ISS 25 (1995).pdf - The International Council of Museums
ISS 25 (1995).pdf - The International Council of Museums
ISS 25 (1995).pdf - The International Council of Museums
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Symposium<br />
MUSEUM AND COMMUNITY II<br />
July <strong>1995</strong><br />
Stavanger. Norway<br />
Edited by Martin R. Scharer<br />
,,'-'tori ..... F ___ v....,IS_""
CONTENTS<br />
Introduction 5<br />
I SYMPOSIUM MUSEUM AND COMMUNITY, part II 7<br />
Ivo Maroevic Analysing summary 9<br />
Anita B. Shah Analysing summary 17<br />
Eurydice Antzoulatou-Retsina Coping with Dilemmas. Or between<br />
Museomania and Museotherapy 21<br />
Mathilde Bellaigue Des musees pour quelle communautes? 29<br />
Nelly Decarolis Heritage, Museum, Territory and Community 37<br />
Maria de Lourdes Horta <strong>Museums</strong> and Communities: a powerful<br />
equation 43<br />
Nicola Ladkin Museum and Communities: an ecological approach 57<br />
Lynn Maranda <strong>Museums</strong> and the Community 67<br />
Raymond Montpetit Les Musees, interprcHes du patrimoine:<br />
I'appropriation communautaire 73<br />
Anupama Nigam Museum and Community 83<br />
Paivi-Marjut Raippalinna Regional Art <strong>Museums</strong> and Challenges <strong>of</strong><br />
Commmunity Orientation - A Case Study 89<br />
Tereza Cristina Scheiner On Museum, Communities and the<br />
Relativity <strong>of</strong> it all 95<br />
Jean Trudel Musees et Communautes culturelles au Quebec: Le<br />
cas du Musee d'Art de Saint-Laurent 99<br />
Hildegard Vieregg <strong>The</strong> Life itself provides the Topics 107<br />
Grazyna Zaucha Communities and <strong>Museums</strong> in Africa 115<br />
Mathilde Bellaigue Final Remarks 123<br />
II MUSEUMS AND COMMUNITY. MUSEOLOGY AND NEW<br />
MUSEOLOGY. RHETORICS OR REALITIES. JOINT SESSIONS<br />
WITH MINOM 1<strong>25</strong><br />
Marc Maure La nouvelle museologie - qu'est-ce que c'est? 127<br />
Peter van Mensch Magpies on Mount Helicon? 133<br />
Paule Doucet Les nouvelles museologies: approche<br />
conceptuelles et pratiques 139<br />
Jean Davallon Nouvelle museologie vs museologie? 153<br />
III TRAINING PERSONNAL FOR COMMUNITY MUSEUMS. JOINT<br />
SESSION WITH ICTOP 169<br />
Tereza Scheiner Training for Museum and Community Awareness 171
IV MUSEUM AND MUSEOLOGY IN NORWAY AND SCANDINAVIA 177<br />
Per-Uno Agren Nordic <strong>Museums</strong> and the Nordic Museology -<br />
some introductory remarks 179<br />
Marc Maure La fabrication d'un patrimoine national - Ie cas de la<br />
Norvege 187<br />
Randi Bartvedt An Industrial Community and its Heritage 195<br />
John Aage Gjestrum Norwegian experiences in the field <strong>of</strong><br />
ecomuseums and museum decentralisation 201<br />
V ICOFOM· LAM 213<br />
ICOFOM-LAM Report 1990-<strong>1995</strong> 215<br />
Authors 219<br />
ICOFOM Study Series 220
MUSEUM AND COMMUNITY II<br />
This very important topic was chosen as the theme for the <strong>1995</strong> ICOM Triennial Conference in<br />
Stavanger, Norway.<br />
In connection with this, ICOFOM organized two symposia, one within its 1994 Annual<br />
Conference in Beijing, China, the second one in Stavanger in <strong>1995</strong>. ICOFOM Study Series 24<br />
published the papers <strong>of</strong> the first symposium.<br />
This volume presents the contributions to the second part, including the analytical summaries<br />
that were presented at the beginning <strong>of</strong> each session and a final summary and appreciation <strong>of</strong><br />
the very lively discussions.<br />
<strong>ISS</strong> <strong>25</strong> also contains the papers <strong>of</strong> the joint sessions with MINOM (Mouvernent international<br />
pour une nouvelle rnuseologie) and with ICTOP (<strong>International</strong> Committee for the Training <strong>of</strong><br />
Personnel) as well as those given to the Seminar on <strong>Museums</strong> and Museology in Norway and<br />
Scandinavia. A report <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM-LAM, our regional organization for Latin America and the<br />
Caribbean, concludes this publication.<br />
Our warmest thanks go to John Aage Gjestrum who organized an excellent meeting in<br />
Stavanger.<br />
Martin R.Scharer<br />
President <strong>of</strong>lCOFOM
SYMPOSIUM MUSEUM AND COMMUNITY, Part II<br />
I
English term is broader and includes all these<br />
groups but also the public or society. This<br />
ambiguity is obvious in given preprints for this<br />
meeting, too. Both colleagues wh o presented the<br />
summaries in Beijing made the conclusions which are<br />
their own vision <strong>of</strong> the given relation between<br />
museum and community. So J. A. Gjestrun suggested<br />
the need <strong>of</strong> very different museums to fulfil various<br />
aims, from creating the national identity to opening<br />
wide possibilities, in becoming the part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
reorganization <strong>of</strong> man ' s ideas <strong>of</strong> himself and his<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> values i.e. his need to be a part o f<br />
present time. not oriented only to the past. He also<br />
accentuated the danger <strong>of</strong> ideological and other<br />
kinds <strong>of</strong> oppressing the minority and other social<br />
groups using the museum as an instrument o f the<br />
national policy. D. Natteyne tried to find the<br />
solution by analysing the relations among<br />
collections, pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and users. including<br />
visitors. researchers and those who are deciding on<br />
the conditions <strong>of</strong> the museum work . A. Desvallees<br />
a ccentuated. in his final remarks. the necessity <strong>of</strong><br />
establishing 'community museums to be fulfilling<br />
the needs <strong>of</strong> minority groups but also considering<br />
the dangers <strong>of</strong> using museums as a political<br />
instrument .<br />
With such an introduction the Stavanger meeting<br />
papers are repeating the same ambiguity that existed<br />
in Beijing last year . Some <strong>of</strong> the authors <strong>of</strong> the<br />
papers are trying to explain the general problem by<br />
analysing examples taken from their own or their<br />
country's practice (P. M. Raippalinna, J. Trudel, G.<br />
Zaucha ). Some <strong>of</strong> them are trying to follow a<br />
theoretical approach dealing with relation <strong>of</strong> museum<br />
and society with the stress put on the community (E.<br />
Antzoulatou-Retsila, M. Bellaigue, N. Ladkin, L.<br />
Maranda, R. Montpetit, T. C. Sheiner) and there are<br />
some who are trying to illustrate theoretical<br />
statements relying on the practical examples (M.<br />
Horta, H. Vieregg) .<br />
<strong>The</strong> theoretical approach has a wide scope from<br />
the identification <strong>of</strong> the problem <strong>of</strong> ideologization<br />
<strong>of</strong> museum work and the span between pluralism and<br />
nationalism (E. Antzoulatou-Retsila), over the<br />
examination <strong>of</strong> the term 'community' ranging from<br />
traditional communities and new individualism , and<br />
the role <strong>of</strong> museums in such a situation ( M.<br />
Bellaigue), all to the very interesting approach to<br />
the concept <strong>of</strong> the community as an ecosystem and to<br />
the interpretation <strong>of</strong> the term ' museum ecology' ( N.<br />
Ladkin) . Not less interesting appear to be the<br />
analytical approach to relations <strong>of</strong> community and<br />
museums, using the term community in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
social environment <strong>of</strong> museums ( L. Maranda ), as well<br />
as to the role <strong>of</strong> museums in interpreting the<br />
10
heritage as community appropriation, with the<br />
differentiation between ' national ' and ' global '<br />
heritage ( R. Montpetit ), and also to the elaboration<br />
<strong>of</strong> the idea <strong>of</strong> museum and <strong>of</strong> the concept <strong>of</strong><br />
community ( T . C. Sheiner ) . This approach shows that<br />
there can be no consensus in defining 'community ' or<br />
'museum ' either. <strong>The</strong> only common point appears to be<br />
the diversity <strong>of</strong> meanings and the wide scope <strong>of</strong><br />
problems which can arise in relation to the concepts<br />
<strong>of</strong> museum and community.<br />
Very different approaches are established in<br />
the papers in which the authors try to support their<br />
theoretical statements with the real practice. On<br />
one side there is the universal question <strong>of</strong> power by<br />
which museums can control mental territories and<br />
play the important role in maintaining the identity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the community as interpreted by M. Horta by some<br />
actual examples taken from the southern region <strong>of</strong><br />
Brazil, while on the other side there is a close and<br />
strict European analysis <strong>of</strong> H. Vieregg who on the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> W. von Humboldt's theory, analyses the<br />
possibilities <strong>of</strong> the representation <strong>of</strong> contemporary<br />
history in museums using the term community in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> audience .<br />
<strong>The</strong> African problem is raised very clearly, It<br />
could be summarized in the questions: is the<br />
European model <strong>of</strong> museum adequate for African needs<br />
and are the existing museums in Africa able to<br />
realize the possibility <strong>of</strong> close connection with<br />
their communities,<br />
Let us very<br />
Stavanger papers<br />
ending with the<br />
countries.<br />
shortly give the essentials <strong>of</strong> the<br />
starting with the theoretical and<br />
particular examples from various<br />
Eurydice An tzoula tou-Retsila from Ionian<br />
University in Greece, in her paper ' <strong>Museums</strong> and<br />
Communities: Coping with Dilemmas. Or: Between<br />
Huseomania and Museotherapy ' accentuates that the<br />
awareness <strong>of</strong> the social role <strong>of</strong> museums has changed<br />
from the 1vory tower ' mentality to the sharing<br />
power with segments <strong>of</strong> a larger civic whole . Putting<br />
many questions about the role <strong>of</strong> museums in the<br />
society she states that museums have to shift from<br />
' monologue to conversation'. She insists on a deep<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional devotion <strong>of</strong> museum people and "a clear<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> responsibility to their communities" aiming<br />
to understand the nature and flexibility <strong>of</strong><br />
individual and group identities.<br />
Hathilde<br />
recherche des<br />
museums for<br />
development <strong>of</strong><br />
Bellaigue from Laboratoire de<br />
musees de France in her paper "Which<br />
which communities?" explains the<br />
museums in Europe and states that<br />
11
events in France.in 196B. started the new movement<br />
among the French museums. New notions c ame into the<br />
museum world as: identity . territory. participation<br />
o r community. In the eighties the rentability o f<br />
museums and the prestigious arc hitectural projects<br />
pressed out the notion <strong>of</strong> community. Stating that<br />
the traditional communities have split and that<br />
individualism has got stronger, she notices the new<br />
social groups that have a need for museums:<br />
illiterates, immigrants rejected by the nationals,<br />
the unemployed left outside the working community.<br />
Posing questions like: how can museums cope with<br />
such situation, or , are there new forms <strong>of</strong> museal<br />
action to imagine, she opens the discussion about<br />
the new position and forms <strong>of</strong> museums.<br />
Lynn Haranda, from the Vancouver Museum in<br />
Canada in her paper '<strong>Museums</strong> and the community'<br />
tries to present analytically the given relation.<br />
Discussing more the concept <strong>of</strong> community than <strong>of</strong> the<br />
museums. she states that museums serve a community<br />
only by answering the fundamental questions on human<br />
existence . Community is an aggregate <strong>of</strong> people with<br />
a joint interest neighbourhood , pr<strong>of</strong>ession.<br />
intellectual inquiry , nationalist motives.<br />
Identifying the contemporary pressure. the conflict<br />
and the political meaning, she tries to search for a<br />
solution, saying that museums are becoming<br />
responsive to a variety <strong>of</strong> community voices and<br />
sensitive to financial relationships, Pleading for<br />
more complete studying <strong>of</strong> the public reactions ,<br />
sentiments and desire, she states that communities<br />
use the museum as a power basis from which to<br />
disseminate their messages.<br />
Raymond Hontpetit from the University <strong>of</strong> Quebec<br />
in Montreal, Canada, in his paper '<strong>Museums</strong>.<br />
interpreters <strong>of</strong> heritage for community<br />
appropriation' emphasizes the heritage belonging to<br />
the communities, discussing the features <strong>of</strong> heritage<br />
as: the living heritage <strong>of</strong> traditional cultures, the<br />
heritage <strong>of</strong> collections, the museum heritage and the<br />
cultural resources <strong>of</strong> postindustrial societies. He<br />
states that the present state <strong>of</strong> heritage is marked<br />
by hesitating between the 'national' and 'global'<br />
heritage. Presuming that a heritage is today defined<br />
in a more economic perspective as a leisure<br />
resource. he sees the importance <strong>of</strong> tourism and<br />
information highways as ways <strong>of</strong> reaching the global<br />
community.<br />
Teresa Cristina Scheiner from Brazil, in her<br />
paper 'On museum, communities and the relativity <strong>of</strong><br />
it all', insists on the relativity <strong>of</strong> museums.<br />
Discussing the idea <strong>of</strong> museum and museology she<br />
stresses two basic characteristics <strong>of</strong> the museum:<br />
its intrinsic relationship with nature and culture,<br />
12
and its plurality. Continuing on the discussion o f<br />
community she states that it is necessary to<br />
identify to which community we a r e referring to when<br />
proposing the museological action. Museum and<br />
community are relative concepts, the first one is<br />
promoting the capacity <strong>of</strong> the museological<br />
community, the second one requiring a high degree <strong>of</strong><br />
participation and the third one implying that search<br />
for knowledge must be done in the communities<br />
themselves.<br />
Nicola Ladkin from Museum <strong>of</strong> Texas Tech<br />
University from Lubbock, USA , in her paper '<strong>Museums</strong><br />
and Communities: an ecological approach' examines<br />
museum as a species within its natural environment<br />
and community as synonymous with ecosystem. She<br />
establishes the term 'museum ecology' and specifies<br />
that it investigates the relationship between<br />
museums, community, ecosystems and global natural<br />
environment . <strong>Museums</strong> are a complex species tied in a<br />
great web <strong>of</strong> diverse spatial. physical and communal<br />
interrelationships. Cultural forces as history,<br />
politics. law and transferral <strong>of</strong> knowledge operate<br />
within the community ecosystem in the same way as<br />
environmental forces. <strong>Museums</strong> are unfinished<br />
institutions. they are in evolution. <strong>Museums</strong> can<br />
change their behaviour to better operate in their<br />
community. An understanding <strong>of</strong> community dynamics<br />
assists museologists to develop organization and<br />
management . This approach is very useful for the<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> the relation between museum and<br />
community.<br />
Haria de Lourdes Horta, from Brazil. in her<br />
paper '<strong>Museums</strong> and Communities: a powerful<br />
equation, , ' states that at the present time there is<br />
nothing more 'museological' than this subject theme.<br />
Conflicts between indigenous and dominant cultures<br />
are the conflicts <strong>of</strong> power. <strong>The</strong> power in museumcommunity<br />
relationship means the control <strong>of</strong> mental<br />
territories. <strong>Museums</strong> have the role in this conflict.<br />
She explains the problem <strong>of</strong> identity in Brazilian<br />
cultural melting pot by some examples from the<br />
southern region <strong>of</strong> the country with the population<br />
<strong>of</strong> previously European origin. Through the<br />
interpretation <strong>of</strong> three case studies, one finished,<br />
one in due course and one in the early stage <strong>of</strong> the<br />
project she explains the notions <strong>of</strong> heritage.<br />
identity amnesia, heritage education and cultural<br />
power. She states that museology can be a tool to be<br />
empowering people in their daily fight to survive.<br />
It appears the most important to learn how to share<br />
museum power with community needs. It is the<br />
challenge for the museum world today.<br />
Jean Trudel, from the University <strong>of</strong> Montreal in<br />
Canada. in his paper '<strong>Museums</strong> and cultural<br />
13
communities in Quebec: the case <strong>of</strong> the Musee d'art<br />
de Saint-Laurent' stresses the problem <strong>of</strong> francophon<br />
population in Quebec , Ethnic communities in Montreal<br />
have little interest for museums and museums have no<br />
time nor resources to reach the potential public , On<br />
the example <strong>of</strong> Ville Saint-Laurent and Musee d ' art<br />
de Saint-Laurent , he explains the new approach , <strong>The</strong><br />
feasibility study for a more suitable museum<br />
building provoked the idea to transform the museum<br />
into a laboratory to discover Quebec culture and<br />
identity and to establish closer links with the<br />
social environment,<br />
Hildegard Vieregg, from Germany, in her paper<br />
'<strong>The</strong> Life Itself Provides the Topics' tries to<br />
elaborate the problem <strong>of</strong> presenting the contemporary<br />
history in the museums. She starts from the basic<br />
definitions on museums and states that a museum<br />
visitor is between museum and community. In a<br />
theoretical introduction she widely elaborates the<br />
ideas <strong>of</strong> Wilhelm von Humboldt insisting that the<br />
life itself provides the themes, It means that a<br />
scope <strong>of</strong> the real life has to be reflected in<br />
museums. Analysing the historic dimension and the<br />
scopes <strong>of</strong> the real life', she pleads for a<br />
democratic museum aiming at the political education<br />
and developing <strong>of</strong> democracy. On the examples <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Museum <strong>of</strong> German History in Berlin, concerning the<br />
reunification <strong>of</strong> Germany in 1989 with the slogan<br />
'Against forgetting, for democracy', the Museum and<br />
KZ-memorial place in Dachau with the idea <strong>of</strong> 'not<br />
only remember but engage ourselves not to be<br />
repeated', and the Holocaust-Museum and 'Museum <strong>of</strong><br />
Tolerance', she asks to encourage the active<br />
participation. In order to be explaining visitors<br />
not-easy-objects choices she asks to be concerned<br />
with at least two principles to be applied in<br />
exhibitions: the principle <strong>of</strong> 'stations' as a<br />
synoptical starting point and the principle <strong>of</strong><br />
'outside-inside' in making connections between<br />
museum and outside world. Her approach may be narrow<br />
approach oriented but it opens important questions.<br />
Grazyna Zaucha, from the Choma museum in<br />
Zambia, in her paper 'Communities and <strong>Museums</strong> in<br />
Africa' starts with the idea that Africa was largely<br />
built by foreigners . <strong>The</strong> indigenous cultures have<br />
been different and oriented towards skills more than<br />
towards objects. <strong>Museums</strong> were imported from Europe<br />
and used as important political instruments,<br />
Contrasts between Francophone, Anglophone and Luso<br />
Africa population are obvious, while those between<br />
rich and poor are increased. <strong>The</strong> education for<br />
working in museums is done abroad. <strong>Museums</strong> without<br />
any connections among them, collections which ignore<br />
science, arts and many other sorts <strong>of</strong> material,<br />
small number <strong>of</strong> museums are identified as facts<br />
14
Dr. Eurydice in the paper '<strong>Museums</strong> and Commuities : Coping with<br />
Dilemmas' also holds museums as "socially significant institutions<br />
responsible for responding sensitively to the messages emmitted by<br />
post modern society." Dr. Eurydice holds that museums hold a key<br />
position in the articulation <strong>of</strong> identities <strong>of</strong> the various communities.<br />
<strong>Museums</strong> as social institutions shoulder the responsibility <strong>of</strong> exposing<br />
its audience to other communities to create 'mutual respect. goodwill<br />
and intentions ..... • This requires 'effective tools' that is. a stong<br />
theoritical museological base which can develop well developed<br />
strategies for the museum to be successful in its social mission <strong>of</strong><br />
integration <strong>of</strong> diverse cultures.<br />
Grazyna Zaucha gives a detailed account <strong>of</strong> the present situation<br />
prevailing in African <strong>Museums</strong> and stresses the need for practical<br />
museum proarammes and African trained museum personnel, who are<br />
competent. creative and committed to serve the African communities.<br />
Jean Trudel in the paper '<strong>Museums</strong> and Cultural Communities in Quebec'<br />
emphasizes the importance <strong>of</strong> addressing to the needs and issues <strong>of</strong> the<br />
various ethinic communities. Museum is a rendezevous for a dialogue<br />
between various communities. " where the encounter between the<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> ethinic communities and the discovery <strong>of</strong> Quebec culture<br />
and identity is facilitated through the insrument <strong>of</strong> its collection."<br />
A similar line <strong>of</strong> thought can be discerned in the papers analysed<br />
above. Most speak about the need to establish distinct identities <strong>of</strong><br />
the various communities the museum serves at the same time striving to<br />
establish peace and harmony in the society as a whole.<br />
Raymond Montpetit. Canada. writes about globalization <strong>of</strong> cultural<br />
heritages and speaks <strong>of</strong> cultural heritages in its materialistic<br />
adva.ntage as ' beina appropriated by tourism . '<br />
Lynn Maranda, Vancouver Museum, Canada, gives interesting perspectives<br />
<strong>of</strong> the relationship <strong>of</strong> the museum with the community it serves. <strong>The</strong><br />
paper brings out the intricate relationship the museum has with its<br />
community. <strong>The</strong> museum helps its community to answer certain basic<br />
questions such as Yho are we? ' 'Yhere do we come from? In<br />
attempting to answer these basic questions the museum is able to help<br />
the community define the purpose <strong>of</strong> our living and give shape to the<br />
direction to our ambition . <strong>The</strong> museum helps in establishing the<br />
identity <strong>of</strong> its various small communities at the same time' providing<br />
a wide opinion to assit in the understanding <strong>of</strong> a national<br />
population.'<br />
This view is very important in understanding the museum<br />
itsrelationship with the community/communities it serves . <strong>Museums</strong><br />
the responsibility <strong>of</strong> present ina the history <strong>of</strong> the community<br />
'special social meanina ..... . . <strong>of</strong> the evolution.' A museum is<br />
institution which is a powerful tool to effect changes desired by<br />
group.<br />
19<br />
and<br />
have<br />
with<br />
an<br />
the
Dr. Eurydice Antzoulatou-Retsila<br />
Assistant Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Museoiog)" Ionian University, Corfu, Greece<br />
<strong>Museums</strong> and Communities: Coping with Dilemmas. Or: Between<br />
Museomania and Museotherapy<br />
<strong>The</strong> fact that in the period between August 1989 and July <strong>1995</strong> the topic "<strong>Museums</strong> and<br />
Communitites" has attracted -more than once- the attention <strong>of</strong> museum pr<strong>of</strong>essionals as<br />
a special subject to be elaborated in conferences 1 is a very eloquent indication <strong>of</strong> the<br />
interests and concerns characterizing the contemporary world <strong>of</strong> museums.<br />
Socially significant institutions and generators <strong>of</strong> social ideas themselves, museums<br />
assume the responsibility to respond sensitively to the messages emitted by post-modern<br />
society.<br />
In a period <strong>of</strong> "cultural deconstruction" and "existential scrutiny"Z -and yet <strong>of</strong> an immense<br />
fondness <strong>of</strong> museums, a real "museomania"- museums, as repositories <strong>of</strong> knowledge, value<br />
and taste, are challenged to propose their own antidotes and formulate a "therapy".<br />
Inserting in debates concerning social issues has been considered ontologically crucial by<br />
museums, justifying in this way their existence. Yet, despite the enrichment In<br />
perspectives, attitudes and practices such a line <strong>of</strong> reasoning can provide, it certainly<br />
brings museums in the center <strong>of</strong> an intellectual -and not only- turmoil, leaving them <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
exposed to various claims and accusations.<br />
In this fact one could recognize the results <strong>of</strong> the civil rights and war protest movements<br />
<strong>of</strong> the 1960's and 1970's through which every institution -<strong>of</strong> the cultural, educational or<br />
governmental field- considered to hold power has been open to question, with "change"<br />
as the ultimate postulate.<br />
21
For museums this would mean -among others- exceeding the "ivory tower" mentality and<br />
the assumption that the expertise <strong>of</strong> museum scholars and pr<strong>of</strong>essionals is the only<br />
parameter to define what should be included in museums, or what the audiences should<br />
know; it would also demand the sharing <strong>of</strong> "power" with segments <strong>of</strong> a larger civic whole.<br />
<strong>Museums</strong>, indeed, have shown an increasing concern over their publics'expectations and<br />
needs 3 , being convinced that they cannot survive without public attention. Educational<br />
activities, <strong>of</strong>ten tailored to the publics' requirements, have been a paramount expression<br />
<strong>of</strong> this attitude <strong>of</strong> extending democratically the arm towards the surrounding<br />
consti tuencies.<br />
Presently, however, various segments <strong>of</strong> the public go further: they demand to affirm their<br />
point <strong>of</strong> view in the basic museum activities, raise questions about the treatment <strong>of</strong> topics<br />
worked out by museums, require that the exhibitions reflect contemporary issues and<br />
present- day realities, among which the articulation <strong>of</strong> identity holds a key position.<br />
It seems that the mosaic <strong>of</strong> communities which constitute a museums' public, seeks to<br />
influence and - to an extent- to control the way museums act or analyze and represent<br />
facts 4 .<br />
Obviously it is the changes in the society outside the museums that provide the material<br />
for such requests and feed the battle for equal opportunity in the cultural field .<br />
Forcommunities it seems that this kind <strong>of</strong> stuggle is fundamental for their existence and<br />
acknowledgment by the museum <strong>of</strong> their opinions contributes to the process <strong>of</strong> according<br />
social space to them.<br />
At the same time, this very fact demonstrates the museuums' hierarchical position among<br />
other social institutions and apparatuses which provide the contexts within which people<br />
work out essential intellectual elements <strong>of</strong> living like beliefs, ideas and values.<br />
22
<strong>The</strong> need for a "museum context" or a "musealization" <strong>of</strong> matters <strong>of</strong>ten appears, as an<br />
obsession, expressed through a fervent museum-planning activity or an ardent museum<br />
going. Both phenomena know a flourishing prosperity nowadays.<br />
Museum exhibitions - the "par-excellence" communication tool <strong>of</strong> museums- serve <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
as stages for the dramatic confrontation <strong>of</strong> ideas and images, in which objects<br />
decontextualized from their original dynamic environment reveal the various versions <strong>of</strong><br />
the politics <strong>of</strong> cultural patrimony.<br />
Assuming their moral obligations to communities museums have attempted to be<br />
relevant, responsible and up to date through brave and innovative endeavors, as some<br />
recent examples from the international era illustrate. Yet, these efforts have provoked<br />
criticism and wrathful attacks 5 from the pUblic.<br />
Hence, the arising <strong>of</strong> dilemmas and the interrogation how to cope with them becomes a<br />
key concern.<br />
Under the present debate about diversity and the new perspectives <strong>of</strong> the cyberspace,<br />
inquiries like the following arise:<br />
Who has the right to articulate a point <strong>of</strong> view and who is to speak for whom?<br />
Is the taste and expertise <strong>of</strong> museum pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and scholars the only parameter<br />
for shaping the authority <strong>of</strong> truth?<br />
Who decides about what is central or marginal, valid or useless especially when<br />
dealing with identity issues?<br />
What happens if the up-dated exhibitions -through their vigorous depictions <strong>of</strong><br />
history and culture- dynamite social and intellectual structures?<br />
How many possibilities are there left to avoid taking sides in the struggle <strong>of</strong><br />
communities over identity-ethnic, national. cultural- and public recognition? Or.<br />
should museums apply a strategy <strong>of</strong> sympathy and engagement?<br />
What will the proper solution be when the claims <strong>of</strong> one community persecute<br />
another one? And who judges the validity <strong>of</strong> requests?<br />
23
Given the fact that museums have an important place in cultural history, but they<br />
are also critical places for the politics <strong>of</strong> history6, should they leave the cultural<br />
and political agendas to shape the body <strong>of</strong> matters they study?<br />
<strong>Museums</strong> are expected to provide education, spectacle, entertainment, relief. In their long<br />
history, coping with issues and dilemmas has been an inspiring challenge for them. Amost<br />
characteristic example has been their response to the political and intellectual turmoil <strong>of</strong><br />
late 1960's in France, through the development <strong>of</strong> the ecomuseum movement, which has<br />
opened new paths in museologicalthinking.<br />
<strong>The</strong> present-day situation demands from museum pr<strong>of</strong>essionals a self-conscious reflection<br />
over the very essence <strong>of</strong> their role, shaping eventually their own specific "identity" and<br />
reconsidering their performance as mediators and/or as facilitators. A fresh look at the<br />
job would lead to the consideration that risk-taking and confrontation, as well as shifting<br />
from monologue to conversation, is probably a "sine qua non" parameter, if ever the<br />
accomplishment <strong>of</strong> the democratic goals <strong>of</strong> presenting the contemporary social diversity<br />
and multiculturalism is to take place.<br />
Realizing though the political implications that exhibitions might cause, a careful<br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> key notions like what is good and bad, superior and inferior, differences<br />
and similarities, can be <strong>of</strong> positive consequence, given the influence <strong>of</strong> museums as<br />
valorizing institutions.<br />
Equally effective could be a strategy <strong>of</strong> avoiding any paternalistic manner in approaching<br />
subjects i.e with the aim to guide the public towards conclusions which serve political<br />
goals.<br />
In this same context can be inscribed the striving for consensus and the exclusion <strong>of</strong> any<br />
imposition <strong>of</strong> identity, as well as the abstention from overditerminated views.<br />
24
This means to be able to find a balance even in the case <strong>of</strong> contradictory pressures<br />
exercised by some who try to establish group identities -through the manipulation <strong>of</strong><br />
artifacts- and by others who attempt to destabilize them. Apparently these matters imply<br />
heavy political issues.<br />
<strong>The</strong> development by museum people <strong>of</strong> a deep pr<strong>of</strong>essional devotion to their discipline<br />
and a clear sense <strong>of</strong> responsibility to their communities can facilitate their own<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> the nature and flexibility <strong>of</strong> individual and group identities.<br />
It is undeniable though that, within museological terms, whatever approach is undertaken<br />
-to forge a national identity, or to celebrate diverse identities - some basic principles as<br />
encouragement <strong>of</strong> interaction, mutual respect, good will and intentions combined with<br />
careful planning and well-developed strategies can serve as the effective tools which a<br />
solid and healthily-rooted pr<strong>of</strong>essionalism can provide.<br />
NOTES<br />
1. "<strong>Museums</strong> and their Communities; An, Ethnography and Interpretation". Salzburg Seminar, Session<br />
277. August 1989; "<strong>Museums</strong> and Communities: <strong>The</strong> Politics <strong>of</strong> Public Culture", Conference held at the<br />
<strong>International</strong> Center <strong>of</strong> the Smithsonian Institution. 21-23 March 1990; "<strong>Museums</strong> and Societies in a<br />
Europe <strong>of</strong> Different Cultures". European Conference <strong>of</strong> Ethnological and Social History <strong>Museums</strong>.<br />
Paris, 22-24 February 1993; "<strong>Museums</strong> and Communities", 17th General Conference <strong>of</strong>ICOM. Stavanger,<br />
Norway, 2-7 July <strong>1995</strong>.<br />
2. Ivan Karp. Christine Mullen Kreamer and Steven D. Lavine (eds.), <strong>Museums</strong> and Commum"[jes: <strong>The</strong><br />
Politics <strong>of</strong> Public Culwre (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1992), p. 10.<br />
3. '<strong>The</strong> museums and the needs <strong>of</strong> people". ICOM/CECA Annual Conference. Jerusalem, Israel. 15-22<br />
October 1991.<br />
4. Over the past fifteen years the author has had first·hand, really valuable, experiences <strong>of</strong> these issues<br />
through her extensive involvement in a considerable number <strong>of</strong> museum -planning projects developed<br />
by greek local cultural associations.<br />
<strong>25</strong>
5. CuraLOr 37. no 4 (1994), p. 227.<br />
6. Germain Bazin, <strong>The</strong> Museum All" (New York: Universe Books, 1%7), p. 194-195, 224; John MA.<br />
Thompson (ed.), Manual <strong>of</strong> Curacorship : A Guide to Museum Praaice (London: Butterworths,<br />
1984), p. 55.<br />
26
Dr. Eurydice Antzoulatou-Retsila<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>esseur Assislanle de Museologie, Universile lonienne. Corfu, Grece<br />
Musees et Communautes: Lutter contre les dilemmes. Ou: Entre<br />
museomanie et museotherapeutique<br />
Les musees, instirutions de signification sociale, et generateurs -eux-memes- des idees<br />
sociales, assument la responsabilite de repondre aux messages de la societe post-moderne.<br />
Dans une peri ode de "deconstruction cultureUe", pendant laqueUe, pourtant, on constate<br />
une vraie "museomanie", les musees -en tant que depots de connaissances, valeurs et<br />
gout- sont provoqu.;s de proposer leur antidotes et de formuler une "therapeutique".<br />
Leur insertion aux debats autour des problemes sociaux a eu une signification presque<br />
ontologique pour eux; pourtant, malgre I'enrichissement en perspectives, attirudes et<br />
pratiques qu 'eUe leur apporte, eUe les situe, en meme temps, au centre d'un tumulte<br />
inteUecruel et les laisse exposes a des revendications et accusations variees.<br />
Les communautes qUI constituent les publics des musees contemporains, exigent<br />
aujourd'hui une participation plus efficace et une influence sur les decisions et les<br />
activites.<br />
A cause des debats autour la diversite culturelle et I'identite, les musees affrontent des<br />
dilemmes com me:<br />
Qui a Ie droit de I'articulation des points de vue?<br />
Est-ce que la "verite" est formulee uniquement par les experts?<br />
Qui valorise ce qui est central on marginal, surtout dans les themes d'identite?<br />
Comment traiter les problemes crees des agendas politiques et culturelles?<br />
La reponse a ceux deris peut-etre l'application d'une strategie de consensus et d'equilibre,<br />
ainsi que d'exclusion de la mentalite paternaliste; egalement, l'effort continue pour<br />
encourager l'interaction et assurer Ie respect mutuel entre les parties diverses.<br />
27
"pauimoine" de tous. n s'agit de rendre symboliquement la jouissance de ces biens a la collectivite<br />
grace a une propriete morale commune, une propriete publique. De trois grands musees europeens. Ie<br />
Musee de Dresde (1746), Ie Britisb Museum (1753), Ie Louvre (1791 ), Jean-Louis Deone dit qu' "ils<br />
sont en effet indissociables de \'idee de la communaute qu'ont pu developper les trois societes. On ne<br />
les distinguera pas tant au niveau de la presentation des collections qu'a celui des discours qui ont ete<br />
tenus sur eux pratiquement des leurs origines [ ... J Les musees europeens, et c'est ce qui les distingue<br />
des collections privees, rendant les oeuvres au public, furent a I'origine de la constitution du public.<br />
celui des amateurs d'art comme de l'homme quelconque." Le musee doit s'appliquer a "produire de la<br />
cornmunaute". II rappelle que l'Europe des Lurnieres etait deja une communaute partageaot les<br />
sciences et les arts, s'instituant en Republique europeenoe des Lenres.<br />
Le XIXe siecle voit la naissance de quelques grands musees europeens ou americains (1830,<br />
Berlin : l'I1e des musees ; 1838, Londres : la National Gallery ; 1869, New York : Ie Metropolitan<br />
Museum). En 1846, apparah en Angleterre la notion de "folk lore" ou cuJture populaire et avec elle<br />
naissent les musees de ce type. La fin du siecle verra se creer en Suede Ie Nordiska Museet et Ie<br />
premier musee de plein air (Skaosen, 1891).<br />
Au XXe siecle on voit peu 11 peu s'etendre la notion de pauimoine a tous les domaines, dans un<br />
souci d'exhaustivite du recensement des biens cuJturels : ainsi, entre les deux guerres en France, puis<br />
sous l'impuJsion du Front popuJaire, on cree a Paris en moyenoe un musee par an : musees d'art<br />
modeme, de l'homme, de la France d'outre-mer, des arts et traditions popuJaires, des colonies, des<br />
travaux publics, Palais de la Decouverte. Pendant ce temps, en AlIemagne, sous Ie lIe Reich,<br />
apparaissent les Heimatrnuseen qui seront deux mille 11 la fin du me Reich, cuJtivant Ie goOt du terroir<br />
et de la petite communaute ethnique protegeant son pauimoine et sa propre integrite.<br />
Arrive la seconde guerre mondiale et avec elle, comme avec toutes les guerres, les etemels<br />
transferts de biens cuJturels par pillage, puis leur retention illegitime. Nous vivons encore les<br />
difficuJtes du retour de ces biens a leurs proprietaires legitimes (cf. en particuJier les pourparlers entre<br />
l'AlIemagne et la Russie). Des communautes se sentent alors a juste titre depouillees. Et ce sentiment<br />
renforce ou exacerbe celui d'appartenance identitaire.<br />
L'apres-guerre, puis les annees soixaote, et particuJierement Ie mouvement de 68, ouvrent une<br />
ere nouvelle dans Ie domaine cuJturel : mouvements de cuJture popuJaire (Maison pour tous, Peuple et<br />
CuJture ... ), de cuJture ouvriere (et les syodicats ont joue la un rme important), des ecomusees (ailleurs<br />
denommes musees "cornmunautaires"), de l'archeologie indusuielle, de la "memoire de l'entreprise",<br />
centres de cuJture scientifique et technique dans les anoees 70. II Y eut, dans Ie desarroi qui preceda<br />
les evenements de 1968, un ferment propre 11 faire surgir Ie mouvement des musees communautaires<br />
et des ecomusees : une partie du constat concemait l'absence de vie communautaire et l'uniformisation<br />
des modes de vie. A l'encontre de cela jaillissait Ie besoin d'identifier ses racines et de raviver son<br />
histoire, entre autres en s'appuyant sur des objets ou les temoignages des anciens. Dans cene nouvelle<br />
generation de musees. les objets prenaient un sens plus fort.<br />
30
En 1972 se succectent la Table ronde de Santiago du Chili et Ie colloque ICOM de Bordeaux<br />
Istres-Lourmarin ("Ie musee est une institution au service de la communaute"), puis les colloques<br />
intemationaux du Creusot, sous une impulsion et dans un contexte museaux (patrimoine industriel et<br />
societe contemporaine, 1976 ; Proletariat et militantisme ouvrier, 1977). Des mots surgissem alors<br />
qu'on n'avait jamais entendus dans Ie domaine museal : identite, territorialite, volontariat,<br />
participation, communaute, formation, developpement. Ds som ensuite repris un peu partout dans Ie<br />
monde mais plus particulierement dans les pays emergeant d'annees de colonialisme, ou de dictature,<br />
ou en developpement (Afrique, Amerique laline, plus tard "pays de l'Est" ... ) ou pays a tradition<br />
communautaire (Scandinavie, Canada) : les Declarations du Quebec et d'Oaxaca (1984) s'inscrivent<br />
dans la mouvance de la nouvelle museologie. La France a ete pilote dans ce mouvement et nombreux<br />
sont ceux venus puiser leur inspiration a l'Ecomusee du Creusot, terrain industriel et ouvrier oil pour<br />
la premiere fois s'est developpee it partir de I'institution myseale une action culturelle participative<br />
d'envergure.<br />
Mais au milieu des annees 1980, en France (et, curieusement, sous un regime de gaucbe), ces<br />
experiences pionnieres qui reposaient en grande partie sur Ie volontariat d'un public partenaire, des<br />
moyens financiers modestes, un investissemem considerable de la part de leurs responsables, se<br />
trouvent depbasees par rapport it une politique culturelle nouvelle qui veut que la culture desorrnais se<br />
rentabilise et que, si possible, elle soit productrice d'argent. Cela va peu it peu colncider avec Ie declin<br />
d'un certain nombre de bassins industriels oil se developpait ce type d'experience, et l'emergence de<br />
preoccupations d'un autre ordre.<br />
Paradoxalement on construit de nombreux musees nouveaux et l'on n!amenage bon nombre de<br />
musees existants. L'accent est mis sur Ie batiment, une arcbitecture de prestige, soit dans la<br />
rebabilitation de batiments anciens, soit dans la construction d'edifices ultramodemes et<br />
spectaculaires, souvent devolus it I'exposition de I'art contemporain. La notion de patrimoine penetre<br />
peu it peu les menta1ites mais parallelement la memoire est vulgarisee, "trafiquee" c'est-a-dire<br />
exploitee par la publicite commerciale, et finalement desactivee. En France l'ere des "grands travaux"<br />
marque I'importance et Ie prestige de la culture mais en meme temps rien n'est plus eloigne de I'idee<br />
de communaute ... 11 moins que cela ne devienne justement Ie signe prestigieux d'une identite culturelle<br />
francaise.<br />
Seules des occasions comme un anni versaire majeur rassemblent pour la rememoration : ces<br />
derniers temps, 11 I'occasion du cinquantenaire de la fin de la deuxieme guerre mondiale, se multiplient<br />
en France les expressions des memoires collectives des differentes communautes qui ont participe a<br />
cene guerre, afi.n de se souvenir ensemble d'une experience commune (a Paris on peut citer par<br />
exemple Ie tout nouveau Musee Jean Moulin et I'exposition actuellement presentee au Musee<br />
d'histoire contemporaine et intitulee "La deportation, Ie systeme concentrationnaire nazi"). En meme<br />
temps demeure dans la penombre la mauvaise conscience de la part de collaboration, bonte dOni la<br />
memoire francaise reste troublee.<br />
31
La troisieme communaute - qui aujourd'hui apparaft avec tant de force - est celie du travail car<br />
ceux qui en sont prives souffrent d'une exclusion au moins aussi grande que les precectentes et en tout<br />
cas plus complexe puisqu'elle touche tous les niveaux sociaux et culturels.<br />
Face it ces situations, Ie r61e du musee reste it inventer au cas par cas et avec beaucoup<br />
d'imagination. Probablement ne peut-il etre Ie fait que d'initiatives petites, locales et experimentales,<br />
s'appliquant de maniere tres specifique au terrain et a la population concernee.<br />
avril <strong>1995</strong><br />
Bibliographie<br />
CRACAP-Informations 213, Le Creusot, 1976<br />
Kennetb Hudson - <strong>Museums</strong> <strong>of</strong> Influence. Cambridge University Press, 1987<br />
ICME Conference "Presentation <strong>of</strong> Culture" - Leiden, 1987<br />
ICOFOM Conference "Musees et pays en developpement. Aide ou manipulation ?" - lnde, 1988.<br />
<strong>ISS</strong> n° 14.<br />
La Museologie selon Georges Henri Riviere. Paris, Dunod, 1989<br />
Jean-Louis Deotte - Oubliez ! Les ruines, I'Europe, Ie musee. Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994<br />
Matbilde Bellaigue, Michel Menu - L'objet ideal existe-t-i1 ? TECHNE 2. Paris, LRMF, <strong>1995</strong><br />
35
Which museums for which communities ?<br />
Mathilde Bellaigue<br />
Laboratoire de recbercbe des musees de France, Paris<br />
Ab s tract<br />
From the XVIIIth century in Europe, the history <strong>of</strong> museums sbows how their audience was<br />
borne and bow it evolved until now. In France, the left government <strong>of</strong> 1936, then the Second World<br />
War and, last but not least, the events <strong>of</strong> 1968 opened the way to various education folk movements.<br />
<strong>The</strong> wave <strong>of</strong> French ecomuseums and foreign community museums came out from there. New words<br />
were brought forth in the museum field, such as identity, territory, participation, community. Such<br />
experiences were taken up in the world, especially in countries recently free from colonialism or<br />
dictatorship. But, in the eighties, the Frencb cultural policy shifted, introducing the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
producing money and necessary rentability <strong>of</strong> the museums. Together with the industrial crisis in<br />
textile, steel, and coal, industrial archaeology appeared, involving both the museologists and the<br />
ancient actors <strong>of</strong> sucb activities and extending the notion <strong>of</strong> beritage to their materials. Sorts <strong>of</strong><br />
memory communities were issued from there.<br />
In France, during the eighties, the accent was put upon prestigious architectural projects <strong>of</strong><br />
museums and the necessity for cultural organisations to produce thier own financial resources. <strong>The</strong><br />
.notion <strong>of</strong> community was no longer put forward.<br />
To-day, worldwide communication leaves no more spaces, no more things to be discovered. We<br />
must re-consider the role <strong>of</strong> artefacts in museums as much as our own attitude towards them.<br />
Traditional communities bave split, individualism has got stronger. Are there new museums for new<br />
communities (scbools, tourism, old people) ? Looking at the exclusion phenomena, we find new<br />
groups : illiterates are standing out <strong>of</strong> the community <strong>of</strong> educated people, as well as immigrated<br />
people are rejected by the nationals, and unemployed people remain out <strong>of</strong> the working community ...<br />
How can museums cope with that situation? Are there new forms <strong>of</strong> museal action to imagine?<br />
April <strong>1995</strong><br />
36
Heritage, Museum, Territory and Community<br />
Nelly Decarolis - Argentina<br />
"Simple things do not exist,<br />
only simplified things do."<br />
G. 8achelard<br />
All coherent cultural policies should try to rescue the deep sense <strong>of</strong><br />
development which takes into consideration the capacity <strong>of</strong> each human group to<br />
be informed, to learn and to communicate its experiences, showing the evolution<br />
<strong>of</strong> values and ideologies as well as the various lines <strong>of</strong> thought which have<br />
prevailed at different times in history.<br />
It is essential for mankind's creative activity and for the complete<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the individual and <strong>of</strong> society as a whole that there exists a wide<br />
dissemination <strong>of</strong> ideas and knowledge. Nowadays, we live in a globalized world<br />
where most <strong>of</strong> the interests have become international, sustained by blocs <strong>of</strong><br />
nations and transnational corporations, but the global economy badly needs<br />
qualified workers. <strong>The</strong> fact <strong>of</strong> recognizing distinctive spiritual, intellectual and<br />
material features which characterize other social groups permits to distinguish<br />
values, make options and even feel ethically committed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> museum, which is closely related to a physical, social and cultural<br />
space, gathers different expressions <strong>of</strong> culture and has an enormous potential to<br />
implement actions which join towards improving mankind's quality <strong>of</strong> life in<br />
relation to his natural and cultural environment. It is no longer limited to the static<br />
presentation <strong>of</strong> traces <strong>of</strong> a prestigious past, but also to a past which made up<br />
daily life and which, committed to the present, is projected into the future.<br />
Its role is to recreate reality in an authentic, integral manner through its<br />
different expressions; to present and develop the community's cultural forms<br />
which have historically remained in oblivion; to accept the coexistence <strong>of</strong> ethnic<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> the same origin, sometimes with overlapping cultures; to help in the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> regional cultures; to respect the rights <strong>of</strong> mankind within an<br />
interdisciplinary framework and to understand the continuity and changes which<br />
take place in the cultural sphere. <strong>The</strong>refore, it is a valuable instrument to achieve<br />
an integral outlook <strong>of</strong> the contents <strong>of</strong> material and immaterial testimonies which<br />
are mankind's cultural and natural heritage and abstractly gathers the plurality<br />
and uncertainty <strong>of</strong> our nations, which are going through a process <strong>of</strong> quick<br />
transformation.<br />
37
As an alternative space which uses the mediation <strong>of</strong> real ity, the museum<br />
must adopt an innovative, dynamic position capable <strong>of</strong> respond ing to the<br />
expectations <strong>of</strong> a more demanding public. Not only must it convey the information<br />
it has, but also develop in each individual the capacity to use it, helping him to<br />
establish a harmonic, balanced relation with himself and with the environment.<br />
<strong>The</strong> origin <strong>of</strong> the new orientations maybe lies in the acceleration <strong>of</strong> historical<br />
processes and in new ways <strong>of</strong> living which related the urban and the rural , that<br />
which is necessary and that which is superfluous, that which is material and that<br />
which is spiritual.<br />
In a world which is permanently and increasingly competing, museums and<br />
cultural and educational institutions must justify their existence in relation to their<br />
contents and social relevance. <strong>The</strong> museological experience can only be<br />
highlighted if there is real communication with the audience. This communication<br />
requires that each <strong>of</strong> the parties speak the other's language, with a full opening<br />
towards learning and experimentation.<br />
Just like the traditional museum became a vehicle <strong>of</strong> a centralized<br />
economic model, the community museums are the paradigm <strong>of</strong> decentralized<br />
development. <strong>The</strong>y contribute to the process <strong>of</strong> social unification, identity and<br />
local participation and appraisal <strong>of</strong> natural and cultural resources; they place man<br />
in his geographical , historical, ethnical, socioeconomic, cultural and natural reality<br />
and empower him to understand and evaluate the importance <strong>of</strong> interaction with<br />
the surrounding environment. Using the language <strong>of</strong> the object, the real<br />
framework <strong>of</strong> daily life, the concrete situations, they are able to provide members<br />
<strong>of</strong> the community with the means to enable them to become subjects <strong>of</strong> their own<br />
integral development.<br />
Such integral development is a global concept which arises as an<br />
aspiration <strong>of</strong> the communities, <strong>of</strong> their groups <strong>of</strong> individuals. It uses a participative<br />
methodology which privileges collective team work, enables a more active<br />
commitment and a more direct involvement <strong>of</strong> each one <strong>of</strong> the community<br />
members. <strong>The</strong> solution <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the problems set forth by reality demands from<br />
them a combination <strong>of</strong> different specialties, but although the multidisciplinary<br />
aspects aim at going beyond knowledge located in stagnant compartments, they<br />
cannot be confused with the conception <strong>of</strong> an integral culture. This does not<br />
entail denying the importance <strong>of</strong> the specialties but instead the need for the<br />
specialists to understand - as Edgar Morin says - that the search for truth<br />
demands the syncretism <strong>of</strong> partial knowledges.<br />
Each community must use the museum as an instrument <strong>of</strong> evolution in<br />
which the individual may develop his critical thought and apprehend reality within<br />
the parameters and limitations <strong>of</strong> his own cultural and social identity. <strong>The</strong><br />
horizontal relationship <strong>of</strong> a constant exchange fosters a reflexive attitude related<br />
to daily personal experiences integrated into the transformation processes which<br />
take place within the community's own reality. To this effect, it is essential to<br />
have activities which link the museum to the community, elaborating programmes<br />
38
to promote communication and education, privileging participative methodologies<br />
which, in turn, develop community critical awareness, where unity and diversity<br />
act as genuine expressions <strong>of</strong> universality.<br />
<strong>The</strong> community museum stems from the community's own needs and interests.<br />
As determinants <strong>of</strong> new methods and objectives, community initiatives and<br />
development link a territory with a heritage - through elements which represent<br />
nature and mankind's creativity - within a geographically limited local population<br />
which is in turn subject and actor <strong>of</strong> its own culture.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y constitute the conjunction <strong>of</strong> actions for favouring social, cultural and<br />
economic progress <strong>of</strong> each community; voluntary, desired development,<br />
implemented and criticized by its own members, both individually and collectively.<br />
As Hugues de Varine says "the natural community framework is a concentric<br />
space which successively involves the family, the pr<strong>of</strong>essional environment, the<br />
neighbourhood or village, the city or province and finally the region".<br />
At this point, imaginary spaces must be taken into account. Although<br />
immaterial, these are the spaces <strong>of</strong> creation and emotion which, together with<br />
intelligence, allow to reach total knowledge. What is peculiar about man is his<br />
spirit and it is this spirit which gets to know reality and which apprehends and<br />
updates values. His memory locates the events he recalls in terms which<br />
presuppose an abstract, general time; it is symbolic because it does not only<br />
revive past experiences, but instead rebuilds them. Achieved throughout a<br />
complex, arduous intellectual process, only man has that idea <strong>of</strong> abstract,<br />
geometric space. It is man who creates culture, uses it in several ways and grows<br />
and develops under its protection, constituting thus an undissolvable unit. Heir <strong>of</strong><br />
his past, <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> bygone experiences which condition it, his distinctive<br />
feature is still his work.<br />
Conditioned by symbolic thought and the pertinent behaviours, the<br />
progress <strong>of</strong> culture and the continuity in the cultural development <strong>of</strong> communities<br />
is the basis <strong>of</strong> the future.<br />
After UNESCO's Fifth Regional Seminar in Mexico in 196i , the museum<br />
was considered the community's cultural centre which • ... must complete and assess<br />
the education system and perform an integration function aimed at the unity,<br />
preservation, analysis, interpretation, conservation and presentation <strong>of</strong> the community's<br />
cultural heritage and natural realities '.<br />
<strong>The</strong> community, that heterogeneous social group, joined by traditions,<br />
needs and solidarity, placed within a spatial and temporal framework. Community<br />
, UNESCO's Fifth Regional Seminar ''<strong>The</strong> museum as the cuffural centre <strong>of</strong> the community",<br />
Mexico, October 1962.<br />
39
heritage, a source <strong>of</strong> local identity and an instrument to acknowledge such<br />
identity ...<br />
Ten years later, Hugues de Varine supports new museological tendencies<br />
and experiences which link the museum to its social environment and give it an<br />
unprecedented pedagogical projection. <strong>The</strong> Declaration <strong>of</strong> Quebec, a true<br />
ideological platform for museologists, became later the document which grouped<br />
all new socialization trends <strong>of</strong> museums.<br />
As from the Round Table in Santiago, Chile in 1972, the conception <strong>of</strong> an<br />
integral museum privileged its social and political aspects. Through the<br />
implementation <strong>of</strong> more integral services, it reached new sectors <strong>of</strong> the<br />
population, including a previously alien public.<br />
In 1992 -exactly twenty years later- museums' representatives <strong>of</strong> Latin<br />
America and the Caribbean met in Caracas, Venezuela to update the problems <strong>of</strong><br />
the Santiago meeting. <strong>The</strong>y reached final conclusions which figure in the<br />
Declaration <strong>of</strong> Caracas, a document <strong>of</strong> great value which assesses the new<br />
challenges faced by museology at present.<br />
<strong>Museums</strong>' activities, which were before addressed almost exclusively to<br />
students and tourists, contemplate now other social sectors which result highly<br />
benefitted by the social and cultural action displayed and the participation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
popUlation: museums where the subject plays an active role in the teachinglearning<br />
process; museums that are alternative education spaces and bring the<br />
subject into closer contact with the museological discourse in a critical, reflexive<br />
manner.<br />
<strong>The</strong> paradigms which before supported the social, political and cultural<br />
practices and theories are now not enough to explain changes produced by<br />
globalization. <strong>The</strong> museum-related discourse may not come to a happy ending if it<br />
has no valid interlocutor to demand concrete, dynamic actions. If the museum<br />
does not render a service to the community, it is condemned to disappear. Today,<br />
a more demanding society, more participative and creative, obliges him to review<br />
its practices, its functions and objectives which must be now supported by<br />
policies which tie closer bonds with the community.<br />
<strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> methodological strategies -which permit the community to reencounter<br />
itself through the museum- is based on the defense and preservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the integral heritage, natural and cultural. <strong>The</strong>y foster a process <strong>of</strong> collective<br />
transformation which, as from the existing reality, promotes the development <strong>of</strong><br />
social awareness.<br />
Important experiences on the part <strong>of</strong> community museums show they have<br />
contributed to rescuing collective memory, historical moments which contribute to<br />
recovering the identity <strong>of</strong> a community.<br />
40
''<strong>The</strong> museum must openly embrace the plurality and uncertainty <strong>of</strong> our nations<br />
which are going through a process <strong>of</strong> transformation. .. When the contemporary<br />
movements which make up culture are taken into consideration, from the<br />
multidirectional migrations to the transnationalization <strong>of</strong> communications, the<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> a nation loses its abstract nature ... .. 2<br />
It is necessary to encourage the communities to create museums which<br />
represent their lives and their memory. <strong>Museums</strong> where traditional values are<br />
appreciated: tangible and intangible heritage. <strong>Museums</strong> with a capacity for<br />
evolution and transformation, which are also capable <strong>of</strong> having a critical outlook<br />
on the actions <strong>of</strong> the society they are part <strong>of</strong>. <strong>Museums</strong> which invite the people to<br />
become actors <strong>of</strong> their own culture. <strong>Museums</strong> which contemplate the needs <strong>of</strong><br />
the young generations, particularly in the urban centres, where the process <strong>of</strong><br />
losing one's identity is usually dangerously accelerated. <strong>Museums</strong> which have<br />
programmes especially addressed to the less protected sectors. <strong>Museums</strong> where<br />
not only the object is venerated but also its meaning. <strong>Museums</strong> which give rise to<br />
an identity full <strong>of</strong> future .. .<br />
2 Bonfil Castro, Garcia Canciini et al; Memorias del Simposio: Patrimonio, Museo y Participaci6n<br />
Sociat, Colecci6n Cientifica, Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, Mexico, 1990.<br />
41
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Bonfil Castro, Ramon; Garcia Canclini, Nestor et a/; Memorias del Simposio: Patrimonio,<br />
Museos y Participaci6n Social; INAH; Mexico; 1990.<br />
Braudel, Fernand; ECrits sur I'Histoire; Flammarion; Paris; 1969.<br />
Cassirer, Ernst; Antropologia Filos6fica ; Fondo de Cultura Economica;Mexico; 1975.<br />
--------------; Las Ciencias de la Cultura; Fondo de Cultura Economica S.A. de C.V. ;<br />
Mexico; 1993.<br />
Daly, Henman and Cobb Jr., John B.; For the Common Good - Redirecting the Economy<br />
Toward Community, the Environment and a Sustainable Future.<br />
Desvallees, Andre et al; Vagues - Une Anthologie de la Nouvelle Museologie, VoLl ;<br />
Editions W.M.N.E.S.; Paris; 1992.<br />
Harvey, David; Urbanismo y Desigualdad Social; Siglo XXI Editores de Espana SA;<br />
Madrid; Espana; 1979.<br />
42
MUSEUMS and COMMUNITIES: a powerful equation ...<br />
Maria de Lourdes Horta<br />
<strong>The</strong> theme <strong>of</strong> the <strong>1995</strong> rCOM's General Conference, Museum and<br />
Communities, seems to be as vast and varied as museums and<br />
communities in themselves. From the titles <strong>of</strong> the keynote speech and <strong>of</strong><br />
the four theme related speeches, announced in the programme for the<br />
Stavanger Conference, it is not difficult to trace the main approach<br />
which will govern the discussions: the political nature <strong>of</strong> the problem<br />
embedded in the subject theme.<br />
<strong>The</strong> "situation in Europe", as states the introductory text distributed to all<br />
rCOM members, appears to be the most pressing preoccupation, "in<br />
particular need <strong>of</strong> both reflection and action". While on the one hand<br />
political and chiefly economical agreements are trying to reduce the role<br />
<strong>of</strong> national boundaries, on the other hand the concept <strong>of</strong> national state is<br />
breaking up, splitting itself into new "national unities", which base their<br />
claims to existence and recognition on their cultural and historical roots.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se "national unities", claiming their rights on the basis <strong>of</strong> a feeling <strong>of</strong><br />
identity, built upon race, faith, history and traditions, could well be<br />
called "cultural unities", or "cultural communities": people who have<br />
important things "in common", common values, common beliefs,<br />
common social codes, common experiences, common histories, common<br />
ways <strong>of</strong> life, common expectations for the future. <strong>The</strong>re is nothing more<br />
. "museological" than this field <strong>of</strong> investigation, or this subject theme. It<br />
is, in fact, the main source <strong>of</strong> museum's history and <strong>of</strong> museum's life, and<br />
the only struggle one could find here would be the dispute with<br />
anthropologists and sociologists, and even with social-psychologists, on<br />
who has the biggest slice <strong>of</strong> the cake. Archaeologists would claim for<br />
themselves the deepest stratum <strong>of</strong> the field. But we never heard <strong>of</strong> George<br />
Henry Riviere throwing a bomb at Levi-Strauss' house.<br />
Where is the core <strong>of</strong> the problem we see now developing in the so-called<br />
"developed" countries, as well as in those not yet so "developed" ones?<br />
Why is it so "striking", as the introductory text to the Conference states,<br />
that "many young nations have adopted a motto stressing national unity"<br />
and why will the Director <strong>of</strong> the Papua New Guinea National Museum<br />
address the topic on the role <strong>of</strong> museums in creating a national unity?<br />
Perhaps the answer could be found in the speech <strong>of</strong> Mr. Ole Henrik<br />
Magga, pr<strong>of</strong>essor at the University <strong>of</strong> Oslo, who will talk about<br />
"<strong>Museums</strong> and cultural diversity: indigenous and dominant cultures". It is<br />
43
possible to find in this equation the reason for the conflict which is<br />
spreading all over the world: the conflict is not between "cultures"<br />
(indigenous and not indigenous), but between dominant and nondominant<br />
cultures, between the concepts <strong>of</strong> culture and nation, between<br />
national cultures and national states. <strong>The</strong> conflict is, in fact, a conflict <strong>of</strong><br />
Power. What kind <strong>of</strong> "power" is this? <strong>The</strong> power <strong>of</strong> wealth, the power <strong>of</strong><br />
possessions, the power to decide what is going to happen, when and how.<br />
Quoting again the introductory text in the Conference's booklet, we find<br />
that "cultural heritage and the past itself seem to be the focus for warfare.<br />
<strong>The</strong> aim is not only physical destruction. <strong>The</strong> fight is also about the<br />
ownership <strong>of</strong> history and hence the right to obliterate the adversary's<br />
historic presence in the disputed territories". <strong>The</strong> ownership <strong>of</strong> history is<br />
the ownership <strong>of</strong> the past, the right to the land, and as such the right to<br />
the ownership <strong>of</strong> the present and <strong>of</strong> the future: the final word upon the<br />
world. <strong>The</strong> possession <strong>of</strong> the land is the possession <strong>of</strong> its richness, the<br />
control <strong>of</strong> its goods and products, <strong>of</strong> the production process, <strong>of</strong> all<br />
economical and political processes. Iuri Lotman, in his typology <strong>of</strong><br />
cultures, says that there are cultures which are past oriented, as well as<br />
others that are future oriented. Those which enhance the past as the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> its legitimacy, consider that a culture with no past is a culture<br />
with no origins, and thus, with no existence, or whit no rights to exist.<br />
Cultural heritage, monuments, ruins, historical facts, are pro<strong>of</strong>s for the<br />
primeval origins <strong>of</strong> these cultures, and support their claims <strong>of</strong> superiority<br />
in relation to more "recent cultures". National pride feeds the quest for<br />
national power, or derives from it.<br />
What do museums have to do with all that? In every speech <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Conference's opening day, we will find this explicit or implicit question:<br />
what is the role <strong>of</strong> museums in this particular political process, what<br />
challenges and new challenges do they have to face? "<strong>Museums</strong> and<br />
historic monuments", says the author <strong>of</strong> the introductory text, "may have<br />
important roles to play in these developments: for better or for worse" ...<br />
and he continues, "they have traditionally functioned as symbols <strong>of</strong><br />
national identity, <strong>of</strong>ten even <strong>of</strong> national pride". If we take this statement<br />
in the worst sense, we should ask what kind <strong>of</strong> role have museums<br />
traditionally played in these developments? What kind <strong>of</strong> "national pride"<br />
have they been fostering, for centuries? In the same document, further<br />
down, we find the explanation for the reason <strong>of</strong> young nations wanting<br />
to build up and to stress national unity ... "this may express a wish to<br />
transform formerly more or less independent groups into valued variants<br />
within an all-embracing national culture". How far and for how long<br />
44
have many <strong>of</strong> the great museums adopted this same attitude in relation to<br />
the cultures represented in their collections? How frequently have they<br />
ignored the subtle differences between groups whose cultural heritage<br />
they have been collecting, and showing or representing in a simplistic<br />
way? How many times have they accepted artificial political boundaries,<br />
and considered different cultures within a simplistic all-embracing view?<br />
How far have they crashed national prides in the way they show other<br />
people's cultures, and have fostered feelings <strong>of</strong> superiority in the minds <strong>of</strong><br />
their dominant public?<br />
<strong>The</strong> awareness <strong>of</strong> this responsibility is now spreading throughout<br />
museum's pr<strong>of</strong>essional world, and changing attitudes and behaviours. In<br />
the ICOFOM annual meeting <strong>of</strong> 1988, in India, we have dealt with the<br />
theme <strong>of</strong> museology in developing countries, on help or manipulation. It<br />
is time now to discuss the question <strong>of</strong> museology in "developed"<br />
countries: how far it has helped to develop the present crisis, and for how<br />
long the great museums, and even not so great ones, have been fostering<br />
the national pride <strong>of</strong> the dominant nations, through the exposure <strong>of</strong> their<br />
wealth and richness, built upon the control and manipulation <strong>of</strong> other<br />
cultures? I am not entitled to discuss this point here and now, even if I<br />
have written a whole thesis on the "semiotics <strong>of</strong> the Museum language",<br />
exploring the power and the responsibility <strong>of</strong> our institutions in building<br />
up "models <strong>of</strong> the world". This discussion would lead us further into the<br />
problem <strong>of</strong> representation, and <strong>of</strong> the presentation <strong>of</strong> cultures on the<br />
Museum stage.<br />
<strong>The</strong> main point proposed for discussion here is the relationship between<br />
<strong>Museums</strong> and the Communities which they serve. I haven't touched this<br />
matter yet, or better, I think I have done it, when I've stressed what I<br />
consider to be the heart <strong>of</strong> the matter: the problem <strong>of</strong> Power, and <strong>of</strong><br />
Power balance in today's world. Power does not mean only the control<br />
<strong>of</strong> national boundaries and territories. In the sense <strong>of</strong> the Museum x<br />
Communities relationship, power means who takes the control <strong>of</strong> mental<br />
territories, <strong>of</strong> knowledge territories, <strong>of</strong> cultural boundaries, <strong>of</strong> defining<br />
what is valuable and important in the cultural field, <strong>of</strong> what is worth<br />
showing or not. Who takes the control <strong>of</strong> "history" and <strong>of</strong> the "discourse<br />
on history", whose voice is predominant in Museum speeches and in the<br />
relationship itself?<br />
I will thus approach this question as it can be envisaged against the<br />
reality <strong>of</strong> my own country : Brazil. A country as wide as a whole<br />
continent, with as many cultural variants as one could find in another<br />
45
continent, but where the feeling <strong>of</strong> national identity is not a questionable<br />
idea. As an emerging nation in the arena <strong>of</strong> economical growth, Brazil<br />
faces today another kind <strong>of</strong> warfare: the problem <strong>of</strong> Power is not a<br />
question <strong>of</strong> political boundaries and territories, it is a problem <strong>of</strong> social<br />
boundaries and <strong>of</strong> the ownership <strong>of</strong> land and wealth. <strong>The</strong> unbalance <strong>of</strong><br />
Power is at the basis <strong>of</strong> social struggle, <strong>of</strong> death, corruption and<br />
destruction <strong>of</strong> human values, in the core <strong>of</strong> Brazilian nationality. Three<br />
case studies may be presented in order to approach the problem <strong>of</strong><br />
museums and museology, and their roles and relationships with different<br />
communities, in different situations. In only one <strong>of</strong> these cases, there is a<br />
Museum: a community based museum. In the two other cases, there are<br />
no museums at stake, but no more than potato fields, a big river, and<br />
what I would call an experiment <strong>of</strong> "popular museology", if one may<br />
consider this possibility .. .<br />
Not by coincidence, the three cases take place in the southern region <strong>of</strong><br />
the country, in an area <strong>of</strong> great rural properties and <strong>of</strong> small agricultural<br />
farms, <strong>of</strong> highly developed industrial plants concentrated around rich<br />
urban centres, <strong>of</strong> fast growing towns and <strong>of</strong> thousands <strong>of</strong> villages and<br />
rural nuclei spread along the vast territory <strong>of</strong> fields and mountains. It is<br />
not difficult to imagine the variety and the strength <strong>of</strong> social contrasts<br />
one can find there (as in many other regions <strong>of</strong> Brazil). <strong>The</strong> great<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> the population in this area has an European origin, chiefly<br />
German and Italian, constituting the third or fourth generation <strong>of</strong><br />
descendants <strong>of</strong> the immigrants who came to this country since the second<br />
half <strong>of</strong> the 19th century until early this century. <strong>The</strong> problem <strong>of</strong> identity<br />
is a major point in the development <strong>of</strong> these communities, having still<br />
strong links with their cultural roots but already merged in what we<br />
could call the Brazilian cultural melting pot, and environment. In the last<br />
8 years, I had the opportunity to work as a consultant and a partner in<br />
three projects that may be seen as "case studies" for the discussion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
role <strong>of</strong> museums and <strong>of</strong> cultural heritage in the life <strong>of</strong> people and <strong>of</strong> their<br />
communities.<br />
1. <strong>The</strong> "Schmitt-Presser" House<br />
<strong>The</strong> place is New Hamburg, a rich town growing fast with the industry <strong>of</strong><br />
shoes production, exported all over the world. From its name one can<br />
easily know the cultural origins <strong>of</strong> its population (around 300 thousand<br />
people). After years <strong>of</strong> decay, an old house in the oldest quarter <strong>of</strong> the<br />
town, the "Old Hamburg", has been restored by the local authorities and<br />
protected under the list <strong>of</strong> national monuments, as a true example <strong>of</strong> the<br />
46
first immigrant housing. <strong>The</strong> first question made when the work was<br />
finished has been: what should be done with the house? <strong>The</strong> first answer,<br />
naturally, was: let's do a museum! I have been invited to come and help<br />
the municipality in this project, together with the Office <strong>of</strong> National<br />
Heritage in the area. What kind <strong>of</strong> museum, with what objects, could one<br />
propose for the house? <strong>The</strong>re were no objects, no staff, no public money<br />
available. <strong>The</strong>re was yet a group <strong>of</strong> people, the Friends <strong>of</strong> Old Hamburg,<br />
who had been fighting since 20 years for the preservation <strong>of</strong> their old<br />
quarter and the big park, a vast area <strong>of</strong> land soon to be bought for the<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> another big hotel to host the shoes' dealers. In the empty<br />
house where I met the local association, the only thing they had in hands<br />
was the reproduction <strong>of</strong> a famous painting by a local artist, representing<br />
the interior <strong>of</strong> that house, the first shop settled in the area by one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
founders <strong>of</strong> New Hamburg: John Schmitt; a little shop where the<br />
community used to meet to buy primary goods and to discuss the latest<br />
news from the capital <strong>of</strong> the Province. <strong>The</strong> symbolic meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
house, in its original use as a community centre, gave the group the first<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> what should be done with the house: to reconstruct its original<br />
function, as a shop where one could meet and exchange again real goods,<br />
news, family links, and all sort <strong>of</strong> symbolic goods existing in the fabric <strong>of</strong><br />
th4t particular community. <strong>The</strong> project <strong>of</strong> a community based museum<br />
was born, as a perfect tool for the strengthening <strong>of</strong> people's sense <strong>of</strong><br />
identity, <strong>of</strong> community links and values, and for the protection <strong>of</strong> their<br />
original environment. It is impossible to describe here how the whole<br />
work developed, run by this group <strong>of</strong> people, formed by all kinds <strong>of</strong><br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals, housewives, widowers, old teachers, young architects and<br />
photographers, university teachers, local businessmen. <strong>The</strong> strategies, the<br />
obstacles, the conflicts, the discussions, the whole process in itself are<br />
worth <strong>of</strong> study and exploration. <strong>The</strong> reality now, after nearly three years<br />
since it was inaugurated as the "Schmitt-Presser" house, is a little "shopmuseum",<br />
run by the people <strong>of</strong> Old Hamburg, nearby the big park<br />
where another preservation project is being developed. What kind <strong>of</strong><br />
museology took place in this project?.. a very "popular" kind <strong>of</strong> practice,<br />
from the identification <strong>of</strong> things people had at home, from the listing and<br />
temporary borrowing <strong>of</strong> these things, from a campaign <strong>of</strong> recollection and<br />
registration, to photographing and cleaning <strong>of</strong> the materials, to the<br />
installation <strong>of</strong> the old shop furniture, <strong>of</strong> an exhibition on Old Hamburg<br />
life, <strong>of</strong> a photographic competition, <strong>of</strong> reports in local newspapers, <strong>of</strong> the<br />
writing <strong>of</strong> administrative rules and statutes, <strong>of</strong> donations and<br />
contributions <strong>of</strong> all sorts. All the problems and tasks <strong>of</strong> a true museum<br />
have been faced and tackled by people with no museological experience,<br />
with the help <strong>of</strong> half a dozen museum pr<strong>of</strong>essionals, and with the<br />
47
enthusiasm <strong>of</strong> those who find out a reason for pride and satisfaction in<br />
taking their heritage with their own hands, with their own hearts, with<br />
their own capacities and good will, and who made <strong>of</strong> this process and this<br />
achievement a tool for self-assurance, for the defence <strong>of</strong> their own rights,<br />
for the realisation <strong>of</strong> their dreams. For this people, a "museum" IS no<br />
mystery anymore, it is actually a simple thing, a good thing to do.<br />
2. <strong>The</strong> "IDENTITY PROJECT" <strong>of</strong> the 4th Colony<br />
This project started in the far west <strong>of</strong> the region, high upon the hills, in<br />
an area encompassing 9 municipalities, or "neighbourhoods", today<br />
defined as one <strong>of</strong> the "Reserves <strong>of</strong> the Biosphere" by UNESCO. A place<br />
where there are no museums, no theatres, no libraries, no shopping<br />
centres, but only potato fields and forests, and a working system very<br />
similar to those <strong>of</strong> medieval times. <strong>The</strong> project started very modestly, by<br />
the initiative <strong>of</strong> the local cultural <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the poorest villages in<br />
the area, named Silveira Martins (in honour <strong>of</strong> a famous political leader<br />
who interfered in the settlement <strong>of</strong> Italian immigrants in the 19th c.). <strong>The</strong><br />
village was going into an irreversible process <strong>of</strong> death ... no resources for<br />
development in the economical, political or social sense, the youngsters<br />
escaping from the fields in search <strong>of</strong> the great urban centres and a better<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> life. <strong>The</strong> parents growing old, and fighting to survive. What to<br />
do to recover the pace <strong>of</strong> development, when people did not wanted to<br />
remember the shadows <strong>of</strong> their difficult past and the failure <strong>of</strong> their<br />
settlements, when comparing their own history with those <strong>of</strong> more<br />
successful communities, becoming rich with commerce and the industry<br />
<strong>of</strong> wine. When I first came to the area, as a consultant for the Heritage<br />
Office, I was impressed by the helpless situation <strong>of</strong> these people, and by<br />
the syndrome <strong>of</strong> "identity amnesia" they were suffering from, by their lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> self-esteem and <strong>of</strong> hope. This was surely a case for a social psychologist,<br />
I have thought. Together with the local <strong>of</strong>ficer, who had already started a<br />
program <strong>of</strong> annual "forums", getting together all the rural districts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
region, we started a systematic program <strong>of</strong> what we call "heritage<br />
education", a sort <strong>of</strong> "heritage literacy" program. All the work was based<br />
on children and teachers, who could more directly involve the parents<br />
and the whole community. <strong>The</strong> strategy was to work with their own<br />
reality, objects and working tools, in a process <strong>of</strong> observation, <strong>of</strong><br />
questioning the function and meaning <strong>of</strong> each element or thing, starting<br />
with their own houses, linking these elements to the history and the<br />
cultural traditions <strong>of</strong> people, "rediscovering" their memories, their<br />
tragedies, and the values <strong>of</strong> their lives. We could only work between<br />
seasons, since children, teachers and parents are on the fields in<br />
48<br />
I<br />
J
plantation and harvesting times. After 8 years <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
"Identity Project", nine districts in the former 4th immigration colony are<br />
involved in this regular program <strong>of</strong> Heritage Education. What kind <strong>of</strong><br />
"museology" is being worked upon, there? Objects are identified,<br />
collected, studied, preserved in their original places, exhibited in schools<br />
and community centres throughout the area, forums <strong>of</strong> discussion on<br />
cultural heritage and on tourist resources to be explored are being held<br />
regularly, schools are involved with the work in their "curricula", but<br />
there's no "museum" in sight, or in planning ... this would be in my view a<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> "field museology", <strong>of</strong> "primary museology", in a "pre-historical" or<br />
"pre-museological" sense, if you want to take as a starting point the term<br />
"museum", as an institution, as the pre-condition for the practice <strong>of</strong><br />
museology. I'm not sure one could still keep to this "parameter".<br />
3. <strong>The</strong> "NOAH'S ARCH" project<br />
This project is still in its early stages, and I will only describe its<br />
proposition and context. <strong>The</strong> situation has to do, as the name suggests,<br />
with a great deluge which is meant to happen in the next 5 years. One <strong>of</strong><br />
the big rivers which crosses a huge area <strong>of</strong> the southern country, is going<br />
to be damped with the construction <strong>of</strong> a major hydro-electric plant. <strong>The</strong><br />
waters <strong>of</strong> the big lake which will be formed will cover an area <strong>of</strong> 500<br />
square kilometres. A vast portion <strong>of</strong> fields, villages, cemeteries, rural<br />
"nuclei", and a whole small town will be flooded. Since one year I have<br />
been involved in the project <strong>of</strong> saving the heritage and the cultural<br />
. memory <strong>of</strong> people, and <strong>of</strong> the management <strong>of</strong> the environmental changes<br />
due to happen. <strong>The</strong> project is run by the initiative <strong>of</strong> the Electric<br />
Enterprise in charge <strong>of</strong> the damp construction, and is being developed in<br />
association with local authorities and the involved groups. Many<br />
programs and actions are already starting, and a whole town has been<br />
rebuilt in a higher hill. Again we are starting the whole project with the<br />
participation <strong>of</strong> the communities affected by the Deluge, and with a<br />
systematic work <strong>of</strong> Heritage Education, in order to motivate people to<br />
take the control <strong>of</strong> what is inevitable. <strong>The</strong> negotiations <strong>of</strong> land and<br />
properties include now the negotiation <strong>of</strong> the preservation <strong>of</strong> cultural<br />
values, marks, relationships and memories. Against the "electric power",<br />
we are trying to build up a generating net <strong>of</strong> "cultural power". In a few<br />
years, I hope to be able to report on how the whole process developed,<br />
and on how the Noah's Arch settled on a peaceful mountain.<br />
For the moment, all that I can say from these three examples, is my belief<br />
in Paulo Freire's theory (the famous Brazilian philosopher and educator<br />
49
who proposed the "Pedagogy <strong>of</strong> Liberation"): the theory <strong>of</strong><br />
"empowerment", at the basis <strong>of</strong> any social work. In this sense, I believe<br />
that museology, in its most basic principles and practice, may be a tool<br />
for "empowering" people in their daily fight for survival, not only<br />
physically and materially, but morally and psychologically. If we believe<br />
in the power <strong>of</strong> <strong>Museums</strong> and <strong>of</strong> Museology in helping the "integral<br />
development" <strong>of</strong> human beings and <strong>of</strong> their communities, we must accept<br />
this power cannot, and should not, stay only in our hands. Learning how<br />
to share our powers and capacities with the communities to which we<br />
belong is, in my view, the great challenge for the museum world today.<br />
As I mentioned in my starting point, this is a matter <strong>of</strong> power<br />
relationships, a powerful question, indeed.<br />
* * *<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY:<br />
Lotman, Iuri - 1981 . '<strong>The</strong> modelling value <strong>of</strong> the concepts <strong>of</strong> 'end' and<br />
<strong>of</strong> 'beginning' (1970), in Ensaios de Semiotica<br />
Sovietica, Livros Horizonte, Lisboa.231-236<br />
Freire, Paulo and Macedo, Donaldo. 1990. Literacy, reading the world<br />
and the word. Ed.Paz e Terra, Rio de Janeiro.<br />
50
<strong>Museums</strong> and Communities - case studies<br />
context <strong>of</strong> relationship initiative action time period<br />
1. Traditional heterogeneous Museum approximation 6 month-I year<br />
Museum community versus identification regular programs<br />
urban centre groups Communities valorisation<br />
(300.000 dessacralization<br />
population)<br />
2.Historic house Specific Heritage Officers . dialogue I to 2 years<br />
--+ neighbour hood + . analysis <strong>of</strong> (background<br />
communitary Community - Community expectation process 10 years)<br />
museum. German origin leaders and projects<br />
Urban centre in . definition <strong>of</strong><br />
rapid strategy<br />
development. . basic support<br />
to action<br />
3. Local local local authorities diagnosis 1st phase<br />
municipality communities + I to 2 years<br />
authorities museum experts/ strategies <strong>of</strong><br />
+ Italian origin educators action permanent<br />
museum (9 process<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals municipalities) long term since 9 years<br />
+ teachers programme<br />
- educators children<br />
-+<br />
implementation<br />
environment<br />
experts<br />
- expansion<br />
Heritage<br />
- territory-rural Education<br />
areas programme<br />
4.Eletric local government long term 2 to 5 year<br />
Enterprise communities projects - programme (background<br />
& + rules structuration process 10 years)<br />
Heritage Officers organised identification<br />
- groups Enterprise involvement<br />
rural/urban area - versus discussion<br />
10 municipalities communities negotiation<br />
training<br />
Heritage <strong>of</strong>ficers Heritage<br />
mediation Education<br />
different<br />
programs<br />
55
MUSEUMS AND COMMUNITIES: AN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH<br />
Nicola Ladkin<br />
Collections Manager - Anthropology<br />
Museum <strong>of</strong> Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas. 79409-3193 USA<br />
Museology is a branch <strong>of</strong> knowledge that is characterized by theoretical debate<br />
surrounding the various aspects <strong>of</strong> museum existence. Thus, it expands as a result <strong>of</strong><br />
investigation into areas <strong>of</strong> theoretics previously uncharted. While museological debate<br />
may not conform to scientific standards <strong>of</strong> testing and re-testing with predictable<br />
results, it emphasizes observation, critical thinking, analysis, and shifts in perceptual<br />
focus. <strong>The</strong>oretical subjects are based upon systematic, organized knowledge, that<br />
utilizes conceptual reasoning to develop principles and rules and beliefs that seek to<br />
explain a system. Some such explorations may prove fruitless while others may yield<br />
rich rewards.<br />
U museums are committed to building dynamic relationships with communities, they<br />
must also build the theoretical constructs that explain these relationships. Historically,<br />
museologists have examined their relationship with their communities from human and<br />
cultural perspectives. However, this approach ignores the fact that museums are part <strong>of</strong><br />
the much larger community that is the global, natural environment. It is theorised here<br />
that ecological concepts and models that explain the processes operating within the<br />
natural environment can be used to explain the processes operating within museums,<br />
wl).ere museums are seen as a species in that natural environment. This is illustrated<br />
through the application <strong>of</strong> accepted ecological concepts to museological examples,<br />
where community is synonymous with ecosystem. <strong>The</strong> ecological concepts used in this<br />
investigation are representative <strong>of</strong> the discipline, not exhaustive. <strong>The</strong> museological<br />
examples demonstrate the application the concepts, and these can be applied to any<br />
museum scenario.<br />
Museology can learn much from the ecological method <strong>of</strong> examining the relationship <strong>of</strong><br />
parts to a whole. Concepts such as carrying capacity, diverSity, and niche are well<br />
established within ecological literature and provide a holistic mechanism for<br />
understanding the interrelationships within complex systems. Cultural ecology<br />
examines the cultural, psychological, and anthropological aspects <strong>of</strong> the relationship<br />
between culture and the natural environment (Bennett, 1976). Political ecology<br />
57
climate around them, and once this need is recognised, they then can advocate it.<br />
Museum institutions face the problem <strong>of</strong> responding slowly to changes in the<br />
infrastructure that supports them, yet through their exhibits they have proved to be<br />
reflectors <strong>of</strong> change that can also take a proactive approach (Johnson, 1992; Kulik, 1992).<br />
It could be argued that museum pr<strong>of</strong>essionals are not specifically qualified to suggest<br />
how individuals, cultures, or nations should behave. However, research carried out in<br />
museums, the collections on which this research is based, and the production <strong>of</strong><br />
education programs and exhibits that are the vehicle for this presentation <strong>of</strong> this<br />
knowledge contradict this argument (Ladkin, 1993).<br />
Adaptations are adjustments that occur in species with respect to environmental forces,<br />
producing an adaptive response. <strong>The</strong>se adaptations can be made genetically, as in<br />
natural selection, culturally, or environmentally. <strong>Museums</strong> can change their behaviour<br />
to better operate in their communities. <strong>The</strong>y have, for example, adapted to the need for<br />
greater public accountability by devising and adhering to codes <strong>of</strong> ethics. <strong>The</strong>y also<br />
have increased visitor numbers through the production <strong>of</strong> attractive public<br />
programmes.<br />
A niche is a functional position <strong>of</strong> a species in an environment, that includes habitat,<br />
timeframe <strong>of</strong> occurrence and resources gathered there. <strong>Museums</strong> have the unique role<br />
<strong>of</strong> holding collections and making them public through exhibit and research. Other<br />
entities, such as royal families and religious institutions, may hold collections, but may<br />
not necessarily make them publicly available, . Niches also can overlap somewhat in a<br />
4iverse community, so museums may share niches with other species having similar<br />
functions, such as those relating to education, public policy, tourism and development,<br />
aesthetic appreciation, intellectual stimulation, and political empowerment.<br />
Diversity is the measurement <strong>of</strong> the richness <strong>of</strong> a community or area. A high level <strong>of</strong><br />
diversity is associated with stable climax communities that have undergone<br />
uninterrupted development. Diversity produces stability because the community<br />
ecosystem has relatively little dependence on any single element. Diversity <strong>of</strong> both<br />
representation and appeal currently is strongly urged by the museum community (Karp<br />
and Lavine, 1991: Rice, 1993). <strong>Museums</strong> are both evidence <strong>of</strong> a diverse community with<br />
attendant stability, and its advocate.<br />
60
is made to produce a conceptual tool with which to construct new museological<br />
methodologies. An understanding <strong>of</strong> community dynamics assists museologists in<br />
developing the behaviour in organisation, management, and practice that makes<br />
museums into efficiently operating and environmentally sensitive institutions.<br />
Furthermore, once museologists understand the processes at work in a community, they<br />
are better placed to interpret why it is imperative for the human species to adopt an<br />
environmentally sustainable way <strong>of</strong> life. Museum ecology could be further used to<br />
study the responses made to the changing relationship between museums, humankind,<br />
and the environment. Once environmental processes have illuminated how museums<br />
function in their communities, then museologists are poised to interpret their function<br />
in the natural environment for their communities, and the functions <strong>of</strong> the natural<br />
environment as a whole. <strong>The</strong>y then can illustrate the vital point that the best interests <strong>of</strong><br />
the human species are to not out-compete other species, since the perpetuation or<br />
collapse <strong>of</strong> the community ecosystem ultimately is at stake.<br />
References<br />
Allaby, Michael<br />
1994 Allaby, Michael (ed.), <strong>The</strong> Concise Oxford Dictionary <strong>of</strong> Ecology, Oxford University Press,<br />
Oxford, UK.<br />
Ames, Michael M<br />
1992 Cannibal Tours and Glass Boxes. University <strong>of</strong> British Columbia Press, Vancouver.<br />
AJ:Iders, Cindy, Mark Gerson, Maura Reynolds, Ge<strong>of</strong>frey Maslen, Christina Bonasegna,<br />
Jacqueline Guigui, Janet Koplos, Isabel de la Cruz, and Kathy Curnow Nasara.<br />
1988 <strong>Museums</strong>: A Global View. Museum News, 67(1):22-47.<br />
Baccini, Peter and Paul H. Brunner<br />
1991 Metabolism <strong>of</strong> the Anthrosphere. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany<br />
Bennett, John W<br />
1876 <strong>The</strong> Ecological Transition. Pergamon Press, New York.<br />
Darwin, Charles Robert<br />
1859 On the Origin <strong>of</strong> Species by Means <strong>of</strong> Natural Selection, John Murray, London, UK.<br />
Doering, Zahava D<br />
1992 Environmental Impact. Museum News, 71(2):50-52.<br />
63
Fuller, Nancy J<br />
1992 <strong>The</strong> Museum as a Vehicle for Community Empowerment: <strong>The</strong> Ak-Chin Indian<br />
Community Ecomuseum Project. In: Karp, Ivan, Christine Mullen Kreamer, and Steven<br />
D. Lavine (eds.), <strong>Museums</strong> and Communities, pp. 327-365. Smithsonian Institution Press.<br />
Washington DC.<br />
Garfield, Donald<br />
1992 Darkened Waters: Pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> an Oil Spill. Museum News, 71(2):24-<strong>25</strong>.<br />
Glacken, Clarence<br />
1967 Traces on the Rhodian Shore, University <strong>of</strong> California Press, Berkeley.<br />
Insley, Jane<br />
1991 Environment versus Technology. <strong>Museums</strong> Journal, 91(9):16.<br />
Johnson, William H<br />
1992 <strong>The</strong> Strange Case <strong>of</strong> the Disappearing Moose. Museum News, 71 (2):56-58.<br />
Karp, Ivan<br />
1992 Introduction. In: Karp, Ivan, Christine Mullen Kreamer, and Steven D. Lavine (eds.),<br />
<strong>Museums</strong> and Communities, pp. 1-17. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington DC.<br />
Karp, Ivan and Steven D. Lavine<br />
1991 Exhibiting Cultures, Smithsonian Press, Washington DC.<br />
Kulik, Linda<br />
1992 Disputed Territory. Museum News, 71(2):53-55.<br />
Ladkin, Nicola<br />
1993 <strong>Museums</strong>: Reflecting and Innovating the Environmental Debate. Unpublished<br />
Master's thesis, Texas Tech University, Lubbock.<br />
Matilsky, Barbara<br />
1992 Art and Ecology. Museum News, 71(2):46-49.<br />
Redcllit, Michael<br />
1987 Sustainable Development, Methuen, London, UK.<br />
Rice, Danielle<br />
1993 <strong>The</strong> Cross-Cultural Mediator. Museum News, 72(1):38-41.<br />
Simmons, Ian Gordon<br />
1989 Changing the Face <strong>of</strong> the Earth, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, UK.<br />
Somma,Mark<br />
1993 <strong>The</strong>ory Building in Political Ecology. Social Science Information, 32(3):371-385.<br />
Sullivan, Robert<br />
1992 Trouble in Paradigms. Museum News, 71(2):40-44.<br />
World Commission on Environment and Development<br />
1985 Mandate for Change: Key Issues, Strategies, and Workp/an, World Commission on<br />
Environment and Development, Geneva, Switzerland.<br />
64
MUSEES ET COMMUNAUTES: UNE APPROCHE ECOLOGIQUE<br />
Nicola Ladkin<br />
Directrice des collections - Anthropologie<br />
Museum <strong>of</strong> Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas. 79409-3193 USA<br />
Du point de vue historique, les museologues ont surtou t examine leurs liens avec les<br />
communautes qu'ils servaient a partir d'une perspective cu1turelle. Cette approche ignore<br />
toutefois Ie fait que les musees peuvent etre indus a I'interieur d'une communaute beaucoup<br />
plus vaste, c'est a dire I'environnement naturel et global. D'un point de vue tMorique, il s'agit ici<br />
de considerer la terminologie existante en ecologie et les modeJes qui servent a expliquer les<br />
processus en jeu dans I' environnement naturel, comme pouvant de£inir les mecanismes operant<br />
a I'interieur des musees. Le concept d'ecologie des musees, telle qu'utilise id, considere les<br />
musees comme une espece faisant partie de l' environnement nature!, alors que communaute est<br />
synonyme d'ecosysteme.<br />
Les musees representent une espece complexe se trouvant a I'interieur de communautes<br />
nature1les qui sont a la fois globales et diverses. De plus, ces communautes sont generalement en<br />
equilibre avec leur environnement. Ainsi, l' existence des musees permet une evaluation quant au<br />
bien-etre de ces communautes et leur presence est primordiale quant a leurs stabilites. De plus,<br />
les musees occupent une niche a I'interieur de ces communautes, alors qu'ils ont evolue, se sont<br />
adaptes et entres en competition avec d'autres especes pour Ie partage des ressources<br />
disponibles. Dans ce sens, les musees entretiennent des interactions symbiotiques mutuelles<br />
avec d'autres especes. Les musees sont dependants de la capadte de soutien des communautes<br />
alors qu'ils maintiennent un nombre d'institutions. Leur presence, par ailleurs, est un bon<br />
indicateur quant a la disponibilite des ressources qui servent au maintien et a la perpetuation de<br />
l' ecosysteme et des especes qui y sont rattacMes. Ainsi, des communautes sous stress auront<br />
des repercussions sur I' existence meme des musees.<br />
Une meilleure comprehension de la dynamique ecologique des communautes peut permettre au<br />
muselogues d'elaborer des strategies efficaces quant a I'organisation, la gestion et la pratique de<br />
la disdpline. De plus, lorsque les museologues comprennent les processus en jeu dans la<br />
communaute, ils deviennent mieux placer a evaluer I'irnportance que l' espece hurnaine doit<br />
placer a maintenir une mode de vie responsable face aux questions environnementales.<br />
Finalement, alors que les processus ecologiques servent a demontrer comment les musees<br />
fonctionnent a I'interieur de communautes, les musees a leur tour deviennent prets a definir leurs<br />
propres fonctions dans I' environnement naturel, et de meme les fonctions des communautes en<br />
general.<br />
65
<strong>The</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> museums<br />
MUSEUMS AND THE COMMUNITY<br />
Lynn Maranda<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are many ways to view the nature <strong>of</strong> a museum and one illustrative way to examine the<br />
museum's character is to ascertain what community the museum serves. It can be argued that<br />
all museums do serve a community and that museums come into existence because <strong>of</strong> that fact.<br />
<strong>The</strong> service which a museum gives a population is one that unites a community by supplying<br />
it with a sense <strong>of</strong> history. <strong>Museums</strong> are another in a list <strong>of</strong> institutions which try to answer the<br />
questions <strong>of</strong> existence which the human race is continually asking. <strong>The</strong> questions <strong>of</strong> "Who are<br />
we?" and "Where did we come from?" are asked in probing rhetoric to help define the purpose<br />
<strong>of</strong> our living and to shape the direction <strong>of</strong> our ambition. It is this sense <strong>of</strong> a community or<br />
population curious to know its beginnings and wanting to know its future that the museum<br />
ful.fils its role in the social order. <strong>Museums</strong> themselves have undergone evolution with the<br />
change <strong>of</strong> social conditions and their own progression from private 'cabinets <strong>of</strong> curiosities' to<br />
monolithic public institutions can be readily traced. What are separate histories accommodated<br />
within a private collection or within a monolithic public institution are histories nonetheless<br />
which make a commitment to the understanding <strong>of</strong> community: one commitment extremely<br />
small, yet deemed <strong>of</strong> great value, the other large and providing a wide opinion to assist in the<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> a national population.<br />
Hist0IY<br />
A museum is a house in which history is stored. If the purpose <strong>of</strong> history is to write the story<br />
depicting the evolution <strong>of</strong> a peoples from the beginning <strong>of</strong> a determined epoch to the present,<br />
then the present circumstance <strong>of</strong> a community or a people is the major gravitational intellectual<br />
force which determines the attitude <strong>of</strong> written histories. It is by this respect that histories serve<br />
communities and museums, the warehouse <strong>of</strong> historical physical materials, serve up the<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> given stated historical positions. <strong>The</strong> reason such purposes are required by humans<br />
is that when histories tell stories <strong>of</strong> evolution, they at the same time give special social meaning<br />
to the very readers <strong>of</strong> the evolution. Histories explain the existence <strong>of</strong> a people and even if the<br />
depicted histories do not directly retell the particular story <strong>of</strong> a given population, the very<br />
outlook and fact <strong>of</strong> a population's existence is supported through the act <strong>of</strong> writing. For<br />
example, even the writers <strong>of</strong> history from the Victorian era can expound on subjects other than<br />
their own society as an indirect reinforcement <strong>of</strong> their own social conditions. It is known that<br />
these museums which collected materials from around the world and displayed much <strong>of</strong> its<br />
findings in support <strong>of</strong> notions <strong>of</strong> "savagery" and "racial" types endorsed the European self<br />
67
irriage <strong>of</strong>, ifnot "superiority", then <strong>of</strong> "advanced evolution" .<br />
Age and history are not the same qualities, though age and history can be applied to the same<br />
objects and concepts. <strong>The</strong> overriding difference between the two qualities is that one notion<br />
is based on means <strong>of</strong> time determination and the other is based on an evolution determination<br />
which, in many cases is imparted to an object, rather than it being inherent in the object itself<br />
It is a curatorial concern to import historical meaning to objects <strong>of</strong> age and serve the<br />
community with historical interpretation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Community<br />
Communities are defined as an aggregate <strong>of</strong> people <strong>of</strong> a joint interest. This interest could have<br />
arisen from an association with a simple locale such as a neighbourhood, it could have arisen<br />
from the avid zeal in a subject such as aviation, it could have arisen through the intellectual<br />
inquiry such as an archeological study <strong>of</strong> antiquities, it could have arisen by nationalist motives<br />
such as the state run and operated museums <strong>of</strong> countries which propound patriotism, it could<br />
have arisen through civic pride, individual collecting, or by the awakening <strong>of</strong> a "new truth"<br />
whose followers would make an historical statement and find that together they are a<br />
community.<br />
Contemporary Pressure<br />
Contemporary political and economic spheres have placed pressures on the world creating a<br />
modem oddly mixed social order. To discover and/or redefine a history for this extant new<br />
order has caused a reexamination <strong>of</strong> what is important in life. <strong>The</strong> world community is now<br />
having to achieve understandings where local claims to history are no longer adequate.<br />
Further, to add to the special modem mix, there has been an increase in special interest claims,<br />
international political movements, and global intellectual claims which all need their<br />
explanations in history. <strong>The</strong> modem dilemma is that none <strong>of</strong> the demands for historical<br />
validation match a single threaded path <strong>of</strong> history, but are a part <strong>of</strong> a complex and competing<br />
arena that is vying for attention. Not all the contributions put forward to make a claim on<br />
history are overlapping or congruous, in fact, some are quite discreet and others definitely<br />
opposing. This modem and intense demand for knowledge <strong>of</strong> competing existences has created<br />
a situation where museums cannot possibly satisfy the variety <strong>of</strong> different publics and<br />
communities.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Conflict<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is a conflict which has arisen through the demands <strong>of</strong> international, national, provincial,<br />
city, ethnic group, native group, different political affiliations, historical traditions placed upon<br />
the support that history can <strong>of</strong>fer the justification <strong>of</strong> a community's existence and still be fair<br />
68
to all. It appears that history cannot logically envelope all the modes <strong>of</strong> explanation with equal<br />
clarity and force <strong>of</strong> pronouncement. For example, it does seem that the museum cannot serve<br />
the dominant culture <strong>of</strong> Canada and at the same time serve the aspirations <strong>of</strong> First Nations<br />
peoples as the notion <strong>of</strong> historical occurrences are in conflict. This rising friction between the<br />
requirements for knowledge to explain existences and the ability to make the expression has<br />
created cracks in and hardships on the structure <strong>of</strong> museums and the stress caused on the<br />
morality <strong>of</strong> museum purpose has pressured the decision makers to a more user-defined<br />
institution such that the morality is defined by public support rather than by idealogy or thought<br />
detennined positions.<br />
Politically correct<br />
Special interest groups and cultural minorities within the social fabric are demanding a 'voice'<br />
and thus a forum in which to present their histories and to advance their socio-political<br />
messages. In this way and through this kind <strong>of</strong> 'media conduit', ie. the museum, such groups<br />
can reach an audience for purposes <strong>of</strong> eliciting sympathy and support, which in tum becomes<br />
a powerful tool to effect changes desired by the group.<br />
In keeping with the notion that histories are the story <strong>of</strong> evolution <strong>of</strong> how a people or culture<br />
or community have come into existence, the use <strong>of</strong> words, phrases, and concepts that have<br />
traditionally been used by one community have in recent years been challenged under the broad<br />
rubric <strong>of</strong> ' political correctness'. <strong>The</strong> explanation for the rise <strong>of</strong> political correctness has to do<br />
with the enfranchisement <strong>of</strong> disadvantaged or minority communities which have recently<br />
acquired political strength and are demanding histories that explain their particular evolution<br />
or struggle for existence. In the common vernacular it is stated that victors write histories and<br />
in this sense, the volatility <strong>of</strong> historical meaning alters with the change <strong>of</strong> political climate.<br />
Clearly this has a major influence on museum exhibition and practices. A recent exhibition<br />
entitled "Into the Heart <strong>of</strong> Africa", mounted by the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto and<br />
publicised as a view <strong>of</strong> Victorian Africa, was roundly criticized by many ethnic Canadian<br />
communities as being racist and derogatory.<br />
A search for a Solution<br />
<strong>The</strong> signposts that a search is ongoing to find a solution to the demands arising from political<br />
correctness, historical explanation and financial support are that the museums are becoming<br />
responsive to a variety <strong>of</strong> community voices and sensitive to financial relationships, thus leaving<br />
their direction open to the vagaries <strong>of</strong> a 'marketplace' not under museum control.<br />
69
<strong>The</strong> Finances<br />
<strong>The</strong> flow <strong>of</strong> money is a detenninant in most human endeavour and is cenainly a major<br />
parameter in shaping the purpose and structure <strong>of</strong> museums. Most museums are dependent<br />
upon tax dollars and as such these institutions feel obligated to serve the broadest tax pacing<br />
public that is possible. With nations that have a strong cultural identity, this identity would be<br />
fostered by a national museum giving purpose to the existence <strong>of</strong> a national type and that form<br />
<strong>of</strong> visual and tangible history that museum collections <strong>of</strong>fer. Where nations have old defined<br />
national cultural attributes, the expenditure <strong>of</strong> tax dollars can be easily justified in promoting<br />
those national cultures through heritage collections. It is the case, however, that special<br />
interest groups assemble their own private money and spend it promoting the materials which<br />
give meaning to their causes. In the same vein, private collectors who have amassed dollars and<br />
collections which reflect their personal tastes have opened museums to exhibit their treasures<br />
and these have obvious credentials for their existence. <strong>The</strong> flow <strong>of</strong> money is a strong<br />
determinant in the organization and life <strong>of</strong> museums and with the pressures to sustain a variety<br />
<strong>of</strong> collection perspectives, to serve a variety <strong>of</strong> publics, and to acquire funds which have<br />
realized an increase in demand, it is not surprising that many museums are looking towards<br />
user-defined operations. A user-defined institution sets its objectives as a common goal for a<br />
known public and is supported by the public through donations and admissions. It therefore<br />
gratifies the user-public with information and meaning with the objective <strong>of</strong> ensuring its<br />
financial stability.<br />
Responsive to community needs<br />
It is a relatively new phenomenon where museums undertake to test the public's wants and<br />
needs with surveys and market analysis to discover what an institution's relation with its<br />
community is and/or should be. This phenomenon, most probably, is an <strong>of</strong>fshoot <strong>of</strong> institution's<br />
desires to become financially independent and to set their foundations on a user-defined basis.<br />
Many museums are spending money and time to conduct studies to gauge public reactions,<br />
sentiment and desire, to chart future courses under the heading <strong>of</strong> being responsive to<br />
community needs. In fact, businesses have sprung up in response to this need to locate and<br />
secure a permanent financial footing and to be perceived as being community-responsive, thus<br />
creating a class <strong>of</strong> museum consultants whose expertise is sought after on these pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
matters ..<br />
Charging and Value<br />
<strong>Museums</strong> are responding to a heightened social notion that value is equated with cost and that<br />
therefore if you pay little for an item or for admission or for the use <strong>of</strong> a service, then it could<br />
have little value. Hence, those items which have the greatest cost have the greatest value and<br />
museums are increasingly becoming caught up in this entrepreneurial spiral and are charging<br />
70
fees for services and admissions in an attempt to increase the notion <strong>of</strong> their value. As such,<br />
the larger notions <strong>of</strong> nationalism and abstract notions such as democracy and evolution have<br />
a more difficult time in aligning paths <strong>of</strong> historical truth <strong>of</strong> the display <strong>of</strong> their material.<br />
This drive behind the museum-community interface has created changes to the financial bases<br />
<strong>of</strong> museum, where museums are now actively soliciting funds, charging higher and higher<br />
admissions and memberships and becoming special-public oriented; it has created a political<br />
demand from the community which is wanting to have the museum reflect a particular public's<br />
concerns and notions <strong>of</strong> historical truth; it has created a marketplace atmosphere where value<br />
and service are determined through a kind <strong>of</strong> auctioning process. <strong>The</strong> reactive/responsive<br />
contemporary museum has both gained and given power in its newly defined role with the<br />
community. Because <strong>of</strong> the museum's visibility, it is seen to be a focal place for ideas, and this<br />
gathers status and influence for the institution, while on the other hand, the community's use<br />
<strong>of</strong> the museum has gained for itself a power base from which it can disseminate its messages.<br />
Tourism<br />
<strong>The</strong> financial dependence <strong>of</strong> museums on communities is readily seen in the tourism industry<br />
where the tourist anticipation <strong>of</strong> what objects they would be willing to pay admission to see<br />
determine the size and content <strong>of</strong> museological display, and in a very real sense, the tourist is<br />
a nomadic community which strongly influence museums as points <strong>of</strong> destination. Millions <strong>of</strong><br />
people travel the world to visit specific locations which are providing known collections <strong>of</strong><br />
objects which have been advertised as being available for tourist consumption.<br />
Anticipation and Reality<br />
Many museums are having to reconcile their museological objectives which may have, for<br />
example, academic, ethnographic, or archaeological quests for education or discovery, and are<br />
having to modify these intellectual ambitions with the "real" demands from various public<br />
communities.<br />
It is also noted that the world's populations are desiring more to be entertained rather than<br />
educated; they are being accustomed to mass entertainment models and expect the same from<br />
their institutions which portray their history; and that people, more and more, are desiring<br />
interactive rather than passive displays.<br />
<strong>The</strong> museum will continue to be a house where history is stored though the stories depicting<br />
the evolution <strong>of</strong> peoples will continue to change as the social fabric <strong>of</strong> the community evolves.<br />
Lynn Maranda, Vancouver Museum, Canada<br />
71<br />
14 March <strong>1995</strong>
«Les musees. interoretes du patrimoine : I'appropriation communautaire»<br />
Raymond Montpetit, U. du Quebec a Montreal, Canada<br />
Cette communication veut reflechir a I'evolution historique des rapports entre les<br />
collectivites et leur patrimoine, pour montrer qU 'aujourd'hui , dans les societes<br />
postindustrielles, c'est seulement par une interpretation active que les choses du<br />
passe peuvent etre appropriees et devenir un patrimoine pour une communaute<br />
elargie. Pour ce faire, je decrirai quatre figures ou IHats du patrimoine dans<br />
I'evolution des societes, et j'en enoncerai les caracteristiques.<br />
- 1 - Le patrimoine «vivant» des cultures traditionnelles.<br />
- 2 - Le patrimoine merveilleux des collections d'antiquaires.<br />
- 3 - Le patrimoine museologique des Etats modernes.<br />
Le patrimoine concerne la communaute de diverses facons. Toute crise de I'idee de<br />
tradition et de nation, toute crise des ideologies et de la culture a des effets sur les<br />
rapports qu'une collectivite entretient avec Ie passe. Pour finir, examen est fait de ce<br />
qui caracterise la phase actuelle du patrimoine, celie des societes postindustrielles.<br />
- 4 - Les ressources patrimoniales des societes «postindustrielles».<br />
La phase actuelle du patrimoine me semble marquee par une hesitation, entre deux<br />
de ses figures : nous jouons encore avec I'idee d'un «patrlmolne national» ,<br />
conforme a celui des Etats-nations du Xlxe siecle. Mais, il s'avere que cela n'est ni<br />
possible ni souhaitable, en particulier a cause de la conception des relations entre les<br />
cultures qu'un tel patrimoine postulait. Conscients de cette difficulte, nous cherchons<br />
alors a changer Ie rapport au patrimoine, a lui faire prendre un tournant economiste,<br />
qui se fonde moins sur ses contenus que sur ses usages, et voit Ie patrimoine avant<br />
tout comme une ressource recreative. Nous nous comportons, a I'egard du passe<br />
historique, - non plus seulement de «notre passe» , mais bien d'un passe global -<br />
comme une communaute floue de «zappeurs televisuels» , I'usage que nous en<br />
faisons en etant un de «regard distancil§» et d'attention ludique et participatoire. Un<br />
nouveau rapport ludique de consommation, unit de plus en plus, une communaute<br />
mondialisee a un patrimoine distant, qu 'elle s'approprie par la visite touristique et<br />
I'acces informatique. Les musees et les sites jouent un role majeur dans la<br />
generalisation de ce type de rapport au patrimoine, caracteristique de la relation<br />
qu 'une societe democratique et mondiale peut entretenir avec ses heritages.<br />
73
"Les musees. interoretes du oatrimoine :<br />
I'apoooriation communautaire»<br />
Le patrimoine a revetu a travers Ie temps, diverses configurations qui determinent<br />
comment il opere dans la coliectivite. Je voudrais, dans les propos qui suivent,<br />
reflechir a I'evolution des rapports entre les coliectivites et leur patrimoine, pour<br />
montrer qu'aujourd'hui, dans les societes postindustrielles, c'est seulement par une<br />
interpretation active que les choses du passe peuvent etre appropriees et devenir un<br />
patrimoine pour une communaute. Pour ce faire je decrirai quatre figures ou etats<br />
du patrimoine dans I'evolution des societes, et j'en enoncerai les caracteristiques.<br />
1 - Le patrlmoine «vivant» des cultures traditionnelles.<br />
Les societes dites traditionnelies, se perpetuent par la reproduction du meme. Toute<br />
I'organisation sociale, les croyances et les roles de chacun, sont un heritage fixe, vecu<br />
comme immuable et dicte par une auto rite supra humaine. La reprise d'une<br />
generation a I'autre s'impose, en s'appuyant sur des recits mythiques qui la justifient.<br />
Les membres de la communaute subissent cet ordre, car Ie domaine symbolico<br />
culturel de la TRADITION est essentiel et contraignant pour la coliectivite : c'est lui qui<br />
assure sa stabilite et sa reproduction dans Ie temps.<br />
'Dans ces cultures, les objets conserves prennent place dans la vie de la collectivite.<br />
Objets et sites sont moins valorises pour eux-memes, que pour les fonctions<br />
religieuses qui leur incombent, dans les systemes rituels. Tous connaissent la<br />
signification des objets et leur pouvoir, tous respectent les tresors et leur symbolique,<br />
et distinguent les objets sacres a conserver, du pr<strong>of</strong>ane. A cette etape de la tradition<br />
vivante, Ie patrimoine n'apparait pas comme tel , mais se transmet au sein d'une<br />
culture vecue et partagee. La materialite des objets est traversee par une vi see autre,<br />
celie d'une symbolique partagee de tous. Resumant, je dirais 1 Que regime d'un tel<br />
patrimoine est la croyance et la contrainte. 2° Que la nature des objets est celie de<br />
I'anonyme et de I'unanime. 3° Que Ie public concerne est la collectivite entiere. 4°<br />
Des exemples de ce type de patrimoine : les objets rituels a caractere religieux.<br />
74
Seconde figure du patrimoine, celie ou il emerge, sous la forme des collections.<br />
2 - Le patrimolne merveilleux des collections d'antigualres.<br />
Une seconde figure du patrimoine apparait avec les premieres collections,<br />
rassemblees pour I'etude et la delectation des erudits et des antiquaires, surtout a<br />
partir des annees 1550. La collection se deli nit alors comme «tout ensemble d'objets<br />
naturels ou artificiels, maintenus hors du circuit d'activites economiques, soumis a une<br />
protection speciale dans un lieu clos amenage a cet effet, et exposes au regard.» 1<br />
Les «cabinets de curiosites» des XVle et XVlle siecles, exposent un patrimoine de<br />
choses rares, antiques, naturelles ou artificielles. Certaines collections, d'abord<br />
destinees aux connaisseurs et collectionneurs, deviennent, avec Ie temps, publiques<br />
et s'ouvrent aux visiteurs interessees. Ce second etat est celui du patrimoine<br />
collectionne qui resulte de la passion de COllectionneurs prives et de leurs<br />
recherches d'artefacts. Ce patrimoine est fait «d'objets d'etudes» . 1 ° Son regime : la<br />
curiosite et I'etude. 2° La nature des objets : ils sont precieux, exotiques, antiques. 3°<br />
Le public concerne : les cercles d'iniMs et d'erudits. 4° Des exemples : les collections<br />
des cabinets de curiosites.<br />
II faut attendre la troisieme figure du patrimoine, pour que les choses patrimoniales<br />
sortent de ces cercles d'etudes et soient exposees a la vue de tous, dans des lieux<br />
publics accessibles.<br />
3 - Le patrlmolne mus6ologlaue des Etats modernes<br />
Sorti du monde restreint des erudits, Ie patrimoine devient public, collectif, mais pas<br />
comme iI I'etait dans les cultures traditionnelles. En effet, c'est en grande partie parce<br />
que la transmission par tradition vivante n'est plus au fondement des societes<br />
modernes, que celles-ci amenagent des lieux publics specifiques de conservation<br />
du patrimolne. Ces lieux tentent de pallier cette non transmission generalisee, pour<br />
maintenir dans la communaute, une certaine presence des heritages.<br />
1 Krzyszt<strong>of</strong> Pomian, Collectionneurs, amateurs et curieux. Paris, Venise : XVIe-XVllle<br />
si.kle, nrf Gallimard, Paris, 1987, p. 18<br />
75
II ne s'agit plus d'un patrimoine oblige ou normatif, ni d'une symbolique toute<br />
puissante, mais seulement d'une suggestion de signification qui favorise la cohesion<br />
sociale. Une telle conservation reflechie correspond a la phase ou Ie patrimoine<br />
emerge en tant que domaine specialise d'intervention, destine a la collectivite. Nous<br />
avons alors affaire a un patrimoine choisi, ce qui est Ie propre d'une societe moderne<br />
ne fonctionnant plus a I'ancestralite ou a la tradition. L'esprit democratique moderne<br />
enleve au passe son role d'assise de toute legitimite. La modernlte consiste, pour<br />
une bonne part, a se liberer de I'obligation de maintenir I'integrite des heritages, pour<br />
convenir rationnellement, de ce qu 'on souhaite garder. Le rapport au passe n'a plus<br />
Ie meme statut, ni la meme efficacite.<br />
Le patrimoine, a cette etape, est entre les mains de specialistes, qui en font une<br />
discipline avec ses methodes et ses criteres. On assiste alors au developpement<br />
fulgurant des musees. des «monuments et sites hlstoriques». et des<br />
politiques de conservation, qui prennent la releve de la tradition. Mais ces objets et<br />
ces sites, coupes de tout usage autre que symbolique, - Ie seul qu'autorise Ie<br />
contexte museal, subissent des changements pr<strong>of</strong>onds : n'etant plus un heritage actif,<br />
ils deviennent des genres de signifiants flottants, disponibles pour les interpretations<br />
diverses qu'en tont les discours patrimoniaux. Ces choses conservees ne formeront<br />
un «heritage commun .. que si elles sont appropriees .<br />
. C'est pourquoi, conserver ne suffit plus: iI taut en plus, mettre en valeur, interpreter et<br />
dire ce que cela signitie pour Ie present. II taut retablir, par l'lnterpretatlon, des<br />
liens entre la communaute et ces choses du passe, car elle seule est capable de<br />
provoquer I'appropriatlon patrimoniale maintenant requise. Ce patrimoine resulte<br />
donc d'un type nouveau de rapport que I'ere moderne instaure avec les traces qui<br />
lui restent du passe : ce rapport en est un de mise a distance critique, puis<br />
d'appropriation libre au moyen d'une «pedagogie des objets... «Qu'est-ce que I'idee<br />
de patrimoine, demande Dominique Poulot, sinon I'alternative moderne, - c'est-a-dire<br />
historicisee et libre - a la culture pensee comme tradition ? .. 2<br />
2 Dominique Poulot, «Le Louvre imaginaire», in Historical Reflections, Retlexions historigues,<br />
vol 17, no. 2, Spring 1991, p. 198.<br />
76
patrimoniale voudrait-elle incarner, autre que ceux de la tolerance? Or nos sites et<br />
musees sont rarement riches en temognages de «tolerance». Cette question des<br />
contenus touche a celie du role qui peut encore incomber a la culture:<br />
En quoi peut consister la culture d'un peuple democratique, tel est bien en effet<br />
Ie probh3me central des societes dans lesquelles la subjectivisation du monde<br />
a pour corollaire inevitable I'effondrement progressif des traditions sous<br />
I'exigence incessante qu'elles s'accordent avec la liberte des hommes. 5<br />
Dans cette conjoncture, reste alors a couper Ie passe de ses contenus, a I'apprecier,<br />
pour ainsi dire, en lui-meme et pour lui-meme, pour son pur caractere d'exception et<br />
sa qualite spectaculaire d'etre ancien et d'avoir echappe a la disparition. AloIs Riegl<br />
prevoyait deja, au debut du xxe siecle, que la valeur dominante des choses et sites<br />
historiques serait bientot ce qu'iI nomma leur valeur d'anciennete, plus<br />
democratique que la valeur historique qui exige un savoir. Cette valeur<br />
d'anclennete repose sur la visible etrangete de ce qui est ancien, sur I'usure<br />
apparente de ce qui est «vieux», et que meme une personne sans savoir historique<br />
peut constater et ressentir. Mais elle n'est guere porteuse de contenu specifique.<br />
3 - Troisieme crise, culture et technologie. Nous voyons aujourd'hui a I'oeuvre une<br />
mediation genera lisee, qui assure une large diffusion a certains patrimoines :<br />
cela leur donne Ie statut d'icone mondialement reconnue. De Van Goth a<br />
Stonehenge, de Charly Chaplin aux pyramides, des dinosaures a la Joconde, certains<br />
lIeux et personnages - historiques ou meme fictionnels -sont des «celebrites» ,<br />
grace a une gamme de supports mediatiques incluant deja «I 'autoroute<br />
informatique». Walter Benjamin s'inquietait, vers 1930, de la perte d'aura qui<br />
affecterait les oeuvres d'art, en ce nouvel age de leur reproduction photographique.<br />
Nous savons maintenant que d'une autre facon , cette aura a aussi eM augmentee par<br />
cette diffusion mediatique.<br />
Nous habitons physiquement et technologiquement, un espace et un temps multiples.<br />
Nous sommes des «zappeurs culturels» qui no us interessons a tout, un moment.<br />
Ces dimensions multiples forment Ie «present» de notre culture et nous expo sent a<br />
5 Lue Ferry, Homo Aesthetieus. L'invention du goOt II rage d9mocratigue, Grasset, 1990, p. 17.<br />
79
des courants tres divers dans leur provenance et dans leur logique. Deja McLuhan<br />
parlait de la culture «mosarcale» du journal ; la mosarque s'est elle-meme multipliee,<br />
ses cases statiques sont devenues variables et dynamiques, dans les menus<br />
interactifs qui reunissent des «communautes virtuelles» . Le rapport que no us<br />
entretenons maintenant avec nos patrimoines est bien relie a cette position de<br />
spectateur, a ce qui se forge dans cette relation de «zapping». Nous nous<br />
comportons, a I'egard du passe historique, - non plus seulement de «notre passe »,<br />
mais bien d'un passe global - comme des «zappeurs» televisuels, I'usage que nous<br />
en faisons en est un de «regard distancie» et d'attention ludique et particlpatolre.<br />
Comment decrire ce nouvel etat du patrimoine ? Je dirais qu'il s'agit d'un patrimoine<br />
gere, d'un «patrimoine ressource», mis en marche et au service de I'economie. Ses<br />
objets et lieux sont penses : - comme un spectacle <strong>of</strong>fert aux touristes; et deja, -<br />
comme une banque de donnes sur I'inforoute. Le plus souvent, I'acces, touristique ou<br />
informatique, est payant et genere des revenus. Ce patrimoine est presente comme<br />
recreatif, iI <strong>of</strong>fre moins des objets specifiques, que des environnements globaux, dans<br />
lesquels s'immerger et «se perdre» . 1 ° Son regime : Ie divertissement et la<br />
consommation. 2° La nature des objets : des attractions, I'interactivite, la simulation,<br />
I'informatique. 3° Son public : les touristes et les zappeurs. 4° Des exemples : les<br />
parcs thematiques, les CD Rom.<br />
'Ce qui nous attire vers les musees et sites historiques, ce n'est plus tellement la<br />
puissance rituelle des objets, ni I'etude, ni notre attachement a un Etat-nation, mais<br />
bien, notre desir d'entrer dans I'ecran, et de nous procurer une experience<br />
personnelie, imaginaire, ludique et memorable. Un rapport nouveau, Ie rapport<br />
ludlque de la consommation, s'impose de plus en plus. Mais, et c'est Ie paradoxe<br />
final, ce rapport ludique est lui-meme polyvalent: parce qu'il joue avec les heritages,<br />
il peut Ie faire de diverses facons, selon Ie desir individuel de chacun. Nous savons<br />
bien que les visiteurs actuels des musees et sites sont diversifies. Aussi, quelques<br />
visiteurs erudits y cherchent toujours du savolr, des citoyens nostalgiques y<br />
cherchent encore un esprit national, et un grand nombre de gens, qui n'y<br />
cherchaient rien de precis, y trouvent un moment une distraction familiale.<br />
80
MUSEUM AND COMMUNITY<br />
,\nupama Nigam<br />
Museum as institutions were born out <strong>of</strong> sheer<br />
social need. Hence the commitment to society and to the<br />
community is vital. Inquisitiveness <strong>of</strong> human mind on<br />
one hand, promts us to know something about the growth <strong>of</strong><br />
human civilisation and the changing social needs on the<br />
other, will require the accumulated knowledge and<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> the by gone era to reproduce new paradigms<br />
and models for further social growth. Museum objects as,<br />
authentic testimony <strong>of</strong> the past which are collected in<br />
museum and Art-gallaries provide them with an unique<br />
opportunity to fulfil there basic needs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> service to the community is therefore the<br />
prime concern <strong>of</strong> the museum. <strong>The</strong> main function such as<br />
Collection, Preservation and Communication are the tools<br />
to enlighten the people as a whole <strong>of</strong> their past cultural<br />
and natural heritage. Thus all the socio-cultural<br />
function <strong>of</strong><br />
collection.<br />
activity <strong>of</strong><br />
collection,<br />
a museum<br />
<strong>The</strong> well<br />
museums,<br />
revolve<br />
thought<br />
based<br />
on<br />
must therefore be<br />
around<br />
out and<br />
these<br />
aimed<br />
the museum<br />
purposeful<br />
respective<br />
to meet<br />
socio-cultural and economic requirements <strong>of</strong> the<br />
communi ty. Yet, museums are dynamic institutions and<br />
their policies and programmes will have to be therefore<br />
revised from time to time, in order to meet the changing<br />
socio-cultural needs <strong>of</strong> the community.<br />
83
During the Nineteenth Century<br />
sanctuaries, rarely invaded by the<br />
frequently<br />
appointment.<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
many museums were<br />
public and infact<br />
inaccessible except through special<br />
Today, however, it is generally agreed that<br />
function <strong>of</strong> the museum is to show its<br />
collections to the public. Museum are not educational<br />
institutions in the formal sense <strong>of</strong> the word, but rather<br />
a source <strong>of</strong> intellectual stimulation and entertainment.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y can be a means <strong>of</strong> communicating ideas about<br />
socio-cultural achievements <strong>of</strong> other peoples, about<br />
modern science about one's own tradition.<br />
In case <strong>of</strong> the developing countries like India the<br />
problem <strong>of</strong> community service is more complicated. <strong>The</strong><br />
setting <strong>of</strong> new socio-economic goals and priorities for<br />
the overall development <strong>of</strong> all peoples from all walks <strong>of</strong><br />
life has added a fresh dimension to the future role <strong>of</strong><br />
museum, for example Indian society and economy, as<br />
elsewhere is undergoing a rapid change in view <strong>of</strong> the<br />
available developed means <strong>of</strong> Science and Technology which<br />
are being utilised to transform an agrarian society into<br />
an industrial one. <strong>The</strong> wider circulation <strong>of</strong> money and<br />
new means <strong>of</strong> transport and communication have made the<br />
rural population <strong>of</strong> India more mobile. <strong>The</strong> post<br />
Independence Era has presented before us totally new<br />
social concepts and goals which are to be achieved for<br />
the fulfilment <strong>of</strong> people's needs and aspirations.<br />
84
<strong>The</strong> old social values, norms and traditions due to<br />
scientific and technological development are changing<br />
fast. <strong>The</strong> modern media such as the National Television<br />
Network, All India Radio, Films and the Press are<br />
creating more social and<br />
people. Hence the large<br />
cultural awareness among<br />
crowds <strong>of</strong> people <strong>of</strong> all<br />
groups and from all sections <strong>of</strong> society pour into the<br />
museums and art gallaries everyday to know something<br />
about their past heritage. It is making the job <strong>of</strong><br />
Indian museusms and the art gallaries more challenging<br />
and burdensome.<br />
the<br />
age<br />
Indian society is hetrogenious in character with a<br />
striking contrast in its various segments. <strong>The</strong>re are<br />
three distinct types <strong>of</strong> visitors, who come to study and<br />
enjoy the collections <strong>of</strong> a museum. Firstly there are<br />
scholars, intellectuals whom the museum serve by opening<br />
their reserve gallaries,<br />
reference and photographs<br />
published research works.<br />
by providing necessary<br />
<strong>of</strong> objects as well as the<br />
<strong>The</strong> second category <strong>of</strong><br />
visitors consists mainly <strong>of</strong> students and researchers who<br />
want to supplement their classroom knowledge with the<br />
help <strong>of</strong> authentic museum collections. <strong>The</strong> third category<br />
comprises <strong>of</strong> casual visitors, who are mostly the<br />
illitrates, village folks, poors, tribals, who have<br />
remained relatively untouched by the news advances <strong>of</strong> the<br />
modern era.<br />
85
the community more effectively and meaningfully.<br />
It has become equally<br />
term "Communityll. Certain<br />
important to<br />
scholars define<br />
define<br />
the<br />
the<br />
term<br />
communi ty in a geographical sense. In our opinion, the<br />
term community should be interpreted as a group <strong>of</strong> people<br />
having common concerns and interest, values and<br />
traditions, ideals and aspirations, irrespective <strong>of</strong> any<br />
narrow geographical boundaries. <strong>The</strong> traditional museums,<br />
being the originally the urban institution is not<br />
suitable for the growth <strong>of</strong> the community. It is<br />
therefore vital that new models <strong>of</strong> museology serving the<br />
smaller areas with people having common socio-cul tural<br />
goals, should be developed. <strong>The</strong>se institutions will be<br />
also have to be evolve fresh concept and new functions<br />
which will be found more effective to fulfil the basic<br />
needs <strong>of</strong> a community. <strong>The</strong>se aims and objective <strong>of</strong> modern<br />
museums cannot be properly fulfilled, unless there is a<br />
complete co-operation and active participation <strong>of</strong> all<br />
members <strong>of</strong> the community in the socio-cultural activities<br />
<strong>of</strong> our museums. <strong>The</strong> new models <strong>of</strong> museology and<br />
museologists will have to be made fully aware <strong>of</strong> the<br />
socio-cultural and economic problems <strong>of</strong> the community and<br />
will thereby planned their activities and programmes to<br />
fulfill the same.<br />
87
In order to attract the members <strong>of</strong> the community<br />
and involve them emotionally in museum policies and<br />
programmes, the modern museums must come out from there<br />
palatial buildings and evolve various effective and out<br />
reach programmes not only to preserve the cultural<br />
objects housed inside the museum buildings but also to<br />
preserve and protect the cultural and natural heritage<br />
lying around within the geographical bounds <strong>of</strong> the<br />
community. <strong>The</strong>y must further assist the members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
community in knowing their socio-cultural economic needs<br />
to develop them with the help <strong>of</strong> their community museums<br />
which will be working as a powerful tool for the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the community.<br />
To involve people emotionally, the communi ty<br />
museums must utilise the collective memory <strong>of</strong> the people<br />
by reviveing the old legends, fairs and festivals,<br />
traditional dances and music, age old arts and crafts to<br />
keep the cultural heritage <strong>of</strong> the community alive. It is<br />
necessary because it will provide continuity to the<br />
development which will be receiving perennial inspiration<br />
from the local soil and utilising modern means <strong>of</strong> science<br />
and technology for an overall<br />
community.<br />
ADD RES 5:<br />
ANUPAMA NIGAM<br />
l3-6-463/A/9, Ashok Vihar,<br />
Post: Kulsumpura,<br />
HYDERABAD - 500 267.<br />
(A.P.) INDIA.<br />
88<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ANUPAMA NIGAM<br />
(Research Scholar<br />
in Museology)<br />
HYDERABAD - INDIA.
Paivi-Marjut Raippalinna<br />
REGIONAL ART MUSEUMS AND CHALLENGES OF COMMUNITY ORIENTATION - A<br />
CASE STUDY<br />
In Finland there has been built up during about twenty' years a<br />
system <strong>of</strong> regional museums covering for example 13 mainly<br />
municipally run art museums and twenty cultural historical<br />
museums provided with the status <strong>of</strong> regional museum. <strong>The</strong> system<br />
was guaranteed by the law in the year 1989. <strong>The</strong>se museums stand<br />
for the pr<strong>of</strong>essional expertise and are responsible for the<br />
heritage activities related to visual art in the region. <strong>The</strong><br />
basic idea beyond the system was, that the nominated museums<br />
were subsidized by the state according to certain measures (for<br />
example number and the qualification <strong>of</strong> the museum<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals) because <strong>of</strong> their duties as the central museum <strong>of</strong><br />
the region. <strong>The</strong> ideological background <strong>of</strong> the system was<br />
coloured by the cultural policies in the seventies, that focused<br />
on equality: Regardless <strong>of</strong> social or geographic setting he or<br />
she should have access to art and culture and public art<br />
activities, including also art museums, their collections and<br />
exhibitions. <strong>Museums</strong> as public institutions were a media par<br />
exellence to advance the idea <strong>of</strong> equality in terms <strong>of</strong> cultural<br />
consumption along with the municipally run theatres or<br />
orchestras.<br />
As the regional art museums were concerned their aims were<br />
explicated as the following:<br />
- to make artists, acting in the region, and their products<br />
known to everyone<br />
- distribute knowledge on art and advance positive attitude<br />
towards art<br />
- advance cooperation between museums<br />
- preserve and document art in the region<br />
- to encourage communities in the region to use and produce<br />
different activities related to visual art<br />
- to create new diversified activities to respond to new<br />
challenges <strong>of</strong> the community<br />
<strong>The</strong> new system for regional (art) museums created new jobs and<br />
even new museums in the field. <strong>The</strong>re were different approaches<br />
in different museums to carry out their new community orientated<br />
duties. Cultural historical museums found their way out into the<br />
region through excavations, cultural protection and through the<br />
numerous local museums with a lot <strong>of</strong> energy and a little <strong>of</strong><br />
expertise. A common art museum mode was that <strong>of</strong> circulating<br />
easy-to-handle-sized exhibitions. Each museum had their<br />
individual choice <strong>of</strong> exhibitions in terms <strong>of</strong> their collections<br />
and interests . In Finland there hasn't been such an<br />
comprehensive system as Riksutstallningar in Sweden to produce<br />
89
and d istribute the whole range <strong>of</strong> e xhib i tio ns on any theme one<br />
can imagine. Another part <strong>of</strong> the a ctiviti e s was registra t ion <strong>of</strong><br />
local art collections owned by commun i ties a nd p r oduc t ion <strong>of</strong><br />
different learning materials mos tly related to circ ula t i ng<br />
exhibitions.<br />
This new generation <strong>of</strong> the national museum pr<strong>of</strong>ession wi th<br />
regional duties got to know their regions and respective<br />
communities and they learned how to survive nearly in any<br />
circumstances out <strong>of</strong> the center. That wasn't so easy as the<br />
museal and pr<strong>of</strong>essional constellations <strong>of</strong> regional activities<br />
and actors still lagged their status within the system.<br />
Finally at the turn <strong>of</strong> the 90s all was changed by the unbalanced<br />
economical development in the country. Even before that the<br />
ideas <strong>of</strong> equality and museums as social servants were already<br />
fading in the minds <strong>of</strong> museum pr<strong>of</strong>essionals and political<br />
decission makers, because there weren't any more extra res ources<br />
to be expected or accepted. <strong>The</strong> fiqures <strong>of</strong> regional activities<br />
didn,t count any more. Municipalities became jealous for their<br />
investments and museums couldn't get merit out <strong>of</strong> these regional<br />
activities any more. <strong>The</strong> new outwardbound service orientation <strong>of</strong><br />
70s was outdated.<br />
with the recession also the economical basis for the regiona l<br />
activities failed. <strong>The</strong> state and communities run out <strong>of</strong> money<br />
and most <strong>of</strong> the regional art museums ran out <strong>of</strong> resources to run<br />
regional activities . Now the museums are questioned by the state<br />
authorities if they can still afford their regional subsidice.<br />
<strong>The</strong> regional museums system with strong but undefined community<br />
orientation was a product <strong>of</strong> economical boom. As long as we<br />
could afford the system, hardly anybody questionned it either in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> cultural policy or heritage action. All that figured<br />
was numbers. Number <strong>of</strong> displays, visitors ect. <strong>The</strong> real<br />
communication with- the community and its members was an<br />
unexsisting problem and even the concept community could be<br />
·defined only as an area on a map or as an administrative unit,<br />
with no guiding topographical or demographical signs.<br />
Is there a community for a regional art museum?<br />
If we consider the concept <strong>of</strong> community in relation to the<br />
system <strong>of</strong> regional museums, community in this context can only<br />
be defined either geographically with unviolated boarders or<br />
administratively with municipal units dictating the scope <strong>of</strong><br />
available resources. <strong>The</strong>re has been available the region<br />
(province), the state or the owner <strong>of</strong> the museum (mostly<br />
munipalicity) as possible community in the framework <strong>of</strong> our<br />
regional museum system. Althoug, one <strong>of</strong> the ideas <strong>of</strong> the new<br />
system was to find new audiences, new communities or target<br />
groups for cultural consumption - these were never conceived as<br />
communities in the sense given for example by the new museology.<br />
Neither the population or inhabitants were ever conceived as<br />
producers or interactors but receivers. And to decide what was<br />
culture or art wasn't a concern <strong>of</strong> a common man but that <strong>of</strong> an<br />
specialist mostly committed to a public institution.<br />
One definition I could find for community reminded me about the<br />
90
insitutional ideas <strong>of</strong> Pierre Bourdieu, George Dickie or Jurgen<br />
Habermas. <strong>The</strong> community can be understood as a brotherhood or<br />
sisterhood, as a group <strong>of</strong> specialists sharing the same belief . I<br />
have already mentioned the new museum generation tha t was<br />
created by the regional muse um system . <strong>The</strong> new pr<strong>of</strong>essionals<br />
were young, mostly scholars in art history and their only<br />
experience about museums was an occasionally obligatory two week<br />
museum course . This wasn't certainly an exception wi thin the<br />
history o f museum work. Rather, it is a tradition still very<br />
much alive. <strong>The</strong> belief or the pr<strong>of</strong>essional paradigm they had and<br />
their predecessors shared was tha t <strong>of</strong> a scholar , that <strong>of</strong> history<br />
<strong>of</strong> art.<br />
<strong>The</strong> concept paradigm has been introduced by philosopher Thoms S .<br />
Kuhn , who has studied history <strong>of</strong> science and scientific<br />
communities' . Any scientifique community is sharing the same<br />
pradigm to be able to continue its work. A shared paradigm is<br />
also a prerequisite for the development <strong>of</strong> science, still there<br />
cannot be any progress without animalias in the prevailing<br />
theories leading finally to revolutions creating new paradigms.<br />
<strong>Museums</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>ession has also got its own paradigms and the most<br />
influential part <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>essionals can be considered as a<br />
c ommunity <strong>of</strong> scholars. <strong>The</strong> scientifique world, scholars and<br />
researchers have experienced several revolutions and created or<br />
accepted new paradigms.<br />
But the paradigm we still implicitly hold, at least in art<br />
museums, is that <strong>of</strong> traditional museum described for example<br />
several times by Tomislav Sola as museum <strong>of</strong> the second wave<br />
being identified by collective pride, strive for eternity,<br />
idividualism or principle <strong>of</strong> science (being his tory <strong>of</strong> art in<br />
relation to art museums). This museum paradigm is crowned in the<br />
minds <strong>of</strong> art museum curators by another paradigm, that <strong>of</strong> the<br />
modernist idea <strong>of</strong> autonomous art. <strong>The</strong>se are the main elements in<br />
the community <strong>of</strong> art museum pr<strong>of</strong>essionals.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se quiding institutional paradigms <strong>of</strong> art museum and art<br />
prevented us, in spite <strong>of</strong> the good and idealistic aspirations we<br />
had from becoming an essential and active unit in the heritage<br />
action system and from aknowledging the true community and the<br />
diversity in it. When describing the Great European Museum'<br />
(Nordisk Museologi 2/ 1993), Kenneth Hudson says that it bears<br />
marks <strong>of</strong> community museum, but he excludes fine art museums and<br />
ethnological museums as candidates for the great museum, because<br />
they "overemphasize their value as institution and react very<br />
strongly against any suggestion that the concept <strong>of</strong> the Great<br />
Museum has anything to <strong>of</strong>fer them".<br />
Regional art museum and the feeling <strong>of</strong> community<br />
Referring to the concepts <strong>of</strong> the community museum and/ or the<br />
Great museum by Kenneth Hudson there is still one thing missing<br />
from our fine art museums as regional museums: the feeling <strong>of</strong><br />
community. This, in my opinion, is due to our pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
commitment. Our pr<strong>of</strong>essional paradigm is that <strong>of</strong> an art<br />
institution rather than the one <strong>of</strong> heritage action unit. We had<br />
a good start for the community orientated museum action brought<br />
up by the new cultural policies. Also art museums were supposed<br />
to create new policies for community and to focus on<br />
diversified, out-<strong>of</strong>-institution activities . <strong>Museums</strong> reached out<br />
91
into the region, to people living out <strong>of</strong> the center, and tried<br />
actively to create new ways to reach their undefined audience.<br />
circulating exhibitions took works <strong>of</strong> art out <strong>of</strong> the temples <strong>of</strong><br />
art to ordinary people. Art was to be accessed in sub-libraries,<br />
schools, kindergartens, municipal halls. In the vanguaard <strong>of</strong><br />
these activities also the idea <strong>of</strong> art education became a<br />
conscious part <strong>of</strong> the Finnish art museum activities.<br />
<strong>The</strong> new regional activities were adressed to a common man man<br />
living anywhere in the country. But nobody asked after or was<br />
even interested in, who was this ordinary man and what he liked,<br />
needed or appreciated. <strong>The</strong> target group for the new activities<br />
was considered homogenous in terms <strong>of</strong> national identity,<br />
although, we have a Swedish speaking minority on the southern<br />
and western coast, Saame-people living up to the North,<br />
karelians settled after World War Two or a small number <strong>of</strong><br />
gypsies. Since those days we have got an additional group <strong>of</strong><br />
minorities, refugees, whose position in our society is very<br />
vague. Anyhow the guestion <strong>of</strong> ethnic minorities or the current<br />
splitting up <strong>of</strong> the nation into A and B citizens due to the<br />
harsh figures <strong>of</strong> unemployment doesn't even today figure in our<br />
museums, even in regional museums.<br />
<strong>The</strong> community for regional museum in Finland is still, if<br />
differentiated at all, rather a mixture <strong>of</strong> people <strong>of</strong> different<br />
ages living in a certain area, rather than people with different<br />
interests or identities. <strong>The</strong> only explicated target group ever<br />
concerned within the regional art museum system has been the<br />
age-group <strong>of</strong> potential museum visitors - children - to be<br />
educated through art to art!<br />
We have got the system, but there is neither knowledge nor will,<br />
I'm afraid, to turn our regional museums into true community<br />
museums. Another factor is that the time, when also museums are<br />
measured only in terms <strong>of</strong> production and accountability - more<br />
institutional merits with less money, is not favourable to the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> community museum.<br />
..<br />
2.<br />
3.<br />
Regional art auseu.s activities were started as an ewperl.ent and the first reqlonal art<br />
auseuas were noainated at the beqinniq <strong>of</strong> 80s.<br />
Thomas S. Kuhn. <strong>The</strong> structure or SCientific Revolutions. 1969, <strong>The</strong> University <strong>of</strong> Chicago.<br />
Kenneth Hudson. <strong>The</strong> Great European Museu •. Mordlsk Huseoloql 2/1993. <strong>ISS</strong>M 1103-8152.<br />
92
ON MUSEUM, COMMUNITIES AND THE RELATIVITY OF IT ALL<br />
Tereza Cristina Scheiner - Brazil<br />
<strong>The</strong> universe is relative.<br />
Time, matter and spac:e are relative.<br />
Life and cuffure are relative .<br />
... Why should the museum be absolute?<br />
<strong>The</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM is to study and investigate Museology as a scientific discipline. With<br />
such purpose we have been developing a task <strong>of</strong> sistematization <strong>of</strong> terms where concepts such as<br />
those <strong>of</strong> Museum, Community, Object and Heritage are constantly under exam. This work has<br />
resulted in the development <strong>of</strong> a theoretical and methodological basis that is presently recognized<br />
as museum theory.<br />
Museum theory, it is said, enhances knowledge about the Museum as a unity <strong>of</strong> study in all<br />
its aspects, functions, purposes and relations with reality. It helps building knowledge about<br />
museums and their role in society, as a tool for understanding the past and shaping a beller future .<br />
But in what consists museological knowledge? How can museum theory investigate, for example,<br />
the relationship between Museum and Communities from a truly scientific point <strong>of</strong> view?<br />
Let us start from the beginning, pulling under exam ...<br />
a) THE IDEA OF MUSEUM<br />
It is known that, although actualized, the <strong>of</strong>ficial definition <strong>of</strong> Museum does not fit the<br />
necessities <strong>of</strong> theoretical study, being unable to encompass the plurality <strong>of</strong> initiatives presently<br />
recognized as 'museums' - not only in the practical field but also in the field <strong>of</strong> ideas. Twenty years<br />
, <strong>of</strong> systematic study on theoretical Museology have not clarified this question.<br />
This has been one <strong>of</strong> the main problems <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM, since most papers on museum theory still<br />
refer to specific functions or characteristics <strong>of</strong> the Museum, without making clear what idea <strong>of</strong><br />
Museum lies behind the words. For this reason, it has been difficult to establish the chains <strong>of</strong><br />
relationships between one paper to the other, and consequently to develop a critical analysis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
annual production <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM conceming the specific themes under exam.<br />
Since we are now invited to analyse the relationship between Museum and Communities, a<br />
first question arises: what are we referring to?<br />
Having in mind that the Museum is a phenomenon, and that the different forms <strong>of</strong><br />
museums are nothing more than representations (or expressions) <strong>of</strong> such phenomenon in different<br />
times and spaces, according to the characteristics <strong>of</strong> each social group, we may understand<br />
Museology not as a science that investigates the museum institution or the "museological facf',<br />
but as a scientific discipline that investigates the idea <strong>of</strong> Museum developed by each<br />
society, in each time, through its applications to reality. That is made possible through the<br />
investigation <strong>of</strong> the different forms <strong>of</strong> relationship between man and reality, that is, <strong>of</strong> the<br />
relationships between man, culture and the natural environment.<br />
95
Such relationships are better explained under the conceptual frame <strong>of</strong> the the holistic<br />
paradigm, according to which the universe is understood as a relative system , where man is a<br />
mere element, not the centre. Under such frame it becomes clear that the museum is not<br />
concemed only with man and the cultural production, but to nature in all its diversity and to the<br />
universe as a whole. That is what we understand as the total environment, or the total heritage <strong>of</strong><br />
humanity. <strong>The</strong> first two basic characteristics <strong>of</strong> the Museum are thus understood: its intrinsic<br />
relationship with nature and culture; and its plurality.<br />
Understanding the museum as a phenomenon, it is easy to accept that it assumes different<br />
expressions in space and time. That is, Museum is not one thing - it is a generic concept that<br />
encompasses a wide range <strong>of</strong> places, institutions, mental attitudes, cultural initiatives.<br />
Different societies develop different conceptions <strong>of</strong> the universe - and the idea <strong>of</strong> museum is one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the expressions <strong>of</strong> the world vision <strong>of</strong> each social group, in a specific time and situation. We are<br />
so used to our own conceptual models <strong>of</strong> museum, specific <strong>of</strong> the occidental society, that little<br />
attention is given to the difference. ICOFOM has barely investigated, for example, what is the<br />
dominant idea <strong>of</strong> museum in each region <strong>of</strong> the world, or which local significances does this term<br />
assume within specific communities. <strong>The</strong> same concept (Ecomuseum, for example) may have<br />
several significances, according to the cultural identity <strong>of</strong> the group that is referring to it. Some<br />
societies do not even develop an idea <strong>of</strong> museum.<br />
But once we understand that the Museum (phenomenon) is not the same as one museum<br />
(limited expression <strong>of</strong> such phenomenon), we are able to identify which idea <strong>of</strong> museum is present<br />
in which community or social group. Museum may thus be understood as:<br />
· an institution;<br />
· a physical space (territory, area or building) wich contains movable and inmovable<br />
parcels <strong>of</strong> heritage;<br />
· a physical space for the exploration, investigation and experimentation <strong>of</strong> the new;<br />
· a space for the preservation <strong>of</strong> memory <strong>of</strong> mankind and <strong>of</strong> the planet earth;<br />
· a special relationship between man and the environment;<br />
· an intellectual space <strong>of</strong> creativity and production <strong>of</strong> culture (herein included the<br />
imaginary spaces <strong>of</strong> human mind - those called' the inner museum' );<br />
· the biosphere.<br />
Museological activity is thus possible not only in those places traditionally recognized as<br />
museums, but also in every site or intellectual sphere where Man and Nature have integrated so as<br />
to create culture and knowledge. That includes those rare sites in our planet barely touched or still<br />
untouched by Man, where natural processes remain completely or almost preserved. That goes<br />
within ourselves, towards the "inner museum" where the complicated processes <strong>of</strong> our mind shape<br />
a very specific· mental and emotional heritage" . That goes beyond what is known as the biosphere<br />
- towards the universe.<br />
Within this immense framework, we need to identify which specific representations <strong>of</strong> the<br />
museum phenomenon are we dealing with, in a specific society, time and situation - as our main<br />
working tool.<br />
<strong>The</strong> following step is to define what to do and how. WlJat to do may be explained by the<br />
political and cultural approach <strong>of</strong> Museology - which aims and actions must refer to the group under<br />
study. How to do relates to Museography - the instrumentalization <strong>of</strong> museology itself, i.e., the<br />
practical support that makes possible to apply to reality concepts and philosophies <strong>of</strong> action<br />
designed for each museum. One <strong>of</strong> the great mistakes <strong>of</strong> museum pr<strong>of</strong>essionals is to imagine that<br />
it is possible to develop museums making plain use <strong>of</strong> museum techniques - not taking into<br />
account that museography is not and end in itself, it is a tool , a process through which<br />
museology is implemented. We still see museums that deal only with objects subtracted from their<br />
96
original environment - as if it was possible to represent, through those fragments, the original<br />
context as a whole. We still see exhibits where such fragments are enumerated (with s<strong>of</strong>isticated<br />
design) under codes <strong>of</strong> rationality that do not correspond to the scientific paradigms <strong>of</strong> the XXth<br />
century.<br />
We see preservation and restauration works that pretend to serve the whole society, but<br />
that are nothing more than an opportunity <strong>of</strong> imposing aesthetic values and cultural codes <strong>of</strong><br />
hegemonic groups.<br />
<strong>The</strong> responsability <strong>of</strong> the museum in the present days is to be an active agent <strong>of</strong> social<br />
change, <strong>of</strong>fering support to programs <strong>of</strong> cultural development. And this is possible because, as an<br />
intellectual space for creativity, it produces knowledge. But, being aware <strong>of</strong> that, museum<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionals become responsible for promoting development in an open and democratic way,<br />
enabling the participation <strong>of</strong> wide segments <strong>of</strong> society. Those are the segments we perceive as<br />
·communities·. Which brings us to another problem, that is:<br />
b) THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY<br />
As the Museum, Community is a concept. Under the title' community" we usually refer<br />
to several representations <strong>of</strong> human society - from the global community, which includes all <strong>of</strong> us<br />
inhabitants <strong>of</strong> planet Earth, to the nuclear family as community core. But we must not forget the so<br />
called' biological communities· , formed <strong>of</strong> parcels <strong>of</strong> living beings with common characteristics.<br />
<strong>The</strong> plants in a forest, the fish in a river or a colony <strong>of</strong> microbes are communities as well - and as<br />
such, pertain to the museum sphere. We museum pr<strong>of</strong>essionals are also a community. As we see ,<br />
there is an immense diversity <strong>of</strong> communities. Biological communities. Cultural communities.<br />
Social communities .... Shouldn't the planets or our galaxy be also considered a community?<br />
Since we consider communities in their diversity, it becames clear that the relationship<br />
between Museum and Community is only possible when community and museum are previously<br />
identified. We have seen through the years the development <strong>of</strong> an opportunist discourse that has<br />
led to several mistakes such as:<br />
· the idea that Museum is a place called 'museum';<br />
· the idea that Community is a group <strong>of</strong> people not identified with the hegemonic strata<br />
<strong>of</strong> a society - preferably belonging to minority groups or to countries undergoing<br />
development;<br />
· the idea that museums should work with the community (whatever that means) .<br />
... To which community are we referring, when proposing museological action?<br />
Considering the different connections between Museum and Community, we should then<br />
identify:<br />
· what we believe a museum is;<br />
· what we believe a community is;<br />
· what museum and what community are we referring to , in each specific situation;<br />
· what is expected <strong>of</strong> the interaction between Museum and Community;<br />
· the several possible approaches to the matter;<br />
· the expected consequences <strong>of</strong> the interaction.<br />
Some options will be possible:<br />
97
· working over the community (or about the community)<br />
· working for the community<br />
· working with the community<br />
· let work the community<br />
<strong>The</strong> museologic approach towards the matter will depend <strong>of</strong> how clear these options may<br />
be. Clear options will prevent common mistakes such as - the apocaliptic conservacionism ; the<br />
cartesian approach to exhibitions; and the perception <strong>of</strong> the museological discourse as absolute<br />
thnuth .<br />
Museology, as any other science in the present days, works over relativization <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge. <strong>The</strong> holistic approach, defended by contemporary Museology, does not accept the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> museum as a ready-made product, nor <strong>of</strong> the community as an abstract social entity. <strong>The</strong><br />
museum is today understood as a phenomenon with all its dynamics and the community is<br />
perceived, in its broader sense, as a concrete representation <strong>of</strong> natural or social quanta.<br />
Everything, as we see , is relative. Community and Museum are relative concepts. <strong>The</strong><br />
world itself changes everyday - which means our perception <strong>of</strong> the world is also relative. Since<br />
nothing its absolute, what possible means do we have <strong>of</strong> making the museum promote knowledge?<br />
<strong>The</strong> first attitude is to promote the capacity <strong>of</strong> the museological community: it is<br />
fundamental that those who work with museums be prepared to make museology. On a second<br />
basis, it must be understood that the changing role <strong>of</strong> the museum does not apply to reality throuhg<br />
isolated activities, labelled as • educationar - which means that working with or for communities<br />
(specially in the social shpere) is an attitude <strong>of</strong> life, requiring a high degree <strong>of</strong> participation on all<br />
sides and where arrogance and prejudice are not welcome. Third - elements that will promote<br />
generation <strong>of</strong> knowledge must be searched in the communities themselves. <strong>The</strong>y may relate to the<br />
exchange <strong>of</strong> energies, to the understanding <strong>of</strong> the processes <strong>of</strong> life and nature ... or to the<br />
acceptance <strong>of</strong> the common knowledge <strong>of</strong> some communities (not the imposition <strong>of</strong> our own<br />
knowledge).<br />
It also refers to the recognition <strong>of</strong> museums and communities not previously<br />
imagined as such, in an attitude <strong>of</strong> nupture from traditional and old-fashioned pattems <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge, towards new dimensions, new fonns <strong>of</strong> perception that until yesterday may have been<br />
called' non-scientific' or unorthodox. What better field <strong>of</strong> action than a sience under constnuction -<br />
such as Museology?<br />
98<br />
Rio de Janeiro, May <strong>1995</strong>.
Des etudes recentes prevoient que, de 63% de la population de I'ile de<br />
Montreal (ou se trouve la plus grande concentration de population au Quebec) en<br />
1986, les francophones de souche constitueront en 2021 moins de 50% de la<br />
populationS. D'autre part, une enquiHe entreprise de 1991 a 1993 aupres de la<br />
communaute italienne de Montreal a demontre la difficulte de creer dans cette<br />
communaute des habitudes de frequentation des musees6 tout en soulignant que la<br />
creation de ces habitudes represente 'pour les musees un investissement tres<br />
important en temps et en ressources humaines qu'aucune institution ne peut,<br />
aujourd'hui, se permettre'.<br />
Par I'entremise de ses douze maisons de la culture (Ia premiere fut<br />
inauguree en 1981), la Ville de Montreal tente de develop per I'accessibilite a la<br />
culture aux diverses communautes culturelles en programmant, par exemple, depuis<br />
1991, une serie d'expositions sous Ie theme de 'La culture vue par .. .' qui ont touche<br />
jusqu'ici les communautes noire anglophone, amerindienne, grecque, chinoise,<br />
quebecoise, juive et italienne. Les musees de la region de Montreal, par contre,<br />
semblent peu preoccupes de developper des initiatives visant a interesser les diverses<br />
communautes culturelles autres que frantyaises ou britanniques de souche qui<br />
representeront pourtant d'ici vingt ans plus de la moitie de leur public potentiel.<br />
Le cas du Musee d'art de Saint-Laurent est particulierement significatif.<br />
Situee sur I'ile de Montreal (nord ouest), Ville Saint-Laurent est une ville au<br />
developpement industriel accelere qui compte une population de plus de 70 000<br />
habitants 7 . Son territoire avait ete colonise dans la premiere moitie du XVllle siecie,<br />
so us Ie regime frantyais, et une premiere eglise paroissiale inauguree Ie 10 aoOt<br />
S Denis Lessard, .. Les francophones seront minoritaires sur I'ile en 2021." 1£<br />
presse, 30 mars 1994.<br />
6 Sylvana Micillo Villata, .. Les musees et les communautes culture lies, abolir la<br />
distance." communication presentee Ie 15 mai 1993 au colloque La recherche<br />
universitaire en museologie organise par Ie programme conjoint de maitrise en<br />
museologie Universite de Montreal / Universite du Quebec a Montreal. L'Auteur<br />
remercie ici Mme Villata, du service culturel de la Ville de Montreal, d'avoir mis a sa<br />
documentation a sa disposition.<br />
7 Les statistiques sur Ville Saint-Laurent sont tirees de Statistiques Canada,<br />
recensement de 1991, et du Recensement residentiel de Ville de Saint-Laurent de<br />
1991.<br />
100
1735, en la fete de saint Laurent8, puis, devant I'accroissement de la population, une<br />
nouvelle eglise, de plus grandes dimensions, sera ouverte au culte en 1836.<br />
Aujourd'hui, la population d'origine fran
eserves, d'espaces d'exposition temporaire, d'animation, etc. , et surtout I'ancienne<br />
eglise ne repond pas aux normes museologiques reconnues, ce qui met sa collection en<br />
danger a long terme et ne lui permet pas d'obtenir des expositions temporaires de<br />
prestige 1 O.<br />
La collection permanente du musee est la plus interessante et la plus<br />
considerable de la region de Montreal pour I'etude et la connaissance de la culture<br />
traditionnelle du Quebec. Elle est composee d'instruments, d'appareils et d'outils<br />
relies a la pratique des arts et metiers traditionnels ainsi que d'oeuvres, objets d'art et<br />
objets quotidiens realises par des artistes et artisans au cours des XVllle et XIXe<br />
siecles et au debut du XXe siecle. En tout, plus de 6000 objets dont la moiM<br />
appartiennent au Cegep et Ie reste est soit prete ou en depot. Les informations sur la<br />
collection ont ete informatisees et font partie depuis 1993 de la banque de donnees du<br />
Reseau canadien d'information sur Ie patrimoine .<br />
Preoccupe par I'avenir de l'institution dont Ie personnel est reduit a trois<br />
employes a temps complet (directeur, conservateur, secretaire-comptable) et qui<br />
subit une baisse de frequentation (de 16422 visiteurs en 1981 a 5506 visiteurs en<br />
1992), Ie conseil d'administration con fie en 1992 a des consultants la realisation<br />
d'une etude de faisabilite portant sur la viabilite, la validite et Ie positionnement de la<br />
mission du musee ainsi que sur les besoins en espaces et les diverses options pour les<br />
solutionner11. Au cours de I'elaboration du rapport, les discussions avec les<br />
consultants et Ie Comite de developpement 12 furent souvent orageuses, les consultants<br />
ayant leur propres idees sur la fa
Saint-Laurent pourrait constituer sous cet aspect un musee-Iaboratoire dont taus les<br />
musees de la region de Montreal pourraient tirer pr<strong>of</strong>it des experiences.<br />
Pour ce faire , Ie Musee d'art de Saint-Laurent devrait maintenir et<br />
renforcer sa mission actuelle qui est la mise en valeur du patrimoine culturel<br />
quebecois a travers les arts et les traditions artisan ales du Quebec d'hier et<br />
d'aujourd'hui et viser, dans un premier temps, a se relocaliser dans une nouvelle<br />
annexe adjacente a I'eglise qu'il occupe actuellement afin de deployer convenablement<br />
sa collection permanente tout en la preservant et de se doter des espaces publics dont il<br />
a besoin. En un second temps, il devrait developper la plus grande partie de ses<br />
activites museologiques, depuis la fa
Si les musees du Quebec veulent etre au service du developpement de la<br />
societe quebecoise, il leur faut, de toute urgence, repenser leurs programmes publics.<br />
lis ne doivent pas viser uniquement Ie public touristique, qui par son apport<br />
economique important leur vaut des appuis gouvernementaux, mais aussi penser a leur<br />
public potentiel immediat constitue deja maintenant de personnes agees et de nouveaux<br />
arrivants de diverses ethnies. Pour cela, il faut un changement de mentalite autant des<br />
administrateurs de musees que du personnel. II faut aussi que les musees mettent au<br />
point des strategies et des plans d'action endosses et supportes par tous les niveaux<br />
gouvernementaux. Si cet important virage n'est pas pris maintenant, les musees<br />
quebecois risquent de voir leur frequentation diminuer sensiblement a partir de I'an<br />
2000, et la justification de leur existence remise en question.<br />
La mission bien particuliere du Musee d'art de Saint-Laurent, unique au<br />
Quebec si elle etait redetinie, pourrait servir d'exemple et d'experimentation dans un<br />
processus de transformation des mentalites. Mais pour cela, il faudrait d'abord qu'elle<br />
soit clairement definie et qU'elie trouve un appui financier aupres de gouvernants<br />
eclaires - s'iI en existe - qui aient une vision a long terme du developpement de la<br />
societe quebecoise et du role fondamental qui pourraient y jouer les musees.<br />
Jean Trudel<br />
fevrier <strong>1995</strong><br />
105
presentation <strong>of</strong> development all along the line. synopsis <strong>of</strong> scopes with a focal point and <strong>of</strong> the<br />
real life 15, illustrative material in the museum, vividness <strong>of</strong> history by analogy and<br />
simultaneousness. 16<br />
Implicated in the same way should be the principle <strong>of</strong> "language" (speech) in its own and in a<br />
rendered sense, with the objects <strong>of</strong> past as "a basis for an integrative construction <strong>of</strong> historical<br />
completeness." 17<br />
Out <strong>of</strong> this great diversity <strong>of</strong> possibilities, I have in my mind as a purpose to select only two<br />
categories, namely the rank <strong>of</strong> the historic dimension in view <strong>of</strong> common problems <strong>of</strong><br />
museums, and in contrast to it the basi cal idea <strong>of</strong>" scopes <strong>of</strong> the real life" as well as their actual<br />
reflexion in museums and memorial sites and document-centers <strong>of</strong> contemporary history.<br />
<strong>The</strong> historic dimension and "scopes <strong>of</strong> the real life"<br />
After these considerations it will be tried to exposed some examples how actual problems in<br />
museums, houses <strong>of</strong> history, and in historic sites and memorial places belonging to museums<br />
are dealed with. Also interesting is the discussion <strong>of</strong> themes <strong>of</strong> contemporary history, and,<br />
under respect to the community and the education in politics, how the reactions <strong>of</strong> museum<br />
conditions and the "history <strong>of</strong> future" are generally discussed. <strong>The</strong> representation <strong>of</strong><br />
contemporary history in museum is a subject high-explosive; otherwise than the general<br />
presentation in museums <strong>of</strong> art, history or cultural-history it has immediately the target <strong>of</strong><br />
political education and <strong>of</strong> developing the democracy.<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore the common-social connections with the museum-tasks are here more intensively<br />
than in other types <strong>of</strong> museums. In contrast to traditional conceptions <strong>of</strong> museums, especially<br />
the contemporary history challenges novel, innovative and communicative designs in order to<br />
fulfill its important task in view <strong>of</strong> a common and a socio-political effectiveness. Already<br />
Humboldt was anxious to regard the "heads and sense <strong>of</strong> a different kind" .18 That means in<br />
relation to a museum <strong>of</strong> contemporary history nothing else than to consider how different<br />
museum-visitors take notice <strong>of</strong> our world and reflect the political appearance and, finally,<br />
which conclusions they decide. In addition to that and under respect to the conditions <strong>of</strong><br />
museums, the" great variety by that the objects outside move our senses" 19 is to be paid the<br />
way <strong>of</strong> attention. In the "50th year <strong>of</strong> commemorating" after the end <strong>of</strong> the NS-regime this<br />
claim concentrates in the presence <strong>of</strong> contemporary historic museums and KZ-memorial places.<br />
<strong>The</strong> present political situation challenges their explication on the part by the responsibles and<br />
guarantees in addition to that significance in the whole community as well as public interest.<br />
Years <strong>of</strong> commemoration by all means pursue the purpose, to recall and bring political topics<br />
generally into the consciousness. With this intention they hope to awake newly this subjects to<br />
life and to prevent their going to ruin as a "dead matter".<br />
Democratic Museum<br />
Setting a strong light to the present museum position face to face with the community today,<br />
museums are generally characterized to have to be democratic. " A democratic museum isn't<br />
one that writes chronicles <strong>of</strong> wars in golden capitals or one that stylizes the powerfuls to<br />
supermen. Rather it informs about the history <strong>of</strong> people, about the social-history <strong>of</strong> average-<br />
15<br />
16<br />
17<br />
18<br />
19<br />
as Ill. 3. Bd .. 2.H. 1815·1834. s. 541.<br />
OS IV, 2. S. 47.<br />
Bann. Stephen: Poetik des Musewn - Lenoir und du Sonunerard. In: RUsen. JJ E.rru.t. W.I GrOner, H.Th. Gescillcht.e sehen. Beitrag.;:<br />
zur A.sthctik. histonschcr Mu.sc:en. Praffenweiler 1988. S. 35-49.<br />
OS L 7: <strong>The</strong>orie der- Bildung des Menschen. BruchstOck (1793). S. 287.<br />
Ebenda. s. 285.<br />
109
<strong>The</strong>se observations reprooving to the contemporary history elucidate the political actuality and<br />
the challenge to the museum-responsibilities.<br />
Museum and KZ-memorial place Dachau<br />
<strong>The</strong> 50th memorial-day <strong>of</strong> year <strong>of</strong> the "liberation" <strong>of</strong> the Konzentrationslager this year is<br />
celebrated on many places with a great political engagement - also at Apri1!29/ <strong>1995</strong> in the<br />
memorial-camp <strong>of</strong> Dachau. Otherwise is the question how it will be initiated to achieve a<br />
lasting concept reflecting upon past this commemoration day. This field <strong>of</strong> themes schould be<br />
performed for the generations <strong>of</strong> the descendants and explicated in a way so that on the one<br />
hand historical insights and appreciations <strong>of</strong> visitors will be achieved, on the other hand<br />
consequences will be drawn for the social and political life in the future.<br />
An only "museal" consideration wouldn't deal with the different aspects <strong>of</strong> the scope, but<br />
otherwise it can't also be enough, that museum-visitors more or less walk over similar on a<br />
promenade.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most important document for the belonging <strong>of</strong> these memorial places with the original<br />
relicts, the memorials and document centres - they are them elves a mirror <strong>of</strong> the conception<br />
and interpretation <strong>of</strong> history and museum <strong>of</strong> that time they came into being - are the statutes <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong>International</strong> <strong>Council</strong> <strong>of</strong> Museum, where we are reading in the 2nd article:<br />
"In addition to institutions designated as "museums" the following qualifY as museums fur the<br />
purposes <strong>of</strong> this definition: " ... ethnographic monuments and historical monuments and sites <strong>of</strong><br />
a museum nature that acquire, conserve and communicate material evidence <strong>of</strong> people and<br />
their environment. ,,<strong>25</strong><br />
Under this regard is also to see an arrangement with the title "From the School <strong>of</strong> Violence to<br />
a Place <strong>of</strong>Leaming Dachau" managed by Mr. 19naz Bubis, master <strong>of</strong> "Zentralrat der Juden in<br />
Deutschland". <strong>The</strong> special significance <strong>of</strong> "Memorials for the victims <strong>of</strong> Holocaust" related to<br />
our community is, that compared with the events in the "Drittes Reich" in the last 500 years<br />
nothing comparible in the German History came to pass.<br />
So it isn't possible for memorial places to keep only remembrance. Rather it must be <strong>of</strong> value<br />
from the sides <strong>of</strong> museums to support the reflecting-points <strong>of</strong> visitors and to respect the<br />
following testimony <strong>of</strong> a witness: " Everybody shouldn't only remember the past, but engage<br />
himself <strong>of</strong>fensively in civil-courage therefore such things occured in the past don't repeat in<br />
future. "<br />
"Holocaust-Museum" and "Museum <strong>of</strong> Tolerance"<br />
<strong>The</strong> "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum" in the meaning <strong>of</strong> their founders "is<br />
dedicated to presenting the history <strong>of</strong> the persecution and murder <strong>of</strong> six milliion Jews and<br />
millions <strong>of</strong> other victims <strong>of</strong> Nazi tyranny from 1933 to 1945. <strong>The</strong> museum's primary mission is<br />
to inform Americans about this unprecedented tragedy, to remember those who suffered, and<br />
to inspire visitors to contemplate the moral implications <strong>of</strong> their choices and responsibilities as<br />
citizens in an independent world. "26<br />
<strong>The</strong> museum, just opened in April 1993, has integrated this premise in view <strong>of</strong> its visitors as a<br />
permanent message in all <strong>of</strong> its departments. After the declaration <strong>of</strong> the museum the<br />
presentation is able to be visited by young visitors already from eleven years on. In its<br />
methodical kind it has been created and installed "narratively", because it really narrates the<br />
history <strong>of</strong> Holocaust by artifacts, fotos, films and in testimonies. "Daniel's story" is prepared<br />
<strong>25</strong><br />
26<br />
lntcmational <strong>Council</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Museums</strong>. Statutes. Article 2 - Definitions. Paris 1990. p.3.<br />
Folder: "Visitor's Guide" <strong>of</strong> the "United States Holo..;aust Memorial Museum", Washmgton 1994.<br />
111
geographically and by the contents 2 9 A publication shortly be brought out will deal with the<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> a synoptical starting-point.<br />
"<strong>The</strong> principle 'outside-inside' "<br />
<strong>The</strong> second is the principle <strong>of</strong> the relation between the external area and the objects inside the<br />
document center. By this connection <strong>of</strong> thinking the original relicts. the reconstructions and<br />
memorials at the external area will become to holders <strong>of</strong> specifical significance in the<br />
contemporary history. Only by a synoptical connection with original documents in the rooms <strong>of</strong><br />
the document center individual discussing and historical understanding are advanced<br />
explicitely. Also furthered is the "fmding-sense", the changing one's mind and the ability <strong>of</strong><br />
personal consequences in the political dealing with. - <strong>The</strong>se examples could be further exposed.<br />
Ultimately the question is how the visitor will be motivated in his education to a readiness in<br />
humanity. peace and reconciliation. A Holocaust-Museum or a memorial this kind should bring<br />
the visitors looking the tragedy full in the face. but also make a contribution to reconciliation<br />
and to a peaceful life.<br />
29<br />
To the 50th memoriaJ-day <strong>of</strong> the "liberation or the KZ Dachau" a publication will<br />
be brought out m Muruch lJl April 1994: it's lltlc will b.!: "Das Unbtgrclfhche .. begreillich " machen",<br />
113
<strong>The</strong> Life Itself Provides <strong>The</strong> Topics<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>International</strong> <strong>Council</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Museums</strong>, the "Braunschweig-Studie" and the "Declaration <strong>of</strong><br />
Quebec" among a lot <strong>of</strong> very important points explain exactly the connection between<br />
museology and community, interrelating starting-points and the shapes <strong>of</strong> an "active<br />
museology", modem methods <strong>of</strong> communication and contemporary history as a position<br />
defining present time. So the following statement <strong>of</strong> Wilhelm von Humboldt is valid until<br />
today: "<strong>The</strong> man is looking after so much world as he is possible grasping up, and also<br />
connecting with himself as he is able. "<br />
With his pilosophy <strong>of</strong> museum v. Humboldt is close to the modern anthropology <strong>of</strong> civilization<br />
and to the social-sciences but also to interdisciplinary and inter-social concepts.<br />
<strong>The</strong> theme "<strong>The</strong> Life Itself Provides <strong>The</strong> Topics" for that very reason is in a near correlation to<br />
contemporary history as "the sum <strong>of</strong> first passed events relating to contemporaries<br />
immediately." This statement gives also reasons for the opening museums to all social groups<br />
and following their democratic mission.<br />
Museum-visitors <strong>of</strong> different levels <strong>of</strong> education, in my mind, easiest are reached by museums<br />
and documentation centres in the way being on good terms to contemporary history. This<br />
epoch is closer to the visitor's own life and <strong>of</strong>ten discussed in mediums he uses (almost)<br />
regularly. So he connects with topics he is interested in, and the common-social connections<br />
with the museum tasks which are here - in museums <strong>of</strong> contemporary history - more intensively<br />
than in the other types <strong>of</strong> museums and - as we hope - more effectively with regard to the<br />
socio-political appearances.<br />
Now, under a lot <strong>of</strong> possibilities, I've to characterize some examples <strong>of</strong> museums and their<br />
intentions which are challenging museum-responsibles regarded to contemporary history and<br />
politicai actuality.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first is the KZ-memorial place Dachau in Bavaria! Germany, the second the "Neue<br />
Wache"/ Berlin and its figuration to the reunification <strong>of</strong> Gerrnany in 1989, the third the<br />
"Holocaust-Museum" in Washington and the Museum <strong>of</strong> Tolerance (MOTX Simon<br />
Wiesenthal-Center) in Los Angeles.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first called challenges "reflecting over connected remembering" and wants actual "images<br />
to hostiles" will to be discussed, on the one part having contemporary events, on the other part<br />
future political occurrences in view.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second is to be seen on the agreement "From the School <strong>of</strong> Violence - to a Place <strong>of</strong><br />
Learning", because only remembering would be to less.<br />
<strong>The</strong> third - <strong>The</strong> United States Holocaust Museum and the Museum <strong>of</strong> Tolerance - related to<br />
the tragedy <strong>of</strong> Jewish people - first <strong>of</strong> all are aiming at informing Americans and inspiring<br />
visitors to contemplate the moral implications <strong>of</strong> their choices and responsibilities as citizens in<br />
an independent world.<br />
<strong>The</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> democratic education according to different target groups are challenging<br />
authorities in contemporary history much more than traditional museums. <strong>The</strong> general question<br />
for them has to be setting impulses the visitor will be motivated through to a readiness in<br />
humanity, peace and reconciliation in future.<br />
Hildegard Vieregg<br />
114
Gambia National Museum, Banjul 1971). This bias <strong>of</strong> Africanization<br />
resulted in a number <strong>of</strong> regional institutions promoting regional<br />
cultures as for example in Ghana, Kenya and Angola.<br />
Gaining political independence did not result in ec.onomic<br />
independence. Most <strong>of</strong> the African countries retained strong<br />
economic links with the previous colonizers. Some countries like<br />
Zambia or uganda started rich but ended poor. Political<br />
dependence was superceded by an aid dependence. Bi-Iateral and<br />
multi-lateral organizations made their homes allover Africa. In<br />
the thirty years <strong>of</strong> independence, billions <strong>of</strong> dollars were poured<br />
into the development <strong>of</strong> Africa but this did not result in any<br />
improvement <strong>of</strong> the quality <strong>of</strong> life for the great majority <strong>of</strong><br />
people. If anything, the contrast between rich and poor increased<br />
as did the contrast between town and country life. <strong>The</strong> cities<br />
founded in colonial times expanded and are now inhabited by great<br />
numbers <strong>of</strong> unemployed. Uncontrolled migrations from rural areas<br />
to towns created a new phenomenon, the shanty town. Bureaucracy<br />
grew out <strong>of</strong> all proportion and is well known for its<br />
inefficiency. Institutions <strong>of</strong> learning, hospitals and general<br />
infrastructure are run down and in many cases do not function<br />
properly. Economy is in decline, lawlessness has become the law<br />
and corruption is widely accepted.<br />
Generaly, external factors, such as lack <strong>of</strong> capital and<br />
protectionistic economic attitude <strong>of</strong> the West are pinpointed as<br />
being the cause <strong>of</strong> the problem. <strong>The</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> the human<br />
factor, integrity and work ethic are <strong>of</strong>ten underplayed. <strong>The</strong><br />
people in Africa seem not to be particularly interested in<br />
sacrifices which at present could help a great deal to develop<br />
the continent. Many <strong>of</strong> them do not identify themselves with<br />
Africa or even with a country. <strong>The</strong>ir primary interest remains<br />
wi'th their family or with their ethnic group. Technical and<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional skills <strong>of</strong> utmost importance in development are not<br />
highly valued as are not maintenance skills. status supercedes<br />
job satisfaction. <strong>The</strong>re is a great concern with education but<br />
better educated people leave easily their jobs or country <strong>of</strong><br />
their origin in search <strong>of</strong> greener pastures. Everybody wants to<br />
be a Director, or even better, a President.<br />
At present (1988) the continent is inhabited by 617,5 mln people,<br />
more or less the population <strong>of</strong> Western Europe 684 mIn) but living<br />
in an area three times bigger (Africa 30,3 mln km2, Europe 9,9<br />
mln km2). While Western Europe can boast <strong>of</strong> approximately 16 000<br />
museums (one museum per 42 750 people), Africa has not more than<br />
SOD (in the most optimistic case it means one museum per 1 235<br />
000 people). Nor is the i_ge <strong>of</strong> .useWlS in Africa very<br />
appealing. <strong>The</strong>y are frequently either under- or overstaffed. All<br />
museum personnel is salaried; museums in Africa run by volunteers<br />
are extremely rare. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> the museums are state run<br />
insti tutions although there are also a few private ones. However,<br />
the Zambian case <strong>of</strong> three national museums and three private<br />
seems to be exceptional. <strong>The</strong> collections are still as they were<br />
in colonial times, predominantly concerned with natural history,<br />
archeology, history and the ethnography. <strong>The</strong>re are very few art<br />
museums, no science museums or other types that developed in<br />
118
MUSEUMS AND COMMUNITY<br />
FINAL REMARKS<br />
(Mathilde Bellaigue)<br />
<strong>The</strong> core <strong>of</strong> the problem was to explore the threefold relation between the communjty (to<br />
define), our heritage which, whether in the museum or related to it, acts as a medium for that relation,<br />
and the museum itself.<br />
<strong>The</strong> community<br />
As a preambula, it appears necessary to give ourselves some theoretical bases: we have to<br />
distinguish between the anthropological acceptance <strong>of</strong> the word "commwtity" (a primary reference<br />
group characterized by its time, space, culture etc) and "commwtity" meaning a group <strong>of</strong> people<br />
taking position. <strong>The</strong> former one is commonly concerned by the museum.<br />
A commwtity, as a group <strong>of</strong> persons interacting with their environment, manipulating its<br />
resources, having social, economical, esthetical codes, and leaving their own traces as their<br />
expression, is continually shifting.<br />
But the "commwtity" can also be considered from the point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> the museum, as a<br />
social and cultural group that wants to be in a dialectical and active relation with the museum.<br />
<strong>The</strong> heritage as a medium<br />
<strong>The</strong> museum is constituted <strong>of</strong> remaining things (our traces) that we choose to keep as our<br />
heritage. <strong>The</strong> functions <strong>of</strong> heritage have to be precised :<br />
- museum collections are not an end but a mean<br />
- heritage is not an identity but a reference<br />
- there is a relativity in collections : what is inside the museum is <strong>of</strong>ten strange to the society<br />
around that museum.<br />
If what is preserved is submitted to criticism (the museologist's choice), there is no effective<br />
criticism <strong>of</strong> that choice. However such a critical stage would in fact be the sign <strong>of</strong> modernity, the<br />
moment when we choose what we want to keep from our traces. (That is why destroying the cultural<br />
traces <strong>of</strong> a commwtity is the base <strong>of</strong> eUmocide : it both cuts the thread from the past, therefore<br />
annihilates the memory, and deprives the community from an instrument to organize its future).<br />
<strong>The</strong> museum<br />
<strong>The</strong> museum is altogether a place, a tool and a symbol for the preservation and restoration <strong>of</strong><br />
the memory. History gives birth to material and immaterial heritage. Museology helps us to manage<br />
the burden <strong>of</strong> the past in museums.<br />
Through the different museal stages, the objects acquire successive and different meanings.<br />
Objects <strong>of</strong> to-day are supposed to represent the present truth. At every moment we can change the<br />
construction, not only <strong>of</strong> the museum, but <strong>of</strong> history. but <strong>of</strong> memory. <strong>The</strong> museum has not to "take<br />
the colour <strong>of</strong> the community". For true relations lie upon alterity which is the base <strong>of</strong> dignity.<br />
123
<strong>The</strong> museum is an universal mechanism to be adapted to different contexts. We. museologists.<br />
operate on two levels: the object context and the museum context. For the museum is also the<br />
testimony <strong>of</strong> an epoch: shouldn't we keep some former museal achievements as samples. acting as<br />
examples to the contrary (colonialism. communism. catholicism and so on) ?<br />
Conclusion<br />
In the relation community-heritage-museum. we can have no model but only some basic<br />
principles. Knowledge is a power. that's true. but one has to acknowledge one's own ability (the<br />
chance <strong>of</strong> gifts. education. training) and the science one has acquired to share it with the community.<br />
In that optic. museums exist to render that sharing easier. <strong>The</strong> ideal motto <strong>of</strong> museologists in their<br />
action could be "know thyself'. which means help the community to become self-governing on its<br />
way towards its culture.<br />
Our power regarding the community is primarily RESPONSIBILITY.<br />
But other questions remains. and one among them: we don't have to cope only with existing<br />
things. We also have to foster creation. So what is our position concerning art and the art-museums<br />
which. at first view. do not seem direcUy community-oriented as ethnography museums?<br />
This will be the theme <strong>of</strong> our next symposium in Rio. in 1996.<br />
124
II<br />
MUSEUM AND COMMUNITY<br />
MUSEOLOGY AND NEW MUSEOLOGY<br />
RHETORICS OR REALITIES<br />
JOINT SESSION WITH MINOM
Jointmeeting ICOFOM / MINOM. 4.7.95<br />
"Museology and New Museology · Rhetoric or Realities"<br />
(rCOM <strong>1995</strong>, Stavanger, Norway)<br />
La nouvelle museologie -<br />
qu'est-ce-que c'est?<br />
Marc Maure<br />
conservateur<br />
Norsk Landbruksmuseum<br />
1432 As, Norvege<br />
Le terme de "nouvelle museologie" est apparu dans Ie monde des musees au debut<br />
des annees 1980. n a depuis ere utilise pour designer un certain type d'ideologie et<br />
de pratiques, mais sou vent avec des significations variables.<br />
Je vais - de fa,>on assez schematique - vous donner ma definition personnelle de la<br />
nouvelle museologie, etant bien entendu que d'autres museologues pourraient<br />
probablement vous en donner une differente.<br />
Nouvelle museologie et museologie<br />
• Phenomeme historique et systeme de valeurs<br />
Pour bien com prendre ce qu'est la nouvelle museologie il faut, a mon avis, faire d'abord<br />
la difference entre les deux aspects suivants .<br />
. La nouvelle museologie est un phenomene historique existant objectivement.<br />
Elle est l'expression d'un changement dans la conception du role social du musee.<br />
Elle est Ie produit d'importants mouvements culturels et sociaux qui ont marque la fin<br />
des annees 60 et Ie debut des annees 70. Simultanement et paralielement dans de<br />
nombreux pays, un debat a lieu a cette epoque sur Ie role du musee. nest mis en<br />
accusation, On lui reproche son traditionalisme et son manque d'engagement dans<br />
les questions contemporaines. n apparait mftr pour une transformation, a la fois sous<br />
la forme d'une modernisation de ses activires traditionnelles, et - ce qui caracrerise<br />
la nouvelle museologie - sous la forme de la creation de nouveaux modeles.<br />
n est important de noter que la nouvelle museologie peut prendre des formes differentes<br />
suivant les contextes socio-culturels de son application. De meme que son caracrere<br />
novateur, ou meme "revolutionnaire", est plus fort dans certains pays que dans<br />
d'autres, relativement aux traditions museales concernees .<br />
. La nouvelle museologie est aussi un sysreme de valeurs, c'est-a-dire quelque chose de<br />
plus subjectif.<br />
Elle est l'expression d'une ideologie specifique. Elle est une philosophie et un etat d'esprit<br />
qui caracrerisent et orientent Ie travail de certains museologues. Je dois avouer queje<br />
suis personnellement engage dans la nouvelle museologie, ce qui eviderunent marque<br />
mon analyse du phenomene.<br />
127
La question que I'on peut se poser est de savoir si la museologie est - par nature et par<br />
definition - une science pure, ou si au contraire elle est une science appliquee? C'est une<br />
question a laquelle il est difficile de repondre, mais qui est importante et meriterait d'etre<br />
I'objet de plus amples retlexions. On peut toutefois remarquer que la recherche<br />
museologique existante a essentiellement - a mon avis - un caractere de science<br />
appliquee.<br />
En ce qui concerne la nouvelle museologie, on peut sans aucun doute la definir comme<br />
une museologie d'action.<br />
La nouvelle museologie - une museologie d'action<br />
La nouvelle museologie peut etre schematiquement detinie par les parametres suivants.<br />
• La democratie culturelle<br />
Dans Ia perspective de la nouvelle museologie, la fonction essentielle du musee est<br />
d'etre un instrument de developpement social et culturel au service d'une societe<br />
democratique. Dans cette perspective, il apparait essen tiel que se developpe un<br />
"nouveau musee" caracterise par d'autres objectifs et pratiques que Ie "musee<br />
traditionnel".<br />
Pour la nouvelle museologie "Ie musee traditionnel" - c'est-a-dire Ie modele cree dans<br />
Ie monde occidental au 1ge siecIe et devenu ensuite partout la norme pour Ie<br />
developpement de I'institution museale - est pr<strong>of</strong>ondement marque par Ie projet de<br />
construction d'une culture nationale basee sur Ie mythe de l'homogeneite culturelle.<br />
Une culture dominante est selectionnee et elevee au satut de La Culture au detriment<br />
de la variete des cultures existant ou ayant existe sur Ie territoire national.<br />
La culture des "laisses-pour-compte" , "oublies" et "opprimes" devient Ie domaine de<br />
choix des "nouveaux musees". Leur objectif etant que tous les groupes existant dans<br />
.Ie cadre de I'etat-nation aient les memes droits et possibilites a preserver, mettre en<br />
valeur, utiliser et diffuser leur propre culture.<br />
• Un nouveau paradigme<br />
. De la monodisciplinarite a Ia pluridisciplinarite:<br />
Le musee traditionnel construit ses activites sur une approche monodisciplinaire heritee<br />
de la constitution de disciplines scientifiques autonomes au 1ge siecle (histoire de I'art,<br />
archeologie, ethnologie, sciences naturelles, etc). Le nouveau musee priorite I'approche<br />
interdisciplinaire et ecologique; I'accent est mis sur les relations entre I'homme et son<br />
environnement naturel et culture!.<br />
. Du public a la communaute:<br />
Le nouveau musee ne s'adresse pas a un public indetermine compose de visiteurs<br />
anonymes. Sa raison d'etre est d'etre au service d'une communaute specifique. Le<br />
musee devient acteur et outil de developpement culturel, social et economique d'un<br />
groupe determine.<br />
129
Magpies on Mount Helicon ?<br />
Peter van Mensch<br />
Nine magpies, birds who can imitate any Idnd <strong>of</strong> sound, had sealed on the boughs, and were lamenting their<br />
fate. As Minerva showed her surprise, the Muse explained: '<strong>The</strong>se, too, hove but recently joined the ranks <strong>of</strong> the<br />
birds, as a result <strong>of</strong> being defeated in a competition. <strong>The</strong>ir father lVl1S Pierus, a rich landowner <strong>of</strong> Pella. and<br />
Euippe <strong>of</strong> Poeonia \VaS their mother. Nine times she called upon powerful Lucina to come to her assistance. for<br />
nine times she found herself with child. <strong>The</strong>n the foolish band <strong>of</strong> sisters, swollen with pride in their number,<br />
journeyed through the many cities <strong>of</strong> Haemonia and Achaeo, till they came to Helicon, where they issued this<br />
challenge to us: "Stop imposing upon uneducated people, pretending 10 be sweet singers: if you have confidence<br />
in your powers, divine daughters <strong>of</strong> 77zespis. enter into competition wilh us. We are not inferior to you in voice<br />
or skill, we are your eqUllls in number. If you are defeated, you will leave the spring ( ... J; or else we, in our<br />
tum sholl with draw beyond the plains <strong>of</strong> Macedon ( ... J. Let the nymphs judge our performance". Truly, it<br />
shamed us to compete with them, but it seemed even more shameful to yield without struggle. Nymphs were<br />
chosen, and sworn in by their rivers. <strong>The</strong>n they took tlreir seats on blocks <strong>of</strong> living rock. ( ... J <strong>The</strong> nymphs agreed<br />
unanimously that tire goddesses <strong>of</strong> Helicon were tire victors. Our defeated opponents replied by hurling abuse at<br />
us, until I exclaimed: "So, it is not enough thot you have deserved punishment by forcing this COnlest, but you<br />
add insuit to in;ury ? Our patience is not unlimited: we shall follow where our anger prompts, and proceed to<br />
punish you". <strong>The</strong> Macedonian women laughed and scorned my threats, but as they tried to speak, menacing us<br />
with loud cn"es and wanton gestures, they saw feathers sprouting from their nails and plumage covering their<br />
arms. <strong>The</strong>y looked at each other, watching their faces narrow inlo horny beaks, as a flew addition was made to<br />
the birds <strong>of</strong> the forest. When they tried to beal their breasts, the movement <strong>of</strong> their arms raised them, to hoVer in<br />
the air. <strong>The</strong>y had become magpies, the scandalmongers <strong>of</strong> the woods. Even now, as birds, they still retain their<br />
original power <strong>of</strong> speech. <strong>The</strong>y still chatter horshly and hove an insatinble desire to UJIK.<br />
Describing the development <strong>of</strong> museological thinking this story as told by Ovid seems to<br />
be an apt metaphor. Established positions are challenged. <strong>The</strong> ruling elite pretends to hold<br />
the keys <strong>of</strong> Truth and Beauty. <strong>The</strong> contenders are put aside and accused <strong>of</strong> advocating<br />
Untruth and Ugliness.<br />
<strong>The</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong> this paper is not to identify the Muses and the magpies. <strong>The</strong> paper is an<br />
attempt to describe the development <strong>of</strong> museological thinking - and in particular the<br />
position <strong>of</strong> New Museology - from a dialectic perspective.<br />
<strong>The</strong> history <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> museology as (academic) discipline is very much<br />
connected with the history <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essionalization <strong>of</strong> the museum field'. This interaction<br />
can be analysed from three different perspectives referring to three approaches as to the<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> museological understanding. <strong>The</strong>y have been described as: the empirical-theoretical<br />
approach, the praxeological approach, the philosophical-critical approach. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
2<br />
Ovid, Metamorphoses. Book V: <strong>The</strong> Pieri des transformed (290-678). <strong>The</strong> English tTanSlation is<br />
taken from Mary M. Innes' edition as published by Penguin Books (1955) 1971, pp. 124-133.<br />
P. van Mensch, 'Museo1ogy, museum training and the challenge <strong>of</strong> a new century', in: P.Dube &<br />
M.C.Rocher eels., Museum training: practices and theories. Proceedings ICTOP 1992 (Quebec<br />
1992 (<strong>1995</strong>)) 147-153.<br />
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ICOFOM Stavanger <strong>1995</strong><br />
approaches do not exclude eachother. While the empirical-theoretical approach is mainly<br />
heuristic and the praxeological approach designs strategies <strong>of</strong> behaviour, the philosophical-critical<br />
approach wants to develop a definite point-<strong>of</strong>-view with resulting guidelines.<br />
Each approach has its own past, present and (probably) future. Once in a while the<br />
developments on each level interconnect in a special way and some synergy is created. In<br />
retrospective these moments are to be considered as turning points in museum history,<br />
frequently described as 'museum revolutions'3.<br />
Three approaches<br />
<strong>The</strong> empirical-theoretical approach aims at 'substantial rationality', i.e. the ability to see<br />
signifying relationships between different phenomena in reality. Its aim is mainly<br />
descriptive. It tries to understand museological phenomena in their historical and<br />
socio-cultural contexts. Its usefulness is primarily heuristic. <strong>The</strong> praxeological approach<br />
focusses on ' functional rationality'. Functional rationality is the ability to develop adequate<br />
means (methods, techniques, procedures) to realize ends that have been defined<br />
beforehand. Its aim is applicability. It should give very concrete answers to very concrete<br />
questions.<br />
<strong>The</strong> third approach towards museology concentrates on the development <strong>of</strong> a critical<br />
social orientation. In this respect StranskY speaks <strong>of</strong> 'programme orientation' instead <strong>of</strong><br />
'cognitive orientation". It is <strong>of</strong>ten suggested that the prevailing attitude among museologists<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> non-commitment. This criticism concerns museums, the museum pr<strong>of</strong>ession<br />
as well as museological theory. Views as to a more active social role <strong>of</strong> museums<br />
initiated some explicit opinions concerning the programme orientation. <strong>The</strong>re are (were)<br />
tWo main schools <strong>of</strong> thought: 'marxist-leninist museology' and 'new museology' . In<br />
addition some approaches are published which could be described as 'critical museology' .<br />
Marxist-leninist museology was a very normative approach, where axiological norms are<br />
applied leading to a rather strict system <strong>of</strong> rules. New museology and critical museology<br />
advocate an attitude rather than the application <strong>of</strong> rules. As it was stated at one MINOM<br />
conference: 'there is not just one methodology in new museology, there are several<br />
possibilities depending the prevalent conditions". <strong>The</strong>orization should have the role <strong>of</strong><br />
•<br />
<strong>The</strong> term 'museum revolution' was used first by Duncan Cameron to characterise the radical<br />
changes during the 1950s and 1960s in the United States ('<strong>Museums</strong> and the world <strong>of</strong> today.<br />
Museum reform in the 1950s and 1960s', [COM News 23, 1970, (2): 41-45). Other authors using<br />
the term are, for example, Waldisa Russio (,Museu, museologia, museologos e formacao', Revisla<br />
de Muse%gia I, 1989, (I): 7-1 I) and Antun Bauer (in 1983 in his contribution to Muzeologicke<br />
sesity 9) .<br />
Z.Z.StnlnskY, 'Museology: Deus ex Machina', in: V. Sotka ed., Museology and developing<br />
coW/tries - help or manipulation? ICOFOM Study Series 1 (Stockholm 1988) 207-214.<br />
Quoted in A.Desvalh!es, 'Basic paper' , in: V. Sntka ed., Museology and developing countries -<br />
help or mnnipuliltion? ICOFOM Study Series 14 (Stockhnlm 1988) 129-136.<br />
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ICOFOM Stavanger <strong>1995</strong><br />
ment, hence the term 'community museology'. Presentation and preservation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
heritage are considered within the context <strong>of</strong> social action and change. Heritage is a resource<br />
to be considered and developed within the context <strong>of</strong> community improvements.<br />
<strong>The</strong> people <strong>of</strong> the community themselves have to take care <strong>of</strong> their own heritage, hence<br />
the term 'popular museology'. Key-concept is the 'reappropiation du territoire, du<br />
patrimoine, pour I 'autodeveloppement individuel et collectif. Characteristic is the view<br />
that the concept <strong>of</strong> museum is not confined to a building. <strong>The</strong> museum can be anywhere,<br />
and is anywhere and everywhere within a specified territory. For this museum concept the<br />
term ecomuseum has been coined, hence the term 'ecomuseology'.<br />
It is the French concept <strong>of</strong> ' museologie nouvelle' that gradually became recognized as one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the main streams within museology. <strong>The</strong> term has been monopolized by two, related,<br />
organizations: the Association ' Museologie Nouvelle et Experimentation Sociale'<br />
(MNES)', and the Movement <strong>International</strong>e pour la Museologie Nouvelle (MINOM).<br />
During the ICOFOM meetings in Mexico (1980) and Paris (1982) the position <strong>of</strong><br />
ecomuseums and new museology within the committee was discussed. A group <strong>of</strong><br />
members attempted to make new museology the focus <strong>of</strong> the committee's policy. As a<br />
result the principles <strong>of</strong> ecomuseums were discussed during a special seminar at the 1983<br />
conference in London. During the 1983 meeting the Canadian 'ecomuseologist' Pierre<br />
Mayrand proposed forming a working group on 'museologie communautaire'. During its<br />
first meeting the newly elected board 'decided to establish only function-oriented working<br />
groups and not constitute any permanent working groups to deal with the different problems<br />
within the field <strong>of</strong> museological research'. Moreover, the board considered that ' in<br />
a situation, where the principal matters concerning museology, as such, are still being<br />
studied and discussed, and where the justification <strong>of</strong> museology - and consequently <strong>of</strong><br />
ICOFOM - is even called into question, constituting working groups for detailed mUSeDlogical<br />
matters, and especially for different " museologies " , could cause not only a split in<br />
limited personnel resources but first <strong>of</strong> all interference in the committee's work in its<br />
entirety'. Nevertheless, Mayrand was asked to establish a temporary working group to<br />
prepare a special session on ecomuseums and new museology during the 1984 meeting <strong>of</strong><br />
ICOFOM wich was to take place in Canada.<br />
<strong>The</strong> 1984 meeting <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM did not take place in Canada. Thus the temporary working<br />
group had nothing to prepare, nor did it take any other initiatives regarding ICOFOM.<br />
Instead something else happened. Disappointed by the lack <strong>of</strong> response during the 1983<br />
meeting in London and by the failure to organize the committee's annual meeting in<br />
Canada, the Canadian museologists organized the First <strong>International</strong> Workshop for<br />
Ecomuseums and New Museology in Quebec. At this meeting a policy statement was<br />
adopted, known as the 'Declaration <strong>of</strong> Quebec"o.<br />
Founded in 1982 in France.<br />
10 Published in Museum 148 (1986), p. 20 1.<br />
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ICOFOM Stavanger <strong>1995</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> 'Declaration <strong>of</strong> Quebec' expressed 'the will to establish an organizational basis for<br />
joint reflection and experiments'. ICOM was requested to accept the creation <strong>of</strong> a special<br />
international committee for ecomuseums. <strong>The</strong> creation <strong>of</strong> an international federation for<br />
new museology was also proposed. <strong>The</strong> first request was rejected by ICOM. At the<br />
second international meeting <strong>of</strong> this group (Lisbon, 1985) the Movement <strong>International</strong> de<br />
Museologie Nouvelle (MINOM) was founded , an organization that was eventually<br />
accepted by ICOM as affiliated organization.<br />
Throughout the years new museology and ecomuseums kept a dominant position on the<br />
agenda <strong>of</strong> the committee. For example, all French authors contributing to the ICOFOM<br />
Buenos Aires 1986 symposium belonged to the new museology movement (Bellaigue,<br />
Deloche, Desvallees, Evrard, Nicolas, De Varine). Special meetings on ecomuseums<br />
were organized in connection with the ICOFOM conferences in Leiden (1984) and Zagreb<br />
(1985) . In 1992, during the ICOM General Conference in Quebec, a JOint meeting was<br />
organised between ICOFOM and MINOM , followed by a second meeting in <strong>1995</strong> in<br />
Stavanger.<br />
ICOFOM and new museology<br />
Although new museology was <strong>of</strong>ten discussed within ICOFOM, it was always considered<br />
as one possible approach rather than the main perspective. Each symposium is seen as an<br />
open forum, with a free exchange <strong>of</strong> ideas. Conclusions are never considered as final<br />
statements. Apart from matters concerning the aims and policy <strong>of</strong> ICOM, ICOFOM never<br />
published '<strong>of</strong>ficial' statements, not even about the definition <strong>of</strong> museology. All contributions<br />
are taken seriously -and included in analyses and summaries. As chairman S<strong>of</strong>ka<br />
wrote: '<strong>The</strong> decisive contribution <strong>of</strong> the committee lies in its collecting function: it brings<br />
museum workers and museum researchers together, and by providing an international<br />
forum for discussion and a place for publication <strong>of</strong> ideas and opinions about museology, it<br />
leads to systematic studies and deepening museological questions'''.<br />
Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that the rhetoric <strong>of</strong> new museology has spread beyond<br />
MINOM and similar organizations, and had become a dominant force within ICOFOM.<br />
When we consider Deirdre Starn's description <strong>of</strong> new museology it seems to reflect the<br />
opions <strong>of</strong> the majority <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM members: '<strong>The</strong>orists <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong> New Museology, who<br />
regard museums as social institutions with political agendas because <strong>of</strong> inherent shared<br />
biases and assumptions, advocate integrating museums more closely with the multicultural<br />
social groups which these critics believe they should represent and serve. <strong>The</strong> New<br />
Museology specifically questions traditional museum approaches to issues <strong>of</strong> value,<br />
meaning, control, interpretation, authority and authenticity .. 2.<br />
II<br />
12<br />
V. S<strong>of</strong>ka, 'ICOFOM: ten years <strong>of</strong> international search for the foundations <strong>of</strong> museology' , Papers in<br />
Museology I (Umea/Stockholm 1992) 20-49.<br />
D.C. Starn, '<strong>The</strong> Informed Muse: the implications <strong>of</strong> "<strong>The</strong> New Museology" for museum practice',<br />
Museum Management and Curatorship 12, 1993, (2) : 267-283.<br />
137
ICOFOM Stavanger J 995<br />
With this 'new' perspective as driving force, ICOFOM should act as catalyst to generate<br />
the synergy resulting from the interaction <strong>of</strong> theory, practice and attitude. Muses or magpies?<br />
or perhaps just nymphs? Let's descent from our Helicon and challenge the missions<br />
and functions <strong>of</strong> museums before it is too late.<br />
138
Paule Doucet (<strong>1995</strong>) «Les nouvelles museologies : approches conceptuelles et<br />
pratiques», Nouvelle museologie : mythe et realite , Session ICOFOM-MINOM,<br />
ICOM-95, Stavanger, Norvege, Ie 4 juillet, <strong>1995</strong><br />
Le discours des practiciens et des chercheurs fait etat de I'emergences de multiples<br />
nouveautes en museologie : nouvelles orientations, nouvelles strategies, nouvelles<br />
methodologies, nouveaux acteurs, nouveaux enjeux, nouveaux publics, nouveaux<br />
mouvements, alors que Ie musee comme 'institution au service de la societe et de<br />
son developpement' (UNESCO 1974) eclate, en meme temps que les notions de<br />
societe, de developpement et d'histoire.<br />
Les discours deja classiques des initiateurs de la nouvelle museologie' ainsi que les<br />
temoignages des praticiens contemporains: Miriam Arroyo, Nancy Fuller, Marc<br />
Maure, Pierre Mayrand, Mario Moutinho, Rene Rivard, Franl(oise Wasserman,<br />
entres autres, decrivent des points de vue d'experts et de practiciens, d'intervenants<br />
et d'ideologues, les pourquois et les comments de la nouvelle museologie, en quoi<br />
consiste sa nouveaute - en quoi elle est autre - et en quoi elle est encore<br />
museologie.<br />
J'aimerais pour ma part explorer avec vous, d'une part I'ensemble des grandes<br />
orientations, les enjeux et les champs d'action possibles des nouvelles museologies,<br />
et, d'autre part, les capacites et les competences des acteurs individuels et des<br />
collectivites engages les pratiques sociales du patrimoine. Avec toutes les reserve<br />
dues aux contraintes de temps, a I'absence de contextualisation et d'exemplification<br />
concretes, a I'absence des references et des nuances d'usage, j'aimerais proposer<br />
des elements d'approches conceptuelles et pratiques a la nouvelle museologie<br />
comme action patrimoniale collective dans I'espace public.<br />
Cette approche est issue d'une recherche empirique sur I'emergence de I'action<br />
patrimoniale aupres d'une population francophone minoritaire de la cote Atlantique<br />
du Canada, ma region d'origine. A travers les rapports chercheur-acteurs avec une<br />
population, dans une contextualite socio-historique particuliere, j'y experimente et<br />
construit un concept et une pratique de I'action patrimoniale. Dans un va-et-vient<br />
exploratoire entre I'experience de terrain, les elaborations conceptuelles, les essais<br />
methodologiques, dont la recherche-intervention non-directive, se constituent les<br />
1 Voir les textes rassembl es par Andre Desvallees .<br />
Vagues, une anthol ogie d e l a n o uvell e museol ogie, Macon,<br />
edition W, M.N.E . S., vol. 1 , 1992 et vol. 2, <strong>1995</strong>.<br />
139
conditions interrel iees, de prod uction de connaissances, de production d'outils<br />
methodologiques, et de production d'action patrimoniale collective dans I'espace<br />
public.<br />
Selon Touraine 2 et Melucd, iI n'y a plus de principe unificateur de I'action : la<br />
societe, l'histoire ... L'action des acteurs est ecartelee dans Ie sillage de la modernite<br />
avancee, des marches, de la mondialisation 4 , de la disparition de grandes<br />
ideologies integratrices, entre la logique de rationalisation et celie de la<br />
subjectivation, dont Ie depassement s'ebauche par I'action des nouveaux<br />
mouvements sociaux. Selon Dubet 5 , I'experience des acteurs est eclatee entre les<br />
trois enjeux de rationalisation, de subjectivation et d'integration. Ces logiques<br />
peuvent etre considerees, tour a tour, du point de vue du chercheur comme un<br />
systeme d'action et du point de vue des acteurs, comme des enjeux dans un champ<br />
d'action.<br />
Une premier couple logique se compose de la relation entre les orientations<br />
contra ires et complementaires de rationnalisation et de subjectivation : orientations<br />
d'une part au x connaissances et a la gestion des ressources, a la conscience et aux<br />
sens d'autre part. Par I'effort strategique de positionnement dans la concurrence<br />
scientifique, technique et communicationnelle sur un marche, les institutions<br />
deviennent des entreprises culturelles, y compris dans Ie domaine du patrimoine,<br />
institutions productrices de biens et services visant des publics, des<br />
, consommateurs, des groupes d'interets, alors que les individus tentent d'assumer<br />
leurs histoires person nelles, leurs petits recits dans I'effritement des grands recits, a<br />
exprimer leurs desirs, leurs croyances, leurs attentes, a se ralier a des reseaux<br />
d'appartenances et a des communautes, a marquer leurs differences, et a s'affirmer<br />
comme acteur et comme liberte creative, dans un effort, en somme, a produire une<br />
experience subjective, transigeant tant du cote des traditions que du cotes des<br />
nouveautes pour donner un sens a la vie. Une deuxieme logique revele I'eclatement<br />
Fayard.<br />
2 Touraine, A. (1992) Critique de la modernite, Paris,<br />
3, Melucci, A . (1991) «Qu'y a-t-il de nouveau dans les<br />
nouveaux mouvements sociaux» in L. Maheu et A. Sales (1991) La<br />
recomposition du politique, Montreal, P.U . F., p. 129-162.<br />
'Voir aussi Immanuel Wallerstein (<strong>1995</strong>) Impenser la<br />
science sociale, pour sortir du XIXe siecle, Paris, P.U . F.<br />
Seuil.<br />
5 Dubet, F. (1994) Sociologie de 1 'experience, Paris,<br />
140
politiques dans des efforts de depassement des tensions sociales de la modernite.<br />
En terme de pratiques concretes, I'hypothese centrale de cette recherche est la<br />
suivante : I'action patrimoniale se construit dans un projet collectif, en combinant les<br />
dimensions d'individualisation subjective et de rationnalite strategique, les<br />
tendances integratrices et innovatrices des rapports socio-historiques d'une<br />
collectivite a la culture et a la nature, dans I'espace et dans Ie temps (figure 2).<br />
Proposition 1 : Les individus, les groupes et les collectivites se constituent comme<br />
sujets-acteurs, et constituent leurs rapports au patrimoine, par I'action democratique<br />
dans I'espace publique.<br />
L'angle d'approche choisi porte sur la constitution de I'action collective (ou<br />
communautaire) dans un context socio-historique donne, ou les acteurs se forment,<br />
definissent des objectifs, des ressources et des contraintes dans les rapports<br />
sociaux en actes. O'ap_es I'economiste Herbert Gintis 7 , entre une conception<br />
instrumentale de I'action fondee sur les besoins, les preferences et les interets<br />
individuels et la conception expressive, ou les conditions et les positions sociales<br />
determinent les possibilites d'action, il y a place pour une conception constitutive de<br />
I'action : les individus developpement leurs representations et leurs capacites<br />
personnelles en agissant dans Ie monde. Selon Gintis, «Les objectifs, ne sont pas<br />
donne d'avance, et les interactions sociales comportent un aspect constitutif : les<br />
individus participent a des pratiques avec d'autres non seulement pour atteindre des<br />
,buts communs, mais egalement pour determiner qui ils sont et qui ils vont devenir<br />
en tant qu'etre sociaux. ( ... ) la notion de devenir-par-I'action etablit que les<br />
individus se constituent eux-meme, pour une part importante, dans Ie cadre de leurs<br />
projets communs».8 Ce processus de devenir-par-I'action, ainsi que celui aparente<br />
de la constitution de I'acteur dans I'action collective est au point tournant de la<br />
demarche de reconceptualisation de la notion du patrimoine. lis pourraient servir<br />
d'appuis conceptuel aux experiences et initiatives de nouvelle museologie.<br />
7 Gintis, H. (1992) «Pour une societe democratique postliberale»,<br />
in G. Boismenu, P. Hamel et G. Labica. Les formes<br />
modernes de la democratie, Montreal, P.U.M., 1992, p.266-267.<br />
". Bowles, S. et H. Gintis (1988). La democratie postliberale,<br />
Paris , Editions La decouverte, p. 213-214.<br />
142
Des etudes recentes menees dans differents pays de la Communaute europeenne 9 ,<br />
portant sur des actions environnementales a la base, revelent que la competence a<br />
I'action, comprend plus qu'un ensemble de connaissances et d'attitudes. Ces etudes<br />
explorent les conditions ou I'experience pratique d'action communautaire activent<br />
des capacites, mobilisent des competences a I'action, responsabilisent les acteurs,<br />
dans ce cas des enfants, et les rend aptes a devenir des agents de changement<br />
aupres des adultes, leurs parents et autres intervenants dans la communaute. La<br />
competence a I'action s'acquiert dans I'action collective concrete, et non dans<br />
I'action simulee «comme si». Elle requiert des competences a la definition et a la<br />
solution de problemes reels, a la prise de decision, au respect de la democratie et<br />
des processus participatifs. Une action pro-active et participatoire va audela du<br />
changement d'attitudes et de comportements, car elle com porte a la fois un<br />
engagement dans un projet collectif et dans sa mise en oeuvre. L'action des acteurs<br />
en actes presente des dimensions a la fois de cognitives (rationnelles) et affectives<br />
(subjectives), et entraine des effets concrets sur les formes de solidarites<br />
necessaires aux activites collaboratives, aux formes de partenariat, a la realisation<br />
collective des projets. Dans Ie meme sens, Gintis 10 precise un certain nombre de<br />
competences a I'action requises pour Ie developpement economique d'une<br />
democratie post-liberale : les competences des individus a participer dans I'espace<br />
public, a parler, a choisir, a agir : apprendre et travailler, se responsabiliser et<br />
s'engager dans I'action collective (figure 3).<br />
Une question surgit sur les conditions de production de ces differentes competences<br />
et de leurs interrelations, dans un contexte socio-historique donne. Bien avant de<br />
prendre connaissance de ces dernieres recherches empiriques et theoriques, j'ai<br />
voulu saisir Ie processus d'emergence de I'action patrimoniale dans une collectivite.<br />
D'abord Ie quoi, sans a priori: qu'est-ce que Ie patrimoine pour la population, pour Ie<br />
chercheur ? Ensuite Ie comment agir ? Avec qui agir ? Pourquoi agir ? Pourquoi<br />
passer d'activites patrimoniale individuelles, isolees et ponctuelles (recherches<br />
genealogiques, collections de mementos, historiographie locale, etc.) a une action<br />
collective ?<br />
Apres les phases conventionnelles de documentation et d'observation participante,<br />
les entrevues non directives et les entretiens ad hoc, les rencontres exploratoire<br />
9 Uzzel, D., Coord. (1994) Children as Catalysts <strong>of</strong><br />
Environmental Change: Final Report, Brussels, European<br />
Community.<br />
10 Bowles, S. et H. Gintis. op . cit.<br />
143
constitution de leur action patrimoniale comme reappropriation collective de<br />
memoire et de sens, affirmation des experiences et des solidarites, identification des<br />
ressources culturelles et naturelles a sauvegarder et gerer, mobilisation des<br />
capacites individuelles et leurs investissements dans I'action collective. Par I'action<br />
patrimoniale comme action volontaire ou comme mouvement social, les acteurs<br />
rassemblent les dimensions eparses des rapports sociaux a la culture et a la nature,<br />
les reconnaissent, en conserve les valeurs tangibles et intangibles, en gerent les<br />
ressources, en projettent une action commune, un gage de sauvegarde d'un passe<br />
encore present et de creation d'avenir.<br />
Proposition 3 : La nouvelle museologie se constitue dans Ie contexte de la<br />
modernite avancee, par des orientations contraires et complementaires de<br />
rationalisation et de subjectivation, de continuite et de changement.<br />
II n'y a pas de science exacte ni en sociologie, ni en museologie. II s'y construit des<br />
exemplifications, des modeles, des typologies a partir d'experiences vecues dans<br />
des contextes socio-historiques donnes. II semble pourtant possible de proposer a<br />
partir de ces approches conceptuels et pratiques une· amorce de typologie ou les<br />
differentes formes de museologie se retrouvent dans les axes des grandes<br />
orientations socio-culturelles : la rationalite et la subjectivite, I'integration et<br />
I'innovation. Cette typologie a I'etat d'ebauche revele aussi I'espace emergeant de la<br />
nouvelle museologie, comme mediation ou comme mediance entre les formes pures<br />
de museologie, comme combinaison ou interconnexions, en de nouvelles<br />
manifestations tangentielles par rapport aux orientations sociales dominantes.<br />
Nous envisageons cette typologie virtue lie, vers les poles, I'autonomie croissante<br />
des logiques de museologies fractionnees : museologie comme entreprise,<br />
museologie comme experience de collection privee; museologie communautaire<br />
integratrice, museologie d'avant-garde. Les interconnexions entre ces poles<br />
representent les nouvelles museologies mediatrices possibles : museologie<br />
conscientisante, museologie identitaire, museologie sociale, museologie innovatrice<br />
critique. Et, eventuellement, dans une spirale, tendant a la co-existence ou a la<br />
rupture des tendances contraires et complementaires, nous pouvons concevoir les<br />
tentatives d'integration ou de transformation politique des rapports d'une population<br />
au patrimoine. L'action museologique aurait alors I'elan d'un mouvement social, soit<br />
vers une museologie integriste ou une museologie d'action democratique.<br />
145
Dans ce panorama des rapports sociaux possible de I'action museologique et<br />
patrimoniale, les emergences de la nouvelle museologie, de la museologie<br />
communautaire ou collective, pro-active, participative et democratique, ne sont pas<br />
des excroissances, des ecarts de parcours et des actes manques, mais des actions<br />
construites par des acteurs, a travers des solidarites et des conflits, bien engages<br />
dans les enjeux de la modernite avancee, qui cherchent a rassembler les directions<br />
fractionnees de I'action museologique. La nouvelle museologie, a son meilleur,<br />
represente une experience collective de reconnaissance, de sauvegarde, de gestion<br />
et de projection dans I'avenir du patrimoine Ie plus vital pour la survie d'une<br />
collectivite, celui des capacites et des competences des individus, des groupes et<br />
des organismes a I'action democratique dans I'espace public.<br />
146
Conclusions<br />
Ces quelques dimensions d'une approche conceptuelle sur les rapports sous<br />
jacents aux actions patrimoniales suggerent la pluralite des manifestations reelles et<br />
possibles des nouvelles museologies. Des recherches empiriques portant sur leurs<br />
orientations et les pratiques plurielles, des relectures critiques des debats et des<br />
recits d'experiences pionnieres, des debats sur les conditions d'emergences et Ie<br />
sens des projets actuels, des presences actives a la vitalite des mouvements qui<br />
tentent de combiner les differentes dimensions fractionnees des rapports au<br />
patrimoine.<br />
147
Paule Doucet (<strong>1995</strong>) Action patrimoniale<br />
Figure 2<br />
Pratiques d'action patrimoniale<br />
/<br />
conservatIon<br />
/<br />
/<br />
/<br />
gestion des ressources<br />
sauvegarde<br />
/<br />
/<br />
149<br />
p . et collectif
ICOFOMIStavanger<br />
cours des annees 11 venir},I'evolution actuelle de la museologie introduil une nouvelle approche<br />
(pr<strong>of</strong>essionnelle et theorique) du musee qui deborde Ie regard traditionnel forge 11 partir du<br />
monde du musee lui -meme. CeUe recontextualisation sociale du musee, II la fois pratique el<br />
scientifique, ne peut manquer d'evoquer Ie projet de la nouvelle museologie.<br />
Cesl au regard de ce contexte. disons de transformation des frontieres de la museologie que je<br />
voudrais aborder les questions suivantes.<br />
QUELLE RELATION DU MUSEE A SON ENVIRONNEMHrr SOCIAL?<br />
En effet, en pendant 11 cette transformation des frontieres de la museologie, il y en a une autre.<br />
qui est d'ailleurs premiere, entre Ie musee et son environnement social. Vient alors naturellcment<br />
II I'espritla question de savoir jusqu'ou I'ouverture du musee peut-elle aller. Ou pour dire<br />
les choses d'une maniere un peu plus imagee et provocatrice : Ie musee est-il soluhle dans son<br />
environnement social? D'un point de vue sociologique, on observe en effct un changement<br />
majeur qui est Ie passage d'un systeme ferme II un systeme plus ouvert. La encore ce theme a<br />
faitl'objet de larges discussions aussi bien du cote d'ICOFOM que du MINOM. J'essaierai de<br />
degager ce qui interesse notre reflexion presente.<br />
On sait que pendant longtemps Ie musee a ete une entite fermee. Les echanges entre lui et son<br />
environnement etaient minimes - et ceux qui existaient etaient fortement contr6les. L'essentiel<br />
de I'activite etait interne. Les sorties ctaient peu nombreuses (essentiellement du savoir); les<br />
objets y entrant n'en ressortaient plus; I'argent w;:u etait absorb" par cette activite interne de<br />
conservation ou de recherche et etait peu controle par I'exterieur. On peut considerer que les<br />
individus eux-memes qui y entraient y faisaient carriere. Par exemple, en France, I 'organisation<br />
de la pr<strong>of</strong>ession en corps augmentait d'autant I'irreversibilite de cette entree dans la carriere des<br />
musees 4 . Toutle systeme etait organise autour d'un principe de mise en reserve, en quelque<br />
sorte, aussi bien d'objets, de fonds financiers, voire me me d'individus qui quittentles circuits<br />
de communication (marchand, informationnel, etc.) et dont I'entree au musee change la nature<br />
sociale.<br />
Or au cours de dernieres decennies, les musees ont developpe les echanges en direction de<br />
I 'exterieur, autrement dit les sorties du systeme. II y a bien evidemment Ie developpement des<br />
expositions, tant en nombre qu'en taille, qui correspond a la creation d'une inIerface, par Ie<br />
mllsee et dans Ie musee lui-meme, entre Ie monde ferme de la mise en reserve et I'environnement<br />
exterieur. La mise en place de services, la fabrication de produits dits« derives» (objetssouvenirs<br />
ou produits d 'edition) participent de la me me logique de mediation entre deux<br />
mondes dontl 'ecomonie symbolique (d'un cote mise en reserve; de I 'autre, echange) est de<br />
nature fondamentalement differente. Les discussions sur la necessite selon laquelle la circulation<br />
dll public (dont la caracteristique physique premiere est d'entrer et de sortir) ne doit pas affecter<br />
Ie regime de la reserve, caracterise par la perennite des objets. leur non-ci rculation, leur<br />
non-transformation.<br />
4, On peut obscrver d'ailleurs Ie mente processus pour !'UOI\CP.>lle. 11 ) aurall probablcment a rciaLI' iser Ie ...<br />
affinnation
ICOFOMIStavanger<br />
voyant au fait de savoi r de quoi traite Ie musee aujourd·hui. La question de I'objet « de» musee<br />
ouvre a celie de I'objet « du » musee.<br />
Traditionnellement. on considere que Ie musee traite de collections. Pourtant. cela fait deja assez<br />
longtemps, me semble-t-il , qu'il est desonnais reconnu que ce tenne demande a etre singulierement<br />
revu, preciseet elargi dans la perspective d'une definition plus scientifique de I'objet<br />
de musee a la fois en tant qu'objet porteur d' une infonnation (sa dimension documentaire) et<br />
qU'objet de societe (sa dimension symbolique, aussi bien avant qu'apres son entree au musee)6<br />
Le tenne de « collection » condense, en une espece de tenne-valise, les operations de<br />
collecte, de documentation, de recherche et de conservation. Mai s, la nouvelle museologie a<br />
contribue a porter Ie debat plus loin, foryant la museologie dans son ensemble (pour peu qu'elle<br />
accepte de s'interesser a d'autres musees que les musees d'art) a revenir sur Ie statut des objets<br />
restant in situ, et donc a reprendre la discussion sur Ie deplacement de objets dan s Ie musee et<br />
plus fondamentalement sur la nature meme de I 'objet de musee (Desvallees, 1994). L'impact de<br />
I'ecomusee, par exemple, en tant que dispositif museal elargi a la constitution de<br />
« collections» hors les murs (pour ne citer que cet aspect) fut considerable surtoute I'evolution<br />
des musees dits de societe. L'objet, ne changeant ni d'espace social (n'etant pas retire de<br />
I'espace de la vie quotidienne) ni de temps social (restant soumis aux aleas de I' histoire ou de la<br />
memoire), echappait au principe de mise en reserve. Inversement, cet espace et ce temps devenaient<br />
la matiere me me du musee 7 . Ces choses sont connues, tout particulierement dans cette<br />
assemblee;je ne les mentionne donc ici que pour memoire, meme si elles peuvent ne pas etre<br />
prises en compte dans des definitions du musee qui sont plus restrictives que celie de I'ICOM.<br />
Dans ce contexte, il paralt interessant de porter attention a deux phenomenes. qui sont d'ailleurs<br />
souvent confondus: Ie premier est I'elargissement de la notion d'objet de musee, I'autre I'elargissement<br />
de celie de patrimoine. Ce qui caracterise les collections, c'est qu 'elles sont<br />
constituees d'objets consideres par tout Ie monde comme des objets de musees, dont l'ensemble<br />
est reconnu constituer un patrimoine. Leur statut social est donc celui d'objet de patrimoine.<br />
Cela a amene a oublier Ie fait que les objets qui sont dans les musees y etaient entres et<br />
avaient ete transfonnes en patrimoine.<br />
Faut-il rappeler que Ie premier enseignement de I'histoire des musees est l'extension progressive<br />
de ce statut a des objets qui ne l'avait pas auparavant : objets de nature, de technique, d' <br />
histoire, de folklore. d'ethnologie, d'art et tradition populaire. d'industrie, etc. De ce point de<br />
vue I'ecomusee a montre, dans la pratique, que I 'extension etait possible a des objets a la fois<br />
illegitimes (disons,« ordinaires »), immaterie1s (tels que la memoire) et de surcrolt hors les<br />
murs. Bref, des objets qui etaient en realite d' une tres grande complexite physique et systemique.<br />
Cetle complexite est encore plus netle dans Ie cas des parcs naturels qui conservent.<br />
preservent, valorisent des ecosystemes. Mais Ie mouvement de redefinition des objets engage<br />
par les ecomusees devient encore plus net et visible dans Ie cas de ces macro-objets que sont les<br />
paysages, qui non seulement sont complexes mais, de plus, ouverts et en devenir. Leurs Iimites,<br />
leur evolution - et disons leur destin - depend non seulement des specialistes de la<br />
conservation, mais aussi tres directement de la population qui y vit (Davallon, Micoud et Tardy,<br />
a par.). Dans ce demier cas, on objectera que 1'0n peut, a juste titre, se demander si I'on est en-<br />
6. Jc pense lei lout particulicrcmenl au:\ divers Lm\ aux d'ICOFOM sur ccUe question , spCclalcmcnt Ie recent<br />
Symposium de Pekln en J 994.<br />
7 Pour un poIOl recent sur ceUe iusloire. voir Poulot ( <strong>1995</strong>).<br />
158
ICOFOM/ Stavanger<br />
core dans une logique de musee et s'il convienl encore de parler d'ohjcl de musec, Le paysage<br />
n'est meme pas aprinri un objet de patrimoine, je vais y revenir dans quelques instants, Si<br />
mettreun paysage comme tel dans un musee n'a guere de sens,l'idee meme de Ie musealiser<br />
appelle tout de suite des reserves: sauf 11 musealiser les gens qui vivent dans Ie paysage et 11<br />
projeter de transformer la moitie d' un pays en musee, on est bien oblige de penser autremenl Ie<br />
traitement de cet objet particulier.<br />
Les difficultes croissantes qui apparaissent pour penser ces objets au fur et a mesure que I'on<br />
s'eloigne de I 'objet de musee traditionnel vers des objets dont on sent Ie caractere patrimonial<br />
tout en ayant une grande difficulte 11 les considerer comme des objets de musee, meritent de retenir<br />
toute notre attentionS, D'un point de vue pratique, elles posent la question de la maniere<br />
dont ces objets peuvent etre traites et quelle institution peutles traiter. L'objet qui entre physi <br />
quement dans un musee, se trouve defini par les operations (conservation, recherche et de diffusion)<br />
dont il va etre I'objet; operations qui sont specifiques a ce type d'institution particulier<br />
qu'esl un musee d'art, un musee d'histoire, un musee d'ethnologie, etc, II est musealise, En<br />
etant en charge d' un ensemble d' objets ou d'un objet complexe in xitu , I'ecomusee ou Ie parc<br />
naturel operent une « musealisation » particuliere meme si elle n'est pas celie du musee traditionnel.<br />
Le cas du paysage est interessant car encore plus limite; en effet, s'il ne saurait etre un<br />
objet de musee au sens c1assique, il n'empeche qu'il devient bien allssi I'objet d' une instilution<br />
particuliere (parc naturel , par exemple) qui va va avoir mission de susciter sa preservation, de la<br />
recherche sur lui , ainsi que sa valorisation, II y a done bien, en ce cas, processus de transformation<br />
du paysage en objet d'une institution museale, Cependant, si I'on a de la difficulte 11 uti <br />
liser Ie terme de musealisation, c 'est que d' une part I' institution museale impliqllee dans I'affaire<br />
doit trouver des modalites de travail associantla popUlation, et d'autre part que Ie statut<br />
patrimonial du paysage n 'est pas totalement etabli mais depend justement de la maniere dontla<br />
population Ie considere et de son action sur lui,<br />
Cela nous conduit 11 distinguer la museaiisatinn, qui correspond 11 une institutionnalisation de '<br />
I 'objet en tant qu'objet de musee (c'est-1I-dire, en tant qu 'objet des operations pratiques effectuees<br />
par Ie musee), de la palrimnniaiisation qui est la reconnaissance d'un objet (un objet ordin'aire)<br />
en tant qu'objet de patrimoine, II s' agit dans les deux cas d ' un cbangement de statut social<br />
de I 'objet, toutefois dans Ie premier, c'est en tant qu'il devient, en pratique, I'objet d' une<br />
institution; alors que dans Ie second, il est, en droit et en representation, I 'objet d' une reconnaissance<br />
par accord des membres d' un groupe social. II est certain que les deux changements<br />
de statut sont lies, specialement dans Ie cas du musee traditionnel : ce qui est reconnu patrimoine<br />
est pris en charge par Ie musee et inversement ce qui entre dans Ie musee acquiert Ie statut<br />
de patrimoine, L'interet de la situation des paysages reside precisement dans Ie fait que leur<br />
statut patrimonial est (hormis sa complexite) celui d'un patrimoine en devenir et qu'il attendent<br />
une forme d'institution museale partiellement 11 inventer. De ce fait, cette situation fait apparaltre,<br />
en-deli'" de la question de leur musealisation, la modification de la conception meme que<br />
nous nous faisons du patrimoine - modification 11 laquelle se trouvent aussi confrontes desormais<br />
les musees qui ont 11 prendre en charge ou qui ont simplement 11 faire avec ces nouveaux<br />
patrimoines, comme certains musees qui assurent un conseil patrimonial aupres des acteurs du<br />
patrimoine rural. Modification de la conception du patrimoine sur laquelle je propose de nous<br />
arreter quelques instants,<br />
8, Ou plutoL que \'on y rcncnnc, dans la mesure au la question de j'inadaptallon du lcnne « musec» a nombrc<br />
tl'l nstl lutions. ct %rl;ori , de silualions ont deja ele maintcs 1'015 signalecs el dlscu[ccs.<br />
159
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En ce cas-la, la connai ssance des caracterisliques dudil visiteur est indi spensable pOllr all eindre<br />
cet objectif. Mais dans les deux cas, Ie musee est dans une attitude de controle de la place de<br />
visileur el, d'une certaine fa
ICOFOM/ Stavanger<br />
qualitative) est remplacee par celie d'audience (notion quantitative). Remplacement dont on<br />
prend toute la mesure a I 'etape suivante qui est celie du developpement d'une logique marketing<br />
renversantle rapport musee-public et proposant des « musees-produits » repondant it lin marche<br />
reel ou potentiel. Nous sommes face a un processus de merchandisation (rationnalisation de<br />
la production et de la miseen marche) de la culture que I'on observe pOllr d'autres secteurs de<br />
la vie culturelle (comme la musique) ou encore des secteurs de I'education.<br />
La deuxieme et la troisieme de ces fayons qU'a Ie musee de se toumer vers Ie public correspondent<br />
a un parti oppose de la premiere en ce qu'elles ne continuent pas a viser un controle du<br />
public par I"institution museale, mais plutot au contraire a doter ce public d'un reel pouvoir sur<br />
cette demiere. Elles Ie font cependant dans des directions tres differentes, voires opposees. I)<br />
D' un cote, Ie musee est I 'outil d' une communaute. C'est la voie des ecomusees et de la museologie<br />
communautaire. Maisc'est probablement aussi celie que devra empnmter I'institution qui<br />
voudra que les acteurs sociaux vivant dans un espace rural Ie considerent comme un patnmoine.<br />
On peut penser que I 'ancrage communaute-musee sera I 'action patrimoniale, I'institution<br />
museale etant une institution patnmoniale l2 2) De I'autre cote, on voit se dessiner aujourd'<br />
hui la constitution d'un public des expositions et des musees. II faut entendre par public<br />
un ensemble d'individus dotes d'une competence specilique sur ce qui leur est presente. pouvant<br />
emettre une opinion et en discuter. L'emergence de ce« public culturel »13 des expositions<br />
et des musees demande une structuration de I'espace public de la reception comparable a<br />
celie qui existe dans d'autres secteurs de la vie culturelle comme Ie theatre, Ie cimena, la musique,<br />
etc. Je ferai I'hypothese que, face au developpement des expositions, nous sommes en<br />
train d'assister a une telle structuration avec I"apparition de la publication d 'opinions et de<br />
commentaires dans desjoumaux, celie d'outils perrnettant de developper une competence de<br />
visiteur tels qu'ouvrages, catalogues, CD ROM, etc. Cette emergence d'un public culturel va<br />
de pair avec I 'entree des institutions museales dans une logique des entreprises culturelles. Le<br />
fait qui me parait absolument nouveau, c'est que les musees entrent dans les politiques culturelies,<br />
et du coup ils se trouvent en competition avec les politiques theatrales, Ie developpement<br />
du cinema, Ie developpement de la musique, I' edition des multi medias. Je pense qu'il est necessaire<br />
de prendre en consideration cette situation, aussi bien lorsqu'on etudie la redelinition<br />
du role des musees, leur fonctionnement ou a plus forte raison Ie statut des publics.<br />
DERNIEREQUESTION, POUR CONCLURE: QUELLE OPERATIVITt SOCIALE DU MUSEE?<br />
Cette demiere question nous permettra de mettre en rapport les precedentes avec Ie theme des<br />
relations entre musees et communautes. Je serai neanmoins assez bref, me contentant de faire<br />
appara1tre la difference entre deux conceptions de I'usage social du musee (fonction de marquage<br />
identitaire et activite symbolique) en prolongement de ce que nous venons de voir.<br />
Cela fait partie d' une sorte de my the fondateur du musee que de dire qu' il impose une identite,<br />
tout particulierement nationale.1I convient d'interroger ce que I 'on en tend par la. Marc Maure a<br />
ouvert la voie d'une telle interrogation lorsque, dans sa communication, il a distingue<br />
12. VOir lei mcrnc la com mum cation de Paule Doucel. Sur Ie palnmOInC TUrdl, \Olr Da\'aJlon. Micoud el Tard)<br />
(il par.).<br />
13 J"emploie ce lenne pour distinguer du public du musec traditionnel ce public delini en lanl que membre d'un<br />
cspace public.<br />
163
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nir(c'est-a-dire des objets qui ne son I pas consicteres comme palrimoine alors qu'il sont it disposition),<br />
on se rend compte que les choses vont tout autremenl. Pour tout dire, elles I'ont<br />
meme a I' inverse : il faut que ces objets soient reconnus comme« representants" d'un monde<br />
qui I) n'est pas tout a fait notre monde quotidien et 2) apparait cependant dote d' un e I'aleur<br />
pour nous. De plus, cette reconnai sance doit se faire 3 plusieurs: elle est un acte social. Meme si<br />
un individu opere, tout seul et en premier, cette reconnaissance, il est necessaire que d'autres<br />
membres de la communaute Ie sui vent et qu 'ils s'accordent en commun pour poser ces objets<br />
hors du monde quotidien et les considerer comme un bien commun. C'est 3 ce moment que<br />
I'exposition de ces objets - qui est 3 la fois les poser hors et les montrer - peut rendre visible<br />
I 'entitecollective.<br />
Mais la perspective ouverte par la nouvelJe museologie eclaire aussi les pratiques d' exposition.<br />
Dans la logique que je viens de decrire, les expositions ont principalement fonction de montrer<br />
(donner 3 voir) des objets pour lesquels il y a accord 3 propos de leur statut de patrimoine et,<br />
par celie monstration (ce geste d'ostension). fonction de rendre visible celie communaute d'accord<br />
(ce qui est I'en-commun). Or, I' exposition possede une dimension complementaire de<br />
celle-ci : non seulement elle rend « visible» (Ies objets et, metaphoriquement, la colJectivite),<br />
mais elJe rend « public ». Pour un objet, etre expose, c'est etre place sur une scene publique,<br />
au sens ou c'est 3 la fois Ie mettre en scene (Ie poser en un lieu ou il est en representation) et Ie<br />
rendre accessible 3 tout personne qui Ie desire. C'est objet est alors plus que lui-meme; il participe<br />
3 une interpretation (il joue un role) et il est expose au di scours social (i l est objet de commentaires,<br />
d'ailJeurs tout comme Ie sontaussi la mise en scene et I 'interpretation). En ce se ns,<br />
I 'exposition rend public I 'action patrimoniale dont elle est I' aboutissement: elle I '<strong>of</strong>ficialise.<br />
Ainsi, mediation supplementaire entre Ie sujet social et la colJectivite, venant apres celie de<br />
J'objet qui lui-meme represente Ie monde passe d'ou vient I' heritage, J'exposition propose de<br />
realiser I 'accord des regards entre ceux qui viennent la visiter, mais elJe ouvre aussi, irremediablement,<br />
la possibilite d'un choix, d' une reinterpretation, d' une discussion. Or, c'est peutetre<br />
13 OU la multiplication actuelle des expositions intervient : devant la variete des choses exposees,<br />
devant I'extension des choses patrimonialisables, les visiteurs peuvent choisir, peuvent<br />
discuter, peuvent se former, peuvent se reconnaitre des gouts communs, peuvent donner leur<br />
opinion. Bef. peuvent contribuer 3 I 'emergence de colJectivites partielJes et singulieres: ce que<br />
I 'on appelle pour les autres activites culturelJes, des publics. Peut-etre, sommes-nous ainsi invites<br />
3 repenser la relation du public 3 I' exposition et au musee (sa dimension mediatique) sans<br />
perdre de vue sa fonction patrimoniale.<br />
REFERENCES BIBLIOGRAPHIQUES<br />
J. D.<br />
Universite Jean Monnet<br />
davallon@univ-st-etienne<br />
DavalJon (J.). 1991. « Produire les hauts-lieux du patrimoine", p. 85-102, in Andre Micoud<br />
(ed), Des haulJ-/ieux: La construction ""dale de I'exemplarite. Paris: Ed. du<br />
CNRS.<br />
165
ICOFOMlStavanger<br />
Davallon (J.). 1992. « Le musee cst-il vraiment un media? », Puhiic.1 & mU.llie.l. 2. 2eme scm<br />
1992 .. pp. 99- 123<br />
Davallon (J.). <strong>1995</strong>. « Musees et museologie », pp.243-<strong>25</strong>4, Recherches el mll.llie.l.<br />
Colloque organise par la Mission Musees et la Direction des musees de France<br />
(Ministere de I"Enseignement superieur et de la Recherche, Ministere de la<br />
Culture et de la Francophonie), 29 nov.- Ier dec. 1993. Dijon: OCIM.<br />
Davallon (J.), Grandmont (G.), Schiele (B.). 1992. L 'Environnemenl enlre au musee. Lyon:<br />
Presses universitaires de Lyon (coli « Museologies »)/ Quebec: Musee de la<br />
civili sation a Quebec. Trad. ang\. : <strong>The</strong> Rise <strong>of</strong> Enl'ironmenlalism in <strong>Museums</strong>.<br />
Quebec: Musee de la civilisation a Quebec.<br />
Davallon (J.), Micoud (A.), Tardy (C.). lA par.l. « \'ers une evolUlion de la norion de<br />
patrimoine ? Reflexions a propos du patrimoine rural », in Dominique Poulot,<br />
Le Pmrimoine ella ciTe, Colloque international d'Annecy, 28-30 sept. <strong>1995</strong>,<br />
Annecy.<br />
Desvallees (A.). 1992 et <strong>1995</strong>. «Presentati on », in Vagues: Une anthologie de la nouvelle<br />
museologie, t. I et t. 2. Macon: W / Savigny Ie Temple: M.N.E.S, p. 15-39.<br />
Desvallees (A.). 1993.« Le droit a I'existence pour des musees differents: et si on reparlait de<br />
la nouvelle museologie », Entretien avec Joelle Le Marec pour PuhliCl &<br />
musees,3, I er sem. 93, p. 138-145.<br />
Desvai lees (A). 1994. « Objets ou document? », p. 89-95, in Martin Scharer (ed.). ICOFOM<br />
SlUdy Series, 23, ACle du symposi um Object-document?, sept. 1994, Beijing,<br />
Chine.<br />
Hooper-Greenhill (E.). 1989. « <strong>The</strong> Museum in a disciplinary society», in Susan Pearce<br />
(ed), Museum Sludies in MaTerial CulTure. Leicester: Leicester University<br />
Press/Washington (Dc: Smithsonian Institution Press.<br />
Poulot (D.). 1992. « Bilan et perspective pour une hi stoire culturelle des musees », Puhiic.I &<br />
musees, 2, 2eme sem 1992., p. 1<strong>25</strong>-147.<br />
PouiO! (D.). i994. « Identity as self-discovery: <strong>The</strong> Ecomuseum in France », p. 66-84, in<br />
Daniel Shearman el lrii Rog<strong>of</strong>f (ed.), Museum CuilUre: Histories, discourses,<br />
spectacies. London: Romiedge.<br />
Marrin Scharer (ed.), ICOFOM Sludy Series, 23, ACles du symposium Objeci-document?,<br />
sept. 1994, Beijing, Chine.<br />
Pearce (S.M.). 1992. Museum Objels and CoUeelions: A Culturel Study. Leicester: Leicester<br />
University Press.<br />
Spielbauer (J.K.). i986. p. 85-95, in Vi nos SoiKa (ed.), iCOFOM SlUdy Series, ii, ACles du<br />
symposium La museologie et I'identite, oct. 1986, Buenos Aires, Argentine.<br />
Spiel bauer (J.K.). 1987. « Musees et museologies: outils de preservtion active et integrante »,<br />
p. 279-286. in Vinos S<strong>of</strong>ka (ed.), ICOFOM Study Series, 12, Actes du<br />
symposium La museologie et I'identite, sept. 1987, Helsinki-Espoo.<br />
166
III<br />
TRAINING PERSONNAL FOR COMMUNITY MUSEUMS<br />
JOINT SESSION WITH ICTOP
) What is a museum?<br />
That is a recurrent question within our Committee on Museology. We may<br />
consider "museum" as a permanent institution, as most museum pr<strong>of</strong>essionals in the world still<br />
do. Coming from the latin institutione, it means a thing that has been created , instituted ,<br />
established, socially recognized as such. To institutions we attribute the character <strong>of</strong> relative<br />
permanence - and their are usually identifyed by the values <strong>of</strong> their codes <strong>of</strong> action, some <strong>of</strong><br />
them expressed as laws. Being a permanent institution, the museum would be an established<br />
thing , continually existing within the system <strong>of</strong> values <strong>of</strong> a society, and having specific codes.<br />
Under this concept, "training for museum awareness" means qualifying somebody to work in a<br />
specific type <strong>of</strong> institution - thus training being based on information about specific skills to<br />
administer, document, retrieve, preserve, exhibit, garantee security, survey the audience,<br />
etc., etc. It may also mean giving a background about the conceptual frames into which the<br />
museum develops its action. (This is more or less what museum training programs used to do up<br />
to 20 years ago).<br />
But the abovementioned experiences with community action have brought about<br />
the relativization <strong>of</strong> the museum concept. A holistic approach has made possible the creation <strong>of</strong><br />
concepts such as the total museum (musee integral), the ecomuseum , the inner museum , the<br />
museum <strong>of</strong> the biosphere. Development <strong>of</strong> technology and <strong>of</strong> Semiotics has given way to<br />
concepts such as the virtual museum. With so many facets <strong>of</strong> the concept, it became difficult to<br />
understand the museum as institution, now that it has incorporated the capacity to change. In<br />
the present days, it is already accepted that the concept <strong>of</strong> Museum varies according to the<br />
different world visions <strong>of</strong> societies, in time and in space.<br />
So today, when we talk about training for museum awareness we usually refer to<br />
the analytic study <strong>of</strong> such concepts, to the investigation <strong>of</strong> museum as phenomenon or to the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> Museum, which lead to the understanding <strong>of</strong> Museology either as philosophy or as a<br />
scientific discipline.<br />
c) What is a community?<br />
That's another complicated question. When talking about ·communities· we<br />
usually take for granted that community is a group <strong>of</strong> people, either sharing the same tenritory or<br />
the same cultural identity or some other combination <strong>of</strong> cultural and/or social characters that<br />
make them identifiable as a group. We seldom remember that plants and animals form<br />
biological communities, or that biology refers to communities <strong>of</strong> microbes as well. We usually<br />
forget the nuclear family as a basic community, or the population <strong>of</strong> the world as planet Earth<br />
community, to which UNESCO and ICOM so frequently refer.<br />
Since this is not a meeting on terminology, let us consider ·community· in its basic social<br />
sense: a group <strong>of</strong> people sharing common traits and pattems <strong>of</strong> behavior.<br />
Also for purposes <strong>of</strong> study, let us substitute the word "training· for individual or group<br />
education and qualification.<br />
Now we come back to training and <strong>of</strong>fer you a second issue to reflection:<br />
173
And how would a program like this be shaped?<br />
By combining a conceptual framework with practical exercices , a program <strong>of</strong> studies for<br />
museum and community awareness is able to provide, at the same time, the fullfilling <strong>of</strong> rational<br />
aspects with the opportunity <strong>of</strong> emotional experiences and exchange. On the whole, it is<br />
important that trainers (whom we will call educators) create an atmosphere that enables those<br />
who follow the program to<br />
LEARN HOW TO LEARN<br />
that is, to understand how they are able to develop knowledge towards the world . <strong>The</strong> renowned<br />
brazilian educator Paulo Freire, in his book Pedagogy <strong>of</strong> Hope, reminds us that<br />
... To teach and to /eam are thus moments <strong>of</strong> a bigger process<br />
- that <strong>of</strong> knowing, which implies re-cognizing (re-cognoscere).<br />
(Paulo Freire, Pedagogy <strong>of</strong> Liberty, p. 47)<br />
Such process involves combined change: teaching and learning are on both sides.<br />
Programs on environmental education can be easily used for such purpose: they deal<br />
with a conceptual framework that involves the notions <strong>of</strong>: similarity/difference;<br />
adaptation/interaction; continuity and change; evolution; patterns. Through such notions, almost<br />
everything around us can be explained. One successful example is the program on Interaction<br />
museu-community through environmental education, developped at the University <strong>of</strong> Rio de<br />
Janeiro since 1991 and which has already generated a three year research on the matter, a 290<br />
hour transdisciplinary course and a book which preprint (I am proud to say) is already mentioned<br />
in Paulo Freire as an example <strong>of</strong> contemporary pedagogy.<br />
Community awareness programs may be organized by museums, universities and by<br />
communities themselves. In ali cases, it is important that they integrate ali such spheres <strong>of</strong><br />
action, enabling members <strong>of</strong> each community to create and care for their own museums, schools<br />
and universities - no more accepting imposed concepts, methodologies and models and being<br />
able to care for their own identities and heritage.<br />
175<br />
Tereza Scheiner<br />
Stavanger, Ju/y 3, <strong>1995</strong>.
IV<br />
MUSEUMS AND MUSEOLOGY IN NORWAY AND<br />
SCANDINAVIA
Per-Uno Agren<br />
NORDIC MUSEUMS AND NORDIC MUSEOLOGY - SOME INTRODUCTORY<br />
REMARKS<br />
ICOFOM, Stavanger juli <strong>1995</strong><br />
I have been asked to give an introduction to the Nordic museum scene. It will<br />
be sketchy and for personal reasons very much based on a Swedish<br />
perspective. My intention is to show how easily ideas have circulated and<br />
influences worked within the five Nordic countires, which means that<br />
museum structures are very much alike and the ways museum work very<br />
similar. <strong>The</strong>re are certainly national differences but I am convinced that we<br />
can claim a common museological heritage for our countries.<br />
I.<br />
I shall start with a simple statement: museums are creared from above or<br />
from below.<br />
Learned men who pursue their studies <strong>of</strong> the natural world establish<br />
collections <strong>of</strong> naturalia, scholars who explore the temporal aspect <strong>of</strong> human<br />
culture, create collections <strong>of</strong> artificaJia, testimonies <strong>of</strong> human history and<br />
progress in their own and in foreign cultures; princes and aristocrats<br />
display their fortunes and refinement in collections <strong>of</strong> fine arts and crafts<br />
with rare and expensive items. <strong>The</strong>y all represent museum initiatives 'from<br />
above'.<br />
And those collections mate and merge, dissolve and come together in new<br />
combinations, becoming in the 19th century national treasures in national<br />
museums. Most museum histories <strong>of</strong> the world deal with such museums and<br />
most efforts in museum research are devoted to the tracing <strong>of</strong> the.<br />
vicissitudes <strong>of</strong> collections and individual specimens through the ages <strong>of</strong><br />
warfare and political unrest. <strong>The</strong> whole project <strong>of</strong> the restitution <strong>of</strong> cultural<br />
property is based on the result <strong>of</strong> this research.<br />
In museum histories it is evident that the constant temporal changes in the<br />
material surroundings caused by technological progress, social and ethnic<br />
restructurings <strong>of</strong> the Western society have provoked emotional reactions in<br />
sensitive minds and released collecting activities with the goal to salvage<br />
material out <strong>of</strong> the flow <strong>of</strong> time in order to secure a picture <strong>of</strong> human<br />
destinies in bygone times. What has been saved has been, roughly speaking,<br />
ripples on the face <strong>of</strong> the stream, the splendour <strong>of</strong> power and glory, which<br />
did not deeply affect the layers <strong>of</strong> society, which carry the burden <strong>of</strong><br />
sustaining and prodUCing, nor the minds and self-consciousness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
working people. Museum history is largely a history <strong>of</strong> museums created<br />
from above.<br />
Only recently, in tIle 20th century, the revolutionary changes in<br />
demography and democracy, the mass culture <strong>of</strong> the industrial age which<br />
thoroughly transforms the world we live in and brutally desrroys the links<br />
with our cultural past, have so affected the conditions <strong>of</strong> the mass <strong>of</strong> the<br />
people, that an awareness <strong>of</strong> their own identity and a historical awareness<br />
have been produced which at last made them reluctantly take up the<br />
museum idea. Most clearly it has been expressed in the ecomuseummovement.<br />
<strong>Museums</strong> have finally been created also from below.<br />
179
II.<br />
Looking at the Nordic museums, i.e. museums in Scandinavia and Finland. as<br />
a whole, the pattern is both similar and different. <strong>The</strong> lerm 'Nordic' covers<br />
the Scandinavian countries Denmark. Iceland. Norway and Sweden together<br />
with Finland. today with roughly <strong>25</strong> millions inhabitants. <strong>The</strong> Scandinavians<br />
are linguistically closely related, Finland has through its union with Sweden<br />
from the Middle Ages until 1809 a history and culture closely related to<br />
Scandinavia. Its Fenno-ugrian language is furthermore shared with the<br />
Sami population in northernmost Scandinavia. From the common historical<br />
destiny <strong>of</strong> the countries has grown a loyalty which has been most explicitly<br />
expressed and reached peaks <strong>of</strong> enthusiasm in periods <strong>of</strong> aggression from<br />
'without'. So at tlle end <strong>of</strong> the 19t1l centuJY when the solidarity with<br />
Denmark in its conflict with Prussia inspired the scandinavistic movement<br />
among unlversity students, so in the years <strong>of</strong> me Second World War. After<br />
1945 formal organisations have been established to promote cooperation in<br />
various fields <strong>of</strong> ("Ommon interest. One <strong>of</strong> mose organisations is tbe<br />
Scandinavian <strong>Museums</strong> Association, which however was founded as early as<br />
1915.<br />
Obviously me early period <strong>of</strong> Nordic museum history is dOminated by<br />
museums from above.<br />
Denmark being part <strong>of</strong> the continent has through the ages served as<br />
mediator ()f European cultural influences. Thus me first museum ideas no<br />
doubt were those introduced by the Danlsh physician Ole Worm living in the<br />
late 16th and early 17th century. He had become acquainted with collections<br />
and collectors during his years <strong>of</strong> study, which in mose days were spent<br />
mostly in Italy and Germany. His main subject was medicine, but his<br />
interests were wide and he was deeply influenced by the antiquarian spirit<br />
and archaeological activi ties <strong>of</strong> the age. On returning to Copenhagen in 1611<br />
he visited the famous collector Moritz me Elector in Kassel as well as<br />
Paludanus, collector <strong>of</strong> ethnography in Enkbuizen, the Netherlands. He<br />
became pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Medicine in Copenhagen and began collecting in the<br />
1620's witll a view to <strong>of</strong>fer his students objects for study. He entertained a<br />
wide correspondence with the learned Europe concerning items for his<br />
collection and started to work on a catalogue which was however printed<br />
only in 1655, me year after his deam. <strong>The</strong> catalogue, Museum Wonnianum,<br />
became influential as one <strong>of</strong> the first manuals for ordering a collection <strong>of</strong><br />
natural history specimens, making me important distinction between<br />
'naturalia' and 'artificalia'. You have certainly seen me engraving from me<br />
catalogue which is <strong>of</strong>ten reproduced in books on museum history.<br />
But on the whole collecting was a royal and princely pursuit. So in Denmark<br />
and in Sweden. After humble beginnings in the reign <strong>of</strong> his predecessors<br />
the Danlsh King Frederick III in the 1640's began to arrange a collection in<br />
me turnlng cabinet <strong>of</strong> me Royal castle in Copenhagen in the fashion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
age. He was much inspired by travelling in France and the Netherlands<br />
where he met with collectors and studied many <strong>of</strong> the famous collections.<br />
<strong>The</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> his cousin Frederick residing at me Gottorp castle across<br />
me border to Holstein was <strong>of</strong> special importance. He had completed a<br />
KunstkanlIDer in 1648 headed by his Court Mathematician and Astronomer<br />
Adam Olearius. In 1651 Olearius managed to acquire Paludanus' collection<br />
from Enkhuizen and thus to enhance the fame <strong>of</strong> the Gottorp collection.<br />
Frederick III in 1654 acquired Ole Worm's collection which was at that time<br />
internationally well-known because <strong>of</strong> me catalogue. In 1665 it was<br />
transferred from me castle to a building specifically designed for me<br />
purpose. Ole Worm's close to 1800 letters covering the period 1607-1654 have<br />
been published and mirrors the wide net <strong>of</strong> contacts with scholars allover<br />
180
with its various departments. Thomsen's foremost preoccupaoon was me<br />
prehistoric collection, which was the subject for discussion <strong>of</strong> a Royai<br />
cOmmission formed in 1807, where Thomsen became the ;ecretary in 1816.<br />
In 1820 another commission started to work with the distribution to new<br />
specialized museums <strong>of</strong> the collections in the old Royal Cabinet <strong>of</strong> Curiosities,<br />
to which Worm's collection had been previously added. but which was now<br />
considered outdated. Thomsen participated in bringing the pictures to the<br />
new National Museum <strong>of</strong> Art established in 1839. <strong>The</strong> ethnographic objects<br />
formed the core <strong>of</strong> the Ethnographic Museum opened two years later as the<br />
first in the world. In 1861 Thomsen became the director <strong>of</strong> the whole<br />
National Museum complex. Like Worms, Thomsen corresponded widely with<br />
colleagues all over Scandinavia and he was a sought for advisor on museum<br />
issues. Thus he had a strong influence on the arrangement <strong>of</strong> the Swedish<br />
prehistoriC collections which were now at last taken care <strong>of</strong> in a proper way.<br />
From the century also the famous Thorvaldsen-museum (1848) and the<br />
Carlsberg Glyptotek (1888) date.<br />
An equally important contribution was towards the end <strong>of</strong> the century made<br />
by Artur Hazelius in Sweden. In his university years he had eagerly<br />
participated in the scandinavistic manifestations and at the same time his<br />
studies <strong>of</strong> Old Norse and Swedish dialects kindled by the nationalistic<br />
romanticism reigning in the humanistic studies <strong>of</strong> the day had made him<br />
a.,.,=e <strong>of</strong> the swiftly disappearing traditional culture <strong>of</strong> the provinces. This<br />
combined to inspire his project <strong>The</strong> Scandinavian Ethnographic Collections<br />
which he brought together, arranged and opened as an exhibition in the<br />
centre <strong>of</strong> Stockholm in 1873. This collection became the nucleus <strong>of</strong> the later<br />
Nordiska Museet, whose completion Hazelius himself however did not live to<br />
see. But his name is first <strong>of</strong> all linked to Skansen, the open-air museum<br />
inaugurated 1891 in Stockholm. His idea was to create a museum, where the<br />
objects were integrated in their proper surrounding, not only in a genuine<br />
building, but in the complete farmstead with all buildings belonging to it<br />
ana with the original surrounding <strong>of</strong> cultivated ground reconstructed. And<br />
in the buildings, among the objects the visitor should have the opportunity<br />
to meet people al horne in the culture which the farmstead represented.<br />
Hazeliu; ha; been honoured as the inventor <strong>of</strong> the open air-museum<br />
concept. But this is a truth which has been challenged. in the South <strong>of</strong><br />
Sweden, at Lund, Georg Karlin was in the same years busy with similar<br />
plans. In Norway a number <strong>of</strong> persons had the idea to save specimens <strong>of</strong> the<br />
extraordinary material culture both in wooden objects and timber<br />
architecture, foremost among them Anders Sandtvig founder <strong>of</strong> Maihaugen<br />
in Lillehamrner and Hans Jacob Aall founder <strong>of</strong> Norsk Folkemuseum. In<br />
Denmark l3ernhard Olsen, founder <strong>of</strong> the Danish Folk Museum, inspired both<br />
by Karlin and Haze1ius but also by a visit to the World Exhibition <strong>of</strong> 1878 in<br />
Paris, could open his Open Air Museum in Lyngby close to Copenhagen in<br />
1901. Although the question <strong>of</strong> original authorship may be controversial,<br />
the open-air museum concept seems to be a genuine Scandinavian<br />
phenomenon. In the writings <strong>of</strong> both Marc Bloch and George Henri Riviere<br />
we can see this certified as also its importance for the later shaping <strong>of</strong><br />
Riviere's museological concepts.<br />
<strong>The</strong> 19th century was permeated with nationalistic ideas. And in Finland and<br />
Norway the nationalistic ideas kindled an opposition against the dependence<br />
on Swedish and Danish <strong>of</strong>ficial culture and we can witness its expression in<br />
museum projects. As a reaction on the Royal Commission <strong>of</strong> 1807 in<br />
Copenhagen, Norwegians began the formation <strong>of</strong> an archaeological<br />
collection <strong>of</strong> their own began, which was located in the university recently<br />
organised in Oslo. At the same time museum- plans were developed in Bergen<br />
- with British Museum in London as a model. In Iceland its National museum<br />
182
V,las founctea. ill llSbj. At 1 UfKU. !'ill1ana, me tilstonCa! Museum ..... 'as IO\lfiUetl<br />
in 1891; in Helsinki. the National Museum in 1893.<br />
V.<br />
But nationalism fed on the illusory idea that an original. genuine and<br />
unique national culture had survived and could still be found. recorded and<br />
analysed in distant and isolated districts and settlements on the periphery.<br />
untouched by influences from an urbanized and industrial society. In the<br />
provinces learned associations were organized by gymnasium teachers, state<br />
servants and <strong>of</strong>ficers to contribute to the nationai project by recording folk<br />
uaditions and starting local history research. <strong>The</strong> associations were formed<br />
ill lilt, period 1858-1885. <strong>The</strong>y also started collections - collections later <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
to be found as the core <strong>of</strong> many regional museums. One unforeseen result<br />
was that those associations soon began to revolt against the centralistic<br />
prerogative <strong>of</strong> a national heritage represented in the national museums <strong>of</strong><br />
the capital. It was a reaction based on local pride and a new awareness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> cultural traditions that refused to surrender to a central<br />
proposal <strong>of</strong> what constituted a genuine national culture.<br />
And on the threshold <strong>of</strong> the 20th century something important is<br />
happening, foreboding the birth <strong>of</strong> museums created from below.<br />
In the 19th century the Swedish compulsory school system had been<br />
organized and literacy spread quickly. <strong>The</strong> economic transformation had<br />
slowly started both through industrialization and a considerable growth in<br />
agricultural productivity. <strong>The</strong> population growth was speedy and the growth<br />
<strong>of</strong> urban centres even more so, due to the demographic movement from<br />
countryside to towns and cities. Popular movements were formed around<br />
controversial ideas directed against the authority <strong>of</strong> church and state, and<br />
like the anti-drug movement <strong>of</strong> the day, the temperance organizations<br />
recruited numerous members. NFS Grundtvig in Denmark propagated his<br />
school ideas which resulted in the so called 'folkhojskoler',<br />
which spread over Scandinavia in the second half <strong>of</strong> the century. <strong>The</strong> idea<br />
, was to open schools providIng adult education esp for the rural population,<br />
an education explicitly aimed at the spiritual development <strong>of</strong> the personality.<br />
<strong>The</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> the school should be 'life enlightenment' according to<br />
Grundtvig. It <strong>of</strong>fered unconditional admitment and no examination. <strong>The</strong><br />
teaching should rely on the value <strong>of</strong> the living spoken word. <strong>The</strong> first<br />
school was opened in 1844 in Denmark, in 1864 in Norway, in 1868 in Sweden<br />
and in 1889 in Finland.<br />
<strong>The</strong> schools became immensely popular and strongly influenced popular<br />
opinion. <strong>The</strong> idea was readily adopted by the popular movements whether<br />
they honoured religious, political or temperance ideas. <strong>The</strong>y started their<br />
own schools, where <strong>of</strong> course the ideological element was prominent. Later<br />
on also the county councils started such schools which have prepared adults<br />
for both pr<strong>of</strong>essional and higher studies.<br />
Around the turn <strong>of</strong> the century a specific not much researched<br />
phenomenon appears - the big youth meetings bringing hundreds <strong>of</strong> young<br />
people together. <strong>The</strong> meetings had probably their background in the<br />
idealistic and nationalistic spirit <strong>of</strong> the popular movements and they were<br />
eVidently born in Norway. A novel published in 1900 written by a journalist,<br />
Karl-Erik Forsslund, who had left Stockholm and settled in Dalecarlia, the<br />
patriotic heart province <strong>of</strong> Sweden kindled the flame in Sweden. It glorified<br />
rural life In euphoric descriptions and close to his house a new school <strong>of</strong> the<br />
'folkhojskole' type was started in 1906. Youth meetings were held in various<br />
183
courses tormerly organized by the museums association - and locateCl W<br />
'iolkhojskoler ' .<br />
in Finland there is presently a variety <strong>of</strong> museum study courses at the<br />
universities <strong>of</strong> Helsinki. Turku and Oulu. <strong>The</strong> most developed courses are<br />
however arranged by a special museological division <strong>of</strong> the Dept <strong>of</strong> Art<br />
History at JyvaskyHi university.<br />
Norway I leave to John Aage to talk about.<br />
As you can see museology is no longer a dirty word in this part <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
it is gradually gaining ground and force. However when in 1993 three<br />
optimists concurred to launch the project <strong>of</strong> a journal, 'Nordic Museology'<br />
the idea was very much to promote the concept and speed up its adoption<br />
both in universities and in museums.<br />
But we were also convinced that in the concept there was a consensus about<br />
the museum mission, the role <strong>of</strong> the museum as a cultural institution in<br />
society and its importance in public life. This consensus was rooted in a<br />
shared hiStory, a similar development <strong>of</strong> the museum structure in our<br />
countries and in a common commitment to the museum idea in our<br />
communities as well as an active participation in our citizens. Those factors,<br />
we thought. should make the interchange <strong>of</strong> ideas, the communication <strong>of</strong><br />
experiences singularly fruitful and meaningful to the museum pr<strong>of</strong>ession as<br />
well as to those standing beside in the universities trying to understand and<br />
evaluate the achievement <strong>of</strong> museums.<br />
Now we are five editors <strong>of</strong> the journal, representing all Nordic countries. We<br />
have published 828 pages <strong>of</strong> reading. We have also tried to make our<br />
countries known to museologists abroad, <strong>of</strong>fering English summaries <strong>of</strong> all<br />
texts in Scandinavian languages and we hope that many <strong>of</strong> you will fmd it<br />
worth while to pay attention to our efforts in the years to come.<br />
186
Construction d'une identite nationale<br />
La Norvege est marquee par un fort mouvement nationaliste durant tout<br />
Ie 1ge siecle. Elle se transforme en etat-nation.<br />
Etat-nation et homogeneite culturelle<br />
L'etat-nation est un type particulier d'institution politique, qui est de creation<br />
historique recente et devenu la norme pour Ie developpement des etats modernes<br />
depuis la Revolution franc;aise.<br />
Un etat-nation est defini par I'existence d'un etat independant et souverain dans<br />
un territoire defini juridiquement, et considere comme peuple d'un seul peuple<br />
caracterise par une culture commune (identite, histoire, coutumes, langue, etc).<br />
II s'agit d'un systeme politique base sur I'ideologie et Ie my the de I'homogeneite<br />
culturelle. En realite, tout territoire national est peuple de groupes ethniques<br />
differents.<br />
En Norvege, au debut du 1ge siecle, Ie territoire national est peuple par des groupes<br />
culturellement heterogenes. Elites sociales de langue et formation danoises dans<br />
les villes, paysans dans les vallees de I'interieur, pikheurs sur la cote, minorites<br />
ethniqueE, etc., separes par les distances geographiques et des coutumes et langues<br />
differentes. Le sentiment d'appartenance a une meme communaute nationale est<br />
faible sinon absent.<br />
II s'agit d'en faire des Norvegiens, c'est-a-dire des sujets ayant une meme identite<br />
nationale. Autrement dit des individus caracterises par un nouveau type d'identite<br />
collective, englobant toutes les autres types d'identite et marquant la difference par<br />
rapport aux peuples danois et suedois.<br />
Identite collective de type ethnique<br />
Une identite de caractere ethnique est caracterisee par un sentiment d'appartenance<br />
a un groupe, qui lie les membres de ce groupe entre eux par des relations concretes<br />
et vecues dans Ie quotidien.<br />
Cette identite n'est pas donnee et statique mais dynamique; elle se construit et se<br />
transforme dans I'interaction entre groupes differents. Elle est caracterisee par la<br />
creation, Ie maintien et la transformation de frontieres entre "no us" et "Ies autres".<br />
L'appartenance et la difference sont symbolisees et justifiees par des traits culturels<br />
specifiques (croyances, va leurs, coutumes, langues, etc). Mais ces traits ne sont pas<br />
immuables et intemporels. I1s sont choisis par les acteurs, dans des strategies et<br />
processus interactifs entre les groupes.<br />
Cette identite est enracinee dans Ie passe. II ne s'agit pas obligatoirement de<br />
I'histoire reelle, c'est-a-dire celie des historiens, mais d'une histoire mythique<br />
peuplee d' evenements et heros legendaires. Elle est caracterisee par une conception<br />
genealogique de l'histoire, c'est-a-dire par la croyance en I'existence d'une origine<br />
supposee commune et en des liens de parente avec des ancetres mythiques<br />
communs.<br />
188
Identite nationale<br />
L'identite nationale est differente. Elle est obligatoirement liee a un programme<br />
politique. Elle est plus large que les identites ethniques qu' elle englobe. Elle a un<br />
caractere "abstrait" et "fictif'. Le sentiment d'appartenance n'est pas base sur des<br />
relations concretes vecues dans Ie quotidien.<br />
La communaute nationale a, suivant I'expression de Benedict Anderson, un<br />
caractere "imaginaire": "It is imaginated because the members <strong>of</strong> even the smallest<br />
nation will never know must <strong>of</strong> their fellow-members, meet them or even heard<br />
<strong>of</strong> them, yet in the minds og each lives the image <strong>of</strong> their communion" (Anderson<br />
1983: 15).<br />
L'existence de I'identite nationale est basee sur la creation et Ie maintien d'une<br />
culture nationale. II faut faire la preuve que cette culture est unique et specifique.<br />
II faut lui donner un caractere fort et sacre. il faut ancrer cette culture pr<strong>of</strong>ondement<br />
dans Ie passe, en liaison avec les origines communes mythiques du peuple habitant<br />
Ie territoire national.<br />
Ceci necessite I'utilisation de riches systemes symboliques de forte valeur<br />
emotionnelle, qui sont construits en utilisant d'anciens materiaux et coutumes, qui<br />
sont modifies, ritualises et institutionalises. II s'agit de ce que Eric Hobsbawm<br />
appelle des "traditions inventees", c'est-a-dire "a set <strong>of</strong> practices, normally governed<br />
by overtly or tacitly accepted rules and <strong>of</strong> a ritual or symbolic nature, which seek to<br />
inculcate certain values and norms <strong>of</strong> behaviour by repetition, which automatically<br />
implies continuity with the past. In fact, where possible, they normally attempt to<br />
establish continuity with a suitable historic past" (Hobsbawm 1983: 1).<br />
Le processus de construction d'un patrimoine national<br />
Constituer un patrimoine national, et l'institutionaliser sous la forme de musees,<br />
est une dimention essentielle du phenomene de fabrication d'une identite<br />
nationale. C'est un processus comprenant plusieurs phases.<br />
Choix des ancetres<br />
Un patrimoine est par definition constitue par les biens materiels et symboliques<br />
que I' on a herites de ses ancetres. Le patrimoine d'une nation est constitue par les<br />
biens heri tes des ancetres d u peu pie national.<br />
Toute nation a ses propres ancetres mythiques fondateurs, choisis suivant des<br />
strategies identitaires specifiques. Nous verrons plus tard qu' en Norvege c'est la<br />
figure du pays an - considere comme l' heritier et Ie conservateur de la tradition<br />
glorieuse de l'epoque medievale - qui sera appelee a jouer ce role.<br />
Selection et collecte<br />
Certains expressions et objets sont identifies, selectionnes et collectes au detriment<br />
d'autres. On choisit les objets qui sont "beaux", "purs", "anciens", "originaux" et<br />
189
La culture nationale est fabriquee en utilisant des elements de la culture rurale<br />
traditionnelle, c'est-a.-dire de ses musiques, de ses costumes, de ses fetes, de ses<br />
dialectes, de ses contes et legendes, de ses objets mobiliers, de ses habitations, etc.<br />
On construit une langue nationale a. partir d' elements de differents dialectes,<br />
une musique nationale it partir de certaines melodies joues par certains<br />
instruments, un costume national it partir d' elements de certains costumes<br />
regionaux, etc.<br />
Le musee d' ethnographie rurale / musee de plein-air<br />
Ce type de musee est I'expression la plus importante et la plus caracteristique de<br />
I'institutionalisation du patrimoine national norvegien. II a connu un<br />
developpement exceptionnel au niveau local et regional dans les annees 1880-1920.<br />
Le nombre de musees de ce type existant en Norvege constitue un phenomene<br />
remarquable vu a I'echelle europeenne.<br />
Le musee d'ethnographie rurale est en Norvege - par definition - un musee de<br />
plein-air. La collection de "Batiments du Moyen-Age de la Norvege", creee par Ie roi<br />
Oscar II it Bygdey pres d'Oslo en 1881, peut etre considere comme Ie premier musee<br />
de plein-air d'Europe; il precede Ie musee de Skansen it Stockholm de 10 ans.<br />
Ces musees constituent des ensembles de forte densite syrnbolique. I1s sont des<br />
"villages imaginaires" composes de collections de fermes avec leur mobilier,<br />
denommees "maisons / foyers" (norv. "hjem"), metaphores privilegiees et<br />
syrnboles-cie de la nation. I1s sont la scene de pratiques ritualisees (celebration de<br />
la fete nationale, commemoration de dates historiques, festivals de musique et de<br />
danse populaire, etc). I1s sont des haut-lieux de l'identite norvegienne, ou Ie lien<br />
avec les origines est etabli, entretenu et transmis it de nouveaux participants.<br />
Le Viking - Ie heros Iegendaire<br />
Le viking eta it - historiquement parlant - un pays an, un marchand, un artisan et<br />
un marin. Mais ce sont ses qua lites de guerrier et de conquerant qui sont entrees<br />
dans Ie my the.<br />
Le viking est en fait un heros commun aux pays scandinaves. II est Ie syrnbole de<br />
I' epoque glorieuse ou ces pays partageaient la meme langue, les memes croyances,<br />
les memes aventures et la meme grandeur. Ceci ne I'ayant pas empeche pas d'etre<br />
utilise dans des perspectives nationales propres. En Norvege il est au 1ge siecie<br />
considere comme Ie fondateur historique de I'etat norvegien, et devient Ie symbole<br />
de I'unite politique, de l'independance nationale et de la grandeur coloniale.<br />
II y joue a. la fin du siecie, periode marquant l'etape definitive de I'accession it<br />
I'independance en 1905, un role de premier plan. Son caractere norvegien va se voir<br />
confirme et renforce par la mise it jour d'un patrimoine archeologique exceptionnel.<br />
Des fouilles de tertres fun era ires sur Ie territoire norvegien livrent des bateaux<br />
complets et des objets, qui constituent un rnateriau dont la richesse et Ie caractere<br />
unique surpassent de loin ce qui etait connu jusqu'il.lors.<br />
191
A la meme epoque, I' esprit viking est reincarne dans la figure des grands<br />
explorateurs polaires norvegiens comme Fritj<strong>of</strong> Nansen. Dans un reve de grande<br />
puissance la Norvege part a. la conquete du pole nord et du pole sud, en concurrence<br />
avec I' Angleterre et les USA, et connait des succes retentissants.<br />
La Norvege est pendant la 2e guerre mondiale occupee par I' Allemagne nazie.<br />
La figure du viking devient un element important de la rethorique du<br />
nationalsocialisme. De ce fait, Ie viking est apres la guerre un heros dechu; sa figure<br />
est stigmatisee et inutilisable comme symbole national.<br />
Aujourd'hui Ie viking est redevenu un heros populaire, et meme - semble-t-il - est<br />
en train d'acquerir une importance symbolique de caractere national plus forte<br />
qU'auparavant. On construit de plus en plus des musees, centres d'interpretation et<br />
parcs d'attraction axes sur Ie patrimoine viking. C'est un phenomene qui, de par son<br />
ampleur, ne va pas sans rappeler Ie developpement des musees d'ethnographie<br />
rurale au debut de notre siecle.<br />
Le Marin - Ie marginal<br />
Le marin-pecheur est Ie grand absent de I'image nationale de la Norvege creee au<br />
1ge siecle. C'est un phenomene paradoxal, vu Ie caractere essentiellement maritime<br />
du territoire norvegien et I'importance primordiale que ce groupe a joue dans<br />
I'histoire du pays.<br />
Du fait de sa position sur les marges cotieres du territoire national, il ne pouvait pas<br />
etre considere comme veritablement norvegien. Ses activites sont tournees vers<br />
la mer, c'est-a.-dire vers I'exterieur du territoire national. Sa culture est formee par<br />
Ie contact avec I'etranger; elle est impure, car entachee d'influences exterieures.<br />
II est en fait membre d'une culture plus europeenne, qui est la culture cotiere de<br />
la Mer du Nord.<br />
C'est pourquoi Ie patrimoine maritime norvegien a ete longtemps neglige, peu<br />
etudie, mal protege et mis en valeur. A I'exception toutefois de certains elements<br />
du patrimoine nautique ayant une signification nationale particuliere, comme<br />
les bateaux viking, ceux des expeditions polaires ou certains types d'embarquations<br />
ayant conserve des caracteristiques de la tradition viking.<br />
C'est uniquement dans Ie courant de ces dernieres annees que la preservation et la<br />
mise-en-valeur du patrimoine maritime ont commence a. acquerir une importance<br />
correspondant a. sa Signification historique. II a fallu attendre les annees 1980 pour<br />
voir Ie developpement de musees maritimes regionaux et locaux. C'est un<br />
processus qui a souvent eu lieu en dehors du systeme <strong>of</strong>ficiel de conservation du<br />
patrimoine, et meme en opposition avec sa politique. Ce sont tres sou vent des<br />
associations de benevoles qui ont pris !'initiative de sa constitution et qui assurent<br />
sa gestion.<br />
192
Le La pan - l' etranger de l'interieur<br />
La Norvege se trouve dans la situation particuliere d'avoir une minorite ethnique<br />
indigene sur son sol. Le pays lapon s'etend de plus par dela les frontieres politiques<br />
de la Suede, de la Finlande et de la Russie.<br />
Le lapon, chasseur et nomade, a joue Ie role du barbare dans Ie processus de<br />
construction et de maintien de I'identite nationale. II est I' etranger de I'interieur<br />
qui ne peut pas etre integre dans I'image norvegienne du monde.<br />
Son existence menace la purete de la nation. II est soumis au cours de I'histoire<br />
a une politique de colonisation et d'assimilation. Son patrimoine tombe dans<br />
Ie domaine de la curiosite ou de I'ethnographie non-europeene.<br />
La situation du peuple lapon est aujourd'hui marquee par un processus de<br />
revendication identitaire, qui est commun aux peuples autochtones dans diverses<br />
regions du monde. II s'agit en effet, pour Ie peuple lapon, de lutter contre la pression<br />
de I'assimilation et de construire une image positive de sa culture, en retournant<br />
la signification des anciens symboles de la stigmatisation, pour en faire des symboles<br />
de la fierte.<br />
AUjourd'hui, il s'agit pour Ie peuple lapon de demontrer la continuite et la viabilite<br />
de sa culture, et pour ce faire de definir son pro pre patrimoine, de Ie reconnaitre et<br />
de Ie recuperer, et de creer ses propres institutions pour I' etudier, Ie proteger, Ie gerer<br />
et Ie diffuser. Ces dernieres annees ont vu la creation d'un reseau de musees lapons<br />
dans Ie nord du pays. Ces musees lapons sont des musees qUi, suivant leur propre<br />
definition, ne sont pas seulement des musees de culture lapone, mais aussi et<br />
surtout des musees pour les lapons et geres par les lapons.<br />
Des ancetres internationaux et commerciaux<br />
Les Jeux olympiques d'hiver, qui ont eu lieu dans la ville norvegienne de<br />
Lillehammer en £evrier 1994, ont fait fonction de gigantesque rituel national.<br />
Leur fonction symbolique etant de regrouper la nation autour de nouvelles valeurs,<br />
et de diffuser vers l'exterieur, a I'aide des massemedias, une image moderne et<br />
positive de la Norvege. Le contexte contemporain est celui de I'internationalisation,<br />
qui est marque par une interaction toujours plus importante entre Ie domaine du<br />
national et du culture!, et celui du commercial.<br />
N ous retouvons, a cette occasion, nos personnages dans les roles suivants.<br />
La figure du paysan, caracterisee par I' enracinement dans la tradition, peut<br />
difficilement symboliser les valeurs d'une nation moderne. On I'utilisa dans les<br />
ceremonies d'ouverture, sous forme de stereotypes folkloriques a usage touristique.<br />
Le viking, par contre, est un meilleurs representant des nouveaux ideaux<br />
nationaux, c'est-a-dire des valeurs de concurrance, d'agressivite, d'individualisme,<br />
d'innovation. Le patrimoine viking a fournit de nombreux motifs et symboles<br />
a l'architecture et diverses autres expressions esthetiques des jeux olympiques.<br />
Le lapon a montre son costume colore et son troupeau de rennes a I'occasion des<br />
ceremonies d'ouverture. Sa presence a ainsi fait la preuve au monde en tier que<br />
la Norvege etait une nation pluriculturelle. Le marin etait absent de ces jeux.<br />
193
Bibliographie<br />
Aarnes, Sigurd. 1983. "Myths and Heroes in 19th-century Nation-building<br />
in Norway", in Eade (€d.), Romantic Nationalism in Europe. Canberra<br />
Anderson, Benecict. 1983. imaginated Communities, Reflections on the Origin<br />
and Spread <strong>of</strong> Nationalism . London<br />
Hobsbawm, Eric. 1983. "Introduction: Inventing Tradition", in Hobsbawn, Eric<br />
& Terence Ranger (ed.). <strong>The</strong> Invention <strong>of</strong> Traditio/!. Cambridge<br />
Klausen, Arne Martin. 1991. Le savoir-etre norvegien. Paris, L'Harmattan<br />
Klausen, Arne Martin. 1993, "Construction <strong>of</strong> the Norwegian Image: Reflections<br />
on the Olympic Design Programme", in Puijk, Roel (ed.), 01 og forskningen III.<br />
Lillehammer, 0stJandsforskning<br />
Kuhn, Hans. 1983. "<strong>The</strong> Farmer and the Viking: Forms <strong>of</strong> Romantic Nationalism<br />
in 19th-century Scandinavia", in Eade (ed.), Romantic Nationalism in Europe.<br />
Canberra<br />
Maure, Marc.1993. "Nation, paysan et musee - la naissance des musees<br />
d'ethnographie dans les pays scandinaves", Terrain, no. 20, Paris<br />
Maure, Marc. <strong>1995</strong>. "Le Pays an et Ie Viking au musee - nationalisme et patrimoine<br />
en Norvege au 1ge siecle", in Mission du patrimoine ethnologique (€d.),<br />
Ethnologie et patrimoine en Europe / Socialanthropology and Heritage in Europe.<br />
(rapport du colloque de Tours, 1993).<br />
Olsen, Bjornar. 1986. "Norwegian Archeology and the People without (Pre)History<br />
or How to Create a Myth <strong>of</strong> a Uniform Past", Archeological Review from<br />
Cambridge, 5:1, Cambridge<br />
194
An Industrial Community<br />
and its Heritage<br />
by Randi Bllrtvedt<br />
Curator at Western Norway Industrial Museum, N-5770 Tyssedal, Norway<br />
Paper given at the Semillar on <strong>Museums</strong> alld Mu seology in Nonvay and Scandinavia,<br />
ICOFOM Stavanger July 2, <strong>1995</strong><br />
I was asked to speak here at the General Conference <strong>of</strong> ICOM <strong>1995</strong> on the<br />
issue "An industrial community and its heritage" . I am honoured and very glad<br />
to have the possibility to present our museum. I guess I was asked to come<br />
because I represent a new type <strong>of</strong> museums in Norway; a museum that<br />
combines industrial history with social history and where the scenery and<br />
cultural landscape are parts <strong>of</strong> the museum concept. Here I am also going to<br />
exemplify the challenges in creating an industrial museum which depicts<br />
everyday-life in our century.<br />
As a curator <strong>of</strong> Western Norway Industrial Museum I do not work for an<br />
interested minority, but for all the people in my home town Odd a, the suburb<br />
<strong>of</strong> Tyssedal and the surrounding district. My task is to point out the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> knowing our history, our roots and our identity in order to<br />
understand other people. I am myself a member <strong>of</strong> this local society, but as a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional I am paid to take care <strong>of</strong> the cultural heritage and document<br />
contemporary life. I have been given the job to build a brand new museum<br />
from scratch. It has been interesting to work so hard for what I believe in -<br />
the idea <strong>of</strong> the folk museum and its aim: education.<br />
Ten years ago I was employed by the municipality <strong>of</strong> Odda to elucidate the<br />
possibility <strong>of</strong> establishing a museum in Odda. I had just finished my studies as<br />
an ethnologist and was fascinated by the idea <strong>of</strong> the ecomuseum, that engages<br />
in the local society and political issues. I believe in the fact that a museum must<br />
be a place <strong>of</strong> activity, involve and interest people, engage them in their<br />
surroundings, contemporary life and history. History does not exist in a<br />
museum alone, but between people in a society.<br />
I will now try to tell you about the process <strong>of</strong> building an industrial and social<br />
museum from scratch in a small community.<br />
195
In these last ten years I have mainly worked with people and their attitudes to<br />
their own community and history. <strong>The</strong> frame <strong>of</strong> our Jives consists <strong>of</strong> a<br />
dramatic scenery, water power as a key resource, modern technology and 3<br />
big factories producing zinc, titanium oxide/high quality iron and calcium<br />
carbide/dicyandianide. <strong>The</strong> community has 8000 inhabitants. <strong>The</strong> place<br />
Tyssedal was at the turn <strong>of</strong> the century merely a crack in the mountain with<br />
two farms. In 1906 it changed to become the largest construction site in the<br />
country. In 1918 Tyssedal was a small town with a big power station as its<br />
heart. Through water power and electricity Tyssedal and Norway became a<br />
modern affluent society. This is the story <strong>of</strong> a rural village and an<br />
internationally known tourist resort that changes overnight to become an<br />
industrial town. It is the story <strong>of</strong> modernization and the story <strong>of</strong> women, men<br />
and children that moved to Odda.<br />
<strong>The</strong> society is the raw material <strong>of</strong> the Western Norway Industrial Museum.<br />
<strong>The</strong> museum has gradually grown to what it is today, located in a living<br />
industrial society where boats from all over the world come and go with raw<br />
material and produce for export.<br />
Today the museum is one <strong>of</strong> the largest in Norway on the subject <strong>of</strong> water<br />
power. We show exhibitions on man in the industrial society, the history <strong>of</strong> the<br />
environmental problems and the history <strong>of</strong> technology. We have archives<br />
where information from the organizations and factories are collected and used<br />
for research. Furthermore we have a film room with slides shows specially<br />
designed to depict our history, and 3 workmen's dwellings, one <strong>of</strong> which<br />
shows different interiors up to the 1990's. Finally the museum arranges guided<br />
tours in the footsteps <strong>of</strong> the pioneer workers and to the industrial monuments<br />
inside and outside the factories and the power station.<br />
Hardanger is internationally known as an idyllic tourist resort. <strong>The</strong> glaciers,<br />
the waterfalls, the blue-green fjord and the apple blossom make the scenery <strong>of</strong><br />
Hardanger look like a romantic poem. I am now going to take you to a<br />
different and dramatic Hardanger where the mountains are high and the<br />
valleys deep.<br />
Tyssedal in Hardanger has another tone and rhythm, namely that <strong>of</strong> a shift<br />
working society, a town <strong>of</strong> smelting works, heat and electricity.<br />
As I mentioned previously, I was, as a student, familiar with the idea <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ecomuseum; to preserve buildings and objects on their original site or<br />
environment rather than moving everything to a museum building or a<br />
museum area, and to document and explain how man coped with nature. Now<br />
I had the opportunity to create a museum, a place where people were<br />
encouraged to engage themselves in history, in the local community and<br />
contemporary life and issues. To my mind a modern museum is interesting<br />
only when the audience - the visitors- engage themselves and are participants<br />
196
and the curator has the role as a skilled adviser and a member <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
outside the museum building.<br />
Let us see what happened in Odda, when we went from an idea to hard work.<br />
As an ethnologist 1 work with a holistic view <strong>of</strong> the society. I wanted to collect<br />
and show all parts <strong>of</strong> an environment and interview different groups in the<br />
local society. 1 wanted to let people tell the story <strong>of</strong> their life, their home,<br />
work and leisure time, to document their feelings, thoughts and dreams.<br />
1 was the only person employed and it was necessary to engage voluntary aid,<br />
for example skilled workers, house wives and children so that they could tell<br />
about their lives and show me what we could use in exhibitions.<br />
Our first museum building was a workman's dwelling with 1 room and a<br />
kitchen per family, and 4 families in each house. We saved this building from<br />
being demolished, and we started to collect furniture, clothes and photos.<br />
Many people came to see what they could give to create an original interior.<br />
Gradually we were able to tell the stories <strong>of</strong> real families in different time<br />
periods, one in the 1920' s, one in the 1930' , one in the 1950' s etc. We told the<br />
story <strong>of</strong> Mr. Ingebrigtsen, who worked at the factory as a blacksmith. He<br />
moved from the town <strong>of</strong> Bergen to Odda with his family, a wife and two<br />
children (two already died from disease), and two to be born in the flat that he<br />
was lucky to let from the factory (with electricity and everything). <strong>The</strong>y<br />
moved to Odda because the wages were much higher here. We also told what<br />
happened to the family when the factories owned by the British Sun Gas Co.<br />
went bankrupt and 1000 men were on the dole for four years in the 1920' s<br />
before the factory was refinanced. We described the work <strong>of</strong> a mother, and<br />
how she had to make everything herself, and work as a cleaner at the school<br />
nearby. We described happiness and sorrow in the family, e.g. how difficult it<br />
was when the 14 year old son died and his class came to take farewell, and<br />
when his brother Willy earned his first money to buy a suit for the<br />
confirmation day, and later when he saved money to buy a radio (1938) in<br />
order to get the news from the Civil War in Spain.<br />
At first everyone said: "I have nothing interesting to tell you", but fortunately<br />
some <strong>of</strong> them told their story anyway. Finally they were proud <strong>of</strong> what they<br />
managed to tell, down to the tiny little detail and at first sight unimportant<br />
incident. We collected different life stories in a book illustrated with photos<br />
from their own private album. <strong>The</strong> readers really got to know little Willy as a<br />
boy in the 1920' s, and Alice told us how she, as the daughter <strong>of</strong> a managing<br />
director, grew up. It was all so close, and it was possible to recognize things,<br />
to see the connection between the groups in the local society at a time when the<br />
industry was young.<br />
<strong>The</strong> interviews went on and suddenly we had 200 story tellers and friends <strong>of</strong><br />
197
the museum. <strong>The</strong>y were curious, and some <strong>of</strong> them also collected things for<br />
us. <strong>The</strong>y got an owner's attitude to the museum.<br />
When we opened the museum, there were about 1000 visitors in the<br />
workmen's dwelling in one week. At that time we had already produced a<br />
slides show called "<strong>The</strong> children at Bakke", which told about the living<br />
conditions in the neighbourhood around the workmen's dwellings. It became<br />
very popular, and today slide shows are our speciality.<br />
Since little or nothing had been done to collect the history <strong>of</strong> industrial Odda<br />
until this museum project was established, we had to form different groups to<br />
work with various subjects. One group started to collect working equipment at<br />
the Norzink factory in order to display the work in a big factory.<br />
Unfortunately much was already thrown away. We therefore had to involve<br />
the specialists in their own history, and my task was to advice, co-ordinate and<br />
encourage the museum work. For example we succeeded in documenting by<br />
photos and tape recordings the last working day at the old production hall at<br />
Norzink.<br />
Little by little the museum became a reality and a positive factor in people's<br />
mind, and thus their identity was strengthened. This was not the case when the<br />
work with the museum started. <strong>The</strong>n people from Odda <strong>of</strong>ten felt<br />
discriminated and thought that their history was <strong>of</strong> little value because the<br />
factories here were polluters. It was merely a shame to tell for example people<br />
in the capital <strong>of</strong> Oslo that you came from Odda, a terrible place with heavy<br />
industry and politically radical people .<br />
. After three years <strong>of</strong> work paid by the local authorities, the trade unions, the<br />
power company and the factories, the Western Norway Industrial Museum was<br />
established with three persons fully employed, a curator and leader, an<br />
archivist and a secretary, all women. As from now the museum also got a<br />
yearly grant from the state.<br />
<strong>The</strong> museum experienced a great deal <strong>of</strong> goodwill from the local society and<br />
received project money from the state for pioneer work in the field <strong>of</strong><br />
documentation <strong>of</strong> industrial history. We also catalogued and saved the<br />
voluminous archives at the three factories and the hydro power station for the<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> research and preservation. Gradually we also succeeded in<br />
restoring three workmen's dwellings and started on the next neglected field,<br />
architecture and the history <strong>of</strong> technology.<br />
We engaged the museum in the issue <strong>of</strong> pollution. This was a touchy topic for<br />
many persons in the local society. To put it simply, it was not good public<br />
relation policy. In addition the pollution problems did not catch much interest<br />
among ordinary people at that time. Today, with many <strong>of</strong> the pollution<br />
problems being solved, the museum is asked to show all sides <strong>of</strong> the industry,<br />
198
and what we lost when the air and the fjord were severely polluted by heavy<br />
metal waste. We also depict the process <strong>of</strong> cleaning up the fjord and, in this<br />
respect, measurements taken by the local industry and the government. In<br />
1988 this discussion was a hot topic in the news, and some inhabitants felt that<br />
Odda was a scapegoat. <strong>The</strong> town was looked down upon because <strong>of</strong> the<br />
production <strong>of</strong> heavy metals, which were bought by other countries as<br />
necessities in modem welfare states. <strong>The</strong> museum produced a slides show on<br />
the pollution problem, and we also have interviews and photos from this<br />
period.<br />
It must be mentioned that we are not a pure technical and industrial museum.<br />
We have made an effort to describe all sides <strong>of</strong> the society, and naturally this<br />
means that we also try to present the social history in our society.<br />
What is the status <strong>of</strong> the museum today?<br />
<strong>The</strong> local politicians and the Mayor are well aware <strong>of</strong> the value <strong>of</strong> the work<br />
done by the museum. <strong>The</strong>y are 100% behind our proposals and grant us as<br />
much money as they can, but it is not enough to cover the costs <strong>of</strong> the work we<br />
are doing. It is expensive to take care <strong>of</strong> our industrial history. Odda is an<br />
important town in the Norwegian industry. <strong>The</strong> monuments here are <strong>of</strong> great<br />
national interest, and therefore we feel that the government must grant more<br />
money in the future.<br />
Tyssedal power station dates back to 1908 and was one <strong>of</strong> the biggest power<br />
stations in Norway and Europe when it was built. It is no wonder therefore<br />
that the key word <strong>of</strong> our museum activity is "With water as a key resource".<br />
We took the initiative together with the local politicians to get the power<br />
station and the intake pipes acknowledged as listed monuments. <strong>The</strong> power<br />
company no longer produces hydro electricity in this building and wanted to<br />
remove the equipment from 1908 - 1989 (unique machinery) in order to use<br />
the building for the production <strong>of</strong> small fish or other commercial purposes.<br />
To my mind Tyssedal power station is unique also because <strong>of</strong> the fact that it is<br />
the heart <strong>of</strong> the very existence <strong>of</strong> this society. It has been dependent on<br />
electricity for the last 90 years.<br />
At present the government wants to secure the middle part <strong>of</strong> the power<br />
station with its interior and let the remaining parts be used for commercial<br />
purposes, decided by the power company. <strong>The</strong> museum and the local<br />
politicians however, want to save the entire building. <strong>The</strong> final decision is yet<br />
to be made.<br />
<strong>The</strong> industrial town <strong>of</strong> Tyssedal was planned by the most prominent<br />
Norwegian architects, and we can still read this place like a book. A clear<br />
199
pattern <strong>of</strong> the class distinction. <strong>The</strong>re are dwellings for the staff in one area.<br />
for ordinary workers in another, and on the best sites, the manager's<br />
residences. <strong>The</strong> factory, the school, the assembly hall, everything accurately<br />
planned and <strong>of</strong> architectonic value.<br />
Some time ago, the local authorities wanted to demolish a house in a<br />
residential area, once known as a good neighbourhood, where the owners<br />
competed in having the nicest gardens. <strong>The</strong> museum rejected this, and with<br />
economic and pr<strong>of</strong>essional help from the Central Office <strong>of</strong> Historic<br />
Monuments the house was saved and restored. In this case it was also necessary<br />
to show the politicians the importance <strong>of</strong> restoring the whole housing<br />
environment. Again, the museum, with support from outside acted as an<br />
adviser on how to take care <strong>of</strong> the local cultural heritage. Accordingly, we<br />
started a project, the Tyssedal-project, with the aim to restore the entire town,<br />
and not only the interior <strong>of</strong> the old power station and the intake pipes. In this<br />
way we also try to make Tyssedal more interesting and accessible to tourists,<br />
local people and pupils. A special tourist/cultural programme aims at creating<br />
new jobs in this field. <strong>The</strong> last three years the municipality <strong>of</strong> Odda has been<br />
responsible for this project and grants money to this work.<br />
Today I think most people are proud <strong>of</strong> having a museum in Odda, and that is<br />
an important result <strong>of</strong> our work. Still the museum has not managed to increase<br />
the number <strong>of</strong> visitors, but in this respect it must be mentioned that it is our<br />
first year in a restored museum building. So far we are not an important<br />
tourist attraction, and many people see the number <strong>of</strong> visitors<br />
as a measure <strong>of</strong> success. However, with the resources available, I think that<br />
this is as far as it has been possible to reach for the time being. <strong>The</strong> aim now<br />
. must be to increase the number <strong>of</strong> visitors in order to be recognized as an<br />
important museum. Some <strong>of</strong> our "competitors" are for example different<br />
"experience centres" which have commercial purposes, and not necessarily<br />
educating purposes. Educating people is a more "invisible" aim and not so easy<br />
to measure. In the long run the aim <strong>of</strong> showing authenticity, showing a living<br />
society and securing our cultural heritage will be accepted as important.<br />
As a leader <strong>of</strong> the museum I am constantly struggling to get enough money in<br />
order to do a proper and pr<strong>of</strong>essional job. I think it is high time to recognize<br />
the necessity <strong>of</strong> the "old fashioned" idea <strong>of</strong> the folk museum as an educational<br />
and not a commercial institution. To my mind we need strong, local museums<br />
that have the local community as a basis and research area, in order to<br />
document the history <strong>of</strong> the individuals and their surroundings in a micro<br />
perspective. In our case to preserve and explain the experience and history <strong>of</strong><br />
an industrial society as a chapter and an on-going story <strong>of</strong> the western world.<br />
But at the same time it is also an interesting aspect <strong>of</strong> our national history in a<br />
macro perspective. One <strong>of</strong> the advantages <strong>of</strong> our museum is that it is close to<br />
its users and informants. This is not the case in a national museum, which has<br />
the whole country as its responsibility.<br />
200
Fig. :i<br />
209
v<br />
ICOFOM - LAM
ICOFOM LAM REPORT<br />
1990 - <strong>1995</strong><br />
During the XV ICOM Conference, held in <strong>The</strong> Hague in 1989, Vinos S<strong>of</strong>ka and Peter Van<br />
Mensch - immediate past and newly elected Presidents <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM - suggested that a Latin<br />
American ICOFOM group should be created, on the grounds <strong>of</strong> decentralization and<br />
regionalization policies set for the 1989-1992 ICOM Triennial Programme.<br />
As Latin American representatives on the ICOFOM board, Nelly Decarolis (Argentina) and<br />
Tereza Scheiner (Brazil) were in charge <strong>of</strong> the task. In November 1990 both met in Rio de<br />
Janeiro, Brazil, to plan and program the creation and implementation <strong>of</strong> the ICOFOM regional<br />
organization that has, since then, received the name <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM LAM.<br />
<strong>The</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM LAM is to promote and to document research work on museological theory<br />
in Latin America and the Caribbean, thus allowing wider participation <strong>of</strong> our members in the<br />
activities <strong>of</strong> the Committee - through discussion, publications and pr<strong>of</strong>essional exchange. A<br />
central point for action is the production <strong>of</strong> papers on museum theory, in the main idioms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
region: Portuguese, Spanish and English (for the Caribbean) . Work is developped togheter with<br />
National Committees in the region and with the help <strong>of</strong> ICOM LAC.<br />
During the past five years, the ICOFOM LAM coordination has carried out the following activities,<br />
included in two Regional Triennial ICOM programs:<br />
1) A preliminary circular letter was sent to alilCOFOM members in the region, infonming about<br />
the creation <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM LAM, its main goals and proposed activities. In the same<br />
correspondence, a question was posed to members about their interest in joining the new group.<br />
Answers were thoroughly positive, with people stating their wish to participate .<br />
. 2) Having confinmed the viability <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM LAM, a letter was sent to the President <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Regional Organization <strong>of</strong> ICOM for Latin America and the Caribbean, Lucia Astudillo,<br />
infonming about the new group and asking for political support in the region - which was<br />
immediately granted.<br />
3) A special fonm was created and sent to all members, with questions about their<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional and institutional data, with the aim <strong>of</strong> building a database.<br />
4) A newsletter (Bulletin ICOFOM LAM) was conceived, created, prepared, edited and<br />
distributed to all ICOFOM LAM members, as well as to Museology training centers and to the<br />
National Committees in the region. Such Bulletin is produced in Spanish and Portuguese.<br />
During these 5 years, 7 issues have been produced and distributed, as follows:<br />
· number 1 - March 91<br />
· number 2 - July 91<br />
· number 3 - December 91<br />
· number 4/5 - August 92<br />
· number en -April 93<br />
This issue had a synopsis in English, speciailly made for colleagues in the Caribbean<br />
area.<br />
215
From the second half <strong>of</strong> 93 to the second half <strong>of</strong> 94 it was not possible to edit the Bulletin, due to<br />
priorization <strong>of</strong> regional and national meetings on museum theory and to the production <strong>of</strong> the<br />
book with the proceedings <strong>of</strong> the II Regional Meeting. We expect to have a special issue<br />
published and distributed around the end <strong>of</strong> <strong>1995</strong>.<br />
5} Organization <strong>of</strong> 4 ICOFOM LAM Annual Meetings, in different countries <strong>of</strong> the region :<br />
· <strong>Museums</strong>, Society and Environment - Buenos Aires, Argentina, April 1992<br />
(toghether with an intemational seminar held by the National Committee)<br />
· Museology, <strong>Museums</strong>, Space and Power in Latin America and the<br />
Caribbean - Quito, Ecuador, July 1993<br />
· Museology, Education and Community Action - Cuenca, Ecuador, October<br />
1994 (this meeting was held toghether with the Annual Meeting <strong>of</strong> CECA as a<br />
preparation for the ICOFOM Seminars in China and Stavanger)<br />
· Patrimony, <strong>Museums</strong> and Tourism in Latin America and the Caribbean -<br />
Barquisimeto, Venezuela, April <strong>1995</strong> (in the realm <strong>of</strong> an intemational seminar on the<br />
same theme, organized by the National Committee <strong>of</strong> Venezuela).<br />
<strong>The</strong> next regional meeting will be held in Rio de Janeiro, BraSil, in May 1996, togheter<br />
with the Annual Meeting <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM. <strong>The</strong> theme for both groups will be Museology<br />
and Art.<br />
A national meeting was also held in Mendoza, Argentina, in August 1994, by<br />
invitation <strong>of</strong> the Municipality <strong>of</strong> Mendoza. <strong>The</strong> theme was Cultural Policies: Museum,<br />
Space and Power.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se meetings were all organized within ICOFOM LAM, from program development to<br />
proceedings to management <strong>of</strong> all the processes. Infonmation and call for papers were sent to all<br />
ICOFOM LAM members in successive groups <strong>of</strong> correspondence. Special invitations were made<br />
to distinguished specialists <strong>of</strong> different countries to participate as keynote speakers. We have<br />
had an average <strong>of</strong> 40 to 45 participants per meeting.<br />
During the meetings, papers previously selected among those produced by ICOFOM<br />
Intemational, as well as by regional and intemational conferences, are distributed to the<br />
participants. Papers produced for the meetings by regional members are also analyzed and<br />
discussed.<br />
6} Diffusion <strong>of</strong> ideas - Conclusions and recommendations presented by participants are issued,<br />
translated into the three idioms already mentioned, published and distributed to all ICOFOM LAM<br />
members, as well as to National Committees in the region , ICOM LAC, ICOMSUR, ICOFOM and<br />
some other Intemational Committees. Museology Schools and museum training centers are also<br />
included in the mailing list.<br />
<strong>The</strong> English versions <strong>of</strong> such conclusions and recommendations have been systematically<br />
presented in the Annual Symposia <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM and in the General Conferences (Canada and<br />
Norway). You will find in <strong>ISS</strong> number <strong>25</strong> the conclusions and recommendations <strong>of</strong> the II<br />
ICOFOM LAM meeting.<br />
7} Selection and publishing <strong>of</strong> working papers sent by members from different countries in<br />
the ICOFOM LAM Bulletin.<br />
216
AUTHORS<br />
Per-Uno AGREN, Umea University, Sweden<br />
Eurydice ANTZOULATOU-Retsina, Ionian University, Corfu, Greece<br />
Randi BARTVEDT, Western-Norway Industrial Museum, Odda, Norway<br />
Mathilde BELLAIGUE, Laboratoires de recherches des musees de France, Paris, France<br />
Jean DAV ALLON, Universite Jean Monnet, St-Etienne, France<br />
Nelly DECAROLIS, ICOM Argentina, Buenos Aires, Argentina<br />
Paule DOUCET, Secreta ire generale du MINOM, Ottawa, Canada<br />
John Aage GJESTRUM, B0Verbru, Norway<br />
Maria de Lourdes HORTA, Museu imperial, Petr6polis. Brazil<br />
Nicola LADKlN, Museum <strong>of</strong> Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA<br />
Lynn MARA.."JDA, Vancouver Museum, Vancouver, Canada<br />
,<br />
lvo MAROEVIC, University <strong>of</strong> Zagreb, Croatia<br />
Marc MAURE, Norsk Landbruksmuseum, As, Norway<br />
Raymond MONTPETlT, Universite du Quebec, Montreal, Canada<br />
'Anupama NIGAM, Hyderabad, India<br />
Paivi-Marjut RAlPPALINNA, Alvar Aaho Museum, Jyvaskyla, Finland<br />
Tereza Cristina SCHEINER, University <strong>of</strong> Rio de Janeiro, Brazil<br />
Anita B. SHAH, Hyderabad, India<br />
Jean TRUDEL, Universite de Montreal, Canada<br />
Peter V AN MENSCH, Reinwardt Academie, Amsterdam, <strong>The</strong> Netberlands<br />
Hildegard VIEREGG, Ottobrunn, Germany<br />
Grazyna ZAUCHA, Choma Museum, Zambia
ICOFOM STUDY SERIES (<strong>ISS</strong>)<br />
Papers <strong>of</strong> ICOFOM's scientific symposia<br />
1-20 are available as reprint<br />
1, 1983 Methodology <strong>of</strong> museology and pr<strong>of</strong>essional training I<br />
2,1983 Museum - territory - society. New tendencies and new practices I<br />
3,1983 Methodology <strong>of</strong> museology and pr<strong>of</strong>essional training 2<br />
Museum - territory - society. New tendencies and new practices 2<br />
4,1983 Museum - territory - society. New tendencies and new practices 3<br />
5,1983 Methodology <strong>of</strong> museums and pr<strong>of</strong>essional training 3<br />
6,1984 Collecting today for tomorrow I<br />
7,1984 Collecting today for tomorrow 2<br />
8,1985 Originals and substitutes in museums I<br />
9,1985 Originals and substitutes in museums 2<br />
10,1986 Museology and identity I<br />
11 ,1986 Museology and identity 2<br />
12, 1987 Museology and museums I<br />
13, 1987 Museology and museums 2<br />
14,1988 Museology and developing countries - help or manipulation? I<br />
15,1988 Museology and developing countries - help or manipulation? 2<br />
16,1989 Forecasting - a museological tool? Museology and futurology<br />
17,1990 Museology and the environment<br />
19, 1991 <strong>The</strong> language <strong>of</strong> exhibitions I<br />
20,1991 <strong>The</strong> language <strong>of</strong> exhibitions 2<br />
21,1992 Museological research<br />
22,1993 <strong>Museums</strong>, space and power [in preparation 1<br />
23,1994 Object - document?<br />
24,1994 Museum and community I<br />
<strong>25</strong>,<strong>1995</strong> Museum and community 2