remains to be seen. I would argue, though, that the more<br />
enduring aspects <strong>of</strong> each regional group’s outlook are, on the Bengali side, the emotional<br />
attachment to the Guru and his style, and on the Marathi side, a relatively rationalistic<br />
approach to style and to learning music. <strong>The</strong>se attitudes themselves are, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
historically determined and contingent and may well change over time – very likely they<br />
will. I do strongly believe, however, that they are currently more stable and less in flux<br />
than are Hindustani musicians’ attitudes regarding gharana specifically.<br />
To proceed, then, to the most prominent instrumental gharanas <strong>of</strong> the late 20th<br />
and 21st centuries, I will begin <strong>by</strong> noting two important facts. First, as Neuman has<br />
explained, one <strong>of</strong> the key factors in gaining legitimacy as a gharana in Hindustani<br />
instrumental music has been a tie, hereditary or discipular, to the lineage <strong>of</strong> the legendary<br />
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dhrupadiya Tansen <strong>of</strong> the court <strong>of</strong> the Moghul emperor Akbar. As Neuman writes,<br />
“Virtually all instrumentalists belong in one sense or another to the Seniya gharana…,”<br />
and “To the extent that association with the Seniya tradition is used, it is in the sense that<br />
some musicians are more Seniya then others”(1990:107-108). And, indeed, all major<br />
instrumental gharanas outside <strong>of</strong> the Imdad Khani sitar gharana have some sort <strong>of</strong><br />
relatively clear and generally accepted tie along these lines, and two in particular, the<br />
Maihar (also sometimes called Seni-Maihar) gharana and the so-called “Senia Sitar<br />
Gharana” associated with Ustad Mushtaq Ali Khan <strong>of</strong> Benares, derive much <strong>of</strong> their<br />
identity from their Senia heritage (although it is hard to compare these two traditions, as<br />
in the last 50-60 years, the former has unarguably dwarfed the latter in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
popularity, number <strong>of</strong> adherents, and stylistic influence). Second, I should note that, in<br />
instrumental music as in tabla, there has historically been an east/west (Purab/Paschim or<br />
Pachvaa) stylistic distinction in sitar playing specifically (sarod, conversely has always<br />
been associated with eastern India), and, not coincidentally, this dovetails with the issue<br />
<strong>of</strong> Senia ties, as the western style <strong>of</strong> these was essentially the style <strong>of</strong> the early Delhi- and<br />
later Jaipur-based sitar-playing descendants <strong>of</strong> Tansen while the eastern style was a<br />
creation both <strong>of</strong> Senia rabaabiya-s and biinkaar-s and their sitar- and sarod-playing<br />
disciples. And, again, as in tabla, “western” refers to Delhi and its neighboring regions<br />
and “eastern” refers to eastern U.P., historically known as Awadh or Oudh, and its key<br />
center, Lucknow.<br />
Over time, <strong>of</strong> course, this distinction has lost much <strong>of</strong> its relevance, as<br />
instrumental music in general gravitated over time toward greater Bengal and then to<br />
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Calcutta specifically in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. More importantly, though,<br />
not only did the instrumental tradition shift geographically to the east, the two distinct<br />
idioms, i.e. the purabii Raazaa Khaanii gat and the western Masit Khaanii gat which<br />
earlier largely distinguished east from west became part <strong>of</strong> the common repertory <strong>of</strong> all<br />
sitar and sarod players. <strong>The</strong> prime distinction in modern day sitar and sarod playing is,<br />
instead, between those that attempt, through various means, to replicate Khyal and<br />
Thumri vocal styles and those which stay truer to the gat shailii or tantakaarii ang, who<br />
also, in general, can be said to be more Dhrupad-influenced, in the sense that these styles<br />
are more directly descended from Dhrupad instrumental and vocal music (though the<br />
actual, audible resemblance to Dhrupad <strong>of</strong> the music <strong>of</strong> any <strong>of</strong> these gharanas varies from<br />
case to case). As in most forms <strong>of</strong> categorization in Indian classical culture, there is<br />
generally a “mixed” category, i.e. a mixture <strong>of</strong> the ‘pure’ styles, and many would argue<br />
this is true as well <strong>of</strong> sitar as well, if not <strong>of</strong> sarod to quite the same extent. Thus, there are<br />
sitar players whose music is essentially tantakaarii ang, but who incorporate the<br />
sweeping miinD-s (vocal-style glissandos) associated with gaayakii ang to at least some<br />
extent in their presentation. As Manuel writes, “Since the late fifties, so many sitarists<br />
(and sarodiyas) not directly associated with Vilayat Khan [essentially, the pioneer <strong>of</strong> the<br />
gaayakii ang on sitar] have adopted this sort <strong>of</strong> extended gayaki mind that it has become<br />
practically, but not entirely, the norm”(1989:171). At any rate, it is these three<br />
interrelated paired distinctions, western vs. eastern, tantakaarii ang vs. gaayakii ang, and<br />
Khyal influenced vs. Dhrupad influenced, that form the parameters for the rest <strong>of</strong> my<br />
discussion <strong>of</strong> modern instrumental music style.<br />
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Of the two types <strong>of</strong> gat (instrumental composition) mentioned above, the earliest<br />
and most important, as it remains a key part <strong>of</strong> the repertoire <strong>of</strong> both sitar and sarod to<br />
this day (though generally in altered form), is the Masit Khaanii gat, thought to have<br />
been created <strong>by</strong> the musician <strong>of</strong> the same name. As Allyn Miner in her comprehensive<br />
account <strong>of</strong> the growth and development <strong>of</strong> the sitar, sarod, and their respective<br />
repertories, Sitar and Sarod in the 18 th and 19 th Centuries (1993), explains, Masit Khan<br />
was a sitarist who lived and worked in the last impoverished days <strong>of</strong> the Mughal court in<br />
Delhi, with his life spanning approximately 1750 until around 1825. Miner says <strong>of</strong> his<br />
contribution to instrumental music:<br />
Masit Khan turned the course <strong>of</strong> sitar music. He is famous for introducing the<br />
genre called gat-toda, a term that came to stand for all solo sitar music in the<br />
early period. A gat is a composition on the sitar or sarod that is set into tala, a<br />
fixed rhythmic cycle. It has both fixed strokes and a fixed melody…Todas are the<br />
melody lines played in sitar music which expand on, and are interspersed with,<br />
the gat…<br />
All the melodic, ornamental and rhythmic content <strong>of</strong> the Masit Khani-style<br />
outside the gat was contained in the todas, the extension <strong>of</strong> the gat (1993:93).<br />
Miner also notes that many <strong>of</strong> writers <strong>of</strong> the period, as well as later sitar players, place a<br />
great deal <strong>of</strong> emphasis on the Dhrupad influence on his sitar music, which included<br />
composing the melodies <strong>of</strong> his gat-s on the basis <strong>of</strong> the strict, rule-bound Dhrupad<br />
approach to raga and even perhaps basing some <strong>of</strong> his gat-s on pre-existing Dhrupad<br />
compositions. At the same time, however, the sitar at this early stage <strong>of</strong> its development<br />
likely “had relatively little capability for sustained tone and elaborate pulling techniques”<br />
which would have been necessary to imitate the essentially vocal style <strong>of</strong> the biin (or<br />
vocal Dhrupad). To whatever extent the sitar could accurately imitate aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
Dhrupad, though, emphasizing the Dhrupad roots <strong>of</strong> Masit Khan’s style was clearly one<br />
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way for subsequent generations <strong>of</strong> sitarists to raise the status <strong>of</strong> the sitar in the classical<br />
realm.<br />
Indeed, although Miner notes that the historical record is not entirely clear in this<br />
regard, Masit Khan is traditionally thought <strong>of</strong> as a descendant <strong>of</strong> Tansen, and his<br />
followers and descendants trace their lineage through him to the great singer <strong>of</strong> Akbar’s<br />
court. While Masit Khan had a number <strong>of</strong> followers, including most notably his son and<br />
nephew, eventually the Senia sitar tradition, as it came to be known, shifted to Rajasthan,<br />
as the musical scene in Delhi completely dried up with end <strong>of</strong> royal patronage there. <strong>The</strong><br />
first <strong>of</strong> the well-known Rajasthan-based sitarists was Rahimsen, a court musician <strong>of</strong> a<br />
small princely state called Jhajjar – the “sen” affixed to his name indicated that he was<br />
descendant <strong>of</strong> Tansen. More precisely, Rahimsen traced his connection back to Tansen<br />
in two ways: first, he was married to the daughter <strong>of</strong> Masit Khan’s nephew Dulha Khan<br />
(and thus belonged to this lineage <strong>of</strong> sitarists); second, he was himself said to be a direct<br />
descendant <strong>of</strong> Tansen through Tansen’s son’s line (ibid.:105). Rahimsen and his<br />
followers, the most famous being his eldest son Amrtsen, for the most part performed in<br />
Masit Khan’s gat-toDaa style, a style which came to be known as the Delhi baaj or the<br />
Masit Khaanii baaj, though they did develop and expand on this basic format. As Miner<br />
notes, although, as in the case <strong>of</strong> Masit Khan himself, historical sources tend to<br />
emphasize the Dhrupad-oriented aspects <strong>of</strong> the Senia sitarists’ music, other evidence<br />
seems to support the notion that their style contained elements <strong>of</strong> both Dhrupad and<br />
Khyal. <strong>The</strong> latter influence is particularly notable, because, as mentioned above, the<br />
sitarists <strong>of</strong> the Imdad Khan gharana are most <strong>of</strong>ten thought to have first introduced Khyal<br />
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elements on a large scale into sitar music. Along these same lines, the Senia sitar style<br />
never seems to have featured solo (i.e. unaccompanied) aalaap, one the key traits <strong>of</strong><br />
Dhrupad.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most well-known representative <strong>of</strong> the Senia sitar gharana (sometimes called<br />
the “Jaipur Senia sitar gharana” as Amrtsen eventually settled in Jaipur) in the twentieth<br />
century was the late Ustad Mushtaq Ali Khan, a sitarist born in Benares to a lineage <strong>of</strong><br />
Dhrupad singers and biinkaar-s who spent much <strong>of</strong> his career in Calcutta (Chaudhuri<br />
1990). Mushtaq Ali’s connection to the Senia sitar lineage came from his father Ashiq<br />
Ali who had learned from the famous Senia-trained, early 20th century sitarist<br />
Barkatullah Khan, who in turn had been trained <strong>by</strong> Amrtsen’s nephew Ustad Amir Khan<br />
(Das Sharma 1993:72). Mushtaq Ali trained a number <strong>of</strong> disciples, most <strong>of</strong> them<br />
Bengali, but <strong>of</strong> these, the most well-known is Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Devabrata ‘Debu’ Chaudhuri, a<br />
Calcutta-born Bengali, who recently retired after serving as a long-term member <strong>of</strong> the<br />
music faculty <strong>of</strong> Delhi <strong>University</strong>. In terms <strong>of</strong> the modern Jaipur Senia gharana, the main<br />
appeal <strong>of</strong> their style comes from their adherence to tradition. <strong>The</strong> most obvious and<br />
visible example <strong>of</strong> this is their continuing use <strong>of</strong> the 17 fret sitar, as opposed to the 20 fret<br />
version which is the modern standard. <strong>The</strong>re have, though, been some concessions to<br />
modern style on the part <strong>of</strong> both Mushtaq Ali and Debu Chaudhuri. As Jody Stecher<br />
explains in the liner notes to Debu Chaudhuri’s 1991 recording <strong>of</strong> Raga Desh (India<br />
Archive Music – CD 1002), Mushtaq Ali, as with most 20th century sitarists,<br />
incorporated the fast-paced Raazaa Khaanii style fast gat into his overall presentation,<br />
and Debu Chaudhuri has further deviated from his Ustad’s style <strong>by</strong> performing<br />
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unaccompanied, solo aalaap, as well as <strong>by</strong> using the chikaarii (side-mounted drone<br />
strings) much more frequently than Mushtaq Ali had. At the same, though, Debu<br />
Chaudhuri and his followers, again, see their legitimacy as a gharana as being based<br />
primarily on their fidelity to older Senia tradition. <strong>The</strong> strength <strong>of</strong> this approach, as<br />
Chaudhuri explains in his presentation on the Jaipur Senia sitar gharana originally<br />
delivered during ITC-SRA’s “Seminar on Sitar” (1990), is their insistence on the<br />
presenting both raga in general and the Masit Khaanii idiom specifically in their purest<br />
forms. Conversely, though, in comparison to the music <strong>of</strong> Ravi Shankar and Vilyat<br />
Khan, the two giants <strong>of</strong> 20th century sitar, Debu Chaudhuri’s style seems greatly<br />
delimited, lacking as it does both the pure Dhrupad style aalaap and rhythmic complexity<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ravi Shankar’s music and the extended use <strong>of</strong> miinD and the Khyal style aalaap and<br />
high-speed taan-s associated with the late Vilayat Khan’s approach. Up to this point in<br />
time, Debu Chaudhuri has not trained a disciple <strong>of</strong> note.<br />
Outside <strong>of</strong> the Jaipur Senia sitarists, whose Delhi-derived style later became<br />
known as the Paschim baaj or “Western style” (Miner 1993:135), most <strong>of</strong> the other<br />
instrumental styles historically associated with Western India are traditions <strong>of</strong> biin<br />
playing or biin-oriented sitar playing. As sitarist Bimal Mukherjee explains, “Another<br />
strange phenomenon <strong>of</strong> Rudra Bin music is that its practices and cult developed in a<br />
geographical tract between the Deccan plateau covering mainly what we know call<br />
Rajasthan and extending to some areas <strong>of</strong> the North West”(1990:20). Mukherjee, who<br />
passed away in 1996 (Misra 2001:40), had been the prime representative <strong>of</strong> a lineage<br />
commonly referred to as the Jaipur Binkar-Sitar Gharana. Mukherjee’s connection to<br />
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what he called “<strong>The</strong> Rajasthan Binkar Gharana <strong>of</strong> Jaipuir and Alwar” came through his<br />
Ustad, biinkaar Abid Hussain Khan, son <strong>of</strong> Jamalluddin Khan, and grandson <strong>of</strong><br />
Amiruddin Khan. Interestingly, though, as with Mushtaq Ali’s Senia sitar tradition, this<br />
“Jaipur Binkar-Sitar” also (as the surname Mukherjee indicates) ended up being<br />
represented in the latter decades <strong>of</strong> the 20th century primarily <strong>by</strong> a Bengali musician.<br />
<strong>The</strong> difference, however, is that while the Senia Sitar tradition moved east due to<br />
discipular ties between Barkatullah Khan and his Benaresi follower Ashiq Ali and his son<br />
Mushtaq Ali (who later migrated to Calcutta and there taught Debu Chaudhuri), Bimal<br />
Mukherjee himself was raised in Western India, in Baroda. <strong>The</strong>re he not only learned<br />
from Abid Hussain, but also, according to Misra (2001) from the great Agra vocalist<br />
Faiyaz Khan. Mukherjee would, though, eventually settle in Calcutta later in life.<br />
Besides being a Bengali like Debu Chaudhuri, Mukherjee likewise has never produced a<br />
disciple <strong>of</strong> note, which is perhaps more understandable in Mukherjee’s case, as he spent<br />
his pr<strong>of</strong>essional life as civil servant rather than as a pr<strong>of</strong>essional musician. Regardless, it<br />
remains to be seen if either <strong>of</strong> these traditions <strong>of</strong> sitar will carry on in the future or<br />
become obsolete.<br />
Regarding the continuing tradition <strong>of</strong> biin playing, as distinct from biin-based<br />
sitar, Raja (2005), lists six living biinkaar-s with “training in a well established lineage <strong>of</strong><br />
bina music”: Asad Ali Khan, Shamsuddin Faridi, Pandharinath Kolhapure, Bindumadhav<br />
Pathak, Hindraj Divekar, and Bahauddin Dagar (289). Of these, the two who are<br />
undoubtedly the most famous and respected as performers on a national and international<br />
basis (as music <strong>of</strong> the biin, like Dhrupad vocal music, has a substantial overseas<br />
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following in terms <strong>of</strong> listeners and students) are Asad Ali, the senior-most <strong>of</strong> this group,<br />
and Bahauddin Dagar, one <strong>of</strong> the youngest. <strong>The</strong> latter, as his family name indicates, is<br />
heir to the Dagar gharana Dhrupad tradition. His father was Z.M (Zia Mohiuddin) Dagar,<br />
who, as Raja notes, as a young man shifted to Bombay from Udaipur, the ancestral home<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Dagar lineage, in hopes <strong>of</strong> making a career as a sitarist. However, upon finding<br />
that his biin-inspired sitar “failed to enthuse music lovers in the city,” Z.M. Dagar shifted<br />
to biin and subsequently became famous as a performer on that instrument, not<br />
incidentally becoming the first <strong>of</strong> his lineage to specialize primarily in biin playing. 90 In<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> his biin style, Raja notes that Z.M. Dagar (as with the Dagar style singers) stuck<br />
mainly to the unaccompanied aalaap-joD-jhaalaa “as the primary vehicle <strong>of</strong> his<br />
performing presence,” thus emphasizing the main strength <strong>of</strong> the biin, i.e. its ability to<br />
imitate the voice, while simultaneous de-emphasizing its lack <strong>of</strong> melodic agility in<br />
comparison to the sitar (ibid.:287). Bahauddin Dagar, thus, carries forward his late<br />
father’s style and approach. Asad Ali, for his part, is the son <strong>of</strong> Sadiq Ali, and, as such,<br />
traces his lineage back to the same lineage <strong>of</strong> Jaipur-based biinkaar-s to which Bimal<br />
Mukherjee’s Ustad Abid Hussain belonged. However, Sadiq Ali, according to Raja,<br />
“spent many years in Rampur [in eastern Uttar Pradesh], centre <strong>of</strong> the aggressive<br />
Khandar Bani style”(283). Specifically, this translates to a slightly faster paced and more<br />
rhythmic or joD -like aalaap (in comparison to the leisurely and meditative Dagar baanii<br />
aalaap) and a more aggressive, layakaari-oriented approach while performing<br />
90<br />
Like most Dhrupad gharanas, the Dagars had cultivated the biin for generations, but did not perform on it<br />
publicly.<br />
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percussion-accompanied pada-s (compositions). Asad Ali, then, has propagated this<br />
style for many years in his home base <strong>of</strong> Calcutta.<br />
Without slighting Shamsuddin Faridi, the other biin players I would like to briefly<br />
discuss are Pandharinath Kolhapure, Hindraj Divekar, and Bindumadhav Pathak,<br />
primarily because Kolhapure and Divekar are ethnic Maharashtrians and Pathak is a<br />
native <strong>of</strong> Hubli in northern Karnataka. <strong>The</strong> key to understanding the connection between<br />
the larger biin tradition and these musicians native to the Maharashtra region is one<br />
legendary Ustad, biinkaar Bande Ali Khan <strong>of</strong> Indore (now located in modern day<br />
Madhya Pradesh state), a musician to whom a number <strong>of</strong> important historical and current-<br />
day instrumentalists are tied, either through blood or, more commonly, discipular ties. In<br />
his account <strong>of</strong> what he calls the “Indore Binkaar Gharana” (1989:25-26), J.S. Hamilton<br />
states that Bande Ali Khan (1826-1890; also the dates given <strong>by</strong> Miner 1993:127) became<br />
a court musician <strong>of</strong> the darbaar <strong>of</strong> Maratha king Tukojirao Holkar II in the 1860s, having<br />
essentially created his own biin style after studying Dhrupad vocal music with the great<br />
Bhairam (sometimes spelled Bahram) Khan <strong>of</strong> the Dagar gharana, though the details <strong>of</strong><br />
his musical training are far from clear. To this, Miner adds that Bande Ali was born in<br />
Kirana and is <strong>of</strong>ten referred as the founder <strong>of</strong> the Kirana Khyal gharana (although Abdul<br />
Karim was the progenitor <strong>of</strong> the musical style with which the modern Kirana gharana is<br />
identified), as well as that Bande Ali spent his early career in Gwalior before shifting to<br />
Indore. In Gwalior, Bande Ali married his first wife, a daughter <strong>of</strong> the great khyaaliya<br />
Haddu Khan (ibid.:136). Although Bande Ali did apparently produce some <strong>of</strong>fspring, he<br />
did not have a son to carry his tradition forward after his death. Thus, most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
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musicians who have ties to Bande Ali’s tradition are linked to him through his disciples.<br />
One such current musician is Pakistan-based sitarist Rais Khan, whose great-grandfather<br />
was a disciple <strong>of</strong> Bande Ali named Wahid Khan. However, while he is most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
referred to as a member <strong>of</strong> the “Indore Gharana,” Rais Khan’s style is clearly indebted to<br />
his uncle Vilayat Khan, his mother’s brother. Biinkaar Shamsuddin Faridi, not<br />
incidentally, also belongs to Wahid Khan’s biin tradition, as Miner notes.<br />
<strong>The</strong> aforementioned Marathi biinkaar-s, Hindraj Divekar and Pandharinath<br />
Kolhapure, along with Kannadiga (native <strong>of</strong> Karnataka) Bindumadhav Pathak, are tied to<br />
Bande Ali through Bande Ali’s disciple Murad Khan <strong>of</strong> Jawra (now located in Madhya<br />
Pradesh state). Briefly stated, Murad Khan taught both Krishnarao Kolhapure, who<br />
would then become the Guru <strong>of</strong> both his son Pandharinath as well as Shivrambua<br />
Divekar, father and Guru <strong>of</strong> Hindraj, and Dattopant Pathak, also the disciple <strong>of</strong> Bande Ali<br />
disciple Rajab Ali (<strong>of</strong> Dewas, M.P.), who later taught his son Bindumadhav (Divekar<br />
2001:34). What I would like to emphasize here, however, is the specific nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
style passed on from Murad Khan to his disciples. B.R Deodhar in his monograph<br />
Pillars <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Music, includes a chapter length account <strong>of</strong> Murad Khan’s life<br />
along with several anecdotes regarding the relations between the two. In this chapter,<br />
Deodhar explains that he had arranged a number <strong>of</strong> recitals to help expose Murad Khan<br />
and his biin to the music lovers <strong>of</strong> Bombay and that, in terms <strong>of</strong> audience response, they<br />
were very successful. However, after writing an article on Murad Khansaheb for the<br />
Bombay Chronicle newspaper, Deodhar <strong>by</strong> chance met with Pandit Bhatkhande who<br />
explained to Deodhar the deficiencies in Murad Khan’s style as compared to the style <strong>of</strong><br />
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traditional biinkaar-s, who as Bhatkhande noted, were mostly based at that time (in the<br />
1930s) in the east, in Rampur. <strong>The</strong> crux <strong>of</strong> Bhatkhande what explained to Deodhar was<br />
that Murad Khan had departed from the traditional biin baaj or style first <strong>by</strong> including<br />
tabla accompaniment in lieu <strong>of</strong> pakhaawaj and, second, <strong>by</strong> including Khyal style<br />
ornamentation, in particular high speed taan-s and murkii-s in his presentation. When<br />
Deodhar responded <strong>by</strong> noting that Murad Khan was a disciple <strong>of</strong> Bande Ali whose style<br />
Bhatkhande did approve <strong>of</strong>, Bhatkhande countered that despite having a large number <strong>of</strong><br />
disciples, Bande Ali never really taught his students who were left, then, to develop their<br />
own style based on what they heard when Bande Ali performed and/or practiced along<br />
with whatever they had learned from other sources (1993:80-82). Considering, then, that<br />
Murad Khan’s father Muglu Khan was a sitar player <strong>of</strong> the Jaipur Senia tradition, it<br />
seems reasonable to assume that Murad Khan had simply filled in gaps in his biin<br />
training <strong>by</strong> substituting what he had learned on sitar from his father. This, then, is the<br />
inheritance <strong>of</strong> the biinkaar-s <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra – not biin-influenced sitar, but sitar- (and<br />
Khyal-) influenced biin. This music was not only passed down to other biinkaar-s, it<br />
should be noted. Another <strong>of</strong> Murad Khan’s disciples was the sitarist Babu Khan <strong>of</strong><br />
Indore who, while famous in his own right, is also remembered as the Guru <strong>of</strong> sitarist<br />
Jaffer Khan and his son Abdul Halim Jaffer Khan, a well-known performer based in<br />
Bombay (Miner 1993:136). Considering that AHJK bases the legitimacy <strong>of</strong> his style<br />
(which he calls the “Jafferkhani baaj”) on his biin heritage, it should be noted this<br />
heritage is decidedly not that <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad and the orthodox biin baaj. Also, it should<br />
mentioned, that, to my knowledge, AHZK has no noteworthy disciples.<br />
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Beyond the above, there is little more to say regarding instrumental music in<br />
Maharashtra. Miner references a few sitar players in late 19th century who were active in<br />
Maharashtra, again primarily in Bombay and Pune. However, none <strong>of</strong> the musicians<br />
mentioned are remembered as important or influential (in fact most were amateurs or<br />
vocalists who pursued sitar more or less as a hob<strong>by</strong>)(ibid.:156-158). <strong>The</strong>re is, however, a<br />
continuing tradition <strong>of</strong> sitar making in Maharashtra based in the former princely state <strong>of</strong><br />
Miraj. As Deodhar explains, this tradition was started <strong>by</strong> a craftsman <strong>by</strong> the name <strong>of</strong><br />
Faridsaheb Sitarmaker, the “first man in Maharashtra to make string instruments” and a<br />
descendant <strong>of</strong> a family <strong>of</strong> weapons makers who, before Faridsaheb’s time (mid to late<br />
19th century), served the Muslim princes <strong>of</strong> Bijapur (1993:261-262). I myself traveled to<br />
Miraj during my stay in Pune in 2002-2003, and in terms <strong>of</strong> both their appearance and<br />
their sound, I found Miraj sitars to be almost invariably <strong>of</strong> a lower quality than those<br />
produced <strong>by</strong> makers such as Rikki Ram and Sons in Delhi and, <strong>of</strong> course, <strong>by</strong> the<br />
numerous quality sitar makers in Calcutta. 91 I can only assume that the difference is due<br />
to the lack <strong>of</strong> interest in classical instruments amongst potential customers across the<br />
region, which also means that if Miraj sitars were ever comparable to those constructed in<br />
North India and Bengal, they have now fallen far behind. I suppose, then, that this could<br />
be considered a type <strong>of</strong> regional difference, but for me, this is more a historical<br />
difference, with the Miraj sitar essentially representing an earlier stage in the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the construction <strong>of</strong> the instrument. This theory is given great support <strong>by</strong><br />
the fact that there is high demand for taanpuraa-s in Maharashtra, and Maharashtrian<br />
91 <strong>The</strong>re are, <strong>of</strong> course, differences in quality between ‘high-end,’ i.e. made to order, and <strong>of</strong>f the rack sitars.<br />
In other words, the sitars I sampled were not necessarily the finest Miraj sitar makers have to <strong>of</strong>fer.<br />
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vocalists almost universally use Mirajkar (i.e. Miraj-made) taanpuraa-s and consider<br />
them to superior to any other make. This could be seen simply as a matter <strong>of</strong> regional<br />
pride or easy access, but it should be noted that most pr<strong>of</strong>essional level sitar players in<br />
Bombay, for their part, perform on Calcutta-made sitars. <strong>The</strong>re is no doubt that<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional pride far exceeds regional pride when it comes to classical musicians. This<br />
apparent stagnation in the tradition <strong>of</strong> sitar-making is not, <strong>of</strong> course, the cause for the lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> a healthy and robust tradition <strong>of</strong> sitar playing in the region – if anything, it is the<br />
opposite. Rather, it is, if nothing else, simply one more victim <strong>of</strong> the craze for Khyal<br />
music in Maharashtra that began with Balkrishnabua Ichalkaranjikar.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Purab or eastern baaj <strong>of</strong> instrumental music is conventionally associated with<br />
a 19th century musician based in Lucknow <strong>by</strong> the name <strong>of</strong> Ghulam Raza (sometimes<br />
written Reza) who is thought to have invented a type <strong>of</strong> gat performed at relatively fast<br />
tempos (as compared to both Dhrupad and the largely Dhrupad-inspired Masit Khaanii<br />
gat) which was modeled on the Thumri genre that was extremely popular with the<br />
nobility and lay audiences <strong>of</strong> Lucknow at that time. As Miner states, “Today the Purab<br />
baj is virtually identified <strong>by</strong> modern musicians with Ghulam Raza through the term<br />
Razakhani”(1993:123). However, as Miner explains, historical evidence seems to<br />
indicate that this is a bit <strong>of</strong> an over-simplification. Most importantly this is because there<br />
are “no gats available in written or oral traditions attributed directly to Ghulam Raza…”<br />
Also, there is ample testimony from observers at Wajid Ali Shah’s court where Ghulam<br />
Raza served, including from the British resident (one Colonel Sleeman), that Ghulam<br />
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Raza derived his position primarily from the fact that he was a favorite <strong>of</strong> Wajid Ali<br />
(whom, many felt, Ghulam Raza frequently manipulated), that he was a man <strong>of</strong><br />
questionable morals and character, and that he was not a musician <strong>of</strong> a particularly high<br />
caliber (1993:112-117,123). Miner concludes that Ghulam Raza’s experimental style,<br />
which was based on Thumri and which paid little attention to raga, was perhaps, due to<br />
its popularity with non-connoisseurs, one influence on the Purab baaj. <strong>The</strong> main content<br />
and substance <strong>of</strong> the Purab baaj, however, seems to have been developed <strong>by</strong> a rather<br />
different class <strong>of</strong> musicians, namely Dhrupad instrumentalists <strong>of</strong> the Tansen tradition and<br />
their non-hereditary, sitar- and sarod-playing disciples. Three Senia rabaabiyaa-s (the<br />
line <strong>of</strong> Tansen’s family who specialized in performing on the now obsolete plucked lute<br />
called rabaab) - the three sons <strong>of</strong> Chajju Khan - Basat Khan, Pyar Khan, and Ja’far Khan,<br />
were particularly important in early 19th century Lucknow. Miner says <strong>of</strong> these three<br />
brothers:<br />
Ironically, their later fame comes less from the rabab than from their roles in<br />
founding and teaching the Purab baj <strong>of</strong> sitar and sarod music, some <strong>of</strong> which was<br />
influenced <strong>by</strong> the thumri music <strong>of</strong> the time. <strong>The</strong>y composed gats that are<br />
preserved in performance tradition and written records, and produced numerous<br />
disciples who were important figures in the history <strong>of</strong> this style (119).<br />
Besides these three rabaabiya-s, another important musician was Senia biinkaar Umrao<br />
Khan, who, like Chajju Khan’s sons, was an outstanding musician <strong>of</strong> the day on the biin<br />
but, again, was ultimately as much or more important from a historical perspective for<br />
whom he taught. In terms <strong>of</strong> non-hereditary disciples, this includes Ghulam Muhammed,<br />
the sitarist who, among other things, was famous for developing the suurbahaar, a larger<br />
bass sitar used for performing solo, Dhrupad-style aalaap. So, while Ghulam Raza’s<br />
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gat-s may or may not constitute a part <strong>of</strong> the Purab baaj (Miner notes one source that<br />
considers the Raazaa Khaanii baaj and Purab baaj to be distinct styles), Miner argues<br />
that the larger part <strong>of</strong> the Purab baaj, besides the Dhrupad/biin-influenced aalaap and<br />
jhaalaa, consisted <strong>of</strong> fast and medium tempo gat-s that were likely inspired <strong>by</strong> the<br />
medium tempo Firoz Khaanii gat style (named after an important musician who had<br />
earlier migrated to Rampur from Delhi) and the music <strong>of</strong> the Afghani rabaab, a plucked<br />
lute associated with Afghani soldiers and another predecessor <strong>of</strong> the sarod (1993:121).<br />
As noted in the previous chapter, although Rampur had been an important musical<br />
center for some time <strong>by</strong> the mid 19th century, it became much more so after the exile <strong>of</strong><br />
Wajid Ali from Lucknow and particularly after the Mutiny <strong>of</strong> 1857, as Rampur has<br />
remained loyal to the English during that uprising and benefited accordingly. Among the<br />
most important musicians <strong>of</strong> the later 19th century was Bahadur Hussain, sometimes<br />
called Bahadur Sen, the nephew and disciple <strong>of</strong> Pyar Khan, who was known both as a<br />
rabaabiya and perhaps the greatest ever player <strong>of</strong> the suursingaar, another predecessor <strong>of</strong><br />
the sarod. <strong>The</strong> leading biinkaar <strong>of</strong> the period was Umrao Khan’s son, Amir Khan, whose<br />
son Wazir Khan would later serve as the Guru <strong>of</strong> the founders <strong>of</strong> two <strong>of</strong> the primary<br />
instrumental gharanas <strong>of</strong> the 20th century, Allaudin Khan and Hafiz Ali Khan. As<br />
McNeil explains, there was somewhat <strong>of</strong> a drop-<strong>of</strong>f in quality and amount <strong>of</strong> musical<br />
activity in Rampur beginning in the 1870s after the deaths <strong>of</strong> Bahadur Sen and Amir<br />
Khan, a decline that was greatly exacerbated <strong>by</strong> removal <strong>of</strong> Nawab Mushtaq Ali from the<br />
throne <strong>of</strong> Rampur <strong>by</strong> the British in 1889 and his replacement <strong>by</strong> Hamid Ali Khan, who,<br />
as a minor, could not take complete control <strong>of</strong> state affairs for several more years. <strong>The</strong><br />
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“reputation <strong>of</strong> the Rampur nawabs as cultural patrons was rekindled in 1899,” however,<br />
when Hamid Ali appointed Wazir Khan, expert singer <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad and Dhamar and<br />
expert performer on biin, suursingaar, and rabaab, as chief court musician <strong>of</strong> Rampur<br />
(McNeil 2004:139).<br />
It would only be a few short years later (in 1915, according to McNeil 2004:158)<br />
that a young Allaudin Khan would arrive in Rampur hoping to become to become a<br />
disciple <strong>of</strong> Wazir Khan. He would, <strong>of</strong> course, eventually succeed in his goal, albeit after<br />
a great deal <strong>of</strong> hardship and struggle, including a period after tying the ganDaa with<br />
Wazir Khan where the great Senia maestro simply ignored his young Bengali disciple. It<br />
was thanks to his training with Wazir Khan, though, as well as his contact with a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> other important instrumentalists in Rampur, that Allaudin Khan would become the<br />
primary conduit for making the Dhrupad-based instrumental music <strong>of</strong> Rampur available<br />
to the general public, including both the non-hereditary musicians he taught as disciples<br />
and music-lovers generally. Of course, the inputs, so to speak, for the style <strong>of</strong><br />
instrumental music Allaudin Khan created did not come solely from the maestros <strong>of</strong><br />
Rampur. By the time he had made his way there, he had already learned music from a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> sources, including the classical vocal music he had learned from Nulo Gopal<br />
(Chakraborty), tabla and pakhaawaj (which he studied concurrently with his lessons from<br />
Gopal) from Pandit Nandlal, Western violin from Habu Datta (Amritlal Dutta), clarinet<br />
from various teachers in Calcutta while working for a theatrical company there,<br />
shahnaaii from one Hazari, and some limited sarod which he learned from Ustad Ahmed<br />
Ali Khan, who, not coincidentally, originally hailed from Rampur (Slawek 1991:169).<br />
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<strong>The</strong> full-scale Dhrupad aalaap which Allaudin Khan learned from Wazir Khan, however,<br />
became the foundation <strong>of</strong> Allaudin Khan’s (and later the Maihar gharana’s) style, and<br />
certainly is the prime factor in terms its legitimacy in classical music circles. Of course,<br />
this is not to say that the lineage <strong>of</strong> Allaudin Khan is universally regarded as a gharana.<br />
Every lineage has it detractors, <strong>of</strong> course – for example, as I mentioned in an earlier<br />
chapter, some question the gharana status <strong>of</strong> the Imdad Khan gharana on the grounds that<br />
Vilayat Khan’s father died early, and thus, Vilayat Khan’s music is more <strong>of</strong> his own<br />
creation than it is the legacy <strong>of</strong> his grandfather Imdad Khan. However, the Maihar<br />
gharana has had perhaps more than its fair share <strong>of</strong> detractors. Allaudin Khan’s family,<br />
according to most (including his son Ali Akbar Khan), did not “belong to an occupational<br />
category <strong>of</strong> musicians” (McNeil 2004:157), while most other major sarod gharanas were<br />
founded <strong>by</strong> ancestors <strong>of</strong> the Afghani paThaan-s who introduced the Afghani-style rabaab<br />
into the Hindustani tradition (a point I will expand on shortly). Along these same lines, it<br />
should be noted that Allaudin Khan is among the very few major figures in 20th century<br />
Hindustani music who was both a Muslim and a non-hereditary musician.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> Allaudin Khan’s contributions to the broader tradition <strong>of</strong> Hindustani<br />
instrumental music, I would like to mention two. <strong>The</strong> first concerns the style <strong>of</strong> music he<br />
pioneered; the second deals with modifications he made to the sarod itself. If there is one<br />
term that sums up AK’s style <strong>of</strong> music, it might be synthetic, in the sense that he took all<br />
the varied experiences he had had as performer and disciple <strong>of</strong> various Gurus and<br />
combined them into a style all his own, a style that covered all the varied styles <strong>of</strong> both<br />
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instrumental and vocal music prevailing at the time. In My Music, My Life (1969), Ravi<br />
Shankar says <strong>of</strong> his Guru,<br />
Above all, I feel, [AK] is responsible for enlarging the scope and range <strong>of</strong><br />
possibilities open to an instrumentalist. He has led us away from the confines <strong>of</strong><br />
narrow specialization that prevailed in our music really through the first quarter <strong>of</strong><br />
this century…Because Allaudin Khan, as a young man, was taught <strong>by</strong> so many<br />
masters, he learned a variety <strong>of</strong> styles <strong>of</strong> singing and playing and acquired a good<br />
many instrumental techniques – wind and bowed and plucked-string instruments,<br />
and even drums. And so he very naturally incorporated in his playing <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sarod some <strong>of</strong> the characteristics <strong>of</strong> diverse vocal styles and <strong>of</strong> the playing styles<br />
associated with a number <strong>of</strong> different instruments (55).<br />
As Ravi Shankar notes in the same context, this synthetic quality has been used as<br />
grounds <strong>of</strong> criticism for both AK and for he himself. In both cases, the criticism is the<br />
same – AK did not play “authentic” sarod baaj and RS does not play “authentic” sitar<br />
baaj. In the case <strong>of</strong> RS, it should be noted that while AK was primarily a sarod player<br />
and secondarily a violin player, he was also, as all agree, an expert on sitar. Deepak<br />
Chaudhuri, in his presentation on the Maihar gharana for ITC-SRA’s “Seminar on Sitar,”<br />
gives the names <strong>of</strong> Kallu, Hafiz, and Nasir Ahmed Khan as sitar Ustads who greatly<br />
contributed to AK’s knowledge <strong>of</strong> sitar while he was living in Rampur (1990:11). 92 <strong>The</strong><br />
point, then, is that Ravi Shankar’s sitar is not simply sarod music transferred to sitar, as<br />
some would have it. Instead, RS’s style, like AK’s, represents an amalgam <strong>of</strong> both<br />
different sitar styles and various styles and approaches taken from a number <strong>of</strong> other<br />
instruments, including sarod, but also biin, suursingaar, rabaab and others. Calcutta-<br />
based sarodist Anindya Banerjee noted the use <strong>of</strong> zamzamaa in AK’s music, a technique<br />
transferred more or less directly from sitar, as an example <strong>of</strong> the sitar influence on the<br />
92 Slawek (1991) corroborates Allaudin Khan’s relationship with Karim (Kalu) Khan and Hafiz Khan.<br />
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Maihar style (interview, 2005). Of course, the fact that, thanks primarily to RS and Ali<br />
Akbar Khan, the Maihar style has become one <strong>of</strong> the two most dominant and influential<br />
styles <strong>of</strong> both sitar and sarod is itself pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> the value <strong>of</strong> AK’s innovations. Besides<br />
this, though, it should also be kept in mind that in assimilating the approaches <strong>of</strong> so many<br />
different instruments and vocal styles to his sarod music, AK was doing what so many<br />
other instrumental music pioneers have done. <strong>The</strong> difference with AK was that instead <strong>of</strong><br />
attempting to play the music <strong>of</strong> the biin or rabaab on the sarod or Khyal-style music on<br />
the sarod, or Dhrupad or Thumri, he did all the above.<br />
Sitarist Deepak Choudhuri gives a good summary <strong>of</strong> the Maihar gharana approach<br />
as it pertains to the use <strong>of</strong> various different ang-s <strong>of</strong> vocal music:<br />
[AK] heard and learnt from any musicians [in Rampur] and thus after this<br />
Beenkar Gharana talim from Wazir Khan Saheb along with his associations with<br />
the musicians there, he assimilated the whole thing and created a style <strong>of</strong> his own,<br />
which was enriched <strong>by</strong> the alap, jod <strong>of</strong> the dhrupad style <strong>of</strong> Beenkar gharana. At<br />
the same time in vilambit gat, the Vistar and Tan-s etc., had the Khyal style. In<br />
all Tempo-s from Ati Vilambit, Madh-Vilambit, Madhya Drut, Ati Drut he<br />
progressed gradually and tried to set his own style to start with slow alap and<br />
finish with Ati Drut Gat Jhala. On the top <strong>of</strong> it, he was very fond <strong>of</strong> folk Dhuns<br />
which has got a very lilting quality. So starting from alap, which has got<br />
“Adhyatmic” or spiritual quality; then ‘Gat’ having ‘Romanticism’ and finally<br />
ending with Dhun which has got that earthy and lilting quality. Baba was very<br />
fond <strong>of</strong> playing Dhun. So it was a pattern which was followed and further<br />
developed <strong>by</strong> Guruji [Ravi Shankar], Ali Akbarji, and Nikhilji [Banerjee]. And<br />
now it is a very popular pattern and mostly you can hear it anywhere (1990:<br />
11-12).<br />
Besides combining so many different styles into his own, McNeil (2004) takes particular<br />
note <strong>of</strong> two <strong>of</strong> AK’s <strong>of</strong> innovations, the aforementioned full-scale Dhrupad style aalaap<br />
and his use <strong>of</strong> ati-vilambit (lit. “very slow”) tempo in elaborating the Masit Khaanii style<br />
gat on sarod. In terms <strong>of</strong> the former, McNeil states that AK “expanded the musical<br />
299
structure <strong>of</strong> his performance <strong>by</strong> adapting and transposing the full structure <strong>of</strong> seniya raag<br />
alap onto his sarod performances” (159), while explaining somewhat equivocally in an<br />
end note that AK’s “contribution in this regard came more from the establishment <strong>of</strong> a<br />
systematic approach to alap than from actually being the first to introduce the full raag<br />
alap on sarod”(174), as a number other lineages have claimed that their ancestors<br />
performed full-blown Dhrupad-style aalaap on sarod before AK’s time. In terms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
latter, McNeil says that “By decreasing the tempo at which the Masit Khani gat was<br />
played, he was able to exploit intricate melodic and rhythmic techniques <strong>of</strong> dhrupad style<br />
to further ornament the raag”(159), thus increasing the Dhrupad orientation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
instrumental idiom most <strong>of</strong>ten associated with the Khyal ang.<br />
Similarly, in terms <strong>of</strong> the manner in which AK and his cousin Ayet Ali altered<br />
the sarod itself, the general effect was to increase the likeness <strong>of</strong> the sarod to the Seniya<br />
rabaab and the suursingaar, the two predecessors <strong>of</strong> the sarod whose repertories and<br />
playing styles, not coincidentally, were so influential on AK’s innovative new style. <strong>The</strong><br />
changes that the two effected to the sarod were as follows:<br />
Working with his cousin Ayet Ali, [AK] fashioned a new type <strong>of</strong> instrument<br />
which could more easily facilitate the style <strong>of</strong> playing he had developed. This<br />
aim was achieved <strong>by</strong> enlarging the overall dimensions <strong>of</strong> his sarod and, in<br />
particular, the size <strong>of</strong> the main resonator which became rounder in shape than was<br />
evident on other sarods at the time. More changes included lengthening the<br />
fingerboard and adding a broad upper resonator to the back <strong>of</strong> the pegbox in the<br />
manner <strong>of</strong> the been, sursingar and surbahar. A number <strong>of</strong> extra strings were also<br />
employed on his sarod. Of these, the number <strong>of</strong> taraf [sympathetic] strings were<br />
increased to fifteen from the existing nine or eleven along with a separate set <strong>of</strong><br />
four jawari strings. <strong>The</strong>se last strings take their name from the small flat bridge<br />
jawari, attached to the nut <strong>of</strong> the instrument over which these drone strings pass.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se jawari strings were then affixed to the extra pegs added to the extended<br />
pegbox and were tuned according to the raag (ibid.:160-161).<br />
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To this, Raja adds that AK and his son Ali Akbar have also developed what he refers to<br />
as the “modern” system <strong>of</strong> sarod tuning, where the first four melodic strings are tuned to<br />
“Middle-octave ma, the tonic [sa], lower-octave pa, lower-octave sa”(middle 4, middle 1,<br />
lower 5, lower 1), as in the “traditional” system <strong>of</strong> tuning favored <strong>by</strong> sarodists <strong>of</strong> Radhika<br />
Mohan Moitra’s lineage. However, in the Maihar tuning, the fifth melodic string,<br />
normally tuned to “ultra-lower pa,” is omitted altogether, and “In addition to the<br />
conventional cikari [side-mounted drone strings] set, this system…includes a set <strong>of</strong> three<br />
strings, mounted at a lower level, and tuned either to a chord or a melodic phrase<br />
compatible with the scale <strong>of</strong> the raga”(2005:306-307), a feature to which McNeil also<br />
alludes in the above quotation. 93<br />
Besides the Maihar gharana, the lineage <strong>of</strong> instrumentalists which undoubtedly<br />
has had the most impact on instrumental music generally is the aforementioned Imdad<br />
Khan gharana represented in the modern period <strong>by</strong> the late Ustad Vilayat Khan and his<br />
brother Imrat. <strong>The</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> this gharana, it should be noted, extends to the music <strong>of</strong><br />
both the sarod and the sitar, as does the influence <strong>of</strong> the Maihar gharana, even though,<br />
unlike the Maihar gharana, the membership <strong>of</strong> the Imdad Khani lineage is essentially<br />
limited to sitar players. I have already referenced the innovations <strong>of</strong> this gharana several<br />
times above, but, to recap, Miner gives a pithy summary <strong>of</strong> this lineage’s contributions:<br />
As instrumental music entered the 20th century, several great contemporaries<br />
gave new direction to gat style, elaboration and alap. In sitar, the brilliant Imdad<br />
Khan and his son Inayet Khan introduced striking new developments in high<br />
speed work and in melodic movements and ornaments imitative <strong>of</strong> sung khyal<br />
(1993:232).<br />
93 As Stephen Slawek pointed out to me, an examination <strong>of</strong> an Allaudin Khan-style sarod will reveal that<br />
there are actually four, not three, such strings (personal comm., 11/<strong>2008</strong>).<br />
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<strong>The</strong> Khyal influence in the music <strong>of</strong> this gharana should be particularly emphasized, as it<br />
explains so many <strong>of</strong> the stylistic choices and innovations attributable to this group <strong>of</strong><br />
musicians, much as Dhrupad informs the style <strong>of</strong> the Maihar gharana. <strong>The</strong>ir strategy for<br />
gaining legitimacy in classical circles is somewhat different, though, than the strategy <strong>of</strong><br />
the Maihar gharana musicians and those belonging to other lineages. While the Maihar<br />
gharana and other gharanas such as the Seniya Sitar Gharana derive their prestige from<br />
their ties to the tradition <strong>of</strong> Tansen, the sitarists <strong>of</strong> the Imdad Khan gharana seem rather to<br />
rest their laurels on first, their connections with the primary Khyal gharanas, particularly<br />
the Kirana gharana (some believe Imdad Khan learned from the aforementioned biinkaar<br />
Bande Ali Khan,) as well as the age <strong>of</strong> their tradition, which stretches back at least five<br />
generations to Imdad Khan’s father, saarangii player Sahabdad Khan (Miner 1993:152).<br />
Also, similar to the Maihar gharana and their modified sarod, the Imdad Khani<br />
sitar tradition has made important changes to the construction <strong>of</strong> the sitar, changes that<br />
both emphasize the Khyal-oriented nature <strong>of</strong> their music and which set them apart from<br />
sitarists belonging to or stylistically influenced <strong>by</strong> rival gharanas. However, it should<br />
again be emphasized that these changes were not pioneered <strong>by</strong> Imdad Khan, the<br />
ostensible founder <strong>of</strong> the gharana, but instead <strong>by</strong> his grandson, the late Vilayat Khan. VK<br />
changed the sitar in a number <strong>of</strong> ways, but the upshot is that he wanted to increase the<br />
capability <strong>of</strong> the sitar to imitate Khyal-style vocal melismas. <strong>The</strong>re are two changes that<br />
relate to this particular goal. First, as Deepak Raja, a disciple <strong>of</strong> the Imdad Khani<br />
tradition relates, VK changed the sitar to increase the sustain <strong>of</strong> each plucked note. His<br />
solution was to deliver more forceful strokes with his right [plucking] hand, which in turn<br />
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meant that the sitar had to be strengthened to withstand such powerful strokes <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mizraab [plectrum]. As such, VK “designed a thicker tabli [cover <strong>of</strong> the impact-<br />
receiving resonator], increased the height <strong>of</strong> the bridge that received the impact <strong>of</strong> the<br />
stroke, and introduced a metallic reinforcement <strong>of</strong> the joint between the chamber<br />
resonator and the stem [column-resonator]..”(Raja 2005:296). Also, VK removed the<br />
lowest <strong>of</strong> the four primary strings on the traditional sitar, in order move the baaj wire or<br />
primary string back (i.e. closer to the inside <strong>of</strong> the instrument or the player’s body) in<br />
order to give more space to pull the string obliquely. More generally, the Vilayat Khan<br />
sitar is smaller than the traditional sitar (especially the slightly larger-sized sitar preferred<br />
<strong>by</strong> Ravi Shankar for most <strong>of</strong> his career), and thus, higher pitched. <strong>The</strong>y are also<br />
distinguishable <strong>by</strong> their characteristic black lacquer finish and the lack <strong>of</strong> an upper gourd<br />
resonator. Considering that Vilayat Khan has <strong>of</strong>ten emphasized what he considered the<br />
Persian and Arabic roots <strong>of</strong> the sitar and Hindustani music more generally, his remodeled<br />
sitar could be seen as an attempt to make it resemble more closely resemble the Persian<br />
sehtaar, a much smaller plucked lute that some feel is the direct ancestor <strong>of</strong> the Indian<br />
sitar (while Ravi Shankar’s sitar more obviously resembles the biin).<br />
In his presentation for UTC-SRA’s “Seminar on Sitar” (1990), Arvind Parikh, a<br />
long-time disciple <strong>of</strong> Vilayat Khan and an active musicologist, describes the “Vilayat<br />
Khani style,” as he calls it, as a “lucid and methodical amalgamation <strong>of</strong> the Imdadkhani<br />
and Enayetkhani baj, added to which, are the new dimensions introduced <strong>by</strong> Ustad<br />
Vilayat Khan.” Parikh then proceeds to helpfully explain what he sees as the specific<br />
contributions <strong>of</strong> Imdad and Enayet Khan. Regarding the former, Parikh notes that his<br />
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aalaap, performed on suurbahaar rather than sitar, was “impressive” but simple and was<br />
ornamented mainly <strong>by</strong> Dhrupad-style miinD-s rather than Khyal-style murkii-s; that his<br />
gat-s were <strong>of</strong> the Masit Khani style and elaborated <strong>by</strong> gat-toDaa-s; and that in his<br />
Raazaakhaanii gat-s, Imdad Khan relied on bol-s that were executed with 2-3 “or even 6”<br />
mizraab strokes per note. In terms <strong>of</strong> the latter, Vilayat Khan’s father Inayet Khansaheb,<br />
Parikh states that he added “a contemplative quality” and an “introspective and<br />
devotional undercurrent” to his father’s style. More specifically, he added “pleasing and<br />
deftly executed Khyal type murki-s” in the aalaap portion; he performed full octave<br />
miinD-s on the suurbahaar, and 3 to 4 note miinD-s on sitar; and he added the<br />
aforementioned “swiftly executed” sapat taan-s in the fast gat-s (1990:48-49). Vilayat<br />
Khan, then, subsequently brought his gharana’s music as close as ever to the Khyal style<br />
<strong>of</strong> vocalism with the changes to the design and construction <strong>of</strong> his sitar.<br />
Vilayat Khan ended the practice followed <strong>by</strong> his father and grandfather <strong>of</strong><br />
performing the aalaap on the bass sitar or suurbahaar, instead performing each stage <strong>of</strong> a<br />
raga performance on sitar alone. As Raja notes, Vilayat Khan “ceded the surbahara<br />
territory to [his brother] Imrat Khan…,” a “bifurcation <strong>of</strong> territories” that has been “most<br />
rewarding for the two brothers, and for the world <strong>of</strong> music in general”(2005:301). It<br />
should also be noted that, in terms <strong>of</strong> VK’s stylistic approach to unaccompanied aalaap<br />
and joD, Khyal style development predominates in this aspect <strong>of</strong> his playing as well, in<br />
spite <strong>of</strong> whatever Dhrupad elements may have prevailed in the styles <strong>of</strong> his father or<br />
grandfather. To give one example, Slawek (1998) explains that the approach to joD on<br />
the part <strong>of</strong> (current day) Imdad Khani sitarists features a “pronounced tempo rubato<br />
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effect,” in which the tempo slightly increases as over the course <strong>of</strong> short improvised<br />
passage before ending in a climatic flourish and a reduction in tempo, which, in turn,<br />
precedes a brief moment <strong>of</strong> repose and another such passage. This pattern seems highly<br />
suggestive <strong>of</strong> Khyal vocal music, more specifically when “singers take a few moments to<br />
catch their breaths before volleying forth with cascades <strong>of</strong> taans”(1998:355). This is in<br />
sharp contrast to Ravi Shankar’s approach to joD in which he does execute “graduated<br />
tempo changes,” but also maintains a very clear and unwavering, “clock-like” pulse<br />
within each section <strong>of</strong> improvisation, a reflection, precisely, <strong>of</strong> the strong Dhrupad<br />
influence in the music <strong>of</strong> Ravi Shankar and other performers <strong>of</strong> the Maihar gharana<br />
(ibid.:354). As Slawek concludes, then, “In many respects, one can say that [the Imdad<br />
Khan] gharana has overlaid both alap and jor, formal units originating in the dhrupad<br />
genre, with all the accoutrements <strong>of</strong> the khyal genre”(ibid.:355).<br />
Beyond the use <strong>of</strong> more extended and elaborate miinD, Vilayat Khan’s most<br />
radical departure from his family’s tradition has been to literally play bandiish-s or vocal<br />
music compositions on sitar, a practice which he would typically highlight <strong>by</strong> singing the<br />
text <strong>of</strong> the bandiish before playing it on sitar. This, <strong>of</strong> course, is not to say that he left the<br />
gat style altogether, as his music still featured uniquely instrumental elements, most<br />
notably his extremely high speed jhaalaa-s. As Peter Manuel explains, Vilayat Khan<br />
would take this practice <strong>of</strong> singing the vocal compositions he played even farther during<br />
his renditions <strong>of</strong> Thumris. More specifically, instead <strong>of</strong> simply singing the main text as<br />
when he performed a Khyal bandiish on sitar, he would, while performing a Thumri, sing<br />
longer bol banaao phrases, in which short units <strong>of</strong> text are combined with various<br />
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melodic phrases, and then subsequently perform the same phrases on sitar. “In effect,<br />
Vilayat Khan is apparently trying to attain the best <strong>of</strong> both worlds: the purity and<br />
abstractness <strong>of</strong> instrumental music, and the word-expression <strong>of</strong> singing”(Manuel<br />
1989:172). I would like to emphasize the importance <strong>of</strong> semi-classical (particularly<br />
Thumri) and light music in Vilayat Khan’s overall style, because so <strong>of</strong>ten, his music is<br />
portrayed simply as Khyal on sitar. That the Khyal side <strong>of</strong> his music is so frequently<br />
emphasized is not surprising – Khyal is, after all, the most popular and widespread <strong>of</strong><br />
modern classical vocal music genres, and vocal music is generally the most prestigious<br />
form <strong>of</strong> classical music in India. Although different singers have varying opinions about<br />
both instrumental music and the great maestros <strong>of</strong> sitar and sarod, I would say that, based<br />
on my first-hand observations and experiences, Khyal singers tend to respect Vilayat<br />
Khan above all other sitarists for this simple reason. However, non-classical genres were,<br />
in fact, a large part <strong>of</strong> his repertoire. On the one hand, VK certainly deserves credit for<br />
having popularized (or having helped to popularize) a number <strong>of</strong> regional tunes as light<br />
pieces to be performed at the end <strong>of</strong> classical sitar recitals, particularly the bhaTiaalii or<br />
boat-men’s song <strong>of</strong> East Bengal (now Bangladesh). It is less frequently pointed out,<br />
however, that the influence <strong>of</strong> Thumri in Vilayat Khan’s (among other reasons) seems to<br />
have resulted in VK taking a fairly liberal approach to his renditions <strong>of</strong> the various<br />
classical ragas, introducing new (i.e. untraditional) notes and phrases <strong>of</strong>ten almost at will.<br />
Of course, VK was known for the tasteful and artistic manner in which he played with<br />
these traditional structures, and most <strong>of</strong> his experiments were both interesting and<br />
artistically satisfying. What is less <strong>of</strong>ten observed, though, is that his influence may be<br />
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partly to blame for inconsistent and <strong>of</strong>ten haphazard way in which many young<br />
musicians, sitarist and otherwise, approach raga in the current period.<br />
Regardless, it seems that Vilayat Khan’s style is the most frequently emulated <strong>of</strong><br />
all <strong>by</strong> sitarists <strong>of</strong> the current generation. This influence has been so strong that it has<br />
seemingly infiltrated the world <strong>of</strong> sarod playing. More specifically, VK’s style,<br />
consisting <strong>of</strong> Khyal-style melismas in the aalaap and slow gat portions and blindingly<br />
fast sapat taan-s and jhaalaa during the fast gat, seems to have been imitated to some<br />
extent <strong>by</strong> the sarodist frequently held up as the greatest in India, Amjad Ali Khan. Raja<br />
states as such when, while describing the current state <strong>of</strong> sarod playing, he states that<br />
“<strong>The</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> the post-dhrupad genres, mainly khyala vocalism and contemporary<br />
sitara music <strong>of</strong> the Imdad Khan/Etawah gharana, dominates the music <strong>of</strong> the next<br />
generation <strong>of</strong> maestros, especially Ustad Amjad Ali Khan”(2005:309). Similarly,<br />
Manuel, who, as mentioned above, is a student <strong>of</strong> the Radhika Mohan Moitra tradition,<br />
also notes that two <strong>of</strong> Pandit Moitra’s most notable disciples, Kalyan Mukherjee<br />
[Manuel’s Guru] and Buddhadev Dasgupta also “acknowledge the prodigious influence<br />
<strong>of</strong> Vilayat Khan…”(1989:176). While this influence is present in the style <strong>of</strong> Amjad Ali,<br />
Dasgupta, and Mukherjee, as well as in the music <strong>of</strong> Amjad Ali’s two sons (his only<br />
notable disciples), we have to again take a step back in time to fully appreciate the history<br />
<strong>of</strong> both Amjad Ali’s and Radhika Mohan Moitra’s lineage.<br />
In Inventing the Sarod: A Cultural History (2004), Adrian McNeil refers to the<br />
discrepancies regarding the varying accounts <strong>of</strong> the genesis <strong>of</strong> the modern sarod. While<br />
the details <strong>of</strong> this debate do not concern us here, it is important to note that the primary<br />
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issue boils down to which broad geographical area “gave the sarod its origins.” McNeil<br />
writes:<br />
In this study, an important and significant distinction is made between those lutes<br />
which in centuries gone <strong>by</strong> belonged to the northwest cultural orbit in which<br />
Persian culture prevailed, and those that fell within the cultural orbit <strong>of</strong> ‘inner’<br />
India, roughly the doab region between the Yamuna and Ganga rivers (2004:8).<br />
<strong>The</strong> issue, then, is not simply where the sarod (or its closest ancestor) originated<br />
geographically, but rather whether the instrument is to be seen as another <strong>of</strong> the<br />
contributions <strong>of</strong> Persian culture to India and the Hindustani classical music tradition or as<br />
essentially Indian, an issue thrown into to sharp relief <strong>by</strong> “the sectarian agendas currently<br />
active in the political climate <strong>of</strong> contemporary India” which equate Persian with Muslim<br />
and ‘Indian’ with Hindu. In a number <strong>of</strong> ways, this also replicates the manner in which<br />
the major instrumental gharanas represent themselves both within the musician<br />
community and to the broader audience <strong>of</strong> listeners. In this sense, the Maihar gharana<br />
musicians are the representatives <strong>of</strong> the “Hindustani music as an Indian tradition” side<br />
and the Imdad Khani Sitar and Gwalior Sarod gharanas represent the “Hindustani music<br />
as essentially Persian/Afghani/Arabic” side. Of course, this is a very broad<br />
generalization that almost certainly does not do justice to the complexity and especially<br />
the individuality <strong>of</strong> the views <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> the members <strong>of</strong> these three gharanas. With each<br />
group, there are very likely musicians who stand at one or the other <strong>of</strong> these ideological<br />
poles - at the extremes, that is - but most probably fall somewhere in the middle. <strong>The</strong><br />
crux <strong>of</strong> the matter, however, is that the Maihar gharana is a gharana <strong>of</strong> non-caste<br />
musicians who stake their classical credentials, so to speak, both on their discipular ties to<br />
the Seniya tradition and on the creativity and innovations <strong>of</strong> their founder and most well-<br />
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known representatives, while their opposite numbers base their legitimacy primarily (but<br />
not exclusively) on their status as part <strong>of</strong> a continuing lineage <strong>of</strong> hereditary musicians, in<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> the Shahjahanpur and Gwalior sarod gharanas, lineages that trace directly<br />
back to Afghanistan. This distinction, then, dovetails with the issue <strong>of</strong> ‘cultural orbits’ to<br />
a large degree, again, whether or not any particular musician makes this connection at<br />
any particular time.<br />
However, the position that each <strong>of</strong> the major sarod gharanas takes on the origin <strong>of</strong><br />
the instrument are indeed a very clear and unambiguous indicator <strong>of</strong> these opposing<br />
positions, regardless <strong>of</strong> the broader implications <strong>of</strong> taking one stance or the other. Thus,<br />
McNeil quotes Ali Akbar Khan, son <strong>of</strong> Allaudin and khaliifaa <strong>of</strong> the Maihar gharana, as<br />
stating that “the sarod played <strong>by</strong> Hafiz Ali Khan is based on the Pathan instrument [the<br />
Afghani rabaab] but [Allaudin Khan’s] was based on the ancient chitra vina”(2004:161).<br />
<strong>The</strong> “Pathan instrument” Ali Akbar Khan is referring to is the ‘Afghani’ or ‘Kabuli’<br />
rabaab, a short-necked lute associated with Afghani tribesman who first entered India<br />
while serving as musicians and horse traders for invading Afghan armies. <strong>The</strong> Afghani<br />
rabaab is, as both Miner (1993) and McNeil agree, one <strong>of</strong> three instruments that likely<br />
served as models for the modern sarod, which emerged in the 19th century, the other<br />
prototypes being the suursingaar and the so-called Seniya rabaab, two instruments<br />
associated with the Seniya instrumentalists in Lucknow and Rampur. Of these two, the<br />
later is arguably the more important, as it seems to have been the direct inspiration for<br />
adding a metal plate fingerboard and metal strings to the sarod, two <strong>of</strong> its defining<br />
elements in terms <strong>of</strong> sound production (Miner 1993:71). That these three instruments<br />
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would have contributed features to a common descendant is not surprising, as not only<br />
was Rampur a leading center for the patronage <strong>of</strong> Hindustani musicians in the 19th<br />
century, it was also squarely located in the historical region <strong>of</strong> Rohilkhand, an important<br />
paThaan heartland named for an Afghan tribe (the Rohillas), and was ruled <strong>by</strong> a lineage<br />
<strong>of</strong> paThaan kings. As such, it was the milieu in which both the sarod and much <strong>of</strong><br />
modern instrumental music emerged.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Gwalior and Shahjahanpur gharanas both trace their lineage back to one<br />
specific paThaan musician, Ghulam Ali (not to be confused with Khyal maestro Bade<br />
Ghulam Ali <strong>of</strong> the Punjab). While he likely had only tangential connections to Rampur<br />
or Lucknow, Ghulam Ali is a particularly important figure, as he is not only a common<br />
ancestor <strong>of</strong> two important gharanas, but also is widely considered to be the musician who<br />
took the crucial step <strong>of</strong> adding the metal fingerboard and strings to the sarod and, as such,<br />
is considered the first sarod player. One <strong>of</strong> Ghulam Ali’s sons was Murad Ali Khan, a<br />
sarodiya who also received training from Seniya musician Amir Khan (son <strong>of</strong> Umrao<br />
Khan) and served in the courts <strong>of</strong> both Rampur and Darbhanga, a small state located near<br />
the modern day border <strong>of</strong> India and Nepal (McNeil 2004:111). Murad Ali had no sons,<br />
so he adopted an orphan, Abdullah Khan, who was originally from Shahjahanpur, the<br />
town which eventually gave the name to the gharana centered around this lineage. It was<br />
Abdullah Khan and his son Mohammed Amir Khan (generally known as simply Amir<br />
Khan), then, that were “responsible for introducing the playing style <strong>of</strong> Rampur sarodiyas<br />
into Bengal,” with Amir Khan eventually settling permanently in Bengal. Amir Khan was<br />
initially employed in Bengal <strong>by</strong> Lalit Mohan Moitra, a zamiindaar in Rajshahi (now in<br />
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Bangladesh), and the father <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan’s primary disciple, Radhika Mohan Moitra,<br />
and later shifted to Gauripur, a near<strong>by</strong> town also associated with the Imdad Khani sitar<br />
tradition (ibid.:140-141). <strong>The</strong> late Pandit Moitra passed on his art, which he also learned<br />
at the feet <strong>of</strong> Dabir Khan, a dhrupadiya and grandson <strong>of</strong> Wazir Khan, to many disciples,<br />
the foremost being Buddhadev Dasgupta. <strong>The</strong> latter, as mentioned above, has also taught<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> disciples, is currently on staff at ITC-SRA, Calcutta, and was also one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
musicians I interviewed while doing research for this study in 2005. Stylistically, this<br />
gharana is somewhat analogous to the Seniya Sitar gharana, in the sense that the gat-s<br />
they play are largely traditional, and while the Dhrupad influence is present in their<br />
aalaap, the emulation <strong>of</strong> vocal styles as expressed through extended use <strong>of</strong> miinD is<br />
limited compared to both the Maihar and Gwalior styles. Besides the Dhrupad influence,<br />
the music <strong>of</strong> the Shahjahanpur sarodiyaa-s (taking BDG as the prime example) also<br />
harkens back to the specifically paThaan aspect <strong>of</strong> the Rampur milieu. This is because<br />
the gat-s traditional to this gharana are heavily rhythmic and based on tabla and<br />
pakhaawaj bol-s, or strokes, foregrounding rhythm and percussiveness over melody, a<br />
necessity on the Afghani rabaab which had gut strings and, thus, very little sustain (Raja,<br />
liner notes to India Archive CD 1072).<br />
To further extend the comparison <strong>of</strong> sitar and sarod gharanas, if the Senia Sitar<br />
gharana is analogous to the Shahjahanpur sarod gharana, then the counterpart <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Imdad Khan gharana is, as mentioned above, the Gwalior sarod gharana (while the<br />
Maihar gharana occupies the same artistic territory in the realm <strong>of</strong> both sitar and sarod).<br />
To be sure, the similarities stretch beyond the affinities between the respective stylistic<br />
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approaches <strong>of</strong> Vilayat Khan and Amjad Ali; examination <strong>of</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> the Gwalior<br />
gharana reveals that they are the pioneers responsible for introducing more and more<br />
elements <strong>of</strong> Khyal vocal music into sarod playing over time much as Imdad, Enayet, and<br />
Vilayat Khan had. <strong>The</strong> Gwalior gharana traces its lineage back to Ghulam Ali through<br />
his son Nanhe Khan, the father <strong>of</strong> Hafiz Ali, and grandfather <strong>of</strong> Amjad Ali. Nanhe Khan<br />
was employed at the court <strong>of</strong> Gwalior (where Hafiz Ali was born), and according to his<br />
son, introduced “certain fast sweeping taans” in the vocal style <strong>of</strong> the great Gwalior<br />
gharanedar singers Haddu-Hassu Khan into his sarod style (Khanna 1975, cited in<br />
McNeil 2004:142). While Hafiz Ali was, according to McNeil, “credited with having<br />
incorporated khyal and gayaki (khyal vocal) style into his playing”(144), most accounts<br />
emphasize the Dhrupad side <strong>of</strong> his music. And indeed, Haifiz Ali was, like Allaudin<br />
Khan, a ganDaabandh (formally initiated) disciple <strong>of</strong> Wazir Khan <strong>of</strong> Rampur. All in all,<br />
though, Hafiz Ali’s playing style, at least according to written accounts, seems to have<br />
resembled that <strong>of</strong> the sarodists <strong>of</strong> the Shahjahan line <strong>of</strong> the Ghulam Ali tradition in its<br />
broad outlines. As Raja states, while Allaudin Khan steered the sarod tradition towards<br />
the “rudra vina model,” Hafiz Ali Khan and Mohammed Amir Khan “reinforced and<br />
refined the percussive bias <strong>of</strong> its rababa legacy”(2005:105). Amjad Ali has, then, moved<br />
even further toward the Khyal aspect <strong>of</strong> his father’s music, while moving away from the<br />
Dhrupad ang. Amjad Ali has become particularly well-known for his blindingly fast<br />
taan-s, which are essentially <strong>of</strong> the sapat type, but are more <strong>of</strong>ten referred in the sarod<br />
context as ekhaar taan-s, i.e. one note per stroke (ek is Hindi for ‘one’). This is an<br />
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especially demanding technique on sarod, where multiple strokes per note has<br />
traditionally been the norm.<br />
At this point, I will make a few more comments <strong>by</strong> way <strong>of</strong> conclusion. <strong>The</strong> first<br />
regards the above discussion <strong>of</strong> the major gharanas <strong>of</strong> instrumental music, particularly the<br />
general stylistic tendencies I have mentioned in each case. Before beginning this<br />
discussion, I explained that I would be basing my synopses <strong>of</strong> each gharana’s history and<br />
style around three parameters, Purab vs. Paschim (“east” vs. “west”), Khyal influence vs.<br />
Dhrupad influence, and gaayakii ang (“vocal style”) vs. tantakaarii ang (“instrumental<br />
style”). Of these, the first, as I mentioned earlier, has all but lost its relevance in modern<br />
Hindustani music, as instrumental music is now dominated <strong>by</strong> Bengalis and, for Bengalis<br />
and non-Bengalis alike, Calcutta is now essentially the center <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani<br />
instrumental music universe. For sarod, this never was a significant distinction, as there<br />
never has been any noteworthy traditions <strong>of</strong> sarod playing in any center west <strong>of</strong> Delhi, In<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> sitar, though, there are two gharanas generally considered to be major<br />
traditions that were historically based in Jaipur and other courts <strong>of</strong> western India, but, as<br />
we have also seen, the primary exponents <strong>of</strong> both the Senia Sitar gharana and the Jaipur<br />
Binkar-Sitar gharana in recent decades have been the Bengalis Dr. Debu Chaudhuri and<br />
the late Bimal Mukherjee. Although I have referred to the ties between the other<br />
gharanas mentioned above and Bengal, I should make these ties clear for each tradition.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most Bengali <strong>of</strong> any instrumental gharana is the Vishnupur gharana, which I detailed<br />
at length in chapter 4, though it is not an exclusively instrumental gharana. <strong>The</strong> Maihar<br />
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gharana is equally as Bengali in the sense that, while the style with which it is associated<br />
is distinctly North Indian and Allaudin Khan spent most <strong>of</strong> his pr<strong>of</strong>essional career in<br />
Madhya Pradesh, all <strong>of</strong> its most important members have been Bengalis – Allaudin Khan<br />
himself was born and raised in east Bengal (now Bangladesh), Ravi Shankar is a Bengali<br />
Brahman from Benares, and the late Nikhil Banerjee was a Bengali Brahman and life-<br />
long resident <strong>of</strong> Calcutta. <strong>The</strong> Shajahanpur branch <strong>of</strong> the Ghulam Ali tradition has, for<br />
its part, been dominated Bengalis from Radhika Mohan Moitra forward. <strong>The</strong> least<br />
Bengali <strong>of</strong> the major instrumental traditions are the Imdad Khan and Gwalior gharanas,<br />
and, not coincidentally, these are the gharanas which, as noted above, base their appeal<br />
and legitimacy as gharanas on their status as lineages <strong>of</strong> hereditary musicians, lineages<br />
which, to be truly legitimate, must trace back to North India. 94 So, in terms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Gwalior gharana, their tradition is based in Gwalior itself where Amjad Ali Khan<br />
continues to maintain a residence. <strong>The</strong> Imdad Khani gharana, though, has been based in<br />
Bengal since the time <strong>of</strong> Imdad Khan himself, who was born in Etawah (a city in eastern<br />
U.P. that is sometimes taken as the name for this gharana) but spent most <strong>of</strong> his<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional life in Calcutta (Miner 1993:152). <strong>The</strong> Gwalior gharana is, then, the<br />
proverbial exception that proves the rule. Even though Amjad Ali maintains more <strong>of</strong> a<br />
presence in the Delhi area, both he and his father before him have performed extensively<br />
over time in Calcutta. While Amjad Ali is perhaps the single most famous sarodiyaa in<br />
India, his potential impact on music in Delhi and the surrounding region has been<br />
minimal, primarily because he seems to have chosen to not teach music actively outside<br />
94 see chapter 4 and my discussion <strong>of</strong> the Vishnupur gharana <strong>of</strong> Bengal<br />
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his family. As such, his sons Ayaan Ali and Amaan Ali Bangash are his only two<br />
disciples <strong>of</strong> note.<br />
At any rate, regarding the other two stylistic parameters, instrumental style versus<br />
vocal style and Dhrupad influence versus Khyal influence, it should be clear that they<br />
overlap with each other to a large extent. If we look at sitar and sarod in terms <strong>of</strong> the two<br />
most famous and influential performers <strong>of</strong> each instrument, we find the same basic<br />
opposition, Khyal-influenced, gaayakii style music on one side (Vilayat Khan and Amjad<br />
Ali) as opposed to the Dhrupad-influenced, generally tantakaarii style music on the<br />
other. This, however, would not do justice to all the styles represented <strong>by</strong> members <strong>of</strong><br />
these gharanas and other important artists not affiliated with them. For Kumar Prasad<br />
Mukherjee, there are three distinct style <strong>of</strong> sitar, the styles <strong>of</strong> Ravi Shankar, Vilayat<br />
Khan, and Nikhil Banerjee, with NB representing a combination <strong>of</strong> the former two<br />
approaches (though, <strong>of</strong> course, Allaudin Khan <strong>of</strong> Maihar was his primary Guru). In<br />
sarod, the same thing, in a general sense, could be said <strong>of</strong> Ali Akbar, Amjad Ali, and<br />
Buddhadev Dasgupta. However, in BDG’s case the similarities he shares with his two<br />
illustrious counterparts is due to, on one side, membership in a larger common tradition<br />
(with Amjad Ali), and on the other, a continuing adherence to traditional instrumental<br />
forms shared with, but likely not directly influenced <strong>by</strong>, Ali Akbar. Regardless <strong>of</strong> which<br />
classificatory scheme is the best fit, though, the more important point to make is that <strong>of</strong><br />
the two paradigmatic approaches, vocal style or instrumental style, the former seems to<br />
be generally more popular, both in terms <strong>of</strong> practicing musicians who are adherents to the<br />
style and with the listening public. I say ‘seems’ in this case, because, although most <strong>of</strong><br />
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my informants who expressed an opinion on the matter in essence agreed that his was<br />
true, hard evidence is difficult to obtain in this case. To be sure, Vilayat Khan is more<br />
emulated <strong>by</strong> more current performers than is Ravi Shankar. Much <strong>of</strong> this is due to the<br />
fact that Vilayat Khan is part <strong>of</strong> a large family <strong>of</strong> musicians (one that has numerous<br />
marriage ties with other gharanas), and most in that family have, from Vilayat Khan’s<br />
time forward, adhered rather closely to his innovative style. Thus, besides Vilayat<br />
Khan’s sons Shujaat and Hidayat, there is VK’s brother Imrat Khan, Imrat’s sons Irshad,<br />
Nishat, and Wajahat, VK’s nephew Rais, and Shahid Parvez, the grandson <strong>of</strong> VK’s uncle<br />
Wahid Khan, all <strong>of</strong> whom are clearly indebted to VK’s style. This is not to mention<br />
disciples from outside the family, such as Arvind Parikh and Buddhaditya Mukherjee<br />
(son <strong>of</strong> Inayet Khan’s disciple Bimalendu Mukherjee). Without selling Ravi Shankar<br />
short in terms <strong>of</strong> popularity or influence, it seems understandable that Vilayat Khan<br />
would appeal to more musicians and listeners both because VK’s music is based on the<br />
vocal model which remains dominant in India and because VK represents a hereditary<br />
family <strong>of</strong> musicians. In terms <strong>of</strong> the latter, while there are undoubtedly issues in India<br />
regarding communally-based prejudice, I feel strongly that there remains an essentialistic<br />
valuation <strong>of</strong> traditional Muslim musicians over non-caste and, especially, high caste<br />
Hindu musicians as the only legitimate (or most legitimate) Hindustani classical<br />
musicians.<br />
Beyond the hegemonic appeal <strong>of</strong> the gaayakii ang style, an examination <strong>of</strong> the<br />
histories <strong>of</strong> the above mentioned gharanas also reveals three closely related reasons why<br />
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instrumental music has flourished to the extent that it has in Bengal, though they all are,<br />
at best, partial explanations for this phenomenon. <strong>The</strong>se are: first, the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
zamiindaar-s as patrons <strong>of</strong> instrumental music; second, the role <strong>of</strong> Bengali Gurus <strong>of</strong> sarod<br />
and sitar in training large numbers <strong>of</strong> students; and, finally, the importance <strong>of</strong> Bengali or<br />
Bengal-based ‘role model’ performers in terms <strong>of</strong> inspiring non-hereditary musicians to<br />
take up sitar and sarod as a hob<strong>by</strong> or as a full-time occupation. Regarding the first <strong>of</strong><br />
these, I have already mentioned several <strong>of</strong> the most important zamiindaar patrons <strong>of</strong><br />
classical musicians in both this and previous chapters. <strong>The</strong>se include the Jorashanko<br />
Tagores (Rabindranath’s branch), who patronized both instrumentalists and great<br />
vocalists such as Jadu Bhatta and Bishnu Chakravorty. To restrict it to those who are<br />
primarily remembered for their patronage <strong>of</strong> instrumental music, however, the most<br />
important names are the aforementioned Roy Chaudhuris based in Gauripur, East Bengal<br />
and Radhika Mohan Moitra <strong>of</strong> Rajshahi, whose activities were largely a continuation <strong>of</strong><br />
the tradition established <strong>by</strong> earlier generations <strong>of</strong> his Taaland-based family. To this list<br />
could be added, among others, the “raja” <strong>of</strong> Uttarpada, who patronized Vishnupur sitar<br />
maestro Gokul Nag for a number <strong>of</strong> years (Partho Bose: interview, 2005), as well as the<br />
zamiindaar-s <strong>of</strong> Dinajpur and Mukhtagachha, mentioned <strong>by</strong> McNeil as the patrons <strong>of</strong><br />
some the earliest sarodiyas to shift from Rampur to Bengal in the late 19th century<br />
(2004:114). Of these, the Roy Chaudhuris are seemingly the most well-remembered <strong>of</strong><br />
their contemporaries, because <strong>of</strong> their lavish patronage <strong>of</strong> classical musicians; 95 the fact<br />
that several <strong>of</strong> its members actually became renowned performers in their own right, with<br />
95 As Partho Bose explained, Imrat Khan still lives in the house in the upscale Park Circus district <strong>of</strong><br />
Calcutta donated to his family <strong>by</strong> the Gauripur zamiindaar-s (interview, 2005).<br />
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scion Brajendra Kishore Roy Chaudhuri, his son Birendra Kishore, and grandson<br />
Bimalakanta, all sitarists, heading the list (Chatterjee 1996:209-210; Das Sharma<br />
1993:250); and, again, their association with some <strong>of</strong> the greatest musicians <strong>of</strong> the era,<br />
including, not only the Imdad Khani maestros Inayaet and Vilayat Khan (who himself<br />
was born in Gauripur), but also the Wazir Khan-trained biinkaar Dabir Khan, sarodiya<br />
Abdullah Khan (as mentioned above), and even, for a time, Allaudin Khan. To reiterate,<br />
though, the above mentioned names only represent the tip <strong>of</strong> the ice-berg in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
Bengali zamiindaar patrons <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical music.<br />
If nothing else, these zamiindaar-s made it possible for great musicians from<br />
North India to settle permanently in Bengal, eventually helping to expose the populace to<br />
their music and allowing non-hereditary, Bengali Hindu musicians to train under the<br />
guidance <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> India’s finest musicians, including the great instrumentalists<br />
mentioned above. Beyond this, however, it is worth asking, I feel, if this style <strong>of</strong><br />
patronage had a more pr<strong>of</strong>ound effect on the musical scene in Bengal than simply<br />
attracting great musicians to the region. Of course, it has been frequently argued that the<br />
tastes <strong>of</strong> the nouveau riche zamiindaar-s <strong>of</strong> Bengal historically tended generally toward<br />
lighter forms <strong>of</strong> cultivated music, such as Thumri. How the economic base <strong>of</strong> a society<br />
affects the art produced in that society during any particular historical period is, to be<br />
sure, a massive question which cannot be easily answered in a short space. As such, I<br />
will attempt to grapple with this question in the next chapter, where I utilize the work <strong>of</strong><br />
Pierre Bourdieu in order to begin to understand how economic factors impact tastes in<br />
regional and semi-classical musical forms. At the same time, though, a number <strong>of</strong> my<br />
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informants and the secondary sources I have consulted for this study have <strong>of</strong>fered some<br />
interesting, but, again, incomplete, observations in this regard. McNeil, in Inventing the<br />
Sarod (2004), says <strong>of</strong> Bengali zamiindaar-s, “In employing Hindustani musicians,<br />
Bengali zamindars, <strong>by</strong> association, harnessed some <strong>of</strong> the prestige that could be derived<br />
from the Mughal and Awadhi traditions and in the process assumed the mantle <strong>of</strong> the<br />
legitimate successors, at least in terms <strong>of</strong> patronage,” a notion which been argued <strong>by</strong> a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> other authors, including Vinayak Purohit, who has made this same observation<br />
<strong>of</strong> middle class Maharashtrian (especially Brahman) music lovers, i.e. that their patronage<br />
<strong>of</strong> classical music represents an attempt to co-opt the symbolic power associated with the<br />
feudal courts <strong>of</strong> pre-modern India. I will, again, return to this argument in chapter 8. To<br />
proceed, though, McNeil also mentions that, while the wealthy and landed classes did<br />
patronize classical musicians, they also had a puritanical “sensibility” that “invariably<br />
evoked a strong reaction towards a perceived social and moral dubiousness <strong>of</strong> Hindustani<br />
music in general and the ‘Ustads from the North’ in particular”(2004:148). While the<br />
ambivalent attitude toward Hindustani music and musicians which McNeil discusses was<br />
undoubtedly present in late 19th and early 20th century Bengali elite society, McNeil<br />
unfortunately <strong>of</strong>fers no clues as to why the Bengali situation differed from that <strong>of</strong><br />
Maharashtra, where this ambivalence was also most certainly present but, at the same<br />
time, where the middle classes embraced classical music, particularly Khyal vocal music,<br />
much sooner and on a much wider basis. Nor does he <strong>of</strong>fer any answers as to why<br />
Bengalis zamiindaar-s seemingly preferred instrumental music to vocal music in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
the musician they patronized.<br />
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For Neela Bhagwat, a large part <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong> feudalism and the institution <strong>of</strong><br />
zamiindaarii in Bengal, was that, as seemingly all Bengalis (all those involved with<br />
classical music, that is) have large houses consisting <strong>of</strong> “three floors, ten rooms, and three<br />
bathrooms,” if not full-on estates, they have the freedom and the space to indulge in the<br />
seemingly endless hard practice which is so much a culture <strong>of</strong> instrumental music relative<br />
to vocal music. This in turn, brings up the issue <strong>of</strong> riyaaz, or practice. A number <strong>of</strong><br />
Bengali musicians, mostly instrumentalists, and even a handful <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrians <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
this opinion as an answer to why Maharashtrians have been less numerous among the<br />
ranks <strong>of</strong> nationally famous Hindustani instrumentalists. To be sure, not all agreed with<br />
this notion. Shruti Sadolikar expressed essentially the opposite view, that Marathi<br />
musicians were more successful as classical singers than were Bengalis because they<br />
possessed a single-mindedness which Bengalis did not, a quality which she felt was<br />
requisite for a classical singer (interview, 2005). All in all, though, this notion that<br />
Bengalis were more dedicated practicers seems to be a commonly held view. As<br />
Buddhadev Dasgupta told me, the few “desultory” instrumentalists that did come along in<br />
the last 50 odd years in Maharashtra simply did not, as he put it, “practice in the way that<br />
they should” (interview, 2005). It is an interesting point, though, to be sure, but we<br />
should keep in mind that this is a broad generalization and should not be applied to every<br />
Marathi and Bengali musician (who should obviously be judged as individuals in such<br />
terms).<br />
It is interesting nonetheless – all the more so because it seems to contradict the<br />
also commonly held notion that Maharashtrians, thanks to climate and diet, are generally<br />
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healthier and physically stronger on average than are Bengalis (a point I will return to in<br />
chapter 8). Few <strong>of</strong>fered more than this generalization, but Bikram Ghosh, for one, gave<br />
me his theory on why Bengalis seem to be more predisposed towards constant practice<br />
than Maharashtrians or other regional groups:<br />
See, it’s also..it’s all depending on the lifestyle and the mindset – the mindset <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Bengali, as I said, is to stay at home. You know, very strong, it’s there.<br />
Automatically people would deny it, but they like staying at home, they like their<br />
little cocoon, you know. And within the cocoon, they like to intellectualize and<br />
philosophize. So they sit, literally inside an eggshell, and they try to see the<br />
universe. And, uh, that is also what riyaaz is all about. You’re sitting in one little<br />
room and you’re practicing and you’re opening up your universe to melody or to<br />
rhythm, you know. So it is something which is very akin to their mindset – it<br />
works well with Bengalis. And also, because a lot <strong>of</strong> people do that, it’s also<br />
done commonly. Like, if, when I was practicing, there were at least ten other<br />
friends <strong>of</strong> mine doing the same thing, so it was like if you are not doing it, you’re<br />
falling back (interview, 2005).<br />
And, to be sure, BG was not the only Bengali musician who put forth this view. Sitarist<br />
Mita Nag <strong>of</strong>fered a similar opinion, noting the older musicians <strong>of</strong> her Vishnupur gharana<br />
tended to be “self-absorbed,” preferring to play at home as an act <strong>of</strong> “worship,” rather<br />
than seeking out fame and fortune in the larger world, although she also noted that this<br />
has changed in recent decades (interview, 2005). At any rate, for BG, this was also the<br />
reason why Bengali instrumentalists tended to produce more good disciples than their<br />
counterparts in other regions – they simply prefer to stay and home teach to constantly<br />
touring outside <strong>of</strong> Calcutta. As examples, BG mentioned Buddhadev Dasgupta, Manilal<br />
Nag, and the late Indranil Bhattacharya (a Maihar gharana sitarist) as Bengali<br />
instrumentalists who had made this choice, as compared to Zakir Hussain, Shiv Kumar<br />
Sharma, and Hairprasad Chaurasia, who have necessarily had to curtail their teaching<br />
because they tour so much. This, again, was the only time that one <strong>of</strong> my informants<br />
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gave a reason for why Bengalis were prolific teachers, but one can only assume that the<br />
lavish patronage <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>by</strong> zamiindaar-s in the early twentieth century also allowed<br />
musicians to stay put and teach, as they had less need to seek out additional income<br />
through public performances in various locales across India. That Bengalis have been<br />
among the most prolific Gurus <strong>of</strong> any regional group in India, though, is hard to deny,<br />
and the most prolific <strong>of</strong> all has been Allaudin Khan, the maestro <strong>of</strong> whom Buddhadev<br />
Dasgupta stated, “<strong>The</strong>re has been no better teacher than him in the entire Hindustani<br />
firmament <strong>of</strong> music”(interview, 2005). And beyond this, Allaudin Khan was as good an<br />
illustration as any <strong>of</strong> Bikram Ghosh’s point that many Bengalis prefer staying home and<br />
teaching to touring, even if AK’s home base for most <strong>of</strong> his life was Maihar, Madhya<br />
Pradesh, and not his native Bengal.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> all, though, the biggest reason for the dominance <strong>of</strong> instrumental in<br />
Bengal, at least from the perspective <strong>of</strong> the Bengali musicians I interviewed, was the<br />
history there <strong>of</strong>, not only successful, but truly great instrumentalists. Of course, as I have<br />
mentioned in numerous instances, musicians on both sides saw the presence <strong>of</strong> great<br />
Ustads from North India in each region as the prime reason for the prevalence <strong>of</strong> vocal<br />
music in Maharashtra and instrumental music in Bengal. While this is somewhat <strong>of</strong> a<br />
simplistic answer, it is undoubtedly true. In the Bengali case, though, there seemed,<br />
again based the observations <strong>of</strong> my informants, to be a special emphasis on great Bengali<br />
or Bengal-based instrumentalists as, not merely teachers and resources, but as role<br />
models, or “cult figures,” as Mita Nag put it (interview, 2005). This may seem to be<br />
merely a semantic difference, but I would like to again point out the tendency in Bengal<br />
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for artists to imitate (or in some cases “ape”) elite musicians, even those who have fairly<br />
knowledgeable and well-respected Gurus who play and teach a different style than their<br />
cult hero. No doubt, this also happens in Maharashtra, but based both my first-hand<br />
observations and those <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors, it seems to be much less common there.<br />
At any rate, among the Bengali adherents <strong>of</strong> this view, the most eloquent<br />
explanation was provided <strong>by</strong> Partho Bose. For PB, the history <strong>of</strong> instrumentalists in<br />
Bengal can be seen, in one sense, as a progression <strong>of</strong> more and more identifiable and<br />
sympathetic figures for the average Bengali musician. Thus, the first was Inayet Khan,<br />
who, although his ancestors were from Uttar Pradesh, settled in Gouripur, East Bengal,<br />
and came to be considered <strong>by</strong> Bengalis as “ours,” as a “son <strong>of</strong> Bengal,” in PB’s words.<br />
<strong>The</strong> next was Ravi Shankar, who was an ethnic Bengali, though one who was born and<br />
raised in Benares. <strong>The</strong> culmination <strong>of</strong> this progression was, though, was Nikhil Banerjee,<br />
an “inside-out” Bengali. It was not only that he was a native Calcuttan, but the one that<br />
came along the most recently (although he passed more than a decade ago). As PB said,<br />
People in Bengal started looking at Nikhil Banerjee as more “our” Nikhil<br />
Banerjee, more than Ravi Shankar, and more than Vilayat Khan. Now, as I said<br />
that, Ravi Shankar, for them, was more international, and he was born in<br />
Varanasi. So, strictly speaking, the Bengali people [were saying], “Oh, Nikhil<br />
Banerjee is ours, son <strong>of</strong> our soil.” Vilayat Khan, although he was born in Bengal,<br />
but that was east Bengal, undivided India, undivided Bengal. So, after<br />
Bangladesh was born, it’s a different country. But, even then, I think, without<br />
meaning to have any communal overtones…Vilayat Khan is considered not so<br />
much as “our own Vilayat Khan” for many people. Well, after all, they are Hindi<br />
speaking, Urdu speaking – he speaks very good Bengali, Vilayat Khan himself –<br />
but people look upon him, “Oh they are the Ustads, OK. <strong>The</strong>y came from some<br />
other place, from Etawah, then they lived in Gouripur, Bangladesh, they have a<br />
house in Bengal…” Vilayat Khan spent a lot <strong>of</strong> time in Bengal, but, after that,<br />
last forty years, he has been dividing his time living in different parts [in India and<br />
abroad]…So, Nikhil Banerjee was the only one who lived continuously in<br />
Bengal…<br />
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It was not only that NB lived the longest in (West) Bengal, specifically Calcutta, or was<br />
born there (unlike RS and VK), though; he also more closely resembled an average<br />
Bengali in his appearance and demeanor,<br />
His appearance and everything, his lifestyle, he was a very unassuming person, he<br />
looked very ordinary, not so glamorous as some <strong>of</strong> his peers. So, the man on the<br />
street could identify with him even more. And, [for] the Bengali budding talent -<br />
someone who wants to become a sitarist - he was the easily available hero next<br />
door, whom you could look up to, as well as whom you could relate to, and who<br />
proved it to you that, yes, even a typical middle-class Bengali can make it<br />
(interview, 2005).<br />
Along these lines, to reinforce what PB says in the above quote, NB seems to be one <strong>of</strong><br />
the most emulated sitarists among younger Bengali musicians (Kushal Das and Purbayan<br />
Chatterjee being two prominent current examples <strong>of</strong> NB’s influence), in spite <strong>of</strong> the fact<br />
that, as most agree, that NB rarely, if ever, spent time teaching any disciples.<br />
Considering that this is true as well <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan (both in terms <strong>of</strong> his influence and the<br />
fact that he did not teach), it is hard to deny, I feel, this tendency <strong>of</strong> Bengali musicians to<br />
emulate a role model or hero, regardless <strong>of</strong> whether they learn directly from that hero or<br />
have ever an opportunity to do so.<br />
Interestingly, Purohit <strong>of</strong>fers a similar explanation for why Bengalis both began to<br />
pursue instrumental music in large numbers in the period from “the middle ‘30s to the<br />
middle ‘50s.” Although Purohit does not argue specifically that Bengalis entered the<br />
field after a handful <strong>of</strong> pioneers became successful on a national basis, he does assert that<br />
Bengalis took to instrumental music after the Maharashtrians had already firmly<br />
established their dominance in Khyal singing. As he writes,<br />
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In Maharashtra, which had switched over to Hindustani classical music only in<br />
the nineteenth century, the early part <strong>of</strong> the twentieth had seen an excessive bias<br />
in favor <strong>of</strong> musicological studies and dry school-room singing, so that vocal<br />
classical music was in the doldrums. Furthermore, Deodhar notes in his Thor<br />
Sangeetkar that as late as the forties, instrumental music was in an<br />
underdeveloped state in Western India, there being not a single sarod player <strong>of</strong><br />
note. Bengal, which had also accepted the Hindustani system very late, had gone<br />
over to thumri ang in its widest sense, found itself in a blind alley. It now wanted<br />
to join the purer classical stream, and since vocal music, enfeebled as it was, was<br />
dominated <strong>by</strong> Bombay-based singers, it was easier for Bengal to break out in the<br />
instrumental direction (1988:904).<br />
Purohit follows this with the curious statement that the popularity <strong>of</strong> Thumri in Bengal<br />
and Khyal in Maharashtra “conspired to produce a reaction in favor <strong>of</strong> more abstract use<br />
<strong>of</strong> sound patterns, which naturally the instruments were best fitted to project”(ibid.),<br />
although he gives no reason why, after vocal music had been dominant throughout the<br />
feudal era and the colonial era up to that point, classical music lovers would suddenly<br />
crave music without words. Regardless, Purohit may well be right that Bengalis took to<br />
the sitar and sarod because Marathi singers had so firmly entrenched themselves <strong>by</strong> that<br />
time as the successors to the gharaanedaar Ustads in the field <strong>of</strong> Khyal. <strong>The</strong> point to be<br />
made, though – one to which I will return – is that it is, in my view, very much<br />
representative <strong>of</strong> the respective mentalities <strong>of</strong> Marathi and Bengali musicians that the<br />
former would make their name in the most prestigious and dominant genre <strong>of</strong> Hindustani<br />
music while the latter would carve their niche in a field which was underdeveloped and<br />
somewhat marginal in comparison to Khyal when they started to enter into it. This, then,<br />
is one clear case where Maharashtra and Bengal have and do complement each other in<br />
musical terms. Again, though, it should be emphasized that the Maharashtrians made<br />
their move, so to speak, first, and the Bengalis reacted. <strong>The</strong>y reacted, however, not <strong>by</strong><br />
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trying to compete with the Maharashtrians at their own game, but <strong>by</strong> carving out a totally<br />
new path, one which many other Bengalis would subsequently follow in subsequent<br />
decades.<br />
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Introduction<br />
Part Two: the “Outside View”<br />
7. Bourdieu & Regional Music Genres<br />
In this chapter I will begin to expand my focus and discuss a wider range <strong>of</strong><br />
factors present in Bengal and Maharashtra and the areas peripheral to them that can<br />
arguably be taken as influences that shape the classical music scenes in these two regions.<br />
In the last section (chapters 2-6), I limited my purview to those issues that scholarly-<br />
minded musicians and musicologists in India most <strong>of</strong>ten related to me as most important<br />
in understanding why Hindustani music has developed as it has in the last century, more<br />
specifically how Maharashtrians and Bengalis have come to dominate the Hindustani<br />
music tradition numerically and why Maharashtrians tend to gravitate to Khyal and<br />
Bengalis to instrumental music. As discussed in detail above, the most common answers<br />
to my queries along these lines revolved around the historical migration <strong>of</strong> musicians in<br />
search <strong>of</strong> patronage which had, in turn, resulted in their individual and/or gharana-based<br />
styles being propagated in the place in which they had settled. As I also noted above,<br />
many <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors refused to discuss issues related to region to any greater extent<br />
than this. In other words, they generally rejected or denied the idea that a musician’s<br />
regional background could in any way affect the manner in which that particular<br />
musician conceived <strong>of</strong> or performed Hindustani classical music. For many then, the<br />
answer to why, for example, Maharashtrians not only dominate the field <strong>of</strong> Khyal vocal<br />
music across India but also rarely pursue sitar or sarod, was simply because many great<br />
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Ustads <strong>of</strong> Khyal had settled in Maharashtra while very few comparable instrumentalists<br />
ever had. I, <strong>of</strong> course, do not totally reject the importance <strong>of</strong> this side <strong>of</strong> the story – it is<br />
hard to argue, for example, that there are more Alladiya Khan-style khyaaliya-s in<br />
Maharashtra than Bengal because Alladiya Khan settled in Maharashtra and lived, taught,<br />
and performed there for many years. For this reason, I have taken the time to carefully<br />
detail these migrations and how they impacted the scenes in these two regions. However,<br />
as I have also hopefully demonstrated, it is an oversimplification to say, again for<br />
example, that Maharashtrians have never taken up sitar in any number because no good<br />
sitar player has ever settled in that region. This is because, as mentioned above, there<br />
have indeed been a number <strong>of</strong> top level sitar players who reside and teach in Bombay<br />
and/or Pune from as early as the late 19th century. <strong>The</strong>re must then, it seems, be other<br />
explanations for why Maharashtrian musicians prefer Khyal to instrumental music in<br />
such overwhelming numbers (or why roughly the opposite holds true in Bengal).<br />
In the present chapter, I will begin to depart from Bhatkhande’s “narrowly<br />
grammatical” conception <strong>of</strong> musicology which limits analysis <strong>of</strong> the classical tradition to<br />
the examination <strong>of</strong> the history and theory <strong>of</strong> vocal music as well as from what I have<br />
termed the “Inside View,” a related view put forth <strong>by</strong> many <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors that adds<br />
basic economic imperatives (i.e. the necessity <strong>of</strong> migration or the pressures <strong>of</strong> the<br />
commercial market) to the very limited list <strong>of</strong> forces shaping Hindustani music. This is<br />
because in the present chapter I intend to examine the influences which are brought to<br />
bear on the Hindustani tradition <strong>by</strong> two <strong>of</strong> the most important semi-classical genres<br />
which are unique to and characteristic <strong>of</strong> Bengal and Maharashtra. I do not see this as a<br />
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complete departure from the Bhatkhandian (or Bhatkhande-inspired) approach because,<br />
while Bhatkhande himself would likely have rejected any comparison between, say,<br />
Rabindrasangiit and Khyal, as such a comparison implicitly places the two on the same<br />
level, many <strong>of</strong> informants, albeit still a minority, were willing to make such comparisons,<br />
even if in most cases I had to introduce the topic in our conversations. To posit a<br />
relationship between semi- or light classical forms and those that are purely classical is<br />
not particularly controversial or novel, as even the most basic accounts <strong>of</strong> NaaTya Sangiit<br />
in Maharashtra and Rabindrasangiit or Raag Pradhaan songs in Bengal emphasize the<br />
crucial influence Hindustani classical music has exercised over these regional genres.<br />
This view, that regional semi-classical genres are heavily indebted to raagdhaari (raga-<br />
based) classical music, is well within the Bhatkhandian line <strong>of</strong> thought. It is perhaps<br />
more controversial to suggest an influence in the opposite direction. <strong>The</strong> most common<br />
response from my interlocutors when I asked if NaaTya Sangiit had influenced Khyal in<br />
Maharashtra, was “not really,” but if so, the ‘<strong>of</strong>fenders’ in this regard were clearly doing<br />
something wrong and likely not taken seriously <strong>by</strong> learned musicians, scholars, and<br />
connoisseurs. In other words, for many, what a few misguided individuals might do in<br />
the way <strong>of</strong> adding regional touches to classical music was really inconsequential in the<br />
grand scheme <strong>of</strong> the tradition. However, many in fact do see this influence, and as in the<br />
other chapters <strong>of</strong> this dissertation, I try here to maintain a focus on what practicing<br />
Hindustani musicians feel is important and worthy <strong>of</strong> discussion.<br />
Before proceeding to those regional genres that I, based both on my interviews<br />
and on my personal observations, see as most influential on Hindustani music in greater<br />
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Bengal and Maharashtra, it is important to define the genre labels “light classical,” “semi-<br />
classical,” and “light music,” 96 most crucially in terms <strong>of</strong> how they differ from orthodox<br />
classical music. First, I should note that on the basis <strong>of</strong> personal observation, I feel that<br />
“light-classical” and “semi-classical” are essentially synonymous terms, or, at least, are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used as equivalents in conversation and in print. Writers and musicians in India<br />
tend to use one term or the other, but I can find no example where an authority on Indian<br />
music uses both terms in opposition to one another. I will henceforth use the term “semi-<br />
classical,” as it seems to be preferred <strong>by</strong> a greater number <strong>of</strong> writers and <strong>by</strong> the majority<br />
<strong>of</strong> my interlocutors. Also, it has the further virtue <strong>of</strong> being more distinct from the generic<br />
category “light music,” which is almost always considered to be something quite<br />
different from semi-classical musics. 97<br />
Lewis Rowell, among others, has noted the passion for categorization apparent in<br />
traditional Indian scholarship. In his 1992 monograph Music and Musical Thought in<br />
Early India, Rowell explains, however, that categories in traditional Indian thought are<br />
not water-tight and mutually exclusive as they are in the West. He writes,<br />
Inquiry is open-ended in the Indian tradition, and the process <strong>of</strong> making<br />
categories is infinite – at least in theory. Every statement that can be made blurs a<br />
finer distinction, and ultimate truth or reality lies beyond the reach <strong>of</strong> human<br />
experience or interference…Indian musical thought has thus been channeled into<br />
elaborate taxonomic structures within which subcategories unfold in pr<strong>of</strong>usion,<br />
subcategories that <strong>of</strong>ten are not mutually exclusive and which there<strong>by</strong> encourage<br />
a certain amount <strong>of</strong> ambiguity (6).<br />
96<br />
<strong>The</strong>se are English terms inspired <strong>by</strong> Western musicology, not exact translations <strong>of</strong> any Hindi, Bengali, or<br />
Marathi terms.<br />
97<br />
“Light music” generally implies that the melody in question is not based on a raga as such. This is as<br />
opposed to “semi-classical” genres where raga is the basis for the melody but is not strictly adhered to.<br />
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It is for this reason, among many others, that Bhatkhande’s quest to force musicians <strong>of</strong><br />
the Hindustani tradition across India to adopt a uniform approach to the grammar <strong>of</strong> each<br />
and every raga so famously failed. For example, all musicians agree that there is, so to<br />
speak, a category called “raga Bageshree,” but getting them all to agree on what exactly<br />
Bageshree is, what notes and phrases properly belong to it, is a much different question.<br />
Likewise, while I encountered different shades <strong>of</strong> meaning along these lines while<br />
conducting my various interviews in India, I also noticed that most musicians have a<br />
fairly strong idea <strong>of</strong> what these labels mean and what genres belong in each category,<br />
even if in some cases they could not verbalize (in English or otherwise) exactly what<br />
separated them or what they meant. I also noticed that most musicians were happy to<br />
quickly correct me if they felt I had placed a genre in the wrong category during our<br />
discussions.<br />
To be fair, though, in the case <strong>of</strong> most genres, there is clear consensus among<br />
musicians and others knowledgeable <strong>of</strong> the tradition regarding both any particular genre’s<br />
status as “classical,” “semi-classical,” or “light,” and why it fits in the category it does.<br />
<strong>The</strong> crux <strong>of</strong> the matter, as I noted in chapter 3, is whether and to what extent a genre is<br />
raga-based. Van der Meer gives a very clear and informative explanation <strong>of</strong> this idea:<br />
<strong>The</strong> line between classical music properly speaking and all other forms (semiclassical,<br />
light, folk, film-music etc.) is clearly drawn <strong>by</strong> the definition that<br />
classical styles should show the raga through all musical sections. <strong>The</strong> aim is to<br />
delineate the raga fully, whereas the other styles rather use a raga, in a sense make<br />
it subservient to other qualities, mostly words. Thus in tappa the elaboration <strong>of</strong><br />
the raga is done mainly through tana, there is no real slow elaboration. In thumri<br />
the main aspect is bolbanana, the display <strong>of</strong> words, which stands between<br />
layakari and barhata. In fact the raga becomes a tool for the exhibition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
involved techniques. <strong>The</strong> fact that the raga as such, particularly the tonal complex<br />
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and internal unity, does not stand central in these styles allows a degree <strong>of</strong><br />
mixture…<br />
Other styles, such as ghazal, bhajan, qavali and the many dhunas (tunes <strong>of</strong> folk<br />
music) are not even close to raga music. <strong>The</strong> material is <strong>of</strong>ten borrowed from<br />
classical music and can also be a source <strong>of</strong> classical music, but the aim <strong>of</strong> raga<br />
delineation is absent (1980:79).<br />
Slawek (2000) explains the distinctions between the various genres as a continuum with<br />
“classical” at one extreme and “light” at the other. Thus, “classicism” not only implies<br />
“strict adherence to the raag,” but also “strict adherence to taal,” “complex<br />
developmental techniques,” and that “music dominates text,” while “light music” implies<br />
the opposite, “no intentional adherence to raag,” “simple metrical rhythms or short<br />
interruptible taal cycles,” “little or no developmental techniques,” and that “text<br />
dominates music”(21). “Semi-classical,” then stands as an approximate midpoint<br />
between “classical” and “light” in terms <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> these criteria. By these well-defined<br />
standards, it is hard to argue the proper designation for most regional music genres. <strong>The</strong><br />
problem arises, however, when one tries to categorize a genre where some songs are<br />
based upon ragas and some are based on tunes as distant from the raga music tradition as<br />
Irish melodies. It also, <strong>by</strong> inference, highlights some <strong>of</strong> the tensions that become<br />
apparent when regional aesthetic practices and standards are placed <strong>by</strong> side with those <strong>of</strong><br />
the pan-North Indian classical tradition.<br />
A. Thumri: the “Classical” Semi-Classical Genre<br />
<strong>The</strong> latter are issues I will return to shortly, but for now, there a bit more to say<br />
about these broader categories. In Hindustani Music: a Tradition in Transition, Deepak<br />
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Raja introduces, <strong>by</strong> way <strong>of</strong> a discussion <strong>of</strong> the decline <strong>of</strong> the (semi-classical) Thumri<br />
genre in the past century, the idea that Thumri can be looked at in terms <strong>of</strong> “two angles”:<br />
“as an occupant <strong>of</strong> a specific niche in the concert repertoire, and as an occupant <strong>of</strong> a well-<br />
defined aesthetic space”(2005:254). In terms <strong>of</strong> the former, Raja writes that the<br />
traditional place for Thumri in a recital <strong>of</strong> classical music has been in the “tailpiece<br />
position,” i.e. as a light, pleasant, relatively undemanding piece to conclude a program.<br />
Interestingly, as our primary concern here is classical music in the context <strong>of</strong> Bengal and<br />
Maharashtra, Raja feels that Thumri has lost ground to other “tailpiece” genres in Khyal<br />
recitals because the Marathi vocalists who now dominate Khyal “have a relatively lower<br />
level <strong>of</strong> empathy with the language and the stylistic values <strong>of</strong> the thumri [than did their<br />
North Indian predecessors]..”(255). <strong>The</strong>se Maharashtrian singers, Raja notes, are more<br />
apt to perform a NaaTya Sangiit composition or an abhang 98 in lieu <strong>of</strong> a Thumri to<br />
conclude their performances. When we widen our scope to include instrumental music<br />
concerts, it becomes clear that this “tailpiece position” is the primary means <strong>by</strong> which<br />
unambiguously regional tunes, whether they are Marathi, Bengali, Punjabi, Awadhi or<br />
otherwise, can make their way into the classical repertoire, albeit not as “classical” pieces<br />
in their own right. To be sure, both <strong>of</strong> the genres I will primarily discuss below have<br />
been employed <strong>by</strong> classical musicians in the last fifty years as “tailpiece”-type pieces,<br />
though one has occupied this niche much more frequently than the other.<br />
98 Abhang is a Marathi language devotional song defined <strong>by</strong> its characteristic poetic meter.<br />
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Regarding his concept <strong>of</strong> the “aesthetic space” <strong>of</strong> the Thumri, Raja does not give<br />
one clear, spelled-out explanation. 99 One gathers, though, that Raja feels the aesthetic<br />
space occupied <strong>by</strong> Thumri is defined <strong>by</strong>, first and foremost, its emotional expressiveness<br />
(a part <strong>of</strong> its space which has been “encroached upon” <strong>by</strong> recent “Romantic”-style Khyal<br />
singers like Kishori Amonkar or Jasraj, Raja notes), as well as its “sophisticated melodic<br />
expression,” and its meaningful texts which are generally “<strong>of</strong> mediocre literary value” but<br />
well-suited for musical expression (2005:241). At one point he refers to Thumri more<br />
succinctly as a “text-based romanticist” genre. At any rate, Raja’s basic point, which he<br />
buttresses at one juncture <strong>by</strong> citing Ashok Ranade’s contention that during any point in<br />
Hindustani music history, one can point to parallel genres, for example Dhrupad and<br />
Khyal (as Khyal was emerging) or later Khyal and Thumri, one which is more formalistic<br />
and one which allows for more creative freedom, is well taken. 100 From the perspective<br />
<strong>of</strong> both the music connoisseur, which Raja pr<strong>of</strong>esses to be, and from the perspective <strong>of</strong><br />
the performer (which also describes Raja, though to a lesser extent), 101 this is a very<br />
satisfactory explanation. Classical and semi-classical genres, as the names themselves<br />
make clear, stand in a hierarchical relationship with classical music as the (far) superior<br />
genre. At the same time, though, they are complimentary, as they each <strong>of</strong>fer features the<br />
other does not – abstract formalism in the case <strong>of</strong> Khyal and ‘text-based romanticism’ in<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> Thumri. It is here, though, in the context <strong>of</strong> his discussion <strong>of</strong> these genres,<br />
99 To be fair to Raja, we should note that his work is not an academic study as such, but is rather intended<br />
as a guide to help music connoisseurs to better understand and appreciate the music.<br />
100 see Ranade (1999)<br />
101 Raja, as he notes at several points in his book, is a student <strong>of</strong> the Imdad Khani sitar tradition.<br />
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that in my opinion, the limitations <strong>of</strong> Raja’s rasik-cum-amateur performer perspective are<br />
most exposed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first limitation to mention in Raja’s approach to defining Thumri, which is,<br />
after all, the archetypical semi-classical genre <strong>of</strong> pan-North India (which includes<br />
Maharashtra and Bengal), is his overemphasis on musical style as key to the identity <strong>of</strong><br />
the genre. True, Thumri is distinct from Khyal in many ways, and it seems rather logical<br />
that both performing artists and knowledgeable listeners would appreciate the contrast<br />
that Thumri <strong>of</strong>fers relative to the more strictly classical genres. <strong>The</strong> problematic aspect<br />
<strong>of</strong> this view on what defines Thumri is that for many musicians, connoisseurs, and<br />
scholars in India, including Raja, Thumri is essentially a semi-classical genre, but one<br />
that is very much a part <strong>of</strong> the classical tradition. <strong>The</strong> reasons for this include, first, the<br />
“tailpiece” position <strong>of</strong> Thumri in classical recitals, instrumental and vocal. Thumri is a<br />
semi-classical genre, but one which is frequently performed <strong>by</strong> classical artists in<br />
concerts devoted to classical music (and one which has even become a “gharana<br />
specialty” in case <strong>of</strong> the Patiala and Kirana schools <strong>of</strong> Khyal). Of course, as noted<br />
above, not all artists utilize Thumri-s as their “tailpiece” item. Some, such as the Marathi<br />
Khyal singers mentioned <strong>by</strong> Raja, perform distinctly regional semi-classical genres such<br />
as NaaTya Sangiit to close their performances. So, why does Raja devote a full chapter<br />
to Thumri alongside Dhrupad and Khyal, whilst hardly mentioning any other semi-<br />
classical genre (save for Tappaa)? 102 While he does not state this explicitly, the answer<br />
can only be that Thumri originated from the same cultural region as Khyal and Dhrupad<br />
102 Raja is actually being somewhat charitable with his inclusion <strong>of</strong> Tappaa as part <strong>of</strong> the core Hindustani<br />
repertoire. Most scholars, rather, limit it to Dhrupad, Khyal and Thumri.<br />
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and was similarly imported into the regions <strong>of</strong> Bengal and Maharashtra and, thus, is older<br />
and more established as a genre than any <strong>of</strong> its would-be rivals. This means that it<br />
carries a cultural prestige which light and semi-classical pieces from other regions do not,<br />
even if they are used as substitutes for or forms equivalent <strong>of</strong> Thumri. This makes all the<br />
more sense when we consider that most (but not all) classical musicians today are indeed<br />
not North Indian, and, especially in the case <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrians, may have no association<br />
with the Thumri other than as part <strong>of</strong> the classical tradition, in other words, as a genre<br />
performed <strong>by</strong> classical singers in classical recitals.<br />
So, on the one hand Raja’s ‘canonizing’ <strong>of</strong> the Thumri erases its own regional<br />
associations and privileges it above other comparable genres. Equally as important,<br />
however, is the fact that it also obscures the social origins <strong>of</strong> the Thumri. To be sure,<br />
Raja is not alone in this matter. A cursory examination <strong>of</strong> most works <strong>of</strong> mainstream<br />
Indian musicology and music criticism will reveal a consistent discrepancy <strong>by</strong> which<br />
some genres, i.e. those considered to be classical or semi-classical, are defined in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
musical style, while others, namely folk, devotional, and film music are defined <strong>by</strong> their<br />
context, their social function, and/or <strong>by</strong> their audiences. Again to be fair, at one point,<br />
Raja does cite Peter Manuel’s well-known work on the Thumri (1989), stating that “<strong>The</strong><br />
thumari genre represents that refinement and stylization <strong>of</strong> folk sources from the Brij<br />
[Mathura/Vrndavan] region <strong>by</strong> courtesans in response to the entertainment needs <strong>of</strong> a<br />
cultivated aristocracy”, as well as that “…the alluring qualities <strong>of</strong> the genre also reflect<br />
the manipulative intent fundamental to the relationship between courtesans and their<br />
clients”(230). In other words, Thumri arose from folk sources and developed into a light,<br />
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fairly accessible semi-classical genre with strongly erotic associations which was<br />
patronized primarily (but not exclusively) <strong>by</strong> the nouveau riche landlord class, a class<br />
which came to power as the British Raj reorganized the system <strong>of</strong> land revenue<br />
assessment in the 19th century and which did not have the long-standing familiarity with<br />
or understanding <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad and/or Khyal which their feudal predecessors had had. This<br />
is the commonly accepted view <strong>of</strong> the origins and popularization <strong>of</strong> the Thumri, and I do<br />
not wish to dispute it.<br />
<strong>The</strong> problem arises when this analytical approach is taken in regards to<br />
Hindustani classical music as a whole, and it is posited that there has been a steady<br />
decline in quality, subtlety, artistry, depth, etc., in classical music from the decline <strong>of</strong><br />
Dhrupad forward. <strong>The</strong> best example I can <strong>of</strong>fer <strong>of</strong> such a perspective comes again from<br />
the work <strong>of</strong> the inimitable Vinayak Purohit. In his article “Sociology <strong>of</strong> Thumari”<br />
(1992a), Purohit essays the same basic argument as Manuel (and Raja, <strong>by</strong> extension),<br />
although in more detail and with more scathing condemnation <strong>of</strong> the class which<br />
originally embraced the genre. He also, like Raja, <strong>of</strong>fers some more specifically stylistic<br />
limitations <strong>of</strong> the genre which explain why the Thumri began to fall out <strong>of</strong> favor in the<br />
20th century. However, unlike Raja who has the perspicacity to see that Dhrupad had<br />
had a similar decline (and reached a lower trough than Thumri ever has), but then, for<br />
various reasons, experienced a resurgence, Purohit only sees a consistent decline in the<br />
musical standards <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music generally from the 19th century forward. As he<br />
writes, “Thumri singers are…drawing huge crowds in the wake <strong>of</strong> the triumphant<br />
contemporary march <strong>of</strong> light and pop musicians the world over. But relatively speaking<br />
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the thumri genre is losing ground to its even more raucous and frenetic light music<br />
colleagues. Perhaps what was inevitable, is now happening”(1992a:112 – emphasis<br />
added). Such a teleological argument coming from a Marxist scholar is <strong>by</strong> no means<br />
surprising – it is the Marxist stock in trade. 103 And after all, why would anyone who<br />
condemns capitalism part and parcel admit that culture (Indian culture, in this case) had<br />
in any way improved since its advent? What is disappointing, though, is that, while in so<br />
many other cases, Purohit adds the social and class-based insight which is <strong>of</strong>ten lost on<br />
other scholars <strong>of</strong> Indian music, he here allows his ideological perspective to cloud his<br />
view <strong>of</strong> the actual, on-the-ground realities <strong>of</strong> Indian music. Thumri is something more<br />
than one step in the continuing process <strong>of</strong> the debasement <strong>of</strong> Indian classical music. This<br />
view, I feel, is as much an oversimplification as defining the Thumri solely in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
how it complements and contrasts with Khyal.<br />
B. Bourdieu and the Social Nature <strong>of</strong> Taste<br />
It is clear then that what is needed to understand both the differences between<br />
classical and semi-classical genres and between Thumri and other “regional” semi-<br />
classical genres is an analysis that, unlike Raja’s, searches for a detailed correspondence<br />
between socio-economic class and musical style and structure and that, unlike Purohit’s<br />
take, bases itself on and is shaped <strong>by</strong> the “facts” <strong>of</strong> musical style and structure, not vice-<br />
versa. To assist with such an analysis (an analysis I can only begin to sketch in this<br />
context), I turn to the work <strong>of</strong> the well-known theorist Pierre Bourdieu and his work<br />
103 At another point, Purohit writes, “…khyal marks the beginning <strong>of</strong> the downfall <strong>of</strong> feudalism, as thumri<br />
marks its total collapse and the simultaneous implantation <strong>of</strong> foreign capital”(1992:255).<br />
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Distinction: A Social Critique <strong>of</strong> the Judgment <strong>of</strong> Taste (1984). In introducing his study,<br />
a study which is thoroughly sociological in nature and is based on extensive survey work<br />
carried out <strong>by</strong> the author in his native France, Bourdieu explains that while the social and<br />
economic elite feel it in their best interests to regard their “taste in legitimate culture as a<br />
gift <strong>of</strong> nature, scientific observation shows that cultural needs are the product <strong>of</strong><br />
upbringing and education..”(1). He then modifies this basic assertion with the more<br />
precise formulation (one he repeats throughout the work) that there is a strong and<br />
demonstrable correspondence between cultural practices and two factors, education and,<br />
secondarily, social origin. To this he adds that “at equivalent levels <strong>of</strong> educational<br />
capital, the weight <strong>of</strong> social origin in the practice and preference-explaining system<br />
increases as one moves away from the most legitimate areas <strong>of</strong> culture”(13). This means<br />
that when his informants/ subjects were surveyed (or “tested”) on their knowledge<br />
acquired through education in a manner similar to the way in which such knowledge is<br />
tested for in the academic context, 104 their performance was more or less guaranteed <strong>by</strong><br />
each individual’s level <strong>of</strong> education. However, in areas such as film, jazz music, even<br />
home furnishings or the preference <strong>of</strong> certain spectator sports, the informants’ responses<br />
corresponded more closely to their social origin and family background than to their level<br />
<strong>of</strong> education.<br />
Bourdieu explains these correspondences <strong>by</strong> theorizing that, as the last statement<br />
implies, aesthetic predispositions are formed early in life and are largely subconscious.<br />
Each class or “class fraction” (to use Bourdieu’s term) then teaches their young certain<br />
104 Bourdieu gives the example <strong>of</strong> a survey asking informants to identify the composer for a series <strong>of</strong> pieces<br />
<strong>of</strong> classical music, as in a college-level music appreciation course.<br />
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preferences, so as the individual moves through life, they are attracted to the social and<br />
cultural practices or forms appropriate to their class and, conversely, avoid or are repelled<br />
<strong>by</strong> the practices which characterize classes other than their own. <strong>The</strong> question, then, is:<br />
which tastes or aesthetic preferences characterize each class and why? Simply put, the<br />
taste <strong>of</strong> the lower classes (including the poor and those amongst the middle classes lowest<br />
in cultural capital) is the “taste for necessity,” as Bourdieu puts it, while the taste <strong>of</strong> the<br />
upper classes or elite is conversely “pure taste,” in other words “a general disposition<br />
towards the world which is the paradoxical product <strong>of</strong> conditioning <strong>by</strong> negative economic<br />
necessities – a life <strong>of</strong> ease - that tends to induce an active distance from necessity”(5), or<br />
more tellingly, “the taste <strong>of</strong> freedom”(177). To give an example <strong>of</strong> those cultural<br />
practices that might correspond to each pole <strong>of</strong> this spectrum <strong>of</strong> taste, we can first turn to<br />
food, the tastes in which, for Bourdieu, “one would find the strongest and most indelible<br />
mark <strong>of</strong> infant learning, the lessons which longest withstand the distancing or collapse <strong>of</strong><br />
the native world and most durably maintain nostalgia for it”(79). 105 <strong>The</strong> lower classes’<br />
“taste for necessity” leads them to choose, rather logically, foods that are most filling and<br />
cheapest, i.e. most economical. <strong>The</strong> upper classes, those freed from economic necessity,<br />
however can indulge themselves in foods that privilege form and presentation over cost<br />
relative to nutrition and sustenance.<br />
Whilst other areas <strong>of</strong> culture are less archetypal and perhaps more difficult to pin<br />
down than food preferences and habits, this same basic distinction holds as true as in the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> food. As Bourdieu writes, the taste for necessity, or the “popular aesthetic,” as he<br />
105 By “native world,” Bourdieu means the “maternal world,” the world <strong>of</strong> one’s social origins.<br />
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efers to it at another point, is “based on the affirmation <strong>of</strong> continuity between art and<br />
life, which implies the subordination <strong>of</strong> form to function…”(32). Thus, in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
theatre, the lower classes typically prefer “simply drawn plots” that proceed in the<br />
accustomed manner and end happily and that feature straightforward characters with<br />
which they can easily identify. Bourdieu refers to this as a form <strong>of</strong> willing naiveté and a<br />
certain “investment” in the illusion <strong>of</strong> the artwork. In the case <strong>of</strong> photography, which is<br />
generally more likely to be dismissed altogether <strong>by</strong> the “popular aesthetic” as it is a less<br />
legitimate realm <strong>of</strong> culture, a photograph is, for those guided <strong>by</strong> this aesthetic, only<br />
“justified <strong>by</strong> the object photographed or <strong>by</strong> the possible use <strong>of</strong> the photographic<br />
image…”(41) or, more generally, is justified only “if the thing being represented is<br />
worthy <strong>of</strong> being represented…”(43). <strong>The</strong> “pure aesthetic,” however, is quite the<br />
opposite, and as Bourdieu notes, it is difficult to define either “position” without<br />
contrasting one to the other, without taking account <strong>of</strong> their essential differences. <strong>The</strong><br />
“pure aesthetic” has an altogether different focus then does its opposite number –<br />
understanding each realm or type <strong>of</strong> art as a universe <strong>of</strong> its own with its own logic, its<br />
own history, and its own language. For those who lead a life <strong>of</strong> ease, which entails both<br />
access to cultural capital and plenty <strong>of</strong> leisure time, form and style distinguish an artwork,<br />
not the literal object <strong>of</strong> the work or its moral or ethical message. <strong>The</strong> understanding <strong>of</strong><br />
this language or system <strong>of</strong> symbols comes from some combination <strong>of</strong> early access to the<br />
art due to one’s family background and formal education, but is more “durably”<br />
inculcated <strong>by</strong> the former, to the extent that people from this background can, so to speak,<br />
trump another individual with the same educational capital, but who had less access<br />
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earlier in life, in terms <strong>of</strong> their “easy familiarity” and nonchalance that they can<br />
demonstrate in their more innate understanding <strong>of</strong> high art.<br />
Bourdieu has several things to say about both genres <strong>of</strong> art generally and about<br />
the particular nature <strong>of</strong> music specifically - which differs in a certain sense from all the<br />
other recognized arts - that are <strong>of</strong> import in the present context. As Bourdieu explains,<br />
…[O]f all the objects <strong>of</strong>fered for consumers’ choice, there are none more<br />
classifying than legitimate works <strong>of</strong> art, which, while distinctive in general,<br />
enable the production <strong>of</strong> distinctions ad infinitum <strong>by</strong> playing on divisions and<br />
sub-divisions into genres, periods, styles, authors, etc. Within the universe <strong>of</strong><br />
particular tastes which can be recreated <strong>by</strong> successive divisions, it is thus possible,<br />
still keeping to the major oppositions, to distinguish three zones <strong>of</strong> taste which<br />
correspond roughly to educational levels and social classes…(16).<br />
Bourdieu labels these three “zones” as “legitimate taste,” “middle-brow taste,” and<br />
“popular taste,” in descending order. <strong>The</strong> examples he <strong>of</strong>fers to distinguish these three<br />
levels are music based, and thus help in finding the analogous divisions in a culture such<br />
as that <strong>of</strong> India, which is <strong>by</strong> no means identical or isometric to that <strong>of</strong> France. <strong>The</strong> third<br />
zone is the most clear-cut, as it is represented <strong>by</strong> “works <strong>of</strong> so-called ‘light’ music or<br />
classical music devalued <strong>by</strong> popularization…and especially songs totally devoid <strong>of</strong><br />
artistic ambition and pretension…” For the most part, however, it is the other two<br />
categories that concern us here, as we are examining the distinctions between ‘orthodox’<br />
or ‘pure’ classical music genres and semi-classical genres in the pan-North Indian<br />
Hindustani tradition. <strong>The</strong> divisions between these two levels are a bit harder to<br />
appreciate due to the cultural specificity <strong>of</strong> the examples Bourdieu provides. <strong>The</strong>y are<br />
not hard to distinguish in terms <strong>of</strong> class, as “legitimate taste” rather straightforwardly<br />
represents the “fractions <strong>of</strong> the dominant class that are richest in educational capital” and<br />
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“middle-brow taste” corresponds to the middle classes. It is, rather, which types <strong>of</strong><br />
pieces or genres correspond to these zones that is a more difficult notion to define for<br />
those lacking intimacy with French music and popular culture. Bourdieu does state that<br />
“legitimate taste” is the “taste for legitimate works…which the most self-assured<br />
aesthetes can combine with the most legitimate <strong>of</strong> the arts that are still in the process <strong>of</strong><br />
legitimation – cinema, jazz or even song…”, while “‘Middle-Brow’ taste…brings<br />
together the minor works <strong>of</strong> the major arts…and the major works <strong>of</strong> the minor arts..”.<br />
This is clear enough, but again, identifying the analogous Indian genres and artists is a<br />
different and more complex question, for reasons I will discuss shortly.<br />
At another point, however, when describing the specific nature <strong>of</strong> music,<br />
Bourdieu <strong>of</strong>fers a few clues which help to better understand, beyond which types <strong>of</strong><br />
genres and styles are favored <strong>by</strong> which classes, his ideas about why certain types <strong>of</strong><br />
music appeal to the ‘class fractions’ that they do, in much the same manner as he explains<br />
the distinctions (cited above) regarding the differing levels <strong>of</strong> taste in regards to theatre<br />
and photography. As Bourdieu explains, music is very different from any other form <strong>of</strong><br />
art. This is due, no doubt, to the inherently abstract quality <strong>of</strong> music, which is not a<br />
physical artifact or even an image but instead a collections <strong>of</strong> sounds. Bourdieu writes,<br />
Music is the ‘pure’ art par excellence. It says nothing and has nothing to say.<br />
Never really having an expressive function, it is opposed to drama, which even in<br />
its most refined forms still bears a social message and can only be ‘put over’ on<br />
the basis <strong>of</strong> an immediate and pr<strong>of</strong>ound affinity with the values and expectations<br />
<strong>of</strong> its audience. <strong>The</strong> theatre divides its public and divides itself. <strong>The</strong> Parisian<br />
opposition between right-bank and left-bank theatre, bourgeois theatre and avantgarde<br />
theatre, is inextricably aesthetic and political. Nothing comparable occurs<br />
in music…Music represents the most radical and most absolute form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
negation <strong>of</strong> the world, and especially the social world, which the bourgeois ethos<br />
tends to demand <strong>of</strong> all forms <strong>of</strong> art (19).<br />
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<strong>The</strong> key phrase in this quote, which the author himself has emphasized, is that music has<br />
nothing to say, in the sense that it conveys no literal meaning or message. Bourdieu also<br />
well understands the slipperiness <strong>of</strong> music when it comes to understanding which<br />
demographic factors in combination with which conditions <strong>of</strong> reception (familiar or<br />
through formal education) might correlate with tastes in certain pieces, genres, artists, etc.<br />
Thus, he notes that, among other factors, one would have to account for the “social image<br />
<strong>of</strong> the works,” the composers, as well as the actual sounds/timbres featured. <strong>The</strong>se all<br />
apply to the Indian case as well, but I would like to highlight one particular issue - the<br />
presence or absence <strong>of</strong> a meaningful text.<br />
As Raja has explained, the separation between Khyal and Thumri as genres<br />
(despite sharing some common ground in a general sense) is based not only on raga, i.e.<br />
how faithfully and strictly within the ‘rules’ the raga is rendered and how much the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the raga is foregrounded in performance, it is also based on the fact that<br />
in Thumri a ‘romantic’ verse is inarguably the main focus <strong>of</strong> the music. As we shall see,<br />
this is also very much true <strong>of</strong> the other semi-classical forms I will discuss shortly,<br />
including NaaTya Sangiit, Bengali Tappaa, Rabindrasangiit, and other types <strong>of</strong> ‘Bengali<br />
Song’. Khyal, to be sure, has a text that does hold a literal meaning. However, this is<br />
mitigated <strong>by</strong> the fact that they are generally stereotypical in terms <strong>of</strong> their subject matter<br />
(though this is true as well <strong>of</strong> Thumris) and are most <strong>of</strong>ten in Braj Bhaashaa, an archaic<br />
form <strong>of</strong> Hindi native to the region near Delhi, or Urdu, languages which for Marathi<br />
speakers are largely intelligible, but far from their everyday, colloquial Marathi as well as<br />
from the garbled, bastardized form <strong>of</strong> Hindi spoken <strong>by</strong> ethnic Maharashtrians and other<br />
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non-native Hindi speakers in Bombay, and which is more remote and perhaps even<br />
unintelligible to the average Bengali. 106 More crucially, though, regardless <strong>of</strong> whether<br />
non-native Hindi speakers can understand the texts, most Khyal singers deliver the words<br />
in such a fashion that even a Braj expert could not decipher the meaning <strong>of</strong> the text.<br />
Khyal singers notoriously slur consonant sounds, break up words in mid-syllable, and in<br />
many cases sing incorrect and sometimes even nonsensical words. This may be partially<br />
due to the fact that for most <strong>of</strong> Khyal’s history, its primary practitioners have been<br />
Muslim, and thus not concerned about putting across the literal meaning <strong>of</strong> texts that<br />
mostly deal with Hindu deities. <strong>The</strong>re can be no doubt, though, that alterations to the<br />
texts <strong>of</strong> traditional khyaal-s (or Khyal compositions) have come about in some part<br />
through due to the exigencies and imperfections in the traditional system <strong>of</strong> oral<br />
transmission.<br />
Regardless <strong>of</strong> the fact that many Hindu singers do currently make a practice <strong>of</strong><br />
reciting and explaining the texts <strong>of</strong> the Khyal bandiish (composition) that they will be<br />
performing before they actually start singing, a practice I witnessed many times in<br />
recitals occurring in Pune or other locales in Maharashtra outside <strong>of</strong> Bombay, no classical<br />
musician will argue that the text has any great importance in the performance <strong>of</strong> Khyal.<br />
As Satyasheel Deshpande so nicely put it, the words in Khyal are simply “a plectrum for<br />
the voice,” a way <strong>of</strong> initiating the notes (interview, 2005). In Thumri, <strong>by</strong> contrast, the<br />
words are the main focus, and even improvisation in Thumri is based around combining<br />
106 Thumris are in Braj Bhaashaa also, but it is important to keep in mind that Thumri texts are more<br />
Romantic, accessible and simplistic than are Khyal lyrics, along with the important fact that many <strong>of</strong> the<br />
patrons <strong>of</strong> Thumri in Bengal in the 19th and 20th centuries were native Hindi speakers, not ethnic Bengalis.<br />
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short, stereotypical, but meaningful phrases taken from the text with different melodies<br />
for emotive effect. Thus, it seems hard to dispute that a genre that features not only<br />
meaningful texts but texts which describe or are concerned with the most basic and<br />
universal <strong>of</strong> emotions such as love and pathos, will be more attractive to those who do<br />
not have the early, familial access specifically to classical music. That is, I feel that<br />
adding a meaningful text that deals with universal emotions in a stereotypical manner to<br />
an essentially abstract art such as music is analogous to the styles or types <strong>of</strong> theatre that<br />
feature stereotypical plots with which the average possessor <strong>of</strong> the “popular taste” can<br />
understand and identify with. I should point out, however, that having a meaningful text<br />
alone is not guarantor <strong>of</strong> semi-classical, or at any rate, non-classical status. This is as<br />
Dhrupad, a genre which bests even Khyal in terms <strong>of</strong> classicism, itself features<br />
meaningful and clearly enunciated texts, a connection between Dhrupad and Thumri<br />
which Raja himself, connoisseur that he is, makes between the two. This is because first,<br />
like Khyal, Dhrupad not only foregrounds the development <strong>of</strong> the raga, but also features a<br />
much more rigid, intellectual, and abstract means <strong>of</strong> doing so than does Khyal, which is<br />
less structured overall and particularly less rhythm-oriented than Dhrupad, complex<br />
rhythm being, on the whole, more abstract and less accessible than melody, at least for<br />
Indian (especially Bengali) tastes.<br />
Perhaps a bigger stylistic difference, one which not only divides Dhrupad from<br />
Khyal, both from Thumri, or all broadly classical vocal genres from film or folk music, is<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> the voice, including projection, timbre, pronunciation, pitch, etc. <strong>The</strong> crux <strong>of</strong><br />
the matter is that the use <strong>of</strong> the voice, particularly in Dhrupad and but also in Khyal<br />
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(though it depends on the singer) is <strong>of</strong>ten jarring, strange, and even foreign to the ears <strong>of</strong><br />
the average lower class or middle class Indian who has no real familiarity with classical<br />
Indian vocal music. For this reason, it is not unusual to see parodic portrayals <strong>of</strong> Indian<br />
classical singers in Indian films and TV serials where comic figures wildly wave their<br />
hands or violently shake their jaws (as if singing taan-s). <strong>The</strong> point to be made, though,<br />
is that the specific vocal styles <strong>of</strong> ‘pure’ classical music are so far from the style and<br />
manner <strong>of</strong> singing which the average Indian encounters in films (Bollywood or regional)<br />
or in other mass media or more especially from the way an average Indian him- or herself<br />
would sing or does sing in average daily contexts, for example at a weekly kiirtan–<br />
singing group or at home or (in the case <strong>of</strong> manual or agricultural laborers) while at work.<br />
Again, we see the distancing effect, the removal from every day life and experience,<br />
which Bourdieu discusses relative to the fine or ‘high’ arts. <strong>The</strong> distinction holds true <strong>of</strong><br />
the barrier between the semi-classical and light or popular genres as well, though the<br />
differences here are less. Partially this is due to the fact that semi-classical genres,<br />
especially those native to Bengal, can be performed in a more or less serious or classical<br />
style or manner as well as in a more popular style, and this applies to both the singer’s<br />
vocal timbre and delivery and to the quality and feel <strong>of</strong> the backing music, whether it be<br />
the relatively more austere and simple accompaniment <strong>of</strong> the classical tabla and<br />
harmonium (/saarangii) or the more filmii-style hybrid orchestra featuring Western and<br />
Indian instruments. In light <strong>of</strong> this, we can perhaps better understand what Bourdieu<br />
means <strong>by</strong> “the major works <strong>of</strong> the minor arts.” Specifically in the case <strong>of</strong> the Thumri –<br />
the ‘non-regional’ semi-classical genre - it again gains in classicism in the Maharashtrian<br />
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and Bengali contexts due to fact that, while the style <strong>of</strong> singing in Thumri is originally<br />
derived from folk music, that folk music does not belong to either Maharashtra or Bengal.<br />
C. Rabindrasangiit: <strong>The</strong> Pinnacle <strong>of</strong> Bengali ‘Regional’ Music<br />
It is at this point, then, that I would like to turn to the regional semi-classical<br />
genres mentioned above in order to examine them in light <strong>of</strong> the issues raised <strong>by</strong> my<br />
discussion <strong>of</strong> Bourdieu’s work in Distinction. I will begin here with the Bengali side <strong>of</strong><br />
the equation, as one finds there a much greater proliferation <strong>of</strong> (arguably) semi-classical<br />
genres and as the relationship between these genres and the broader Hindustani tradition,<br />
specifically with Khyal, is a much more complex one than is the case in Maharashtra.<br />
<strong>The</strong> reasons for this are several and not at all indisputable. On a purely musical level, we<br />
can see, as I explained in chapter 4, that the proliferation and popularity <strong>of</strong> the Thumri,<br />
thanks both to the exile <strong>of</strong> Wajid Ali to Metiaburuj (near Calcutta) and the general<br />
attraction <strong>of</strong> Calcutta as a commercial center for Thumri-singing courtesans, has, as<br />
Purohit has argued, influenced Bengali music at all levels with its hybrid and “non-<br />
classical” character. This in turn points to the nature <strong>of</strong> Bengali society as a whole during<br />
the period when most <strong>of</strong> these semi-classical genres were created and reached their<br />
height, in particular the passion <strong>of</strong> the urban Bengali middle classes for taking the best<br />
from Western and Eastern culture and combining them into something new. <strong>The</strong> most<br />
well-known and frequently commented upon <strong>of</strong> such Bengali genres in English-language<br />
sources are the songs <strong>of</strong> poet, educationalist, reformer, composer, and Nobel laureate<br />
Rabindranath Tagore <strong>of</strong> Calcutta. In my relatively brief discussion <strong>of</strong> Bengali semi-<br />
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classical music, I will never shift my focus far from Tagore or his songs for two reasons:<br />
first, Tagore, as my Bengali interlocutors frequently reminded me, is the unquestioned<br />
and unrivalled lord and emperor <strong>of</strong> Bengali culture whose influence is so great and<br />
enduring, as more than one classical musician, Bengali and otherwise, suggested to me,<br />
that it perhaps even discourages general artistic growth and development in Bengali<br />
culture; 107 and second, Tagore’s music, like Thumri, is itself hybrid in nature and<br />
encompasses almost all the musical developments in Bengal immediately before and<br />
during Tagore’s lifetime. A discussion <strong>of</strong> his music, then, lends a great deal <strong>of</strong> insight<br />
into the nature <strong>of</strong> distinctly Bengali music and culture in the late 19th and early 20th<br />
centuries. Tagore is also <strong>of</strong> particular importance because, as he is the symbol <strong>of</strong> Bengali<br />
culture outside Bengal as well, he frequently serves as a lightning rod for criticism for<br />
those who see the hybridity in his music simply as impurity, not as uniquely Bengali, or<br />
at any rate, as not desirable or <strong>of</strong> high artistic merit.<br />
It should be emphasized, first <strong>of</strong> all, in describing Rabindrasangiit (Tagore<br />
songs), that the most important and appealing feature <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s songs for Bengalis are<br />
their lyrics. While Tagore was certainly a versatile thinker and artist, his poetry is his<br />
greatest achievement, the one that earned him his status among Bengalis, and that<br />
ultimately made him a “world poet,” to use Dipali Nag’s phrase (interview, 2005). It is<br />
also, no doubt, the prime reason that his songs are generally held to be superior to those<br />
composed <strong>by</strong> any <strong>of</strong> his contemporaries, such as Kazi Nazrul Islam or Atulprasad Sen.<br />
Besides the fact that Tagore’s songs are so heavily word- or text-oriented, however, what<br />
107 As Neela Bhagwat told me, “I think Rabindranath created a huge repertoire <strong>of</strong> songs, and kiirtan-s, and<br />
Swadesh Sangiit [patriotic songs] and the whole <strong>of</strong> Bengal is too overawed <strong>by</strong> all that” (interview, 2005).<br />
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interests us more here is the heterogeneity <strong>of</strong> the sources <strong>of</strong> the tunes to which he set his<br />
verses. Sukumar Ray, in his monograph Music <strong>of</strong> Eastern India (1973), arguably the<br />
most comprehensive account <strong>of</strong> Bengali regional music in English, explains:<br />
Hence we see, in the nineteenth century Tagore was placed before the musical<br />
background <strong>of</strong> three principal types on which he based his own composition.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se were firstly, songs composed in the form <strong>by</strong> Rammohun Ray and his<br />
followers; secondly, Tappa type <strong>by</strong> Nidhu Babu and others; thirdly lyrical songs<br />
(Kavyasangeeet) linked with experiments <strong>of</strong> Jyotirendranath Tagore, who<br />
introduced patriotic songs –swadesi gan and produced songs for lyrical dramas<br />
and other types <strong>of</strong> songs <strong>of</strong> new design (158).<br />
Regarding the first <strong>of</strong> these types <strong>of</strong> composition, Bengali reformer Rammohun Roy<br />
began composing “hymns” in the Dhrupad style in the early part <strong>of</strong> the 19th century for<br />
the meetings <strong>of</strong> the Brahmo Samaj, a Calcutta-based religious society founded <strong>by</strong> upper-<br />
caste Bengalis which sought to reform Hinduism and Hindu culture along modern,<br />
monotheistic, and progressive lines, essentially combining elements <strong>of</strong> Christianity and<br />
Hinduism. As Ray notes, since Rabindranath’s father Debendranath was also heavily<br />
involved in the Samaj and himself composed Brahmo hymns, Rabindranath “laid his<br />
hands” on these Dhrupad-based songs “as a matter <strong>of</strong> heritage.” However, as Ray also<br />
explains, while Rabindranath further refined this Dhrupad type song in his own music<br />
and even composed his own Braahma sangiit or Brahmo hymns, all that either<br />
Rammohun Roy or Rabindranath really took from Dhrupad was its division into four<br />
parts or stanzas, the sthayi, antara, sancari, and abhog (77). Ray gives several reasons<br />
why Dhrupad could not be “introduced in Bengali in the true sense <strong>of</strong> the term,” but they<br />
all boil down to the idea that the rather abstract methods <strong>of</strong> development in Dhrupad,<br />
whether they be melodic, in terms <strong>of</strong> raga and the systematic use <strong>of</strong> ornamentation, or<br />
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hythmic, do not, in Ray’s estimation, fit well with Bengali lyrics. As Ray says, “the<br />
lingual peculiarity <strong>of</strong> words and the inherent tendencies <strong>of</strong> poetic richness in Bengali<br />
compositions [poems or verses] do not allow music and Tal to predominate, because<br />
submission <strong>of</strong> words to tunes, i.e. free Raga-music is discouraged”(78). This pithy<br />
comment, coming from an eminent Bengali scholar <strong>of</strong> Bengali music, is certainly telling<br />
in terms <strong>of</strong> the overall Bengali aesthetic, and particularly in terms <strong>of</strong> Bengali musical<br />
tastes. At the same time, though, when Ray notes that Rammohun Roy was attracted to<br />
Dhrupad not due to the traditional Dhrupad texts which were oriented around the various<br />
avataar-s <strong>of</strong> Hindu gods (the Brahmo Samaj was famously opposed to polytheism and<br />
idolatry), but to Dhrupad’s “expressions <strong>of</strong> grandeur and solemnity tilting towards<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>undity,” we can detect another enduring aspect <strong>of</strong> Bengali aesthetics, as these<br />
comments very closely parallel the way in which many <strong>of</strong> my Bengali informants, for<br />
example English pr<strong>of</strong>essor (at Jadavpur <strong>University</strong>) and music connoisseur/archivist<br />
Amlan Dasgupta, described the great appeal <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan’s music for Bengali audiences<br />
and performers, as his music also abounded in this quality <strong>of</strong> high seriousness.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second influence Ray mentions on Tagore’s music was the Bengali version <strong>of</strong><br />
the Tappaa, a semi-classical piece thought to have originated in Punjab, possibly as a<br />
song sung <strong>by</strong> camel drivers. <strong>The</strong> man who is most <strong>of</strong>ten considered both to have<br />
popularized the Tappaa in Bengal in a general sense and who converted it into a ‘Bengali<br />
genre’ was Ramnidhi Gupta, more commonly known as ‘Nidhubabu,’ a government clerk<br />
turned composer who was born in the mid 18th century. 108 Nidhubabu hailed from the<br />
108 Goswami states that Nidhbabu lived from 1741-1839 (1990:19).<br />
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Calcutta area, but his musical career began after he took a posting as a clerk in Chhapra,<br />
Bihar in 1776. <strong>The</strong>re, as all accounts agree, he began learning classical vocal music from<br />
an unnamed Ustad. However, this Ustad apparently did not teach Nidhubabu (or taught<br />
him incorrectly), so he instead became attracted to the ‘Hindustani’ Tappaa and began<br />
composing it in a new style. After taking an early retirement, he then returned to Calcutta<br />
where his new Tappaa became a sensation. This much is clear and corroborated <strong>by</strong> most<br />
sources. <strong>The</strong>re is some dispute, though, concerning exactly what form <strong>of</strong> the Tappaa<br />
Nidhubabu encountered during his tenure in Bihar. <strong>The</strong> general consensus regarding the<br />
Tappaa is that it was introduced into the mainstream <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical music <strong>by</strong> a<br />
singer called Shori Miyan (aka Gulam Nabi), a singer based in Lucknow and a rough<br />
contemporary <strong>of</strong> Nidhubabu. Most then believe that Nidhubabu patterned his new<br />
Tappaa on the specific style popularized <strong>by</strong> Shori Miyan. Chhaya Chatterjee, however,<br />
rather logically argues that it is very unlikely that Shori Miyan’s Tappaa would not only<br />
have reached but would have already become popular in Bihar a decade or two after its<br />
creation during a period when travel and communication were both “miserably<br />
slow”(1996:316). Instead, Chatterjee argues, it was an older style <strong>of</strong> Tappaa, one which<br />
“was prevalent even during Shahjahan’s reign,” that served as the source for both Shori<br />
Miyan’s and Nidhubabu’s respective innovations. This may seem to be a minor point,<br />
especially as neither Chatterjee nor any other author can <strong>of</strong>fer any explanation as to how<br />
specifically this older form resembled or differed from either the Hindustani or the<br />
Bengali type. However, I believe that this is indeed a matter <strong>of</strong> some relevance, as it<br />
points back to what Capwell has noted (and which I cited in chapter 4) regarding the need<br />
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to tie Bengali traditions to North Indian sources for the purpose <strong>of</strong> legitimation. While<br />
the Bengali Tappaa is a distinctly Bengali genre, unlike the more classical repertoire <strong>of</strong><br />
the Vishnupur gharana discussed <strong>by</strong> Capwell, I believe the same motivation lies behind<br />
the arguable connection between Shori Miyan and Nidhubabu. That is, Nidhubabu’s<br />
Tappaa receives a great deal <strong>of</strong> legitimacy and prestige <strong>by</strong> linking it to, essentially<br />
placing it in the same tradition as, the Tappaa <strong>of</strong> the Lucknowi Ustad Shori Miyan, rather<br />
than identifying it with the older, likely folksier and less classical form <strong>of</strong> Tappaa, just as<br />
the Vishnupur tradition gains in prestige when traced back to a Senia musician, rather<br />
than to an anonymous Hindu Pandit.<br />
It is intriguing that all these Bengali authors agree that Nidhubabu’s biggest<br />
contribution to the Bengali musical scene was his choice <strong>of</strong> romantic love as the most<br />
common theme for his Tappaa lyrics. As Karunamaya Goswami writes,<br />
Tappa is a love song. It is a love between a man and a woman. Nidhu Babu<br />
introduced this theme <strong>of</strong> love in Bengali art songs. As a theme it was new indeed.<br />
So long Bengali songs were devotional in character. So long they had been<br />
composed either in praise <strong>of</strong> gods and goddesses or in the quest <strong>of</strong> spiritual<br />
attainment leading to salvation. <strong>The</strong> vaishnavaite songs depicted love between<br />
Radha and Krishna. <strong>The</strong> associations <strong>of</strong> human love could be noticed there. But<br />
that was symbolic expression <strong>of</strong> divine love. <strong>The</strong> humanist trend <strong>of</strong> Bengali artsongs<br />
had really begun with Ramnidhi Gupta…It was in his works that Bengali<br />
songs were made free from spiritual symbolism and they began to depict the love<br />
<strong>of</strong> man and woman pure and simple. In this sense Ramnidhi Gupta had achieved<br />
a historic importance as the father <strong>of</strong> Bengali humanist lyrical and musical trend<br />
(1990:21).<br />
Within the context <strong>of</strong> “Bengali art songs,” this is no doubt a major achievement, one that<br />
had many ramifications in that field. In the present context, however, it is perhaps more<br />
notable that Nidhubabu chose to compose his lyrics in Bengali, though he must have been<br />
well familiar with Hindi as a long-time resident <strong>of</strong> Bihar. None <strong>of</strong> the authors I have<br />
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consulted for this study explains or speculates about why Nidhubabu made this choice,<br />
though perhaps that is the point - that for Bengalis the Bengali language is the only<br />
logical or natural choice for composing poetry or lyrics. Chatterjee does quote<br />
Nidhubabu (though she does not cite the original source), as stating that “there are many<br />
languages <strong>of</strong> different countries but unless it is your own mother tongue, you do not get<br />
the satisfaction”(1996:320). This is, no doubt, true for as much for other regional groups<br />
in India as for Bengalis. What stands out here, as in so many instances in Bengali music<br />
and culture, though, is that Nidhubabu chose to set an originally Punjabi genre that had<br />
been adapted into classical music to Bengali lyrics. As I will further explain in the next<br />
chapter, Bengalis stand alone in India in their willingness and even zeal for changing,<br />
regionalizing, or even ‘Bengalizing,’ aspects <strong>of</strong> pan-Indian and Hindu culture.<br />
At any rate, the dominance <strong>of</strong> text over melody which is so apparent in every<br />
genre <strong>of</strong> Bengali semi-classical music is all the more clear in this instance, as the musical<br />
changes that Nidhubabu made to the Tappaa all revolved around his goal <strong>of</strong> matching the<br />
tune to the words. Nidhubabu’s lyrics were romantic, but more specifically, they tended<br />
to portray the sadness caused <strong>by</strong> separation between lovers, a theme which is also<br />
prevalent in classical genres and especially in Thumri, but which had, as noted above,<br />
never been pursued in Bengali in a strictly secular fashion. So, while both the Punjabi<br />
and the Hindustani/classical forms <strong>of</strong> the Tappaa had been characterized <strong>by</strong> fast tempos<br />
and quick, angular volleys <strong>of</strong> taan-s (known in Hindi as zamzamaa) and were generally<br />
light in mood and nature, Nidhubabu greatly decreased the tempo, preferring medium<br />
(madhyalaya) or even slow tempos; more <strong>of</strong>ten set his lyrics to more serious and heavier<br />
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agas and talas than were common for Hindustani Tappaa-s; and shunned most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
types <strong>of</strong> ornamentation prevalent in North Indian Tappaa-s, save for taan-s, which <strong>of</strong><br />
course create a somewhat different effect in medium and slow tempos, and<br />
khaTkaa/giitkirii/murkii (or giitkaaDii), quick turns that resemble short segments <strong>of</strong><br />
zamzama and which were prevalent in older Bengali genres (Ray 1973: 88-89; Chatterjee<br />
1996:321). All these changes, then, were made, as Chatterjee says, in the name <strong>of</strong><br />
expressing “the longing and poignancy <strong>of</strong> his lyrics.” <strong>The</strong>se changes are not only more<br />
appropriate for somber love songs; they also, it should be noted, are general steps which<br />
can be taken to allow the singer to intone and pronounce the words in a more natural (as<br />
in closer to idiomatic speech), more effortless fashion, which again is a sacrifice <strong>of</strong><br />
musical complexity in the name <strong>of</strong> making the text intelligible, and is very much<br />
analogous to the ways in which characteristically Bengali Dhrupad differs from North<br />
Indian Dhrupad. It also seems to be the reason why Nidhubabu is remembered as the<br />
pioneer <strong>of</strong> Tappaa in Bengal, not his slightly younger contemporary Kali Mirza (aka<br />
Kalidas Chatterjee), a classically trained singer also from the Calcutta area who actually<br />
began singing Tappaa earlier than Nidhubabu and who composed both Hindustani and<br />
Bengali style Tappaa-s. As Goswami writes, “Although he was a poet and wrote several<br />
hundred tappa songs in Bengali, yet he paid no considerable attention to following the<br />
Bengali line <strong>of</strong> tappa music in which interpreting lyric received supreme importance”<br />
(1990:22). Kali Mirza was to make his biggest mark on the Bengali music scene not <strong>by</strong><br />
composing Tappaa-s but rather <strong>by</strong> composing Tappaa-style devotional songs dedicated<br />
to the goddess Kali, known in Bengali as shyaam sangiit, which, not incidentally, is only<br />
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one <strong>of</strong> the many types <strong>of</strong> Bengali song, devotional, folk, popular and otherwise, that was<br />
stylistically indebted to Nidhubabu’s Tappaa.<br />
Thus, <strong>of</strong> the three types <strong>of</strong> music which Ray gives as the “principal types” upon<br />
which Tagore based his own compositions, the Tappaa is definitely the one that would<br />
have been most pervasive in mid to late 19th century Calcutta. With his love for the<br />
common Bengali, Tagore must have appreciated this aspect <strong>of</strong> the Bengali Tappaa or<br />
Tappaa-type song, that it was the province <strong>of</strong> many different classes, castes, and religious<br />
communities. This is sharp contrast to his familiarity with Dhrupad and Braahma<br />
sangiit, which is purely a legacy <strong>of</strong> his membership in an aristocratic family.<br />
Considering that Tagore composed the most classically influenced <strong>of</strong> his songs at the<br />
very outset <strong>of</strong> his career and then proceeded to introduce more and more Bengali and<br />
individual/personal elements into his music over the course <strong>of</strong> his composing career<br />
(roughly his entire adult life), it seems that the Bengali Tappaa was much more at the<br />
heart <strong>of</strong> what he was trying to accomplish with his music than was Dhrupad.<br />
Regarding the third <strong>of</strong> Ray’s “principal types,” the least has been written about<br />
the influence <strong>of</strong> Jyotirindranath Tagore on Rabindranath. Sukumar Ray perhaps sums it<br />
up best when he notes that, while Jyotirindranath wrote many songs <strong>of</strong> his own, including<br />
songs for theatrical presentations and devotional songs that must have influenced<br />
Rabindranath’s early attempts or even served as direct models, his bigger role in<br />
Rabindranath’s formative years as a composer was rather that he assisted and encouraged<br />
Rabindranath with his own compositions. Ray explains, “Jyotirindranath worked on<br />
tuning, accompaniment <strong>of</strong> various types <strong>of</strong> instruments to vocal performance, collection<br />
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<strong>of</strong> varied forms <strong>of</strong> tunes from different sources, and on the newly devised notation<br />
innovated <strong>by</strong> Dwijendranath Tagore [elder brother <strong>of</strong> Rabindranath and<br />
Jyotirindranath]”(1973:157). As one <strong>of</strong> the most prominent features <strong>of</strong> Tagore songs is<br />
the variety <strong>of</strong> tunes to which they are set, it should be emphasized that it was<br />
Jyotirindranath that helped Rabindranath with this side <strong>of</strong> the music, assisting him in<br />
finding the best fit between tune and lyric. Jyotirindranth, as is true <strong>of</strong> many other <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Tagores, was certainly brilliant in his own right, having done outstanding work in fields<br />
as varied as drama, painting, writing, and politics alongside his musical efforts.<br />
However, also like other Tagores, he seems to be best remembered as a character in<br />
Rabindranath’s life story, in his specific case as an intellectual mentor and sounding-<br />
board to Rabindranath, his junior <strong>by</strong> 12 years. Thus, while it is noteworthy that he<br />
founded the nationalist Sanjiivanii sabhaa (‘Rejuvenation Society’) in 1875, which<br />
attempted to promote patriotism, and “for which [JT] used the press, trained the youth in<br />
body building and rifle shooting, and staged patriotic plays...”(Chatterjee 1996:197), it<br />
becomes much more noteworthy when we take into consideration the fact that, as<br />
Goswami notes, many feel that Rabindranath started his career as composer in earnest<br />
when he began writing patriotic songs for the Sabhaa (1990:390). However, even if his<br />
relationship with his illustrious younger brother were his only historical legacy, it would<br />
still be quite an achievement, considering the enduring popularity <strong>of</strong> Rabindranath’s<br />
songs with Bengalis. After all, while the Dhrupad-style Brahmo song and the Bengali<br />
Tappaa were well established musical traditions in Bengal well before Rabindranath’s<br />
time and were “in the air,” so to speak, it was Jyotirindranath who encouraged him and<br />
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even showed him the way toward creating a whole new kind <strong>of</strong> music. As Ray says,<br />
“…it was Jyotirindranath who first suggested <strong>by</strong> his activities the possibilities <strong>of</strong> new<br />
creation <strong>of</strong> free music compositions and production work”(1973:7).<br />
At this point, having considered the sources and influences which shaped and<br />
provided the raw material for Tagore’s new type <strong>of</strong> songs, we should turn to defining as<br />
precisely as possible what his songs are. Tagore, as Ray notes, wrote over 2,500 songs in<br />
his “mature” years as a composer (i.e. from his late 20s forward), so one <strong>of</strong> the keys tasks<br />
in beginning to understand this prolific outpouring <strong>of</strong> music is to group and classify the<br />
songs according to various criteria such as chronological period, function/context,<br />
melodic type, etc. <strong>The</strong> chronological approach seems to be most favored <strong>by</strong> the authors I<br />
have consulted, and it is indeed one <strong>of</strong> the more logical approaches, as most <strong>of</strong> the other<br />
possible classifying criteria dovetail with chronology to a large extent, though none do so<br />
perfectly. Tagore himself, as Goswami explains, grouped his songs <strong>by</strong> topic, the main<br />
divisions being “motherland”(or patriotic, 60 songs), “worship” (or devotional, 650),<br />
“love”(400), and “nature”(300), with two smaller (and less descriptive) categories<br />
entitled “occasional” and “variety”(essentially songs for festivals)(1990:40). Goswami,<br />
though, favors the chronological approach, and points out that Tagore started out in his<br />
earliest phase composing patriotic songs (though he continued to write a handful <strong>of</strong><br />
patriotic songs throughout the rest <strong>of</strong> his life), moved to Braahma sangiit, and then<br />
moved on the third and fourth phases (<strong>by</strong> Goswami’s periodization) to “songs on man<br />
and nature.” It also should be pointed out here that while I do not in any way deny the<br />
prime importance <strong>of</strong> subject matter and <strong>of</strong> the text generally in Tagore’s music, we are<br />
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more interested here in both the performance practice <strong>of</strong> Tagore songs and, more<br />
importantly, in their melodic and rhythmic content, the latter factor which, as all authors<br />
seem to agree, corresponds fairly closely to the period <strong>of</strong> time in which Tagore composed<br />
each <strong>of</strong> his songs.<br />
Ray, in his section on the classification <strong>of</strong> Tagore songs, does not propose his own<br />
system that he puts across as most valid or logical, but rather <strong>of</strong>fers a number <strong>of</strong><br />
examples from other Bengali authorities. Thus, as Ray notes, Dhurjatiprasad Mukherjee<br />
gives four categories, “(1) songs influenced <strong>by</strong> gharana classical songs, (2) items<br />
composed with additions <strong>of</strong> his own alamkars (ornate elements) which produced a new<br />
color on the basis <strong>of</strong> Ragas, (3) influence <strong>of</strong> folk music and (4) other songs containing<br />
immense creative elements in the new setting”; from Swami Prajnananand, “(1) songs <strong>of</strong><br />
Dhrupad style in which words were stressed, but classical music was primarily focused,<br />
(2) songs where Western influence is manifest…, (3) songs composed on the basis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
influence <strong>of</strong> popular traditional Bengali songs and (4) lyrical songs <strong>of</strong> varied type”; and<br />
from Suvo Guha Thakurta, “(1) 1881 to 1890, (2) 1901 to 1920, and (3) 1921 to 1941<br />
representing: (1) the influence <strong>of</strong> classical music, (2) the original compositions based on<br />
Raga constructed in his own style and (3) the predominating feeling elements with<br />
perfect combination <strong>of</strong> words and raga ingredients respectively”(1973:176-177). Of<br />
these, only Prajnananand’s scheme is not entirely chronological, although it still indicates<br />
the basic trajectory <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s compositions over time.<br />
Chhaya Chatterjee notes in her discussion on Rabindrasangiit that, “<strong>The</strong> span <strong>of</strong><br />
Rabindra-sangita is so vast that it is like the ocean – a confluence <strong>of</strong> different streams <strong>of</strong><br />
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currents or styles, such as dhrupada, khyal, tappa, Thumri, baul, kirtana, folk melodies,<br />
Western dance tunes, Church music, Irish melodies and even regional songs <strong>of</strong> Punjab,<br />
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kannad [Karnataka], and Tamilnadu”(1996:404). This is a helpful<br />
view in the present context, as Chatterjee places her focus more specifically on the<br />
musical rather than the poetic side <strong>of</strong> the equation. As such, when Chatterjee <strong>of</strong>fers her<br />
own system <strong>of</strong> classification or periodization it is in these terms. Thus, her categories<br />
are: first, the early period when Tagore worked with traditional classical ragas; second,<br />
the period when Tagore began experimenting with “different ragas” and Western<br />
melodies; third, the period when he began working with non-classical melodies, i.e.<br />
melodies from Baul tunes and Bengali Kirtan; and fourth, the period in which he<br />
“composed and established his own style, free from any inhibitions.” Chatterjee then<br />
proceeds to give examples <strong>of</strong> songs based on all the above listed sources, songs based on<br />
Dhrupad, songs based on Khyal and Thumri (which are very few in number), songs based<br />
on folk tunes, songs based on Western melodies, etc. As I have mentioned ad nauseum,<br />
the text is <strong>by</strong> far the most important, most dominant element in Tagore’s music, so as he<br />
searched for melodic material for his songs, the idea was to find tunes or even smaller<br />
melodic phrases or units which the poet felt best expressed the emotional content <strong>of</strong> the<br />
words. In other words, and as stated above, Tagore wanted as close a fit between the tune<br />
and the words as possible, or as Ray says, “a musical portrait <strong>of</strong> a worded composition”<br />
(1973:167), and it was this desire that drove him both to continually seek out new tunes<br />
or new types <strong>of</strong> tunes and to further experiment with melodies and melodic phrases<br />
drawn from both within and later from outside the Hindustani raga tradition. <strong>The</strong> result<br />
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<strong>of</strong> all this was that, in his later years, Tagore arrived at a method <strong>by</strong> which his<br />
compositions were “undertaken with no preconceived idea <strong>of</strong> a Raga or a familiar tune;<br />
rather the structure was composed <strong>of</strong> smaller units <strong>of</strong> notes suitably combined”(Ray<br />
1973:179). Ray, it should be noted, is not always completely clear with his English, but<br />
what he seems to detail is a process <strong>by</strong> which Tagore started out composing texts for or<br />
matching texts he had written to tunes composed <strong>by</strong> Jyotirindranath, to basing his songs<br />
on common ragas, then to mixed ragas and Western tunes and then modified forms <strong>of</strong><br />
Western tunes, then to modified folk and devotional tunes, until arriving at a point where<br />
his songs were completely original, at least in the sense that his influences and sources<br />
were well-integrated enough that their original form was no longer recognizable.<br />
As our focus here is on classical music, specifically the relationship between the<br />
mainstream classical tradition and the semi-classical traditions <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra and<br />
Bengal and the ways in which they have influenced each other, it is informative to<br />
examine certain aspects <strong>of</strong> Rabindrasangiit in contrast with the analogous features <strong>of</strong><br />
classical vocal music. As is well-known, Tagore hated all manner <strong>of</strong> formality, and while<br />
he had access to some <strong>of</strong> the most distinguished figures in classical music in Bengal<br />
(including renowned vocalists like Jadu Bhatta and Bishnu Chakraborty) both as a<br />
student and a regular listener thanks to his privileged background, he never had any<br />
interest in learning to perform classical music. Most <strong>of</strong> all, he never had any interest in<br />
the rigid discipline entailed <strong>by</strong> the Guru-disciple method <strong>of</strong> musical training or the<br />
seemingly endless routine <strong>of</strong> grueling and <strong>of</strong>ten repetitive practice required to develop the<br />
musical skills or, most crucially, the voice to perform classical music. Besides the<br />
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formality <strong>of</strong> the pedagogical system, the music itself, as Ray says, “failed to please<br />
Tagore in his early days” (1973:164), as the abstract process <strong>of</strong> raga development took<br />
precedence over the delivery <strong>of</strong> the lyric. Neither Ray nor any other scholar <strong>of</strong>fers an<br />
explanation as to why Tagore felt this preference for word-oriented music, but, as we<br />
have seen, this was a bias that was present in Bengali culture long before the appearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> Tagore on the scene. As I have explained, if Nidhubabu changed anything about the<br />
Hindustani Tappaa, it was that he made the lyric the primary focus <strong>of</strong> the genre – all the<br />
strictly musical changes came as a result <strong>of</strong> this aesthetic choice. <strong>The</strong>re is, to be sure,<br />
some direct influence (and indirect influence) <strong>of</strong> Nidhubabu on Tagore, but there is<br />
clearly a more diffuse and broader regional influence which came to bear on both their<br />
musical compositions. Regardless, to the extent that Tagore was not directly influenced<br />
<strong>by</strong> Nidhubabu, this common emphasis on the text motivated Tagore to shape his music in<br />
much the same way Nidhubabu had shaped his.<br />
So, in more concrete terms, this meant first and foremost, no abstract<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the raga, no aalaap, no vistaar, no baDhat, certainly no layakaari, and<br />
very little taan. Not incidentally, according to the definition <strong>of</strong> classical music I cited<br />
above from Wim van der Meer, this aspect alone disqualifies Tagore’s music from<br />
classical status (in the Indian context). Also, as in the case <strong>of</strong> Nidhubabu’s Tappaa,<br />
Tagore decided to forego any very extensive use <strong>of</strong> classical-style vocal ornamentation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most significant type <strong>of</strong> ornamentation avoided in general <strong>by</strong> Tagore, considering the<br />
crucial early Dhrupad influence in his music, was gamak, a heavy shake between two<br />
adjacent notes which is <strong>of</strong>ten created <strong>by</strong> a physical shaking <strong>of</strong> the jaws or even the whole<br />
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head <strong>of</strong> the performer. As Ray notes, Tagore did not forsake ornamentation altogether;<br />
he did use some that met the criteria <strong>of</strong> neither exceeding the capabilities <strong>of</strong> the average<br />
(i.e. non-classically trained) singer nor distorting the enunciation <strong>of</strong> the all-important text.<br />
“<strong>The</strong>se are slow and easy jhatka, small tan, short meend, mellow gamak at some<br />
particular points, occasional bant in slow and precise manner and simple up-and-down<br />
flights between two distant notes”(1973:169). To briefly define these terms (those that<br />
have not already been mentioned), jhaTkaa is another term for khaTkaa or giitkirii, quick<br />
turns around one pitch; miinD is an unbroken glide between two notes; and baanT is type<br />
<strong>of</strong> formulaic rhythmic variation using the words <strong>of</strong> the text. Of these, the most common<br />
is arguably the short miinD, as even a cursory listen to an orthodox performance <strong>of</strong><br />
Rabindrasangiit will prove. It is also the most characteristic type <strong>of</strong> ornamentation used<br />
in all types <strong>of</strong> Bengali music, and can even arguably be taken as an aural representation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the riverine Bengali countryside, a point I will address in the next chapter.<br />
Perhaps as noteworthy as the precise types <strong>of</strong> ornamentation, however, are the<br />
modifiers Ray uses to describe them: slow, easy, short, mellow, precise, simple. If one<br />
were to add “somber” and “sweet,” this would make up a fairly complete list <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
common English adjectives used <strong>by</strong> scholars to describe Tagore’s music. As with any art<br />
form, much <strong>of</strong> this is a reflection on the creator himself, his personality, his voice. As<br />
Amit Mukherjee explained to me, not only did Tagore not care for the hard practice<br />
necessary to become pr<strong>of</strong>icient at singing Khyal, he also did not have a “particularly<br />
good” or “manly” voice (interview, 2005). So, while it was very important for Tagore to<br />
create songs that could be understood and appreciated and sung <strong>by</strong> the average Bengali,<br />
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he also created a genre that he could himself perform. Likewise, while Tagore was a very<br />
self-aware (but not self-conscious) artist who made deliberate choices, he also, as I have<br />
said, was very much a product <strong>of</strong> his background and the culture he knew. Thus, while<br />
he favored the pr<strong>of</strong>undity and seriousness <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad and the somber, heartbroken<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> the Bengali Tappaa, these were pervasive influences in Bengali music at the<br />
time and it would have been hard for Tagore to avoid them. Nonetheless, it is all there.<br />
Tagore was a summation <strong>of</strong> Bengali Bhadralok culture to that point, all its contradictions<br />
and ideals and hopes and passions, and although this can be said <strong>of</strong> any artist, whatever<br />
their class and wherever they come from, this is all the more true <strong>of</strong> Tagore because,<br />
thanks to the genius <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> his varied work and the reverence amongst all Bengalis that<br />
this has earned him, his interpretation and vision <strong>of</strong> Bengali culture is now unchallenged<br />
as the definitive take on Bengal and Bengali-ness.<br />
<strong>The</strong> aesthetic encapsulated <strong>by</strong> Ray’s list <strong>of</strong> adjectives above applies equally to the<br />
other aspects <strong>of</strong> the performance practice <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s music, besides sparse<br />
ornamentation and lack <strong>of</strong> raga development in favor <strong>of</strong> clear, comprehensible lyrics. As<br />
Chhaya Chatterjee notes, the dominant ras or mood in Tagore’s music is “karuna rasa,<br />
i.e. pathos”(1996:420), along with viir or heroism, shaant or serene mood, and gambhiir,<br />
seriousness. To a large extent this again reflects the roots <strong>of</strong> Tagore music in Bengali<br />
Tappaa (karuNaa ras) and Dhrupad (gambhiir ras), as well as Tagore’s own<br />
temperament and personality (the viir element seems to come most frequently in Tagore’s<br />
patriotic songs). We can again see here the resemblance between the aesthetic appeal <strong>of</strong><br />
Tagore’s music and the appeal <strong>of</strong> the Amir Khan/Kirana style. <strong>The</strong> Kirana gharana,<br />
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particularly its de facto founder, Abdul Karim, has been both criticized and occasionally<br />
lauded for the dominance <strong>of</strong> the karuNaa element in his music to the exclusion <strong>of</strong> nearly<br />
every other ras. To take this a bit further, if we want to understand the popularity <strong>of</strong><br />
Bade Ghulam Ali along with Amir Khan, it makes sense that Bengalis enjoy the<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> exuberance and joyfulness balanced <strong>by</strong> seriousness and pathos (with<br />
Ghulam Ali standing for the former) which is as true <strong>of</strong> these two great classical singers<br />
taken together as it is <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s body <strong>of</strong> compositions, even if gravity and pathos, like<br />
the Kirana style, seem to be more prevalent on the whole than its opposite number.<br />
<strong>The</strong> overall combination <strong>of</strong> seriousness, direct emotion, and simplicity which<br />
characterizes the mood <strong>of</strong> Rabindrasangiit is also noticeable in the instrumentation and<br />
rhythmic aspects <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s music. In terms <strong>of</strong> the former, Tagore songs, depending <strong>of</strong><br />
course upon their type/function/intended context are very frequently performed solo, with<br />
the singer most <strong>of</strong>ten accompanying him- or herself on the harmonium or pumped organ.<br />
If there is tabla accompaniment, it is generally s<strong>of</strong>t and unobtrusive. Ethnomusicologist<br />
Capwell speaks <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>ound influence <strong>of</strong> the Baul sect <strong>of</strong> Bengal on Tagore’s music,<br />
an influence that went beyond the use <strong>of</strong> song types or tunes, as mentioned above. As<br />
Capwell writes, “Tagore was continually aware <strong>of</strong> a rift, a gap between himself and some<br />
undefined deity, and the Baul, for him, represented the spiritually quickened state <strong>of</strong><br />
eternal longing akin to the Sufi’s longing for the impossible union with a transcendent<br />
God, or Radha’s pining for Krishna”(1986:30-31). In the usual performance format for<br />
Tagore’s songs, we can detect both the Baul influence and the common feeling <strong>of</strong> longing<br />
that he and the members <strong>of</strong> the Baul sect share for union with God. As with the Baul,<br />
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who performs alone and spontaneously when the mood arises, one can imagine the<br />
performer <strong>of</strong> Tagore songs similarly singing for themselves and for God, unaware <strong>of</strong> the<br />
outside world, albeit in the context (and confines) <strong>of</strong> a structured recital or performance.<br />
<strong>The</strong> rhythmic aspect <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s music was generally de-emphasized, again so it<br />
would not interfere with the delivery <strong>of</strong> the text. Tagore did use classical talas in his<br />
music, especially in the early days when he was basing his compositions on the Dhrupad<br />
form, but he totally avoided one <strong>of</strong> the most important and prominent aspects <strong>of</strong> the talas<br />
used in the classical genres, the accent on sam, the first beat <strong>of</strong> the tala cycle. As Ray<br />
says, in Tagore’s music, “smoothness and simplicity are maintained <strong>by</strong> avoiding<br />
complications <strong>of</strong> the final accent”(1973:181). Later, as the Baul influence and the<br />
influence <strong>of</strong> other folk tunes started to play an important role in Tagore’s music, he began<br />
to utilize the 6-beat daadraa tala and 8-beat keharvaa (among others), the more simplistic<br />
and dance-oriented talas most <strong>of</strong>ten encountered in folk and light musics across North<br />
India. If Tagore created anything new or noteworthy in the realm <strong>of</strong> rhythm, it was that<br />
he attempted both to change existing talas and to create new talas that fit better with the<br />
meter <strong>of</strong> his poetry. At the most extreme, this resulted in an essentially non-rhythmic,<br />
speech-like style <strong>of</strong> delivery that was not amenable to any percussive accompaniment.<br />
More <strong>of</strong>ten, though, Tagore would add beats to existing talas and/or change the accents<br />
and groupings in existing talas in order to arrive at an appropriate meter. Ray seems<br />
skeptical about these experiments, stating that “Tagoreans consider these as new<br />
combinations <strong>of</strong> beats and bars producing a new effect in Tala”(1973:181). Unlike Ray,<br />
Chatterjee seems more willing to take these experiments as legitimate new talas, listing,<br />
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among others, Sashti (6 beats), Rupakdaa (8 beats), Nabataal (9 beats), and Ekadaasi (11<br />
beats) (1996:421). However, she also notes that most <strong>of</strong> these can be performed in<br />
different chhand-s, additive groupings marked <strong>by</strong> accents, which seem to rob these new<br />
talas <strong>of</strong> any distinct identity. In classical music, there are a number <strong>of</strong> talas that have the<br />
same number <strong>of</strong> beats, for example 16-beat TilwaaDaa and Tiintaal, but that are<br />
distinguished <strong>by</strong> their pattern <strong>of</strong> groupings and accents. Thus, suggesting that nine beat<br />
Nabataal is a tala which can performed as 3+2+2+2; 4+5; 5+4; 6+3; or 3+6, is very much<br />
analogous to equating a scale, an abstract collection <strong>of</strong> pitches, with a raga.<br />
Tagore’s use <strong>of</strong> raga as the melodic basis for much <strong>of</strong> his music, more particularly<br />
his experiments with mixing ragas and creating novel phrases and note combinations<br />
within both mixed and standard ragas, is one the most important aspects <strong>of</strong> his music, as<br />
it is this that Bengalis (including classical musicians, Tagore song specialists, and<br />
scholars) most <strong>of</strong>ten point to in attempting to establish his classical credentials.<br />
Buddhadev Dasgupta, senior sarodist <strong>of</strong> Calcutta and disciple <strong>of</strong> Radhika Mohan Moitra,<br />
has been among the forefront <strong>of</strong> Bengali instrumentalists in utilizing Tagore’s music and<br />
his innovations in raga in the classical context. As he explained to me,<br />
BD: …Rabindranath had a very deep insight into raga music. He created another<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> music with greater instant appeal to people, but don’t make a mistake, he<br />
had his sense <strong>of</strong> ragas absolutely deep-rooted. Not merely that, he found out<br />
unique nooks and corners, unique phrases in a raga, some <strong>of</strong> which were not even<br />
discovered <strong>by</strong> people who had been singing that raga for ages…<br />
A raga is just like a great big garden. You are wandering around in that garden<br />
every day. Suddenly you find a small nook where there’s a flower tree, there’s a<br />
branch hanging over, sun rays coming – beautiful place where you have never<br />
been before. So that, you know, uh, is more or less a comparison. Those<br />
beautiful spots <strong>of</strong> that raga, if they can be lifted and placed into the vocabulary <strong>of</strong><br />
instruments, particularly sarod, to create what is a full-blooded sarod gat and not<br />
an imitation <strong>of</strong> Rabindrasangiit…<br />
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JG: That’s what you tried to do?<br />
BD: That’s what I wanted to do and I have done so for quite some time.<br />
(interview, 2005).<br />
This excerpt is worth citing for Buddhadevda’s elegant metaphor alone, which is an<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> the commonly stated belief amongst Hindustani musicians (to which BD<br />
alludes) that new ragas or even new phrases within a raga are not invented or created, but<br />
instead “discovered,” as they are inherently there in the raga. <strong>The</strong> more important point,<br />
though, is that BD does not take a Tagore song more or less intact and simply play it in<br />
the Thumri style, as a “tail-piece” type number, although others, such as sarodist<br />
Tajendra Majumdar, have taken this approach. 109 Rather, as his analogy suggested, he<br />
only takes some <strong>of</strong> the core melodic material and creates a sarod gat based around it.<br />
This means changing the rhythm, both at a broader level, to fit with a classical tala<br />
(though some Tagore songs do not need to be adjusted in this sense), but more crucially,<br />
it also means making it conform to the plectrum stroke pattern and the accompanying<br />
rhythmic shape which is characteristic <strong>of</strong> sarod and sitar gat-s. BD has released several<br />
recordings <strong>of</strong> his Tagore-inspired music, and interestingly, with each piece, he presents<br />
the source song first, sung <strong>by</strong> Tagore specialist singers, and then immediately follows it<br />
with his own “interpretation,” so to speak. Tagore, to be sure, did compose some pieces,<br />
mostly in the Dhrupad form, which could be performed in a classical style without<br />
significant alterations, but as Ray and others note, singers capable <strong>of</strong> an orthodox<br />
Dhrupad rendition rarely sing these pieces, at least not in recent decades.<br />
109<br />
According to Dhruba Ghosh, Vilayat Khan also used to play one particular Tagore song early in his<br />
performing career (interview, 2005).<br />
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Having said all this, I should reiterate that Tagore’s music is a text- or word-based<br />
music, and <strong>by</strong> the standards <strong>of</strong> classicism in pan-North India, this alone guarantees a<br />
status below orthodox classical music. Beyond this, though, what determines the class<br />
character <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s music in Bourdieu’s terms is the specific manner that Tagore<br />
utilizes raga in his music. As noted earlier, Tagore changed the way he used ragas over<br />
time, moving from composing or adopting tunes that use the ordinary, familiar form <strong>of</strong><br />
common ragas, to mixing ragas together in novel combinations, then, finally, to freely<br />
combining smaller phrases or note combinations which may have been drawn from a<br />
classical raga, but which were generally unrecognizable in their new context. <strong>The</strong> point<br />
to made, though, is that Tagore never saw ragas as abstract, melodic entities which might<br />
potentially evoke a number <strong>of</strong> different emotions or shades <strong>of</strong> emotion depending on the<br />
performer and the context <strong>of</strong> performance, but rather as “symbols <strong>of</strong> thoughts and ideas<br />
in different contexts” (Ray 1973:167). What a particular raga symbolizes in a Tagore<br />
composition can vary according to the raga in question or the context; Ray gives a<br />
different few examples <strong>of</strong> how ragas can be used in this general fashion. A raga for<br />
Tagore, then, might symbolize the time <strong>of</strong> day at which it is generally performed (for ex.,<br />
the late afternoon raga Multani could represent the “sun-burnt-day’s ending breath”); it<br />
could symbolize the primary seasons (such as Malhar, the most common monsoon season<br />
raga); or it could be expounded “in the form <strong>of</strong> a living picture” (as when the midnight<br />
raga Kannada is portrayed as “the lost pursuer <strong>of</strong> the lover…in the dark midnight”)<br />
(1973:166-167). No other factor more completely and thoroughly cements the status <strong>of</strong><br />
Tagore music according to Bourdieu’s theory as appropriate to the “popular” or, at best,<br />
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“middle-brow” taste than this one. Rather than using a raga as an abstract musical entity<br />
that can carry a number <strong>of</strong> meanings and which can subjected to endless subtle variations<br />
and interpretations in the hands <strong>of</strong> a classical master musician (subtleties which can be<br />
best identified and understood <strong>by</strong> an individual who has had life-long, sustained contact<br />
with raga-based music), Tagore “imposes his own ideas upon Ragas and attaches human<br />
interest to them”(Ray 1973:167, emphasis added).<br />
Rabindrasangiit is then a rather clearly semi-classical genre <strong>by</strong> the standards <strong>of</strong><br />
the Hindustani tradition, and, while Bourdieu does not himself use this term, it is fair, I<br />
feel, to state that this is the appropriate designation according to his findings as well, in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> its appeal. <strong>The</strong> arguably most important piece <strong>of</strong> the puzzle, albeit<br />
one I have not discussed at length, are the numerous accounts (that frequently include<br />
statements from Tagore himself) stating that the composer’s primary intention was to<br />
create a genre <strong>of</strong> music that could be understood and appreciated <strong>by</strong> all classes <strong>of</strong><br />
Bengalis, in spite <strong>of</strong> his own elite background. An examination <strong>of</strong> the scholarly sources<br />
which discuss and analyze Tagore’s music reveals, however, that there is no clear cut<br />
consensus regarding the nature <strong>of</strong> his music or where his songs fit in the hierarchy <strong>of</strong><br />
Indian musical forms. Some agree that Tagore songs are indeed “middle-brow” in<br />
nature, some feel they are (almost) on par with Hindustani classical music, and some feel<br />
that they are no better than Bollywood film songs. While much <strong>of</strong> this boils down to<br />
non-Bengalis taking a critical stance on Tagore’s music and Bengalis defending him or<br />
perhaps over-exaggerating his importance, even this is an oversimplification. Non-<br />
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Bengali authorities do tend to devalue Tagore, but this is due both to the fact that most<br />
non-Bengalis cannot understand the Bengali language (and thus Tagore’s lyrics) and<br />
because Bengalis <strong>of</strong>ten do tend to overstate the poet’s greatness, creating resentment in<br />
those who, so to speak, can’t see it. <strong>The</strong> Bengali side <strong>of</strong> the equation is even more<br />
complex. Few Bengalis will deny Tagore’s overall greatness, in terms <strong>of</strong> his poetry or<br />
his overall artistic output, but there are those that understand that his songs do fall short<br />
<strong>of</strong> Indian classical standards.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first bit <strong>of</strong> evidence I <strong>of</strong>fer in this regard comes from the respective works <strong>of</strong><br />
Sukumar Ray and Chhaya Chatterjee, which I have cited above. Both authors frequently<br />
use the term kaavyasangiit as a broad term for the popular songs <strong>of</strong> Bengal prevalent in<br />
the late 19th and early 20th centuries in which were lyrics were the main focus or feature.<br />
Of the two, Ray uses the term more loosely; the closest he comes to <strong>of</strong>fering a definition<br />
is when he states that kaavyasangiit is “the tuned lyric”(1973:205). Chatterjee gives a<br />
more precise definition, stating that,<br />
<strong>The</strong> word kavya means poem, poetry or lyric. If taken literally, most <strong>of</strong> the vocal<br />
styles would come under it. But Kavya-sangita is a modern term, coined during<br />
late 19 th century meaning those songs which are romantic in theme, free <strong>of</strong><br />
traditional devotion and rich in literary value. In this style, the lyric plays a more<br />
important role than the melody and does not adhere to any strict sastriya<br />
discipline. Sometimes selected musical phrases are set to worded composition in<br />
romantic music. <strong>The</strong> chanda <strong>of</strong> the padas [verses] determine the tala (1996:435).<br />
Chatterjee then states that the compositions <strong>of</strong> many “renowned poets, lyricists and<br />
litterateurs” belong in this category, including Tagore. Despite placing him in this<br />
category, however, Chatterjee also leaves the matter unresolved, as even though she<br />
labels Tagore a composer <strong>of</strong> kaavyasangiit in her chapter on the same, she actually<br />
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devotes a whole chapter to Tagore’s music (which comes before the kaavyasangiit<br />
chapter in Chatterjee’s monograph) under the heading “Rabindra Sangita,” seemingly<br />
implying that Tagore’s music constitutes a style, to use Chatterjee’s term, or genre <strong>of</strong> its<br />
own. This is all the more clear when we consider Chatterjee’s statement that Tagore’s<br />
“constant exposure to [Hindustani classical music] and his own inborn talent made him a<br />
success in establishing a new style <strong>of</strong> music, i.e. Rabindra-sangita …” (1996:403). <strong>The</strong><br />
most straightforward way <strong>of</strong> understanding this ambiguity – one possibility, at least -<br />
would be that Tagore’s music had certain things in common with other ‘kaavyasangiit’<br />
composers like Rajnikanta or Nazrul, while at the same time bettering his contemporaries<br />
in terms <strong>of</strong> lyrical content and classical influence.<br />
Although Chatterjee tacitly privileges Tagore’s songs over those <strong>of</strong> his most<br />
famous rivals and contemporaries, i.e. Atulprasad, Dwijendralal, Nazrul, and Rajnikanta,<br />
she does, to be fair, emphasize all their classical credentials, which in most cases<br />
translates as using classical ragas and/or talas and using “classical” genres (including<br />
Khyal, Tappaa, Thumri, and daadraa – the quotation marks denote that I am speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
the broader definition <strong>of</strong> classical) as basic models for their compositions, rather than<br />
simply elevating Tagore to classical or near classical status and relegating the rest to<br />
merely “regional,” “light,” or “popular” status. 110 Chatterjee also explains the various<br />
ways in which each <strong>of</strong> these composers’ songs differed from classical music, both in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> their content and performance practice. What she does not do, though, is to<br />
couch these differences as shortcomings or as negative in any sense. On the contrary,<br />
110 By the standard sociological definition <strong>of</strong> “popular,” however, the songs <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> these composers,<br />
including Tagore’s, were popular at least for some time, at least in terms <strong>of</strong> their audiences.<br />
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Chatterjee gives the impression both that these Bengali compositions are a true part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Hindustani tradition and that, if anything, the famous five kaavyasangiit composers<br />
changed classical idioms for the better, for example, when she states that Rabindrsangiit<br />
was “based on classical music, yet independent <strong>of</strong> the strict bondage <strong>of</strong> the sastriya<br />
norms”(1996:403). This emphasis on the value <strong>of</strong> freedom <strong>of</strong> artistic expression is no<br />
doubt one that is a part <strong>of</strong> Chatterjee’s heritage as a Bengali. Regardless, though, one<br />
never gets the impression from Chatterjee’s work that the aesthetic norms <strong>of</strong> Hindustani<br />
classical music and the aesthetic norms Bengali regional music, semi-classical, light, or<br />
otherwise, are in any way incompatible or that they are in competition.<br />
<strong>The</strong> issue comes into much sharper focus in Sukumar Ray’s work, as he is an<br />
altogether more self-aware analyst than Chatterjee. That is, while for the most part Ray<br />
sticks with the objectivist mode so typical <strong>of</strong> Indian musicology, describing more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
than judging, he also clearly understands and acknowledges that there are different ways<br />
<strong>of</strong> both understanding and evaluating Bengali music, especially the music <strong>of</strong> the iconic<br />
Tagore, which is held as sacrosanct <strong>by</strong> so many Bengalis. Ray positions himself<br />
approximately in the middle between the most enthusiastic proponents <strong>of</strong> Tagore (whom<br />
he refers to as “Tagorians”) on the one hand and non-Bengali critics <strong>of</strong> Tagore on the<br />
other. As far as the kaavyasangiit designation, Ray is also unclear at times regarding its<br />
meaning (beyond the English translation “lyric song,” which he uses interchangeably),<br />
but he does make a distinction between Tagore songs and kaavyasangiit/Adhunik. 111 At<br />
another point, though, Ray states that Tagore’s songs “acted as the ideal model for<br />
111 Adhunik literally means “modern,” and is yet another designation for Bengali art songs that is sometimes<br />
used as a synonym for kaavyasangiit, as Ray does here.<br />
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Kavyasangeet,” and notes how the four stanza system adapted <strong>by</strong> Tagore from Dhrupad<br />
became the standard for Bengali song composers. One can only attempt to deduce the<br />
differences between Tagore songs and kaavyasangiit, however. From Ray’s discussion<br />
<strong>of</strong> each genre and each composer, we learn that Tagore composed songs for a wider<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> contexts than other composers, wrote texts covering a wider variety <strong>of</strong> subjects,<br />
composed more songs altogether, incorporated more elements from classical (rather than<br />
semi-classical) music into his songs than the others, and influenced nearly all his<br />
contemporaries and successors with his style. Regardless, the clearest bit <strong>of</strong> evidence<br />
that Ray considers Tagore songs as a separate genre, or “school,” to use his term, one<br />
“distinct from the known types, such as Dhrupad, Khyal, Tappa, Thumri or the other<br />
popular sections like folk and modern songs…”(11), is because he says so. Ray does<br />
give a list <strong>of</strong> “principles” regarding Tagore songs. Most are a summation <strong>of</strong> the musical<br />
features, aspects <strong>of</strong> performance practice, etc., as described above, but two are<br />
particularly relevant in the present context:<br />
And,<br />
(ii) as Bengali music originally derives its musical form from folk songs, Kirtan<br />
and other traditional music, popular music, etc., performance <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s musical<br />
compositions is primarily traced to this legacy;<br />
(v) the forms <strong>of</strong> tunes applied in Tagore music are unchangeable and amply<br />
supported <strong>by</strong> a system <strong>of</strong> performance, hence the executants require a definite<br />
type <strong>of</strong> training; (1973:184).<br />
<strong>The</strong> first <strong>of</strong> these ((ii), in Ray’s list), might seem at first to be a concession <strong>of</strong> sorts - that,<br />
after all, Tagore was more influenced <strong>by</strong> non-classical genres than classical ones, but I do<br />
not agree with this reading. <strong>The</strong> key word in this blurb is not “folk songs” or “popular<br />
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music”; it is instead “Bengali music.” Ray’s intention, as I take it, is to (subtly) establish<br />
the notion that Bengali music as a whole is different than non-Bengali music, most<br />
importantly Hindustani classical music, and hence should be judged <strong>by</strong> different criteria<br />
than non-Bengali music. That he does not consider Tagore music to be grossly inferior to<br />
classical music is confirmed <strong>by</strong> “principle (v),” which I feel is a fairly overt attempt to<br />
equate Rabindrasangiit with orthodox classical music, as in the Indian context popular<br />
and even light and semi-classical genres are commonly said to require little more than a<br />
good voice and a familiarity with the genre in question while classical music alone<br />
requires rigorous practice and voice-training. What I take Ray to be arguing, then, is that<br />
while Tagore music is different from proper Dhrupad or Khyal, it is no less complex (or<br />
intellectual or refined) than Hindustani classical music. It is simply complex in a<br />
different way, i.e. in terms <strong>of</strong> the lyric itself and the relationship between the lyric and the<br />
tune, rather than in terms <strong>of</strong> abstract raga development.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the unnamed critics <strong>of</strong> Tagore that Ray addresses in Music <strong>of</strong> Eastern<br />
India may well have been Pr<strong>of</strong>. G.H. Ranade, who provides a mild but fairly<br />
representative criticism <strong>of</strong> Tagore songs in his work Hindustani Music: Its Physics and<br />
Aesthetics. 112 Ranade briefly discusses Rabindrasangiit in the context <strong>of</strong> a chapter-length<br />
summary <strong>of</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> classical music in India, noting that <strong>by</strong> the time classical music<br />
(i.e. Khyal) had “worked up its way to the inside <strong>of</strong> the Bengali household,” or in other<br />
words, had become popular with the middle classes, Tagore’s music had emerged as a<br />
significant rival for listeners and students. Ranade says <strong>of</strong> Rabindrasangiit:<br />
112 This is the substantially reworked second edition <strong>of</strong> a book originally published in 1939.<br />
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…[T]he novel tunes <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s songs and the fresh orientation he gave to music<br />
had made their own impacts on the classical Ragas and for a time ruled supreme<br />
in Bengal. Tagore’s adaptations <strong>of</strong> European tunes and his crossing <strong>of</strong> one Raga<br />
with another in an unconventional manner led to confusion in the name <strong>of</strong> artistic<br />
execution. A non-Bengalee, who cannot follow the meaning <strong>of</strong> the songs, thinks<br />
their tunes distinctly jar on his ears, on account <strong>of</strong> their out-<strong>of</strong>-the-way or exotic<br />
musical contour. In fact outside Bengal, the so-called Bengali type <strong>of</strong> music<br />
passes for a <strong>by</strong>word to mean hybrid music (1971:21).<br />
This is a very level-headed, logical, and reasonable critique <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s music, but a<br />
damning statement, nonetheless. It hits upon the most obvious problem that arises when<br />
a non-Bengali speaker attempts to evaluate Tagore’s songs, the problem <strong>of</strong><br />
comprehending and appreciating the element that all Bengalis agree is the key to<br />
appreciating them - the text. <strong>The</strong> text determines every aspect <strong>of</strong> the music in Tagore’s<br />
music, the melody, the style (i.e. Dhrupad, Tappaa, Baul tune, Bengali kiirtan, etc.), the<br />
tempo, the rhythmic structure and feel, and <strong>of</strong> course the overall mood. When one<br />
approaches them without understanding the meaning <strong>of</strong> the words, it is as if the linchpin<br />
is removed and the songs appear more as concatenations <strong>of</strong> disparate parts rather than as<br />
cohesive wholes, a comment which applies equally to Tagore’s collective body <strong>of</strong> songs.<br />
This issue <strong>of</strong> not understanding Tagore’s words is one, it should be noted, that Ray also<br />
frequently addresses, though he seems most concerned with charges <strong>of</strong> monotony and<br />
repetitiveness. Ray acknowledges that Tagore’s music can very well seem repetitive at<br />
times given the “recurrence <strong>of</strong> fixed nature <strong>of</strong> bars, foots, giving similar musical phrases<br />
and similarity in mellow musical expressions..” (1973:182). Although he admits to the<br />
truth <strong>of</strong> this, Ray then attributes the problem more to performers who do not (or cannot)<br />
make use <strong>of</strong> the full repertoire <strong>of</strong> Tagore songs, a theme which came up several times<br />
during the interviews I conducted in 2005. Today’s artists, Bengali and otherwise,<br />
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continue to feel that Rabindrasangiit is <strong>of</strong>ten given a bad name <strong>by</strong> the poor taste and poor<br />
musicianship <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s staunchest supporters.<br />
It is Vinyak Purohit, though, that provides the most trenchant criticism <strong>of</strong> Tagore<br />
and his Bengali apologists, though, as usual, we have to, to paraphrase Janaki Bakhle,<br />
peer through Purohit’s Marxist ideological screen to see what he is really stating. To be<br />
sure, it is his Marxist orientation which informs his analyses and allows him to make<br />
insights along social and economic lines that other Indian music scholars cannot due to<br />
their limited own purview, which again boils down to a focus on objective, strictly<br />
musical issues. His insights, again though, are too <strong>of</strong>ten mixed with his personal<br />
prejudices which are not always even attributable to his Marxist philosophy or<br />
orientation. From my perspective, the most difficult aspect <strong>of</strong> Purohit’s approach to<br />
understand is the very clear fact the he appreciates Hindustani classical music from an<br />
aesthetic perspective and feels that it is something which is valuable to society, which<br />
needs to be nurtured <strong>by</strong> government support, etc., while at the same time detailing the<br />
thoroughly feudal nature <strong>of</strong> the tradition, both in terms <strong>of</strong> its social aspects and in terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ideology that continues to inform its modern practitioners, and while heaping<br />
unqualified scorn on every artist, musicologist, and connoisseur that he discusses in the<br />
course <strong>of</strong> his work, save <strong>of</strong> course for those who lived so far in the past that there is not<br />
enough biographical information regarding their lives to allow Purohit to substantiate his<br />
insults and petty remarks.<br />
To proceed with the matter at hand, though, Purohit’s clear respect and admiration<br />
for the Hindustani tradition, a tradition “which is quintessential and which…has been<br />
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evolved <strong>by</strong> much labour on the part <strong>of</strong> many geniuses over many centuries..”(1988:886),<br />
is particularly crucial in the case <strong>of</strong> his tirade against Tagore’s music (not to be confused<br />
with his tirade against Tagore’s paintings or his broader tirade against the Tagore clan as<br />
a whole). <strong>The</strong> first criticism Purohit levels at Tagore, one that has echoes in his attacks<br />
on Tagore elsewhere, is that Tagore is essentially a “comprador” (comprador being<br />
unquestionably Purohit’s most favored and frequently employed epithet), and so when<br />
Tagore states in his writings that he hoped to create a music that would be enjoyed and<br />
appreciated <strong>by</strong> all classes, as opposed to classical music which is the preserve <strong>of</strong> the elite,<br />
the reality <strong>of</strong> the matter according to Purohit is, rather, that Tagore and others like him<br />
were simply unable to understand classical music and thus chose to patronize (and<br />
Tagore’s case, create) a form or forms <strong>of</strong> music that correspond to their “vulgar” tastes.<br />
This is all the more clear when we consider other instances where Purohit chides Tagore<br />
for believing that he had any comprehension whatsoever <strong>of</strong> the lives <strong>of</strong> the peasant and<br />
laboring classes for whose benefit he claimed to have composed his songs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> portion <strong>of</strong> Purohit’s tirade which concerns us more here, however, comes<br />
when Purohit quotes Tagore as explaining that Bengalis never collectively embraced<br />
Hindustani music because, to quote Tagore, “‘the soul <strong>of</strong> Bengal hungered for song [i.e.<br />
not abstract raga music] as a means <strong>of</strong> self-expression’”(1988:884 – emphasis in the<br />
original). Purohit’s response to this, briefly, is first, that “there is nothing special about<br />
Bengali folk music…” (compared to the folk music from any other region <strong>of</strong> India), and<br />
to suggest otherwise betrays an “obnoxious, provincialist outlook”; and second, that since<br />
Bengali music is as raga-based as the music in the rest <strong>of</strong> India, any attempts to lay out<br />
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principles that are unique to Bengali music, as in Sukumar Ray’s work (whom Purohit<br />
singles out <strong>by</strong> name), “are hopelessly confused and completely dogmatic.” Key to<br />
Purohit’s attack is the essentialist proposition that “the whole <strong>of</strong> Indian music is based on<br />
the raga system…”(885), which, as any number <strong>of</strong> Indian music scholars can tell you, is<br />
simply not true. Some folk and devotional songs are raga-based, but some are not.<br />
Purohit tries to side-step this issue <strong>by</strong> arguing that since ragas represent distilled versions<br />
<strong>of</strong> folk songs, for instance raga Mand is a “distillation” <strong>of</strong> the whole group <strong>of</strong> Rajasthani<br />
folk songs, ragas are the inheritance <strong>of</strong> all Indians. This proposition only makes sense<br />
from the Marxist perspective because it is clearly Purohit’s attempt to cleanse raga music<br />
<strong>of</strong> its elite, feudal associations. If ragas are distillations <strong>of</strong> folk tunes, it only stands to<br />
reason that someone, i.e. some person, had to actually distill them, and the persons<br />
responsible for that were, save for very few exceptions, either a.), religious functionaries<br />
<strong>of</strong> some sort, b.), feudal servants, or c.) modern day bourgeois musicians, three groups<br />
Purohit openly disapproves <strong>of</strong> in one way or another at certain points in his work. This<br />
is, <strong>of</strong> course, to ignore other inconvenient (for Purohit, at least) truths, for example that<br />
the Southern or Carnatic school <strong>of</strong> Indian music uses many ragas that were created quite<br />
recently and do not resemble those <strong>of</strong> any other type <strong>of</strong> music in India (as well as many<br />
that have no analogue in the North), or that there are many ragas whose origins are totally<br />
unknown. Again, though, we should never expect Purohit to let facts get in the way <strong>of</strong> a<br />
grand ideological statement.<br />
So, once we have penetrated through the haze <strong>of</strong> Purohit’s prejudices, including<br />
his irrational hate for Tagore and his confused and essentialist notions about the raga<br />
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system, we find that his motivations and especially his aesthetic perspective are not at all<br />
unlike those <strong>of</strong> G.H. Ranade, a scholar that Purohit no doubt loathes (though he does cite<br />
Ranade’s work at one point in Arts <strong>of</strong> Transitional India). G.H. Ranade’s critique is<br />
definitely more reasoned and polite than Purohit’s, but ultimately what both are<br />
responding to is a type or style <strong>of</strong> music that is unfamiliar to them and that is based on<br />
aesthetic principles that do not correspond to their own. G.H. Ranade, in his objectivist<br />
fashion, points out the obvious and overriding issue <strong>of</strong> not being able to understand<br />
Tagore’s words as well as the undeniably hybrid nature <strong>of</strong> the music, but ultimately, as<br />
with the evaluation <strong>of</strong> any music, it is the more innate, subconscious nature <strong>of</strong> taste which<br />
I feel motivates both Ranade’s and Purohit’s observations. It is more obvious with<br />
Purohit because, shorn <strong>of</strong> any pretension <strong>of</strong> objectivity, his remarks betray the innate<br />
disgust that members <strong>of</strong> a particular “class fraction” feel when confronted with forms <strong>of</strong><br />
art characteristic <strong>of</strong> members <strong>of</strong> different class fractions, as Bourdieu has explained.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is more to it than this, however, as neither Ranade nor Purohit to my knowledge<br />
critique any other form <strong>of</strong> semi-classical or light music besides Rabindrasangiit in such<br />
fashion. So, what I am driving at here is that what truly <strong>of</strong>fends Purohit (if not Ranade)<br />
about Tagore and his music is that he and his followers have had and continue to have the<br />
temerity to suggest that their essentially “middle-brow” music is equivalent or even<br />
comparable to the Hindustani classical tradition. It is not only that Tagore and followers<br />
have violated the socio-cultural hierarchy described <strong>by</strong> Bourdieu, though. <strong>The</strong>y also, I<br />
argue, have violated a distinctly Indian hierarchy, that which places maarg above desii,<br />
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“great” above “little” (to use Milton Singer’s terminology), and pan-Indian (or, in the<br />
modern period, national) above regional, hence Purohit’s accusation <strong>of</strong> “provincialism.”<br />
D. Marathi <strong>The</strong>atre Music and the Push Toward Classicism<br />
To illustrate this last point I would like to turn my attention to the semi-classical<br />
traditions <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra. <strong>The</strong> Maharashtrian side <strong>of</strong> the equation is, to be sure, much<br />
simpler and more straightforward than what we have encountered in Bengal, but in spite<br />
<strong>of</strong> this, or perhaps because <strong>of</strong> it, it provides a useful and informative contrast as in so<br />
many other instances. One aspect <strong>of</strong> the relative simplicity <strong>of</strong> the Maharashtrian scene is<br />
that there far fewer varieties <strong>of</strong> semi-classical music there and, among these, only one is<br />
at all relevant in the context <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical music. This is the aforementioned<br />
NaaTya Sangiit, the music <strong>of</strong> the Marathi musical theatre. <strong>The</strong> other “regional” genre<br />
most <strong>of</strong>ten mentioned in connection with Mahrashtra is laavaNii, a genre that is generally<br />
described as popular or, at best, light, and whose lyrics are generally erotic or even vulgar<br />
in nature. LaavaNii, as Ashok Ranade communicated to me, was at one time performed<br />
in a semi-classical style, approximately in the same manner as Thumri, and was<br />
performed <strong>by</strong> classical artists, albeit mostly <strong>by</strong> courtesans (personal communication,<br />
2005). BaiThakchi laavaNii (Marathi – “laavaNii <strong>of</strong> the recital or sitting”; also<br />
referenced in Manuel 1993:187) is, however, not sung <strong>by</strong> classical artists in the modern<br />
era, and it seems reasonable to surmise that its heavily sRingaar–oriented lyrics and<br />
overall mood and its association with “women singers” are among the primary reasons<br />
why it has disappeared from the classical stage in greater Maharashtra.<br />
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Like Tagore songs, naaTypad (compositions for Marathi music theatre) are<br />
essentially semi-classical, as their specific purpose, at least in the earlier days <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tradition, was to serve as a heightened form <strong>of</strong> speech, and as such, convey information,<br />
move the plot forward, etc. As I will explain shortly, as both NaaTya Sangiit and Sangiit<br />
NaaTak (musical theatre) progressed and developed, the songs became a more abstract<br />
means <strong>of</strong> elaborating the singer’s character’s mood or state <strong>of</strong> mind, but even then, the<br />
musical renditions were still tied to the plot <strong>of</strong> the particular drama. However much<br />
Bengali proponents <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s music tout Tagore’s classical credentials, Marathi<br />
NaaTya Sangiit is inarguably more classical, while still falling within the bounds <strong>of</strong> the<br />
semi-classical category. It is frequently said <strong>of</strong> NaaTya Sangiit that naaTyapad are<br />
simply Hindustani classical compositions with Marathi lyrics. This is largely true,<br />
although it ignores the large amount <strong>of</strong> theatre music that was modeled on or taken<br />
directly from other semi-classical genres (usually Thumri, daadraa, qawaalii, kajrii, etc.)<br />
or popular genres, such as the songs <strong>of</strong> the Parsi-Gujarati theatre that was extremely<br />
prevalent and popular in 19th century Bombay, although with a different class and<br />
regional/linguistic group than the one that formed the audience for Marathi Sangiit<br />
NaaTak. However, the point remains that in the hey day <strong>of</strong> Sangiit NaaTak in the early<br />
20th century, both the singer/actors and the “music directors” (i.e. those who composed<br />
and/or selected the tunes and, if qualified, trained the singers) were generally reputable<br />
classical vocalists, the tunes were most <strong>of</strong>ten classical compositions with Marathi lyrics<br />
added, and the techniques used in performance <strong>of</strong> naaTyapad were mostly classical in<br />
nature, while limited mostly to certain varieties <strong>of</strong> taan, and were largely pre-composed.<br />
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When we also consider that NaaTya Sangiit became more and not less classical over<br />
time, to the extent that naaTyapad survive today almost exclusively as “tail-piece” items<br />
in classical programs, we can see that NaaTya Sangiit is ultimately a much different<br />
genre than Ranbindrasangiit or any other Bengali semi-classical genre. As I will argue in<br />
concluding this chapter, I feel that these differences reveal pr<strong>of</strong>ound underlying<br />
differences in the respective music cultures and the broader cultures <strong>of</strong> Bengal and<br />
Maharashtra.<br />
Another parallel between Rabindrasangiit and Marathi musical theatre is that both<br />
are products <strong>of</strong> the mid 19th century and the many changes which took place in Indian<br />
society during that period, including urbanization, the rise <strong>of</strong> an English-educated middle<br />
class, and the growth <strong>of</strong> nationalistic sentiment across India - all <strong>of</strong> course closely related<br />
developments. As Ashok Ranade explains in his authoritative 1986 monograph Stage<br />
Music <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, both “folk-“ and “ritualistic presentations” that have a passing<br />
resemblance to Western theatre and, more specifically, dramatic presentations<br />
accompanied <strong>by</strong> music, have a long history in the Maharashtra region, dating back at<br />
least 800 years. It was in the 19th century, though, that Marathi theatre moved into what<br />
Ranade terms the “stage-phase,” i.e. when various changes take place resulting in a form<br />
<strong>of</strong> theatre where, first, the presentations take place in a well defined “acting area” that is<br />
clearly segregated from the audience or “onlookers,” which in turn discourages their<br />
active participation (a characteristic <strong>of</strong> earlier dramatic presentations in Maharashtra and<br />
other parts <strong>of</strong> India); the stories and themes tend to revolve around more realistic,<br />
“human” plots, resulting in a need for pre-written scripts with set dialogues and for more<br />
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ealistic and developed costuming and scenery; and the primary source <strong>of</strong> patronage has<br />
shifted from “the royal, aristocratic patrons to a widely distributed, culture-conscious,<br />
economically speaking less-endowed class”(1986:9). This is a theoretical process <strong>of</strong><br />
development which Ranade proposes to be true <strong>of</strong> theatrical forms across India, both<br />
prose-oriented and music-oriented. However, to account for the specific lines along<br />
which theatre in Maharashtra developed, he adds that “the Occidental Seasoning in<br />
musico-dramatic relationship remains on the wane, if the regional culture has a strong<br />
base <strong>of</strong> art-music (which is known as ‘classical’ music in India)”(14). It is for this reason<br />
that in Maharashtra that Sangiit NaaTak and prose drama developed independently <strong>of</strong> one<br />
another, with the latter taking a much more obviously Western-derived shape over time.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is some dispute when the “modern era” <strong>of</strong> Marathi music-drama started.<br />
Vamanrao Deshpande felt that it began with the debut <strong>of</strong> the play Shakuntala in 1880,<br />
produced and performed <strong>by</strong> the famous Kirloskar drama company headed <strong>by</strong> Annasaheb<br />
Kirloskar (Balwant Pandurang) (1972:58). While noting that other authorities see the<br />
tradition as having begun as early as the late 17th century with the tradition <strong>of</strong> patronage<br />
<strong>of</strong> theatrical presentations <strong>by</strong> the Maratha kings <strong>of</strong> Tanjore in South India, Ranade, for<br />
the reasons cited above (along with the fact that these presentations drew heavily on<br />
southern, i.e. non-Marathi, music and folk traditions), however, feels that the ‘modern<br />
era’ <strong>of</strong> Marathi properly begins with the first “ticketed” performance <strong>of</strong> a Marathi<br />
theatrical, staged at Grant Road <strong>The</strong>atre in Bombay <strong>by</strong> the company led <strong>by</strong> Vishnudas<br />
Bhave in 1853 (1986:4). Other important innovations, such as the introduction <strong>of</strong> the<br />
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vertically-operated front curtain, painted scenery, gas lighting, etc. were subsequently<br />
introduced in the following two decades.<br />
Bhave, for his part, started out in the service <strong>of</strong> the king <strong>of</strong> Sangli state in the<br />
southern part <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra where his father had also served as a court <strong>of</strong>ficial. Bhave<br />
received his initial encouragement as well as a promise for future financial support from<br />
the king when he was still in his twenties. However, as the monarch passed in 1851 and<br />
patronage was no longer available in Sangli, Bhave was granted permission to take his<br />
troupe on tours around Maharashtra in lieu <strong>of</strong> continued patronage from the court. In<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> the theatrical side <strong>of</strong> the equation, Ranade credits Bhave with the introduction <strong>of</strong><br />
a more linear, less episodic “enacted story,” rather than “a mere projection <strong>of</strong> a narrative”<br />
that was typical <strong>of</strong> the older folk-dramas. Bhave continued to base his stories around<br />
gods and other mythical characters, but even then, he increased the realism <strong>of</strong> his<br />
presentations <strong>by</strong> creating more realistic masks, costumes, and makeup, along with the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> actual weapons <strong>by</strong> actors “who are reported to have spared no pains to acquire the<br />
requisite efficiency in martial arts...”(ibid.:11). Ranade feels that Bhave’s plays also<br />
contained important undertones <strong>of</strong> nationalist sentiment. As Ranade writes, “<strong>The</strong> battle-<br />
scenes, with the inevitable victory <strong>of</strong> the Gods over the demons hinted a Gods-Marathas,<br />
Demons-foreign-rulers identification”(ibid.:13). In terms <strong>of</strong> the musical side <strong>of</strong> Bhave’s<br />
plays, the “Bhave-model,” as Ranade calls it, differed from what would later become the<br />
customary practice in Marathi music-drama, as Bhave’s plays represented a transitional<br />
phase in the development <strong>of</strong> the Sangiit NaaTak. Thus, in Bhave’s plays, all the singing<br />
was done <strong>by</strong> the sutradhaar, or narrator, the instrumental accompaniment was minimal,<br />
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with only the barrel-shaped mRidaangam drum, and finger-cymbals, and both Hindi and<br />
Marathi “verses” were used. In terms <strong>of</strong> the music, Bhave (who composed all the music<br />
for his troupe) mainly relied on traditional Marathi verse forms, as much <strong>of</strong> the singing<br />
was recitative-like, and intended to convey information, and songs composed in basic,<br />
common ragas (ibid.:47).<br />
<strong>The</strong> history <strong>of</strong> classical or classically-derived music on the Marathi stage begins<br />
with the activities <strong>of</strong> the Kirloskar company, hence Deshpande’s assertion that Marathi<br />
music-drama begins with Annasaheb Kirloskar. For his plays, Kirloskar largely<br />
depended on Bhave-type music, adding to this other Marathi tunes such as women’s<br />
songs, “lavani-type tunes,” and Karantaki tunes, and “partly also classical ragadhari<br />
tunes”(1972:59). Also like Bhave, songs in Kirloskar’s plays were not music for their<br />
own sake, but rather for carrying the plot forward. As such, in the early days (in the<br />
1880s), as many as 150 to 200 (short) tunes were featured in one play. Kirloskar also<br />
employed some <strong>of</strong> the great singer-actors <strong>of</strong> the day, including Bhaurao Kolhatkar, the<br />
first truly legendary stage singer and the first great heroine <strong>of</strong> the Marathi music-drama<br />
(as all roles were played <strong>by</strong> males in those days) who would serve as the model for a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> famous successors. Kolhatkar was particularly adept, as Ranade notes, at<br />
singing “lavani-oriented songs and other such song forms”(1986:49). More importantly<br />
for the present discussion, though, Kirloskar also employed Balkoba Natekar, a singer<br />
who, while less popular with audiences than Kolhatkar, was classically trained, having<br />
learned Dhrupad from Ustad Wazir Khan (also the guru <strong>of</strong> legendary sarodists Allaudin<br />
Khan and Hafiz Ali Khan) as well as biin and sitar. Natekar was the forerunner to the<br />
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later dramas that drew more and more <strong>of</strong> their music from classical sources, as he made a<br />
practice <strong>of</strong> selecting his own tunes even for established dramas in order to provide<br />
himself with vehicles for more involved musical elaboration.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first drama company to use classical music as the primary source for the<br />
songs featured in its plays was the Waikar Sangeet Mandali which was headed <strong>by</strong><br />
Pandoba Yevateshwarikar (P.G. Gurav), like Natekar, a classically trained vocalist, and<br />
which initiated its activities in 1890. Yevateshwarikar, as both Ranade and Deshpande<br />
agree, intended to “purify” the music <strong>of</strong> the Marathi stage <strong>by</strong> classicizing it. As such he<br />
composed songs in “heavy ragas such as Jayajayawanti, Aarbi, Adana, Suha, Paraj,<br />
Basant-Bahar, Bibhas, etc. and included various forms <strong>of</strong> music such as dhrupads,<br />
taranas, and sargams, and employed even the rhythmic complexities <strong>of</strong> Dugan (double<br />
tempo) and Chougan (quadruple tempo)”(Deshpande 1972:60). Yevateshwarikar seems<br />
to have been ahead <strong>of</strong> time, however, as his company was out <strong>of</strong> business <strong>by</strong> the turn <strong>of</strong><br />
the 20th century, while companies who leaned more heavily on the “uniformly cheap<br />
tunes” (to use Deshpande’s term) <strong>of</strong> the qawaalii and ghazal type popularized <strong>by</strong> the<br />
Parsi-Gujurati musicals in Bombay, such as the company run <strong>by</strong> Madhav Patankar or<br />
slightly later, Shripad Krishna Kolhatkar, continued to thrive well into the new<br />
millennium. It could be very reasonably asserted that the “real beginning” Marathi<br />
Sangiit NaaTak in musical terms, however, came not with the opening <strong>of</strong> the Kirloskar<br />
Mandali’s first music-drama, Shakuntala, but rather with the 1911 opening <strong>of</strong> the K.P.<br />
Khadilkar penned drama Maanapamaan. This naaTak is notable for two prime reasons.<br />
First, the actors teamed in the main roles were Nanasaheb Joglekar, who as Ranade notes<br />
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defined the role <strong>of</strong> the hero (Dhairyadhar) in Maanaapman, one <strong>of</strong> the enduring classics<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Marathi stage, and <strong>by</strong> Balgandharva (Narayan Rajhans), who went on to become<br />
indisputably the greatest heroine and greatest overall performer in the history <strong>of</strong> Marathi<br />
music-drama. Second, as Khadilkar was no expert in music, the singer-actor-harmonium<br />
player Govindrao Tembe was chosen to select tunes for the drama.<br />
Although the process <strong>of</strong> classicizing the music <strong>of</strong> Marathi music-drama did not<br />
start or end with Tembe or Balgandharva, the pair taken together account for some the<br />
most important changes which pushed Marathi music theatre in this direction. Regarding<br />
Tembe, also well-known as a music critic and frequent accompanist <strong>of</strong> the great Alladiya<br />
Khan, Deshpande writes,<br />
All these thirty-odd years since the inception <strong>of</strong> the modern stage [dating back to<br />
1880], music had been principally used as a vehicle for carrying forward the flow<br />
<strong>of</strong> the narrative. It had, therefore, perforce to be simple, though it might be<br />
dignified. But Govindrao employed his innovation to heighten the impact <strong>of</strong><br />
music <strong>by</strong> sharpening the emotive content <strong>of</strong> the song such as love, valour, sorrow,<br />
longing, etc. For this purpose, his resourceful mind had recourse (barring a<br />
sprinkling <strong>of</strong> classical tunes for the hero) to his large repertoire <strong>of</strong> Purab-style <strong>of</strong><br />
music, <strong>of</strong> which great thumri and kajri singers , such as Joharabai [Zorabai] <strong>of</strong><br />
Agra, Mojuddin Khan, Goharjan, Malkajan, etc. were then the principal<br />
exponents. <strong>The</strong> songs in the plays were now mostly “singable” rather than<br />
“recitative” as in the early days; and naturally required more time for their<br />
elaboration to make their emotional impact. Consequently, the number <strong>of</strong> songs,<br />
which was enormous, ranging between 150 and 200, was drastically cut down to<br />
about 50, <strong>of</strong> which the really singable and worth elaborating were only about 15<br />
to 20. Instead <strong>of</strong> being simple as in former days, the music was now stylized,<br />
more evolved, and fashioned to bring home to the audience the emotion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
song and the situation (1972:62-63).<br />
As Ranade frequently notes, any <strong>of</strong> the major steps forward in the development <strong>of</strong><br />
Marathi music-drama are difficult to attribute to one figure, as most changes are the result<br />
<strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> different people working simultaneously and <strong>of</strong>ten in totally separately<br />
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contexts. Thus, Tembe was simply the first music director to have the good fortune to<br />
contribute classical (actually semi-classical in Tembe’s case) tunes to a major hit drama,<br />
although he does deserve credit for having had the foresight to choose tunes based on the<br />
more palatable semi-classical Northern genres. <strong>The</strong> ground had to be prepared before<br />
audiences would accept naaTyapad-s based on the orthodox classical vocal forms.<br />
Of the two, Balgandharva is without a doubt the more fondly and well<br />
remembered figure than was Tembe, which is quite understandable given his onstage<br />
role. Tembe, <strong>by</strong> contrast, more frequently made his mark behind the scenes, though he<br />
too played on stage roles, for example when he played the hero opposite Balgandharva in<br />
the drama Vidhyaahaaran (1913), for which he again selected the tunes (with<br />
Balgandharva’s assistance). Balgandharva’s biggest contribution was as a popular and<br />
charismatic performer that defined all the roles he played and the role <strong>of</strong> the heroine<br />
generally for all his contemporaries and successors. I will discuss his musical style<br />
shortly, but it is important to mention that, as Ranade notes, beyond his wild popularity,<br />
Balgandharva was notable among the greats <strong>of</strong> stage music in that he not only spent his<br />
entire 50 odd year career playing female roles, unlike other male heroines that started<br />
playing child roles and ended their career playing male roles (perhaps performing as a<br />
heroine in between), he also never had any ambitions to sing outside <strong>of</strong> the dramatic<br />
context, in contrast again to most <strong>of</strong> his contemporaries who combined performing on the<br />
stage with performing in classical recitals (1986:65-66). One important change to the<br />
physical set-up <strong>of</strong> the Marathi theatre attributable to Balgandharva was that (in 1910), he<br />
decided to shift the accompanying musicians (generally a pedal-harmonium player and<br />
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percussionists) from the wings to a pit directly in front <strong>of</strong> the stage, which in turn<br />
increased the volume <strong>of</strong> the music and forced the singer-actor to step forward to the very<br />
front <strong>of</strong> the stage to be able to project his voice to the back <strong>of</strong> the hall. This was one very<br />
important factor in bringing about a scenario where the singer and the songs increasingly<br />
became the center <strong>of</strong> attention, a change that, in the estimation <strong>of</strong> many, compromised the<br />
integrity <strong>of</strong> the dramatic aspect <strong>of</strong> the plays. Balgandharva’s popularity, which <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
translated to repeated encores <strong>of</strong> certain tunes within the course <strong>of</strong> the dramas he starred<br />
in, not unlike the situation in European opera when certain star singers were obliged <strong>by</strong><br />
their audiences to repeat particular arias over and over, was another large factor in this<br />
general movement.<br />
It is a tribute to the success <strong>of</strong> Balgandharva that he was made a partner in the<br />
Kirloskar company in 1911, only to start up his own company two years later, the<br />
Gandharva Natak Mandali. During the period <strong>of</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> the Gandharva company, it<br />
staged several dramas which are <strong>of</strong> particular importance. <strong>The</strong> first was Samshaykallol<br />
written <strong>by</strong> G.B. Deval, the “dramatist-trainer-in-residence” for the Gandharva mandali<br />
who would later become a legend in his own right, notable for its story which is set in a<br />
(then) contemporary milieu and which featured a “cultured woman belonging to the<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional singer’s class”(Ranade 1986:68). More important for the present<br />
discussion, though, was the drama Swayamwara, for which the great khyaaliya<br />
Bhaskarbua Bakle was engaged to select the music. As Ranade writes, “Pt Bhaskarbua<br />
Bakhle, the legendary khyal-singer, selected tunes for the play and in this manner khyal-<br />
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music in all its majesty became a dominant shaping influence in the unfolding <strong>of</strong> Marathi<br />
stage-music”(ibid.:69). While Bhaksarbua was not the first music director to use<br />
khyaal-s as a pattern or base for naaTyapad-s, Deshpande notes an important difference<br />
between Bhaskarbua’s tunes and those utilized <strong>by</strong> Pandoba Yevateshwarikar, namely,<br />
that Bhaskarbua used common, what might be described as “middle <strong>of</strong> the road” ragas,<br />
ragas that were certainly classical (unlike the “Thumri ragas” used <strong>by</strong> Tembe) or, in other<br />
words, suitable for Khyal and Dhrupad, but that were also relatively common and<br />
relatively simple in terms <strong>of</strong> their structure, like Bhimpalasi, Bhoopali, Yemen, Kafi,<br />
Bihag, and Tilak-Kamod (1972:64). Not only were these ragas more palatable to theatre<br />
audiences than the “heavy raga”-based music <strong>of</strong> Pandit Yevateshwarikar, they also, as<br />
Ranade points out, were perfectly suited to Balgandharva and the “subtler shades <strong>of</strong><br />
controlled eroticism and melodiousness” which he opted for in contrast to his<br />
contemporaries.<br />
This, then, would almost complete the process <strong>by</strong> which naaTyapad-s became<br />
vehicles <strong>of</strong> intrinsic musical interest which, to a large extent, could stand alone, rather<br />
than as bits <strong>of</strong> dialogue or narration set to music. To again quote Deshpande, “[the] new<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> employing the song to deepen the emotional mood <strong>of</strong> its word-content, rather then<br />
to carry forward the flow <strong>of</strong> the narrative,” effectively pioneered <strong>by</strong> Tembe, was “now<br />
further accentuated <strong>by</strong> Bhaskarbuwa Bakhle…”(ibid.:63). <strong>The</strong>re is more to it than this,<br />
<strong>of</strong> course, as I have already described – many other figures besides Tembe and<br />
Bhaskarbua were involved in this process <strong>of</strong> classicizing the Marathi stage. Even<br />
Vishnudas Bhave tellingly referred to his music as “Ragiyat (i.e. <strong>of</strong> the Rag-mould),”<br />
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even though it was not at all classical in nature (Ranade 1986:15). This is not to say that<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> Khyal as the base <strong>of</strong> theatre music was an inevitability or that, from<br />
Bhaskarbua forward, every music director in Maharashtra used basically his same<br />
approach. On the contrary, there always were (before Swayamwar) and continued to be<br />
competing versions <strong>of</strong> Marathi music-drama. I also do not mean to suggest that Marathi<br />
naaTyapad ever, at any point in the history <strong>of</strong> the genre, grew into a full-fledged classical<br />
genre. <strong>The</strong>atre music always remained semi-classical because it never included true,<br />
classical-style abstract raga development. At best, stage singers like Balgandharva were<br />
masters at certain taan patterns, which, despite their intricacy, were not improvised and<br />
were based on certain stock patterns. <strong>The</strong> main focus <strong>of</strong> NaaTya Sangiit is not unlike<br />
Thumri, as Deshpande suggests. <strong>The</strong> idea is to develop a particular mood which the text<br />
describes. I do think it is noteworthy, however, that all the figures involved made such a<br />
push to develop an essentially limited form along classical lines.<br />
At any rate, to conclude this brief history <strong>of</strong> Marathi music-drama, the pattern<br />
established <strong>by</strong> Bhaskarbua would go on to effectively serve as the model for NaaTya<br />
Sangiit from Swyamwar forward. One large factor in the pervasiveness <strong>of</strong> this approach<br />
was the fact that two <strong>of</strong> the most important and influential music-directors outside <strong>of</strong><br />
Bhaskarbua were Tembe himself and Master Krishnarao (Krishna Phulumbrikar), both<br />
disciples <strong>of</strong> Bhaskarbua. It does not seem, based on the available sources, however, that<br />
the medium (music-drama), or at least the musical side <strong>of</strong> it, changed significantly after<br />
this high point. Although Balgandharva continued performing until 1944, Ranade feels<br />
that his last musical triumph came with the 1931 drama Kanhopatra, which is notable for<br />
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the use <strong>of</strong> abhang or Marathi devotional songs as the main form <strong>of</strong> music. As Ranade<br />
states, Balgandharva “extended their scope and enhanced their dignity on account <strong>of</strong> a<br />
discriminate enrichment <strong>of</strong> their elaborative possibilities”(1986:72). It is due to<br />
Balgandharva’s efforts, then, that abhang were to reach “concert status,” or in other<br />
words became part <strong>of</strong> the repertoire <strong>of</strong> classical musicians. Deshpande echoes this<br />
statement when he asserts that, due to the popularity <strong>of</strong> stage songs, “the Raga music <strong>of</strong><br />
the classical style brought about a steady but revolutionary change even in the non-<br />
classical or popular forms <strong>of</strong> music”(1972:41). Ranade does mention the efforts <strong>of</strong><br />
Gwalior singer Pandit Ramkrishnabua Vaze, both in tutoring some <strong>of</strong> the great singer-<br />
actors outside <strong>of</strong> Balgandharva, including Dinanath Mangeshkar (the father <strong>of</strong> record-<br />
setting Bollywood playback singer Lata Mangeshkar) and Keshavrao Bhonsle, and in<br />
putting somewhat <strong>of</strong> his own stamp on the classical-style theatre music with his use <strong>of</strong><br />
rare (acchop) ragas, fast tempos ( as opposed to the madhyalaya preferred <strong>by</strong><br />
Balgandharva and his music selectors), and even short aalaap-s to begin each piece<br />
(1986:80). For the most part, however, the death knell for the Marathi music-drama<br />
came with the advent <strong>of</strong> film in the 1930s, which, as Ranade explains, presented a<br />
popular alternative to stage dramas with which Sangiit NaaTak could never truly<br />
compete. This defeat was perhaps best symbolized <strong>by</strong> Balgandharva’s defection to work<br />
with the Marathi language film company Prabhat Films in 1934. After World War II, the<br />
music-drama would briefly revive and throw up some new stars, but it never again<br />
reached its pre-war heights. Today, I think it is fair to say that if music-dramas are<br />
performed at all, it is strictly on an amateur basis and for either historical or sentimental<br />
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purposes, although the music itself, as mentioned above, has found a place on the<br />
classical stage as a “tail-piece” genre. Prose-drama, for its part, however, continues to<br />
thrive with the “theatre crazy” audiences <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra.<br />
Before proceeding to the conclusion <strong>of</strong> this chapter, there are two more points to<br />
be made about NaaTya Sangiit. <strong>The</strong> first regards the singing style <strong>of</strong> some the great<br />
performers <strong>of</strong> the Marathi music-drama. I am particularly interested here, as in the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> Tagore’s music, in the adjectives that are used to describe the style and, more<br />
especially, the vocal timbre <strong>of</strong> these singers. I should note that as I will depend here for<br />
the most part again on Ashok Ranade’s work for this information, his words carry an<br />
authority that goes beyond his erudition as a scholar. That is, since Ranade is very much<br />
a Maharashtrian and a classically-trained singer, one can argue that his descriptions are<br />
not only to be seen as his attempt to objectively describe what he heard from (or read<br />
about) these artists. <strong>The</strong>y also, to a large extent, can be taken as example <strong>of</strong> how a<br />
specifically Maharashtrian person would describe his own culture and traditions – a point<br />
which is just as true <strong>of</strong> Sukumar Ray or Chhaya Chatterjee on the Bengali side. At any<br />
rate, the point I would like to make here is a rather simple one regarding the approaches<br />
<strong>of</strong> those singers who worked in their prime as heroes and those, typified <strong>of</strong> course <strong>by</strong><br />
Balgandharva, who are primarily remembered as heroines. First, though, I should state<br />
very clearly that what most distinguishes the vocal approach <strong>of</strong> Marathi stage singers<br />
versus either non-Maharashtrian classical vocalists and singers <strong>of</strong> semi-classical music <strong>of</strong><br />
other regions is the relatively high tessitura employed <strong>by</strong> theatre singers. As K.P.<br />
Mukherjee explained to me, most classical, gharaanedaar vocalists (prior to the advent<br />
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<strong>of</strong> large numbers <strong>of</strong> Marathi singers in the field <strong>of</strong> Khyal) would never use a tonic pitch<br />
higher than concert C or C# in Western terms. However, stage singers were compelled<br />
<strong>by</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> the halls they performed in to use whatever means possible to make<br />
themselves audible to every audience member, no matter how far from the stage. So, this<br />
necessitated the higher pitch (as high as F or G above concert C), along with a rather<br />
pointed vocal delivery, since unlike in Khyal, intelligibility was also an important<br />
consideration. <strong>The</strong>se are factors that were an issue for heroes and heroines alike.<br />
For the heroes, we see a consistent use <strong>of</strong> terms that, not surprisingly, emphasize<br />
their masculine qualities. Thus, regarding Dattopant Halyalkar, Ranade begins,<br />
“Endowed with a ‘he-man’ physique and matching vocal resources, Halyalkar could play<br />
each [hero] role that Bhaurao [Kolhatkar] had played with unfailing impact and<br />
authenticity.” Ranade also adds, “Such was the power <strong>of</strong> his voice that to get an adequate<br />
drone it was necessary for him to employ two or more large-sized pedal<br />
harmoniums!”(1986:61). Along these same lines, Ranade’s description <strong>of</strong> Keshavrao<br />
Bhonsle merits being quoted at length:<br />
…Bhonsle’s fame rests on his achievement <strong>by</strong> creating a forceful, iterative<br />
singing-style which laid emphasis on skillful execution <strong>of</strong> tans…and an overall<br />
tone <strong>of</strong> aggression in music…<br />
Once he had established his own dramatic troupe, the Lalitakaladarsh in 1908, he<br />
re-affirmed his distinctive singing-style in Rakshasi Mahatvakansha (1913, Veer<br />
Vamanrao Joshi), a play <strong>of</strong> clashing swords, matching intrigues and dialogues.<br />
Music-wise the play totally depended on tunes bodily lifted from the other<br />
popular melodies from Manapaman and other categories <strong>of</strong> Hindustani art-music.<br />
It was Bhonsle’s masculine style that made the impact. His pronunciation <strong>of</strong><br />
words was forceful, the voice-production relied heavily on an open A-vowel and<br />
the tans were executed with marked stress (the extra punch being added through<br />
jaw-movements). Thus, the cumulative musical experience was <strong>of</strong> a bold, earfilling<br />
singing that assaulted one with a view to conquer into an aesthetic<br />
submission (ibid.:65).<br />
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Of “Master” Dinanath (Mangeshkar), Ranade notes he was both influenced <strong>by</strong> Bhonsle<br />
and that, even at an early stage <strong>of</strong> his career, Dinanath’s “presentations were marked <strong>by</strong><br />
an unmistakable flash and aggression in singing…”(ibid,:76).<br />
<strong>The</strong> voice <strong>of</strong> Balgandharva, the archetypical heroine <strong>of</strong> the Marathi music-drama,<br />
is conversely described as “s<strong>of</strong>t” and “sweet” and his overall approach as “textually<br />
smooth, structurally intricate and rhythmically unstressed though complex”(ibid.:69). In<br />
the same context, in regard to BG’s evolving style Ranade says, “In Swayamwar, he<br />
picked up the essentials <strong>of</strong> rag-music but also succeeding in replacing the high<br />
seriousness associated with art-music, with a balanced sweetness.” Also important is<br />
Ranade’s assertion that in lieu <strong>of</strong> any “great variety” in term <strong>of</strong> pitch, timbre, “it was the<br />
melodic continuity, an uninterrupted flow, that was the supreme ruling principal <strong>of</strong> his<br />
even music”(ibid.:70).<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are two smaller but nonetheless important points that need be made about<br />
this these descriptions. First, it is tempting to attribute these two differing categories or<br />
approaches to the practical needs <strong>of</strong> the theatre, that is, to the need for differentiation<br />
between male and female roles that were both exclusively played <strong>by</strong> male actors until late<br />
in the history <strong>of</strong> the music-drama. Also, one could add the fact that while Marathi theatre<br />
as a whole, both prose- and music-theatre, generally moved toward a more and more<br />
realistic approach to important factors such as plot, scenery, costuming, etc., as time<br />
passed, the typical music-drama still tended to focus on gods and demons and the clash<br />
between mostly stereotypical characters representing ideal types and rigid dichotomies.<br />
This much is, <strong>of</strong> course, true, but this separation between the two extremes <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t and<br />
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sweet singing versus “robust,” “masculine,” and “aggressive” singing, corresponds very<br />
closely to the two types <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian Khyal singers I proposed in chapter 4. To<br />
briefly reiterate, I argue there that Marathi (or Maharashtra-based) Khyal singers could be<br />
divided into, on one hand, those that favor a sweet, highly emotional, and somewhat more<br />
simple style and emphasize karuNaa ras, such as Vishnu Digambar Paluskar, Abdul<br />
Karim Khan, or Kumar Gandharva, and on the other, singers who combine the<br />
Agra/Gwalior and Jaipur gharana styles, which results in an overall approach that favors<br />
an aggressive, forceful, open-throated style and which features complex rhythmic play,<br />
intricate taankaari, and an emphasis on viir ras (mood <strong>of</strong> heroism/valour). Whether or<br />
not stage music influenced Khyal in this manner or vice-versa, it is clear that this duality<br />
is a deeply embedded aspect <strong>of</strong> Marathi musical culture.<br />
Also, although I will address this point more in the next chapter, one could easily<br />
argue that the aesthetic values embodied in Balgandharva’s music (or one <strong>of</strong> the above<br />
classical singers) are more or less identical to those which dominate Bengali regional<br />
(and classical) music, i.e. “s<strong>of</strong>tness,” “sweetness,” “pathos.” This is true to a large<br />
extent. However, I would like to emphasize that despite this overlap, there is still<br />
something different in this approach in the Maharashtrian context. Ranade’s statement<br />
that BG’s voice, in spite <strong>of</strong> a certain lack <strong>of</strong> “robustness” and diction that was “not<br />
forceful,” “possessed an adequate reach and the speech too had sort <strong>of</strong> a clipped clarity to<br />
it”(ibid.:66), takes us much <strong>of</strong> the way to answer. What I take from this, as well as from<br />
listening to recordings <strong>of</strong> Balgandharva in contrast to performers <strong>of</strong> Bengali music, is<br />
that, while BG’s voice was sweet <strong>by</strong> any standard, there remains a forcefulness and,<br />
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especially, a quality <strong>of</strong> pointedness, nasality, and clarity that is not there in the typical<br />
Tagore singer’s (or the singer <strong>of</strong> any other type <strong>of</strong> Bengali regional music’s) voice. It is<br />
this type <strong>of</strong> fine distinction that helps greatly in understanding the fundamental<br />
differences between Bengali and Maharashtrian aesthetic values, even if, in regards to<br />
BG specifically, it can be partly attributed to the lack <strong>of</strong> microphones for much <strong>of</strong> his<br />
career or the influence <strong>of</strong> classical vocal timbres on his own vocal approach.<br />
<strong>The</strong> remaining point about NaaTya Sangiit to be made here concerns its<br />
relationship with the Hindustani classical tradition in Maharashtra, which boils down<br />
primarily to the tradition <strong>of</strong> Khyal singing. Obviously, as described above, Marathi<br />
theatre music has been strongly influenced <strong>by</strong> classical vocal music. <strong>The</strong> question is how<br />
and to what extent theatre music has influenced or affected classical music. This<br />
question can be approached in two ways: first, in specifically musical terms, in other<br />
words, whether or not the style and performance practice <strong>of</strong> NaaTya Sangiit has impacted<br />
the way that Maharashtrian classical singers sing Khyal; and, second, whether the<br />
popularity <strong>of</strong> NaaTya Sangiit, a form derivative <strong>of</strong> Khyal, Thumri, daadraa, etc., has<br />
attracted listeners to classical music, drawn listeners away, or had no real impact. <strong>The</strong><br />
first question is much harder to answer. Many <strong>of</strong> my informants felt that NaaTya Sangiit<br />
has indeed had an impact on the style <strong>of</strong> Marathi classical singers, though some argued<br />
that it had not. For those that felt that it had, most had a hard time pinpointing exactly<br />
what that influence was, beyond the use <strong>of</strong> higher than usual tonic pitch. Bombay-based<br />
Khyal singer and commercial music composer Devki Pandit felt strongly that “there is a<br />
definite tonal shift” when you hear someone singing NaaTya Sangiit compared to<br />
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someone singing Khyal or Thumri in the idiomatic North Indian style. She had some<br />
difficulty describing this “tonal shift” beyond saying that she felt that “Maharashtrians go<br />
a little nasal”(interview, 2005), although she was able to demonstrate these differences<br />
rather helpfully with her own voice. Veena Sahasrabuddhe felt that the influence came in<br />
the style <strong>of</strong> tana used <strong>by</strong> many Maharashtrian singers, a style she described as<br />
“circular”(interview, 2005). 113<br />
More typical <strong>of</strong> my informants’ responses along these lines, however, was when<br />
Babanrao Haldankar told me that the theatre music approach “creeps in” to the singing <strong>of</strong><br />
many Marathi khyaaliya-s, without specifying anything beyond that. <strong>The</strong> real problem is<br />
that, not surprisingly, not a single vocalist I met in Bombay or Pune ever told me that<br />
they had purposely brought anything from NaaTya Sangiit into their style <strong>of</strong> performing<br />
Khyal. And, in addition, among those who felt that some Marathi Khyal singers had been<br />
influenced <strong>by</strong> NaaTya Sangiit, none <strong>of</strong> them were willing to point out any such<br />
performers <strong>by</strong> name. So, while some provided me with some clues to help in the process<br />
<strong>of</strong> figuring out what had come into Khyal from the theatre music tradition, it was left to<br />
me as an outside observer to search for correspondences from the performances and<br />
recordings to which I have had access. This is a question I will postpone until the next<br />
chapter, where I will examine the whole range <strong>of</strong> regional factors which come to bear on<br />
the style <strong>of</strong> classical musicians in both Maharashtra and Bengal. Along these lines, I<br />
should note that I intend to take the same approach in the case <strong>of</strong> Bengali khyaaliya-s and<br />
Rabindrasangiit as with Marathi vocalists and theatre music. However, in the Bengali<br />
113 In more concrete terms, this would be a taan that repeats 3, 4, or 5 pitches is a loop, for example (in<br />
scale degrees), 123212321… or 1767121767121…<br />
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case it seems more likely that any correspondences in the style and performance practice<br />
between these two genres represent a shared common influence rather than any direct<br />
influence <strong>of</strong> the semi-classical on the classical, as is arguably true <strong>of</strong> the situation in<br />
Maharashtra. This is due to the fact that singers <strong>of</strong> Khyal generally do not sing<br />
Rabindrasangiit and vice-versa, as opposed to Maharashtra where most singer-actors<br />
were also classical performers. Tagore music is a tradition in its own right, but there are<br />
very few NaaTya Sangiit specialists, especially now in the 21 st century.<br />
<strong>The</strong> answer to the other question, whether music-drama had impacted the<br />
popularity <strong>of</strong> Khyal in Maharashtra, is quite simply yes, and the impact was a positive<br />
one. Virtually every musician I interviewed for this project, Maharashtrian, Bengali, or<br />
otherwise, at least mentioned NaaTya Sangiit as a very important reason why Khyal had<br />
become so much more prevalent in Maharashtra than in Bengal. <strong>The</strong> written sources I<br />
have consulted also agree unanimously on this point. G.H. Ranade again <strong>of</strong>fers a fairly<br />
representative view on this issue when he writes,<br />
<strong>The</strong> tunes <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the beautiful Hindustani Chij-s [khyal compositions] in<br />
simple but charming Raga-s were adopted for Marathi songs which the audience<br />
could easily understand and so the desire to learn the original Hindustani Chij-s<br />
began to take hold <strong>of</strong> the minds <strong>of</strong> the musically gifted section <strong>of</strong> the audience.<br />
Thus one <strong>of</strong>ten came across persons who though lacking any training in classical<br />
music had mastered the technique <strong>of</strong> raga-music through the medium <strong>of</strong> these<br />
Marathi songs (1967:41).<br />
On many occasions during my stays in Bombay and Pune, this relationship between<br />
classical music and theatre music was put across to me in various conversations, and<br />
generally in just about these terms. Most <strong>of</strong>ten I was told that someone could get<br />
acquainted with a naaTyapad based on a particular Khyal composition in the context <strong>of</strong> a<br />
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drama and then hear the composition in its original form and that this, then, created a<br />
fondness and comfort-level with a difficult and intricate type <strong>of</strong> music that would not<br />
have been possible otherwise. Although I doubt this exact scenario played out very <strong>of</strong>ten,<br />
even in the heyday <strong>of</strong> music-drama, the basic point is absolutely true. NaaTya Sangiit is<br />
in one sense a watered–down version <strong>of</strong> classical music, but in terms <strong>of</strong> its musical<br />
substance, the relationship between Khyal and NaaTya Sangiit is clear even for those<br />
who cannot verbalize or describe the similarities. <strong>The</strong> Marathi lyrics and the tie in with a<br />
drama are the hook, the proverbial sugar to help make the medicine palatable, so to<br />
speak, but the original base for each naaTyapad is still intact and identifiable. Also, it<br />
could not have hurt that, since many <strong>of</strong> Mahrashtra’s greatest Khyal singers from the turn<br />
<strong>of</strong> the century until the 1950s or early 60s also acted on stage, the audiences in those days<br />
would already have been familiarized with a particular artist’s persona and stage-<br />
presence before ever attending a classical recital. Ranade’s assertion that some people<br />
“had mastered the technique <strong>of</strong> Raga-music” <strong>by</strong> listening to NaaTya Sangiit is a bit <strong>of</strong> a<br />
stretch, but the truth is that one does not need a thorough understanding <strong>of</strong> ragas to<br />
appreciate classical music. In this way, music drama, in its day at least, likely produced<br />
as many ‘Kansens’ as Paluskar’s music schools ever did.<br />
Conclusion: Newcomers and Inheritors<br />
At this juncture, I would like to return to Bourdieu in order to tie together the<br />
various strands I have brought forward in this chapter up to this point. Thus far, I have<br />
made use <strong>of</strong> Bourdieu’s formulations primarily as a means <strong>of</strong> getting at not only those<br />
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types <strong>of</strong> music are preferred <strong>by</strong> particular “class fractions” from a more abstract, cross-<br />
cultural basis but also why. Bourdieu is fairly clear and straightforward in this regard,<br />
explaining that taste ultimately corresponds to social class in the sense that more<br />
privileged classes not only have more leisure time to learn about and consume art<br />
generally, including music, they also, for this very reason, are more likely able to<br />
appreciate and understand forms <strong>of</strong> art that are detached from every day realities, in other<br />
words, art that is abstract, self-referential, and not driven <strong>by</strong> moral and/or ethical<br />
imperatives, such as the need to portray something that is conventionally thought <strong>of</strong> as<br />
beautiful. While this is merely a subsidiary point in Bourdieu’s larger analysis, it has<br />
been useful in the present context, concerned as we are about the hierarchy <strong>of</strong> musical<br />
genres in India, which, unlike France, is thoroughly multi-cultural in nature (and always<br />
has been) and where there is much less consensus regarding what forms <strong>of</strong> culture should<br />
be properly viewed as high or low. Bourdieu’s larger project in Distinction, however, is,<br />
as he states, to uncover the social nature <strong>of</strong> taste in order to demonstrate that it is in the<br />
best interests <strong>of</strong> those who are at the top <strong>of</strong> the socio-cultural hierarchy to conceal this<br />
fact, as they would prefer that both their position in the hierarchy, along with the<br />
positioning <strong>of</strong> other classes below them is correct, natural, and inevitable. Concealing the<br />
social nature <strong>of</strong> taste is a means for the elite to both gain and maintain power, in the<br />
broadest sense <strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> the present study, my intention is not simply to state, for example, that<br />
Tagore songs are thoroughly “middle-brow” in nature, and so if Bengalis want to place<br />
his music on the level <strong>of</strong> classical music, they are sadly mistaken. Bourdieu himself<br />
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would no doubt reject such an overly-simplistic and reductionist take on his work. <strong>The</strong><br />
point, rather, is to try to understand why, to continue with the same example, Tagore’s<br />
proponents make these claims. In other words, my intention is not to judge these genres<br />
<strong>of</strong> music in terms <strong>of</strong> high and low, but instead to begin to understand why music-lovers,<br />
be they musicians, musicologists, critics, or otherwise, in India make the judgments that<br />
they do and, <strong>by</strong> extension, why the audiences in Bengal and Maharashtra support the<br />
genres and artists that they do. <strong>The</strong> easiest way to get at this is simply to ask people why<br />
they feel the way that they do about any type or genre <strong>of</strong> music, but another virtue <strong>of</strong><br />
Bourdieu’s work is that he demonstrates that most <strong>of</strong> these value judgments are<br />
subconscious in nature, hence his observation that those who have greatest familiarity<br />
with a particular art-form in terms <strong>of</strong> early and sustained contact from the earliest stages<br />
<strong>of</strong> their life are also the least likely to verbalize about it. For this reason, then, it is up to<br />
the analyst to gather all the evidence they have at their disposal in order to develop a<br />
reading <strong>of</strong> the situation.<br />
While Bourdieu’s analyses are not always entirely lucid or straightforward, his<br />
methodology, for the most part, is. What he has done in Distinction is, first, to determine<br />
the nature <strong>of</strong> the class structure in France; next, to find out (through extensive surveying)<br />
the forms <strong>of</strong> culture they consume or patronize; and, then, finally, to determine the<br />
correspondences between these two realms. It would be difficult, if not impossible, for<br />
me to replicate Bourdieu’s approach exactly, as I neither have access to detailed<br />
statistical information regarding the Indian class structure as a whole, nor do I have the<br />
sociological training which would allow me to interpret such a vast body <strong>of</strong> data.<br />
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Fortunately, I am dealing here with a greatly delimited body <strong>of</strong> information in<br />
comparison with Bourdieu, concerned as I am with the classical and semi-classical genres<br />
<strong>of</strong> pan-North India and the audiences which patronize them, not the entirety <strong>of</strong> Indian<br />
culture. Also, while I do not have a great deal <strong>of</strong> statistical information regarding the<br />
“class fractions” present in Maharashtra and West Bengal states, I am confident <strong>of</strong> one<br />
very important fact, that the audiences <strong>of</strong> classical and semi-classical music in both states<br />
are similar enough to be taken as identical – not in terms <strong>of</strong> numbers but in terms <strong>of</strong> their<br />
composition. I asked each one <strong>of</strong> my informants in 2005 about their experiences with<br />
and opinions <strong>of</strong> audiences in Bombay, Pune, and Calcutta, and they almost unanimously<br />
agreed regarding the basic distribution <strong>of</strong> listeners. In each city, there are a small number<br />
<strong>of</strong> connoisseurs who primarily patronize classical music and much larger group <strong>of</strong> more<br />
casual listeners who divide their attentions between classical and semi-classical genres<br />
and who can be broadly described as middle class. Of course, this leaves aside other<br />
variables, such as which state has a larger middle class and how many middle class<br />
people in each state patronize other forms <strong>of</strong> music, either exclusively or in combination<br />
with classical and semi-classical music, but these again are not crucial here.<br />
When we compare the respective cases <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra and Bengal, then, we find<br />
an apparent contradiction, at least in terms <strong>of</strong> Bourdieu’s theories. That is, <strong>by</strong> percentage,<br />
middle class Maharashtrian listeners seem to patronize classical music more frequently<br />
than their Bengali counterparts. I say this not based on statistical evidence, again, but<br />
rather on the observations <strong>of</strong> both my informants and from evidence provided <strong>by</strong> scholars<br />
such as Sukumar Ray. Perhaps the biggest or most important difference between<br />
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Rabindrasangiit and Marathi NaaTya Sangiit, beyond their strictly musical differences<br />
(such as, for example, how faithfully they each make use <strong>of</strong> classical ragas), is the fact<br />
that Tagore music is a tradition in its own right, while NaaTya Sangiit began as one<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> theatrical presentations and as that form <strong>of</strong> theatre declined, later became<br />
relegated (or elevated, in the view <strong>of</strong> some) to the status <strong>of</strong> “tail-piece” genre heard most<br />
frequently in classical recitals within the state <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra and rarely outside. That<br />
Tagore music is a tradition distinct and totally separate from the Hindustani classical<br />
tradition is not a controversial one – Ray says as much with his comments about<br />
“Tagorians” and the “system <strong>of</strong> performance” <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s music that requires “a definite<br />
type <strong>of</strong> training”(1973:184). <strong>The</strong> bigger question here, though, is whether or not the<br />
Tagore song tradition is compatible with classical music, and the answer again appears to<br />
be no. Based on both personal observation and on the anecdotal evidence provided <strong>by</strong><br />
my informants, it is clear that Khyal singers rarely if ever sing Tagore songs, and vice-<br />
versa. Yes, Buddhadev Dasgupta plays sarod gat-s based on certain Tagore songs, but<br />
the fact is that he is an instrumentalist, not a singer, and as such, does not have to concern<br />
himself in the very different ways <strong>of</strong> using the voice required <strong>by</strong> Khyal and<br />
Rabindrasangiit. That, <strong>of</strong> course, is not to mention the fact that even among<br />
instrumentalists, only a handful have actually ever performed Tagore songs in any form<br />
on the classical stage. Thus as Nayan Ghosh said, “those who are into Rabindrasangiit in<br />
Bengal, deeply into Rabindrasangiit, have somehow alienated themselves from the<br />
classical music scene,” while, conversely, “those who are strictly into classical music in<br />
Bengal have generally shown very little interest in Rabindrasangiit”(interview, 2005).<br />
405
One might object that considering the pr<strong>of</strong>ound differences between NaaTya<br />
Sangiit and Rabindrasangiit, they are not really comparable. Indeed, the closest parallel<br />
between Marathi NaaTya Sangiit and any Bengali semi-classical genre is between it and<br />
Bengali Raag Pradhaan (songs where “raga is dominant”). Raag Pradhaan songs<br />
resemble Marathi theatre songs in the sense that both resemble chhoTaa khyal-s (in terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> factors such as tempo, the use <strong>of</strong> certain talas, etc.), both feature a fairly orthodox<br />
rendering <strong>of</strong> the ragas on which they are based, and both are pre-composed, including the<br />
taan patterns that are characteristic to each and that serve as the main form <strong>of</strong> classical-<br />
style ornamentation in both cases. Nayan Ghosh even went so far as to liken the late<br />
Gyanendra Goswami, the prime exponent <strong>of</strong> Raag Pradhaan in the early 20th century to<br />
Balgandharva (interview, 2005). <strong>The</strong> difference, however, is that Raag Pradhaan was<br />
always a “stand alone” musical genre, and, likely to due this, it never approached NaaTya<br />
Sangiit in terms <strong>of</strong> popularity, pervasiveness, or relevance in terms <strong>of</strong> classical music<br />
(Raag Pradhaan is also not commonly used as a “tail-piece” genre now, if it ever was).<br />
Dhruba Ghosh, in fact, voiced precisely this opinion during our interview, that if Raag<br />
Pradhaan compositions had been associated with theatre as in the Marathi case, they<br />
would have performed the same function <strong>of</strong> attracting listeners to Khyal as NaaTya<br />
Sangiit has (interview, 2005). Conversely, if there were a semi-classical tradition in<br />
Maharashtra that resembled Rabindrasangiit in the sense that Tagore music is, again, an<br />
independent tradition, with its own distinct system <strong>of</strong> performance practice and its own<br />
tradition <strong>of</strong> singers who exclusively perform Tagore songs, then that would <strong>of</strong> course be<br />
the logical comparison.<br />
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This is rather the point, though. In Maharashtra, the most important semi-<br />
classical genre started out as theatre music, but despite the limitations <strong>of</strong> its function and<br />
context, was ultimately shaped into an increasingly classical form over time <strong>by</strong> its<br />
practitioners, who in a majority <strong>of</strong> cases were themselves classical singers, while in<br />
Bengal the similarly most important genre is one that, while it is based in part on classical<br />
music, comprises a separate tradition which has very little overlap with the classical<br />
traditions. I asked many <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors if they felt that Rabindrasangiit had actually<br />
drawn prospective students and future performers away from classical music, rather than<br />
existing merely as an unrelated type <strong>of</strong> music that is more or less irrelevant in the context<br />
<strong>of</strong> classical music (like devotional songs or film songs), and I should note that I based<br />
this inquiry on a quote I read from Kumar Gandharva in a Marathi biography <strong>of</strong> Bhimsen<br />
Joshi, where, regarding the state <strong>of</strong> Khyal in Bengal, KG stated that he felt many<br />
potential Khyal singers in Bengal had been diverted <strong>by</strong> Rabindrasangiit, which can be<br />
learned more easily and quickly and which brings greater financial rewards. 114 I received<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> different responses to this question. <strong>The</strong> most humorous came from sarodist<br />
and Ali Akbar Khan disciple Anindya Banerjee, who agreed that this might have been the<br />
case in the past, but that now, thanks to both the declining technical standards <strong>of</strong> classical<br />
musicians and the large number <strong>of</strong> listeners who cannot differentiate high quality<br />
performances from amateurish performances, it is almost as easy to launch a career in<br />
classical music as in Rabindrasangiit. Dipali Nag, for her part, felt that there were a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> reasons that Bengalis did not pursue Khyal singing as frequently as<br />
114 see Potdar (2002:84-86)<br />
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Maharashtrians, but she did agree that the fact that “Bengalis are still completely<br />
submerged” in Tagore’s songs was likely one important factor in this regard (interview,<br />
2005). More <strong>of</strong>ten, though, my interlocutors were equivocal, stating that the popularity<br />
<strong>of</strong> Tagore’s songs possibly has drawn listeners and students away from students, but, at<br />
the same time, that they could not say for sure. None, however, ever seriously challenged<br />
the notion that the Tagore song tradition was totally separate and independent from<br />
classical vocal music.<br />
Perhaps the most striking example <strong>of</strong> the role that Tagore’s music plays in the life<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Bengali middle class came from sitarist Partho Bose. As he explained, middle<br />
class Bengalis tend to see the arts as secondary to education, and as such, Tagore songs<br />
are perfect as they are not as demanding time-wise (in terms <strong>of</strong> practice required) as<br />
classical music is, which means that a young student can demonstrate their knowledge<br />
much more quickly and easily while learning Tagore music rather than classical music<br />
(interview, 2005). This statement is all the more telling, though, when we compare it to<br />
the Maharashtrian example where, despite the hardships <strong>of</strong> classical music training,<br />
Khyal singing so <strong>of</strong>ten plays the role <strong>of</strong> providing culture and well-roundedness to young,<br />
middle class students, especially females. 115 Bourdieu himself notes that there is “no<br />
more ‘classificatory’ practice than…playing a ‘noble’ instrument” (1984:18), i.e. a<br />
classical instrument, such as the piano or violin. What I am arguing, then, is that this<br />
‘culture providing’ function, which in many (if not most) cultures in India and elsewhere<br />
is filled <strong>by</strong> an essentially classical tradition, especially music (though dance and other art<br />
115<br />
Pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> this is the large number <strong>of</strong> high-level female Khyal singers in Maharashtra, many <strong>of</strong> whom are<br />
married and have children.<br />
408
forms can also fill this role), has been usurped in Bengal <strong>by</strong> an essentially non-classical<br />
(at best semi-classical) genre. This, again, is a telling contrast to Maharashtra, where,<br />
according to Veena Sahasrabuddhe, girls take up learning Khyal even more commonly<br />
than males because girls (and, more importantly, their parents) typically know that they<br />
will not be counted on as bread winners, and thus, can afford to learn and practice a<br />
difficult and esoteric art form, one which takes many years to master and in which<br />
financial success is far from guaranteed (interview, 2005).<br />
This <strong>of</strong> course still leaves the apparent contradiction that same or equivalent<br />
“class fractions” in Bengal and Maharashtra prefer not only different types <strong>of</strong> semi-<br />
classical genres and classical genres (Rabindrasangiit and instrumental music in Bengal,<br />
NaaTya Sangiit and Khyal in Maharahstra) but also but also in different numbers, as<br />
more Bengalis than Marathis seem to prefer semi-classical music in lieu <strong>of</strong> or in place <strong>of</strong><br />
classical music, although my best guess is that in both states, middle-class audiences<br />
prefer some combination <strong>of</strong> semi-classical and classical genres. This contradiction is<br />
only apparent, however, as Bourdieu clearly explains that he is “aware <strong>of</strong> the dangers <strong>of</strong> a<br />
facile search for partial equivalences” between different cultures and that “the system <strong>of</strong><br />
distinctive features which express or reveal economic and social differences…varies<br />
considerably from one period, and one society, to another”(1984:xii). Thus, to<br />
understand these differences, which might not appear to be great in the broader Indian<br />
perspective, we have to factor in the many important differences that prevail between<br />
modern India and Bourdieu’s France. Briefly stated, these are differences that are<br />
historical and cultural, as much as economic. Of these, the historical aspect is most<br />
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important, although history for the most part is neglected <strong>by</strong> Bourdieu. <strong>The</strong> lack <strong>of</strong><br />
history in Bourdieu’s own analyses is <strong>by</strong> no means a glaring oversight, though; his<br />
intention was to draw a picture <strong>of</strong> how economic class correlates with taste in modern<br />
France. This is a big enough task without having to describe the centuries <strong>of</strong> political,<br />
cultural, and economic developments that led up to the system which Bourdieu details.<br />
He does examine how individuals that move from one class to another have to adjust<br />
their cultural practices accordingly, but otherwise his analysis is in purely synchronic<br />
terms. However, without adding history to the equation in the present context, there is<br />
little in Bourdieu’s theory that would account for the differences in question between<br />
Maharashtrian and Bengali audiences and performers – it is only in the last century,<br />
perhaps even only in the last few decades, that the middle classes in these two<br />
states/regions have come to resemble each other (and the middle classes in other regions<br />
<strong>of</strong> India) as closely as they do.<br />
In discussing the uniqueness <strong>of</strong> music relative to other cultural forms and<br />
practices, Bourdieu makes a distinction in passing that I feel is <strong>of</strong> great importance here,<br />
though he neither explores in detail nor does he allude to it again in any other context.<br />
<strong>The</strong> distinction in question is “inheritors” versus “newcomers”(1983:19). 116 Again, he<br />
does not expand on this pair <strong>of</strong> terms, but based on his assertion that “‘musical culture’ is<br />
something other than a quantity <strong>of</strong> knowledge and experiences combined with the<br />
116 As Bourdieu writes, “For an adequate interpretation <strong>of</strong> what would be implied in a table correlating<br />
occupation, age or sex with a preference for the Well-Tempered Clavier or Concerto for the Left Hand, one<br />
has to break both with the blind use <strong>of</strong> indicators and with spurious, essentialist analyses which are merely<br />
the universalizing <strong>of</strong> a particular experience, in order to make completely specific the multiple,<br />
contradictory meanings which these works take on at a given moment for the totality <strong>of</strong> social agents and in<br />
particular for the categories <strong>of</strong> individuals whom they distinguish or who differ with respect to them (in this<br />
particular case the ‘inheritors’ and the ‘newcomers’)(1983:19)<br />
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capacity to talk about them”(ibid.:19), Bourdieu seems to be suggesting that music is one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the most, if not the most, difficult type <strong>of</strong> art or cultural practice about which to<br />
verbalize and, thus, the area in which it is the most difficult for newcomers, i.e. social<br />
climbers, to catch up, so to speak. This is perhaps as true <strong>of</strong> the raga-based music <strong>of</strong><br />
North India as any type <strong>of</strong> classical music around the world. Raagdhaari music is both<br />
extremely complex and subtle, in the sense that true appreciation consists not only <strong>of</strong><br />
understanding the differences between one artist’s interpretations over time or between<br />
those <strong>of</strong> one artist and those <strong>of</strong> another, it also means appreciating the differences<br />
between genres, the stylistic approaches <strong>of</strong> different gharanas, and most importantly, the<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten minute differences that separate one raga from another. Mastery <strong>of</strong> such a complex<br />
system, even from the standpoint <strong>of</strong> the listener, requires in most cases not only lifelong<br />
membership in the culture to which it belongs, but also life-long familiarity with the<br />
music itself.<br />
This in turn brings up another important difference between India on the one hand<br />
and France and other Western capitalist societies on the other. In India, economic class<br />
correlates much, much less closely with cultural practice than in France. <strong>The</strong> most<br />
obvious example <strong>of</strong> this, one that is particularly relevant in this context, is the fact that<br />
many <strong>of</strong> the wealthiest groups in modern India are not known as patrons <strong>of</strong> classical<br />
music. Shruti Sadolikar indicated as much when, in the context <strong>of</strong> a discussion about<br />
classical music patronage, she explained that today, the wealthiest merchants in Bombay,<br />
many <strong>of</strong> whom are Gujurati and Marwari, prefer “the lightest forms <strong>of</strong> music” such as<br />
film music over classical music, vocal or instrumental (interview, 2005). She also<br />
411
indicated that as late as 25 years ago, this same broad group <strong>of</strong> people supported both<br />
theatre, including the Parsi-Gujurati theatre and the Marathi music-drama, and classical<br />
music. <strong>The</strong>re has been a shift, then, in the values and aesthetic preferences <strong>of</strong> this group<br />
over time. To explain this shift is outside the scope <strong>of</strong> the present study, but it will<br />
suffice here to note that, in India, those with the greatest economic power do not always<br />
find it necessary to express or demonstrate this power through patronage <strong>of</strong> classical<br />
music. Having said this, however, I do not mean to suggest that there is no clear<br />
relationship between economic class and taste in India; this would be denying the validity<br />
<strong>of</strong> Bourdieu’s work. <strong>The</strong>re is some correlation, no doubt, but along with economic class,<br />
we have to take into account other factors unique to India – factors which have taken on<br />
less importance in modern Indian society generally, but which have played their own role<br />
in shaping the present cultural scene, the most notable <strong>of</strong> which is caste - to arrive at a<br />
satisfactory analysis.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first factor I would like to mention is the historical impact <strong>of</strong> colonialism. As<br />
many scholars have pointed out, the British, save for a few notable exceptions, took a dim<br />
view <strong>of</strong> Indian music and for the most part disregarded it. However, while the impact <strong>of</strong><br />
British culture on classical Indian music was indirect, it was still pr<strong>of</strong>ound. As Ashok<br />
Ranade has written,<br />
<strong>The</strong> chronological gaps between the felt and actual British influence exist in<br />
varying proportions in different regions <strong>of</strong> India. This is one <strong>of</strong> the main factors<br />
causally related to the fascinating spectacle <strong>of</strong> India remaining a single nation but<br />
simultaneously registering an impact <strong>of</strong> a cultural federation. <strong>The</strong>re is no doubt<br />
that the unmistakable cultural confrontation triggered <strong>of</strong>f <strong>by</strong> the British presence<br />
evoked some responses and reactions that were more or less common throughout<br />
the country. Yet, the cultural dynamics as it surfaced through literature, art,<br />
412
attitudes toward change and such comparable items differed from one region to<br />
the other (1986:2).<br />
It is hard to argue that this impact was no more pr<strong>of</strong>oundly felt in Bengal than in any<br />
other region, mostly because it was felt there first, certainly much earlier than in<br />
Maharashtra. <strong>The</strong> British effected many sweeping changes and reforms from their<br />
earliest years in India, and to a large extent, Bengal served as a laboratory for the British,<br />
who learned from both their successes and failures there and applied these lessons to the<br />
regions which would come under their control later in the 19th century.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the most important early acts <strong>of</strong> the British Raj in Bengal, one that had a<br />
particularly direct and important impact on classical music patronage was the “Permanent<br />
Settlement <strong>of</strong> 1793.” To briefly explain, this measure was enacted after a particularly<br />
severe famine in 1770 which forced the British <strong>of</strong>ficials to reappraise the land tenure<br />
system, a system which was essentially the same as that employed <strong>by</strong> the Mughals. <strong>The</strong><br />
idea behind the 1793 measure, as Metcalf and Metcalf explain, was to convert the<br />
traditional (i.e. Mughal appointed/sanctioned) zamiindaar class into something like the<br />
Indian version <strong>of</strong> the English “gentleman farmer” who, <strong>by</strong> nature, felt it in his best<br />
interests to continually improve the land and increase its produce, which would in turn<br />
stabilize government revenues and increase them over time. This however turned out to<br />
be a miscalculation:<br />
Unfortunately the Cornwallis settlement wholly misconceived the position <strong>of</strong> the<br />
zamindar…In India, prior to the coming <strong>of</strong> the British, the bundle <strong>of</strong> rights<br />
associated with property were not concentrated in a land ‘owner’, but rather<br />
dispersed among all those, among them the peasant cultivator, the zamindar, and<br />
the government, who had an interest in the land. For his part, the zamindar<br />
collected ‘rent’ from the peasantry, and, after deducting a share for his own<br />
maintenance, passed on the remainder as ‘revenue’ to the state. He could sell or<br />
413
transfer only his own revenue collecting rights, not the land itself, for that did not<br />
belong to him. Under the new land system, <strong>by</strong> contrast, the peasantry found<br />
themselves reduced to the status <strong>of</strong> tenants without rights, while the zamindar as<br />
proprietor found his entire estate liable to sale in case <strong>of</strong> default in paying the<br />
taxes assessed on it. As the high and inflexible British demand could not at first<br />
easily be met, estates rapidly came on to the market…<strong>The</strong> purchasers were those<br />
familiar with the institutions <strong>of</strong> the new regime and who had prospered under it,<br />
especially the Brahman and Kayastha employees <strong>of</strong> the [East India] Company and<br />
<strong>of</strong> the old zamindars (Metcalf and Metcalf 2002:77-78).<br />
While the “old zamiindaar” class in Bengal were not known specifically for their<br />
patronage <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical music, it is clear that the nouveau riche class that<br />
gradually replaced them, who were, as the above passage indicates, largely high-caste<br />
Hindus, were not at all pre-disposed to patronize the core classical genres, most notably<br />
Khyal. Considering then that most <strong>of</strong> the ‘aristocracy’ <strong>of</strong> Bengal <strong>by</strong> the mid 19th century<br />
when patronage was drying up in North India belonged to this class <strong>of</strong> new zamiindaar-s,<br />
who as intermediaries <strong>of</strong> the British had used their insider knowledge to gain control <strong>of</strong><br />
large amounts <strong>of</strong> revenue-bearing land in the Bengali countryside, Bengal, in a sense, lost<br />
its opportunity as there was little in the way <strong>of</strong> a cultured elite which had the interest or<br />
knowledge level to patronize Khyal, unlike in Maharashtra where there were a number <strong>of</strong><br />
princely states ruled <strong>by</strong> Maratha and Brahman kings who could <strong>of</strong>fer such patronage.<br />
<strong>The</strong> result for Bengal, as I discussed in chapter 4, was that Thumri and other light and<br />
semi-classical forms took their place as the dominant forms <strong>of</strong> cultivated music in Bengal<br />
until well into the 20th century.<br />
Beyond this direct change in the nature <strong>of</strong> patronage available to classical and<br />
semi-classical music and the other arts, the British also effected a more pr<strong>of</strong>ound change<br />
in the mindset <strong>of</strong> the upper-caste Bengali. As Arabinda Poddar, among others, has<br />
414
explained, Bengali society immediately before the arrival <strong>of</strong> the British was stagnant in a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> senses. Poddar writes, “<strong>The</strong> [society] which the European traders found in<br />
India was closed, introvert, and hence also masochistic”(1970:2-4). This introverted<br />
quality expressed itself variously in the well-known former Hindu custom which forbid<br />
overseas travel (at the risk <strong>of</strong> losing caste), and thus overseas trade; a pronounced<br />
aversion toward foreigners; “institutionalized hatred” and oppression <strong>of</strong> women, children,<br />
and those <strong>of</strong> low caste; and, more generally, the submission <strong>of</strong> the individual and their<br />
intellectual growth to the “collective interest <strong>of</strong> the family, the social unit, and, through<br />
families, for the preservation <strong>of</strong> the social entity”(ibid.). <strong>The</strong> changes that were the result<br />
<strong>of</strong> the British presence and their policies were far-reaching. Perhaps the most important<br />
initial change was the rapid urbanization and concomitant growth <strong>of</strong> Calcutta, which was<br />
a result <strong>of</strong> the accumulation <strong>of</strong> land in the hands <strong>of</strong> the new zamiindaar class who, rather<br />
than living on the land in order to oversee and improve it, preferred to live in comfortable<br />
style in Calcutta as absentee landlords, and which resulted in a preference for plantation-<br />
style cultivation, particularly <strong>of</strong> indigo, which had its own pernicious effects on rural life.<br />
It was in Calcutta, then, that Bengalis were able to mix with the large number <strong>of</strong><br />
foreigners pouring in to Bengal in the late 18th century, which included “marauders,”<br />
“sadistic interlopers,” and “mercenaries” as well as “the Company’s civil servants, Royal<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficers, judges <strong>of</strong> Supreme and High courts, lawyers, priests, physicians, engineers,<br />
journalists, and numerous others” who “disseminated western light and learning and<br />
values, - such as, elevation <strong>of</strong> the human status, philanthropy and humanistic ethic, ideas<br />
415
<strong>of</strong> social revolution…,” etc. (ibid.:20-21). It was this contact which allowed Bengal to,<br />
as Poddar writes, “to take [an] intellectual lead over other provinces in India.”<br />
Much <strong>of</strong> this influence, according to Poddar, came <strong>by</strong> osmosis, as it were – <strong>by</strong><br />
simple everyday contact with the Europeans in a variety <strong>of</strong> contexts, particularly in the<br />
realm <strong>of</strong> commerce. One result <strong>of</strong> this contact and influence was the beginnings <strong>of</strong> the<br />
widespread imitation <strong>of</strong> English habits, dress, lifestyle, etc., along with a desire to learn<br />
English which “was also voiced almost simultaneously.” This imitation <strong>of</strong> the English,<br />
which <strong>of</strong>ten amounted to ‘aping,’ resulted in the <strong>of</strong>t-discussed 19th century stereotype<br />
known as the ‘Babu,’ the English-educated Bengali gentleman who tried in every way to<br />
become English (most notably <strong>by</strong> avoiding any and all forms <strong>of</strong> manual labor (Dasgupta<br />
1993:5)) and who later became an object <strong>of</strong> shame and derision for nationalist Bengali<br />
leaders. To be sure, this English influence was not totally negative – Poddar frequently<br />
refers to the influence <strong>of</strong> European ideas as “beams <strong>of</strong> English light” shining onto the<br />
prevailing darkness <strong>of</strong> hidebound tradition. Learning the English language started, as<br />
Poddar notes, as a pragmatic need, but soon knowledge, not only <strong>of</strong> the English language,<br />
but also <strong>of</strong> all the “accumulated western ideas and modes <strong>of</strong> perception” that came along<br />
with it became the standard for the cultured, educated Bengali. This resulted in “a<br />
weaning away from the circumscribed exclusiveness <strong>of</strong> traditional education” along with<br />
“freedom and material gain”(1970:30). In other words, what English education made<br />
possible for the inquisitive Bengali was, in a very real sense, mental emancipation.<br />
Eventually, <strong>of</strong> course, this education would also provide Bengalis and their fellow<br />
Indians with the tools to liberate themselves from English rule. <strong>The</strong> downside <strong>of</strong> this<br />
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emancipation, though, was alienation from all those who did not or could not follow this<br />
path. This meant, first, alienation from all Bengalis outside <strong>of</strong> the imperial metropolis, as<br />
this intellectual revolution was strictly limited to the confines <strong>of</strong> Calcutta. It also<br />
frequently meant alienation from one’s family, at least for the hearty souls who took the<br />
first step in casting <strong>of</strong>f tradition and embracing Western thought and ideals. This<br />
alienation brought, at least for some, “intense agony” and “a deplorable want <strong>of</strong><br />
conviction and fear <strong>of</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> identity” which “had benumbing affect on them”(ibid.:40).<br />
This feeling <strong>of</strong> being trapped between two worlds yet belonging to neither is what, for<br />
Poddar, defines not only Bengali, but all Indian intellectuals, even in the modern period.<br />
This, then, is the legacy which informs the work <strong>of</strong> R Tagore, especially his<br />
music. Yes, Tagore was keen on the idea <strong>of</strong> combining the best <strong>of</strong> what the West and<br />
East each had to <strong>of</strong>fer mankind. As Tapati Dasgupta writes,<br />
Men like Ram Mohun Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Vidyasagar or Vivekananda<br />
had shaped the Indian way <strong>of</strong> thinking in a different way from the early 19 th<br />
century. Rabindranath inherited certain rich values from them and moulded his<br />
own thoughts. <strong>The</strong> three related ideas – that India and the east were synonymous,<br />
that Eastern civilization was distinguished <strong>by</strong> spiritual pr<strong>of</strong>oundness, and that the<br />
East and the West complemented each other perfectly – did not originate with<br />
Rabindranath. In one sense they were the natural expression in an idealized form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the symbiosis between upper caste Hindus and their rulers in 19 th century<br />
Bengal, and accordingly were articulated, either singly or jointly, <strong>by</strong> intellectuals<br />
on both sides <strong>of</strong> the partnership (1993:7).<br />
This is a bit more sanguine take on the development <strong>of</strong> Bengali intellectualism in the 19th<br />
century than that <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>by</strong> Poddar, but it is true that this ideal <strong>of</strong> a synthesis that would<br />
combine the pragmatism, energy, and material progressiveness <strong>of</strong> Europe with the<br />
“spiritual pr<strong>of</strong>oundness” <strong>of</strong> India was indeed Tagore’s stated goal. Taking into<br />
consideration what we know <strong>of</strong> Tagore’s music, we can see that these ideals guided his<br />
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musical endeavors as well. In a very literal sense, Tagore’s songs were one manifestation<br />
<strong>of</strong> this synthesis, as they combined both Indian and Western melodies. On a deeper level,<br />
though, as I have suggested elsewhere they embodied Tagore’s love <strong>of</strong> the common<br />
Bengali and his culture as well as his love <strong>of</strong> democracy, as they were created and<br />
intended to be sung and enjoyed <strong>by</strong> all Bengalis.<br />
I would argue, however, that they are also the embodiment <strong>of</strong> a certain form <strong>of</strong><br />
iconoclasm that was part <strong>of</strong> R Tagore’s inheritance from the Bengali intellectual <strong>of</strong><br />
earlier generations. As Poddar says, “the spirit <strong>of</strong> rationalism with which they were<br />
indoctrinated urged them to renounce all ancestral beliefs and observances and caste<br />
restrictions”(1970:41). Tagore was perhaps not iconoclastic as such, certainly not on the<br />
scale <strong>of</strong> these earlier intellectuals, but it seems that he did carry with him an inherited<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> skepticism, a feeling that all customs, practices, and beliefs need be interrogated,<br />
and if necessary, discarded. Thus, another way <strong>of</strong> understanding his music was as a sort<br />
<strong>of</strong> critique <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, and this seems all the more logical, as Tagore rather<br />
clearly kept what he felt was good, i.e. aspects <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad form and the use <strong>of</strong> ragas,<br />
while discarding those elements, such as overt abstractness and (in Tagore’s view)<br />
meaninglessness virtuosity. For Tagore, Hindustani raga music was one among many<br />
streams <strong>of</strong> Indian music.<br />
To return to the Maharashtrian side <strong>of</strong> the equation, we again find a very different<br />
situation than that encountered in Bengal. As noted in chapter 3, the Maharashtra region<br />
was an attractive locale for Muslim gharaanedaar musicians looking for patronage<br />
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opportunities due to the sizeable number <strong>of</strong> small princely states concentrated particularly<br />
around the modern-day border <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra and Karnataka. Among the princely states<br />
that I have already mentioned either in the context <strong>of</strong> the growth <strong>of</strong> Khyal gaayakii in the<br />
region or in the context <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> the Marathi musical theatre (contexts<br />
which <strong>of</strong>ten overlapped, it should be noted) are: Kolhapur, Miraj, Ichalkaranji, Sangli,<br />
Satara, Aundh, along with Baroda, located just across the modern Maharashtra-Gujurat<br />
border, and Nagpur, which is in the extreme north-eastern part <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra state<br />
(known historically as Vidharba or Berar). <strong>The</strong> point to be made in the current context,<br />
however, is not simply that Marathi musicians could learn directly from these<br />
gharaanedaar Ustads, though that is undoubtedly a crucial point in the early history <strong>of</strong><br />
Khyal in Maharashtra. As I also noted chapter 4, one caste group took the lead in<br />
learning from these Ustads, both in Maharashtra and in the North itself. This was, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, the Marathi Brahmans, and what I would like to emphasize here is that not only<br />
did the Brahmans take the lead in propagating classical vocal music, they also served as<br />
the political leaders <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra from the later years <strong>of</strong> the Maratha empire all the<br />
way until Indian independence in 1947. <strong>The</strong>re are several different Brahmans subcastes<br />
or lineages native to the Maharashtra region, the most important <strong>of</strong> which in political<br />
terms, as detailed <strong>by</strong> Susan Bayly in Caste, Society, and Politics in India from the<br />
Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age (1999), were the BhaTT-s <strong>of</strong> Danda Rajpuri, a<br />
lineage who “had made the <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>of</strong> the Maratha king’s chief minister their own<br />
hereditary preserve,” until assuming de facto control <strong>of</strong> the central Maratha empire based<br />
in Pune under the title <strong>of</strong> “Peshwa”(67). This political power in turn opened up<br />
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opportunities for other Brahman groups including other KonkaNastha Brahmans<br />
(Brahmans <strong>of</strong> the Konkan coast, also referred to as Chitpaavan-s) like the Peshwas<br />
themselves who were essentially non-priestly Brahmans who worked in vocations such as<br />
money lending and accountancy, as well as for the Deshastha (Brahmans <strong>of</strong> the “desh”,<br />
or Deccan plateau) or priestly Brahmans. Later, in the late 19th century the “mental and<br />
moral outlook” shared <strong>by</strong> these Brahman lineages “which was dynamic and advanced in<br />
ethnological terms” predisposed them “to hunger for their lost political dominance,” and<br />
which made them a group to be carefully watched and controlled from a British<br />
perspective (ibid.:236). And, indeed, most <strong>of</strong> the key Maharashtrian leaders <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nationalist era, the most notable being Bal Gangadhar Tilak, his son Lokmanya, and his<br />
rival Gopal Krishna Gokhale, were Brahmans.<br />
<strong>The</strong> point I am driving at here relates back to Bourdieu’s comment regarding<br />
“newcomers” and “inheritors” who are distinguished <strong>by</strong> their preferences in music,<br />
whether the music is “legitimate,” “middle-brow,” or otherwise. I realize that Bourdieu’s<br />
intention is to describe the ways in which individuals relate to music in the present tense,<br />
in synchronic terms. I feel, though, that this idea can be expanded to take into account<br />
historical developments as well. In other words, at one point in history both Bengalis and<br />
Maharashtrians were “newcomers.” <strong>The</strong> difference, however, is that in 19th century<br />
Bengal there were very few individuals or groups <strong>of</strong> any kind in a position <strong>of</strong> social or<br />
political leadership who valorized the Hindustani classical music tradition. Instead, what<br />
was passed down <strong>by</strong> the intellectual, social, and cultural leaders <strong>of</strong> 19th and early 20th<br />
century Bengal, most notably Tagore, was a legacy <strong>of</strong> skepticism toward traditional<br />
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authority, cultural experimentation, and hybridity, along with a distinct taste for semi-<br />
classical rather than classical music forms. In Maharashtra, <strong>by</strong> contrast, we see that not<br />
only was the tradition <strong>of</strong> performance <strong>of</strong> classical vocal music passed directly from the<br />
gharaanedaar Ustads to Marathi musicians, we can also see that a tradition <strong>of</strong> patronage<br />
<strong>of</strong> classical music forms was passed from the leaders <strong>of</strong> pre-colonial society to the native<br />
leaders <strong>of</strong> colonial society to the modern middle classes, a transition that was made all the<br />
smoother <strong>by</strong> the fact that all these groups were largely composed <strong>by</strong> the same Brahman<br />
lineages. One need only recall that Paluskar, a Deshashtha Brahman, while from a poor<br />
background, was a favorite <strong>of</strong> the Raja <strong>of</strong> Miraj, which was undoubtedly due to the<br />
manners he acquired thanks to his friendship with the son <strong>of</strong> the Raja <strong>of</strong> Kurundwad,<br />
along with the caste background he shared with the king Balasaheb Patwardhan, himself<br />
a KokaNastha Brahman. This was true as well <strong>of</strong> Vishnudas Bhave, the pioneer <strong>of</strong><br />
Marathi music-drama, who secured the patronage <strong>of</strong> the Raja <strong>of</strong> Sangli early in his career,<br />
thanks to his father’s position as a court <strong>of</strong>ficial there. In Bengal, there was no such<br />
direct link between the traditional aristocracy and the emerging middle classes, and the<br />
state <strong>of</strong> Khyal there (see chapter 4), is certainly a reflection <strong>of</strong> this history.<br />
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8. Regional Musical Aesthetics<br />
In this chapter, I intend to present an approach to understanding the stylistic<br />
tendencies <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian and Bengali classical musicians that is the farthest removed<br />
<strong>of</strong> any I have explored to this point. More specifically, it is the farthest from what I call<br />
the “Inside View” <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, a view that, as I have explained earlier,<br />
represents something like the common sense view <strong>of</strong> the history and present state <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tradition held <strong>by</strong> practicing musicians <strong>of</strong> a scholarly bent, musicologists, critics, and<br />
sometimes connoisseurs, and represents a mixture <strong>of</strong> essentially Bhatkhandian notions<br />
concerning, for example, the centrality <strong>of</strong> vocal music and a particular emphasis on<br />
grammatical and theoretical aspects <strong>of</strong> the music, combined with more pragmatic<br />
observations on the nature <strong>of</strong> economic imperatives and how these influence the ways in<br />
which particular musicians or musicians as a group shape or create their music. I have<br />
termed this the “Inside View” because not only does it literally stand as the view,<br />
generally speaking, <strong>of</strong> those who are the insiders in this context, but also because it<br />
betrays a tendency to look at Hindustani music as a closed system, so to speak, in which<br />
all meaningful changes come from the inside, from within the tradition and from within<br />
the established body <strong>of</strong> repertoire and constituent musical elements. According to this<br />
view, which <strong>of</strong> course is an approximation <strong>of</strong> the views <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> different<br />
musicians who are <strong>by</strong> no means unanimous when it comes to explaining this or that<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> the music or its history, changes from the outside, for example influences drawn<br />
from popular or regional light or semi-classical genres, are typically thought as<br />
aberrations, that, whether they are attributed to a particular musician’s desire to become<br />
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more commercially successful or to that individual’s lack <strong>of</strong> proper musical training (to<br />
name the two most popular explanations), are <strong>of</strong> little significance in the grand scheme <strong>of</strong><br />
things. Considering that the main focus <strong>of</strong> this study is the influence <strong>of</strong> regional culture<br />
on North Indian classical music, including, but not limited to, the influence <strong>of</strong> regional<br />
musical genres, this “Inside View” has, to a certain extent, hindered my efforts,<br />
especially in the sense that a number <strong>of</strong> musicians I interviewed simply refused to address<br />
Hindustani classical music in this context. However, an examination <strong>of</strong> the evidence I<br />
have collected in the terms <strong>of</strong> the “Inside View” does bring to the fore certain important<br />
musical regional tendencies, tendencies that I discussed in detail in chapters 2 through 6.<br />
I will summarize these below as they provide one important category <strong>of</strong> evidence for the<br />
argument I will outline in the following.<br />
What the “Inside View” fails to provide, however, besides a belief that deviations<br />
from orthodox classicism (such as it is in the 21st century) have any real significance, is<br />
an explanation for why even the grossest and most obvious differences between<br />
Hindustani music in Bengal, Maharashtra, and North India (for example, that<br />
Maharashtrians almost never play sarod or sitar, while Bengalis have embraced<br />
instrumental music on a large scale), beyond the historical exigencies that brought one or<br />
the other musician to a particular city or region in search <strong>of</strong> patronage. However, some<br />
musicians were in fact willing to <strong>of</strong>fer more specific explanations for these undeniable<br />
differences, and it should be noted that the majority who were willing to <strong>of</strong>fer an<br />
explanation for these regional differences were Bengalis, while the majority <strong>of</strong> those who<br />
denied that there were any differences were Maharashtrian. At any rate, the single most<br />
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common response given for why Bengalis have never embraced Khyal vocal music on a<br />
large scale, instead preferring instrumental music, was language issues. <strong>The</strong>re are two<br />
aspects to this issue, pronunciation and more general linguistic skill. An example <strong>of</strong> the<br />
former comes from veteran singer Dipali Nag who explained that “Hindustani [colloquial<br />
Hindi/Urdu] starts with a, aa, i, we [Bengali speakers] start with o, aa, i,” referring to the<br />
first <strong>of</strong> many differences between the pronunciation <strong>of</strong> Bengali in comparison to other<br />
Sanskrit-based languages (differences I will discuss more thoroughly below). A fairly<br />
representative example <strong>of</strong> the latter view on language issues comes from tabliyaa Bikram<br />
Ghosh. BG agreed that pronunciation was an issue (“Bengalis are not good with<br />
diction…”), but also, though, that “[Bengalis] are not good at picking up other languages,<br />
generally speaking” (interview, 2005). Although I did not pursue this issue<br />
systematically (in terms <strong>of</strong> a more comprehensive survey <strong>of</strong> which languages Bengalis<br />
can speak on average), my first-hand experiences seemed to bear this notion out, as I<br />
learned fairly quickly in Calcutta that most middle-class Bengalis will more readily<br />
converse in English than in Hindi. To say that Bengalis are bad at picking up other<br />
languages (outside <strong>of</strong> English and Bengali) is not quite accurate, though. It is more likely<br />
that they, on the whole, are less interested in learning other languages, particularly Hindi<br />
and Indian languages besides Bengali. I take that this is what BG was trying to express,<br />
as Bengalis certainly have historically achieved at high level in every other scholarly and<br />
intellectual pursuit outside <strong>of</strong> mastering Hindi/Urdu (and many have mastered this<br />
language, as well).<br />
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<strong>The</strong> pronunciation issue is much bigger problem, though, as it is much harder to<br />
correct, or, for certain individuals, to even detect. Thus, as BG noted, there are perhaps<br />
even more singers in general (though there are many fewer classical singers overall) in<br />
Bengal than in Maharashtra, but because <strong>of</strong> pronunciation problems, even the best <strong>of</strong><br />
these Bengali vocalists have been limited to regional fame. Conversely, as BG, Dipali<br />
Nag, and many others agreed, while Marathi pronunciation is certainly not identical to<br />
Hindi, it is much closer than Bengali, and thus less <strong>of</strong> an obstacle for aspiring Marathi<br />
Khyal singers. As Dhruba Ghosh said, “Even if a Marathi destroys Hindi, he can not<br />
destroy it beyond recognition, but a Bengali can destroy it beyond recognition”<br />
(interview, 2005).<br />
<strong>The</strong> other single largest factor besides language cited <strong>by</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> my<br />
interlocutors for the relative dominance <strong>of</strong> classical instrumental music versus Khyal in<br />
Bengal and for the opposite situation in Maharashtra was the respective climate <strong>of</strong> these<br />
two provinces. This factor perhaps was most crucial in helping to determine why North<br />
Indian classical singers chose to make their home where they did. As I explained in<br />
chapter 4, the historical pattern in Bengal, particularly Calcutta, has been that classical<br />
singers go there for the music conference/festival season which runs for approximately<br />
two-three months during the coolest part <strong>of</strong> the year, namely December through January,<br />
but rarely ever settle there permanently, preferring instead relatively milder climates <strong>of</strong><br />
western India and Maharashtra in particular. This is, <strong>of</strong> course, crucial. However, even<br />
for those who are native to Calcutta or some other part <strong>of</strong> Bengal, the climate can be a<br />
problem in terms <strong>of</strong> training and maintaining the voice. As sitarist Partho Bose stated,<br />
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<strong>The</strong> climate in Maharashtra is such that the human voice can retain its luster for a<br />
longer time. You will find most Maharashtrian vocalists have been able to retain<br />
their voice until they are very, very old, 70s, 80s…But, the damp, humid climate<br />
<strong>of</strong> Bengal is also a factor in which you lose the quality <strong>of</strong> your voice even if you<br />
take all precautions. So, natural voice…that’s a thing which is an asset in<br />
Maharashtra, but here it’s not (interview, 2005).<br />
It should be emphasized, although I have alluded to this elsewhere, that classical vocal<br />
training is far more intense than the training required for singing light or popular music,<br />
primarily as classical singers <strong>of</strong>ten practice hours a day, working to perfect a voice which<br />
is somewhat rough or nasal, but which is also flexible, accurate, and powerful, as<br />
opposed to light music and popular music singers who general aspire to develop a<br />
“sweetness” in their voice that can be lost <strong>by</strong> practicing or performing too much or too<br />
frequently. <strong>The</strong> damp and hot climate also, though, as Dipali Nag noted, means that<br />
Maharashtrians (who grow up in a much drier and cooler climate) are, on the whole,<br />
physically stronger than Bengalis. As DP humorously noted, Bengalis are “not like a<br />
lion, much rather like a little cat…not a little cat, but a cat.” She illustrated this with the<br />
rather insightful comment, that, although many Bengalis died during the struggle for<br />
independence, their motivation was emotion, specifically love for their “motherland,” not<br />
because Bengalis are naturally imbued with a “fighting spirit.”<br />
To climate could be added dietary habits or practices, and many <strong>of</strong> my<br />
interlocutors did indeed mention diet in this same context, i.e. in terms <strong>of</strong> its effect on the<br />
voice and on one’s overall physical strength and health, though none elaborated on the<br />
point more than this. Even combining these factors with the facts regarding the great<br />
Ustads <strong>of</strong> Khyal settling largely in Maharashtra and the great Ustads <strong>of</strong> instrumental<br />
music settling in Bengal (and <strong>of</strong> course, the above factors <strong>of</strong> language and especially<br />
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climate help to explain why these Ustads settled where they did), these explanations have<br />
always felt somewhat partial to me. All the above issues are part <strong>of</strong> the equation, no<br />
doubt, but looking at these historical developments only in these terms seems to me to be<br />
leaving something important out, and I felt this way even while I was still conducting my<br />
research. What seemed to me to be missing was something that would tie all these<br />
factors together and show them to be mutually reinforcing. This is a supposition (that<br />
such a link was present) that I made before even beginning my research, and I was sure<br />
that I would find it sooner or later. I eventually did, although, as so <strong>of</strong>ten happens, I did<br />
not recognize it as such when it was first presented to me. <strong>The</strong> individual who put forth<br />
this idea in an interview context was tabliya and sitarist Nayan Ghosh <strong>of</strong> Bombay. In<br />
short, what NG proposed to me was that the respective landscapes <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra and<br />
Bengal could not only be seen as influences on classical music as practiced in each region<br />
in a fairly direct, deterministic sense, but also that, in a more abstract sense, the<br />
respective landscapes <strong>of</strong> these regions as well as their respective languages could serve as<br />
metaphors for the style <strong>of</strong> music and other arts prevalent in each.<br />
Before proceeding, then, I should quote precisely what NG told me.<br />
For example, you see in Rabindrasangiit a lot <strong>of</strong> miinD, use <strong>of</strong> miinD,<br />
rounded…the edges are not sharp, the edges are rounded, in the music. Perhaps<br />
that comes from even the language because Bengali as spoken <strong>by</strong> anyone, even a<br />
non-musical family, is full <strong>of</strong> miinD-s…<br />
It’s known, Bengali, in any case, is known to be one <strong>of</strong> the sweetest languages,<br />
you know, it’s very pleasant to the ear, even when two Bengalis speak, or, you<br />
know, little things like friends calling out to each other or, you know, a mother<br />
calling a child back home after he’s his finished his playing in the evening or a<br />
child calling out to mother for a glass <strong>of</strong> water, you know. You’ll always observe,<br />
there’s a lot <strong>of</strong> use <strong>of</strong> miinD. Perhaps that reflects in everything that’s<br />
Bengali…especially, primarily in music but even in other arts. In hand<br />
movements, when they are dancing, Bengali dancers have a far more graceful<br />
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hand movement, uh, closer to, I would say, ballet dancers, you know. <strong>The</strong> edges<br />
are much more refined, I would say. You see that in Bengali painting, the artists,<br />
you see that in the feelings and emotions in the Bengali literature and poetry.<br />
I’m trying not to be biased – I’m a Bengali, but I am, because I also have… I am<br />
sometimes very critical <strong>of</strong> certain Bengali things (laughs). And that I found so<br />
conspicuous in Ali Akbar Khan’s sarod. <strong>The</strong> turns…were so Bengali, you know.<br />
Since my childhood I have observed this. And then obviously Nikhil Banerjee<br />
was a disciple <strong>of</strong> him and his father too, so in Nikhil Banerjee’s sitar also you find<br />
a lot <strong>of</strong> rounded edges.<br />
On the other hand in Maharashtrian music, you find, because <strong>of</strong> the NaaTya<br />
Sangiit element…and you know in NaaTya Sangiit…there has…there is no doubt<br />
the strong influences from classical music, because, as I said sometime back, the<br />
singer-actors were essentially good classical musicians having taken solid training<br />
from great masters. So that was there. But then, again, to cater to the vast<br />
audiences, there was also sometimes the other folk musical, regional musical,<br />
elements, like the laavaNii and so on. So they have a little rough edges, the edges<br />
are sharper – that kind <strong>of</strong> music, that kind <strong>of</strong> language, that kind <strong>of</strong> body<br />
movements, you know, body language, the edges are sharper. And therefore, that<br />
reflects in the music - you know those, the quick tanas and those edges that you<br />
find, the quick khaTkaa-s or murkii-s that take place in NaaTya Sangiit – that,<br />
knowingly or unknowingly, classical musicians borrow it and use it Khyal music.<br />
Knowingly or unknowingly, it creeps into the classical expression also…<br />
You’ll see that has to do with even the geography or the landscape <strong>of</strong> the region.<br />
Bengal has rivers and paddy fields and, you know, there’s all you can see<br />
everywhere is just…into the horizon is just green paddy fields, and you will see a<br />
whole lot <strong>of</strong> rivers – I mean, I am talking <strong>of</strong> the entire Bengal including<br />
Bangladesh. That, perhaps a reflection <strong>of</strong> nature also. And here [in Maharashtra]<br />
you have these stone, rocky mountains here…and dry land (interview, 2005).<br />
NG also extended this beyond Bengal and Maharashtra, noting that in Nepali music you<br />
find many rapid ascending and descending melodic movements, reflective <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Himalayan mountain peaks and, while listening to Rajasthani folk music, “you can see<br />
the sand dunes.”<br />
To be sure, Nayan Ghosh was not my only informant to propose a relationship<br />
between musical style in Bengal and Maharashtra and the regional language in each state<br />
or between music and the land itself. I have already given some examples <strong>of</strong> the former;<br />
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in terms <strong>of</strong> the latter, there was Vijay Kichlu, the aforementioned U.P.-raised, Kashmiri<br />
businessman, musician, and music scholar and educator who has spent most <strong>of</strong> his adult<br />
life in Calcutta, who felt that natives <strong>of</strong> North Indian, because <strong>of</strong> their essentially “slow-<br />
moving”, “lazy”, and “calm” nature and temperament tend to create more slow-moving<br />
music. This is as opposed to Maharashtrians and Bengalis who more <strong>of</strong>ten have, in his<br />
view, a “flair for speed”(interview, 2005). What is unique about Nayan Ghosh’s view,<br />
however, is that it encompasses almost all the relevant factors mentioned <strong>by</strong> the different<br />
musicians I interviewed, including musical style, general artistic style, language, climate,<br />
and landscape, and proposes a relationship between all these various factors, with the<br />
landscape <strong>of</strong> each region serving a sort <strong>of</strong> master metaphor. I should note that NG was<br />
not my only informant to assert that musical style could be viewed in essentially<br />
metaphorical terms. Music critic and connoisseur Keshav Paranjape <strong>of</strong> Bombay also<br />
made a similar assertion during an informal conversation we had had regarding my work.<br />
What KP suggested was that perhaps one specific type <strong>of</strong> musical ornamentation could be<br />
taken as a larger symbol <strong>of</strong> the respective regionally-based stylistic approaches <strong>of</strong><br />
Marathi and Bengali classical musicians. As with NG, KP felt that the most common and<br />
thus most significant and representative aspect <strong>of</strong> Bengali musical style is miinD, the<br />
smooth glide between two distinct pitches so common in all Indian music, while the type<br />
<strong>of</strong> ornamentation most representative most representative <strong>of</strong> Marathi style was khaTkaa,<br />
the quick turn. In Paranjape’s conception, these types <strong>of</strong> ornamentation stand in<br />
metonymic relationship to the musical style <strong>of</strong> each regional group, as this is a case<br />
where one aspect <strong>of</strong> musical style represents a whole stylistic approach. As James<br />
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Fernandez points out in his well-known work on metaphor, metonym and metaphor are<br />
closely related phenomena, as “Metonym is commonly understood as resting on<br />
contiguity in the same frame <strong>of</strong> experience as the subject and metaphor as resting on<br />
similarity, perceived or felt (structural or textual), <strong>of</strong> experiences in different<br />
domains”(1986:43). <strong>The</strong> value <strong>of</strong> a metaphoric rather than a metonymic view <strong>of</strong><br />
differences in musical style, I feel, is this: to characterize musical style according to the<br />
dominant use <strong>of</strong> one type <strong>of</strong> ornamentation is to certainly make a statement about how a<br />
group <strong>of</strong> people make their music. To couch the matter in metaphoric terms is to make a<br />
statement which comes closer to explaining why a group <strong>of</strong> people make music in the<br />
particular manner or fashion that they do. As Fernandez states, “one might say that<br />
metaphor is a mediating device connecting the unconnected and bridging the gaps in<br />
causality”(ibid.:46). This, then, is the strength <strong>of</strong> Nayan Ghosh’s use <strong>of</strong> the landscape as a<br />
metaphor, namely, that it explains not only why Maharashtrians and Bengalis make<br />
classical music in the manner that they do, but also why they do everything they do in a<br />
distinct and a recognizably Marathi or Bengali manner.<br />
I should be clear at this juncture that my intention is not to propose a direct<br />
relationship between landscape and musical style in the strict sense that certain<br />
landscapes produce certain types <strong>of</strong> music regardless <strong>of</strong> the cultural context we are<br />
dealing with. Of course, if landscape can be taken as a metaphor that helps to explain<br />
regional style in both music and in other realms <strong>of</strong> culture, then it seems likely that there<br />
must be a somewhat more direct relationship between the two. However, what is more<br />
interesting here from my perspective is that members <strong>of</strong> the culture(s) in question<br />
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themselves see landscape as a metaphor that explains the differences in the musical<br />
stylistic approaches favored <strong>by</strong> Maharashtrians and Bengalis respectively. 117<br />
Fernandez’s work also alerts us to the fact that in “metaphoric predication,” i.e. the use <strong>of</strong><br />
a predicate to describe or explain an ambiguous subject, movement <strong>of</strong> the subject takes<br />
place within what Fernandez calls the “quality space” <strong>of</strong> a culture, which in turn can be<br />
defined “<strong>by</strong> n dimensions or continua, which must be discovered <strong>by</strong> anthropological<br />
inquiry”(ibid.:40). At another point, Fernandez defines this movement somewhat more<br />
clearly when he states, “If we follow Aristotle, metaphoric movement may be conceived<br />
<strong>of</strong> as adornment or disparagement <strong>of</strong> a subject...”(ibid.:38). In other words, the point <strong>of</strong><br />
metaphoric predication is not simply to define or give identity to an inchoate or<br />
ambiguously defined subject, but to do so in a manner that defines that subject in a<br />
qualitative manner. As this happens within the context <strong>of</strong> a given culture, then, as the<br />
above citation makes clear, the culture in question defines the continua upon which<br />
subjects are positioned.<br />
In light <strong>of</strong> this aspect <strong>of</strong> Fernandez’s theory, it is important to reiterate that the<br />
musicians who are doing the predicating in this case are almost all Bengali, and, thus, the<br />
“quality space” in this context is also, to a large extent, the “quality space” <strong>of</strong> specifically<br />
Bengali culture. Fernandez mentions a number <strong>of</strong> different “schemes” which provide<br />
“axes” which can be utilized in understanding quality space in varying cultural contexts,<br />
including that <strong>of</strong> Jones (1961) “who proposes that various cultural products…can be<br />
117 Even though only Nayan Ghosh, among my interlocutors, put across such an unambiguously<br />
metaphorical view, Fernandez reminds us that “Metaphoric innovation, like any innovation, rests with the<br />
few” (1986:58).<br />
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understood as expressing positions taken in respect to these axes: static-dynamic, order-<br />
disorder, discreteness-continuity, spontaneity-process, s<strong>of</strong>t-sharp, inner-outer, this world-<br />
other world”(ibid.:40). While a number <strong>of</strong> these might logically be applied to the Bengali<br />
example, one, I feel, is crucial: the “s<strong>of</strong>t-sharp” axis, which also, arguably, may be<br />
expanded to mean “smooth-rough,” “round-angular,” or even “liquid-solid.” As I<br />
observed so frequently during my stay in Calcutta, Bengalis see themselves as essentially<br />
s<strong>of</strong>t or rounded and frequently remark as such. When a Bengali like Nayan Ghosh states<br />
that Bengali dance and music and literature and even emotions have rounded edges while<br />
the corresponding items in Marathi culture have “a bit rough edges,” he is implicitly<br />
valorizing the Bengali style, even if his honest intent was to give a relatively unbiased<br />
comparison <strong>of</strong> the two contrasting regional stylistic approaches. This becomes much<br />
clearer when we compare NG’s formulation to that <strong>of</strong> Amit Mukherjee, the individual<br />
who came the closest to NG in terms <strong>of</strong> explicitly posing the differences between Marathi<br />
and Bengali musical style in terms <strong>of</strong> this landscape metaphor. As AM stated when<br />
speaking specifically <strong>of</strong> the respective approaches <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrians and Bengalis to<br />
rhythm, Maharashtrians, because <strong>of</strong> their close adherence to the beat and the structure <strong>of</strong><br />
the tala in their rhythmic approach, seem as if “they are walking on stilts” while the<br />
Bengali approach, which is more rhythmically flexible (and in which rhythm is generally<br />
de-emphasized), is closer to “floating on water”(interview, 2005). <strong>The</strong> Bengali bias in<br />
this statement is, I hope, fairly apparent.<br />
At the same time, though, this use <strong>of</strong> the Maharashtrian and Bengali landscapes as<br />
metaphors for the musical styles in each region does, from my perspective, seem<br />
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appropriate. It is true that many Maharashtrians would likely object to their musical style<br />
(and their cultural style in the broader sense) being described as “rough,” “angular,” or<br />
“sharp.” <strong>The</strong>se are not adjectives which are generally taken as positive in the eyes <strong>of</strong> any<br />
musician or educated listener regardless <strong>of</strong> regional background, or, at any rate, would<br />
most likely be looked upon as less positive than their opposites. <strong>The</strong> point, though, is<br />
that in the eyes <strong>of</strong> most, the Bengali landscape would be considered to be more<br />
aesthetically appealing than the Maharashtrian landscape, at least in a visual sense.<br />
Maharashtra has its natural advantages over Bengal, including its milder temperatures<br />
and arid climate, but visually, it is hard for anyone but the most patriotic Maharashtrian<br />
to argue that the flat, dry land and rocky plateaus <strong>of</strong> their region are more attractive than<br />
lush, green vegetation and flowing water. <strong>The</strong> strength <strong>of</strong> the landscape metaphor, then,<br />
is that it, again, corresponds to clearly observable and objective differences, even if the<br />
influence that it exerts is a more subjective phenomenon. And, to this can be added that<br />
the inclusion <strong>of</strong> North India in the discussion only seems to strengthen the case for the<br />
validity <strong>of</strong> this metaphor. In very general terms (since we are dealing with a large and<br />
internally variegated region when we speak <strong>of</strong> North India as a whole), North India<br />
stands as a middle point between Maharashtra and Bengal both musically and in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
landscape. In regards to the former, North India possesses much greater balance than<br />
either <strong>of</strong> the other two, both in terms <strong>of</strong> stylistic approaches and in terms <strong>of</strong> the presence<br />
<strong>of</strong> all the different genres <strong>of</strong> both instrumental and vocal music. Regarding the latter,<br />
North India generally is also a midpoint, not only geographically, but also in that it is<br />
greener, wetter, and flatter than Maharashtra but drier, less flat (in certain areas), and less<br />
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green than Bengal. Thus, this metaphor, even though it was generated in terms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Bengali cultural “axis” also seems to work in terms <strong>of</strong> broader, pan-North Indian “axis,”<br />
as well. If more neutral observers prefer the look <strong>of</strong> the Bengali landscape to its<br />
Maharashtrian counterpart, this seems more than fair, as neutral observers, I would argue,<br />
would most likely also tend to prefer the Bengali musical style, particularly the Bengali<br />
vocal style, which in a very real sense has become dominant across India thanks to the<br />
crucial Bengali contribution to and influence on the style <strong>of</strong> singing most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
encountered in Bollywood film songs.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is more to be said about the workings <strong>of</strong> metaphor in theoretical terms, but<br />
for now, I would like to explore the details <strong>of</strong> both Bengali and Marathi musical style and<br />
<strong>of</strong> the respective landscapes <strong>of</strong> the two regions in order to further test the validity and<br />
appropriateness <strong>of</strong> this metaphor. To do so, I will compare not only musical style to<br />
landscape but also language to both. In doing so, I am largely following the comparisons<br />
suggested <strong>by</strong> Nayan Ghosh in the above lengthy passage from our interview. I depart<br />
slightly from his account, though, in that I will not include the factor <strong>of</strong> body movement<br />
manifested through dance style, among other things. I am leaving this out primarily<br />
because, first, I know very little <strong>of</strong> Indian dance, particularly the regional varieties, and<br />
second, general bodily dispositions are extremely difficult to observe and generalize<br />
about, especially since I myself am not native to India and did not make a point <strong>of</strong><br />
systematically observing this particular feature <strong>of</strong> regional culture during my research.<br />
Three levels, though, are, I believe, enough to bring out the most important<br />
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correspondences. I will start with Bengal, as it is in every regard easier to pin down, as it<br />
were, than is Maharashtra.<br />
Regarding the general geography <strong>of</strong> Bengal, Capwell (1986) writes,<br />
<strong>The</strong> heart <strong>of</strong> the area is the riverine delta formed <strong>by</strong> the mouths <strong>of</strong> the Ganges<br />
river which form the northernmost shores <strong>of</strong> the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal on the east coast<br />
<strong>of</strong> peninsular India. <strong>The</strong> main mouth <strong>of</strong> the Ganges, the Padma, exits into the bay<br />
through Bangladesh, passing near the capital Dacca. A smaller mouth, the<br />
Hooghly, exits to the southwest in the West Bengal province <strong>of</strong> India just after<br />
passing the provincial capital Calcutta. <strong>The</strong> area stretches some four hundred<br />
miles inland to the north and is bounded <strong>by</strong> the Himalayan foothills at Darjeeling<br />
with Nepal to the west, Sikkim and Bhutan to the north. <strong>The</strong>n descending in the<br />
east to the bay, the area is confined <strong>by</strong> Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram,<br />
all part <strong>of</strong> India, and finally <strong>by</strong> Burma, which continues to form the northeastern<br />
shores <strong>of</strong> the bay begun <strong>by</strong> the Chittagong area <strong>of</strong> Bangladesh. Descending in the<br />
west from Darjeeling toward the bay, the area is bounded first <strong>by</strong> Nepal, then <strong>by</strong><br />
the Indian province Bihar, and finally, to the extreme southwest, <strong>by</strong> the province<br />
Orissa…<br />
<strong>The</strong> name for this entire area, Bengal, is derived from Sanskrit vaaNga, which, it<br />
is postulated, may be related to a Tibetan word meaning “watery,” a suitable<br />
adjective for the Ganges delta and its numerous fluvial arteries…<br />
<strong>The</strong> political divisions <strong>of</strong> the land do not quite correspond to the areas referred to<br />
when people use directional names in Bengali. Paschim baaNgo (West Bengal),<br />
for instance commonly refers to the area which bellies out in endless plateaux<br />
from Calcutta, toward Bihar, but does not include the thin strip <strong>of</strong> land reaching<br />
up to and including Darjeeling, which is politically part <strong>of</strong> West Bengal. <strong>The</strong><br />
reason for this exclusion is that an association is always made <strong>by</strong> Bengalis<br />
between the traditional name for the west bank <strong>of</strong> the Ganges, raaRh, and the<br />
newer name, paschim baNgo. Purbo baaNgo (East Bengal) is generally equated<br />
with the ancient “watery” vaaNga, east <strong>of</strong> the Ganges and centering around<br />
Dacca. <strong>The</strong> large, gently hilly area above it, from Rajshahi to Dinajpur, Rangpur,<br />
and Cooch Behar, is not included in the designation purbo baaNgo, and when<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> as a unit <strong>by</strong> itself is sometimes called uttar baaNgo (North Bengal), or<br />
the more traditional baarendro (2-5).<br />
What this brief synopsis tells us, among other things, is that the terrain and climate <strong>of</strong><br />
Bengal as a whole is perhaps a bit more varied than the comments <strong>of</strong> Nayan Ghosh and<br />
other musicians might suggest. This view <strong>of</strong> Bengal as essentially “riverine,” however, is<br />
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not based on ignorance <strong>of</strong> geography. First, as Capwell explains, the Ganges delta<br />
(which spans both modern day Bangladesh and West Bengal) has always been considered<br />
the heart <strong>of</strong> the historical region <strong>of</strong> Bengal, to the extent that the traditional name for<br />
Bengal is thought to be etymologically based on the adjective “watery.” <strong>The</strong> other factor,<br />
one which is particularly crucial in the present context, is that so many <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
important Bengali musicians <strong>of</strong> the 20th century were born and raised in what is now<br />
Bangladesh. A short list <strong>of</strong> historically significant East Bengali musicians would include<br />
brothers Nikhil Ghosh and Pannalal Ghosh, Allaudin Khan, Vilayat Khan (who was born<br />
in east Bengal, but is not ethnically Bengali), and the patrons/disciples <strong>of</strong> his gharana, the<br />
Roy-Choudhurys <strong>of</strong> Gauripur. It is not only that these influential figures came from East<br />
Bengal, though – they also have injected elements <strong>of</strong> East Bengali music into the<br />
classical repertoire (on the instrumental side). Most notably, this has meant performing<br />
East Bengali folk songs as light pieces during recitals <strong>of</strong> classical music. Amongst these,<br />
the most important is the bhaTtiaalii, which Sukumar Ray defines as a “particular type <strong>of</strong><br />
folk-tune recited <strong>by</strong> a boatman during his up-journey across down streams <strong>of</strong> the riverine<br />
districts <strong>of</strong> Bangladesh”(1988:109). 118 To this could be added that Rabindranath Tagore<br />
spent much time in the early part <strong>of</strong> his adult life overseeing his family’s estate in East<br />
Bengal (while living in a houseboat, it should be noted), and so much <strong>of</strong> the natural<br />
imagery that he used in his writings is based on what he saw there. All in all then, I feel<br />
fairly comfortable stating that even if the entire historical region <strong>of</strong> Bengal is not riverine,<br />
the ‘Bengal <strong>of</strong> the (modern, urban) imagination’ most assuredly is.<br />
118 Vilayat Khan is most commonly credited for popularizing the bhaTiaalii, but many other<br />
instrumentalists outside <strong>of</strong> his gharana now perform it as a “tailpiece” item.<br />
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Regarding the Bengali language, it should first be noted that, like all the<br />
languages <strong>of</strong> pan-North India (i.e. North India as opposed to South India), Bengali, or<br />
baaNglaa as it is called <strong>by</strong> native speakers, is Sanskrit based. Thus, like Marathi and<br />
Hindi, much (though not all) <strong>of</strong> its vocabulary is derived from Sanskrit. As Haldar<br />
(1993) puts it, “Bangla has taken words from Sanskrit as and when it has needed to and<br />
still does so…”(114). However, it also differs from Sanskrit (and other Sanskrit-derived<br />
languages) in a number <strong>of</strong> ways. First, in terms <strong>of</strong> grammar, Bengali does not make a<br />
distinction between singular and plural in verb forms, and, unlike Sanskrit (which has<br />
three), Bengali has no gender, which in other Sanskrit-based languages is crucial in terms<br />
<strong>of</strong>, among other things, verb endings, case markings, and the plural forms <strong>of</strong> nouns. For<br />
Haldar, Bengali has more in common grammatically with English than Sanskrit, Persian,<br />
or Arabic (the latter two being important and influential languages in North India,<br />
especially as sources for vocabulary). This is “because <strong>of</strong> nothing else but that Bangla<br />
has aspired to become simpler than Sanskrit…” (ibid.), a comment which would seem to<br />
refer to the efforts <strong>of</strong> Rabindranath Tagore and other writers and intellectuals to both<br />
streamline the language and to bring it closer in its written form to the language as<br />
spoken in everyday contexts <strong>by</strong> the average Bengali.<br />
<strong>The</strong> more crucial aspect <strong>of</strong> the Bengali language, concerned as we are here with<br />
music and sound, however, is the phonology <strong>of</strong> the language, as it departs as much in this<br />
regard from Sanskrit as any other North Indian language. I would like to mention three<br />
important differences in pronunciation between Bengali and Hindi (and Marathi). <strong>The</strong><br />
first is that while in Hindi there is a clear separation between sh (as in ship) and s (as in<br />
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sit), in Bengali, almost all the s sounds are converted to sh, the exception being when “[s<br />
in the original Sanskrit] is joined to a consonant <strong>of</strong> the t-series (t, th, n), or to r or l do we<br />
pronounce it as s”(Haldar 113). Beyond this, there is the aforementioned conversion <strong>of</strong><br />
the short Sanskrit vowel a (as in ‘the’ or ‘but’) to either the sound ‘aw’ (as in ‘hot’) or<br />
closer to the long o <strong>of</strong> Sanskrit. This is also the pronunciation used for the inherent a<br />
sound which comes at the end <strong>of</strong> many words that end in a consonant, a vowel which is<br />
usually not sounded at the end <strong>of</strong> such Hindi words (but is in Marathi, pronounced there<br />
as a). Also, along these same lines, the v/w sound in Sanskrit is pronounced in Bengali<br />
invariably as b. From the latter two examples, we can certainly see the ‘rounded’ aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> Bengali and Bengali culture, particularly in terms <strong>of</strong> the a sound, which is produced in<br />
part <strong>by</strong> a literal rounding <strong>of</strong> the mouth and lips. <strong>The</strong> Bengali script also visually appears<br />
to be a rounded version <strong>of</strong> the Devanagri script used in Sanskrit, Hindi, and Marathi. <strong>The</strong><br />
“riverine” aspect, though, comes in the sense that when one sings or speaks in Bengali,<br />
the language takes on a smooth, flowing quality, which unlike Sanskrit, Hindi, or Marathi<br />
is rarely interrupted <strong>by</strong> harsh retr<strong>of</strong>lex consonants or consonant clusters. In this regard, it<br />
makes sense that Bengali has been found unsuitable for use in Khyal where words are<br />
habitually broken mid-syllable. Bengali indeed flows like water, and interrupting this<br />
flow seems an unnatural constriction.<br />
Turning to Maharashtra, we see that that state is, in terms <strong>of</strong> topography, much<br />
more uniform than is Bengal, even excluding present-day Bangladesh. Gail Omvedt<br />
(1976) writes <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra,<br />
With 1/10 <strong>of</strong> the land area and 1/11 the population <strong>of</strong> India, Maharashtra is<br />
geographically clearly marked. O.K. Spate has described it as “a region <strong>of</strong><br />
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extraordinary physical homogeneity,” characterized <strong>by</strong> the black soils <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Deccan lavas and the preponderance <strong>of</strong> jawar, a millet crop, as the staple foodgrain,<br />
both <strong>of</strong> which clearly correlate with the area <strong>of</strong> Marathi speech (49).<br />
As Omvedt notes, Maharashtra is generally reckoned to have four distinct regions in<br />
political terms: the Deccan plateau or desh, as Marathi speakers refer to it, the<br />
central/western portion <strong>of</strong> the state where Pune, the cultural and historical (but not<br />
present-day) capital <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, is located; the Konkan, the narrow coastal strip west<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Sahyadri mountains; Marathwada, the east-central portion <strong>of</strong> the state; and<br />
Vidharba, also known historically as Berar, the easternmost portion <strong>of</strong> the state which is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten considered a separate and distinct entity from the rest <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra <strong>by</strong> those<br />
native to the region. Although Omvedt does not mention it, Khandesh, the extreme<br />
northern portion <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, is also sometimes considered a distinct region within the<br />
state. However, as Omvedt also points out, “Of these, only the Konkan or coastal zone<br />
has distinct features and normally heavy rainfall…”(ibid.:50). In more strictly<br />
geographical terms, Dastane (1992) sees Maharashtra as having four distinct regions: <strong>The</strong><br />
Konkan, the Deccan plateau, the Sahyadaris (or Western Ghats, which average about 900<br />
meters in height), and the “Northern Satpuda ranges and the flat terrain near<strong>by</strong>”(12-13).<br />
For all practical purposes, though, there are three types <strong>of</strong> terrain in Maharashtra: the<br />
uniformly flat plateau which accounts for the vast majority <strong>of</strong> territory in the state, along<br />
with the semi-tropical Konkan belt, and the rocky, moderately-sized peaks <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Sahyadris.<br />
Thus, we find an even more curious situation here than in the case <strong>of</strong> Bengal. In<br />
the latter case, I noted that although Bengal is stereotyped as flat and riverine, the land<br />
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which constitutes Bengal is actually much more varied than that stereotype implies.<br />
However, in Maharashtra we find that the putatively most representative portion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
state, namely the Sahyadri mountain range, actually comprises a very small amount <strong>of</strong> the<br />
overall territory. <strong>The</strong>re are reasons for this, however. Most obviously, if one is trying to<br />
make a metaphorical comparison between landscape and music, a plateau, which is<br />
essentially static in nature, does not make for very compelling imagery. Nayan Ghosh is<br />
certainly not the only person to see rocky hills and small mountains as quintessentially<br />
Maharashtrian, though. To name one other example, the Marathi language television<br />
channel affiliated with the Indian national broadcasting service (Doordarshan) is called<br />
“DD Sahyadri.” Why the importance <strong>of</strong> this one small part <strong>of</strong> the state? First, in<br />
historical terms, many <strong>of</strong> the exploits <strong>of</strong> Shivaji took place in the Ghats and the near<strong>by</strong><br />
areas, and as such, the hill/mountain-top forts that dot this stretch <strong>of</strong> land are some <strong>of</strong><br />
Maharashtra’s most famous and fondly remembered historical sites. Also, considering<br />
that Bombay and Pune together comprise the financial, political, and cultural backbone <strong>of</strong><br />
the state, it should be noted that to travel between the cities (such travel being even more<br />
common since the opening <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> India’s most modern and spacious highways built<br />
solely to facilitate travel between the two) one has to physically cross the Ghats, whether<br />
descending to Bombay or ascending to the desh to reach Pune. Perhaps this association<br />
also has something to do with the fact that KonkaNastha (or Chitpaavan) Brahmans, a<br />
caste to which has belonged a number <strong>of</strong> both Maharashtra’s greatest political leaders and<br />
its greatest classical musicians, have had to migrate from their ancestral homes on the<br />
coast to the Deccan to make their fortunes, crossing the Ghats in the process, raising the<br />
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possibility they, in particular, have helped to advance this view <strong>of</strong> the Sahyadris as the<br />
distinguishing feature <strong>of</strong> the state.<br />
It is easy to see the resemblance between the Marathi language and these rocky<br />
hills and small mountains, so it is all the more understandable that Nayan Ghosh would<br />
make the connection between the two. <strong>The</strong> most important phonological feature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Marathi language in the present context is the relatively frequent incidence <strong>of</strong> retr<strong>of</strong>lex<br />
consonants, most notably the retr<strong>of</strong>lex t, d, and l sounds. Of these, perhaps the most<br />
notable is the retr<strong>of</strong>lex l, for two reasons. First, this sound is unique to Marathi among<br />
Sanskrit-derived languages. Second, the retr<strong>of</strong>lex l, as most would agree, is one<br />
important piece <strong>of</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> the influence <strong>of</strong> Dravidian languages and other aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
South Indian culture on the culture <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra, the most direct influence coming, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, from Karnataka, Maharashtra’s direct neighbor to the south. I will return to the<br />
dual influence <strong>of</strong> north and south on Maharashtra shortly, as I see this as possibly the<br />
defining characteristic <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian culture generally. To proceed, though, beyond<br />
the frequency <strong>of</strong> retr<strong>of</strong>lex consonants, another unique feature <strong>of</strong> Marathi pronunciation<br />
relative to its North Indian linguistic neighbors, i.e. Hindi and Gujarati, is the conversion<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ch sound <strong>of</strong> Sanskrit to the consonant cluster ts and j to dz, likely due to the<br />
influence <strong>of</strong> Persian and other Persian-influenced languages. Grammatically, it is also<br />
notable that Marathi is, on the whole, a more complex language than Bengali (though,<br />
again, Bengali is easily the simplest <strong>of</strong> the Sanskrit-derived languages), primarily because<br />
Marathi has three genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, as is the case in Sanskrit, a<br />
fact which, in turn, has a number <strong>of</strong> grammatical implications, such as verb endings and<br />
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oblique case forms. All in all, Marathi is indeed a much harsher language than Bengali,<br />
even if, as many <strong>of</strong> my Marathi informants pointed out, the form <strong>of</strong> Marathi used in<br />
poetry and song is much smoother and flowing than the every-day, spoken version <strong>of</strong> the<br />
language. And, again, it is not at all difficult to make a connection between the angular,<br />
even jagged, quality <strong>of</strong> Marathi and the rocky cliffs and peaks <strong>of</strong> western Maharashtra.<br />
<strong>The</strong> next question, then, is does this landscape metaphor correspond as well with<br />
musical style as it does with language? Although I will certainly elaborate, I feel the<br />
answer is again yes. Of course, Nayan Ghosh himself is a high-level pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
musician who is both an ethnic Bengali and a native <strong>of</strong> Bombay, and, thus, as he told me,<br />
is a “bridge” between these two regional cultures. As such, his observations on musical<br />
style can generally be trusted. I do differ from NG in the sense that, for him, folk music<br />
defines the musical style <strong>of</strong> any region, and thus the proper comparison with the<br />
languages and landscapes <strong>of</strong> each region is with the style <strong>of</strong> folk music in that region. I<br />
do not doubt the validity <strong>of</strong> this view. However, the bottom line here is that my focus is<br />
on classical music, and, at least in my opinion, the relationship between either<br />
Maharashtrian or Bengali folk music with the style <strong>of</strong> classical music in each region is<br />
unclear and, at best, indirect. In the Maharashtrian case, it seems, based again on my<br />
interlocutors’ observations, that whatever elements <strong>of</strong> Marathi folk music that have<br />
entered properly classical music in Maharashtrian have come second-hand through<br />
Marathi theater music, and even then, it is difficult to say precisely what in NaaTya<br />
Sangiit is directly derived from native Marathi sources and what comes from North<br />
Indian classical and semi-classical genres, because, as I explained in chapter 7, Marathi<br />
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theater music drew from both categories for most <strong>of</strong> its history. In this case, though, at<br />
least we can rest relatively assured that NaaTya Sangiit has both influenced and been<br />
influenced <strong>by</strong> Khyal. This is as opposed to Bengal where, although similarities abound<br />
between Bengali folk, semi-classical, and, as I argue, classical genres, the directions in<br />
which particular influences have exerted themselves are far from clear, primarily<br />
because, as I again explained in chapter 7, the most popular and prevalent semi-classical<br />
musical genres in Bengal have existed more or less independently <strong>of</strong> classical music, as<br />
opposed to NaaTya Sangiit, essentially a subgenre <strong>of</strong> Khyal. As mentioned above,<br />
though, Bengalis, in contrast to Maharashtrians, have made a habit <strong>of</strong> including Bengali<br />
regional tunes in their classical performances, although only in the “tailpiece” position.<br />
At any rate, my point here is that, regardless <strong>of</strong> where particular stylistic touches have<br />
originally come from, whether they are truly native to these regions or simply aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
North Indian musical style that resonate with Bengali or Marathi musicians (or those<br />
musicians who are sympathetic to the Marathi or Bengali aesthetic), the proper<br />
comparison in the present context is between classical music style on one side and<br />
landscape and language on the other, as opposed to NG who did reference classical music<br />
style (in both the above citation and in the remainder <strong>of</strong> our interview) but bases his view<br />
<strong>of</strong> these regional aesthetics on the style <strong>of</strong> semi-classical and folk genres as much as <strong>of</strong><br />
specifically classical music.<br />
At this point, then, while I have already summarized what I see as both the typical<br />
respective styles <strong>of</strong> tabla playing and Khyal singing in both the Maharashtra and Bengal<br />
regions as well as the primary styles <strong>of</strong> instrumental music present in Bengal (in chapters<br />
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3-6), I should reiterate some <strong>of</strong> the main points in order to, again, demonstrate the<br />
validity <strong>of</strong> this landscape metaphor. If there is one essential difference between the<br />
Bengali aesthetic in classical music and that <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra it is that Bengalis so <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
de-emphasize rhythm, while it is much more important in the style <strong>of</strong> the average<br />
Maharashtrian Khyal singer. Of course, it could be pointed out that layakaarii or<br />
rhythmic play as such (i.e. not just a general emphasis on rhythm or a general rhythmic<br />
quality), is associated primarily with the Agra gharana, a gharana fairly well-represented<br />
in Maharashtra but historically insignificant in Calcutta or greater Bengal. However,<br />
while this is the common sense view <strong>of</strong> the situation, we should keep in mind a few facts.<br />
First, as K.P. Mukherjee among others attested, Faiyaz Khan was once a sensation in<br />
Calcutta in terms <strong>of</strong> popularity with listeners and musicians, somewhat analogous to the<br />
role Bade Ghulam Ali and Amir Khan would later fill, and as K.P Mukherjee has<br />
explained in <strong>The</strong> Lost World <strong>of</strong> Hindustani Music (and as cited in chapter 4), Tarapada<br />
Chakraborty, one <strong>of</strong> the great Bengali khyaaliya-s historically, was himself significantly<br />
influenced <strong>by</strong> Faiyaz Khan. And yet, this influence is only faintly detectable in the music<br />
<strong>of</strong> his son Manas, whose style is much more clearly indebted to Amir Khan. More<br />
importantly, though, in the last few decades the ITC-SRA has brought bona fide<br />
exponents <strong>of</strong> the Agra gaayakii to teach there, giving some <strong>of</strong> the better aspiring Bengali<br />
Khyal singers exposure to the style in that context. Also, I should again mention that<br />
recordings <strong>of</strong> all the great Agra singers are readily available to all Bengali musicians and<br />
music lovers. In spite <strong>of</strong> this, and in spite <strong>of</strong> the fact that media (such as CDs and<br />
cassettes) are supposed, according to many observers, to create homogeneity in musical<br />
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style, Bengali musicians continue to choose to emulate Amir Khan, even those who were<br />
born well after his death in the early 1970s. <strong>The</strong> evidence provided <strong>by</strong> other Bengali<br />
genres such as Rabindrasangiit, the Bengali Tappaa, and Bengali Dhrupad – i.e. that<br />
rhythm is de-emphasized in all these genres – demonstrates rather clearly, I feel, that this<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> Bengali style cannot be attributed simply to the popularity <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan or the<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> influential Agra singers in Calcutta after the death <strong>of</strong> Faiyaz Khan.<br />
Conversely, rhythm generally and layakaari specifically is one <strong>of</strong> the traits <strong>of</strong><br />
what I have argued is the most distinctly Maharashtrian style <strong>of</strong> singing, the combination<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Gwalior, Agra, and Jaipur gaayakii-s as practiced <strong>by</strong> musicians like Bhaskarbua<br />
Bakhle, Gajanabua Joshi, Ram Marathe, Ulhas Kashalkar, Yashwantbua Joshi, and many<br />
others. Even Bhimsen Joshi, nominally the greatest current exponent <strong>of</strong> the Kirana<br />
gharana (which is known for its emphasis on the largely arrhythmic aalaap over all other<br />
portions <strong>of</strong> a raga performance) has included much <strong>of</strong> the Agra/Gwalior rhythmic<br />
approach into his music. At any rate, I feel that this emphasis on rhythm in Maharashtra<br />
and de-emphasis in Bengal corresponds fairly closely to the idea as Maharashtra as<br />
essentially rocky, rough, and angular, and Bengal as essentially riverine and smooth. It is<br />
somewhat deceptive in the Bengali case that in the aforementioned semi-classical genres<br />
(such as Tagore songs), rhythm is de-emphasized in order to accommodate the all-<br />
important text, while in Khyal the text is relatively insignificant, which might lead one to<br />
believe that de-emphasizing rhythm in Khyal might be based solely on the influence <strong>of</strong><br />
Amir Khan in whose music layakaarii as such is mostly absent (as, in other words, there<br />
is no practical need in Khyal to make the text clear). However, I prefer to see this as<br />
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another enduring aspect <strong>of</strong> the Bengali aesthetic, considering that it does appear in so<br />
many types <strong>of</strong> music, running the gamut from folk to classical. <strong>The</strong> only real<br />
complication here is that there are in fact a number <strong>of</strong> singers, both currently and<br />
historically, in Maharashtra who do not engage in layakaarii and whose music is, as with<br />
so many Bengali khyaaliya-s, much more melodic than rhythmic. This category, as noted<br />
in chapter 3, adheres rather closely to the model established <strong>by</strong> Abdul Karim Khan.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is an explanation for this seeming inconsistency, but I will wait a bit to address this<br />
point.<br />
<strong>The</strong> other major correspondence to the respective landscapes <strong>of</strong> the two regions in<br />
question, as pointed out to me <strong>by</strong> both Nayan Ghosh and Keshav Paranjape, is the<br />
predominance <strong>of</strong> certain types <strong>of</strong> ornamentation in the music <strong>of</strong> each regionally-defined<br />
group <strong>of</strong> musicians. <strong>The</strong> similarity between miinD and flowing water is fairly apparent, I<br />
feel. KhaTkaa, the most characteristic type <strong>of</strong> ornamentation used <strong>by</strong> Marathi singers in<br />
the estimation <strong>of</strong> both NG and KP, also matches up with the idea <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra as<br />
essentially rocky, rough, and angular, although perhaps in a less obvious manner.<br />
KhaTkaa is, to reiterate, essentially a turn in Western terms. Visually, it could be<br />
expressed as something like (in sargam or Indian solfege):<br />
RE<br />
SA SA<br />
NI<br />
This shape, which suggests, in an impressionistic sense, a hill top or peak, could also be<br />
extended to include the essentially circular taan-s, which, according to Veena<br />
Sahasrabuddhe, have been imported from NaaTya Sangiit into Khyal <strong>by</strong> certain Marathi<br />
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singers. This type <strong>of</strong> taan is, in a certain sense, a khaTkaa-like turn continuously<br />
repeated, for example, SA RE SA NI DHA NI SA RE SA NI DHA NI, etc. (1, 2, 1, 7, 6,<br />
7, 1, etc., in scale degrees). <strong>The</strong> only apparent ambiguity here is that, as mentioned in<br />
chapter 7, giitkaaDii/giitkirii or murkii, also essentially types <strong>of</strong> turns, are also quite<br />
prevalent in Thumri, Thumri-influenced styles, and in the Bengali Tappaa. <strong>The</strong><br />
difference though, comes in the way these turns are delivered. To be more specific, in<br />
khaTkaa, each note is clearly and forcefully enunciated, very much like a short segment<br />
<strong>of</strong> a tana. However, a murkii is much more s<strong>of</strong>tly intoned and thus comes <strong>of</strong>f a bit more<br />
slurred or indistinct. Many writers have referred to murkii for this reason as a ‘rococo’<br />
type <strong>of</strong> ornamentation. <strong>The</strong> point, though, is that, although, in the broader sense, a turn is<br />
a turn, a turn in typical Bengali hands is again more smooth, flowing, and even liquid,<br />
while in the hands <strong>of</strong> the typical Marathi singer it seems more solid and angular.<br />
To bring instrumental music style into the equation, it makes a good deal <strong>of</strong><br />
sense that Vilayat Khan’s style would resonate more with Bengalis than the Maihar<br />
approach because, in many ways, the Vilayat Khani style <strong>of</strong> elaboration is a mirror image<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Bengali approach to Khyal. This consists <strong>of</strong> a Khyal-style aalaap, without any<br />
trace <strong>of</strong> Dhrupad ang, very little or no layakaari or bol baanT, sargam (only applicable in<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> vocal music, as solfege cannot be produced on an instrument), and taan-s<br />
which are largely straight (i.e. scalar) and, thus, do not maintain the characteristic shape<br />
<strong>of</strong> the raga. This is not, however, to deny the Bengali-ness <strong>of</strong> the Maihar<br />
instrumentalists. It would be somewhat ironic to do so, as the central lineage <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Maihar gharana is an East Bengali family, while Vilayat Khan’s family is native to Uttar<br />
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Pradesh. As Nayan Ghosh noted, the use <strong>of</strong> miinD in the music <strong>of</strong> both Ali Akbar Khan<br />
and Nikhil Banerjee is itself very clearly Bengali in nature. This, however, is one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
many cases where gharana can occlude, so to speak, regional influence. <strong>The</strong> Maihar style<br />
<strong>of</strong> Allaudin Khan, we should remember, is largely derived from the music <strong>of</strong> Seniya<br />
Wazir Khan and <strong>of</strong> many other prestigious musicians <strong>of</strong> Rampur. All in all, then, it is<br />
essentially a balanced and complete North Indian style with some minor Bengali touches.<br />
However, while the Maihar style was shaped <strong>by</strong> the milieu <strong>of</strong> early 20th century Rampur,<br />
the Imdad Khan style is, at least currently, more or less equivalent to the personal style <strong>of</strong><br />
Vilayat Khan, who, again, was born in Gauripur, East Bengal. Thus, his style can be seen<br />
as, among other things, a reflection <strong>of</strong> the Bengali environment in which it was<br />
developed. <strong>The</strong> popularity <strong>of</strong> Nikhil Banerjee in no way contradicts this general view,<br />
because, simply put, he was the most Bengali ‘member’ <strong>of</strong> the Maihar gharana, <strong>by</strong> virtue<br />
<strong>of</strong> the influence <strong>of</strong> both Amir Khan and Vilayat Khan on his personal style. In this sense,<br />
he is the mirror image <strong>of</strong> Bhimsen Joshi. This is to say, Bhimsen Joshi took the Kirana<br />
style, which is, in a manner <strong>of</strong> speaking, the most ‘Bengali’ <strong>of</strong> the major gharana styles,<br />
and made it more ‘Maharashtrian,’ while Nikhil Banerjee took the most Dhrupad-<br />
influenced and, thus, rhythmically complex, instrumental style and made it more<br />
‘Bengali.’ Gharana, then, as some would have it, does not simply erase regional stylistic<br />
influences, even if it can at times conceal them.<br />
This covers the connections between style and landscape made <strong>by</strong> Nayan Ghosh<br />
himself, though, <strong>of</strong> course, I have extended and elaborated upon these connections much<br />
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more than NG did in our interview. I would like to mention one more such connection<br />
before proceeding. This concerns what might be termed as the vertical aspect <strong>of</strong> Indian<br />
musical style. Of course, because when the vertical (as opposed to horizontal) aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
Western music are discussed in an analytical context, it is typically in reference to<br />
harmony, Indian music, which is monophonic and linear, is rarely discussed in such<br />
terms. However, I feel that pitch range could also be seen in this manner. Considering,<br />
then, that Marathi singers sing in a typically higher pitch than Bengalis (thanks again to<br />
the influence <strong>of</strong> NaaTya Sangiit in Maharashtra and the influence <strong>of</strong> Amir Khan in<br />
Bengal, most notably), and that Marathi singers are more likely to explore all the registers<br />
in their raga performances, this could also be seen as a reflection <strong>of</strong> the landscape <strong>of</strong> each<br />
region. Thus, while the terrain <strong>of</strong> Bengal (leaving aside northern Bengal) is largely flat,<br />
so then is the use <strong>of</strong> pitch <strong>by</strong> many Bengali Khyal singers. In Maharashtra, though, the<br />
greater contrasts in terms <strong>of</strong> pitch registers exploited or developed, mirrors the ups and<br />
downs <strong>of</strong> the Western Ghats.<br />
To this extent, the metaphor provided <strong>by</strong> Nayan Ghosh has proved to be largely<br />
appropriate and descriptive <strong>of</strong> the realities <strong>of</strong> musical style in each province, at least as<br />
based on the available evidence. <strong>The</strong>re are two problems, however, or limitations to this<br />
view <strong>of</strong> landscape as metaphor for musical style in the terms proposed <strong>by</strong> NG. <strong>The</strong> first,<br />
which is relatively minor, is that in Fernandez’s theory, there is nothing to account for all<br />
three factors mentioned <strong>by</strong> NG: landscape, music, and language. 119 We could state that<br />
119 Of course, it is also perhaps a stretch to use Fernandez’s theory <strong>of</strong> metaphoric predication for art forms,<br />
not people, but we should keep in mind that musical style, in the sense I am discussing it here, is simply an<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> broader cultural style and, ultimately, <strong>of</strong> the musicians themselves.<br />
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landscape is a metaphor for musical style, language is a metaphor for musical style, or<br />
even that landscape is a metaphor for language. However, this does not account for the<br />
relations that obtain between all three in a systematic fashion. <strong>The</strong> second and ultimately<br />
more serious problem with this landscape metaphor, though, is that it does not account<br />
for the fact that, while in Bengal there is one dominant model <strong>of</strong> classical music style,<br />
represented <strong>by</strong> the Vilayat Khani gaayakii ang in instrumental music and <strong>by</strong> the pseudo-<br />
Amir Khan/Kirana style practiced <strong>by</strong> the majority <strong>of</strong> Bengali Khyal singers, in<br />
Maharashtra there are two broad styles, as I argue above. <strong>The</strong>se are, to reiterate, the<br />
Gwalior-Agra-Jaipur style and the aalaap-oriented Kirana/simplified Gwalior style, that<br />
in many ways would seem to resemble the Bengali approach. In order to remedy these<br />
limitations and shore up the deficiencies (such as they are) in NG’s original metaphor, I<br />
turn to the work <strong>of</strong> theorist Robert Plant Armstrong, more specifically his 1971<br />
monograph <strong>The</strong> Affecting Presence: An Essay in Humanistic Anthropology. Also, I<br />
should note that my understanding <strong>of</strong> Armstrong’s work has been aided in a large part <strong>by</strong><br />
Charles Keil’s own attempt in Tiv Song (1979) to use Armstrong’s theories to analyze the<br />
music and culture <strong>of</strong> the Tiv people <strong>of</strong> western Africa.<br />
Armstrong’s primary concern in the above work is, as its title indicates, to<br />
explicate his concept <strong>of</strong> the “affecting presence.” For Armstrong, the “affecting<br />
presence” is a quality <strong>of</strong> “affecting works,” which include, but are not limited to,<br />
conventionally defined works <strong>of</strong> art. <strong>The</strong> key to Armstrong’s theory, then, is that the<br />
“affecting presence” is not a symbol <strong>of</strong> certain affective states, but instead the<br />
“embodiment <strong>of</strong> those physical conditions which generate or are causative or constitutive<br />
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<strong>of</strong> that emotion, feeling, or value with which [the artist] is concerned”(31). <strong>The</strong>re are,<br />
though, two rather more specific aspects <strong>of</strong> Armstrong’s theory that concern us here. <strong>The</strong><br />
first is his concept <strong>of</strong> the “similetic metaphor.” As, Armstrong explains:<br />
It goes without saying that “terms” which respond to or initiate the same category<br />
<strong>of</strong> affect may be regarded in this aspect as “synonyms” to one another. Not only<br />
are two “happy” poems synonymous with respect to the feeling <strong>of</strong> happiness, but<br />
a happy poem, a happy musical composition, and a happy painting are also<br />
synonyms. Synonymity thus obtains not only within but across forms (59).<br />
Thus, the “similetic metaphor” is defined as,<br />
That facet <strong>of</strong> the metaphoric process which asserts that, for the purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
achieving a common affective end, a given way <strong>of</strong> treating certain physical<br />
characteristics in one form will be equal to a certain other way <strong>of</strong> the treating the<br />
same physical characteristics in another form…(60).<br />
To this, Armstrong adds the important caveat that he is, with this formulation, not<br />
asserting “absolute and total equivalence among different works in various media which<br />
are productive <strong>of</strong> common kinds <strong>of</strong> affect,” explaining that such works are instead<br />
“roughly equivalent”(62 – emphasis is the author’s).<br />
<strong>The</strong> other aspect <strong>of</strong> Armstrong’s theory which I see as important in the present<br />
context, and which is necessary to understand the above notion <strong>of</strong> the “similetic<br />
metaphor,” is his concept <strong>of</strong> the “cultural metaphoric base.” This is the most basic level<br />
<strong>of</strong> Armstrong’s theoretical system, “one which undergirds the whole metaphoric<br />
system…and gives to the whole range <strong>of</strong> affecting presences <strong>of</strong> a given culture their<br />
cohesive, homogenous cultural identity.” Likewise, as Armstrong notes, this cultural<br />
base, “asserts the totality <strong>of</strong> style, the cultural identity, the historical reality <strong>of</strong> a people,<br />
and it perpetuates their feelings…”(65). Although he is not entirely clear on this point, it<br />
seems that there might be one cultural base that corresponds to a given society, or in the<br />
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case <strong>of</strong> more complex societies, more than one. Thus Armstrong lists “romanticism,”<br />
“realism,” “naturalism,” and “Guineaism” as types <strong>of</strong> cultural metaphoric bases. Also<br />
important here is Armstrong’s addendum to this concept:<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is every likelihood that as the cultural metaphoric base speaks through the<br />
affecting presence and the metaphoric system, so does it speak through the total<br />
affective life, giving a consistency <strong>of</strong> style to the ethos, touching not only<br />
sculpture, dance, music, painting, but food, clothing, fighting, house styles,<br />
interpersonal relations – all the s<strong>of</strong>t, viable, fleshy, feeling parts <strong>of</strong> culture (ibid.).<br />
With this, then, we overcome the first <strong>of</strong> the aforementioned apparent limitations <strong>of</strong><br />
Nayan Ghosh’s landscape/language metaphor. As Armstrong makes clear, there is, at<br />
least in terms <strong>of</strong> his theoretical model, “every likelihood” that just as there is “similetic<br />
equivalence” that obtains between various “affecting works” produced within the<br />
confines <strong>of</strong> one cultural base, there is also a quality <strong>of</strong> equivalence between art forms and<br />
other aspects <strong>of</strong> the culture in question, specifically language in the present case.<br />
Before proceeding to an analysis <strong>of</strong> the data at hand, I should note one way in<br />
which I differ from Armstrong’s system. According to Armstrong, there is an<br />
intermediate level which obtains between the specific “affecting works” and the<br />
underlying “cultural metaphoric base.” This is “trope.” In essence, this is Armstrong’s<br />
version <strong>of</strong> the “cultural axis” concept mention earlier in relations to Fernandez’s work.<br />
As Armstrong notes, “Affecting presences can be created about one <strong>of</strong> three kinds <strong>of</strong> axes<br />
– spatial, temporal, and spatio-temporal.” Thus, sculpture and painting “rely upon an<br />
axis <strong>of</strong> space…,” music, poetry, and narrative on time; and drama and dance on space-<br />
time. In line with the rest <strong>of</strong> his theory, Armstrong prefers to see these different axes as<br />
equivalent in a certain sense. Thus, as he describes, the “trope itself is neither spatial nor<br />
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temporal, but rather both. And so it tends to accept either time or space as its dominant<br />
mode <strong>of</strong> existence, but subjects them both to common metaphoric discipline”(64). By<br />
this logic, then, there are four “structural-stylistic possibilities: intensive continuity,<br />
intensive discontinuity, extensive continuity, and extensive discontinuity,” the<br />
extensive/intensive pairing relating to “synchronic time” and “discrete space” and the<br />
continuous/ discontinuous pairing” “adjacent spaces and diachronic time”(67). It is<br />
through these four possibilities that Armstrong is then able to describe the style <strong>of</strong> a<br />
culture, style here being defined as “the visual evidence that the cultural metaphoric base<br />
exists…”(66).<br />
So, while I do see value in Armstrong’s concepts <strong>of</strong> “cultural metaphoric base”<br />
and the “similetic metaphor,” I will not attempt to define Bengali and Maharashtrian<br />
musical and, <strong>by</strong> extension, cultural style in these specific terms. <strong>The</strong>re are two reasons<br />
for this. First, as Keil notes, these four “structural-stylistic possibilities,” among other<br />
aspects, betray what Keil sees as a “static visual bias [that] prevails throughout”<br />
(1979:197), an obvious difficulty in characterizing musical style. More importantly,<br />
though, Armstrong is attempting in this work to establish a model that is valid for the<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> any particular culture. This is a laudable goal, no doubt, but I am not<br />
concerned here with universal applicability. I am interested instead, as in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
Fernandez’s discussion <strong>of</strong> “cultural axes,” in establishing criteria that serve simply to<br />
differentiate the “cultural bases” underlying the respective regional cultures <strong>of</strong> Bengal<br />
and Maharashtra. Keil, for his part, adds another axis or “structural-stylistic possibility”<br />
that I feel is particularly relevant to the present case, namely, “masculine and feminine<br />
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modes <strong>of</strong> expression.” As Keil writes, “If the Tiv affecting universe is an acceptable test<br />
case, ‘male and female’ probably ought to suffuse the whole model from bottom to<br />
top…It is certainly not a variable to be tucked into the theoretical superstructure”<br />
(ibid.:198). Keil’s inclination, then, is to add “masculine-feminine” to the other two<br />
pairs, thus yielding eight possible combinations.<br />
For my purposes, though, the “smooth-rough”/“s<strong>of</strong>t-hard”/“liquid solid”<br />
differentiations (which I feel are roughly synonymous) and the “masculine-feminine”<br />
axis are sufficient. <strong>The</strong> first axis (or set <strong>of</strong> oppositions), which I have already described<br />
above, is adequate if our intention is to simply to define Maharashtrian and Bengali<br />
musical style (and, <strong>by</strong> implication, cultural style) in opposition to one another, which<br />
seemed to have been Nayan Ghosh’s intention. As I have explained at several points in<br />
earlier chapters, though, the styles <strong>of</strong> classical music practiced in each <strong>of</strong> the two regions<br />
in question are not simply opposites, nor are they perfectly complementary. And, there is<br />
no reason to think they should be. <strong>The</strong>se two regions <strong>of</strong> India, after all, are not<br />
geographically contiguous (or close to being contiguous), and, as such, there has not been<br />
a great deal <strong>of</strong> contact or interchange between the two cultures, at least not before the<br />
nationalist era (in the late 19th century). Limiting it specifically to Hindustani music, the<br />
only case I know <strong>of</strong> where it can be argued that these two classical music cultures have<br />
changed or developed in reaction to one another was in the early 20th century, when, at<br />
least according to Purohit, Bengalis began taking up instrumental music in large numbers<br />
because they felt that Khyal had already been monopolized <strong>by</strong> that point in time <strong>by</strong><br />
Maharashtrians. Keeping this all in mind, it should come as no surprise that the musical<br />
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style characteristic <strong>of</strong> each region is in certain ways different and in certain ways similar,<br />
as well.<br />
<strong>The</strong> key to understanding this situation is the “masculine-feminine” stylistic<br />
opposition. <strong>The</strong> crux <strong>of</strong> the matter, as I see it, is that Bengali style can fairly be<br />
characterized as feminine, while Maharashtrian culture can be characterized as both<br />
masculine and feminine. In terms <strong>of</strong> musical style, specifically, this means that classical<br />
music style in Bengal is essentially s<strong>of</strong>t, melodic (rather than rhythmic), and emotional<br />
rather than technical. Also relevant here is that the dominant ras or emotional moods<br />
favored <strong>by</strong> Bengali musicians (judging both from regional Bengali genres and from the<br />
style <strong>of</strong> particularly important and influential musicians like Amir Khan) are karuNaa, or<br />
pathos, and sRingaar, or eroticism. From here, we can branch out to larger aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
Bengali culture that seem to indicate this essentially feminine quality, for instance that<br />
the chief deity in Bengal is a goddess, namely Durga. I should note here that I am well<br />
aware <strong>of</strong> the fact that Bengali culture was stereotyped <strong>by</strong> the British in the colonial period<br />
as effeminate, chiefly in order to provide some rationale for the British colonial<br />
endeavors in that part <strong>of</strong> India. 120 However, even taking this history into consideration, I<br />
feel it would be difficult in the present context to characterize Bengali cultural style as<br />
anything other than feminine. In Maharashtra, though, at least in the musical realm, we<br />
can see both masculine and feminine styles. If we were to leave music out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
equation, it would be tempting to see Maharashtra as masculine in terms <strong>of</strong> its general<br />
cultural ethos, as Nayan Ghosh essentially had (though he never used the terms<br />
120 see Nandy 1998a<br />
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“masculine” or “feminine”). After all, this is the region whose greatest historic figure,<br />
namely Shivaji I, is a warrior-king (as opposed to Bengal, where the greatest and most<br />
revered historical figure was a poet and musician). However, if we are to take<br />
Armstrong’s statement that style is the “visual [or in this case, aural] evidence that the<br />
cultural metaphoric base exists” seriously, then we must consider the possibility that<br />
there are two “cultural bases” at the root <strong>of</strong> Maharashtrian culture.<br />
It is at this point, then, that I would like to reintroduce geography as such back<br />
into the equation. As I discussed in my introduction, Cohn (1967) set forth three types <strong>of</strong><br />
historical regions in India: the “nuclear” or “perennial region”; the “route area” or<br />
“shatter zone”; and the “cul de sac” or “area <strong>of</strong> relative isolation”(108). To reiterate, in<br />
these terms, Maharashtra is a “nuclear region,” a historically stable region which has “the<br />
basic ecological-agricultural prerequisites for fairly large scale state formation,” while<br />
Bengal is a “cul de sac,” a type <strong>of</strong> region which is fairly self-explanatory, but which Cohn<br />
describes as a region that because <strong>of</strong> “geographic ecological characteristics” is difficult to<br />
access and thus, “[has] tended to be <strong>by</strong>passed <strong>by</strong> processes and events which have<br />
affected the nuclear and route regions”(111). We can certainly see the truth <strong>of</strong> these<br />
categorizations in the context <strong>of</strong> classical music, as Maharashtra has historically been in<br />
fairly close contact with North India, as evidenced <strong>by</strong> the absorption <strong>of</strong> the Khyal<br />
tradition into Maharashtra starting in the late 20th century, while Bengal’s involvement<br />
or engagement with the tradition has always been at best partial or incomplete. As I<br />
mentioned earlier, North India is the cradle <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, so, to a large extent, the<br />
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histories <strong>of</strong> classical music in Maharashtra and Bengal can be defined <strong>by</strong> their respective<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> cultural contact and exchange with North India.<br />
<strong>The</strong> key to understanding the nature <strong>of</strong> the cultural and musical style <strong>of</strong><br />
Maharashtra, however, is to remember that Maharashtra not only has had a long history<br />
<strong>of</strong> cultural contact with the North. Thanks to its geographical positioning, Maharashtra<br />
has had an equally long history <strong>of</strong> cultural contact and exchange with South India, as<br />
well. Maharashtra, then, is not only madhya raashTra, in other words the “middle land”<br />
in geographical terms, it is also, in a sense, a combination <strong>of</strong> both North and South, with<br />
the Sanskrit-based, but Dravidian-influenced Marathi language standing as one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
most prominent examples <strong>of</strong> this dual nature. Omvedt quotes Maharashtrian historian<br />
Iravati Karve as describing Maharashtra as “a culture contact region par excellance,”<br />
noting the similarity <strong>of</strong> the caste formation in Maharashtra (which features Brahmans,<br />
Shudras, and untouchables and no middle castes as such) to that <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> South India<br />
(1976:49). Conversely, Bengal, thanks to its geographical isolation, has historically had<br />
little contact with either North or South, especially the South. In language terms, Bengali<br />
is Sanskrit-based, but, as noted, it is also the most unique and simplistic <strong>of</strong> the Sanskrit-<br />
based languages. So, to phrase it in a slightly different way, Maharashtra is both North<br />
and South, while Bengal is neither. This then, I feel, is the explanation for the two broad<br />
styles <strong>of</strong> classical music as practiced in Maharashtra. One style can be taken as<br />
representative <strong>of</strong> the Southern influence, and the other, representative <strong>of</strong> the Northern<br />
influence.<br />
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I should be clear, however, that I am not asserting that one style is more<br />
influenced <strong>by</strong> North Indian music, while the other is influenced <strong>by</strong> the Southern or<br />
Carnatic system <strong>of</strong> classical music. Considering that Maharashtra shares a border with a<br />
South Indian state, Karnataka, a state in which both the Hindustani and Carnatic classical<br />
traditions are present, it should not be surprising that there has been a certain amount <strong>of</strong><br />
direct influence <strong>of</strong> South Indian classical music on Hindustani music in this broader<br />
region (what I have termed as the “Maharashtra region,” in the specifically musical<br />
sense). <strong>The</strong> most notable examples <strong>of</strong> this have been the incorporation <strong>of</strong> certain<br />
sargam-based compositions into, first, the Kirana gharana style and later into other styles<br />
as well, the innovator in this case being Kirana fountainhead Abdul Karim (who, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, is not Marathi or Kannad, but a North Indian Muslim). Another example, as<br />
mentioned in chapter 5, is the influence <strong>of</strong> South Indian classical rhythmic concepts on<br />
the style <strong>of</strong> many (southern) Maharashtrian and Kannad tabla players, the most notable<br />
current example being Suresh Talawalkar. <strong>The</strong> point I am trying to make, though, is that<br />
the broad singing styles I have argued for above are representations <strong>of</strong> two contrasting<br />
(and in certain senses complementary) cultural impulses, or “cultural metaphoric bases.”<br />
<strong>The</strong> first, which I have noted resembles the Bengali style to a large degree, is<br />
representative, in my view, <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra as defined <strong>by</strong> its religious traditions, in<br />
particular the bhaktii tradition as perpetuated <strong>by</strong> notable such notable ‘saint-poets’ as<br />
Dnaneshwar, Namdev, and Tukaram. 121 <strong>The</strong>se bhakti traditions can also be seen, and<br />
121 In Maharashtra, as in the rest <strong>of</strong> India, bhakti traditions are essentially devotional, heterodox, and<br />
egalitarian movements that developed in the middle ages largely as a response to the egalitarian appeal <strong>of</strong><br />
Islam.<br />
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have been seen <strong>by</strong> certain scholars, as defining Maharashtra in geographical terms. As<br />
Feldhaus (2006) notes, some, including aforementioned historian Iravati Karve, have<br />
argued that the largest and most important pilgrimage conducted annually in<br />
Maharashtra, the two-week long pilgrimage in which devotees from across the region<br />
converge on the temple <strong>of</strong> the god Vitthal (or Vithoba) in the south-eastern portion <strong>of</strong><br />
modern Maharashtra state, itself defines the region <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra (191-192). <strong>The</strong>re are<br />
problems and limitations with this view, as Feldhaus notes, but, all the same, many<br />
Maharashtrians do in fact see the Pandharpur pilgrimage in this light. <strong>The</strong> key to all this,<br />
i.e. the reason why I tie this style <strong>of</strong> music to South Indian cultural influence, is precisely<br />
because devotionalism is the dominant mode in Carnatic classical music, a tradition<br />
where, despite the prominence <strong>of</strong> abstract processes <strong>of</strong> musical development we would<br />
expect from a classical tradition (particularly a South Asian classical tradition), all the<br />
musical compositions employed are essentially hymns, to put it in Western terms. And,<br />
again, it is not at all coincidental that the chief influence on this style has been the music<br />
<strong>of</strong> Abdul Karim, who spent much <strong>of</strong> his adult life living in the Maharashtra-Karnataka<br />
border region (in Miraj), and who was both inspired and influenced <strong>by</strong> Carnatic music.<br />
This also, I should note, is the chief differentiation between this broad style in<br />
Maharashtrian and Bengali contexts. In both cases the karuNaa ras (or mood <strong>of</strong> pathos)<br />
is dominant. However, I argue that, in the Bengali case, this pathos has a more worldly,<br />
sensual aspect, while in the Marathi case it is representative, not <strong>of</strong> longing for reunion<br />
with one’s lover in the worldly, secular sense (as in Bengal), but rather for reunion with<br />
God. And, again, to tie it into the masculine/feminine dichotomy, in Indian culture<br />
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generally, the devotee is always portrayed as female, as when Radha pines for her<br />
beloved, the god Krishna. <strong>The</strong> respective histories <strong>of</strong> Bengal and Maharashtra,<br />
particularly Bengal’s much more prolonged and pr<strong>of</strong>ound contact with Western ideas and<br />
modes <strong>of</strong> thought would seem to account for this subtle difference in the meaning <strong>of</strong> this<br />
particular musical style and, <strong>by</strong> extension, cultural style.<br />
Conversely, the other broad style I have argued for in the case <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra is<br />
informed <strong>by</strong> the Northern cultural impulse, which in this case, rather straightforwardly<br />
equates to the courtly, even martial, and Persianate side <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani tradition. This<br />
impulse corresponds, in historical terms, with the exploits <strong>of</strong> Shivaji, especially his<br />
efforts to carve out a kingdom based on Hindu social and religious principles. <strong>The</strong>re are,<br />
again, some problems <strong>of</strong> this view in terms <strong>of</strong> historical fact. Many scholars, the most<br />
notable recent example being Laine (2003), argue that Shivaji founded his kingdom not<br />
solely, or even chiefly, to establish a Hindu state as such, but rather for the same reasons<br />
as many other figures in this period, i.e. to gain wealth and power. However, regardless<br />
<strong>of</strong> historical evidence or all the possible interpretations <strong>of</strong> that evidence (and the political<br />
and cultural implications <strong>of</strong> such interpretations), most Maharashtrians do attribute the<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra as a distinct region in both cultural and historical terms to<br />
Shivaji’s ‘nation-building’ efforts, and as I have already illustrated in chapter 1, the<br />
potency <strong>of</strong> Shivaji as a symbol Marathi pride, a symbol which has been frequently<br />
manipulated both <strong>by</strong> the state government <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra and <strong>by</strong> such essentially right-<br />
wing organizations like the Shiv Sena. In musical terms, I feel the connection between<br />
the martial imagery <strong>of</strong> Shivaji’s exploits and the musical style in question are fairly clear.<br />
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First, the dominant ras in the style <strong>of</strong> both the Gwalior and Agra traditions (which are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten referred singularly in the Maharashtrian context as the Agra-Gwalior tradition) is<br />
viir or heroism. In reference to the Agra style in particular, which is key in this context<br />
as it lends the element <strong>of</strong> emphasis on rhythm and rhythmic development to this broader<br />
Marathi musical style (rhythm, again, being the chief differentiating factor between this<br />
style and the Bengali and the ‘devotional’ Marathi styles), Vamanrao Deshpande writes,<br />
Agra did achieve a certain volume and resonance. Its style reminds one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
rugged architectural construction <strong>of</strong> a medieval fortress with its gigantic walls,<br />
ramparts and turrets. <strong>The</strong> Agra style...is robust and aggressive. Its successive<br />
tana-s remind us <strong>of</strong> speedily advancing armies striking hard at their targets, its<br />
bol-tanas <strong>of</strong> rapid gun-fire. Nor is the style devoid <strong>of</strong> a certain measure <strong>of</strong><br />
guerilla tactics <strong>of</strong> tones and well-planned dodges <strong>of</strong> rhythm. It ‘captivates’ rather<br />
than ‘delights’ and extracts an appreciative ‘tribute’ from the vanquished listener<br />
(1987:19).<br />
It is hard for me to imagine that I could find another passage that brings forward the<br />
masculine and militaristic qualities <strong>of</strong> the Agra style better than this one. It is certainly<br />
worth noting the striking parallels between Deshpande’s view <strong>of</strong> the Agra style and the<br />
descriptions <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>by</strong> Ashok Ranade (as cited in chapter 7) <strong>of</strong> the singing style <strong>of</strong> many<br />
<strong>of</strong> the male protagonists in the heyday <strong>of</strong> NaaTya Sangiit, for example, the frequent use<br />
<strong>of</strong> adjectives such as ‘forceful,’ ‘robust,’ and ‘aggressive.’<br />
This, then, is how I explain and account for the one model <strong>of</strong> musical style in<br />
Bengal and the two prevalent in Maharashtra. Before returning to Keil and Nayan Ghosh<br />
one last time, though, I should note that these are what I see as the primary “cultural<br />
metaphoric bases” <strong>of</strong> these two regions, at least in terms <strong>of</strong> the aspects <strong>of</strong> these regional<br />
cultures which I have included in my analysis. However, as in the case in any relatively<br />
complex society, this does not mean that all Bengalis follow this one musical style and all<br />
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Maharashtrians follow one <strong>of</strong> the two I have proposed. More specifically in the latter<br />
case, I also do not mean to suggest that Hindustani musicians who are ethnically Kannad<br />
(i.e. from Karnataka) always follow the ‘devotional’ style or that those who are ethnically<br />
Marathi or who are from the portions <strong>of</strong> Maharashtra not bordering on Karnataka tend to<br />
follow the more masculine, ‘martial’ style. Of course, musicians from all parts <strong>of</strong> this<br />
musical region, Maharashtrian, Kannad, and otherwise, can choose to follow either style<br />
or a style that is completely different. In other words, I am not trying to propose a one-<br />
to-one correlation between musical style and linguistic and/or ethnicity identity. <strong>The</strong><br />
point is, rather, that observation <strong>of</strong> the ‘on-the-ground’ realities <strong>of</strong> musical practice in<br />
both Bengal and Maharashtra reveals, as I argue, certain stylistic tendencies. My attempt<br />
here has simply been to find some cultural basis for these tendencies, not to stereotype<br />
musicians from either region or, conversely, to deny Marathi-ness or Bengali-ness to<br />
those musicians whose styles do not (even approximately) fit with the categories I have<br />
set forth.<br />
I would like to briefly conclude <strong>by</strong> comparing the model Keil arrives at for<br />
understanding the cultural style <strong>of</strong> the Tiv with the landscape metaphor <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>by</strong> Indian<br />
musician Nayan Ghosh. What Keil concludes in his work is that Tiv culture and music<br />
are best understood as an interaction between masculine and feminine principles. As<br />
such, he feels that this is best represented in visual form as circles, which represent<br />
femininity, and angles, which intersect or cut across these circles and represent<br />
masculinity. This “expressive grid,” as he calls it, looks something like a wheel, albeit<br />
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with smaller circles that lie within each other. <strong>The</strong> lines and angles, then, appear as<br />
spokes <strong>of</strong> the wheel. Based on this, Keil proceeds to explain how this pattern shows up<br />
in numerous different aspects <strong>of</strong> Tiv culture, from the patterns <strong>of</strong> making pots and stools<br />
to the overall worldview <strong>of</strong> the culture. This dynamic model, which implies a certain<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> movement, is perhaps for this reason more apt than Nayan Ghosh’s metaphor.<br />
Of course, it should be kept in mind that, as in any interview, I set and dictated the terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> conversion, and NG responded accordingly. One <strong>of</strong> the terms <strong>of</strong> our dialogue, which I<br />
conveyed to all my interviewees, was that my project was to determine the essential<br />
differences and oppositions between Bengal and Maharashtra, as I can see so clearly now<br />
in retrospect – even if I did not explain it to my interlocutors in such unambiguous terms.<br />
NG, then, <strong>of</strong>fered a metaphor that seemed to satisfy my search. <strong>The</strong> value <strong>of</strong> his<br />
metaphor, <strong>of</strong> course, is that it comes from a member <strong>of</strong> the culture in question (or both<br />
cultures, to put it in regional and not national terms), and, although only NG put the<br />
matter in such terms, he no doubt has also been influenced in his thinking <strong>by</strong> this broader<br />
culture to which he belongs. However, its greatest importance in the present context is<br />
that it gave me, as an analyst, a starting point to arrive a model that does, in fact, account<br />
for, not only the differences between Bengali and Marathi (cultural and musical) style,<br />
but also for the clearly observable differences between the styles practiced and<br />
propagated within the Maharashtra musical region itself.<br />
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Conclusion<br />
<strong>The</strong> preceding chapters, then, are my case, so to speak, for including region and<br />
specifically regional influences as important factors in understanding both the recent<br />
history and the current state <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani classical music tradition. As I have<br />
explained at several points, my approach to this subject has been two-fold: first, to<br />
examine the tradition in the light <strong>of</strong> the more or less standard approach to the subject<br />
employed <strong>by</strong> the largest number <strong>of</strong> both Indian and Western scholars <strong>of</strong> the tradition, and<br />
second, to explore the issues at hand in light <strong>of</strong> broader theoretical approaches which<br />
have not been typically employed as a means <strong>of</strong> understanding this particular musical<br />
tradition. I have termed these two approaches the “Inside View” and the “Outside View”<br />
for several reasons. <strong>The</strong>se reasons include, not only the fact that these two approaches<br />
respectively represent standard and slightly atypical ways <strong>of</strong> understanding Hindustani<br />
music in scholarly terms, but also because the former more closely resembles the view <strong>of</strong><br />
practicing musicians (as evidenced <strong>by</strong> the answers I elicited from such practicing<br />
musicians in the interview context), while the latter, though in part inspired <strong>by</strong> the<br />
statements <strong>of</strong> a select handful <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors, examines the tradition in light <strong>of</strong><br />
broader social and cultural forces that these musicians (again based on my interview<br />
material) most <strong>of</strong>ten tend to regard as irrelevant. Because <strong>of</strong> the resistance <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong><br />
my interlocutors to making connections between regional cultural influences, musical and<br />
otherwise, on the one hand, and Hindustani music as such on the other (a resistance<br />
which I analyze at length in chapter 1), I have had to make some educated guesses and to<br />
fill in the blanks, as it were, left <strong>by</strong> this resistance. At the same time, though, there were<br />
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a few <strong>of</strong> my interlocutors that were more open-minded and willing to examine the<br />
tradition in regional terms, and these individuals, particularly Nayan Ghosh, deserve<br />
particular credit for at least guiding me in the right direction and helping me to begin to<br />
answer the broader questions I have posed in this study.<br />
I feel that, if nothing else, what I have proven in this study is that Hindustani<br />
performance practice and musical style does vary on a regional basis, and I have been<br />
careful to detail exactly what these differences are. Of course, interpreting these<br />
differences and explaining them is a much different matter. Considering, again, that so<br />
few musicians had any explanation for these specific differences as I pointed them out<br />
(beyond the standard view, reiterated many times in the preceding, that any such<br />
differences were simply due to which Ustad had settled where), my conclusions in this<br />
regard remain tentative. Also, I feel it is quite possible that given the same body <strong>of</strong> data,<br />
another scholar with different areas <strong>of</strong> expertise, different experiences, different biases,<br />
might very well reach very different conclusions from those I have reached. This is<br />
likely inevitable. For my own part, though, I am a practicing musician as well as an<br />
ethnomusicologist, and although I am well aware that being a performer does not<br />
necessarily entitle one to analyze the music in a scholarly sense (I am referring here to<br />
my interlocutors), it is my strongly held belief that any analyses that totally dispense with<br />
the opinions and views <strong>of</strong> performing musicians are necessarily incomplete. This is<br />
especially true in the case <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music, where the musician is simultaneously<br />
composer, performer, teacher, and champion <strong>of</strong> the tradition and the music itself is<br />
difficult, complex, subtle, and, above all, esoteric.<br />
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This leads me back to Janaki Bakhle, whose controversial recent monograph Two<br />
Men and Music (2005) has served as both an inspiration for this study as well as a<br />
cautionary example. In terms <strong>of</strong> the former, Bakhle has demonstrated the necessity <strong>of</strong><br />
interrogating the statements <strong>of</strong> practicing musicians, as the ideology they espouse can at<br />
times be deceptive. In Bakhle’s case, this means thoroughly deconstructing the claim<br />
that caste, gender, and especially religious community are unimportant in the context <strong>of</strong><br />
this musical tradition. While I, again, do not entirely agree with Bakhle’s conclusions,<br />
her approach has been valuable in the present context because I myself have dealt here<br />
with a type <strong>of</strong> socio-cultural influence which many (though not all) musicians similarly<br />
see as a non-factor in understanding their own music and Hindustani music generally.<br />
<strong>The</strong> logic for this denial is very much the same as the logic for denying the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
religious community. That is, most performing Hindustani musicians honestly believe<br />
that the only important factor in, for example, evaluating a musician is how well or badly<br />
they play or sing. In this sense, then, they are not unlike many, if not most, musicians<br />
from any other part <strong>of</strong> the world. At the same time, musicians do not live, practice, teach,<br />
and/or perform in a vacuum, isolated from the broader workings <strong>of</strong> society (although the<br />
fact that musicians did essentially operate in such a vacuum in the feudal context may<br />
partly explain why so many hold on to such a view), and, as such, we can reasonably<br />
assume that musicians have the same fears, prejudices, biases, etc., as any average citizen<br />
<strong>of</strong> India. This, then, is the starting point <strong>of</strong> both Bakhle’s and my own work.<br />
However, I differ drastically from Bakhle in the sense that, not only am I myself a<br />
performer <strong>of</strong> Western music and a student <strong>of</strong> the Hindustani tradition, and not only am I<br />
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committed to a methodology that includes the views and opinions <strong>of</strong> current practicing<br />
musicians as a substantial element in my analyses, I am also sympathetic to the tradition<br />
in aesthetic terms. That is to say, I find this music to be emotionally moving and<br />
beautiful, in the broadest <strong>of</strong> senses. Of course, from Bakhle’s standpoint, this is more<br />
likely to be a handicap than an aid in scholarly analysis. It is those that are detached from<br />
and, in a certain sense, uncommitted to the tradition who are most able to see it in the<br />
cold, clear light <strong>of</strong> reason and objectivity, as Bakhle would have it. She expresses as<br />
much rather explicitly in her aforementioned discussion <strong>of</strong> how ethnomusicologists are,<br />
to use her term, too “structurally dependent” on their music teachers cum interlocutors, a<br />
dependence which can (and almost always does, in Bakhle’s view) result in<br />
“insufficiently critical attention to the histories that musicians and their hagiographers<br />
tell” (2005:16). Bakhle, though, expresses her feelings toward this musical tradition and<br />
its practitioners much more clearly, I feel, both with her treatment <strong>of</strong> the various<br />
historical figures she discusses as well as with the overall tone <strong>of</strong> her work, a tone that I<br />
feel can be quite reasonably described as both scathing and combative. No doubt, her<br />
reply to such a critique would be that, if she has in any particular case “crossed the line”<br />
in her evaluation <strong>of</strong> certain figures, it is only because her work is intended as a sort <strong>of</strong><br />
corrective, or even an antidote, for a century’s worth <strong>of</strong> hagiographies. At the same time,<br />
though, there are other politically-minded, left-leaning scholars who have managed to<br />
accommodate both an aesthetic appreciation for classical art forms and a leftist political<br />
philosophy within their own academic work, some more gracefully than others. Vinayak<br />
Purohit, as noted in chapter 7, makes clear his appreciation <strong>of</strong> Hindustani classical music<br />
467
throughout his work, even if he has, in my view, rather artificially tried to separate the<br />
music from both its practitioners and from the social milieu in which it developed in<br />
order to avoid contradicting his rather strident political views. Raymond Williams,<br />
though, has articulated on a number <strong>of</strong> occasions the rather reasonable view (at least in<br />
my opinion) that political alignment is simply not necessary for producing great art. To<br />
give one example, in discussing the idea <strong>of</strong> “commitment” on the part <strong>of</strong> writers and the<br />
apparent problem <strong>of</strong> evaluating the work <strong>of</strong> writers whose political alignment is not<br />
progressive in the leftist sense, Williams notes that it is “better to recognize social reality,<br />
which in our own time as in others has produced good and even great reactionary writers,<br />
as well as the others whom we may prefer, for different reasons, to honour and<br />
remember”(1980:211).<br />
However much I differ from Bakhle’s approach in my work; however much I find<br />
her conclusions to be distasteful and <strong>of</strong>ten unfair to historical figures who have made<br />
important and demonstrable contributions to the tradition which have benefited both<br />
practicing musicians and the average music lover alike; and however much I find her<br />
studious avoidance <strong>of</strong> an engagement with living musicians who can speak back and<br />
argue with her conclusions to be cowardly, I do not deny the importance <strong>of</strong> her work and<br />
certainly would never suggest that she is not well within her rights as a scholar to produce<br />
such a work. However, I do have some concerns about the direction in which such a<br />
study might possibly lead the academic study <strong>of</strong> Hindustani music as a whole in the<br />
future. <strong>The</strong> first such concern is that a study such as Bakhle’s implicitly valorizes the<br />
notion that an understanding <strong>of</strong> specifically musical processes, in other words <strong>of</strong> “how<br />
468
the music works,” is totally dispensable in analyzing a musical tradition in broader socio-<br />
cultural terms. Contrary to Bakhle’s methodology, I would argue that the sound <strong>of</strong> music<br />
is indeed relevant, even to understanding music’s social import. Music is, no doubt, the<br />
most abstract <strong>of</strong> all conventionally defined forms <strong>of</strong> art, but to say this is far from<br />
asserting that the sounds are unimportant. In my view, studying a musical tradition<br />
without at least a basic grasp <strong>of</strong> its structure is very much akin to studying, for example,<br />
Hindi literature without knowing Hindi, i.e. <strong>by</strong> reading only English translations. Yes, a<br />
scholar can no doubt get at much <strong>of</strong> a particular musical tradition’s social significance<br />
without examining the music itself, but the point to be made here, I feel, is that social<br />
meanings adhere to certain specific sounds. As those sounds change, these social<br />
meanings change, and vice-versa. I am well aware <strong>of</strong> the fact that most non-musicians<br />
would dismiss this argument as the desperate attempt <strong>of</strong> a music specialist to fight <strong>of</strong>f the<br />
interdisciplinary interlopers poking around and even making themselves at home in the<br />
territory previously reserved for me and my kind. <strong>The</strong> truth <strong>of</strong> the matter as I see it,<br />
though, is that musicologists like myself who take the theory and performance practice <strong>of</strong><br />
the musical tradition they study seriously are the last remaining defenders <strong>of</strong> this<br />
knowledge as relevant and germane to the academic study <strong>of</strong> music, especially non-<br />
Western music. So, defend it I must, with whatever meager resources I have at my<br />
disposal.<br />
Of course, Bakhle is <strong>by</strong> no means alone in her implicit dismissal <strong>of</strong> such<br />
‘specialist knowledge.’ A concern <strong>of</strong> mine, then, which is more specific to her work, and<br />
thus more crucial in the present context is, in essence, the way in which Bakhle justifies<br />
469
her work, or, in other words, the intended relevance <strong>of</strong> her work. I understand that we<br />
live in an increasingly politicized world, and the field <strong>of</strong> academic study itself has<br />
correspondingly become more politicized. As many scholars have taken great pains to<br />
demonstrate, the production <strong>of</strong> knowledge is always, at its very root, a political act.<br />
Thus, the apparent shift toward politicization which ethnomusicology, among other<br />
fields, has taken in recent years can be argued to be, as much as anything, the result <strong>of</strong><br />
acknowledging this underlying truth regarding the relationship between power and<br />
knowledge. However, as a life-long inhabitant <strong>of</strong> ‘music schools’ (as opposed to centers<br />
for area studies or anthropology departments), i.e. on both the undergraduate and<br />
graduate levels, I have observed quite clearly that, while the study <strong>of</strong> Western music has<br />
also become increasingly politicized, it has not been to nearly the same extent in the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> non-Western traditions. Scholarship which focuses on the minutiae <strong>of</strong> well-known<br />
pieces <strong>of</strong> music and <strong>of</strong> the biographies <strong>of</strong> canonized composers (the study <strong>of</strong> “Mozart’s<br />
shopping lists,” as one <strong>of</strong> my colleagues likes to put it) is as common as ever, even as<br />
more critical approaches such as gender and queer studies slowly infiltrate the field. My<br />
feeling, though, is that essentially “non-political” (if there is such a thing) studies will<br />
have a place yet in the field for some time to come, and the reason for this is the <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
unspoken assumption that Western classical music is “our music,” the music <strong>of</strong> our<br />
culture. This, <strong>of</strong> course, brings in the related and, I feel, quite debatable notion that the<br />
cultures <strong>of</strong> Europe and the United States are coterminous. I am, again, well aware <strong>of</strong> the<br />
history <strong>of</strong> this country, and, more specifically, that the roots <strong>of</strong> our country lie in Europe,<br />
in European culture and in European political philosophies. It is, though, quite a different<br />
470
matter to say that American culture is European culture. However, there are obviously<br />
quite a few wealthy patrons <strong>of</strong> the arts and <strong>of</strong> university music departments who feel<br />
differently, and their money speaks quite a bit louder than my keyboard.<br />
At the same time, I do not wish to take such patrons <strong>of</strong> the arts to task, as I believe<br />
that the Western classical music tradition is absolutely as deserving <strong>of</strong> scholarly attention<br />
as any, but not more so. This, then, is the crux <strong>of</strong> the matter: that western classical music<br />
and other arts are considered intrinsically valuable, while non-Western traditions are only<br />
seen as a means to get at larger social, cultural, and political processes. In other words,<br />
for many, if a non-Western musical tradition is not relevant in political terms, it is simply<br />
not relevant. <strong>The</strong>re are, <strong>of</strong> course, many individuals and larger institutions that are<br />
responsible for marginalizing the study <strong>of</strong> non-Western music for its own sake. <strong>The</strong> chief<br />
among these is the United States government, the primary source <strong>of</strong> funding for most<br />
overseas research. It is also not surprising, considering the foreign policies pursued <strong>by</strong><br />
our government post 9/11. It is more surprising, though, that a liberal scholar such as<br />
Bakhle would so willingly (though inadvertently) collaborate with the conservative<br />
government <strong>of</strong> the United States on this project <strong>of</strong> marginalizing an important aspect <strong>of</strong><br />
her own culture. Scholars, <strong>of</strong> course, crave power as much as politicians or anyone else,<br />
for that matter, so you take it where you can get it, I suppose. Perhaps, as has so <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
been the case in this country, Hindustani music and other non-Western musical traditions<br />
will only receive the attention they merit, i.e. attention paid to their intrinsic, not simply<br />
their extrinsic, value, when private patrons step forward to fund the study and promotion<br />
<strong>of</strong> these traditions just as they have the Western tradition. Again, though, I would be<br />
471
emiss if I made it seem that I do not consider Bakhle’s contribution specifically or such<br />
politicized approaches generally to be valuable or <strong>of</strong> academic merit. It is simply that I<br />
feel that Hindustani music, as much as Western classical music, deserves to be studied<br />
from every angle, from the aesthetic to the political. I am not interested in this implicit<br />
racism which has it that music outside <strong>of</strong> the West is worthless other than as a tool <strong>of</strong><br />
promoting a specific political agenda, whether that agenda be essentially conservative or<br />
liberal. Leaving aside the more specific contributions <strong>of</strong> the study in terms <strong>of</strong> either<br />
Indian musicology or ethnomusicology more generally, this then, I feel, is the most<br />
valuable contribution that the present study can make to the scholarship <strong>of</strong> any type <strong>of</strong><br />
music. Whether I have been successful in achieving this end is, <strong>of</strong> course, up to the<br />
reader to decide.<br />
472
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Interviews/Personal Communication<br />
Abhisheki, Shounak. 2005. Interview. Pune.<br />
Atre, Prabha. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Banerjee, Amyaranjan. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Banerjee, Anindya. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Bhagwat, Neela. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Bose, Partho. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Bhide-Deshpande, Ashwini. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Chakraborty, Ajoy. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Choudhuri, Deepak. 2005. Personal Communication. Calcutta.<br />
Choudhuri, Shubha. 2005. Personal Communication. Gurgaon, Haryana.<br />
Dasgupta, Amlan. 2005. Interview. Calcutta<br />
Dasgupta, Buddhadev. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Dasgupta, Somjit. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
480
Datar, D.K. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Deshpande, Ram. 2005. Personal Communication. Bombay.<br />
Deshpande, Satyasheel. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Deshpande, Suryaksh “Raya.” 2005. Personal Communication. Bombay.<br />
Dixit, Dr. & Mrs. P.K. 2005. Interview. Benares.<br />
Dublay, Samir. 2005. Interview. Pune.<br />
Ghosh, Bikram. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Ghosh, Dhruba. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Ghosh, Nayan. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Ghosh, Shankar. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Grover, Neera. 2005. Personal Communication. Bombay.<br />
Haldankar, Srikrishna “Babanrao.” 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Joshi, Yashwant. 2005. Interview. Bombay<br />
Kaikini, Dinkar. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Karmakar, Gourishankar. 2005. Personal Communication. Calcutta.<br />
Kashalkar, Ulhas. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Kichlu, Vijay. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Kumar, Kartick. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Mazumdar, Tejendra Narayan. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Massey, J. 2005. Interview. Benares.<br />
Mishra, Amarnath. 2005. Interview. Benares.<br />
Mishra, Ishwar Lal. 2005. Interview. Benares.<br />
481
Mukherjee, Amit. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Mukherjee, Kumar Prasad. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Mulgaonkar, Arvind. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Nadkarni, Mohan. 2003. Interview. Pune.<br />
Nag, Dipali. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Nag, Mita. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Paranjape, Keshav. 2005. Personal Communication. Bombay.<br />
Parikh, Arvind. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Phadke, Sudhir. 2003. Interview. Pune.<br />
Pradhan, Anish. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Raikar, Milind. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Ranade, Ashok. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Sadolikar-Katkar, Shruti. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Sahasrabuddhe, Veena. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
Samsi, Yogesh. 2005. Interview. Pune.<br />
Sanyal, Ritwik. 2005. Interview. Benares.<br />
Sen, Purnima. 2005. Interview. Calcutta.<br />
Shirodkar, Vishwanath. 2005. Interview. Bombay.<br />
482
VITA<br />
<strong>Jeffrey</strong> <strong>Michael</strong> <strong>Grimes</strong> was born in Irving, <strong>Texas</strong> on February 26, 1974. He attended<br />
high school at Lubbock High School, Lubbock, <strong>Texas</strong>. In 1992 he entered <strong>Texas</strong><br />
Tech <strong>University</strong>. He received the Bachelor <strong>of</strong> Music (with teaching certification)<br />
degree in December <strong>of</strong> 1996. In August 1997, he entered the Graduate School at <strong>The</strong><br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Texas</strong> at Austin. He received the Master <strong>of</strong> Music (Ethnomusicology)<br />
degree in May 2002. He has served as a part-time instructor in the music department<br />
at Southwestern <strong>University</strong>, Georgetown, <strong>Texas</strong>, since August 2006.<br />
Permanent Address: 5725 74 th St., Lubbock, <strong>Texas</strong> 79424<br />
This manuscript was typed <strong>by</strong> the author.<br />
483