Observational Evidence Favors a Static Universe - Journal of ...

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that the ratio of total mass obtained by using the virial theorem to the total luminosity was 500 whereas the expected ratio was 3. This huge discrepancy was the start of the concept of dark matter. It is surprising that in more than seven decades since that time there is no direct evidence for dark matter. Similarly the concept of dark energy (some prefer quintessence) has been introduced to explain discrepancies in the observations of type 1a supernovae. The important point is that these three concepts have been introduced in an ad hoc manner to make BB fit the observations. None has any theoretical or experimental support outside the field of cosmology. As already stated CC is based on the hypotheses of curvature redshift and that of curvature pressure. Both are described in Part 3 and are supported by strong physical arguments. Curvature redshift is testable in the laboratory and some support for curvature pressure may come from solar neutrino observations. Nevertheless they are new hypotheses and must be subject to strong scrutiny. 4 Expansion and Evolution The original models for BB had all galaxies being formed shortly after the be- ginning of the universe. Then as stars aged the characteristics of the galaxies changed. Consequently these characteristics are expected to show an evolution that is a function of redshift. Since nearly all cosmological objects are associ- ated with galaxies we would also expect their characteristics to show evolution. Clearly in CC there is no evolution in the average characteristics of any ob- ject. The individual objects will evolve but the average characteristics of the population remain constant. Any strong evidence of evolution of the average 15
characteristics would constitute serious evidence against CC. The simple BB evolution concept is complicated by galactic collisions and mergers (Struck, 1999; Blanton & Moustakas, 2009). In many cases these can produce new large star-forming regions. Clearly the influx of a large number of new stars will alter the characteristics of the galaxy. It is likely that a sig- nificant number of galaxies have been reformed by collisions and mergers and consequently the average evolution may be very little or at least somewhat re- duced over the simple model. 4.1 Tolman surface brightness This test, suggested by Tolman (1934), relies on the observation that the surface brightness of objects does not depend on the geometry of the universe. Although it is obviously true for Euclidean geometry it is also true for non- Euclidean geometries. For a uniform source, the quantity of light received per unit angular area is independent of distance. However, the quantity of light is also sensitive to non-geometric effects, which make it an excellent test to dis- tinguish between cosmologies. For expanding universe cosmologies the surface brightness is predicted to vary as (1 + z) −4 , where one factor of (1 + z) comes from the decrease in energy of each photon due to the redshift, another factor comes from the decrease in rate of their arrival and two factors come from the apparent decrease in area due to aberration. This aberration is simply the rate of change of area for a fixed solid angle with redshift. In a static, tired-light, cosmology (such as CC) only the first factor is present. Thus an appropriate test for Tolman surface brightness is the value of this exponent. 16
Page 1 and 2: The Journal of Cosmology Journal of
Page 3 and 4: closely cancels the effects of time
Page 5 and 6: premise that the most constant char
Page 7 and 8: (λ0/λ−1) where λ0 is the obser
Page 9 and 10: cosmic gas (i.e. inter-galactic gas
Page 11 and 12: For this geometry the area of a thr
Page 13: 3 Theoretical Table 2: Comparison o
Page 17 and 18: Table 3: Galactic properties for Pe
Page 19 and 20: Table 4: Fitted exponents for dista
Page 21 and 22: Table 5: Radii and fitted exponents
Page 23 and 24: used 393 galaxies with redshift ran
Page 25 and 26: likelihood estimate of ˆ S is ˆSe
Page 27 and 28: can be compared with β = 2.28 give
Page 29 and 30: Figure 1: Width of supernovae type
Page 31 and 32: 4.3.2 Supernovae in CC Since the re
Page 33 and 34: Figure 2: Absolute magnitudes, M CC
Page 35 and 36: the peak luminosity will be proport
Page 37 and 38: that is M0, is −19.070 ± 0.042.
Page 39 and 40: evidence for strong luminosity sele
Page 41 and 42: Table 8: M ∗ CC for SED Type 1 ga
Page 43 and 44: volume and ρ is the quasar density
Page 45 and 46: this region which not only produces
Page 47 and 48: S would be constant. It has the fur
Page 49 and 50: Table 9: Origin of radio source-cou
Page 51 and 52: Clearly, the model satisfies the ba
Page 53 and 54: e more precise fB is the fraction t
Page 55 and 56: where σi is the uncertainty in yi,
Page 57 and 58: Buchalter, A., Helfand, D.J., Becke
Page 59 and 60: Djorgovski, S.G. & Spinrad H., (198
Page 61 and 62: Hogg D.W., (1999). Distance measure
Page 63 and 64: Liddle, A.E. & Lyth, D.H., 2000, Co
Page 65 and 66:
Peacock, J.A., (1999), Cosmological
Page 67 and 68:
Sloan Digital Sky Survey Quasar Sur
Page 69 and 70:
Schneider, D. P., Hall, P. B., Rich
Page 71:
Good Standard Candles in the Near I
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