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for a longer task, several shorter video clips of a longer task could be presented to the individual with intellectual disability, to reduce the attentional and retentional demands on the individual. This area of research would be closely in line with, and would be guided by, current research in video prompting to teach chained task (e.g., Mechling & Stephens, 2009; Sigafoos et al., 2005). Future research should examine the effects of adding in-vivo feedback and prompting procedures in addition to VSM to determine if the in-vivo feedback and prompting has an additive component to VSM or if in-vivo training alone was sufficient for job task acquisition. This is important in order to develop an effective and efficient job skills training package for individuals with intellectual disability. Furthermore, this may determine if VSM videos enhance acquisition in any way thus, settling the issue of whether the additional resources spent on videotaping and video editing adds an additional instructional or cost benefit. Another approach for future research is in determining whether the use of other models, instead of self, in the videos could lead to better outcomes. Current studies in this area have found that certain individuals perform better with VSM and others, video modeling (e.g., Cihak & Schrader, 2008; Van Laarhoven et al., 2009). This is an important area of future research, as it has to do with the cost effectiveness of the video intervention. If video modeling is found to be effective and preferred by individuals with intellectual disability for employment skills training, it may be more cost effective to produce a generic job task video for all individuals, instead of producing a different video of each individual. In summary, as one of the first studies to explore the use of VSM for teaching chained tasks and its applicability for employment settings, this study provides some initial evidence that VSM can be effective, but at the same time, raises numerous issues ripe for future investigations. Clearly this study suggests that VSM alone has limited effectiveness, but it has the potential to promote the acquisition of job tasks, without in-vivo instruction, when used in combination with other instructional components. Future research is needed to investigate optimal conditions in which VSM may be effective and beneficial in the work place. References Allen, K. D., Wallace, D. P., Renes, D., Bowen, S. L., & Burke, R. V. (2010). Use of video modeling to teach vocational skills to adolescents and young adults with autism spectrum disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 33, 339–349. Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Barbetta, P. M., Heward, W. L., Bradley, D. M., & Miller, A. D. (1994). Effects of immediate and delayed error correction on the acquisition and maintenance of sight words by students with developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 177–178. doi: 10.1901/jaba.1994.27- 177 Branham, R. S., Collins, B. C., Schuster, J. W., & Kleinert, H. (1999). Teaching community skills to students with moderate disabilities: Comparing combined techniques of classroom simulation, videotape modeling, and community-based instruction. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 34, 170–81. Brown, F., & Snell, M. E. (2011). Measuring student behavior and learning. In M. Snell & F. Brown (Eds.), Instruction of students with severe disabilities (7 th ed., pp. 186–223). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Bruyère, S. (2000). Disability employment policies and practices in private and federal sector organizations. Retrieved from Cornell University, School of Industrial and Labor Relations Extension <strong>Division</strong>, Program on Employment and Disability website: http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/extension/ files/download/Private-Federal%20Final%20 Report.pdf Buggey, T. (2005). Video self-modeling applications with students with autism spectrum disorder in a small private school setting. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20, 52–63. doi: 10.1177/10883576050200010501 Chandler, W., Schuster, J. W., & Stevens, K. B. (1993). Teaching employment skills to adolescents with mild and moderate disabilities using a constant time delay procedure. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 28, 155–168. Cihak, D. F., Kessler, K. B., & Alberto, P. A. (2007). Generalized use of a handheld prompting system. Video Self-Modeling: A Job Skills Intervention / 117
Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28, 397–408. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2006.05.003 Cihak, D. F., & Schrader, L. (2008). Does the model matter? Comparing video self-modeling and video adult modeling for task acquisition and maintenance by adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Special Education Technology, 23, 9–20. Dowrick, P. W. (1991). Practical guide to using to using video in the behavioral sciences. New York: Wiley Interscience. Dowrick, P. W. (1999). A review of self-modeling and related interventions. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 8, 23–39. doi:10.1016/S0962-1849(99) 80009-2 Dowrick, P. W., Kim-Rupnow, W. S., & Power, T. J. (2006). Video feedforward for reading. Journal of Special Education, 39, 194–207. doi:10.1177/ 00224669060390040101 Dowrick, P. W., & Raeburrn, J. M. (1995). Selfmodeling: Rapid skill training for children with physical disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 7, 25–37. doi:10.1007/ BF02578712 Gast, D. L., & Ledford, J. (2010). Multiple baseline and multiple probe design. In D. L. Gast (Ed.), Single subject research methodology in behavioral sciences (pp. 276–328). New York: Routledge. Goodson, J., Sigafoos, J., O’Reilly, M., Cannella, H., & Lancioni, G. E. (2007). Evaluation of a videobased error correction procedure for teaching a domestic skill to individuals with developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28, 458–467. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2006.06.002 Hitchcock, C. H., Dowrick, P. W., & Prater, M. A. (2003). Video self-modeling intervention in school-based settings: A review. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 36–45. doi:10.1177/ 074193250302400104 Lasater, M. W., & Brady, M. P. (1995). Effects of video self-modeling and feedback on task fluency: A home-based intervention. Education and Treatment of Children, 18, 389–407. Loprest, P., & Maag, E. (2001). Barriers to and supports for work among adults with disabilities: Results from the NHIS-D. Retrieved from The Urban Institute website: http://www.urban.org/pdfs/ adultswithdisabilities.pdf Maciag, K. G., Schuster, J. W., Collins, B.C., & Cooper, J. T. (2000). Training adults with moderate and severe mental retardation in a vocational skill using a simultaneous prompting procedure. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 35, 306–316. Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38, 43–52. doi:10.1207/ S15326985EP3801_6 McGraw-Hunter, M., Faw, G. D., & Davis, P. K. (2006). The use of video self-modeling and feedback to teach cooking skills to individuals with traumatic brain injury: A pilot study. Brain Injury, 20, 1061–1068. doi:10.1080/02699050600912163 Mechling, L. (2005). The effect of instructorcreated video programs to teach students with disabilities: A literature review. Journal of Special Education Technology, 20, 25–36. Mechling, L. C., Gast, D. L., & Gustafson, M. R. (2009). Use of video modeling to teach extinguishing of cooking related fires to individuals with moderate intellectual disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 44, 67– 79. Mechling, L. C., & Ortega-Hurndon, F. (2007). Computer-based video instruction to teach young adults with moderate intellectual disabilities to perform multiple step, job tasks in a generalized setting. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 42, 24–37. Mechling, L. C., & Stephens, E. (2009). Comparison of self-prompting of cooking skills via picturebased cookbooks and video recipes. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 44, 218–236. Meharg, S. S., & Woltersdorf, M. A. (1990). Therapeutic use of videotape self-modeling: A review. Advanced Behavioral Research Therapy, 12, 85–99. doi:10.1016/0146-6402(90)90008-E Riffel, L. A., Wehmeyer, M. L., Turnbull, A. P., Lattimore, J., Davies, D., Stock, S., & Fisher, S. (2005). Promoting independent performance of transition-related tasks using a Palmtop PC-based self directed visual and auditory prompting system. Journal of Special Education Technology, 20, 5–14. Rusch, F. R., & Millar, D. M. (1998). Emerging transition best practices. In F. R. Rusch & J. G. Chadsey (Eds.), Beyond high school: Transition from school to work (pp. 36–59). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Shipley-Benamou, R., Lutzker, J. R., & Taubman, M. (2002). Teaching daily living skills to children with autism through instructional video modeling. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4, 165–175. doi:10.1177/10983007020040030501 Sigafoos, J., O’Reilly, M., Cannella, H., Upadhyaya, M., Edrisinha, C., Lancioni, G. E., & Young, D. (2005). Computer-presented video prompting for teaching microwave oven use to three adults with developmental disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 14, 189–201. doi:10.1007/s10864-005- 6297-2 Snell, M. E., & Brown, F. (2011). Selecting teaching strategies and arranging educational environments. In M. Snell & F. Brown (Eds.), Instruction of students with severe disabilities (7 th ed., pp. 122– 118 / Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities-March 2013
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Education and Training in Autism an
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daily lives (e.g., Kishi, Teelucksi
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TABLE 1 Participation in General Ed
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tive responses were invalidated. As
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TABLE 3 Self-Determination Skill Us
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ment, economic dependence, segregat
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of setting may serve as a mediating
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Greene, B. A., Gardner, J. E., & Lo
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y teachers than students with more
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three to four students identified a
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dents with severe disabilities. A t
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feelings of self-efficacy (Bandura,
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eyond the opportunity to socialize
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access to the general education cur
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al., 2008). Within the identificati
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TABLE 1 Characteristics of Students
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compared to Caucasians and African
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(Donovan & Cross, 2002). By impleme
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paring students with emotional dist
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DI instructional approaches with in
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TABLE 1 Participant Demographics La
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TABLE 2 Means and Standard Deviatio
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Autism and Other Developmental Disa
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phonetic skills have been shown to
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middle), across two school district
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TABLE 1 Instructional Sequence for
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lending the sounds, the student was
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TABLE 2 Initial and Functional Phon
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Figure 3. A multiple baseline desig
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Figure 4. A multiple baseline desig
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Phonics Component. Due to limited w
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