Dire Dawa Administrative Council Integrated Resource

THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA 

DIRE DAWA ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL 

WATER, MINES & ENERGY OFFICE 

DIRE DAWA ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL INTEGRATED 

RESOURCE 

DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY PROJECT 

PHASE II – DATA COLLECTION ‐ SITE INVESTIGATION SURVEY AND 

ANALYSIS 

January 2004, Addis Ababa 

SECTION I - MAIN REPORT 

WATER WORKS DESIGN & SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE 

P.O.Box 2561, Addis Ababa Ethiopia 

Tel:(251)1 614501/631890 Fax:(I251)1 615371E-mail: w.w.d.s.e@telecom.net.et 

Phase II- Data Collection - Site Investigation Survey & Analysis – DDAC - Main Report

THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA 

DIRE DAWA ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL 

WATER, MINES & ENERGY RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT 

OFFICE 

DIRE DAWA ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL INTEGRATED 

RESOURCE 

DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY PROJECT 

PHASE II – DATA COLLECTION‐SITE INVESTIGATION SURVEY 

AND ANALYSIS 

January 2004, Addis Ababa 

SECTION I 

WATER WORKS DESIGN & SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE 

P.O.Box 2561, Addis Ababa Ethiopia 

Tel:(251)1 614501/631890 Fax:(I251)1 615371E-mail: w.w.d.s.e@telecom.net.et

Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 

DIRE DAWA ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL INTEGRATED RESOURCES 

DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN 

PHASE II 

DATA COLLECTION - SITE INVESTIGATION SURVEY & ANALYSIS 

List of Reports 

Section I: Main Report 

Section II: Sectoral Studies 

Volume I –Natural Resources 

Part 1 - Geology and Mineral Resources 

Part 2 - Forestry and Energy 

Part 3 – Wildlife and Tourism 

Volume II – Agriculture 

Part 1 – Soils 

Part 2 – Agro-ecology & Land Evaluation 

Part 3 – Land use/cover 

Part 4 – Land Use Planning 

Part 5 – Agronomy 

Part 6 – Livestock and Apiculture 

Volume III – Water Resources 

Part 1 – Climatology and Hydrology 

Part 2 – Hydrogeology 

Part 3 – Irrigation and Drainage 

Part 4A – Dams and Reservoirs 

Part 4B – Geo technique 

Part 5 – Water Supply & Sanitation 

Part 6 – Water Resources Development Planning 

Volume IV – Environment and Socio-Economy 

Part 1 – Environment 

Part 2 – Demography 

Part 3 – Anthropology 

Part 4 – Soil Erosion & Conservation 

Part 5 – Macro-economic Conditions 

Part 6 – Public Health 

Volume V – Physical Planning & Technical Support 

Part 1 - Geographical Information System 

Part 2 – Road Transport and Communication 

Section III : Drawings 

Phase II- Data Collection - Site Investigation Survey & Analysis – DDAC - Main Report i


Acronyms and Terms 

A.E - Associated Engineering Plc. 

AEZ - Agro-ecological zone 

AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 

CSA - Central Statistical Authority 

DDAC - Dire Dawa Administrative Council 

DPPO - Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Office 

DTM - Digital Terrain Model 

EC - Electrical Conductivity 

EELPA - Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority 

EEPCO - Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation Organization 

EFAP - Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan 

EFY - Ethiopian Fiscal Year 

EIGS - Ethiopian Institute of Geological Survey 

EPA - Environmental Protection Authority 

ERA - Ethiopian Roads Authority 

ESRDF - Ethiopian Social Rehabilitation Development Fund 

ETC - Ethiopian Tourism Commission 

EVDSA - Ethiopian Valley Development Study Authority 

EWCO - Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation organization 

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 

FFW - Food for Work 

GDP - Gross National Product 

GIS - Geographic Information System 

GPS - Global Positioning System 

GTZ - German Technical Cooperation 

Ha - Hectare (s) 

HIV - Human Immune deficiency Virus 

IBCR - Institute of Biodiversity, conservation and research 

ITCZ - Inter-tropical Convergence Zone 

KWH - Kilo watt hour 

LGP - Length of Growing Period 

LUPRD - Land Use Planning & Regulatory Department 

LWF - Lutheran World Federation 

m.a.s.l - Meter above sea level 

MCM - Million Cubic Meters 

MoA - Ministry of Agriculture 

MoWR - Ministry of Water Resources 

NGO - Non-Governmental Organization 

NGOs - Non Governmental Organizations 

NTO - National Tour Operator 

OPEC - Oil producing counties 

PA - Peasant Associations 

PC - Peasant community 

PET - Potential Evapotranspiration 

Phase II- Data Collection - Site Investigation Survey & Analysis – DDAC - Main Report ii 

Formatted 

Formatted 

Formatted 

Formatted 

Formatted 

Formatted 

Formatted 

Formatted 

Formatted 

Formatted


ppm - Parts per million 

RCS - Regional conservation strategy 

RR - Rural road 

RSDP - Road Sector Development Program 

RTA - Road Transport Authority 

SAEZ - Sub Agro-Ecological Zones 

SCRP - Soil Conservation Research Project 

SDB - Soil Data Base 

SFCDD - State Forests Conservation & Development Department 

SWR - Soft Weathering Rock 

TDS - Total Dissolved Solids 

TGE - Transitional Government of Ethiopia 

TITT - Trade, Industry, Transport and Tourism 

ToR - Terms of Reference 

UNDP - United Nations Development Program 

WBISPP - Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project 

WFP - World Food Program 

WTO - World Tourism Organization 

WWDE - Water Well Drilling Enterprise 

WWDSE - Water Works Design & Supervision Enterprise 

Phase II- Data Collection - Site Investigation Survey & Analysis – DDAC - Main Report iii 

Formatted


Table of Contents Page 

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1. OBJECTIVES AND STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT ................................................... 1 

1.1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .................................................................................... 1 

1.1.2 Phase II Activities and Reports ...................................................................................... 1 

1.1.3 Objectives of the Main Report .......................................................................................... 1 

1.1.4 Main Report Structure .................................................................................................... 2 

1.1.5 Types of Planning ........................................................................................................... 2 

1.2 PHASE II ACTIVITIES PROGRAM ................................................................................. 4 

1.2.1 Other Aspects and Issues ................................................................................................ 6 

2. SUMMARY OF THE SECTORAL STUDIES............................................................................ 7 

2.1. BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................... 7 

2.2 ADMINISTRATION, POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT ....................................... 10 

2.2.1 Administration .............................................................................................................. 10 

2.2.2 Population ..................................................................................................................... 13 

2.2.3 Population Characteristics and Social Indicators ......................................................... 15 

2.2.4 Health ............................................................................................................................... 16 

2.3 LAND AND WATER RESOURCES ......................................................................................... 17 

2.3.1 Physiography and Geology .............................................................................................. 17 

2.3.2 Climate ............................................................................................................................. 20 

2.3.3 Water Resources .............................................................................................................. 22 

2.3.4 Land Resources ................................................................................................................ 26 

2.4 AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK AND ENERGY ............................................................ 30 

2.4.1 Agro-Climatic Zones ......................................................................................................... 30 

2.4.2 Farming System ................................................................................................................. 30 

2.4.3 Agricultural Marketing ..................................................................................................... 32 

2.5 LIVESTOCK ........................................................................................................................... 33 

2.6 TRADITIONAL ENERGY AND ENERGY BALANCE ................................................................. 35 

2.7 WILDLIFE AND TOURISM ....................................................................................................... 36 

2.8 URBAN, INDUSTRY AND SERVICES ........................................................................................ 37 

2.9 INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................... 39 

2.10 ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE AND INVESTMENT .................................................................. 40 

3. PLANNING OF NATURAL RESOURCES .............................................................................. 44 

3.1 WATER RESOURCES ....................................................................................................... 44 

3.1.1 Irrigation and Drainage .......................................................................................................... 44 

3.2 WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION ............................................................................ 51 

3.3 WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS AND ISSUES ............................................. 52 

3.4. DEVELOPMENT OF LAND RESOURCES .................................................................... 54 

3.4.1 Agriculture .................................................................................................................... 57 

3.4.2 Livestock ....................................................................................................................... 60 

3.4.3. Forestry ......................................................................................................................... 63 

3.4.4 Soil Conservation and Catchment Management ......................................................... 65 

3.4.5 Cultural Values and Places .......................................................................................... 67 

3.5 DEVELOPMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES ........................................................... 68 

4. PLANNING ISSUES AND PROCEDURES ............................................................................. 71 

5. PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN ...................................................................................... 73 

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 74 

Phase II- Data Collection - Site Investigation Survey & Analysis – DDAC - Main Report iv


List of Figures 

Figure 1 Location map ..................................................................................................... 8 

Figure 2 Administrative Map ......................................................................................... 12 

Figure 3 Population density map .................................................................................... 14 

Figure 4 Altitude Ranges map ........................................................................................ 19 

Figure 5 Isohyetal Map .................................................................................................. 21 

Figure 6 Hydrogeology map ........................................................................................... 24 

Figure 7 Soil Map .......................................................................................................... 27 

Figure 8 Agro-ecological zones of DDAC ..................................................................... 31 

Figure 9 Irrigated and selected Potential Irrigation areas ............................................... 50 

Figure 10 Simulation of reservoir system ........................................................................ 53 

Figure 11 Land Suitability map of DDAC ....................................................................... 56 

List of Tables 

Table 1: Major characteristics of DDAC ........................................................................... 7 

Table 2 Administrative division of Urban and Rural areas .............................................. 10 

Table 3 DDAC Population distributions by Urban and Rural Communities ................... 13 

Table 4 Population and Social Indicators- 1994 .............................................................. 15 

Table 5 Health facilities with the DDAC ........................................................................ 16 

Table 6 Mean Annual Flow (Mm 3 ) of the Rivers in the Dire Dawa Council ................... 22 

Table 7 Soil loss estimate for DDAC .............................................................................. 28 

Table 8 Land Use/Land Cover Mapping Units of DDAC with Area Coverage and 

Percentage ............................................................................................................... 29 

Table 9 Major and Sub Agro-Ecological Zones of DDAC .............................................. 30 

Table 10 List of crops, area, and production and yield 2002 DDAC ............................... 32 

Table 11 Estimated Livestock Population ....................................................................... 33 

Table 12 Estimated Feed Supply and Nutrient Requirement ........................................... 34 

Table 13 Summary of Road Densities of the Dire Dawa Administrative Council ........... 39 

Table 14 Finance of the Council by Source and Expenditure, x 1000 Birr(year EC) ....... 41 

Table 15 Summary of Investment Projects by Sector ..................................................... 43 

Table 16 Recommended project for pre feasibility study ................................................ 46 

Table 17 Land suitability classification levels (after FAO, 1993) ................................... 54 

Table 18 Summary of suitability classes by major land uses ........................................... 55 

Table 19 Summary of Historical, religious and natural attraction of DDAC ................... 67 

Table 20 Summary of Mineral Occurrences of DDAC ................................................... 69 

Phase II- Data Collection - Site Investigation Survey & Analysis – DDAC - Main Report v


1. INTRODUCTION 

1.1. OBJECTIVES AND STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT 

1.1.1 Objectives Of The Study 

The objectives of the Integrated Resources Development Master Plan of Dire Dawa 

Administrative Council as stated in the Terms of References are: 

• To prepare a Master Plan for an integrated development of the natural resources 

of the Dire Dawa Administrative Council for 30-50 years to come. 

• To prepare the Council’s’s natural, human and animal resources optimum 

utilization, with its best contributions to the DDAC economic development with 

minimum possible environmental impact. 

The study intends to identify different scenarios of development plans and select 

development plans that are justifiable and achievable or socially acceptable and 

economically viable. 

The master plan study is planned to be carried out in three phases i.e. Phase I: 

Reconnaissance, Phase II: Data Collection Survey and Analysis and Phase III: Master 

Pplan Preparation. 

The Reconnaissance Phase I was submitted in June 2002. The current report is Phase II: 

Data Collection, Survey and Analysis, which was commenced in September 2002. 

1.1.2 Phase II Activities and Reports 

The phase II activities are data collection and acquisition, site surveys and investigations, 

development of GIS and resource analysis. The outputs of the sectoral studies are 

presented in Section II of the Phase II reports, which is organized in five volumes. The 

maps are given in section III at a scale of 1:100 000 except hydrogeology map scale 

1:50000, which shall be updated to 1:50000 based on the comments to be given by the 

Steering Committee. 

The current main report contains Section I and describes the surveys carried out, 

development opportunities and constraints, planning issues, proposed sectoral 

development issues, initial development project ideas, and the program for the master 

plan phase. 

1.1.3 Objectives of the Main Report 

The main report objective is to show the development opportunities, constraints, 

problems, challenges and project ideas and strategies. In addition it describes the survey s 

that have been undertaken and draws the summary results of the sectoral studies. 

Phase II- Data Collection - Site Investigation Survey & Analysis – DDAC - Main Report 

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1.1.4 Main Report Structure 

The main report is organized and structured in such a way that it will meet requirements 

of its proper presentation and extent of its readability by all concerned and interested. 

Accordingly, the main report is divided into four chapters: 

Chapter I: Introduction: The current chapter summarizes the objectives of Phase II 

report, describes the status and achievement of phase II activities 

Chapter II: Summary of Sectoral studies: This chapter summarizes the description of 

the Dire Dawa Administrative Council (DDAC) physical and socioeconomic 

characteristics 

Chapter III: Planning of Resources: It outlines the resources potential, evaluates 

possible development opportunities and constraints and proposed 

interventions. 

Chapter IV: Planning Issues and Procedures: Briefly describes proposed development 

and strategies within the frameworks of the policy context. 

Chapter V: Phase III program: Briefly presents the program for preparing the DDAC 

Integrated Natural Resources Maser Plan 

1.1.5 Types of Planning 

The major planning processes that is going to be carried out under the current study are 

natural resources planning, water resources planning, Land use planning, regional 

planning and master planning. 

Water Resources Planning addresses the development of water and associated land 

resources within the DDAC boundary. Natural resources planning address the 

development of natural resources (Minerals, forests, tourism, etc.) at different parts of the 

Council. Land use planning guides the allocation and use of land between competing 

purposes. Regional planning addresses the development and spatial distribution of all 

human activity within a specified area. Master Planning can be taken to encompass all 

four types of planning within a coherent whole. The present study comprises a mixture of 

each type of these types of planning. 

According to the study, the Council is known to have various natural resources of 

different magnitudes in terms of quality, quantity, occurrence and distribution. However, 

the study at the same time has shown that an extra ordinary or relentless effort need to be 

exerted to make a difference by developing the natural resources that have been assessed 

and evaluated of their availability and suitability. 

As regards the water resources potential and the opportunities for development, the 

groundwater resource becomes very important, this is not to say that surface water in the 

Council is something that does not draw attention, rather the study has confirmed its 


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importance given the size of potential land that can be irrigated using dams and diversion. 

In this case, run-off water will not be a constraint to develop irrigation at least for the 

time span of the planning horizon. The study, therefore, has come out with a finding that 

there will be a need for storage using different technologies. 

The potential of mineral resources is also believed to have significant impact on future 

development opportunities of the Council. If planned interventions are also to be 

materialized, the livestock resources and tourism, according to the study, are also very 

important areas that the people and the Administrative Council could rely on to improve 

the social and economic life of the people of the Council. 

With an improved land use policy and agricultural development strategy for the Council, 

the Administrative Council can effectively plan to make a transformation in agricultural 

productivity and production, which will have a strong positive impact on its 

industrialization, especially agro-industrial activities. 

The strategic location of Dire Dawa Administrative Council, which is naturally 

positioned close to the port of Djibouti in particular and the outside world in general, 

especially to the Middle East makes the study area a focus of various economic, social 

and political considerations. 

In terms of the general status of the natural resources of the Council, such as land, water, 

forestry and others, it is very important to note that it is at the verge of a serious problem. 

Environmental degradation, ecological imbalance resulting from deforestation and 

backward cultivation systems and un-optimum utilization of available resource in general 

has forced the study area to become in a serious situation, in terms of land productivity, 

rainfall availability and deterioration of existing infrastructures due to flooding and 

erosion phenomenon. 

Coupled with the ever-increased deterioration of the situation of the natural resources in 

the Council due to unplanned, and uncoordinated utilization of the same, the problem of 

the study area is further aggravated by the fast increase in the size of population. The fast 

population growth, which is further complicated by a large umber of people of both sexes 

migrating in to the city of Dire Dawa, because of its strategic location and illegal trading 

activities in the past, have increasingly complicated the economic and social status of the 

study area. 

The social, cultural, economic and environmental issues have been quite significantly 

addressed during this phase of the study, which have eventually enabled each study group 

to rationally think and re-think how to go about the short-term, medium-term and longterm 

interventions. This is believed to improve the existing situation, which is alarmingly 

of a very low profile in terms of availability of social and physical infrastructures that can 

improve the ever-expanding problems and finally bring about socio-economic 

transformation for the Council. 


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1.2 PHASE II ACTIVITIES PROGRAM 

Phase II activities under each of the major sectoral study groups and the overall 

organizational and administrative set up of the project management are presented in a 

summarized and condensed manner. 

It is, therefore, very important to note that the structure of the report and its organization 

is emanating from the various planned activities for the phase II program of the study 

area and from the results of the same activities that have been carried out by the 

respective study groups consistent with the expectations of the Client. 

Apart from the introductory part and the general phase II program aspect, the report is 

organized and structured into sections/chapters presenting the different sectoral studies 

with the necessary components and subjects treated under each of them. A program for 

phase III of the study, which is the Master Plan preparation, is also included. 

The major activities for this phase of the study are detail and comprehensive in their 

scope. 

As the Master planning process is a scientific and dynamic study and planning approach, 

which involves detailed investigation, exploration, evaluation, examination and the 

collection of data and information to be followed by a scientific analyses of the natural, 

human and animal resources, this report is believed to have come out with results that 

would enable the effective preparation of the Master Plan document. 

To the extent possible, detailed assessment covering a wide range of resources data and 

information has been comprehensively analyzed and results documented. The 

establishment of a comprehensive database of all natural and human resources for the 

Council is among the most important merits to be noted of this stage of the study. 

It is worth noting that the phase II report has been effectively benefiting from what has 

been obtained and prepared during the reconnaissance phase. Comments given by the 

steering committee have been addressed and taken care of as agreed with the Client. 

The five study groups make the study team of the project in general and the phase II 

program in particular. A project manager and a team leader head the project study with 

all its experts and group leaders; the team leader is mainly responsible for the technical 

part of the process and the project manger for the operational or management aspects of 

the same. 

Two project offices have been put in place for the smooth execution of the planned 

activities. One is established in Addis Ababa, headed by a project manager and staffed 

with appropriate support personnel to facilitate and organize all matters that are required 

for the successful completion of planned activities. Other necessary goods, equipment 

and services are also made available. The project office established here in Addis Ababa, 

among others, handles all logistical aspects. This is, therefore, to show that the 

headquarters of the project is in Addis, and an additional office in Dire Dawa to facilitate, 


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coordinate and supervise field works and create the necessary links between the field 

operational activities and the Head Quarters. 

In each study group, there are different experts handling different subjects or areas of 

studies, in accordance with the terms of reference developed for the study. The experts 

assigned under each sectoral study are supervised and led by a relevant group leader. 

The study team is organized in five groups coordinated under the Team leader. 

Group I: Natural resources; in this group geology and mineralogy, wildlife and 

tourism, forestry and energy are included. 

Group II: Water Resources; in this group Climatology and hydrology, 

hydrogeology, irrigation and drainage, dams and reservoirs, water supply 

and sanitation, and water resources development planning are included. 

Group III: Agriculture; soils, agro-ecology and land evaluation, land/cover and land 

use planning, agronomy, livestock and apiculture are included 

Group IV: Socio-economics and environment; environment, socio-economy, 

macro-economic conditions and soil erosion and conservation are 

included. 

Group V: Physical planning and technical support; GIS and Infrastructure 

Physical Planning. 

Based on the meticulous analysis that has been done for each component of the study, the 

development opportunities, constraints, challenges and problems, and initial strategies 

and project ideas have been identified. These are strengthened with plausible 

recommendations and some conclusive remarks within the scientific understanding of the 

dynamic process of Master Planning of integrated resources development. 

A comprehensive database together with a wide range of attribute maps, which are 

necessary for the Master Plan preparation are made available, stored, scientifically 

organized and documented, and in addition availed in a standard report prepared for the 

sectoral studies. 

The phase II study has been concluded by recommending and/or proposing or strongly 

putting conclusive remarks with descriptions and statements resulting from the 

comprehensive assessment and detailed investigation and analysis of the physical, social 

and environmental status of the study area. 

Accordingly, the phase II study has enabled the study group to prepare a phase II report, 

where it has put description and statements of issues, procedures, ideas and recommended 

propositions, which include among others, the following important items: 


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- The methodology employed or adopted and the necessary results of the field 

surveys and the data and information collected from primary and secondary 

sources are documented. 

- Based on the comprehensive resources assessment and evaluation, development 

opportunities and constraints have been identified and the necessary findings 

documented. 

- As necessary and required, having reviewed existing regional policies and 

strategies, recommendation and initial development ideas or project proposals, in 

certain cases project profiles are also presented, where they will be screened and 

ranked on the basis of the tools and instruments to be employed during the phase 

III Master planning preparation process. 

- A program for phase III, Master Plan preparation is also included. 

1.2.1 Other Aspects and Issues 

In phase II program different surveys and investigation were conducted in the Council’s 

territory. The main surveys and investigation to mention some of them are: geophysical 

investigation on groundwater potential areas and dams and reservoirs; inventory of 

boreholes and springs; topographic survey of dams, command area, reservoir sites; 

reconnaissance soil survey 1:50000 and on selected irrigation sites at large scales; land 

cover/land use survey, Forestry and energy survey, water supply survey, health and 

sanitation survey, socio-economic survey and drilling of test wells at different sites. 

Except the drilling of test wells all surveys and investigation were completed with 

difficulties due to most of the experts were freelancers. Test wells drilling were 

terminated due to fundamental breach on the part of the Contractor before completing the 

test wells drilling. 


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2. SUMMARY OF THE SECTORAL STUDIES 

2.1. BACKGROUND 

Dire Dawa Administrative Council (Fig 1), the study area is specifically located in the 

eastern part of Ethiopia, where it is bordered by Oromia national regional state in the 

South and in the northeast and east by the Somali regional state. The total area that the 

study covers is about 1332.62km 2 , which comprises mainly the city of Dire Dawa and its 

surroundings that constitute about 29 peasant associations 1 . In table 1 a broad features of 

the DDAC characteristics enumerated. 

Table 1: Major characteristics of DDAC 

MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS 

AMOUNT 

Population (2003) 356,150 

Urban 260,759 

Rural 95,391 

Water Resources 

Surface Runoff, MCM 448 

Groundwater recharge, MCM 36.3 

Irrigation potential, ha 22000 

Utilized Irrigation, ha 2039 

Mineral resources 

Limestone, Million Ton (for cement) 

Clay, Million Ton (for cement) 

46.2 

8.6 

The DDAC can be classified into two landforms: the escarpment and the depression. The 

escarpment of Dire Dawa area is the margin of the eastern plateau, and it consists of 

about 25 km wide zone of antithetically and synthetically tiltled blocks of basement rocks 

covered with the Mesozoic sediments and the younger volcanic rocks and occupies the 

southern part of the Council. The rivers heading toward the Rift Valley (depression) are 

highly influenced by series of faults, which are forming the escarpment. The blocks are 

downthrown to the north and form the boundary of the rift system. Abrupt change in 

slope gradient on the escarpment causes decreases in velocity of surface water, which has 

resulted in forming coalescent fans at the foot of the escarpment. 

The climate of the study region is dominated by various inter-related factors, but the main 

factors are the near equatorial location and the altitude. The year is divided into three 

1 During the socio-economic survey the peasant association was found to be increased to 39 by partitioning 

of the 29 PAs, however the available map was only for the previously existing 29 PAs and this study 

considers the 29 PAs. 


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seasons: a main rainy season (Kiremt) from July to mid - September, a dry season (Bega) 

from October to February, and finally a "small rainy" season (Belg) in March and April. 

Figure 1 Location map 


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The small rain, originated from the Indian Ocean and are brought by northwesterly 

winds; while the heavy rains in the wet season come from the Atlantic Ocean with 

northeasterly winds. The mean annual rainfall in the DDAC and the surrounding areas 

ranges from about 1000 mm on the south to about 500 to 600 in lowland in the north. 

As per Koppen's classification, the DDAC is characterized as Hot Semi-Arid Zone; 

whereas the Eastern part of the Council is classified as Warm Temperate Climate Zone, 

which is characterized by the mean daily temperature in the coldest month of less than 

18 0 c and for more than 4 months it has a mean daily temperature of above 10 0 c. In the 

Hot Semi-Arid Climate Zone (the western, north-western and south-western part), the 

mean annual temperature lies between 17 0 c and 27 0 c; where as the mean annual rainfall is 

between 410 and 800 mm. The rainfall is highly variable from year to year. Steppe type 

of vegetation is very common. 

The population of the Council is dominantly urban in character, economy dominated by 

trade and agriculture with a current (2003) total population size of the Council 356,150. 

Out of this total population, the urban and rural population sizes are estimated to be 

260,759 and 95,391 representing 73.2 and 26.8 percent respectively. 

In general the average population density is about 267 persons per square kilometer, 

where as the average density of the urban is 9482 persons per km 2 and rural 73 persons 

per km 2 . The total population size of the Council grew at the rate of 4.8 percent between 

the two-censal periods (1984-1994), while the urban and rural population grew at the rate 

of 5.5 and 3.5 percent respectively. In the rural areas, the Eastern and western parts of the 

Council are relatively densely populated than the Northern part, which is dominantly 

inhabited by pastoralists. The projection of population in the coming 30 years shows 

728,297 and 138,826 people in the urban and rural respectively applying exponential 

growth rate using high variant population. The average per capita income is low in 

general. 

The estimated expectation of life at birth for DDAC is not more than 50 years indicating 

that the health conditions are generally poor, with only about 24% rural population 68% 

urban population water supply coverage. Major endemic diseases causing the highest 

morbidity and mortality among the DDAC population are mostly water-related 

(water-carried water washed) communicable diseases such as malarias, intestinal 

parasites, diarrhea, typhoid fever, etc. Literacy rate is about 57.41% among men and 

45.73% among women. The Gross enrolment rates of children in primary schools are 

69% and 55.5% for boys and girls respectively. 

The natural environment of the Council is under extreme threat. The natural forest of the 

Council and its surrounding has been cleared, the remaining forests cover in the 

Administrative Council is less than 1% and the highest share of the landmass is covered 

with shrubs and arid lands. It is found that, the major part of the Council (over 75%) is 

found to be severely degraded area and 25 % is highly degraded. The soils of DDAC are 

found to be highly susceptible to soil erosion under any circumstances. In the urban areas 

especially Dire Dawa town there is a significant problem of sanitation and industrial 

pollution in the Council. These pollutants are industries and municipal waste disposals, 


9


eventually flowing into the ground water system by leachate and seepage and cause 

pollution. Water quality analysis of the water supply wells, particularly nitrate 

concentration shows that the ground water resource is being polluted by domestic and 

industrial wastes disposals. 

2.2 ADMINISTRATION, POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT 

2.2.1 Administration 

a) Administration Structure 

The Dire Dawa Administrative Council is under the Federal Government of Ethiopia, 

which was created in 1992 (GFDE, 1995b). The Council comprises Kebeles in the urban 

areas and peasant associations in the rural areas (Fig2 and table 2). There are about 23 

Kebeles distributed within four keftegna in Dire Dawa town and one Kebele at Melka 

Jebdu town and a total of about 29 peasant associations. 

Table 2 Administrative Division of Urban and Rural areas 

a) Urban Areas 

TOWN 

KEBELES AREA, KM2 POPULATION % OF POPULATION OF THE 

COUNCIL 

Dire Dawa Kebele 01 2.97 2131 0.85 

Kebele 02 0.60 20910 8.30 

Kebele 03 2.51 6202 2.46 

Kebele 04 0.52 4637 1.84 

Kebele 05 1.71 5940 2.36 

Kebele 06 0.24 6809 2.70 

Kebele 07 0.66 9431 3.74 

Kebele 08 0.53 3060 1.21 

Kebele 09 0.20 4099 1.63 

Kebele 10 0.13 1736 0.69 

Kebele 11 0.14 5900 2.34 

Kebele 12 0.24 7769 3.08 

Kebele 13 0.29 7860 3.12 

Kebele 14 0.08 2671 1.06 

Kebele 15 0.06 3972 1.58 

Kebele 16 0.18 4286 1.70 

Kebele 17 0.14 2884 1.15 

Kebele 18 0.57 5913 2.35 

Kebele 19 0.53 9845 3.91 

Kebele 20 0.57 15293 6.07 

Kebele 21 0.21 13900 5.52 

Kebele 22 0.66 13317 5.29 

Kebele 23 2.21 6286 2.50 

Melka Jebdu 8337 3.31 

Total 


173188 68.76 

10


b) Rural Area 

ITEM 

NO. 

PEASANT 

ASSOCIATION 


% OF POPULATION 

THE COUNCIL 

AREA, 

KM2 

POPULATION 

1 Kalicha 148.0 4179 1.66 

2 Jeldessa 219.85 5810 2.31 

3 Gerbaneno 173.0 2905 1.15 

4 Belewa 65.15 5166 2.05 

5 Beke Hallo 62.95 2604 1.03 

6 Legehare 9.73 1458 0.58 

7 Genda Tesfa 7.25 1046 0.42 

8 Malka Jebdu 58.55 3848 1.53 

9 Hasenleso 102.12 2011 0.80 

10 Adiga felema 41.63 1253 0.50 

11 Legedol 15.66 721 0.29 

12 Kortu 23.00 2278 0.90 

13 Bishan Behe 22.26 2066 0.82 

14 Lege Bira 14.67 1181 0.47 

15 Eja Aneni 23.59 1643 0.65 

16 Jelo Belina 47.73 4272 1.70 

17 Legeoda mirga 38.33 4119 1.64 

18 Hallo Busa 13..47 1196 0.47 

19 Dujuma 19.68 1427 0.57 

20 Hulul Dire Jara 22.02 2129 0.85 

21 Legeoda Gudu feta 45.20 4546 1.80 

22 Koreyesa 3.59 968 0.38 

23 Wahil 22.61 4024 1.60 

24 Harela 18.54 3370 1.34 

25 Adada 26.97 4640 1.84 

26 Biye Awale 18.24 2530 1.00 

27 Awale 30.96 4851 1.93 

28 Hulul Mojo 11.71 2435 0.97 

TOTAL 1306.46 78676 

31.24 

11


Figure 2: Administrative Map 


12


2.2.2 Population 

The population of the DDAC is analyzed based on the 1984 and 1994 census (Table 3). 

During the ten years period the population of the Council has highly increased. During 

the 1984 census the total population of DDAC was 155,308. Out of the total population, 

the number of urban population identified to be 99,980 and the rural 55,328, representing 

64.4 and 35.6 percent as urban and rural population respectively. However, during the 

second census period of 1994, the total population of the Council has been found to be 

251,864 consisting of 173,188 (68.8%) and 78,676 (31.2%) urban and rural population 

respectively. 

Table 3 DDAC Population distributions by Urban and Rural Communities 

1984 1994 Growth rates 1984-94- 

Population Census Census %p.a. 

Urban 99980 173188 5.5 

Rural 55328 78676 3.5 

Council total 155308 251864 4.8 

The total population size of the Council grew at the rate of 4.8 percent between the two 

censal periods, while the urban and rural population grew at the rate of 5.5 and 3.5 

percent respectively. 

AS it can be observed from tThe population density map (Fig3), from the total rural 

population of the Council, 76 percent are settling confined to a small area (2.07% of the 

Council total area) in Dire Dawa town, which is the administrative city of the Council, 

with average density of about 9482 persons per square km. 

Peasant association which are found encircling Dire Dawa town are moderately 

populated than the remaining rural areas with highly sparsely populated and found at 

relative distance of the Council administrative city i.e., Dire Dawa town. The average 

density of the rural population is about 73 persons per square kilometers. 


13


Figure 3 Population density map 


14


2.2.3 Population Characteristics and Social Indicators 

a) Ethnic composition 

The urban center of Dire Dawa, consists of heterogeneous groups of people in terms of 

ethnicity where as the rural community is relatively is characterized by relative 

homogeneity in various aspects. According to the report of 1994 Population and Housing 

Census result, the following are the five largest ethnic groups living in DDAC: Oromo 

(48%) Amara (27.7%), Somalie (13.9%), Guragie (4.5%) and Tigray (1.8%) Harari 

(1.7%) are the five largest ethnic groups living in DDAC. 

From the total 173, 188 urban population size of the Council, Oromo ethnic group 

represent 69,564 (40.2%), Amhara 53,843 (31.1%), Somalie 23,826 (13.8 %), Guragie 

11,381 (7%) and Tigray 4,448 (2.6%) & Harari 4214 (2.4%). 

The ethnic composition of the rural population shows that Oromos (with population of 

67053), and Somalies (with a population size of 11200) make up the major dominant 

groups, representing 85.2 and 14.3 per cent, respectively, of the total rural population.The 

1994 Census result elicited 78,676 as the total rural population size of the council out of 

these total rural population size of the council; Oromo(67,053) and Somalie(11,220) 

found to be the major dominant ethnic groups settling in the rural community 

representing 85.2 and 14.3 percent respectively. 

b) Population Characteristics 

The population characteristics of the DDAC for 1994 is summarized and it is compared 

with the 1994 census of the country as a whole in the following table. 

Table 4 Population and Social Indicators- 1994 

INDICATORS 

DDAC as per 1994 Ethiopia as per 

census 

1994 census 

Urban Rural 

1. Population and Health 

1.1 Rural population % of total 68.8 31.2 

1.2 Crude Birth rate, /1000 females 34.7 43.6 

1.3 Gross fertility, /1000 females 122.6 203.8 

1.4 Total Fertility rate: no. of children 4.28 6.91 

1.5 Infant mortality < 1yr: /1000 122 103 

1.6 Infant mortality


3.2 Access to sanitation 75 3 12 

3.3 Electrification 95 

3.4 Fuel wood use: Rural 97 NA 

3.5 Kerosene as light: Rural 3.0 NA 

2.2.4 Health 

According to the Policy and Guidelines of the MoH, the health service delivery is based 

on four-tier structures, namely: 

Central referral (specialized) hospitals 

Regional hospitals 

Rural hospitals/district hospitals 

Health centers (primary health care centers) under which there are 5 health posts to be 

supervised by each health center. In the table below is presented the data on the health 

facilities of the Council. 

Table 5 Health facilities with the DDAC 

NUMBERS POP/UNITY 

Hospitals 2 1:178,075 

Health centers 3 1:118,716 

Clinics 34 1:10,475 

Health posts 17 1:20,950 

Doctors 37 1:9,626 

Nurses 126 1:2,827 

Health assistants 69 1:5,162 

Out of the 55 different health facilities existing in the Council, 26 of them (1 hospital, 3 

health centers, 5 clinics and 17 health posts) are owened by the MoH. Most of the clinics 

and drug outlets are privately owned. 

The overwhelming health problems are communicable diseases and diseases resulting 

from malnutrition, poor environmental sanitation and harmful traditional and behavioral 

practices compounded by poverty and ignorance. The prevailing environmental health 

problems include unhygienic domestic waste and excreta disposal, inadequate and unsafe 

water supply, poor housing conditions, poor personal and food hygiene in homes and in 

public eating and drinking establishments. Major endemic diseases causing the highest 

morbidity and mortality among the DDAC population are mostly water-related (watercarried 

water washed) communicable diseases such as malariaous, intestinal parasites, 

diarrhea, typhoid fever, etc. Pulmonary and other forms of tuberculosis is widely 

spreading and is one of the leading (top) causes of hospital deaths. From the limited data 


16


available, HIV/AIDS is again another disease, which is gradually spreading. Sexually 

transmitted infections (STI/STD) like gonorrhea, syphilis and chancroid are also rampant 

in the Council 

2.3 LAND AND WATER RESOURCES 

2.3.1 Physiography and Geology 

a) Location 

The Dire Dawa Administrative Council (DDAC) is located in the eastern part of Ethiopia 

and covers approximately 133,262 Ha. It is bounded by the Oromiya Regional State to 

the north and west, and by the Somali Regional state to the south and east. 

Geographically, it is laying between 09 0 28' to 09 0 49' N latitude and 41 0 38' to 42 0 19' E 

longitude. 

b) Physiography 

The Dire Dawa Administrative Council is generally situated within the altitude range of 

950-2260 m.a.s.l. It is characterized by very diverse spatial variation of topographic 

features. It ranges from very steep high mountains to flat plains with the general 

topography direction being from south towards the north. The mountainous areas are 

located at the southern, southwestern and southeastern parts and reach an altitude of some 

2300 masl with slopes range of 30-60% and more. The flat plains lie mainly on the 

northern, northeastern and northwestern part of the territory at an altitude of some 950 - 

1000 masl with slopes of 0-2%. These areas comprise of severely dissected undulating to 

rolling areas caused by erosion, especially along wadis (slope 2-8%) in the western plain 

area of Melka Jebdu and moderate to many low to high lying relief hills and rock 

outcrops in the eastern part. The distribution of elevation classes within the basin is 

shown in fig4. 

c) Geology 

The geology of the area is consisting of Precambrian metamorphic, pegmatite and 

intrusive rocks, Mesozoic sedimentary rocks comprising of Adigrat sandstone and 

Hamaneli limestone; Upper sandstone, Tertiary volcanic rocks, Fresh water sediments 

including Travertine and Alluvial sediments. 

The major structural features of the Council are faults. Numerous faults which run east- 

west forms normal faults down-thrown toward north (Rift Valley) with steep to gentle 

dips, which gave the area three distinct geomorphologies; the plateau margin (2,100- 

2,300 masl), the area of the stepped margin (2,100-1,200 masl.) and the valley depression 

(1,000-1,200 masl.). The general trend of these faults is related to the rift system. 

The area is situated within the East African Rift System and experienced different 

earthquake events in history. In the 100 years (1884-1975) earthquake records, the area 

felt six shocks whose intensity ranges III- VII in Mercalli Modified scale (MM). The 


17


seismic risk for the area belongs to zone 2, which is a zone of moderate damage 

(Building Code for Ethiopia, 1974, in Pierre Gouin, 1976) 


18


Figure 4 Altitude Ranges map 


19


The most significant mineral resources potentials in the DDAC are limestone, silica sand 

and clay. Depending on their quantity and quality, these potential resources have different 

industrial applications. The other mineral potentials of the area are rare metals associated 

with the complex pegmatite, composed of lepidolite, spodumene, beryl and green 

tourmaline, is indicative of tantalum, niobium and cesium mineralization. The other 

mineral potentials are mica and feldspar in the area are industrial minerals, which include 

the occurrence of galena in the Afratu area is reported by (Jelenc D. and Izadin A., 1957) 

found associated within the decomposed Precambrian rocks near the contact zone with 

the Adigrat sandstone. 

Hot spring is observed in a stream locally known as Hartu, GPS reading location is 09 o 

49 ׀ 04 ׀׀ N and 42 o 09 ׀ 31 ׀׀ E, is an indication of geothermal energy occurrence in the 

Council, near the northern boundary of the Council territory. 

2.3.2 Climate 

As per Koppen's classification, the Dire Dawa Administration is characterized as Hot 

Semi-Arid Zone; whereas the Eastern part of the Council is classified as Warm 

Temperate Climate Zone, which is characterized by the mean daily temperature in the 

coldest month of less than 18 0 c and for more than 4 months it has a mean daily 

temperature of above 10 0 c. In the Hot Semi-Arid Climate Zone (the western, northwestern 

and south-western part), the mean annual temperature lies between 17 0 c and 

27 0 c; where as the mean annual rainfall is between 410 and 800 mm. The rainfall is 

highly variable from year to year. Steppe type of vegetation is very common. 

The climate of the study region is dominated by various inter-related factors, but the main 

factors are the near equatorial location and the altitude. Fig. 5 presents data on the annual 

distribution of rainfall. The year is divided into three seasons: a main rainy season 

(Kiremt) from July to mid - September, a dry season (Bega) from October to February, 

and finally a "small rainy" season (Belg) in March and April. The small rain, originated 

from the Indian Ocean and are brought by north-west winds; while the heavy rains in the 

wet season come from the Atlantic Ocean with north-east winds. The mean annual 

rainfall in the DDAC and the surrounding areas ranges from about 1000 mm on the south 

to about 500 to 600 in lowland in the north figure 5. 


20


Figure 5 Isohyetal Map 


21


2.3.3 Water Resources 

a) Surface water 

The surface water potential of the DDAC has been estimated using indirect methods as 

there are not gauged data. Table 7 summarizes mean annual runoff values estimated for 

different watersheds in the DDAC. All the rivers within the Council are seasonal and 

with short duration flood, practically without base flow. 

Table. 6 Mean Annual Flow (Mm 3 ) of the Rivers in the Dire Dawa Council 

No. Rivers Area (km 2 ) 

Weighted 

Rainfall (mm) 


Mean 

Annual Flow 

(Mm 3 ) 

1 Kelaad and all the tributaries 1078 728.4 116.5 

2 Dichato (& tributaries) 473 683.4 109.3 

3 Lege Oda 115 672.1 107.5 

4 Kalicha tributaries 448 717.1 114.7 

Total 448 

b) Groundwater 

The DDAC is found at the margin of the eastern part of the Ethiopian Rift Valley. The 

geological formation and hydrogeological conditions of the area is a function of 

geomorphology, on the escarpment-outcrops pre-Cambrian rocks, Adigrat sandstone, 

Hamanalei limestone, upper sandstones and basalts, the down thrown plain (foot of the 

escarpment) is dominantly covered by alluvial deposits. Both the plains (down thrown 

block) and the escarpment are highly dissected by east-west trending faults. The 

groundwater occurrence, distribution and flow regime is highly governed by topography, 

tectonics, geological formation, aerial and topological relationship of the geological 

formation. Based on these major factors, the DDAC can be categorized into two 

groundwater systems i.e. the escarpment and the foot of the escarpment (groundwater 

basin of Dire Dawa) Fig6. 

i) The Escarpment Groundwater 

The escarpment occupies the southern, southeastern and eastern parts of the Council. It is 

highly rugged areas and intensively faulted by east-west trending faults. Geologically, the 

western part is dominated by sedimentary formations (limestone and sandstones) at the 

central part south of Dire Dawa town sedimentary and basement rocks dominates, to the 

east volcanic and sedimentary rocks dominates. At the eastern part of the escarpment 

(from Kalicha to the east) downstream of the sedimentary formation, basement rocks 

outcrops and the topography highly enhances complete drainage of the groundwater of 

the sedimentary formation. From analysis of the ground water point inventory, which was 

carried out from August to September 2002 the groundwater potential of the escarpment 

is estimated to be about 4.8 Mm3/year (151.71/s). 

ii) The Dire Dawa groundwater basin (foot of the escarpment) 

22


The foot of the escarpment (Dire Dawa Groundwater Basin) occupies the western part 

(plains) of the Council from Dire Dawa town along Melka Jebdu to Hurso and to the east 

the plain part is practically out of DDAC territory. This area is considered to have high 

groundwater potential where Dire Dawa town water supply source is found and where 

Haseliso well field the future water supply source of Harare town is located. The 

groundwater occurrence and distribution in the basin is mainly a function of the 

geological formations, geomorphology and tectonics. The groundwater recharge of the 

basin is estimated about 1000 l/s (31.5 MCM/year) for both alluvial, upper sandstones 

and limestone aquifers. 

Alluvial aquifers (Qa) 

The alluvial aquifer forms extensive aquifer at Dire Dawa town and North of it, west of 

Dire Dawa town the occurrence of groundwater in this formation is limited along the 

alluvial fans and river channel deposits. The thickness of the alluvial sediment varies 

from 8.5 to 237 meters composed of clay, silt, sand, gravel and rock fragments. The 

ground water depth varies in the alluvial sediments from 5 to 45 meters. The discharge of 

wells from this formation varies from dry to a specific well discharge of 3.1 l/s/m. The 

transmissivity of the alluvial formation varies from 8 to 700 m 2 /day, and the maximum 

transmissivity is registered at Shinile. The water quality of alluvial aquifer is highly 

contaminated by human interferences, especially the alluvial water in the Dire Dawa 

town and dug wells near the community. The Total dissolved solids of polluted water is 

from 1000 mg/l to more than 3000 mg/l. The water type is mainly Ca-HCO3 and Ca-Mg- 

HCO3 but the water at Dire Dawa town area is changed by human interference to Ca- 

HCO3-Cl, Ca-Na-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Mg-HCO3-CI and Na-Ca- HCO3-SO4. 


23


Figure 6 Hydrogeology map 


24


Tertiary volcanic rocks (N2+P3Nl) 

Tertiary volcanic rocks in the DDAC are mainly stratiod basalts and Alaji basalts 

outcrops that occupy the elevated areas at the north and northeastern part of the Council 

territory. Boreholes drilled on the basalts are practically dry except at Hurso area with a 

maximum specific well discharge of 0.01 l/s/m. 

Upper Sandstones (Ka) (main aquifer) 

The upper sandstone outcrops in a small aerial extent at Haseliso, north of Dire Dawa at 

the airport and Northwest of Dire Dawa town. The geophysical investigation results after 

calibrating with the drilled test wells have preliminarily showed that the upper sandstone 

forms a strip aquifer extending from Serkama (outcrops) to Dire Jara (overlain by 

alluvium and basalts) in the northeast direction which could be one unit with the 

extensive Dire Dawa town area upper sandstone. The width of the strip in north direction 

from the foot of the escarpment is estimated in average about five kilometers. The drilled 

wells in the aquifer show that the thickness of the aquifer is variable. The minimum 

thickness of the aquifer penetrated at the Dire Jara well field is 36 meters (W-4) and at 

TW4 is 108 meters and not completely penetrated. Although the only recorded data on 

the groundwater strike is on test well TW4, the general information about the aquifer is 

that it is confined aquifer. At TW4 the groundwater was struck at 98 meters depth and the 

static water level stabilized at 31 meters. It is recorded in the Dire Jara well 

accomplishment report as general conclusion that the groundwater was struck from 100- 

120 meters and the static water stabilized at 50 to 60meters below the ground surface. 

The sandstone at the Sabiyian area also considered as confined aquifer although the 

pumping test results show leaky aquifer. In general the aquifer is confined aquifer where 

the confining layer could be basalt, alluvium and intercalation of shale with in the 

sandstone. The static water level varies from 9.3 meters (Sabiyian) to 69.3 meters (Dire 

Jara) with the specific well discharge of 0.13 to 68.97 l/s/m. The transmissivity of the 

aquifer varies from 9 to 5512 m 2 /day with a mean of 1810.9 and harmonic mean of 88 

m 2 /day and the storage coefficient varies from 0.003 – 0.005 from pumping analysis. 

Two groundwater flow regimes are identified in this aquifer, in the northwest direction 

from Serkam to Shinile direction (along the strip), which joins the groundwater flow from 

Dire Dawa town area of the aquifer in the area. 

The water quality is generally hard and the water type is Ca-HCO3, Ca-Mg-HCO3 and the 

water of Dire Dawa town and the Sabiyian has high chlorides and the water types 

changes to- Ca-HCO3-Cl, Ca-Mg-HCO3-Cl, and Ca-Cl-HCO3-SO4 due to contamination 

of the aquifer in the area. 

Hamanaliei limestone (Jh) 

The Hamanalei limestone outcrops in the Dire Dawa groundwater Basin together with the 

upper sandstone a lesser aerial extent. Drilling results show that the limestone 


25


unconformally underlies the upper sandstone. The limestone at Dire Jara area is highly 

fractured and karsted and forms complex water bearing formation together with the upper 

sandstone, whereas at the Dire Dawa town area the lime stones are massive of low 

groundwater productivity and most of the wells that penetrates only the limestone are 

abandoned (AE 1990). 

The limestone at Dire Jara area could not be independently characterized and the Aquifer 

characterization for the upper sandstone applies also for the limestone in the mentioned 

area. Yield of aquifers is also influenced by topography. The escarpment is generally 

characterized by low to moderate productivity, while foot of the escarpment has moderate 

to high yields. 

2.3.4 Land Resources 

a) Soils 

Thirteen (13) different soil types were identified to be found in the DDAC. These are: 

Calcaric Arenesols, Calcaric Cambisols, Vert-calcaric Cambisols, Calcaric Fluvisols, 

Calcari-sodic Fluvisols, Arenic Fluvisols, Haplic Luvisols, Calcaric Leptosols, Eutric 

Leptosols, Calcaric Regosols, Lepti-calcaric Regosols, Calcic Solonetz, Mazi-calcic 

Vertisols (Fig7). 

These soil types are found at different areas within the project area and the largest portion 

is covered by Leptosol type, which cover almost all the hilly and mountainous landscape 

of the south middle and some eastern part of the DDAC. The smallest soil unit is the 

Vertisol, which is occurring along the track towards Aseliso village. 

These soil units were further divided into different soils mapping units to serve as a basis 

for predicting soil behavior by delineating areas that are as homogeneous as possible. 

Which behave difficulty and/or will respond difficulty to some specific management. 

Hence, these identified soil units were further divided based on landform, slope, texture, 

stoniness, depth, erosion status, etc. A total of 46 soil-mapping units were identified and 

described (fig 7). 

The soil chemical analysis results indicated that: 

a) All the soils have high to very high PH values, which indicated that they 

are moderately to strongly alkaline. 

b) All the soils are non-saline with very low values. 


26


Figure 7 Soil Map 


27


c) All the soils have high to very high CEC values, which indicated that 

where topography allows, they are good agricultural soil with potential to 

hold plant nutrients. 

d) All most all soils have high base saturation percentage, which shows that 

they can be fertile not withstand high PH value. 

e) All the soils are strongly to extremely calcareous 

f) Exchangeable cation level are as follows for all soils. 

i) Ex. Ca level are high to very high 

ii) Ex. Mg levels are medium to high 

iii) Ex. Na levels are low to very low for most soils but some soils 

such as the Solonetz, Vertisols and few Fluvisols have medium to 

high levels. 

iv) Ex. K levels are for all soils 

g) All nutrient levels (Nitrogen and availability of phosphorus) are low for 

all soils, hence fertilizer response is expected. 

h) Organic carbon levels are also very low for all soils. 

a) Soil Degradation 

Soil and water conservation practices in most areas of Dire Dawa Administrative Council 

is not significant when compared with the area requires treatments and observed imprint 

of soil erosion. Furthermore, it was found that the quality of the existing soil and water 

conservation measures is not to a satisfactory standard and the effectiveness in terms of 

reducing soil loss and runoff is inadequate. 

Stone terrace, soil bunds and contour strips are practiced on farm lands. Stone terrace on 

bare mountains have not cope up with the severity of erosion and mass slides. 

Values for the erosion control practice factor are obtained from tables of the ratio of soil 

loss where the practice is applied to the soil. With no erosion control practice, P= 1.0. 

Soil Loss estimation made for DDAC using USLE. 

Table 7 Soil loss estimate for DDAC 

PHYSIOGRAPHIC 

UNITS 

MAJOR SOIL 

TYPE 

MAJOR LAND USE 

/COVER 


ANNUAL 

SOIL LOSS 

( TONS/HA) 

Undulating Plains & 

pediments 

Cambisols Bush & shrub land 3.62 

Escarpments and terrace Regosols Cultivation 3.67 

Hills & mountains Leptosols Bare land 12.3 

Steep Mountains & peaks Leptosols Bare land 32.94 

28


b) Land Use and Vegetation 

Land use / cover types of the Dire Dawa Administrative Council is grouped into four 

major classes. They are designated as urban built up, cultivated land, physiognomic 

vegetation types and Bare land. These major classes have been subdivided in Twelve 

(12) mapping units. The extent in hectare and the percentage coverage from the total 

study area of each of the identified mapping units are shown in Table 8. 

Table 8 Land Use/Land Cover Mapping Units of DDAC with Area Coverage and 

Percentage 

Category Major Classes Mapping Units Code Area (ha.) 

% of the 

total DDAC 

1 Urban and/or Town 

UT 2750.412 2.064 

Built up Area 

(U) 

Village / settlement 

UR 283.728 0.213 

Run-way/airstrip 

URW 

2 Cultivated Land Intensively C1 1200.883 0.901 

( C ) 

cultivated land 

3 Physiognomic 

Vegetation 

(P) 

4 Bare land 

(B) 

Intensively 

Cultivated landirrigated 

Moderately 

Cultivated land 

Sparsely cultivated 

land 

Dense shrub land 

Open shrub land 

open shrub land 

(Prosopis Juliflora 

plantation) 

Eucalyptus 

plantation 

Exposed rock-out 

crops 

Exposed Soil 

surface with scrubs 

and grass 

vegetation. 

C1-1 


C2 

C3 

P1 

P2 

P2-1 

Pr 

B1 

B2 

1907.258 

32488.993 

1851.939 

776.677 

4892.742 

6581.686 

45964.083 

34563.599 

1.431 

24.38 

1.39 

0.583 

3.672 

4.939 

34.492 

25.937 

29


2.4 AGRICULTURE, LIVESTOCK AND ENERGY 

2.4.1 Agro-Climatic Zones 

Combining seven major moisture and three thermal zone units resulted in the 

identification of eighteen major agro-ecological zones for the whole country. Sub agroecological 

zones were determined by combining the 18 major zones with the seven 

physiographic regions. Then by superimposing the seven physiographic regions map 

with the 18 major agro-ecological zones map, 49 sub-zones are recognized in the country. 

Of these five major and six sub-agro-ecological zones were identified in the Dire Dawa 

Administrative Council (Table 9 and Fig.8). 

Table 9 Major and Sub Agro-Ecological Zones of DDAC 

MAJOR 

AEZS 

SUB 

AEZS 

DESCRIPTION KM 2 % 

A1 Hot to warm arid lowland plains 790.3 75.0 

A1-1 Hot to warm arid plains 133.3 12.7 

A1-7 Hot to warm arid mountains 657 62.3 

A2 Tepid to cool arid mid highlands 45 4.3 

A2-7 Tepid to cool arid mountains 45 4.3 

M1 Hot to warm moist lowlands 143 13.6 

M1-7 Hot to warm moist mountains 143 13.6 

M2 Tepid to cool moist mid highlands 63 6.0 

M2-7 Tepid to cool moist mountains 63 6.0 

SH2 Tepid to cool sub-humid mid 

highlands 

12 1.0 

SH2-7 Tepid to cool sub-humid mountains 12 1.0 

Total 1053.3 

Source: Agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia, MoA, 2000 

100 

2.4.2 Farming System 

Rain fed crop cultivation is the principal activity of farming system in most areas where 

there is rainfall. In semiarid to arid condition where rainfall is less, pastoral livestock 

farming system becomes predominant. There fore, there are two distinct farming systems 

in the Administrative Council. These farming systems are Transhumant in the lowland 

and mixed farming in the mid-altitude. The mid altitude production system is cereal and 

livestock production system, while the low land is dominantly Transhumance/pastoral. 

The pastoral production system covers ones 10 peasant association (PAs). Out of the total 

livestock production in the Administrative Council, 51.3% 48.62% and 4.20% are found 

in the mid altitude, lowland and urban Kebeles respectively. 


30


Figure 8 Agro-ecological zones of DDAC 


31


The crop production farming system dominate in the relatively cooler climate, which can 

grow the bulk of the cooler zone crops in lower altitudes such as sorghum and maize, 

which are, more prevalent. In the crop farming system classification, the following are 

identified in the Administrative Council. 

• Seed farming complex 

• *Sorghum, maize based system 

• Perennial farming complex 

• Shifting cultivation farming system 

• Irrigation farming system 

a) Cropping Patterns 

The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops, as of crops and fallow on a given 

area are the cropping pattern. The allotment of cultivated land area throughout the 

Council looks cereal dominating. Sorghum is the most frequent and large covering one 

followed by maize. Chat and coffee are relatively dominating in area covering among 

other horticultural crops cultivated in the Council. Vegetables like tomato, sweet potato 

and a few others are cultivated in a lesser proportion. Pulses such as groundnut, haricot 

beans and some others are also available in the Council’s PAs. 

Table 10 List of crops, area, and production and yield 2002 DDAC 

Crop 

Area of the Arable 

land in Hectare 

(Mean) 

Production in 

quintal (Mean) 


Yield in (qt/ha) 

(Mean) 

Wheat .17 .50 3.00 

Barley 1.00 1.63 3.00 

Sorghum 1.23 3.51 5.30 

Maize .74 1.56 2.58 

Groundnut .33 2.00 4.75 

Potato .50 - - 

Tomato .25 3.75 20.00 

Cabbage .26 2.13 8.50 

Sweat potato .14 3.51 30.21 

Coffee .41 2.80 7.40 

Chat 1.08 13.51 8.25 

Tobacco - .50 - 

Sugar cane .11 5.00 44.67 

Source: Base Line survey, 2002. 

2.4.3 Agricultural Marketing 

Agricultural marketing in the country and in the Council are at very low standard. The 

markets are concentrated in the larger towns rather than in the countryside. The 

marketing system in the nation prior to 1974 was characterized by relatively high degree 

of competitiveness. After 1974, the military government abandoned the free marketing 

distribution policy and introduced a wide range of state interventions in grain marketing. 

32


The marketing system was closed marketing system in which the farmers are forced to 

sell their produce at a fixed price to the Agricultural Market Corporation (AMC), which 

is a government institution. There were not private traders as such and even if they exist 

are not allowed to purchase grain from farmers as they want. As the results farmers were 

reluctant on increasing their farm output. Due to deteriorating condition the economy 

and other political factors, the then government adopted the "Mixed Economy Policy" 

under which the AMC quota system of grain delivery restriction on grain movement and 

the system of fixed pricing for farm produce were withdrawn. The TGE have endorsed 

the same policy after the overthrow of the military government in 1991 with emphasis on 

limiting the role of the state in wholesale trade. The AMC has changed its previous 

objectives and structured under its new name the Ethiopian Grain Trade Enterprise with 

the following objectives. 

• To establish markets and prices to farmer produces to encourage them to increase 

their output. 

• To stabilize grain price and markets to protect consumers from unfair grain price 

increase. 

• When necessary, to export grains to world market for foreign exchange. 

• To maintain grain buffer stocks for market stabilization. 

2.5 Livestock 

a) General 

There are two distinct farming systems in the Administrative Council. These farming 

systems are Transhumant in the lowland and mixed farming in the mid-altitude. The midaltitude 

production system is cereal livestock production system while the low land is 

dominantly Transhumant / pastoral. The pastoral production system covers 10 peasant 

associations (PAs) out of the total 28 rural peasant associations. Of the total livestock 

population in the Administrative Council, 51.3 %, 48.62 %and 4.02 % are found in the 

mid-altitude, lowland and urban kebeles respectively. The estimated livestock population 

of the Council is shown in table 112 below. From the total livestock population 43.57% is 

cattle in Tropical Livestock Unit (TLU). The remaining balance is attributed to sheep 7.8 

%, goat 9.07 %, camel 20.29 %, equine 19.11%, and poultry 0.2 %. 

Table 11 Estimated Livestock Population 

SPECIES NUMBER ('000HEADS) NUMBER IN TLU 

Cattle 58913 41239.1 

Sheep 73737 7373.7 

Goat 85887 8588.7 

Camel 14441 19206.5 

Equine 14824 18085.3 

Poultry 14824 148.24 

Total 262626 94641.54 

Source: Dire Dawa Master Plan Study Household Survey Analysis, 2002 


33


Conversion factor for TLU: 1Cattle= 0.7, Sheep/Goat= 0.1, Equine= 1.22, Camel= 1.33 

and Poultry= 0.01 

TLU= Tropical Livestock Unit i.e. a mature cattle weighing 250 kg or the above 

equivalents. 

b) Livestock Productivity 

Most of the livestock in the Administrative Council are indigenous animals. Few dairy 

cattle are found in Dire Dawa town and in the outskirts of Dire Dawa. It is not uncommon 

to say that the tropical animals are poor producers. This is true to Dire Dawa 

Administrative Council livestock. The low productivity is worse in areas where feed and 

water are scarce. As a result the daily milk yield for cattle, goats and camel ranges from 

1 to 7, 0.5 to 3, and 1 to 20 liters with an average of 1.73, 2.67 and 4.47 liters 

respectively. The lactation length ranging from 2 to 12, 1 to 6, and from 2 to 16 months 

with an average 9, 3.5 and 16 months respectively. During the household survey data 

collection it was unable to obtain data on other productivity parameters like birth, 

weaning, yearling and mature live weight, because farmers or pastoralists do not have the 

material and skill to collect data on those parameters. 

c) Feed Resources 

Table 12 summarizes the estimated feed supply from the available feed sources in 

relation to the nutrient requirement of the total grazing and browsing animals in the 

Administrative Council. The supply is estimated from the available pasture/rangeland, 

cropped area, hill slopes, valley bottoms, and shrub/bush. 

Table 12 Estimated Feed Supply and Nutrient Requirement 

NO. SOURCE 

AREA 

HA. (a) 

DM 

YIELDS 

T/HA. (b) 

FEED SUPPLY AND 

REQUIREMENT 

Requirement 

DM (t) 

(t) 

1 Pasture/Range Land 39672 1.5 59508 

2 Crop Residue 75672 1.4 105940.8 

3 Crop Aftermath 75672 0.4 30268.8 

4 Shrub/Bush 876 1.4 1226.4 

5 Total Supply per Annum 196944 

6 Maintenance Requirement 

236,233.25 

7 Deficit 39289.25 

Source: (a) Dire Dawa Master Plan Study Land Use Land Cover Survey Data, 2003 

(b) Dry Matter Yield, DM (ton)/ha, Tekeze Basin Master Plan Study 


34


The above table shows that the total DM supply from the available feed sources is 

196944 tones. The available feed compared with the maintenance requirement of the 

livestock population reveals that the Administrative Council is under feed deficit by 

39298.5 tones. 

d) Livestock Diseases 

The distribution, variety and prevalence of livestock diseases and parasites in the 

Administrative Council are not different from any other parts of the country. According 

to the household survey data and information analysis, Anthrax, Foot and Mouth, 

Blackleg, Lumpy Skin Disease and Pasteurellosis are livestock diseases that are rampant 

in their order of importance. Likewise Ticks, Lungworm, Mites, and Fasciolosis are 

livestock parasites commonly found in many PAs in the Administrative Council. But 

with regard to predators, except few complaints, there is no significant data. 

2.6 Traditional Energy and Energy Balance 

The principal energy for Dire Dawa town is hydroelectric power and biomass. These 

energy sources are used for lighting and cooking in the households and to run 

machineries in different manufacturing industries. The energy for lighting comes mainly 

from hydroelectric, which is used by about 95% of the total urban households. Out of the 

total households that use electricity for lighting, more than half (67%) use shared electric 

meter. Five percent of the house holds use Kerosene for lighting. 

Although over 95% of the households in Dire Dawa city have access to electricity, nearly 

65% of the house holds use bio fuels as energy source. These bio-fuels are mainly used 

for cooking. The over all current consumption of the town is about 71.07 million Mega 

Joule, which is nearly 41 % of the power supply by the inter-connected system. 

The energy demand forecast suggested in WBISPP 2000 study indicates that, although 

there is a gradual shift towards modern fuels, biomass fuels will remain the dominant 

source of energy in DDAC. The demand for biomass fuels is expected to increase by 

nearly 2% per annum. The CESSEN study estimated that the demand for modern fuels in 

the urban sector is estimated to rise by 4.5 percent for kerosene and 5.9 percent for 

electricity, considerably above the rate of population increases. 

The need to satisfy the demand of fuel wood for household purpose has reduced in 

massive devegetation and land degradation, which in turn results in ecological imbalance. 

Thus to alleviate this major problem intervention from government side was 

indispensable. Accordingly to bridge the gap between supply and demand of fuel wood 

and reduce its impact both on the house hold the national economy at large, several 

options could be addressed. 

These are: 

• Increasing the supply of bio mass energy through plantation, 


35


• Reducing the demand for bio-mass through improving house hold and other sector 

energy end use appliances. 

• Inter fuel substitution, i.e. encouraging house hold to shift away from bio mass to 

modem sources of energy: 

• Development of other energy sources: 

• Improve charcoal production kiln efficiency 

• Increase awareness. 

2.7 Wildlife and Tourism 

a) Wildlife 

The eastern part of Ethiopia used to contain one of the richest collections of fauna and 

flora to be found in Ethiopia and what remains today is but a meager remnant of the 

teeming mass of plant and animal life. The remnant woodland, shrubland and bushland 

habitats of wildlife are located in the flat lowlands of the southeastern part of the 

Administrative Council. These localities are specifically known as Jeldessa, Gerba- 

Aneno and Chirmittee. These localities are generally composed of marginal land habitats 

unsuitable for agriculture. The past and present land use of the area is restricted to 

grazing and/or browsing both by wild and domestic animals. Major mammalian species 

such as, Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), Lesser kudu (Tragelaphus imberbis), 

Lion (Panthera leo), Leopard (Panthera pardus), Gerenuk (Litocranius walleri), Dik dik 

(Madoqua Saltiana), Caracal (Felis caracal), Jackals (Canis aureus), Baboons (Papio 

hamadryas), Abyssinian Hare (Lepus abyssinica) and warthogs (Phachocoreus 

aethiopicus) can be mentioned as typical inhabitants of the habitat type. 

Larger mammals of great ecological and economical importance observed include dik 

diks (Madoqua saltiana) as the most abundant species accounting a density of about 

40/km 2 ) followed by Hamadryas baboons (Papio Hamadryas) accounting a density of 

39/km 2 and ground squirrels (Euxerus erythropus fulvior), warthogs (Phacochocorus 

ethiopicus) and gerenuks (Litocranius walleri) were the next relatively abundant species 

observed with densities over 9, 6 and 5/km², respectively 

A total of 102 birds (species ??) were observed and identified in and around the 

Administrative Council during the field surveys. Birds listed in the wildlife report of this 

study are common in the woodlands being evenly distributed all over, and the frequent 

observation of these birds particularly birds like African orange-bellied parrot 

(Poicephalus rufiventris), white-bellied Go-away bird (Corythaixoides leucogaster), 

white-headed buffalo weaver (Dinemilla dinemeli), black-billed wood hoopoe 

(Phoeniculus somaliensis), African hoopoe (Upupa epopos), red-billed hornbill (Tockus 

erythorhynchus), yellow billed hornbill (Tockus flavirostris) and abyssinian roller 

(Coracias abyssinica) would tell their abundance in the wildlife area visited. 


36


Among the other free ranging vertebrates, reptiles observed in and around the 

Administrative Council include lizards, snakes and tortoises. Tortoises' density in the 

area and their huge body size noted indicates that they are most successful creatures 

adapted to that Administrative Council’s environment. 

b) Tourism 

Dire Dawa is mainly known by its trading centers followed by cultural and historical 

heritages. The following attractions are listed as primary targets for being set aside as 

National Monuments, historical sites and Sites of Special Interest and initiating further 

tourism development and rehabilitation activities. 

Ancient Caves of the DDAC 

• Lega-oda Cave is located about 38 km. from the center of Dire Dawa in the 

Guninfeta Peasant Association. Three caves known locally by the names of Goda- 

Kataba, Goda-Okotae and Goda-Buttu altogether make up the Lega-Oda caves. 

• Hinkuftu Cave located in Addis Ketema is another attraction that the city of Dire 

Dawa offers to its esteemed visitors. 

Historical and Religious Tourist Attractions 

• Second World War Cemetery: LAGA HARE MOSQUE 

• Abeyaziz Mosque 

• Awale Catholic Church 

• Italian Fort (Mishig) 

• Dire Dawa Railway Station 

• Kezira Open Market 

• Camel Market 

2.8 Urban, Industry and Services 

a) The structure of the labor force 

In the DDAC large proportion of the population falls within Dire Dawa town (68% of the 

total population). Labor force participation rates are 35% in the urban area but in the rural 

area the participation is higher since both women and children participate more actively 

from earlier age. In the following table is summarized the labor force data. 

b) Manufacturing Industry 

Industry is the second important economic activity in the Dire Dawa Council and is at 

lower level of development. There are only six major industries: the Textile mill, soft 

drink factory, Meat factory, Oil mill, cement factory and Food complex. Unfortunately 

the detail information on these factories was not available and is not included in this 

report. The small-scale industries are of various types, which include range of 


37


manufacturing activities such as grain mills, Brick/hollow block manufacturing, leather 

works, construction, oil processing, laundry and soap manufacturing, and paper printing. 

From crude data available the total no of establishments are 123 equivalent to 25.5 

million ETB of which 66 are grain mills followed by 12 Brick/ Hollow Block 

manufacturing. The respective capital equivalence is around 2 & 7 million ETB. 

A two years (2000-2001) investment situation is reported in the statistic. One is for the 

year 2000 and the other was for 2001. There is no substantial investment change between 

these years. According to the Trade, Transport, Industry and Truism Office, the total 

number of projects where investment license is issued are 305 with a capital of 1.9 

Billion Birr and with expected employment generation of 8876 jobs. 

Out of 305 projects 40 projects with a capital of 155.5 million Birr have commenced 

operation, 42 projects with a capital of 200.4 million Birr are under implementation, and 

a total of 223 projects (73% of total) with a capital of 1538 million Birr (78.9%of total) 

are at pre-implementation stage. 

Among the total lists of projects, manufacturing (21.6%), real state development (21.6%), 

agriculture (19.7%), trade and commerce (16.7%) and transport and storage (8.5%)are the 

area of investment preferred by investors. 

Out of Birr 1.9 billion envisaged investment 56.9% is earmarked for manufacturing, 

15.3% for real state development, 11.5% for trade and commerce, 4.8% for agriculture, 

and 3.8% for health. Education is the least sector, 0.3%, where private investors gave 

attention. 

On the other hand, the top five-employment generation potentials projects in the order of 

importance are manufacturing, trade and commerce, agriculture, real state development, 

and education with 27.1%; 27.0%; 15.5%; 12.3% and 7.2% of the respective percentage 

share. 

c) Economic services 

In Dire Dawa Administrative Council there are 4815 licensed individual/legal entity 

whole sellers engaged in 48 types of business up to 2002. The first five top licensed 

business (commodity) in wholesale are engagement in chat, yam fabric, salt, cigarettes, 

and grain trade with a percentage share of 71%, 8%, 6%, 4%, and 2.4% respectively. 

Licensed retail traders are 2680 in number and engaged in 73 business areas. The top 

ten business areas are in non-durable household materials and food stuff (40%), ready 

made clothes and bags (8%), Textiles (6.04%), Butchery (6%), Grain trade (4.2%) fossil 

and kerosene (3.2%), building materials (2.6%), grocery (alcoholic and beverages) 

(2.2%), garage (1.9%) and bakery (1.7%). 

Those licensed in Service Business are 1668 in the fields of 78 businesses. The top ten 

are taxi driving (24%), bar (16%), grain mill (7%), snack bar (7%), tailoring (5%), hotel 

(4%), restaurant (4%), building contractor (3.6%), tej house (3%) and hair dressing 


38


(2.7%). The total renewed and issued for the wholesalers, retailers, and service are also 

shown. The male and female share in renewing and retuning of licenses are also shown. 

Twenty-seven Private Limited Companies are also registered with a capital of 6.2 million 

Birr in the year 2001, as shown in the successive tables. 

There are over 1577 licenses issued/renewed in the year 2001 on Import, Export, Freight 

Transport, Tanker Lorry, Passenger Transport, Customs Clearance, Higher Education, 

Press Activity, and Ethio-Djibouti Border Trade. The top 5 licenses issued/renewed 

international trade are Ethio-Djibouti border trade (39.9%), export (28.3%), import and 

export (17.7%), import (11.4%) and freight transport (1.9%). 

2.9 Infrastructural Development 

a)a) Road Transport 

The Administrative Council is accessed with trunk road to Addis Ababa for 515km and 

with link road to Harar with 55km. It is also connected to Djibouti with an all weather 

gravel link road for 313km of which about 50km is bordering the Administrative Council. 

The trunk roads are under rehabilitation in Phase I of the Road Sector Development 

Program (RSDP) to asphalt concrete from Modjo to Awash for 155km, from Awash to 

Kulubi for 237 km and Kulubi to Dire Dawa for 53km of which the Dire Dawa – 

Dengego road is completed recently. The Harar – Dengego road is also under 

rehabilitation to asphalt concrete under RSDP for 30km. The Dire Dawa – Dewele with 

satisfactory all weather gravel road on the way to Djibouti passing through Somali 

Regional State will also be upgraded to asphalt concrete in phase II (2002-2007) of the 

RSDP for a total length of 214km. Dire Dawa is also connected to Hurso and Erer of 

Oromiya Regional State with 60km all weather satisfactory gravel road, which is part of 

an old short road to Addis Ababa of which about 17km is within the Council to the west 

of Dire Dawa passing through Melka Jebdu town. 

The road density (table 13) of the rural area is found to be 1.546km/1000 population and 

110.33km/1000km2 and that for the total (the urban and the rural) is 0.725km/1000 

population and 194.03/1000km2, which is higher than the national average and the 

national target set for RSDP Phase I for 2002 is 0.5km/1000 population and 

30.30km/1000km2. 

Table 13 Summary of Road Densities of the Dire Dawa Administrative Council 

No. Location Population Surface 

(km 2 Road length Road/1000 Road/1000 

) (km) Persons km 2 

1 Rural 95,391 1305.12 144 1.51 110.33 

2 Urban 260,759 27.50 114.57 0.44 4166.18 

3 Urban + 

Rural 

356,150 1332.62 258.57 0.725 194.03 

* Ethiopia 67,200,000 1,100,000 33,297 0.5 30.3 

* Source: Road Sector Development Program (RSDP) II 

d)b) Water Supply and sanitation 


39 

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering 

Formatted: Bullets and Numbering


The coverage of population in Ethiopia with safe water is about 26%; proper sanitation 

approaches to 12% with urban areas taking most of the services; but in the Administrative 

Council, the coverage figures in the sub-sector i.e. water supply and sanitation in both 

rural and urban settings are conflicting; however in most reports it is specified that the 

rural water supply is 24%, rural sanitation 3% and urban water supply 68% and urban 

sanitation 75 % coverage level. 

In the Administrative Council, Rural water supply is under the full mandate of the Water, 

Mines and Energy Office and Urban water supply is under the accountability of Dire 

Dawa Water Supply and Sewerage Service Office, on the other hand, the sanitation 

management in the Councilal council is fragmented, solid waste collection and disposal is 

under the Health Office, while faecal sludge collection and disposal is under the Water 

Supply and Sewerage Office and urban drainage lines construction and maintenance is 

under the Town Administration Office. 

In the Administrative Council, in the rural vicinities, there exist in total 154 rural water 

supply schemes, out of which 26% are not functional at this time, primarily due to water 

shortage and spare parts problems. 

2.10 Economic Performance And Investment 

a) Council Economic Performance 

In the current decentralization process, the Council is given power and responsibility for 

budgetary function under the proclamation number 33/92 of the TGE. The financial 

source of the Council include public finance (local and treasury); loan from bilateral and 

multilateral sources; NGOs and in some cases community contribution. 

The current source of income for the Council is mainly from the revenue collected in the 

form of tax and the non-tax income. That is tax collected (includes the direct and indirect 

tax) and the non-tax income which is derived from license/permit fee, sales of services, 

property, income on investment, pension, and miscellaneous .income. 

The second source is the annual budget supplemented /allocated for the Council from the 

federal government. The Council has two categories of expenditures: recurrent and 

capital expenditure. The former one is meant to cover salaries and operating expenses of 

the sector offices/institutions organized under the Council while the latter include 

expense of project activities of capital nature/non recurrent. 

The data obtained from the Finance Office are compiled and presented on Table 14. 


40


Table 14: Finance of the Council by Source and Expenditure, x 1000 Birr(year EC) 

A-Recurrent Budget 

Income Item 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 

Direct Tax 9638 8262 10454 14259 12661 

Indirect Tax 4035 2406 1675 1706 1544 

Non-Tax Income 4255 4123 10675 17608 5044 

Total 17928 14791 22804 33573 19249 

Growth as%of 1989 83% 127% 187% 107% 

Total Expenditures n.a 29680 34866541 2495864 2775362 

B-Capital Budget 

1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 

Gov't 3629 5078 10192 21005 20163 10825 14019 

Loan 4677 4500 3171 3854 11941 9347 41400 

Grant 1275 900 1995 1683 2450 7633 18681 

Total 9581 10478 15358 26542 34554 27805 74100 

EXP/BDGT(%) 50% 61% 42% 95% 58% 60% 21% 

Gov't 76% 82% 54% 100% 98% 98% 93% 

Loan 36% 37% 24% 100% 0% 60% 4% 

Grant 25% 68% 5% 24% 18% 6% 4% 

Capital Expenditure 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 

Gov't 2740 4151 5530 20912 19771 10567 13099 

Loan 1694 1673 773 3855 5622 1711 

Grant 322 611 98 405 432 438 698 

Total 4756 6435 6401 25172 20203 16627 15508 

Major Issues include the following: 

Despite the existing critical shortage of budget to finance the public sectors program and 

various socio-economic activities of the Council, the efficiency in management of 

expenditure still has to be looked in during the second phase of the study. 

a) Declining/poor economic activity of Dire Dawa town 

b) Limited role of the private sector in the economy 

c) Increased unemployment and poverty levels are high 

b) Private Sector Investment 

Dire Dawa is located at a strategic position in facilitating trade activities in the 

eastern part of the country. Among which the Addis –Djibouti railway, D.D-A.A 

road transport, and the international airport are examples. Other infrastructures 

required for investment include dependable electric power supply connected with 

the national grid. The ground water resources in the Melka-Jebdu flood plain, the 

enormous labor force in Dire Dawa, well functioning financial institutions and 

modern communication facilities are all in place for attracting investment. 

In addition to the effort made by the federal government, the Council has also 

taken some measure on incentive such measure include full or partial exemption 

from land lease payments depending on the type of investment, and priority 

services. 


41


According to the statistics of the Council investment office the total number of 

license issued in all sectors is 317 investment projects with a combined capital of 

2.1 billion ETB. 

Of those total investment projects 73 are industry, 61 are agriculture 69 in real 

estate development 25 in warehouse & transport and 49 in trade & commerce and 

the remaining 40 are in hotels & tourism, social services, etc. However, only 44 

are under construction/implementation. 

In terms of the role that the private sector plays in the Council economy, it is 

expressed in the amount of investment capital and number of job opportunities 

created. See Table15. 


42


Table 15: Summary of Investment Projects by Sector 

N0 SECTOR 

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 TOTAL % 

1 AGRICULTURE 

-Number of projects 2 7 5 17 13 9 3 3 2 61 19% 

-Capital 4979486 6587793 5909390 18497436 18549795 15199138 7150027 7409116 709449 84991630 4% 

-Job Opportunity 33 145 98 308 353 183 68 167 29 1384 14% 

2 MANUFACTURING 


-Capital 5509683 502172 5293636 65071479 846510817 53568679 81313450 15985422 200587101 1274342439 61% 


3 REAL ESTATE DEVELOPMENT 


-Capital 0 0 10844405 5065525 135792942 58034076 67978664 10204433 5968848 293888893 14% 


4 WARE HOUSE SERVICE 


-Capital 0 0 0 0 7425172 17098718 7223421 6280699 0 38028010 2% 


5 DISTRIBUTIVE TRSDE & 

MAINTENANCE 


-Capital 0 2324270 0 14682595 69399919 67167530 36549138 21870490 841427 212835369 10% 


6 HOTEL AND TOURISM 


-Capital 0 1496288 2139018 276443 18229774 0 0 0 1449200 23590723 1% 


7 CONSTRUCTION 


-Capital 0 0 0 0 12375800 5082350 0 3031481 0 20489631 1% 


8 EDUCATION 


-Capital 0 5691150 530230 6214818 49898526 885626 0 0 6000517 69220867 3% 


9 HEALH 

-Number of projects 0 0 1 2 2 1 0 2 8 3% 

-Capital 0 0 12553280 43231299 7308388 8606527 0 14502793 86202287 4% 

-Job Opportunity 0 0 77 147 25 0 0 156 405 4% 

10 CONSULTANCY 

-Number of projects 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0% 

-Capital 0 0 0 0 276547 0 0 0 276547 0% 

-Job Opportunity 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 10 0% 

Total Number of projects 3 11 12 44 97 62 44 22 22 317 100% 

Total Capital 10489169 16601673 37269959 153039595 1165767680 217036117 208821227 64781641 230059335 2103866396 100% 

Total Job Opportunity 70 385 308 1189 3378 1471 997 856 1467 10121 100% 


43


3. PLANNING OF NATURAL RESOURCES 

3.1 WATER RESOURCES 

3.1.1. Irrigation and Drainage 

a) General Background 

The development of irrigated Agriculture in Ethiopia can be assessed at three levels 

traditional irrigation, communal modern small-scale irrigation and modern medium & large 

scale irrigation schemes. The different river basin master plan studies and other irrigation 

studies conducted previously, have reviewed the history and status of irrigation development 

in the country. The assessments were based on the data provided by the concerned relevant 

sector institutions mainly the Ministry of water Resources. The Ministry of Agriculture and 

the previous Ministry of State Farms. 

The Development of irrigation on traditional basis by farmers in response to the occurrence 

of dry spells or during the long dry seasons have been practiced in the highland of Ethiopia 

for centuries. The schemes ranged in size from less than 50 ha to 100ha Developing springs 

and diverting small rivers growing crops, or for supplementing rainfall carried out. The 

intensity of irrigation development has been increasing in recent years, in both the highland 

and low lands to supplement the changing rainfall patterns. 

However the contribution of irrigated Agriculture to the economy in terms of GDP and food 

productivity is insignificant in view of the need of the country and the resource potential. In 

accordance with the water sector review report 2000, the total area cultivated to date under 

irrigation are 160,000 ha. which about 60,000 ha. are traditionally. 

As of the water sector development program formulation of Dire Dawa Administrative 

Council, the Council has arable land amounts to 36,385ha, so far about 21,139ha is only 

cultivated, out of which 2,039 ha is irrigated to benefit 6000 beneficiaries which brings the 

coverage to 9.2%. 

b) Objectives and policy at the Federal and Regional Levels 

In response to the recurrent drought the Federal focused on the development of small scale 

schemes generally having less than 200ha mainly for the production of food crops or local 

consumption and to generate income for the direct beneficiaries. For the purpose of 

improving the present Agricultural production and to increase the food energy and fiber 

supply both the rain-fed and irrigated Agriculture development need to be enhanced in order 

to realize the objective of food self sufficiency and food security. 

Following the change of Government in 1992, the responsibility of the development of 

small and medium scale schemes has been transferred to the Councilal Administration. 

Since then based on the broad goals specific objective and polices were formulated 

regarding agricultural development and water resources management. 

Likewise the main objective of the irrigation component of the Integrated Development 

Master Plan Study of the Dire Dawa Administrative Council is to identity and plan the 


44


development of irrigation. And to prepare a master plan for the development of the water 

resources potential uses. The plan is to be for a period of the coming 30-50 years. 

Irrigation is one of the sub sectors included in the Ethiopian Water Resources Management 

policy. Hence the major objective of the irrigation policy consists of: 

- Development and Enhancement of small medium and large scale irrigated 

Agriculture for food security, food self-sufficiency export earning and to 

satisfy the need of local agro industrial demands. 

- Promotion of irrigation study, planning, and implementation of irrigated 

farms 

- Promotion of water use efficiency, control of wastage and protection of 

irrigation structures and drainage systems. 

The above adjectives are consistent with the objective of Ethiopian Agricultural 

Development led Industrialization (ADLI) economic development s strategy. 

In general the irrigation policy is to ensure the full integration of irrigation with the over all 

frame work of the country’s socio economic development plan and more particularly with 

the ADLI strategy. 

The policy further stresses the need to facilitate the participation of stakeholders in irrigation 

study, development and management. It requires that systems shall be developed for 

establishing harmonious co-existence of indigenous peoples and irrigation projects. In 

financial and economic aspects the policy calls for ensuring the development, viability, 

promotion of credit facilities and loans and developing cost recovery mechanisms. The 

technical issues addressed include, formulating and developing appropriate irrigation 

development and operation technology, adopting improved and affordable irrigation 

infrastructure, development of technical guidelines that also include operation and 

maintenance guidelines. The need to mitigate adverse environmental impacts and 

promotion of capacity building has been emphasized. 

The policy establishes broad guidelines for the planning, development and management of 

irrigation schemes within the economic development program of the country. 

c) Development Opportunities and Constraints 

• Human Resource 

The Council has adequate human resources for irrigation and other development. The 

community participation in irrigation development sector starts since the beginning of the 

project identification. Farmers are willingly involved in site selection, giving information 

finding and indicating appropriate construction material that are available in their near by 

areas. In implementation stage they participate in cash, labor and material provision. 


45


• Land and Water Resources Potentials 

At present, the Administrative Council is barely able to meet the demand for food crops, for 

industrial and export crops. Demands will increases as the population increases as the 

expectation of the population increases. Some of the areas are already densely populated 

but other areas appear to be under populated, mainly due to lack of reliable rainfall. 

With the present policy of encouraging private investment, there will be an obvious search 

for viable agricultural projects; irrigation projects will fall in this category. 

Hence, the Administrative Council should intensify crop production in areas with low and 

unreliable rainfall using short duration crop varieties together with judicious use of dry 

seedling, mixed or relay cropping, and increasing soil moisture through bund, terrace or 

water harvest by constructing ponds. For the harvested water, method of application for 

irrigation should be more economical. 

Further more, the Administrative Council should work in collaboration with the Research 

Institutions such as IAR (Institution of Agricultural Research) and Alemaya University for 

best varieties of crops and other technical aid. 

The potential irrigable area in small and medium scale projects amount to approximately 

22,000 ha, in the Council. Initially 26 potential irrigation areas were identified for further 

study on the basis of topography. Further more with regard to design consideration the 

alternative have been formulated on basis of the assumption that irrigation development will 

take place on a gradual scale which requires a large amount of flexibility in the planning and 

design concepts. Accordingly based on topography water availability and quality soil 

suitability about 3472 ha gross area are recommended for pre feasibility study, Table 16. 

Table 16 Recommended project for pre feasibility study 

Sir 

No 

. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Project Name 

Jeldessa 

Chirecha 

Gerbe kenisa 

Melka Jebdu 1 

Melka Jebdu 2 

Water 

sources 

Stream 

Stream 

Stream 

G. water 

G. water 

Means of 

abstraction 

Dam 

Dam 

Dam 

Pump 

Pump 

Gross 

irrigable 

area (ha) 

1300 

1320 

200 

460 

192 


Net 

irrigable 

area (ha) 

400 

450 

110 

350 

150 

Dam 

Cost 

Birr/ha. 

730,000 

563,000 

- 

- 

- 

For an irrigation project to be fully practical among other factors the availability of 

sufficient quantity of water is mandatory. In general surface water resource is limited in the 

Council because there is no perennial large river which flows through out the year as that of 

the other regions of the country. So that this situation has made ground water the primary 

water sources of the area. However the farmers demand for all irrigation and drinking 

Irrigation 

Cost/hr. 

46 

n.a 

n.a 

n.a 

- 

-


purpose are entirely base on this springs. Due to this fact almost all streams generated from 

this springs are fully controlled by the inhabitants allowing no or few flow for the down 

stream users. 

• Traditional and Modern Small Scale Irrigation 

The traditional irrigation systems generally consisting of a diversion constructed from dry 

masonry bunds or grass patches, night storage ponds, unlined earth canal etc, 

As the main available water source is spring water which mostly flow in the dry stream 

course at the time of flood this traditionally made structure are swept away and the farmers 

have to rebuild new structures each planting seasons specially in the low land area where 

flood diversion is practiced volume of work is beyond the Capacity of the farmers due to 

this farmers failed to develop more area using flood diversion. Both traditional and moderns 

communal small scale irrigation in the Council are run by peasant association led by elected 

community project committee of their own using local knowledge and techniques since 

1994 the Councilal Water Mines and Energy Office of the Council is fully participated in 

giving technical assistance to improve means of water abstraction and proper utilization. 

The majority of small scale irrigation is by diversion from springs except a few pumped 

schemes from a shallow ground water. The spring eyes are sealed by silt load at its sources 

which intercepts the farmers activity in developing the area. Now days the Water Mines and 

Energy Office of the Council solve this problem by constructing spring eye protection 

masonry lined canal and night storage ponds with water control devices and other river 

training work. 

d) Institutional Strengthening 

• Project Organizations and Staffing 

Project staffing must be responsible for all aspects of implementation including other 

developments, which are necessary for the success of the project, such as agricultural 

aspects, improvements of roads and settlements. In remote areas in particular, housing and 

office accommodation should be a high quality so that good staff will be willing to remain 

there with their families. Methods of improving their total remuneration package should be 

considered, such as frequent travel to home areas with paid transport or training courses. 

• Project Organizations and Management 

Planning and coordination development of irrigation schemes would be the responsibility of 

regional Office for Water, Mines and Energy with special power and decision-making 

independence. The Office would cover the Council or neighboring councils. The Office 

would be responsible for project identification, preparation, feasibility studies and detail 

designs. These studies would be sub contracted to private sector. More over the Office 

would be responsible for mobilizing, funding, tendering and construction supervision. 

However, such responsibilities mentioned above are not as expected but has a bright 

prospective in the Council. Hence, there is lack of skilled manpower and design problem as 


47


well as problem in operation and maintenance of the existing schemes. In addition, NGO's 

sometimes directly involve in the design and construction of the irrigation schemes with out 

consulting other vital organization or directly responsible body. 

e) Development Strategies 

• Traditional Irrigation 

By its nature traditional irrigation does not fit in to any national strategy, if farmers perceive 

the needs, and have the resources, they will develop their own irrigation system; this should 

be encouraged. There are only two possible objections to this: firstly they may be taking 

water away from their neighbors immediately down stream, and secondly, they may be 

using water which is required further down stream. 

Neither of this objections is serious, if people downstream area to have water cutoff in order 

to supply a small irrigation area upstream, this should be dealt with at the local level and the 

Councilal government should only intervene in extreme circumstances. 

The scarcity of surface water resource retards the development or widely use of traditional 

irrigation. In addition, in most of the existing irrigation schemes, the methods of application 

are not very efficient. 

The intervention required by the Council are, the close follow up of the project design, 

technical assistance to the farmers, improvement agricultural inputs, marketing and the 

greater emphasis on extension where irrigation appears to have potential 

• Small Scale Irrigation 

In case where SSI schemes area planned to be developed by the Council, greater emphasis 

must be placed on design and construction quality to ensure that the works are sustainable. 

The design should also be prepared after due thought about operation and maintenance and 

all the elements required for this should be included in the project planning. 

The intervention required are similar to those required for traditional irrigation but, SSI 

schemes are likely to be bigger than those traditional systems, the effects on available water 

resources may have to be greater consideration. In the case of private development, the 

Council may have to consider a system of licensing of water for irrigation. This will lead 

the application of irrigation water properly and efficiently. 

Measurement of water for irrigation system is very difficult if there is no strong irrigation 

water management committee and structure. Hence, for ease of measurement on irrigation 

water, proper measuring structure should be installed at the headwork, turnouts, etc. Thus, 

payment for irrigation water will be effected as per the Water Resource Management Policy. 


48


• Medium Scale Irrigation 

It would be optimistic to expect substantial private development in these circumstances, the 

risks are too high and investors will look elsewhere. This is mainly due to high investment 

cost for design, construction and maintenance; also, the return will not be immediate. 

Hence, investors mostly sick for low investment and immediate return. 

Therefore, the Regional Council is recommended to construct the medium scale irrigation 

project especially at the headwork, main canal and secondary canal. Once, they are in 

operation they can be sold or leased to private concerns and the government expenditure can 

be collected from the investors through time. This policy towards such type of investment is 

encouraging. 


49


Figure 9 Irrigated and selected Potential Irrigation areas 


50


3.2 WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION 

This section deals with the Water Supply and Sanitation/Sewerage aspects of the Integrated 

Development Master plan of the Administrative Council and give an account on the 

development of Water Supply and Sanitation/Sewerage in towns and rural areas in the 

framework of Dire Dawa Integrated Development Master plan project. 

The current report is the phase II data collection; review and analysis stage, exclusively the 

continuation of phase I, an input on the subject of Water Supply and Sanitation/Sewerage. 

Dire Dawa Administrative Council is one of the 11 Regional States and special 

Administrations structured in the Federal Government in line with the decentralization 

policy. 

Dire Dawa Administrative Council is situated in the eastern part of Ethiopia and covers 

about 133,262 hectares, of which 130,512 and 2750 hectares are rural and urban settings, 

respectively. It is bounded by the Oromyia Regional state to the South and East and by the 

Somali regional state to the North and West. The geographical coordinates of Dire Dawa 

Administrative Council are between 41 o 38’ E and 42 o 19’E longitude and 9 o 27’ N 9 o 49’N 

latitudes. 

The coverage of population in Ethiopia with safe water is about 26%; proper sanitation 

approaches to 12% with urban areas taking most of the services; but in the Administrative 

Council, the coverage figures in the sub-sector i.e. water supply and sanitation in both rural 

and urban settings are conflicting; however in most reports it is specified that the rural water 

supply is 24%, rural sanitation 3% and urban water supply 68% and urban sanitation 75 % 

coverage level. 

According to 1994 CSA survey data 30% of the Dire Dawa Administrative Council 

population 78676 people lives in rural communities. The population is expected to grow at 

an average rate of 2-4 % for the next 30 years; urban centers grow at between 4-5% while 

rural growth is estimated at between 1-3% per year. 

According to the 1994 population and housing census of the country, the total population of 

Dire Dawa Administrative Council is 251,864, out of the total population 127,286 (50.5%) 

are male and 124,578(49.5%) are females. On the other hand 70 and 30 percent of the total 

population live in urban and rural areas respectively. The population is expected to increase 

to 811,838 by the year 2030, as per medium variant CSA, urban 681,863 and rural 129,975. 

In the Administrative Council, Rural water supply is under the full mandate of the Water, 

Mines and Energy Office and Urban water supply is under the accountability of Dire Dawa 

Water Supply and Sewerage Service Office, on the other hand, the sanitation management in 

the Councilal council is fragmented, solid waste collection and disposal is under the Health 

Office, while faecal sludge collection and disposal is under the Water Supply and Sewerage 

Office and urban drainage lines construction and maintenance is under the Town 

Administration Office. 


51


In the Administrative Council, in the rural vicinities, there exist in total 154 rural water 

supply schemes, out of which 26% are not functional at this time, primarily due to the water 

shortage and spare parts problems. 

In planning the water supply and sanitation/sewerage sub-sector of the Integrated 

Development Master plan the consultant used as bases the under listed documents: - 

- Ethiopian Water Resources Management Policy prepared and endorsed by the 

governments in the year 1999. 

- Water Sector Strategy prepared at the Federal level 

- Water Sector Development program prepared at the federal level. 

- Nation Water supply and sanitation Master plan. 

- CSA 1994 and 1999 Reports. 

3.3 Water Resources Development Options and Issues 

Important question related to alternative development options is the mix of structural as 

well as non-structural measures that would be adopted to best meet the pre-set 

development objectives. The water uses considered, with decreasing priority level, are: 

Water supply for domestic, industrial, and livestock use and irrigation. 

With regard to surface water sources, the following are the main structural measures that 

could be considered: 

- Measures involving only river diversion works, with no appreciable flow regulation, 

- Measures involving major stream regulation, i.e. use of storage dams, 

- Measures involving no major structures but made up of small-scale stream diversion 

and traditional storage works such as Hafirs, etc. 

- Any combination of the above, 

With regard to surface water sources, the following are the main structural measures that 

could be considered: 

-Measures involving major stream regulation, i.e. use of storage dams, 

-Measures involving no major structures but made up of small-scale stream diversion 

and traditional storage works such as Hafirs, etc. 

-Any combination of the above, 

Diversion as the only means of water abstraction does not seem to be suitable because 

the riverbeds are dry most of the time. 

Storage works may involve dams of different sizes and small-scale traditional storage 

cisterns, which are sometimes known as Hafir reservoirs. Both options are considered 

for the study region. Moreover, conjunctive use of ground- and surface water sources 

will be studied. 


52 




Thus, the following is the system diagram that is used for the simulation of the proposed 

reservoirs (fig 10). 

Evaporation 

Inflow 

Rainfall 

Surface 

Reservoir 

Demand Center 

(Irrigation) 

Figure 10 Simulation of reservoir system 

Recharge 

GW 

Contribution 

Irrigation Release 

d/s Release 

For the storage proposed on Kelad river course, the minimum value of the active storage 

required to meet the irrigation demand is about 5 MCM, with an average reliability of more 

than 95 per cent, i.e. about in 4.5 per cent of the time water may not available to meet the 

irrigation demand. As a result of flow regulation, in almost all months some flow can be 

guaranteed downstream, in addition to the irrigation release. That means, there is no need 

for additional flow from other sources, such as the groundwater system. In fact, as a result of 

the regulation effect of the proposed reservoir, downstream users will be better off with the 

reservoir than without it. Under the specific conditions of the Council, the flow in the 

watercourses is very unpredictable and, at times, could be very big while most of the year 

the riverbeds remain dry. Such circumstances will change if the proposed reservoir is 

constructed. 

It has to be noted that the above results are very preliminary, as the monthly flow does not 

depict the highly day-to-day variation of flow in the watercourse. This aspect will be 

considered in Phase III of this study with more fine-tuning. 

Similar results have been obtained for the proposed reservoir for the Chirecha irrigation 

scheme. Preliminary analysis indicates that, for the same level of reliability, an active 

storage capacity of about 6 MCM would be adequate. Again for this reservoir, livestock 

water demand has been given priority over that of irrigation demand. 

With regard to groundwater development, the following will be the main developmentrelated 

issues that will be addressed by the current study: 


Aquifer 

All other GW 

abstractions 

53


- Evaluation of alternative groundwater management options: the continued reliance 

of the DDAC, particularly the urban area, on groundwater will have adverse effects 

on the resource. Therefore, it is high time that ways should be thought of for 

augmenting the groundwater resource through different ways, such as enhancing 

artificial recharge, conjunctive use with surface water, etc. 

- Groundwater resource protection options: there are clear indications of quality 

deterioration of the groundwater resource of the Dire Dawa area. Thus, measures for 

pollution reduction should be devised before the situation become out of control. 

Typically urban waste management should get enough emphasis. Moreover, the 

monitoring of the groundwater system should be given due emphasis. 

It has been learnt from the study that no institution is responsible for the monitoring of 

status of the water resources of the DDAC, in particular that of the groundwater resource. 

Therefore, it is high time that this aspect be given due emphasis. 

3.4. DEVELOPMENT OF LAND RESOURCES 

Major land uses assessed in this study include livestock production, small-scale irrigation, 

forestry production and small-scale rainfed farming. The land evaluation is carried out at 

1:50,000 scale. 

The structure of the land suitability classification, and land suitability order and class 

definitions are given in Table 17. Note that in this study no distinction is made between 

currently and permanently unsuitable (N1 and N2). This distinction is in essence an 

economic one and insufficient information is available to assess to what extent costs of land 

improvements are justified. However, in this study, unsuitable refers to severe physical 

limitations, e.g. very steep slopes, very shallow soils, insufficient moisture. Corrective 

measures would require high capital investments. 

Table 17 Land suitability classification levels (after FAO, 1993) 

ORDER CLASS NAME DEFINITION 

S Suitable The land can support the land use. Benefits justify inputs without 

unacceptable risk of damage to land resources 

S1 Highly suitable Land without significant limitations. The potential yield level 

expected is 80% or more of optimum yield. 

S2 Moderately suitable Land having limitations that either reduce productivity or increase the 

inputs needed to sustain productivity levels compared with those 

needed on S1 land. The potential yield level expected is 40-80% of the 

optimum yield. 

S3 Marginally suitable Land with limitations so severe that benefits are seriously reduced 

and/or the inputs required to sustain productivity are such that this cost 

is only marginally justified. The potential yield level expected is 15- 

40% of the optimum yield 

N Unsuitable Land that cannot support the land use sustainably, or land on which 

benefits do not justify inputs 

N1 Currently unsuitable Land with limitations to sustained use that cannot be overcome at 

currently acceptable cost 

N2 Permanently unsuitable Land with limitations to sustained use that cannot be overcome 


54


The physical potential for small-scale rainfed crop production is seriously constrained in the 

major part of DDAC. Approximately 20% of the DDAC is classified as moderately and 

marginally suitable for small-scale rainfed crop production. The remainder is considered not 

suitable. Major limitations include lack of adequate moisture, and the steepness of the 

terrain, and associated very shallow soils. Large parts of DDAC are classified as shorter 

length of growing period and land having very shallow soils and excessive drainage. It is 

generally not rectifiable except at great cost, by means of physical structures e.g. terraces, 

and even then only in places where conditions allow the construction of the structures 

required. 

Approximately 45% of the DDAC is suitable for livestock production. This takes into 

account that livestock is mainly grazed on communal grazing land and fed with crop 

residues. All these lands are classified as moderately suitable (25%) and marginally suitable 

(20%). The remainder of the DDAC is classified as unsuitable because of inaccessibility and 

high erosion risks due to steep terrain, high percentage of surface stoniness, limited soil 

depth and excessive drainage conditions associated with steep slopes. 

Over 46945 ha of DDAC (42%) are classified as suitable for forestry production. The total 

area of suitable land for this land use is considerably larger than for crop production. The 

main reason is that small-scale production forestry can take place on relatively steeper 

slopes. 

In table 18 is summarized the land suitability of the Council; 

Table 18 Summary of suitability classes by major land uses 

SUITABILITY 

CLASS 

S1 

Small scale 

irrigation crop 

production 

MAJOR LAND USES 

Small scale 

rainfed crop 

production 

Livestock 

production 


Forest production 

0 % Ha % Ha % Ha % 

338 0.3 - - S 

S2 15842 12 20252 15 33802 25 46945 35 

S3 4074 3 6536 5 26630 20 

N 113006 84.7 106472 80 72828 55 86315 65 

Total 133260 100 133260 100 133260 100 133260 100 

55


Figure 11 Land Suitability map of DDAC 


56


3.4.1 Agriculture 

a) Development Objectives 

The number of production constraints mentioned in the previous sections need to be 

addressed systematically as they are the long-term problems and requires time to be 

alleviated. The poor performance of agricultural sector of the Council as stated are, 

inadequate research and extension support, low level of production technology which is at 

traditional level, recurrent drought, erosion and soils problems. 

To alleviate these problems sound development strategy has to be set and implemented. 

Sector strategy of the country aims at, increasing the small holder crop productivity through 

the dissemination of new technology that include improved seeds, fertilizers, agrochemicals, 

improvement of marketing infrastructures etc. intensive and extensive 

mechanized farming. In line with the development strategy of the Council should adopt the 

same and summarized as follows. 

- To increase productivities and profitability of small farmers through introduction of 

improved farm technologies and supply of agricultural inputs. 

- To increase exportable farm products of the Council and save foreign exchange. 

- To facilitate and increase agricultural raw materials for the promotion of agro-industries 

- To promote employment opportunities 

- To conserve the natural resources of the Councils region 

b) Production Potential 

There are considerable agricultural production potential in the Administrative Councils that 

provided a comprehensive and coordinated approach consisting of good and intensive 

integrated agricultural development program through proper utilization of the natural 

resources, sound and applicable rural credit system, well developed infrastructure etc. By 

considering these current low level of production of the PA's of the Council can 

undoubtedly be increased within short period of time. The major potential areas, which 

need intervention, are as follows. 

• Establishing and Intensifying of Irrigated Agriculture: The DDAC has got 

substantial irrigation potential which is by far under-utilized. Even the existing 

irrigation schemes in the Council are not completely complementary to their 

respective farmers; they are rather supplementary to the rain fed farms of the area. 

According to the irrigation engineers study the potential of the Council to establish 

and develop newly irrigated farm area at different PA's are estimated 3472ha. So far 

no private sector investors have come to establish irrigated farms while the 

opportunity is there. 


57


• Improving the rain fed Agriculture: The rainfall pattern of the Council is really 

distinctive. The greater proportion of the Council receives marginal rainfall, this 

subject the environment for pasturalists’ dominancy. As the result, careful selection 

of crop types and varieties such as drought tolerance and short duration varieties 

which enable to utilize the available potential of the Council. Still there is a potential 

to identify and adapt grass forage species and other forage legumes, which can be 

browsed by the environment dominating livestock species. Along with this some 

improved traditional agronomic practice with respect to conservation of moisture 

and fertility aspect of the soil, also it has serious contribution to express the 

environment potential. 

• Diversification of the cropping pattern: Commercial and industrial crops are such as 

coffee, cotton, sisal, sugarcane, and tobacco, etc can be effectively cultivated in the 

Council. At present production of these crops is very much limited with the 

establishment of more agro-industry within the Council, the demand for raw 

materials is expected to increase. Thus considering the production potential of the 

Council for such crops great effort has to be made encouraging investors to involve 

in the sector instead of producing food crops which can be produced by small 

farmers. 

• The development of Irrigated Agriculture: The potential of irrigation development 

potential is reviewed in Irrigation (section 3.1.1) and its economic justification will 

be further explored during Phase III. 

c) Major production and development constraints 

Among the several production constrains identified during the survey, the majors are 

described below. 

• Lack of irrigation development 

• Improved Seeds 

• Fertilizer: The fertility status of the soil in the Council is poor due to the 

inherent character of the soil. 

• Agro-chemicals and farm implement: One 

• Shortage of Draft Power: 

• Natural hazards: Among the various natural hazards as has been reported as 

constraints the major once are rainfall variability/absence 

• Poorly Developed Research and Extension Linkage: 

• Inadequate Extension Service 

• Poor Marketing System 

• Poor or Inadequate Rural Credit 


58


d) Development strategy and proposed Interventions 

For the future development of the sector for the peasants private investors the following 

development strategies and interventions are proposed: 

• Strengthening of research and extension service: The important factor in 

agricultural development is the dissemination of improved agricultural practices and 

technologies to farmers. The existing extension service though improved compared 

to the previous years still requires strengthening by qualified and dedicated 

manpower and working facilities. Agricultural research on the other hand is an 

integral part of overall development strategy. New technologies that potentially 

contribute to the improvement of agricultural productivity of the basin should be 

generated by the research centers and have to be implemented so that sustainable 

development can be achieved. Creation of an intensive link between the respective 

regional research centers and extension is imperative. The extension system should 

also be organized to address the problems of farmers existing in different agroecologies. 

• Provision of adequate input supply: Due to absence of knowledge and experience 

of new production practices farmers are hesitant to change their traditional way of 

cultivation. A new practice that can easily be carried out and that show immediate 

results is more readily realized than improved methods more difficult to apply and 

not showing quick results. Agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and improved seed 

is particularly effective in this respect because of the readily observed response from 

their effect on yield and profit measured at the end of the first season. The 

establishment of seed multiplication centers for the northern part of the basin is 

another area that should be given emphasis to enhance the timely availability of 

improved seeds. Strengthening of the rural technological centers to produce, 

demonstrate and distribute improved farm implements should also be considered as 

an important part of agricultural development plan is relation to other production 

factors. 

• Building of a sustainable rural credit system: Wherever agricultural production is 

predominantly at subsistence level or even lower as in the case in Northern and 

Eastern parts of the Council, and wherever government thinks about measures to lift 

up this level, agricultural credit is the most important means of cutting the vicious 

circle of subsistence production. It is a chronic problem and one to which the 

national bank and the Councilal governments need to address themselves in 

improving the system. The two commercial banks (CBE and AIDB), have got very 

limited rural branch network. Hence, building up of a sustainable credit system is 

urgently required in the Council. Strengthening of the existing service cooperatives 

and establishing new once will help in the promotion of credit service in the short 

term as credit is one of many services that can be provided by agricultural service 

cooperative. In the long term rural credit and saving institution either through the 

existing government banks or private institution such as the one started in Amhara 

National Regional State should be organized/created. 


59


• Improving pre and post-harvest implements: The traditional farm implements used 

by farmers are very backward and are mostly subjected to loss of production. Land 

preparation equipment, weeding, harvesting, threshing and storage material have all 

got drawbacks contributing to yield loss. The, improvements of these implements 

will have a positive impact in increasing production. Thus, research institutions and 

rural technological centers have to work in collaboration in improving the farm 

implements used by farmers. Strengthening of these institutions should also be part 

of the development plan. 

• Enhancement of conservation based Agriculture: One of the major problem 

limiting productions is the degradation of soil due to erosion. Most part of the 

Council has already been subjected to this problem. Thus strategies have to be 

developed in this field of activity to minimize the soil loss due to erosion and 

enhance infiltration of water in to the soil for crop production. This can only be 

achieved through integrated conservation based agricultural development in which 

all activities should be performed in harmony where one will not affect the other. 

The extension system has also to be organized to address these objectives. 

• Improving transportation network: A network of transport infrastructure is essential 

for agricultural development. The distribution of farm inputs required by farmers 

and transporting of farm produce to the market places can effectively be done if and 

only if the transportation network is good. The road infrastructure situation of the 

Council is inadequate in this regard. This inadequacy of roads is one of the major 

constraints mentioned during the socio-economic survey. Thus, to enhance 

agricultural development of the Council the construction of rural roads should get 

prime consideration. 

• Strengthening of rural institutions: There are several rural institution established 

legally by government and also self-help voluntary associations, which are very 

important in carrying out coordinated, and comprehensive development activities. 

Such kind of organizations are very helpful for the development of the Council 

where farm holdings are small, utilization of modern technology is very low, 

productions is mainly of subsistence nature with low marketable surplus. The 

existing peasant associations can help in several ways in developing their respective 

localities through participating in developmental activities and in supply of inputs, 

provision of marketing and credit services and supply of consumer goods to their 

members as is the case of service cooperatives. 

3.4.2 Livestock 

a) Objectives 

In DDAC Livestock productivity is low. The low productivity is worse in areas where feed 

and water are scares. As a result the daily milk yield for cattle, goats and camel ranges from 

1 to 7, 0.5 to 3 and 1-20 liters with an average of 1.73, 2.67 and 4.47 liters respectively. The 

lactation length ranging from 2 to 12, 1 to 6 and 2 to 16 months with an average 9, 3.5 and 

16 month respectively. Lack of grazing land due to expansion of cultivation, lack of crop 


60


residue, over grazing, poor management of pasture / range land, firing for tick control, 

management, hard build up, etc are some of the man made calamities among other causes 

for severe feed shortage in the Administrative Council. 

The major objective is to develop and utilize the available resources and increase its 

contribution to the social and economic development of the Administrative Council and the 

country at large. 

Specific Objectives includes: 

- Ensure self-sufficiency and food security 

- Improve the nutritional standard of the people 

- Increase livestock, livestock products and by-products off-take to improve the 

income of the pastorlists and mixed farmers. 

b) Livestock Development Potentials 

• Be it in the mid-altitude or low land of the Administrative Council, feed is a critical 

problem to livestock development. Any appropriate intervention in improving feed 

shortage will contribute to incremental milk, meat and draught power. Such a project 

like Fourth Livestock Development Project was operating in the Administrative 

Council with an objective of boosting agricultural products through improved feed 

and animal health technologies. Implementation of such similar or modified project 

like legume forage farm boundary plantation, soil bund forage plantation, etc. will 

play significant role in lulling feed shortage problem. 

• The proximity of Dire Dawa town to neighboring country Djibouti and Somalia is an 

advantage to livestock marketing to Arabian countries. Livestock, particularly cattle 

of Dire Dawa Administrative Council is not only the supply of Dire Dawa livestock 

market but also to Addis Ababa livestock market. The rich cattle fattening 

experience of the sedentary farmers in the mid-altitude of the Council and livestock 

husbandry experience of the transhumants of the low land is an indigenous potential 

to the livestock marketing development of the Administrative Council. 

b) Livestock Development Strategy and proposed intervention 

• Feed and water development: Natural pasture/rangelands are the dominant feed 

sources for the pastoral farming system. Natural pasture, crop residues, palatable 

weeds, maize and sorghum thin out seedlings and crop aftermath are feed sources in 

the mixed farming system. Those feed resources do not fulfill the annual feed 

requirements of animals. As a result, in the dry season of the year livestock 

migration to fetch feed and water is not un common to the Council's livestock 

producers mainly low Landers. In addition to natural pasture industrial by-products 

are available in the Administrative Council even though not widely utilized for 

different reasons, like inability to afford feed cost and the industrial by-product is 

produced in Dire Dawa town, which is far from livestock production sites. Even 

though surplus feed is not that expected during the rainy season, there is some feed 

wastage due to mismanagement like trampling. 


61


The options to withstand feed shortage is improving the standard by increasing the 

supply and quality of feed through the following possible strategies: 

Promote production of cultivated forages rich in protein and energy via soil 

and water conservation based forage development strategies which fit into 

the farming systems e.g. legume forage plantation on farm boundaries soil 

bands along terraces. 

Establish forage nursery particularly in the mid-altitude where PAs practice 

traditional irrigation or where PAs run relatively modern water management 

through spring development and collecting water in concrete reservoirs for 

irrigation purpose. 

Introduce grass species such as elephant grass in the back yards and 

traditional irrigation schemes. 

Establish feed reserve scheme in the low and areas where pastoralists are 

forced to migrate animals long distances to fetch feed. 

Establish livestock watering points where ground water availability is 

confirmed by hydrogeological study of the master plan and develop ponds 

where the soil is fit for the purpose and where run-off water will be available 

during the rainy season of the year. 

• Animal Health : Livestock disease is one of the major constraints for livestock 

development. Some diseases are fatal ending up in the total loss of the organism 

affected and some are playing significant role in the reduction of the productivity of 

the animal. Though the importance of different diseases is not comparable, in areas 

where people depend directly on livestock products such as milk, diseases that 

reduce the productivity of animals are disastrous to the livelihood of the people. 

Either to control or possibly to eradicate diseases; some strategies shall be designed. 

Such strategies that could control and ultimately eradicate economically significant 

disease are: 

Strengthening the capacity and efficiency of existing veterinary services. 

Establish new veterinary facilities 

Train paravets/community veterinary agents(CVA) 

• Livestock Marketing: Unorganized marketing system is proved to bring ill effect 

on the product, hamper revenue collection and market information dissemination, 

and facilitate disease transmission. The livestock markets and marketing system in 

the Administrative Council is not well organized. It shares all the livestock market 

and marketing constraints: inadequate infrastructure, seasonal supply and price 

fluctuation, lack of market information and boarder/contraband market influence. 

To overcome these constraints, appropriate strategies include: 

Strengthening the existing markets 

Establish organized market and marketing system 

Establish market information system 

Provide effective training to development agents that could be trickled down 

to producers 


62


3.4.3. Forestry 

a) General 

The Dire Dawa Administrative Council vegetation cover is categorized as vegetation of arid 

and semi arid lands (highly variable, including cactus scrub, thorn scrub and many woody 

and sparse grasses formations). There is no climatic climax forest in the Council except 

patches of few juniperus remnants in the upper parts and some acacia trees in the low lands. 

The vegetation in the Council is not found in contiguous form covering large area; rather it 

is seen as fragmented patches of bush land, shrub land and trees in agricultural sites and 

hillsides. The natural forest has been cleared to satisfy the demands of the ever increasing 

population such as construction material, fuel wood, fodder and agricultural expansion. 

The remaining high forests cover less than 1% while the majority of the landmass is covered 

with shrub lands. Industrial plantation forests are absent. 

b) Development potential and constraints 

DDAC’s ecosystems contain a significant endowment of plant and animal species and 

display high habitat diversity. These are under consistent pressure from unsustainable 

exploitation, human settlement, agriculture and livestock grazing. 

In order to contribute towards mitigating the constraints in forest development and 

conservation, it is important to look into the following major constraints and take steps at 

the Council’s and national level. Main problems include: 

♦ Absence of national and regional land use policy and local level land use planning 

and monitoring; 

♦ Lack of policy which encourages the development of farm forestry and individual 

tree planting; 

♦ Ineffective forestry extension service and centralized management of forests; and 

♦ Limited forest development with heavy government involvement. 

In order to reverse the current forest management practices and stop further degradation of 

forest resources the Council need to encourage the involvement of the private sector and 

farming communities in planning and promoting forest development activities in the 

Council. This requires various policy initiatives for encouraging farming communities to 

participate in farm forestry and increase their land productivity. The existing forest 

extension and regulatory framework, which governs the management of forest resources, 

need to be strengthened to enable farming communities and institutions to actively 

participate in the following areas. 

♦ Policy discussions on resolving problems pertaining to security of tree tenure rights. 

In discussions for the establishment of appropriate institutional arrangements both 

for the promotion of farm forestry and private sector forest plantation. . 


63


♦ Designation of roles and responsibilities for communities in the management of 

shrub lands through Joint Forest Management (JFM) schemes. 

♦ Designing incentive mechanisms for farmers to participate in the protection and 

management of indigenous tree species. 

♦ Designing benefit-sharing schemes and mechanisms with local communities. 

♦ Encouraging private sectors through the provisions of low interest loans, tax 

exemptions for lands used for tree planting. . 

Deforestation, land degradation and diminishing agricultural productivity are key 

problems that need to be addressed through a multi-sectoral approach. This approach is 

also solicited in the National and Regional Conservation Strategies (NCS and RCS). In 

this approach it is important to carry out an over view of the status of the natural 

resources base and the preconditions for forest development schemes. The national as 

well as the Councilal conservation strategies including the DDAC's are considered as an 

umbrella strategy for designing sectoral development schemes for regions and councils. 

National policy on plant genetic resources and other policies such as the environmental 

protection policy of Ethiopia, water resources management policy, and forestry 

development and protection proclamation of 1994 are also relevant provisions for the 

development, protection and wise utilization of the forest resources. 

Ethiopia’s new Poverty Reduction Strategy and Capacity Building Programs are also 

fundamental towards the development of Regional or Council level natural resources 

conservation programs. 

c) Proposed Development Strategy 

The strategy is derived and developed from the analysis of the constraints encountered. 

The strategy is expected to contribute towards mitigating the core constraints and 

address the outstanding issues of forest conservation, development and utilization in the 

Administrative Council. 

Promotion of farm forestry practices: The key areas which require additional woody 

biomass supplies are the main agricultural communities, villages and Dire Dawa town. 

There are two potential approaches: Private Farm Forestry and Communal Forestry. In 

developing strategies for either farm or communal forestry, it is important to note that it 

can form part of a broader package of inputs, with multiple social and economic 

benefits. The latter can include some or all of the following: 

♦ Production of fuel sticks and fuel wood 

♦ Production of poles for sale 

♦ Production of timber for sale 

♦ Production of charcoal for sale 

♦ Creation of shade for human and animals 

♦ Bee-keeping and honey production for sale and home consumption 

♦ Low-cost seedling production 

♦ Achieving higher seedling survival rates. 


64


Rehabilitation of Degraded land through area Closure: The rehabilitation of degraded 

steep areas with slope of over 40% through area closure has to take in to account the 

agreement of farmers through consultation. This scheme has low cost and has shown 

promising results in a short period of time, particularly in areas where grazing on the 

hills is strictly supervised. Natural regeneration of grasses and bushes takes place rapidly 

within two to three years .The major constraints in attaining the objectives of area 

closures arise from their management and administration. In principle, agricultural 

development agents (DAs) should provide the participant farmers with all required 

technical support. They have to be involved in the identification and delineation of areas 

to be protected. 

Bush land /shrub land/ management: To manage shrub land /bush lands is a 

challenging and difficult proposition. Bush lands exist because their ecological balance 

is respected by the people who use them namely, indigenous nomadic and pastoral 

communities. This balance has been upset by civil conflict and drought, brining refugees 

from neighboring countries. Many of these habitats are now threatened. 

Also these lands may be government land in a strictly legal sense, the greater part of 

these land do, for all practical purpose belong to pastoralists by virtue of their historical 

dependence on, or use right to, these vast and unique tracts. The government may be 

able to help prevent the bush land management problems from intensifying. However, 

once the problem has reached a certain level, there may be relatively little that the 

government can do to resolve it. This would suggest the governments main task would 

be to help prevent things from getting worse. 

Poverty Alleviation: While thinking about conservation of forest resources it is 

important to mention of poverty alleviation. Because in most parts of the country people 

do not exploit forest for no reason, but it is because they view it as an alternate source of 

income. Forest is surveying as a safety net for the poorest incase of the worst time. It is 

observed that the only open source of income is forest where by people enter to the site 

and collect fuel wood and make money by selling it. Among others, to protect the shrub 

land and the wood lots (forest resources) it is very important to work on poverty 

alleviation simultaneously. Broadening or diversification of the household economy 

base is fundamental to reducing food insecurity and vulnerability. 

3.4.4 Soil Conservation and Catchment Management 

a) General 

Land degradation implies reduction of resource potential by one or a combination of 

processes acting on the land. These processes include water erosion, wind erosion and 

sedimentation by those agents, long-term reduction in the amount or diversity of natural 

vegetation, or decrease of crop yield where relevant and salinization and sodification of 

soils. It can be noted that soil erosion is the major causes of land degradation in Dire Dawa 

Administrative Council area. 

Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from 

various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. The low land PAS like 


65


Asliso, Melka Jebdu, Beke Halo, Kalicha, Jeldisa, Gerba Anano and, Chrimiti have exposed 

to sign of desertification. 

Soil and water conservation practices in most areas of Dire Dawa Administrative Council is 

not significant when compared with the area requires treatments and observed imprint of 

soil erosion. Furthermore, it was found that the quality of the existing soil and water 

conservation measures is not to a satisfactory standard and the effectiveness in terms of 

reducing soil loss and runoff is inadequate. 

Stone terrace, soil bunds and contour strips are practiced on farm lands. Stone terrace on 

bare mountains have not cope up with the severity of erosion and mass slides. 

b) Problems and Constraints 

Conservation measures were considered as employment opportunities for most of the house 

holds whose agricultural out puts are far less than their house holds food requirement. In the 

last 30 years, harvests and livestock production have been on a steady decline. Moreover, 

there was recurrent drought and famine, and as a result, FFW payments were serving as 

supplementary incomes to these deficits. For this reason people wanted conservation 

activities to operate on a continuous basis regardless of their impacts. 

It is very unfortunate fact that the farmer's attitudes have been spoilt by the introduction of 

the food for work program and it has become extremely difficult to convince them to do 

work with out payment. This program has been commented by the Councilal governments 

and on the other hand it is argued that this attitude is the result of land tenure as land belongs 

to the government. 

c) Proposed Measures And Rehabilitation Of Degraded Lands 

Conservation Based Agricultural Area: It is proposed that, the current cultivated 

lands need integrated conservation based agricultural practices. All agricultural 

practices in this area have to integrate with soil and water conservation activities 

focusing on the stability of the agro-ecology and on the rational and effective use of 

the land resource. 

Villages and Homestead area Tree Plantation: Establishment of villages and 

homestead tree plantation reduce overgrazing, fuel wood cutting, charcoal making 

and in general reduce pressure on the natural resources in the area. 

Wood lot Plantation: It is a traditional way of growing trees on a unit of land and is 

an effective way of producing construction and fuel wood. The enclosed areas in 

DDAC will be an ideal place for this type of intervention having multiple uses. 

Physical Soil Conservation System: Contour Ridges, Contour Bunds, Soil Bund, 

Stone bund, Terraces, Waterways, Flood protection dikes, Embankment or road cut 

slope. 


66


Integrated Watershed Management system: The watershed approach is the 

application of integrated watershed management in the planning and implementation 

of resource management and rural development projects or as part of planning for 

specific resource sectors such as agricultural, forestry, or mining. Imbedded in this 

approach is the linkage between uplands and lowlands in both biophysical and socioeconomic 

contexts. 

Land use Conversion and Land Retirement: It is timely and appropriate to 

introduce the concept of land retirement in the traditional pastorals system. Land 

retirement is to exclude the denuded land from any use until such time that the land 

is restored. It is used to combat and reduce land degradation and desertification. 

Alternative sources of Energy and Construction Material: Wind and Solar energy 

are alternative sources of energy that can yield a good power to pool good amount of 

ground water for domestic and livestock consumption and for social institutions. 

3.4.5 Cultural Values and Places 

a) General 

Dire Dawa is mainly known by its trading centers followed by cultural and historical 

heritages. Tourism activities both at local and national level is fragmented and requires a 

thoughtful plan for integrating tourism into local and national level development plans. 

There is a need to lobby local and national governments to recognize the need for setting 

aside national monuments, historical sites and Sites of Special Interest (e.g. an area with 

high endemicity, historical site, etc.) and protect them for the use of present and future 

generations. The following attractions are listed as primary targets for being set aside as 

National Monuments, historical sites and Sites of Special Interest and initiating further 

tourism development and rehabilitation activities. 

b) Historical and natural sites 

In the following table19 the inventoried historical sites, churches, mosques and natural 

attractions located within the Council region are given. 

Table 19 Summary of Historical, religious and natural attraction of DDAC 

SITES 

APPROX. 

NUMBERS 

LOCATION 

Ancient Caves 2 Lega Oda and Hinkuftu 

Historical tourist 

3 Railway, Second World War 

attractions 

Cemetery and Italian fort 

Mosques 2 Lega Hare and Abey Aziz 

Churches 1 Awale Catholic church 

Markets 2 Kezira open market and 

Camel market 


67


3.5 DEVELOPMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES 

a) General 

The most significant potentials of the area are industrial minerals, which include limestone, 

silica sand and clay. Depending on their quantity and quality, these potential resources have 

different industrial applications. Private investors should be encouraged to explore and 

develop these potentials. 

It is necessary to conduct systematic follow up survey in the contact zone of the 

Precambrian and Adigrat sandstone formations, to verify the significance of the base metal 

sulfide (galena and pyrite) occurrences. Pitting and channel sampling is recommended. 

Based on the sampling results further detail survey can be planned. 

There is a possibility of getting economically potential resources of rare metals and gem 

quality beryl mineralizations in the area if proper exploration is conducted. Therefore, 

detailed geological mapping up to 1:5,000 scale supplemented by trenching and pitting is 

strongly recommended in the areas of complex pegmatite outcrops. 

The Ija Aneni area sandstone is low in Fe2O3 (0.13%) and its SiO2 composition is suitable to 

be raw material source for foundry sand, glass (fiber and amber) and ceramic application. If 

further treatments are carried out to reduce the Fe2O3 contents, the Dire Dawa East and West 

sandstone can be applicable as that of Ija Aneni area. 

The existing cement production in the country does not satisfied the construction industry, 

however studies conducted for the expansion of the cement factory, especially the study 

conducted by Leron G. and Aklilu A. (1981 & 1982) originally planned to erect the 5 th 

cement factory in Dire Dawa is shelved for the last 20 years. It is necessary to invite private 

investors to develop such resource. In the mean time the existing cement factory should 

explore gypsum and pumice to the nearest distance from Dire Dawa. The Rift Valley region 

is the potential area for the pumice and the Dewele area for the gypsum. 

The Dire Dawa cement factory is producing both hydrated and quick lime for sugar factory 

and caustic soda factories, and water treatment in the country upon request. Comparing to its 

various application the lime potential of the area is not utilized. Further market study is 

recommended. 

b) Potential and development strategies 

There are different types of mineral resources within the DDAC region. The type of mineral, 

approximate potential, location, level of study, main application area of the resources is 

given in the following table20. 


68


Table 20 Summary of Mineral Occurrences of DDAC 

TYPE OF 

MINERAL 

1. Lead 

(Galena) 

2. Rare 

Metals and 

Associated 

Gemstone 

3. Mica and 

Feldspar 

4. Industrial 

Minerals 

and 

Constructi 

on 

Materials 

LOCATION 

Afratu about 20 

km SW of Dire 

Dawa on the 

way to Belewa 

Melka Kero and 

Kalicha area, 

Kenticha area 

Near Cheha, 

between Awale 

and Belewa 

area 

OCCURRENCE 

Galena crystals 

Complex pegmatite, 

rare minerals 

in the pegmatite 

APPROXIMATE 

POTENTIAL 


n.a 

n.a 

n.a. 

LEVEL OF 

STUDY 

Reconnaissance 

MAIN 

APPLICATION 

Ore of Lead, Zinc, 

etc 

Reconnaissance Lithium, tantalumniobium 

and cesium 

and precious stones 

(beryl and emerald) 

Reconnaissance paint, electrical 

insulation, plastics 

and rubber 

Cement, chemicals, 

glasses. etc. 

4.1 Limestone Large area Limestone A+B+C=46.2MT Feasibility Cement, 

4.2 Clay Melka Jebdu Alluvial A+B+C=8.6MT Feasibility Cement, pulp, etc. 

4.3Sandstone 

and River 

Sand 

Dire Dawa 

c) Development Constraints 

Ambaradom SS and 

river sand 

abundant 

Reconnaissance 

The main constraints for the development of the above industrial minerals in the area are 

the level of investigation for the determination of their quality and quantity needs more 

detail exploration work and subsequent market study. Any early mineral development in the 

area is expected to be industrial minerals, which are low cost / high bulk minerals, they are 

likely to be mined by the opencast methods which necessitates a careful evaluation of the 

environmental impacts any such development may endanger. 

The Office licensed wide area (up to 20,000m 2 ) for artisanal mining operations, which is 

very big for them and gave chance to mine wide areas superficially instead of opening 

quarry in a relatively small area. This situation leads to rapid environmental degradation, 

soil erosion as well as eradication of wildlife. The license for limestone and selected 

materials (basalt) should have limited area and the licensee should sign agreement to 

rehabilitate the area after completion of the mining operations. 

The other constraint is lack of awareness of the local people in the mining operation. They 

are reluctant to any outsiders who wants to invest on the mineral wealth is coming to 

displace them from their land holdings. Other important issue is delineation of the DDAC’s 

actual boundary with adjacent regions so that the investors can easily understand where to 

Construction, glass 

and fiber, etc. 

69


consult. Solid waste disposal in the stream course deteriorate the quality of alluvial sand, 

which is used in concrete block and pipe production. 

d) Proposed Interventions 

For Galena mineral, on Adigrat sandstone formations, and to verify the 

significance of the sulfide occurrences, pitting and channel sampling is 

recommended. Based on the sampling results further detail survey can be 

recommended. 

There is a possibility of getting economically potential resources of rare metals 

and gem quality beryl mineralizations in the area if proper exploration is 

conducted. Therefore, detailed geological mapping up to 1:5,000 scale 

supplemented by trenching and pitting is strongly recommended in the areas of 

complex pegmatite outcrops. 

From the geological point of view the Dire Dawa area is an ideal locality for the 

production cement and lime because the main raw materials are present within a 

distance of about less than 5 km of one another, especially clay and limestone. 

The main problem is the shortage of gypsum and pumice within short distances. 

The Dire Dawa Cement Factory formerly has gypsum quarry in the Shinele 

zone (Dewele gypsum), but nowadays transporting its consumptions from 

Muger. Pumice is also transported from Debre Zeit area quarry site of the 

Muger Cement Factory. Pumice is observed on the Dire Dawa Addis Ababa 

Road, which is about 350 km from Dire Dawa. The production capacity of the 

Dire Dawa cement factory is 40,000 tones per year, however due to various 

problems, the actual production is by far lower than the installed capacity. 

There is abundant raw material for cement factory in the area to for cement 

factories and the study conducted by Gumerov L.G. and Aklilu A. (1981 

confirms this proposal. 


70


4. PLANNING ISSUES AND PROCEDURES 

Planning issues and procedures were incorporated in the development plan of the first phase 

of macroeconomic reports. 

In addition, the following may be considered. 

• The present televised urbanization policy or encompassing the area of the Dire 

Ddawa Administrative Council in to municipality must be known very clearly. In 

particular if the present rural land is going to be returned to the Oromia or Somalia 

regional state then the analysis would be different. 

• Whether the government still adheres to the ADLI or not in the context of Dire Dawa 

must be known. -Is the ADLI framework still is held by the Councilal government or 

is there any change known for the future plan? Should we develop based on export 

orientation, raw material orientation, and food security prospective? 

• Earlier attempt were made to examine the DDAC from the perspective of the Town, 

rural highland, and rural lowland. The Council must approve this. 

• Should irrigation be state owned or to be distributed to the farmers in the long run? 

This must also be discussed. 

• Is there possible resource availability to cover the cost of irrigation development, or 

minimal possible cost outlay that can be afforded by the Council 

• The provision of job description and the timetable of services years for Keble as well 

as for the peasant association must be determined. 

4.1 PROPOSED SECT ORAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AND STRATEGIES 

The main objective is basically development of resources with no conflict with the 

environment. The specific development objectives could be outlined as: 

a) Improve food security of the Dire Dawa Administrative Council on attainable 

manner based on free trade and political stability; 

b) Upgrade the living condition of the farmers, pastoral, and urban dwellers through 

enhancement of economically, socially, and ecologically sustainable development, 

through labor intensive technology 

c) Create employment through investment in various sectors and sub sectors of the 

Council’s economy in the context of population growth and economically reduce 

prevailing unemployment by investing in the secondary and tertiary sectors. 


71


4.2 STRATEGIES 

i) Resource based development 

If ADLI is constrained by a limiting factor, development will be pursued based on the 

objective reality of the Council: the potentials of natural resources especially the availability 

of land resources for intensive and extensive farming, forestry, grazing, water potentials, 

livestock resources, manufacturing potentials, commerce and services development, and 

manpower availability, etc. 

ii) Full participator y development and support local initiatives 

The development of the Council will be based on the participation of the partners and 

partakers of development within and without the Council. 

iii) Development based on peculiarity of the areas 

Development based on peculiarity of the areas, through improved services (agricultural 

extension, marketing, health, education, water supply, sanitation, feed and nutrition, etc,) 

access to infrastructures (road, communication, et) and innovations (animal breeding, 

engineering and technological improvements etc) will be carried out. 

iv) Voluntary settlement 

Voluntary settlement of the urban and the middle land dwellers, interested to migrate to the 

low land where it doesn’t affect pastoral, will be launched. 

v) Initiate development project ideas 

A list of projects were proposed and submitted to the Council on the first phase study report 

(Page 59-60, Part 5-macroeconomics of volume IV-environment and Socioeconomic) 

and need elaboration, suggestion, as well as endorsement. Details of planning issues and 

procedures will be presented in phase III report. 


72


5. PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN 

It is shown in the TOR that one of the purposes of the master Plan is to guide the 

development of the resources of the Council particularly with respect to the occurrence, 

distribution, quality and quantity of the water resource for the coming 30 to 50 years. To this 

end, the Master Plan study should seek a sustainable and implementable development plan, 

which utilizes, in terms of social, economic, financial, and environmental needs and 

constraints, the natural resource of the area to an optimum level. 

Up to phase II of the master plan study, attempts were made to investigate in detail the 

quantity, quality, and distribution of resources, development options, strategies and 

limitation to their utilization of various resources, including development potentials and 

constraints. 

The following series of activities shall be performed with the consultation of the various 

partakers in the preparation of the master development plan. 

The master plan preparation will include description of existing condition, description of 

development strategies and comprehensive policy frame work, description of physical and 

financial plans for the Council and development zones, modeling, balances and projection 

for concerned sectors, proposed development projects, pre-feasibility studies for selected 

projects, the phasing and implementation strategy. Specifically: 

- The first attempt would be reviewing of the first and second phase studies submitted to 

the Client 

- Statistical data will also be reviewed 

- Development potentials and constraints will be reviewed and examined 

- Based on national, regional needs, environmental constraints, and development 

objectives, development activities and intervention will be set; alternative allocation 

scenarios will be analyzed 

- Food balance would be computed for the population as whole as well as for the rural 

and urban population independently 

- Costs, including foreign exchange earnings will be estimated 

- Profitability of projects would be computed; selection criteria will be shown and 

indicated 

- Institution required for implementation of programs will be proposed 

- Implementation procedures, organizations required, procedures for monitoring and 

reviewing the master plan will be included. 

- Manpower requirements, the timing for each activity will be done after the acceptance 

of the second phase reports. 


73


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54. Seife Michael Berhe, 1985, Geological Map of the Dire Dawa Sheet, NC 37-12 

55. Tesfamichael Keleta, 1974, Hydrogeology of the Dire Dawa, A statement of present 

knowledge (880-551-07) EIGS 

56. BCEOM, 1997, Abbay River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Project, 

Phase II, Vol. II Part 3 Hydrogeology MoWR 

36.57. CSA 2000 Regional Findings from the 2000 Ethiopia, DHS for Dire-Dawa, 

Addis Ababa CSA Press. 

37.58. DDAC, Planning and Economic Development Office, 2000 Situation Analysis on 

Women and Children (not published) Dire-Dawa. 

38.59. DDAC, Planning and Economic Development Office, 2001, Socio-economic Data 

First Draft (not published) Dire Dawa. 

39.60. FAO 1996 Information note on women in Agriculture, Rome. 

40.61. Lipsmy George A. Ethiopian, Its People Its Society and Its Culture, Hraf Press, New 

Heven, 1962. 

41.62. National Urban Planning Institute of Ethiopia (NUPI) 2000, Urban Development 

Plan of Schinile Town (not published). 

42.63. Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project, Ministry of Agriculture, 

2001, Dire Dawa Administrative Council, Executive Summary. 


2001, Report On Natural Grazing Lands And Livestock Feed Resources 


2000, The Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Plan of DDAC, Volume 1, Main 

Report. 

45.66. DDAC, Agricultural Office, 1998, Land Use Development Potential Study of 

DDAC. 

46.67. DHV Consultant, 1996, Tekeze River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan 

Project. Interim Report Volume NR 2 and NR3, Soils and Terrain/Land Use. 

47.68. Azene Bekele Etal 1993: Useful Trees and Shrubs For Ethiopia, Regional Soil 

Conservation Unit SIDA. Nairobi, Kenya 

48.69. FAO, 1984 Land Use Production Regions and Farming System Inventory AG: 

DP/ETH/78/003. Technical Report 3 Rome, Italy. 


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49.70. MOA, 2001: Soil and Water Conservation Manual/Guidelines for Ethiopia 

50.71. MOA, 1989: Guide lines for Development Agents on Community Forestry in 

Ethiopia 

51.72. Mangesha Haile and Peter Middle Brooke, 1999 enhancing food security through 

participatory watershed Development, Tigray integrated micro watershed 

development program 

52.73. MCE-WVI/Ethiopia 2000 Environmental Impact Assessment of Six Area 

Development Program in SNNPR, Oromia and Amhara Regional States 

53.74. FAO: 1987: Soil and Water Conservation in Semiarid areas FAO Soil bulletin 57 

54.75. FAO/MOA, 1988 E. Depauw. A Summary of Agricultural Ecology of Ethiopia 

55.76. EHRS (1984):Field Document No 5 

56.77. FAO (1978) Methodology for assessing soil degradation, Rome 

57.78. Master Plan for the Development of Surface Water Resources In the Awash Basin 

(1989), Final Report, Volume 6,EVDSA, HALCRO 

58.79. National Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia (1999) 

59.80. Regional Conservation Strategy for DDAC (2001), Volumes I-IV, Dire Dawa 

60.81. Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project (2001) Executive 

Summary Methodologies for Land use systems, Socio-economic Survey, MoA- 

Tecsult 

61.82. Master Plan for the Development of Surface Water Resources in the Awash Basin, 

Final Report Volume 8 Annex J. Irrigation and Drainage Halcrow 1989. 

62.83. Water Sector Development Program (Project ETH/98/001), Sector Review Report, 

WWDSE Oct. 2000. 

63.84. Land Use Development Potential Study of the Dire Dawa Administrative Council by 

D.D.A.C Agricultural Office, June 1998 

64.85. Water Sector Development Program Formulation Sector Review Report by DDAC 

Water, Mines and Energy Office Oct. 2000, Dire Dawa. 

65.86. Regional Level Consultative Process on Water Sector Development Program 

Formulation (Conceptualization Work Slope) Jan 2001, Dire Dawa. 


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66.87. Potential Assessment and Feasibility Study of Small-Scale Irrigation Project in 

Selected areas final report, ESRDF, April 2001. 

67.88. Spate irrigation proceeding of the sub regional expert consultation on Wadi 

Development for Agriculture December 1987 Aden. 

89. Subsurface flow Dams for Rural water supply in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions of 

Developing Countries by Gezahegne Wolde Tamper 1986 

68.90. FAO irrigation and Drainage paper x/56 Guideline for crop water requirements 

from.1998 

91. FAO Irrigation & Drainage paper No.24 


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Dire Dawa Administrative Council Integrated Resource

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