Program (RO)

Iron Age Rites and Rituals 

in the Carpathian Basin 

Târgu Mureș, 7–9 October 2011 

FRIDAY, 7 October 

Program 

15 00 –16 30 Chairman: Tiberius Bader 

InauGural sessIon 

Tiberius Bader (DE) 

Meine Begegnungen mit den Keltenfürsten: am Beispiel 

der Fürstengäber von Ciumești und Hochdorf 

Jan Bouzek (CZ) 

The Earliest la Tène Objects in the Carpathian Basin. 

New and Old Evidence 

Mircea Babeș–Nicolae Miriţoiu (RO) 

Verlängerte, mehrstufige birituelle Bestattungen im 

Donau–Karpaten-Raum (5. bis 3. Jh. v. Chr.) 

Discussions 

17 00 –18 30 Chairman: Tiberius Bader 

Graves and Grave InvenTorIes 

Milica Tapavicki-Ilic–Vojislav Filipović (RS) 

[lectured by Marija ljuština] 

An interesting late iron Age Grave Find from Syrmia 

Marija Ljuština–Miloš Spasić (RS) 

Celtic Newcomers between Traditional and Fashionable: 

Graves 63 and 67 from Karaburma 



Târgu Mureş, 7–9 October 2011 

Aurel Rustoiu–Sándor Berecki (RO) 

The Warrior Grave from Ocna Sibiului, Transylvania 

Discussions 

SATuRDAY, 8 October 

9 00 –10 30 Chairman: Mircea Babeș 

The envIronmenT and sTruCTure 

of CemeTerIes 1 

Erzsébet Jerem (HU) 

late iron Age Cemeteries at the Eastern Alps – with 

Special Emphasis on their Settings and Ritual Aspects 

Gertrúda Březinová (SK) 

The Biritual Cemetery in Šurany-Nitriansky Hrádok, 

Zámeček, District of Nové Zámky (Slovakia) 

Zoltán Czajlik (HU) 

Topographical researches on the iron Age Cemeteries in 

Hungary. An Aerial Archaeological Approach 

Discussions 

2 3




11 00 –12 30 Chairman: Erzsébet Jerem 

The envIronmenT and sTruCTure 

of CemeTerIes 2 

Zoltán Pilling–Ferenc ujvári (HU) 

late iron Age Settlement and Cemetery in the Vicinity 

of Szeged. Some New Data on iron Age Burial Rite on the 

Southern Part of the Great Hungarian Plain 

Andreea Drăgan (RO) 

late iron Age Burials in the iron Gates Area 

Horea Pop–Zsolt Csók (RO) 

The Tumular Necropolis from Şimleu Silvaniei, 

Transylvania 

Discussions 

13 00 –14 30 Chairman: Jan Bouzek 

ColleCTIve behavIour of soCIal sTruCTures 

Maciej Karwowski (Pl) 

late iron Age Ritual and Mythical Representations from 

Oberleiserberg in lower Austria 

Peter Ramsl (AT) 

Rites and Rituals in la Tène Age Cemeteries in Eastern 

Austria 




Károly Tankó (HU) 

la Tène Period Burial Practices in North-Eastern 

Hungary 

Discussions 

16 00 –17 30 Chairman: Gertrúda Březinová 

InvenTorIes, arTefaCTs and analyTIC 

approaChes 1 

Beatrice Kelemen–Cristian C. Roman–Iosif Vasile 

Ferencz–Delia M. Roman–Oana Ponta–Simion 

Simion (RO) 

Additional information on Cremated Remains from 

Hunedoara–Grădina castelului–Platou Necropolis as 

inferred from Anthropometric and Complementary 

Analyses 

Wolfgang David (DE) 

„Keltische“ Helme im Karpatenbecken und ihre 

Analogien in italien und Mitteleuropa 

Martin Furman (SK) 

interpretative Value of the Annular Jewel Garnitures 

for the Study of Early Celtic Population in the Middle 

Danube Area 

Discussions 

4 5




18 00 –19 30 Chairman: Florea Gelu 


approaChes 2 

Gabriela Brezňanová (SK) 

Reflection of the Contacts between Celtic Communities 

in Transylvania and South-West Slovakia in the Grave 

inventories 

Paul Pupeză (RO) 

The Pottery of local Tradition in the Celtic Graves from 

the Carpathian Basin 

Marcin Rudnicki (Pl) 

Finds of Dacian bracelets, type ‘Şimleu Silvaniei’, north 

of the Carpathians and the Sudety and their Context 

Discussions 

SuNDAY, 9 October 

9 00 –10 30 Chairman: Aurel Rustoiu 


approaChes 3 

Dragoș Măndescu (RO) 

Killing the Weaponry. An insight on the Graves with 

Destroyed Weapons in late iron Age Transylvania 




Vlad Vintilă Zirra (RO) 

An ‘Archaeological Sex’ Approach of the Celtic Burials 

from Transylvania 

Eugen Iaroslavschi–Gelu Florea (RO) 

An Ornamented Disc from the End of the Second iron 

Age in the National History Museum of Transylvania 

Discussions 

11 00 –12 30 Chairman: Aurel Rustoiu 


approaChes 4 

Mariana Egri (RO) 

‘A warrior never dies’. The Manipulation of Tradition in 

Early Funerary Contexts from Pannonia 

Cătălin Popa (UK) 

Till Death Do Us Part. A Statistical Approach to 

identifying Burial Similarity and Grouping. The Case of 

the late la Tène Graves from the Eastern Carpathian 

Basin 

Răzvan Mateescu–Cristina Bodó (RO) 

The History of an idea. The Dacian ‘Priests’ between the 

Ancient Sources and the Contemporary Archaeology 

Discussions 

6 7

Abstracts 




MEINE BEGEGNuNGEN MIT DEN KELTENFüRSTEN: 

AM BEISPIEL DER FüRSTENGRäBER VON CIuMEșTI 

uND HOCHDORF 

Tiberius BADER 

Hochdorf/Enz, DE 

50 Jahre seit der Entdeckung des Fürstengrabes von Ciumești 

Vor 50 Jahren, am 10. August 1961 wurde das keltische 

Fürstengrab von Ciumești entdeckt. Nach einigen Tagen nach 

der Entdeckung war der Referent am Ort und Stelle. im Jahr 

1973 hat er den zweiten Teil des Grabes erworben. Er wird die 

neue Kenntnisse über die Entdeckung, Fundumstände, Fundverhältnisse 

und inventur des Grabes erörtern. Besprochen 

werden auch die Erfahrungen für die Rekonstruktion und 

Nachbau des Fürstengrabes, am Beispiel von Hochdorf, vor dreißig 

Jahren ausgegraben. 

THE EARLIEST LA TèNE OBJECTS IN THE 

CARPATHIAN BASIN. NEW AND OLD EVIDENCE 

Jan BOuZEK 

Prague, CZ 

New finds from SW Slovakia seem to confirm that this 

area should be included into the vast area where Early Celtic 

art was known. The most important Early la Tène center 

existed in the fort of Horné Orešany–Slepý vrch, at the eastern 

promontory of the little Carpathians. Surface survey with 

metal detectors and later also excavation brought to light new 

mask fibula, an appliqué with a sphinx and several other objects 

9




of Early Celtic style. Together with earlier known mask fibula 

from Slovenské Pravno and the Stupava plaque the new finds 

confirm that a local Early la Tène school existed here. The imitation 

of Schnabelkanne handle in the Piestany museum belongs 

roughly to the same stylistic area. The existence of this eastern 

province of Early la Tène art reminds one of the old idea 

of Jacosthal on eastern participation in the formation of Early 

la Tène style. As no Early Celtic parallels are known as yet in 

Moravia, it might have been a small enclave, like that reported in 

the story of Onomaris’ expedition, but even if being a marginal 

part of the general Early la Tène area, it shows distinct stylistic 

peculiarities not fully conforming with the Early Celtic art more 

westwards. 

From roughly the same area in western Slovakia and Hungary 

several bronze vessels come, first held to be of Etruscan 

origin, but later recognized as Magna Grecia (Tarentine?) works 

distributed nearly exclusively along the eastern shores of italy. 

The existence of these pitchers and of one podinapter seems to 

suggest that this area enjoyed also some contacts with Caput 

Adriae and italy; it may have been involved in amber trade. As 

the light substance is easily transportable by porters, its transport 

was not necessarily restricted to the official Amber Route 

along the Oder and Morava rivers. The torques found at Gorni 

Cibar seems to precede chronologically the Celtic Balkan campaigns 

and may be a testimony of a visit of a delegation of the 

Celts in the area, like that reported on the meeting of the Celts 

with Alexander iii. 




VERLäNGERTE, MEHRSTuFIGE BIRITuELLE 

ESTATTuNGEN IM DONAu-KARPATEN-RAuM 

(5. bis 3. Jh. v. Chr.) 

Mircea BABEș 

București, RO 

Nicolae MIRIţOIu 

București, RO 

Die, von den Autoren in den eisenzeitlichen Friedhöfen 

von Borosești ( jud. iași) und Poienești ( jud. Vaslui), beide im 

Osten Rumäniens, durchgeführten Ausgrabungen brachten 

vor Jahren höchstinteressante Erkenntnisse hinsichtlich der 

eigenartigen Bestattungsbräuche der norddonauländischen 

Geten (Getai) während der Frühphase der jüngeren vorrömischen 

Eisenzeit (5.–3. Jh. v. Chr.); sie sind vor allem durch 

die alternative bzw. sukzessive Verwendung von Körper- und 

Brandbestattung im Rahmen einer verlängerten, mehrstufigen 

Behandlung eines und desselben Verstorbenen. Ausgangspunkt 

unserer Überlegungen bildete die Entdeckung von zwei Grabanlagen 

in Borosești (Gr. i und ii), die die Form und das Ausmaß 

von normalen Körpergräbern zeigten, dazu auch typische Grabbeigaben 

(Tonware, Perlen, Messer), jedoch keine menschliche 

Knochen lieferten. in Borosești und ganz speziell in Poienești 

wurden aber auch Brandgräber freigelegt, wo der leichenbrand 

und die Grabbeigaben ebenfalls in überdimensionale Gruben 

deponiert waren, das heißt in Gruben die für Körperbestattungen 

ohne weiteres gepasst hätten. Derartige ungewöhnliche 

Funde sind aber, etwa zur gleichen Zeit, in einem viel breiteren 

Raum nördlich der Unteren Donau, zwischen dem Dniester 

(Nistru, Dnestr) im Osten und der Theiß (Tisa, Tisza) in Westen 

verbreitet. Solche Bestattungen sind einwandfrei in den Friedhöfen 

von Slobozia-Onești, Stelnica, Zimnicea, Fântânele, 

Teliţa, Murighiol, Băiţa und Olteni, in Rumänien, Dănceni 

und Pârjolteni in der Republik Moldova, Szentes-Vekerzug 

10 11




und Tápiószele in Ungarn dokumentiert. Für die überdimensionalen 

Brandgrubengrüber hat man recht unterschiedliche 

Erklärungen vorgeschlagen, vor allem mit Bezug auf einer vermutlichen 

Transition von Körper- zur Brandbestattung. Wir 

sind aber der Meinung, daß im Falle der Brandgrubengräber, die 

großen Grabgruben haben ursprünglich für die provisorische 

Körperbestattung der Verstorbenen gedient; erst nach einiger 

Zeit sollte die leiche wieder exhumiert und schließlich auf 

Scheiterhaufen eingeäschert. Hinterher war der leichenbrand 

entweder zurück in der großen provisorischen Grabgrube oder 

in einer gesonderten Grabanlage oder sogar an einem anderen 

Ort deponiert. in dieser letzten Eventualität, in den früheren 

”provisorischen” Grabgruben sind nur noch Reste der Grabbeigaben 

erhalten, aber keine Menschenknochen; gewöhnlich 

wurden solche Befunde einfach als ”Kenotaphe” ausgedeutet, 

ohne aber daß man dabei eine genauere Analyse unternommen 

hat. Gelegentlich zeigen die Bauweise und die verwendeten 

Baustoffe (Holz, Stein, lehm), z.B. in Dănceni, Zimnicea oder 

Olteni, das bestimmte Grabanlagen über die ganze Dauer 

verlängerter Bestattungszeremonien offen bzw. zugänglich 

geblieben sind, die am/im Grabe stattfinden sollten. Birituelle, 

verlängerte bzw. mehrstufige Bestattungsbräuche sind auch 

durch die Ethnographie der modernen und aktuellen Primitiven 

dokumentiert worden. 




AN INTERESTING LATE IRON AGE GRAVE FIND 

FROM SYRMIA 

Milica TAPAVIčKI-ILIć 

Belgrade, RS 

Vojislav FILIPOVIć 

Belgrade, RS 

in 2004, a local amateur-archaeologist – Branko Najhold 

– came into the possession of a few objects apparently dating 

from the late iron Age. The objects were discovered by a farmer 

somewhere in Syrmia, probably close to modern Sremska 

Mitrovica. No other information about the circumstances of 

discoveries is known. The number and structure of the objects 

indicate that these probably belonged to a grave-find. The 

inventory includes the following objects: a bronze kettle, a 

bronze simpulum, two spears, one of which was bent twice, an 

iron knife and four pieces of a scabbard decorated with geometric 

ornaments. There is also a bronze fibula, a ‘laminci’ 

type belt buckle, a pair of iron spurs and a pair of iron snafflebits. 

All of the objects were poorly preserved but still easily 

definable. According to the finder, the bronze fibula with the 

‘laminci’ type belt buckle and the iron spurs were placed inside 

the kettle. The finder did not come upon any skeletal remains, 

which indicates that the deceased was probably cremated. All 

of the artefacts and the rite of cremation have close parallels 

in sites like Židovar, Gomolava or Ajmana-Konopište and Mala 

Vrbica. They can be dated into 1 st century BC and related to the 

Scordisci. 

12 13




CELTIC NEWCOMERS BETWEEN 

TRADITIONAL AND FASHIONABLE: 

GRAVES 63 AND 67 FROM KARABuRMA 

Marija LJušTINA 

Belgrade, RS 

–Miloš SPASIć 

Belgrade, RS 

More than sixty years elapsed since the first excavation 

reports on Celtic necropolis Karaburma in Belgrade, and the 

site still stands out as one of the focal points for understanding 

of Celtic culture in Central Balkans. Karaburma offers unique 

insight into the history of Scordiscian communities since it 

covers the period from their settling to their assimilation in 

Roman Empire. Karaburma is the only reliable source for comprehension 

of Celtic presence at the territory of Belgrade, since 

no solid trace of settlement has been found so far. 

We will examine the very beginning of the formation 

process of the Scordisci, analyzing two earliest graves from 

the necropolis, dating from the end of 4 th century. Graves 

contained inhumations of adult females buried with their 

personal jewelry, which bears close analogies with both late 

Hallstatt and Celtic material culture. The first one (grave 63) 

contained two silver earrings made of twisted wire, a bronze 

fibula of Dux type with chain pendants, seven multicoloured 

glass beads, a wheel thrown clay bowl and a fragment of biconical 

iron object. in the second (grave 67) the female deceased 

was buried with two twisted silver earrings, conical foot of a 

handmade kantharos, 25 blue biconical glass beads, and a part 

of iron knife. 

We argue that occurrence of jewelry typical for two 

different communities is profound articulation of cultural 

interactions that might not developed just through the acts of 

actual contacts of new-coming and autochthonous population. 




instead, we see it as one of the physical manifestations of long 

term process that led to construction of Scordiscian identity. 

THE WARRIOR GRAVE FROM OCNA SIBIuLuI, 

TRANSYLVANIA 

Aurel RuSTOIu 

Cluj-Napoca, RO 

Sándor BERECKI 

Târgu Mureș, RO 

The Brukenthal Museum from Sibiu holds the inventory 

of a grave from Ocna Sibiului, discovered in 1884. The objects 

recovered from the funerary feature were: four simple bronze 

bracelets, two bronze bracelets with three and four nodes, a 

bronze cheek protector from a helmet, four cambered phalerae, 

and a bronze object considered top piece of a helmet. Based on 

the inventory, the grave was assigned to a Celtic warrior. However, 

the interpretation of the fragment from the Chalcidian 

type helmet raises a series of questions regarding the attribution 

and chronology of the inventory. 

The Chalcidian helmet included in the inventory can 

be dated to the first half of the 4 th century BC, thus belonging 

to a chronological horizon prior to the Celtic colonisation 

in Transylvania. The authors’ scope is to analyse the cultural 

relationships established between the indigenous communities 

from southern Transylvania and the military elites from 

the northern Balkans before the arrival of Celtic groups in the 

region. 

14 15




LATE IRON AGE CEMETERIES AT THE 

EASTERN ALPS WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON 

THEIR SETTINGS AND RITuAL ASPECTS 

Erzsébet JEREM 

Budapest, HU 

The foreground of the Alps, the region encompassed by 

the Traisental, the Vienna Basin, the lajta Mountains and lake 

Fertő is characterized by a dense network of iron Age sites. From 

among them, numerous Celtic cemeteries have been known and 

yielded reference points for literature, while others have come 

to light only during the rescue operations of the past decades, 

offering new and important data not only from the aspect of the 

finds, but of the more precise observations on burial traditions 

too. The topographic location of these cemeteries are similar, 

and from many viewpoints (such as their setting at the feet of 

mountains, on dry elevations between rivers or lakes, or on alluvial 

terraces) characteristic, and show a certain regularity. With 

the help of recent and forthcoming publications it has become 

possible to further refine our chronological framework and 

examine the origins and connections of our finds. 

in order to illustrate the above, specific examples are 

going to be shown from the cemeteries of Sopron–Krautacker, 

Ménfőcsanak, loretto, Pöttsching, Pöttelsdorf and some others. 

The problems of the changing rites, multiple and special burials, 

food and drink offerings, extraordinary pieces of clothing 

and other grave-goods, especially in the late Hallstatt–Early 

la Tène periods, will receive special emphasis. Finally, i shall 

attempt to analyze those impulses and impacts that shaped the 

exceptionally colourful and specific image of this region in the 

6 th –3 rd century BC. 




THE BIRITuAL CEMETERY IN šuRANY-NITRIANSKY 

HRáDOK, ZáMEčEK, DISTRICT OF NOVé ZáMKY 

(SLOVAKIA) 

Gertrúda BřEZINOVá 

Nitra, SK 

The loess promontory with an area of 17,000 m 2 was populated 

from Prehistory to the Middle Ages. The exploitation of 

soil for production of dry and fired bricks damaged the extent of 

8500–9000 m 2 . The rest of the Zámeček position except a part 

of its western edge was researched in the years 1948–1952 and 

1956–1960. The excavation was preventive one and as much as 

two thirds of the excavated area fell victim to a new regulation 

of the Nitra river. 

First salvage works were realized here in 1923 by J. 

Eisner. in 1930 the site was surveyed by Š. Janšák. A. Točík led 

the sounding works in 1948–1952 in cooperation with A. Knor. 

Systematic excavations carried on in 1956–1960 and were led by 

K. Sedlák. These activities were caused by the regulation of the 

Nitra River. The position is known by a fortified Celtic-Dacian 

settlement. The Celtic presence at the Zámeček position is documented 

by a damaged biritual cemetery. The area of Nitriansky 

Hrádok includes several sites of probably similar chronology: 

a settlement at the Hoferské position, 400–500 m to the north 

and another one at the Vysoký breh position, 600–800 m to the 

north-east of the necropolis. Damaged graves are known also 

from the Janovsek position (the finds have not been published 

yet). The end of burying is rather well dated by grave goods to 

the terminating lT C period. During the years 1956–1960 three 

inhumation graves and three cremation burials were excavated. 

One inhumation grave was found in 1949 and one cremation 

burial in 1952. The general extent of the graveyard is distorted 

by the fact that almost two thirds of the site was damaged by the 

soil exploitation and there is no possibility to find out whether 

16 17




and how many graves could be situated on the unsearched area 

of the site. The graves were concentrated in two positions. in the 

middle of the southern edge, one inhumation grave was found 

in the vicinity of three cremation burials and three inhumation 

graves with another cremation burial not far were situated 

there in the south-western part of the cemetery. The inhumation 

graves were not oriented in one direction. Finds from the 

excavated graves were damaged and some of them were broken 

during a bombing the city of Nové Zámky in 1945. This necropolis 

has not been completely documented or published yet. Some 

of the finds were presented by B. Benadik, who dated the cemetery 

at Zámeček into the latest horizon of flat Celtic burial 

grounds in the Middle Danubian space. Considering the chronology 

and stratigraphy of the graves, the inhumation grave 2 

from the Middle la Téne Period (lT C1) including a female skeleton 

is interesting by its situating under a Celtic-Dacian hut. 

THE TOPOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH 

OF IRON AGE CEMETERIES: AN AERIAL 

ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACH 

Zoltán CZAJLIK 

Budapest, HU 

The most common practice in the archaeological topography 

is the field walking. But if we are analysing the data, 

coming from this method only, we will have the conclusion that 

this kind of topography is more or less settlement topography. 

The most of the cemeteries, former ways, field system, etc. we 

could not recognize during field walking. it is especially true 

in case of row-cemeteries, but also the systematic research of 

burials can produce important results. it should be mentioned 




here Nagyberki–Szalacska (Southern Transdanubia) where 

about 60–70 burials were known and due to the aerial archaeological 

research the number of the burials and eroded burials 

overlapped the 130 pieces. Using aerial images, we are able to 

realise photomaps even from oblique pictures. Of course, these 

maps are not absolutely correct from geometrical point of view, 

but for an archaeological analysis the standard fault (±1–2 m) is 

not an important factor. 

The second part of the lecture will present some case 

studies on Hungarian Early and late iron Age cemeteries, identified 

from the air. We will especially focus on the relationship 

(the topographical contact) between the cemeteries and settlements. 

As a good example, you can examine the Celtic cemetery 

(probably from the 3 rd century BC), close to Paks, which seems 

to be in the nearest vicinity of a Celtic settlement, documented 

from the air as well. 

Paks, south: Celtic cemetery from the air 

(Z. Czajlik, 27.05.2008.) 

18 19




LATE IRON AGE SETTLEMENT AND CEMETERY 

IN THE VICINITY OF SZEGED SOME NEW DATA 

ON IRON AGE BuRIAL RITE ON THE SOuTHERN 

PART OF THE GREAT HuNGARIAN PLAIN 

Zoltán PILLING 

Szeged, HU 

Ferenc uJVáRI 

Szeged, HU 

in 2009 in the vicinity of Szeged, near Kiskundorozsma a 

settlement and a cemetery was excavated by the Department of 

Archaeology of the University of Szeged and the Móra Ferenc 

Museum. The leaders of the excavation were Valéria Kulcsár, 

Gábor Sánta and Ottó Fogas. The site is situated on a mound, 

which was surrounded by the one time branch of the Maty 

streamlet. A total of 270 features and 343 stratigraphic units 

were excavated. The features were diverse and they were situated 

very scattered on the site. The settlement resulted buildings 

and pits with various constructions. 15 buildings came to light, 

which were mainly NE–SW oriented. The buildings contained 

some inner and external pits. Some of them included deer bones, 

respectively dog and sheep skeletons. in many cases, they were 

used as an ash pit after they were abandoned. Apart from the 

houses, lot of rubbish-, storage- and a clay extraction pit came 

to light. These objects contained diverse found material: rich 

and varied ceramic material, decorated spindle-whorl, metal 

finds (fibulas, knives, a big iron spoon etc) glass bracelets and 

rich archaeozoological material were found in them. 

Some inhumation graves were also unearthed from the 

iron Age between the features of the site. The material of the 

graves was rather poor because of the intense pillage: in many 

cases the excavators found only some human bones and pottery 

sherds. The rest of the graves finds was represented by fibulas, 

pearls, spears and so on. in one case, a round shaped ditch was 




found, which surrounded two graves; in another, a square ditch 

− which was open from one side − bounded a grave. There was 

an interesting phenomenon: in a narrow burial pit two dead laid 

on each other with opposite orientation. There was another 

odd phenomenon, which is hard to interpret: the excavators 

unearthed 14 grave-like, square shaped feature which contained 

nothing, or one or two tortoiseshell in some cases. 

The main aim of our presentation is to introduce the site, 

primarily the material of the graves and the burial rite. in this 

way, we would like to serve new data from the barely researched 

SE part of Hungary. One of the main questions is whether the 

cemetery and the settlement can be dated to the same time 

period, and whether they have been used by the same population 

or not? 

LATE IRON AGE BuRIALS 

IN THE IRON GATES AREA 

Andreea DRăGAN 


The Danube represented a geographical frontier for both 

modern and ancient political structures. Nevertheless, the 

prehistoric finds from both sides of the iron Gates area have 

shown that the river has never functioned as a cultural and 

physical barrier, and permanent communication between the 

two sides has been documented. in the late iron Age, more 

precisely late la Tène period, the mix character of the archaeological 

finds proves that this time span makes no exception. 

This has been discussed in terms of ethnic identity and interactions, 

encouraged also by the heterogeneous structure of 

the population presented in the ancient texts. Until now, the 

20 21




funerary discoveries in the area represent only individual and 

small groups of burials, for which the belonging to a necropolis 

could be observed in some cases. Many of the finds represent 

only part of a burial, while in some cases publication does not 

allow reconstruction of individual burial complexes. i will present 

the results of a comparative analysis of the intact burials 

from both sides of the Danube in the iron Gates area, while 

taking into consideration also isolated and collective finds 

from necropolis sites, focused on inventory structure, funerary 

expression and gender attribution, from the late la Tène 

period. Furthermore, a comparative discussion of the archaeological 

material from the contemporaneous settlements in the 

area will be introduced for a better understanding of the cultural 

phenomena as a whole. 

THE TuMuLI NECROPOLIS FROM ŞIMLEu 

SILVANIEI, SăLAJ COuNTY 

Horea POP 

Zalău, RO 

Zsolt CSóK 

Zalău, RO 

Known in the historical literature due to the hoards 

dated in the migrations period, the city of Şimleu Silvaniei, 

received during the last two decades of archeological research 

concentrated mostly on the habitat around the area of Măgura 

Şimleului Hill. This has materialized through the identification 

of a few very strong and consistent fortified habitats dating from 

the Bronze and iron Age, but Dacian period as well. Although 

the research of these periods, from different sites in the area of 

Şimleului was quite large scaled the necropolises linked to these 




periods were not found in excavations. The older researches, 

from the beginning of the 20 th century, but mostly the more 

recent field walks had as result the identification of a large 

tumuli necropolis, having more than 100 tombs, placed on hills 

in the southern part of Măgura Şimleului Hill, separated though 

by the valley of Crasna River. The archeological data about these 

heaps are rare. Some clues can set them in the Bronze Age, but 

the type variety of these funerary constructions determines us 

to set different chronologies. The heaps have diameters from 10 

to 70 meters. Their heights vary from 0.5 to 7 meters. There were 

set funerary heap groups, but also isolated tumuli. Of course, 

we have to take in consideration the possibility of existence of 

secondary burials in the former structures. Until an archeological 

research will be expanded on them, we consider vital and 

useful building a repertoire, with typologies and a topographical 

inventory of these vestiges. 

LATE IRON AGE RITuAL AND MYTHICAL 

REPRESENTATIONS FROM OBERLEISERBERG 

IN LOWER AuSTRIA 

Maciej KARWOWSKI 

Rzeszów, PL 

We have very little evidence on the beliefs and religious 

practices of the Eastern Celts. The situation is especially 

unfavourable during the younger la Tène Period when archaeologists 

are unable to identify graves, traditionally a valuable 

source of insight on spiritual culture. Also in the art of this 

period we observe a definite decrease in the range of forms and 

motifs of ornamentation, including also ones which could in 

some way reflect the spiritual sphere. Neither do we have any 

22 23




strong evidence on the activity of druids on the territory of the 

Eastern Celts. 

Most of the archaeological sources in the region during the 

younger la Tène Period come from hilltop settlements which, 

nevertheless, tend to differ in their outlook from the great 

oppida of the Western Celts. They are mostly small settlements 

of just a few hectares, sited in naturally defensive locations. 

One of the more important sites of this type in the region on 

the Middle Danube is 8 ha hilltop settlement on Oberleiserberg 

near Ernstbrunn in lower Austria. Very rich la Tène Culture 

materials originating from this site can be dated to the Middle 

and – mainly – the late la Tène Period, when the settlement 

experienced a period of its greatest prosperity. Many of the finds 

indicate long-distance exchange. There is also strong evidence 

on local coin minting at Oberleiserberg around the middle of the 

first century BC. This suggests that the settlement was a centre 

of both trade and administration. 

Archaeological material attributable to la Tène Culture 

from Oberleiserberg includes finds possibly associated with the 

spiritual sphere. All of them are small metal objects. One of the 

more striking is a small bronze ityphallic figurine of a man with 

a torques around his neck and an outsize phallus. Originally, 

this figurine presumably was part of a larger set. Next, there are 

two small bronze masks also certain to be elements of a greater 

whole. The face of one of these masks displays some similarity 

with the face of the man of the ityphallic figurine. The other 

mask is either of an animal or of an obscure beast. The casting 

flashes which survive in one of the openings in the mask suggest 

that this object was produced at Oberleiserberg. 

Representations of obscure beasts are seen also on a 

number of objects which must have been used as belt buckles 

or another form of fastening. in this group more notable is a 

fragment of an iron fastening with a dragon’s head terminal. 

This fastening may be an element of armour, a unique find in 

la Tène Culture. Analogical representations of mythical beasts 




– dragons, very close in their style are known from some gold 

Boian coins. A hard to identify creature – possibly, also a dragon, 

but in a visibly different style, is depicted on one of the bronze 

buckles. Stylised heads of animals – presumably, of horses, but 

possibly also of birds – decorate the terminals of the bronze and 

iron belt fastenings. 

Also present in the material from Oberleiserberg is a 

series of bronze representations of animals, mainly horses, in 

the form of a fibula, pendant amulet and a small figurine. Needless 

to say, we need to bear in mind that not every object with 

an animal representation must be associated with worship or 

myth. 

RITES AND RITuALS IN LA TèNE AGE CEMETERIES 

IN EASTERN AuSTRIA 

Peter RAMSL 

Vienna, AT 

This paper presents the rites and rituals in the iron Age 

cemeteries in eastern Austria and the neighbouring areas, the 

variety of rites and their expression. it proposes to find and 

present the generalities in a certain chronological period, outlining 

the enclosures around the graveshafts and their different 

expressions, which make possible different interpretations. 

This leads to reconstructions of burial rites in more than one 

step. Nevertheless, the orientation of burials can show different 

kinds of areas as well as changes occurred in several periods. 

24 25




LA TèNE PERIOD BuRIAL PRACTICES 

IN NORTH-EASTERN HuNGARY 

Károly TANKó 

Budapest, HU 

in the past two decades significant progress has been 

made in researching the la Tène period in Hungary. Several 

new sites have been excavated, while old materials were published. 

These cemeteries provide new information on the Celtic 

burial rite. From these data, the current research examines the 

elements of funerary process in the North-Eastern region of 

Hungary. it pays special attention to the position of skeletons 

and cremated bones, giving pots to store food, locations of 

personal weapons and jewelleries, etc. This work attempts to 

examine the elements of the rite and to outline the general rules 

as well as regional differences and changes in la Tène period. 




ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON CREMATED 

REMAINS FROM HuNEDOARA–GRăDINA 

CASTELuLuI–PLATOu NECROPOLIS 

AS INFERRED FROM ANTHROPOMETRIC 

AND COMPLEMENTARY ANALYSES 

Beatrice KELEMEN 


Cristian C. ROMAN 

Huneoara, RO 

Iosif Vasile FERENCZ 

Deva, RO 

Delia M. ROMAN 

Huneoara, RO 

Oana PONTA 


Simion SIMION 


The recent Dacian discoveries from Hunedoara were 

already published and they already aroused interest between 

specialists. They have identified 48 individuals laid down in 

deposits of one, three, four or six individuals. The complexes 

are dated during the last two centuries between the Roman 

conquest of the Dacian Kingdom. For this paper, and according 

to the theme proposed by the organizers, we chose to take into 

account only the discoveries belonging to the last century BC. 

Cremated remains are quite difficult to analyze from an 

anthropometric point of view due to their usually fragmentary 

condition, to modifications in size and form caused by heating. 

Moreover, when cremation conditions are unknown, as is the 

case here, inferences pertaining to age at death, sex and stature 

are most of the time unreliable. in this study the cremated skeletons 

from Hunedoara–Grădina Castelului–Platou necropolis 

were analyzed from an anthropometric point of view and the 

26 27




findings were correlated to results from several complementary 

analyses. These analyses include electron spin resonance (ESR) 

in order to assess bone diagenesis since ESR is a very sensitive 

method for detection of free radicals. Considerable attention 

was paid to native ESR signals and the radicals responsible for 

them. The samples were characterized also by X-ray diffraction 

(XRD) to identify the mineral phases. Where teeth survived 

cremation, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses provided 

a means to assess attrition, abrasion and other occlusal 

phenomena in order to narrow the age at death interval. in this 

study it was checked if these techniques confirm the anthropometric 

results and are modelled by age at death, historical age 

of the skeleton and/or cremation conditions. 

Acknowledgements: K.B and P.O. acknowledge, each, 

the ESF programme POSDRU/89/1.5/S/60189 for postdoctoral 

fellowships. R.D. was supported by an ESF PhD scholarship in 

the frame of POSDRU/CPP107/DMi1.5/S/76851 project. 

„KELTISCHE“ HELME IM KARPATENBECKEN 

uND IHRE ANALOGIEN IN ITALIEN uND 

MITTELEuROPA 

Wolfgang DAVID 

Manching, DE 

Bestimmte Formen von Bronze- und Eisenhelmen, insbesondere 

solche mit Scheitelknauf bzw. vom Typ Montefortino, 

spielen in der Forschung seit langem eine Rolle beim Nachweis 

der in antiken Quellen erwähnten Migrationen keltischer 

Bevölkerungsteile oder beim Nachweis keltischer Besiedlung. 

Der Focus liegt dabei in der Regel auf Helmfunden in 




Zentralmitteleuropa und italien, wohingegen den Helmfunden 

im Karpatenbecken – zumindest von der zentralmitteleuropäischen 

Forschung – bei übergreifenden Fragestellungen 

deutlich weniger Beachtung geschenkt wurde. Trotz ihres 

großen Bekanntheitsgrades erfuhren in Rumänien entdeckte 

Helme wie z. B. die aus Ciumești, Silivaș und Haţeg bislang 

keine nähere Betrachtung in ihrem Verhältnis zu ihren Analogien 

in Zentralmitteleuropa und in italien auf Basis des aktuellen, 

stark verbesserten Forschungsstandes. 

INTERPRETATIVE VALuE OF THE ANNuLAR JEWEL 

GARNITuRES FOR THE STuDY OF EARLY CELTIC 

POPuLATION IN THE MIDDLE DANuBE AREA 

Martin FuRMAN 

Žilina, SK 

The annular jewel and fibulas from flat Celtic cemeteries 

present archeological material that offers the possibility to 

monitor the corelations between more or less distant area of 

their presence. Besides, the functional position of these objects 

to the buried body gives us the possibility to look for the origin 

or social status of their owners. 

Presented work is a part of the Phd thesis about the annular 

jewel as a source of archeologically apprehensible costume, 

distribution activities and mobility of Celtic communities in 

Middle Danube Area. The thesis was defended in 2009 on Archaeological 

institute of Slovak Academy of Sciences in Nitra. 

The ‘annular costume’ (german Ringtracht) in Middle 

Danube Area passed through very complicated evolution from 

the beginning of burial in flat Celtic cemeteries until the youngiest 

preserved graves from Middle la Tène period. We monitor 

28 29




the first contacts with West Celtic environment in the Middle 

Danube Area already in Early la Tène period, when the special 

la Tène culture starts to be formed on the base of home Hallstat 

substrate. in the Middle Danube Area we can see in particular 

simple annular costume formed only by bronze bracelets, it 

means without any other kind of annular jewel. At the beginning 

of lT B1, in the period of known and historically documented 

expansion, some colonization waves from the West penetrate 

to Middle Danube Area. The evidence of these penetrations 

are some annular jewel garnitures. The model no. 3 – garniture 

formed by combination of bronze bracelets and anklets, model 

no. 4 – garniture with bronze armlet usually combinated with 

bracelets and anklets, model no. 5 – garniture formed by bronze 

torques. During the lT B1 conditions are consolidated, which 

means own production of rings and changed mode of wearing 

of annular jewel from symmetric way to asymmetric one, 

prefering left arm and appearing new annular jewel garniture 

– model no. 2 formed exclusively by anklets. Presence of glass 

beads of amphora shape and pearls from coral in the graves of 

Southwest Slovakia in lT B1 is considered the influence from 

Adriatic–Balkan Area. 

Early horizont of the burial in flat Celtic cemeteries in 

Middle Danube Area is documented then by the garnitures 

formed exclusively by bronze annular jewels. Their presence in 

this space is confirmed by information about historically documented 

expansion. The garnitures also refer to influence from 

the South thanks to Amber Road. There are more different kinds 

of garnitures in one time horizon. Some of them are inspired 

by the garniture from the place of origin, for example model no. 

1 – variant 3, model no. 3 – variant 1, model no. 5 – variant 3; 

the others present home garnitures – model no. 2, model no. 3 – 

variant 4, model no. 4 – variant 2. 




REFLECTION OF THE CONTACTS BETWEEN 

CELTIC COMMuNITIES IN TRANSYLVANIA 

AND SOuTH-WEST SLOVAKIA IN THE GRAVE 

INVENTORIES 

Gabriela BREZňANOVá 

Banská Bystrica, SK 

The paper presents the results of a grave inventory 

analyses from the Pișcolt–Nisipărie necropolis in current 

north-western Romania. These results show that a Celtic community 

from this region kept contacts with the middle Danubian 

area at the end of lT B1 and at the beginning of lT B2. The study 

focused on the feminine skeletal tombs 35 and 181. The inventory 

contained an annular costume, included in the C/D/E type 

by J. Bujna, researcher who studied the circular jewels of the 

women’s tombs in Slovakian Celtic necropolises. it is a combination 

of tubular bronze sheet anklets with a transversely 

ribbed hoop, moulded decoration of triple pr otuberances and 

a bracelet, divided by pronounced furrows and ended with seal 

endings, called Knotenarmring, on the left wrist of the buried 

woman. Other parts of the mentioned model of the annular 

costume were an amber circle, found on the chest of the buried 

woman and very often also iron brassard. According to J. Bujna, 

the mentioned model of the annular costume is associated 

with the area of south-western Slovakia and with neighbouring 

regions from Hungary. The combination of the circles – the 

bracelet on left hand and anklets – was found also in the tomb 34 

at the necropolis Pișcolt–Nisipărie. The findings suggest that 

the women buried in the tombs 35 and 181 and probably also 

the woman from the tomb 34 had a closer relation to the middle 

Danubian area. According to the chronology of J. Bujna, the 

mentioned tombs should be dated to the older phase of lT B2. 

Women tomb inventories at the necropolis Pișcolt–Nisipărie 

from that time period contain several new types of metal jewels 

30 31




with the genesis in the western la Tène area and partly in the 

middle Danubian area. 

A special type of grave inventory at the necropolis Pișcolt– 

Nisipărie, is a large iron brooch with angular bow and elongated 

catch plate, dated into all lT B2. A remarkable fact is that the 

oldest brooch of this type from the studied necropolis is dated 

at the end of lT B1 (tomb 153). The massive iron brooches, that 

are very similar from the aspect of shape and length, and can 

be found more frequently in the older phase of lT B1 at the 

necropolises of south–western Slovakia, can be considered as 

prototypes of the mentioned brooches. From the earlier phase 

of lT B2 and in lT C1, findings referring to relations with 

the middle Danubian area are not significantly present at the 

necropolis Pișcolt–Nisipărie. 

THE POTTERY OF LOCAL TRADITION IN THE 

CELTIC GRAVES FROM THE CARPATHIAN BASIN 

Luca-Paul PuPEZă 


in all important Celtic cemeteries from the Carpathian 

Basin pottery of local iron Age tradition was found, especially 

double truncated cone shaped vessels, bowls with inverted rims, 

double truncated cone shaped cups or simple cups. Graves with 

such vessels represent about 20% of all Celtic burials discovered 

until today in the Carpathian Basin. Chronologically these 

graves cover the entire period of the Celtic presence, most of 

them being dated in the early periods. Analysis of this pottery 

can provide information about the presence of indigenous people 

in Celtic communities, about the mutual influences or about 

phenomena such as cultural assimilation, rejection or isolation. 




FINDS OF DACIAN BRACELETS, TYPE ‘ŞIMLEuL 

SILVANIEI’, NORTH OF THE CARPATHIANS AND THE 

SuDETY AND THEIR CONTExT 

Marcin RuDNICKI 

Warsaw, PL 

Connections between the inhabitants of pre-Roman 

Dacia and the peoples residing in the area between the Carpathian 

range and the Baltic Sea is a subject we can hardly 

consider as well understood. A form that we can include in the 

group of materials helpful for investigating this connections are 

what Aurel Rustoiu describes as rings with a cord ornament, 

type Şimleul Silvaniei – classified as type 3a. These ornaments 

– identified as bracelets or armlets – Rustoiu initially attributed 

to the Dacian environment. With time however, he came to a 

conclusion that they are not easily attributable to any ethnic 

group as they are widespread in East-Central Europe and they 

were used by different populations. He sought their origin in 

the Celtic environment where similar ornaments executed in a 

plastic style appear already at the end of phase lT B and during 

lT C1. Rustoiu noted that most of the finds of type 3a rings are 

from Transylvania, which region he was inclined to identify 

as their source area. Similar views were put forward by Cristinel 

Plantos who viewed the ornaments as an effect of Celtic 

influence on the arts and crafts of pre-Roman Dacia. Despite 

some reservations Plantos was inclined to date these forms to 

the first century BC, possibly, the onset of the next. As they are 

discovered mostly in forts and key centres of pre-Roman Dacia, 

the same researcher suggested that they were used by the local 

aristocracy as a symbol of prestige. 

Classical bracelets/armlets type 3a are encountered 

relatively often between the Carpathians, the Sudety and the 

Baltic. A specimen well known in literature comes from lalendorf 

in Mecklemburg. Barbara Balke succeeded in collecting 

32 33




information on five finds of these ornaments from Poland. However, 

she almost completely ignored the analogies from Romania 

and their associated literature. This led her to a number of 

incorrect conclusions, including a hypothesis on their local production. 

in Poland, at least nine finds of type Şimleul Silvaniei/ 

Rustoiu 3a bracelets are recorded so far. Four of them are from 

the lower Vistula region (lasy, Malbork-Wielbark), one from 

northern Masovia (Niedanowo), two others from central Poland 

(Brodnia, Jastrzębniki). Two fragments were discovered in the 

rich settlement at Pełczyska (Western lesser Poland), inhabited 

first by Celts, and later by the people of Przeworsk Culture. 

if we take into account the chronology of this type of ornament 

and the itinerary of the main communications routes, this distribution 

of the finds appears justified. That all the armlets 

listed here were imports is suggested not only by the absence of 

a local tradition of production of this type of ornament and analogies 

from the south-east but also by the unusual composition 

of their metal alloy. Specimens originating from contexts are 

dated to the Early Roman Period but it seems that even earlier 

– during the late la Tène/Pre-Roman Period – these ornaments 

were brought to the north of the Carpathian Mts. 

The present paper attempts to answer questions on from 

which area and by what route the bracelets/armlets type Şimleul 

Silvaniei/Rustoiu 3a found their way to the territory between 

the Baltic and the Carpathian Mts. Who was instrumental in 

introducing them into the Germanic environment? Are there 

other forms we can associate with the wave of these imported 

ornaments? What are the conclusions from the analysis of 

questions addressed here for understanding the connections 

between the North and the South? 




KILLING THE WEAPONRY. AN INSIGHT ON THE 

GRAVES WITH DESTROYED WEAPONS IN LATE 

IRON AGE TRANSYLVANIA 

Dragoș MăNDESCu 

Pitești, RO 

A little bit of statistical. During the 150 years of presence 

in Transylvania (including Crișana and Banat) the Celts left 

about 70 necropolises and isolated graves discovered until now 

(about 500 graves). The latest published statistics shows that 

11% of the total number of graves has weapons as grave good 

(15% of the total number of burials with grave goods). Almost 

half of the graves with weapons (about 27 graves) contain ritually 

bent, folded or even broken weapons. Their distribution in 

Transylvanian Celtic space is uniform: Aiud (probably three 

graves), Curtuiușeni, Band, Toarcla, Dipșa (two graves), Aradul 

Nou (probably two graves), Pecica, Aluniș, Derșida, Cristurul 

Secuiesc, Tărian, Orosfaia, Sanislău (two graves), Pișcolt 

(five graves), Săcueni, Silivaș and Remetea Mare (at least two 

graves). Chronologically, these graves covered the lT B2–lT 

C1 stages. Where it was recorded, the funerary rite was always 

incineration. Usually cremation in pit and in some cases (uncertain) 

cremation in urn (Dipșa, Cristurul Secuiesc). However, 

the folded weapons do not appear in inhumation burials. 

What kinds of weapons were bent? Among the 29 weapons 

ritually bent or broken, the swords occupies a prominent place 

– 26 exemplars; they appear in almost all the graves. There are 

two more spears (Aradul Nou and Tărian) and a knife (Aluniș). 

How? The swords were one to three times bent in and 

together their scabbards (where the scabbard is present - for 

example: Aiud, Band, Curtuiușeni, Orosfaia, Sanislău, Pișcolt 

etc.). There is an exception, at Tărian, where the sword and 

the scabbard were separately folded (the scabbard four times 

folded was placed on the sword three times folded). Other tombs 

34 35




in which it would seem that sword and scabbard were folded 

separately are those at Toarcla and Derșida. The spearhead was 

bent one time, in the middle zone. 

Why? it is difficult to give a clear answer. Several explanations 

were given till now, each with weaknesses relating to: 

some related rather to the profane domain – bending, folding, 

tearing, destruction for practical reasons (the weapons do not fit 

in the grave’s pit or to prevent any further robbing of the grave); 

others, more elaborate, leading to a field harder to explore by 

means of the archaeologist, involve customs and ritual items 

such as superstitions, mystical-religious motivations, investing 

weapon with supernatural powers etc. 

it was stated in many places in the literature that bending 

weapons deposed in graves is par excellence a Celtic habit. 

However, there are some manifested reserves at this point, 

since it is obvious that their neighbors to the south-east, the 

Thraco-Getae, used this kind of funerary ritual. Thracian 

burials with ritually bent weapons were documented since the 

first iron Age’s final period (Ferigile-akinakai, fighting knives; 

Eșalniţa - spear), continuing at the lower Danube with period 

of the 4 th –3 rd centuries BC (Daia, Peretu, Pleven, Poroschia, 

Zimnicea - spears; Enisala - sword). A major difference from 

the Celtic world is that among the Thraco-Getic bent weapons 

are the spears (and not the swords) which have the main share. 

Obviously, this selection does not hold to a funeral custom, but 

to a different fighting style. in South-Danube Thracian land was 

even found a place of worship with folded Greek swords (at Dragoevo, 

the 6 th century BC). But it is clear, however, that the Celts 

came to the east, in Transylvania, having this custom and had 

not borrowed it from the neighboring Thracian populations. 

Another group of five graves with ritually bent weapons 

from Transylvania belongs to the post-Celtic horizon. All are 

incineration burials. Three of them are related to the Padea– 

Panagjurki Kolonii horizon (the 2 nd –the 1 st centuries BC): 

Teleac (spearhead and sica) and Blandiana (although weapons 




- knife and spearhead - were intact, in the grave was deposed a 

bent horse bit), very likely also at ighiu (spearhead). Two other 

graves are Dacians (1st century BC), placed nearby the centers 

of power (Cugir - spearhead; Craiva - sword). So, the findings are 

five bent weapons (three spearheads, a sword and a sica) and a 

harness element (a bit). The dominance of bent spears reminds 

the Thracian world’s particularity. 

AN ORNAMENTED DISC FROM THE END 

OF THE SECOND IRON AGE IN THE NATIONAL 

HISTORY MuSEuM OF TRANSYLVANIA 

Eugen IAROSLAVSCHI 


Gelu FLOREA 


The paper investigates an exceptional artefact, an iron 

disc decorated with floral and zoomorphic motifs, found by 

the treasure hunters, and nowadays kept in the collections of 

the National History Museum of Transylvania in Cluj. Most 

likely, one of the masterpieces of the late iron Age art in Dacia, 

the object shows similarities, but also differences with another 

famous artefact - the so called ‘shield of Piatra Rosie’, found in 

1949 by C. Daicoviciu in one of the fortresses he excavated in the 

area of the Orăștie Mountains in southern Transylvania. 

36 37




‘A WARRIOR NEVER DIES’. 

THE MANIPuLATION OF TRADITION IN EARLY 

FuNERARY CONTExTS FROM PANNONIA 

Mariana EGRI 


Aside from expressing the attitude of human beings in 

the face of death, funerary rituals are also powerful social and 

political events, used to validate and reiterate certain bonds, 

values and beliefs incorporated into the cultural body of any 

given community, while the status and identity of the deceased 

and the mourners are negotiated. These specific practices 

become even more important in a period of social stress, when 

the traditional structures of a community are challenged, due to 

political, demographic or military events. 

in the territories between the Sava and Danube rivers 

one such period was determined by the gradual advance of the 

Roman power, which had a major impact on the local populations. 

Archaeological evidence coming from funerary contexts 

points to several changes which were often linked to the direct 

contacts with the Romans. On the other hand certain rituals 

and other elements belonging to pre-Roman tradition were still 

preserved, many being related to individual status and identity. 

Quite often these burials are nearly similar to the late iron 

Age ones, albeit using many items of foreign origin. Moreover 

the practice of carefully interring human remains reappeared 

between the Drava and Danube rivers, after being abandoned at 

the end of lT C1 period, often reusing former burial plots. 

Therefore, starting from the idea that the funerary ceremonies 

are powerful social instruments, the paper is going to 

investigate the motivations which determined the appearance 

of these new types of burials in the indigenous environment, as 

well as the role played by local traditions and collective memory. 

it will also look at the ways in which certain Roman elements 




were selected and integrated into the local funerary rituals, 

often leading to the transformation of traditional customs. 

TILL DEATH DO uS PART. A STATISTICAL 

APPROACH TO IDENTIFYING BuRIAL SIMILARITY 

AND GROuPING. THE CASE OF THE LATE LA TèNE 

GRAVES FROM THE EASTERN CARPATHIAN BASIN 

Cătălin Nicolae POPA 

Cambridge, UK 

The aim of the paper is to introduce a new statistical 

method for identifying possible groupings of burials and presenting 

its application for the late la Tène graves from the 

Eastern Carpathian Basin. The method consists of calculating 

a similarity index between each of the graves and using these 

indexes in order to model a statistical map which serves as a 

basis for inferring on the probable clustering of the burial evidence 

into different groups. 

The algorithm works by importing data from a previously 

created burial database which contains general information 

about each individual burial (e.g. burial type, burial rite) as well 

as detailed information about the associated funerary finds. 

The variables that are considered relevant for the question at 

hand and statistically reliable are selected by the user to form 

the basis for the calculation of the similarity indexes which 

result from comparing each burial to one-another. Every index 

represents a weighed mean between the similarity of the variables 

containing ritual data (e.g. cremation/inhumation, flat/ 

tumular, single/multiple) and those describing the grave-goods. 

The ritual data is compared in a straightforward way, while the 

inventory evaluation requires two intermediary stages. The 

38 39




first step is to compare every artefact from one burial with the 

artefacts from the other based on a number of features (e.g. artefact 

type, material, treatment). This will give a similarity level 

between all the inventory items of the two burials that are compared. 

The second step consists in applying an algorithm that 

will select those objects which will give the highest similarity 

level between the graves and thus obtain maximum possible 

similarity. 

After all the possible indexes are compiled, the burials are 

statistically mapped using a hierarchical clustering and a nonmetric 

multidimensional scaling algorithm. Finally, in order to 

estimate the number of groups, three methods are used: dynamic 

tree cut or hybrid tree cut, partitioning around medoids and 

fuzzy clustering. The results obtained from the three clustering 

algorithms are then compared against each other and against 

the initial data so as to construct the most accurate solution. 

in the case of the late la Tène burial evidence from the 

Eastern Carpathian Basin, present day Romania, the analyses 

suggest the existence of three to four different burial groups 

with several possible subdivisions. Although the interpretation 

on the reasons behind these observable clusters remains 

hypothetical, i would suggest a relation to the group identities 

that were active at that point or to the general structure of the 

late iron Age society. 




THE HISTORY OF AN IDEA. THE DACIAN ‘PRIESTS’ 

BETWEEN THE ANCIENT SOuRCES 

AND THE CONTEMPORARY ARCHAEOLOGY 

Răzvan MATEESCu 


Cristina BODó 

Deva, RO 

The Dacian priests represented a subject that was highly 

debated in the modern and contemporary historiography. For a 

long time, the only information regarding the Dacian religion, 

and implicitly the priests, was found in the ancient texts. The 

archaeological research conducted in the last 50 years led to a 

series of new interpretations on this problem. 

Our paper aims to analyze the hypothesis formulated on 

some archaeological discoveries made in the Orăștie Mountains. 

Some of the constructions have been regarded as an 

archaeological confirmation of the ancient texts on the Dacian 

‘priests’ / ‘monks’, whereas, in fact, we are talking about a 

forced interpretation of the Greek-Roman texts as well as of the 

archaeological discoveries. 

40 41

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