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Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 2013, <strong>48</strong>(1), 103–119 © <strong>Division</strong> on Autism and Developmental Disabilities Video Self-Modeling: A Job Skills Intervention with Individuals with Intellectual Disability in Employment Settings Ailsa E. Goh Nanyang Technological University Linda M. Bambara Lehigh University Abstract: The purpose of this study was to explore the effectiveness of video self-modeling (VSM) to teach chained job tasks to individuals with intellectual disability in community-based employment settings. Initial empirical evaluations have demonstrated that VSM when used in combination with other instructional strategies, are effective methods to teach chained tasks to individuals with intellectual disability. However, no study has investigated the effectiveness of VSM as a stand-alone intervention to teach chained tasks. In this study, the effectiveness of VSM alone to teach chained job tasks was first evaluated before the addition of other instructional strategies (i.e., instructor feedback and practice) to the VSM intervention package. Three adults with intellectual disability participated in this study. A within participant multiple probe design across targeted job tasks, replicated across the three participants, was used to evaluate the effectiveness of VSM in this study. All of the participants demonstrated increased task acquisition with the VSM intervention; however, the effectiveness of VSM alone, or in combination with feedback and practice, varied across participants and job tasks. Limitations of the study and implications for future research are discussed. For many adults with intellectual disability, having a job is a significant stepping-stone in life. Aside from providing for a means towards independent living, the employment setting allows for the formation of meaningful friendships and community participation. Without a doubt, employment is an important factor to the quality of life of an adult with intellectual disability (Rusch & Millar, 1998). At a minimum, in order to obtain and maintain employment, adults with intellectual disability must be able to demonstrate their ability to acquire and maintain job skills with a certain level of proficiency and job independence. A substantial body of research has focused on strategies for teaching employment skills to individuals with intellectual disability (Test & Mazzotti, 2011). Many job skills (e.g., photocopying, food preparation, cleaning) are Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ailsa E. Goh, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Early Childhood and Special Needs Education Academic Group, 1 Nanyang Walk, SINGAPORE 637616. E-mail: ailsa.goh@nie.edu.sg chained tasks that require an individual to perform a series of steps to complete the whole task or a work routine. Historically, systematic instruction has been commonly used to teach chained job tasks to adults with intellectual disability (Snell & Brown, 2011). With systematic instruction, a task analysis is first carried out to analyze and break the job task into multiple individual steps, then a prompting procedure (e.g., constant time delay, system of least prompts, simultaneous prompting) is used to teach the individual steps (e.g., Chandler, Schuster, & Stevens, 1993; Maciag, Schuster, Collins, & Cooper, 2000). In addition, antecedent prompts (e.g., picture, audio prompts) have been used to facilitate the acquisition of a complex job tasks by providing employees with prompts for each step of the task, and then teaching them to use the prompts independently to guide their own performance (e.g., Cihak, Kessler, & Alberto, 2007; Riffel et al., 2005). More recently, with the advent of video technology, researchers have begun to explore the feasibility and effectiveness of video strategies, such as, video modeling, video prompting, and computer-based video Video Self-Modeling: A Job Skills Intervention / 103
instruction, for promoting the acquisition and maintenance of chained tasks (Mechling, 2005). Research using video technology with individual with intellectual and developmental disability has focused on teaching daily living skills (e.g., Goodson, Sigafoos, O’Reilly, Canella, & Lancioni, 2007; Shipley-Benamou, Lutzker, & Taubman, 2002), and to some extent, employment skills (e.g., Allen, Wallace, Renes, Bowen, & Burke, 2010; Mechling & Ortega-Hurndon, 2007). Video-modeling, in particular, has received much attention recently. Video modeling is the procedure where a participant watches a video demonstration of a skill and is then required to perform the skill at a later time. The video model is usually a same-age peer or a familiar instructor; however, subjective viewpoint videos, where the video recordings are made from the participant’s point of view or eye level, have also been used. Research evaluating the effectiveness of video-modeling with chained tasks typically included additional instructional strategies, such as, behavioral rehearsal and response prompting systems (e.g., Branham, Collins, Schuster, & Kleinert, 1999; Van Laarhoven, Zurita, Johnson, Grider, & Grider, 2009). The addition of other instructional strategies occurred either during the video viewing session or the performance observations, and, sometimes, both. However, video-modeling alone, without the addition of other instructional strategies, has also been found to be effective in teaching chained tasks (e.g., Mechling, Gast, & Gustafson, 2009; Shipley-Benamou et al., 2002). Applications of video-modeling to chained tasks have been emerging, however, there has been limited demonstrations of using videomodeling in employment settings (e.g., Allen et al., 2010). One video strategy that has yet to be explored for teaching chained job tasks in employment settings is video self-modeling (VSM). Instead of observing a model perform a task on video, as in video modeling, VSM involves the process of repeated observation of oneself on edited videotapes that depict only appropriate or desired behaviors (Dowrick, 1991). The strongest theoretical basis for VSM is social learning theory (Bandura, 1969) that suggests that learning can occur by observing the behavior of others and the conse- quences they experience. In addition, according to social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), the closer the model resembles the observer, the greater the effect it will have on the target behavior. In VSM, since the observer is also the model, the anticipated effect on the target behavior and feelings of self-efficacy, should be theoretically enhanced (Bandura, 1986; 1997). Although VSM has not been evaluated in employment settings with individuals with intellectual disability, VSM has been examined and found to be effective for a variety of training and therapeutic applications with diverse populations (such as children and adults with or without disabilities) and settings (including home, school and community settings) (e.g., Dowrick, 1999; Hitchcock, Dowrick, & Prater, 2003; Meharg & Woltersdorf, 1990). Research studies examining VSM have demonstrated its effectiveness with the following target behaviors: improving physical skills (e.g., Dowrick & Raeburn, 1995), teaching academic skills (e.g., Dowrick, Kim-Rupnow, & Power, 2006), reducing problem behaviors, and increasing prosocial skills (e.g., Buggey, 2005; Wert & Neisworth 2003). VSM has strong potential for job skill training in employment settings. First, VSM research studies conducted with adults with traumatic brain injury in home settings (e.g., McGraw-Hunter, Faw, & Davis, 2006) and children with autism in school settings (e.g., Buggey, 2005; Wert & Neisworth, 2003) have shown strong maintenance effects and good generalization effects across novel tasks and across settings. Additionally, once a VSM video has been produced, it could be used to program for maintenance. Third, VSM interventions are unintrusive, and therefore may be a good match for inclusive employment settings. Except for time used to capture the videos, the VSM intervention itself may only require viewing a 2–5 minute video outside of actual work situation (Dowrick, 1991). Thus, if effective, the employee can learn new job skills without direct prompting from the instructor or job coach during actual work situations. This has the potential of reducing stigma and time needed for training on the job. Lastly, in studies where social validity assessment was conducted, participants evalu- 104 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-March 2013
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daily lives (e.g., Kishi, Teelucksi
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TABLE 1 Participation in General Ed
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Greene, B. A., Gardner, J. E., & Lo
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(Donovan & Cross, 2002). By impleme
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TABLE 1 Participant Demographics La
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Autism and Other Developmental Disa
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