The language of advertising with the concentration - Diplomovka
The language of advertising with the concentration - Diplomovka
The language of advertising with the concentration - Diplomovka
Create successful ePaper yourself
Turn your PDF publications into a flip-book with our unique Google optimized e-Paper software.
THE LANGUAGE OF ADVERTISING WITH THE CONCENTRATION ON<br />
THE LINGUISTIC MEANS AND THE ANALYSIS OF ADVERTISING<br />
SLOGANS<br />
DIPLOMOVÁ PRÁCA<br />
JANA LAPANSKÁ<br />
UNIVERZITA KOMENSKÉHO V BRATISLAVE<br />
PEDAGOGICKÁ FAKULTA<br />
KATEDRA ANGLICKÉHO JAZYKA A LITERATÚRY<br />
tudijn odbor: Uitestvo veobecno-vzdelávacích predmetov<br />
pecializácia: Anglick jazyk a literatúra – panielsky jazyk a literatúra<br />
Vedúci diplomovej práce: PhDr. Radoslav Pavlík<br />
Dátum obhajoby: október 2006<br />
BRATISLAVA 2006
Many thanks to my diploma supervisor PhDr. Radoslav Pavlík for his valuable advice<br />
and pr<strong>of</strong>essional help during elaboration <strong>the</strong> work. I also want to thank my friend<br />
Marek Mrázik for his comments and his interest in <strong>the</strong> fascinating world <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>advertising</strong> which influenced me to choose this <strong>the</strong>me.<br />
Jana Lapanská
ABSTRAKT<br />
Lapanská, Jana: <strong>The</strong> Language <strong>of</strong> Advertising <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> Concentration on <strong>the</strong><br />
Linguistic Means and <strong>the</strong> Analysis <strong>of</strong> Advertising Slogans. Diplomová práca,<br />
Univerzita Komenského. Pedagogická fakulta, Katedra anglického jazyka a literatúry.<br />
Vedúci diplomovej práce: PhDr. Radoslav Pavlík. Bratislava: Pedagogická fakulta<br />
UK, 2006. 82 s.<br />
Práca poskytuje analzu jazyka reklamy z lingvistického hadiska a pecifikuje<br />
jazykové prostriedky pouité v reklamnch textoch. Práca prináa poznatky o pouití<br />
jazykovch prostriedkov v reklame v tlai. Analytickou metódou autor zistil mieru<br />
pouitia jednotlivch jazykovch prostriedkov v reklamnch sloganoch, aj vo vzahu<br />
k produktovému zameraniu.<br />
kúové slová: reklama, reklamn slogan, jazyk reklamy, komunikácia, jazykové<br />
prostriedky.<br />
3
ABSTRACT<br />
Lapanská, Jana: <strong>The</strong> Language <strong>of</strong> Advertising <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> Concentration on <strong>the</strong><br />
Linguistic Means and <strong>the</strong> Analysis <strong>of</strong> Advertising Slogans. Diploma <strong>the</strong>sis. Comenius<br />
University. Faculty <strong>of</strong> Education, Department <strong>of</strong> English Language and Literature.<br />
Diploma <strong>the</strong>sis supervisor: PhDr. Radoslav Pavlík. Bratislava: Pedagogická fakulta<br />
UK, 2006. 82 p.<br />
<strong>The</strong> work provides <strong>the</strong> analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> from linguistic point <strong>of</strong><br />
view and specifies linguistic means used in <strong>advertising</strong> texts. <strong>The</strong> work brings<br />
knowledge about <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> linguistic devices in print <strong>advertising</strong>. By analytical<br />
method, author found out <strong>the</strong> use rate <strong>of</strong> individual linguistic means used in<br />
<strong>advertising</strong> slogans, even in relation to product specialization.<br />
Key words: <strong>advertising</strong>, <strong>advertising</strong> slogan, <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>, communication,<br />
linguistic means.<br />
4
PREFACE<br />
In this diploma <strong>the</strong>sis, I will be concerned <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>. I<br />
will scope my attention to <strong>the</strong> linguistic means used in <strong>advertising</strong>. <strong>The</strong> main reason to<br />
choose this topic was my interest in English <strong>language</strong> and <strong>advertising</strong>, for <strong>the</strong> most<br />
part from linguistic point <strong>of</strong> view. I find <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong> fascinating; <strong>the</strong>refore, I<br />
want to discover its principles, strategies and anatomy <strong>of</strong> creative writing and<br />
grammatical structures.<br />
<strong>The</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> work is to provide <strong>the</strong> analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong><br />
from linguistic point <strong>of</strong> view and specify linguistic means used in <strong>advertising</strong> texts.<br />
<strong>The</strong> practical research analyses <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> slogans and determines <strong>the</strong> most<br />
widely used linguistic means, even in relation to product specialization. <strong>The</strong> results <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> study and analysis are useful for familiarizing and understanding <strong>the</strong> main issues<br />
connected <strong>with</strong> technique <strong>of</strong> writing <strong>advertising</strong> texts; <strong>the</strong> concrete statements and<br />
data can provide information for those, who write <strong>advertising</strong> texts in English.<br />
<strong>The</strong> diploma <strong>the</strong>sis is addressed to <strong>the</strong> students <strong>of</strong> English <strong>language</strong> for<br />
Specific Purposes, teachers <strong>of</strong> English <strong>language</strong> for Specific Purposes, people<br />
working in <strong>advertising</strong> sphere, copywriters and all people interested in <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>advertising</strong>.<br />
I acquired <strong>the</strong> literature resources and magazines from <strong>the</strong> library <strong>of</strong> University<br />
<strong>of</strong> Granada, <strong>the</strong> University Library in Bratislava and from British Council in<br />
Bratislava.<br />
5
CONTENTS<br />
ABSTRAKT ............................................................................................................. 3<br />
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................. 4<br />
PREFACE................................................................................................................. 5<br />
CONTENTS.............................................................................................................. 6<br />
LIST OF PICTURES AND GRAPHS ....................................................................... 8<br />
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................... 9<br />
0 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................11<br />
1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF ADVERTISING ...........................................13<br />
1.1 Definitions <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> and <strong>advertising</strong> slogan ......................................13<br />
1.2 History <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>................................................................................14<br />
1.3 Types <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>..................................................................................15<br />
2 ADVERTISING AS KIND OF COMMUNICATION ......................................17<br />
2.1 <strong>The</strong> process <strong>of</strong> communication..................................................................17<br />
2.2 Verbal and non-verbal communication in <strong>advertising</strong>................................19<br />
2.3 Public versus word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth communication <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> .....................20<br />
3 TEXT OF ADVERTISING AND ITS STRUCTURE .......................................21<br />
3.1 Cohesion <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> text......................................................................21<br />
3.2 Informational structure <strong>with</strong>in <strong>the</strong> text – <strong>the</strong>me and rheme ........................23<br />
4 LINGUISTIC MEANS USED IN ADVERTISING LANGUAGE....................26<br />
4.1 Phonological aspect...................................................................................27<br />
4.1.1 Rhyme...............................................................................................27<br />
4.1.2 Rhythm .............................................................................................27<br />
4.1.3 Alliteration........................................................................................28<br />
4.1.4 Assonance .........................................................................................28<br />
4.1.5 Graphic aspect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text ..................................................................28<br />
4.1.6 Transliteration...................................................................................29<br />
4.1.7 Homophones .....................................................................................29<br />
4.2 Lexical and morphological aspect .............................................................30<br />
4.2.1 Verb phrase.......................................................................................30<br />
4.2.2 Noun phrase ......................................................................................30<br />
4.2.3 Adjectives .........................................................................................31<br />
6
4.2.4 Numerals...........................................................................................32<br />
4.2.5 Foreign words ...................................................................................32<br />
4.2.6 Intertextuality....................................................................................32<br />
4.2.7 Formation <strong>of</strong> new words and phrases.................................................34<br />
4.2.8 Idiomatic constructions .....................................................................36<br />
4.2.9 Collocations ......................................................................................37<br />
4.3 Syntactic aspect.........................................................................................37<br />
4.3.1 Sentence types...................................................................................37<br />
4.3.2 Sentence structure .............................................................................40<br />
4.3.2.1 Schematic pattering .......................................................................40<br />
4.3.2.2 Ellipsis ..........................................................................................41<br />
4.3.2.3 Incomplete sentences.....................................................................43<br />
4.4 Semantic aspect.........................................................................................43<br />
4.4.1 Personification ..................................................................................44<br />
4.4.2 Simile................................................................................................45<br />
4.4.3 Hyperbole .........................................................................................45<br />
4.4.4 Metaphor...........................................................................................45<br />
4.4.5 Metonymy.........................................................................................47<br />
4.4.6 Anti<strong>the</strong>sis ..........................................................................................47<br />
4.4.7 Polysemy and homonymy..................................................................48<br />
5 RESEARCH PART ..........................................................................................49<br />
5.1 <strong>The</strong> aims <strong>of</strong> research .................................................................................49<br />
5.2 Hypo<strong>the</strong>ses and questions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research..................................................49<br />
5.3 Research sample .......................................................................................50<br />
5.4 Research methods and process <strong>of</strong> research ................................................50<br />
5.5 Results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research ..............................................................................72<br />
6 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................77<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................79<br />
SUPPLEMENT A Review <strong>of</strong> print advertisements<br />
SUPPLEMENT B Table <strong>of</strong> attributes<br />
ADDITIONAL MATERIAL - CD<br />
7
LIST OF PICTURES AND GRAPHS<br />
Picture 1: <strong>the</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> communication process<br />
Graph 1: sentence type<br />
Graph 2: auxiliary verbs<br />
Graph 3: finiteness <strong>of</strong> verbs<br />
Graph 4: tense/aspect <strong>of</strong> verbs<br />
Graph 5: narrator<br />
Graph 6: gradability <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
Graph 7: form <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
Graph 8: comparative adjectives – distribution<br />
Graph 9: superlative adjectives – distribution<br />
Graph 10: occurrence <strong>of</strong> linguistic means in individual branches<br />
Graph 11: popularity and use <strong>of</strong> linguistic means by individual branches<br />
8
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS<br />
1 - See <strong>the</strong> supplement A <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> diploma <strong>the</strong>sis.<br />
N – noun<br />
V – verb<br />
Adj – adjective<br />
Adv – adverb<br />
Nph – noun phrase<br />
Num – numeral<br />
PhrV – phrasal verb<br />
AuxV – auxiliary verb<br />
finV – finite verb<br />
non-finV – non-finite verb<br />
grad Adj – gradable adjective<br />
non-grad Adj – non-gradable adjective<br />
Dec. – declarative<br />
Imp. – imperative<br />
Int. - interrogative<br />
1 st Sg narr. – 1 st singular narrator<br />
1 st Pl narr. – 1 st plural narrator<br />
sth – something<br />
sb – somebody<br />
polys/homon – polysemy/homonymy<br />
sent. type – sentence type<br />
T –technique product specialization<br />
Cl - clo<strong>the</strong>s product specialization<br />
S - services product specialization<br />
F – food and drink product specialization<br />
H – household equipment product specialization<br />
A - automobile product specialization<br />
P - press product specialization<br />
O – online shops specialization<br />
Ph - pharamceutical product specialization<br />
9
C - cosmetic product specialization<br />
J – jewelry and watch product specialization<br />
To - tobacco product specialization<br />
10
0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Advertising has become <strong>the</strong> part and parcel <strong>of</strong> present-day life. From<br />
everywhere around us, advertisements <strong>of</strong> diverse types attack our privacy. In spite <strong>of</strong><br />
it, <strong>the</strong>re is an attractive power, which is able to manipulate <strong>the</strong> consumer; an invisible<br />
voice <strong>of</strong> advertisement advocates, encourages, asks, announces and deeply embeds<br />
into peoples’ minds.<br />
In last decades, <strong>the</strong> market glut <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> caused <strong>the</strong> increased intention<br />
and interest in linguistic aspect <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>. Advertising has become a science.<br />
People began to describe, analyze <strong>the</strong> linguistic means and evaluate <strong>the</strong> <strong>language</strong><br />
trying to find out <strong>the</strong> principles, create new kinds <strong>of</strong> relationship between elements <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong> and improve <strong>the</strong> techniques, <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> aim to be unique and maximize <strong>the</strong><br />
effect at full blast.<br />
Who might be interested in <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>? Advertising texts are <strong>of</strong><br />
great value for <strong>the</strong> analyses from linguistic, sociologist, sociolinguistic, psychological,<br />
ethnologic and last but not least marketing point <strong>of</strong> view. Linguists are interested in<br />
<strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> because <strong>the</strong>y want to know how particular <strong>language</strong> works in<br />
this type <strong>of</strong> discourse, which linguistic means are used here and how <strong>advertising</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong> is changing in <strong>the</strong> course time. Sociologists may be interested in <strong>the</strong> fact,<br />
how <strong>advertising</strong> influences <strong>the</strong> values, attitudes and behaviour <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> society. On <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r hand, sociolinguists may study <strong>the</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> any aspect <strong>of</strong> society on <strong>the</strong> way<br />
<strong>language</strong> is used in <strong>advertising</strong> in <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> time. Psychologists may try to<br />
examine <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> on human mind and motivation to fulfill material<br />
and social needs. Ethnology may find in this field a good evidence <strong>of</strong> how <strong>the</strong> culture<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nation has been developing. And marketing experts and <strong>advertising</strong> agencies<br />
are interested in <strong>the</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> to find <strong>the</strong> tricks how to make <strong>advertising</strong><br />
more effective.<br />
English <strong>advertising</strong> exploits from <strong>the</strong> high adaptability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> English<br />
<strong>language</strong>. English enables <strong>the</strong> creators <strong>of</strong> advertisements to use word puns, figurative<br />
<strong>language</strong>, and to mix individual styles and types <strong>of</strong> texts. Advertising unifies<br />
<strong>language</strong>, pictures, music; it contains information, invokes emotions and<br />
imaginations, it can capture all five senses and, besides it, it has social and practical<br />
11
aim. As a genre, it seems very diversified. <strong>The</strong>re is <strong>of</strong>ten an interference <strong>of</strong> styles and<br />
registers; <strong>the</strong>refore, it is <strong>of</strong>ten very difficult to classify <strong>advertising</strong> stylistically. In <strong>the</strong><br />
diploma <strong>the</strong>sis, we will show various aspects and forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> discourse.<br />
<strong>The</strong> diploma <strong>the</strong>sis is divided into two parts: <strong>the</strong>oretical part and practical<br />
research. <strong>The</strong> objective <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> work is to provide <strong>the</strong> basic definitions<br />
connected <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> issue, <strong>the</strong> analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> from linguistic<br />
aspect, especially phonological, lexical and morphological, syntactic and semantic<br />
aspect, and to provide examples and describe <strong>the</strong> most commonly used linguistic<br />
devices and figures <strong>of</strong> speech in <strong>advertising</strong> printed text. <strong>The</strong> second part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> work<br />
is dedicated to <strong>the</strong> research and practical analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> slogans. In fact,<br />
<strong>the</strong> phenomena <strong>the</strong>oretically described in <strong>the</strong> first part served as a foundation for <strong>the</strong><br />
practical observation in <strong>the</strong> second part.<br />
12
1 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF ADVERTISING<br />
In this part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> work we would like to give <strong>the</strong> reader an idea what<br />
<strong>advertising</strong> is, how it was developed and which types <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> exist. This part<br />
brings basic definitions necessary for <strong>the</strong> reader to understand <strong>the</strong> whole issue.<br />
Advertising is an inevitable part <strong>of</strong> our modern capitalist consumer society<br />
whose outstanding feature is its competitive fight. “…<strong>advertising</strong> is not some external<br />
curiosity which we examine, from which we are separate and superior, but something<br />
<strong>of</strong> which we are part, and which is part <strong>of</strong> us…” (Cook 1996: 182). It is everywhere<br />
around us: in newspapers, in magazines, on billboards along <strong>the</strong> streets, on television,<br />
in radio, in means <strong>of</strong> public transport and any place <strong>the</strong> sponsor pays to distribute <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
message. <strong>The</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> influence us whe<strong>the</strong>r we like it or not.<br />
1.1 Definitions <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> and <strong>advertising</strong> slogan<br />
“Advertising, generally speaking, is <strong>the</strong> promotion <strong>of</strong> goods, services,<br />
companies and ideas, usually performed by an identified sponsor. Marketers see<br />
<strong>advertising</strong> as part <strong>of</strong> an overall promotional strategy.” (http://www.wikipedia.org/)<br />
This definition is according to <strong>the</strong> free encyclopedia Wikipedia, but <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
also o<strong>the</strong>r definitions <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>, for example, <strong>The</strong> American Heritage Dictionary<br />
says that <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> is:<br />
1. “<strong>The</strong> activity <strong>of</strong> attracting public attention to a product or business, as by paid<br />
announcements in <strong>the</strong> print, broadcast, or electronic media.<br />
2. <strong>The</strong> business <strong>of</strong> designing and writing advertisements.<br />
3. Advertisements considered as a group: This paper takes no <strong>advertising</strong>.”<br />
Advertisement is a concrete manifestation <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>; “a paid public<br />
announcement appearing in <strong>the</strong> media.” (http://www.motto.com/glossary.html)<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r definition <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> is according to <strong>the</strong> Investorwords glossary:<br />
“Description or presentation <strong>of</strong> a product, idea, or organization, in order to induce<br />
individuals to buy, support, or approve <strong>of</strong> it.”<br />
(http://www.investorwords.com/129/<strong>advertising</strong>.html)<br />
13
All <strong>the</strong>se definitions have in common <strong>the</strong> fact, that <strong>advertising</strong> is a means <strong>of</strong><br />
promotion <strong>the</strong> product, idea, or organization on <strong>the</strong> market <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> aim to give<br />
information and to persuade people <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> advantage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product and induce <strong>the</strong>m<br />
to take and action (e.g. buy it).<br />
To consolidate <strong>the</strong> terminology, we must define <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> slogan.<br />
Advertising slogan has many definitions. Among <strong>the</strong> most apt belong:<br />
Slogan is “a word or phrase that is easy to remember, used for example by a<br />
political party or in <strong>advertising</strong> to attract people’s attention or to suggest an idea<br />
quickly.” (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 2001).<br />
It is “short, memorable <strong>advertising</strong> phrase: Examples include "Coke Is It," "Just<br />
Do It," and "Don’t Leave Home Without It." When a product or company uses a<br />
slogan consistently, <strong>the</strong> slogan can become an important element <strong>of</strong> identification in<br />
<strong>the</strong> public’s perception <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product.” (http://www.motto.com/glossary.html)<br />
<strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> slogan is used among authors <strong>of</strong> books about <strong>advertising</strong> in<br />
various ways. Advertising layout is divided into several parts: headline, body copy<br />
(<strong>the</strong> main part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> message, <strong>of</strong>ten divided into subheads), signature line<br />
(a mention <strong>of</strong> a brand-name, <strong>of</strong>ten accompanied by a price-tag, slogan or trade-mark)<br />
and standing details (e.g. <strong>the</strong> address <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> firm). (See Leech 1972: 59). In this<br />
understanding, slogan is not identified <strong>with</strong> headline and vice versa and <strong>the</strong> term is<br />
used in narrow sense. However, Greg Myers (Myers 1997) uses <strong>the</strong> term ‘slogan’ in<br />
larger sense - for any catchy phrase, what a headline definitely is. In many cases, <strong>the</strong><br />
boundaries between slogan and headline disappear. For that reason, we will accept <strong>the</strong><br />
second idea and will use <strong>the</strong> term ‘slogan’ in broader sense.<br />
1.2 History <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong><br />
Advertising traces its history back to ancient times. Wikipedia says that <strong>the</strong><br />
first forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> messages were transferred by word <strong>of</strong> mouth, however, in<br />
<strong>the</strong> ruins <strong>of</strong> Pompeii commercial messages and election campaign displays have been<br />
found. Egyptians used Papyrus to create sales messages and wall posters, while in<br />
Greece and Rome lost-and-found <strong>advertising</strong> on papyrus was common. Wall or rock<br />
painting for commercial <strong>advertising</strong> is ano<strong>the</strong>r manifestation <strong>of</strong> an ancient media<br />
14
<strong>advertising</strong> form, which is present to this day in many parts <strong>of</strong> Asia, Africa and South<br />
America.<br />
With <strong>the</strong> form <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>, we could meet in <strong>the</strong> marketplaces, where <strong>the</strong><br />
sellers used to shout and extol <strong>the</strong>ir products. In <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> time, people more and<br />
more tried to differentiate <strong>the</strong>ir products and began to find out new ways <strong>of</strong><br />
presenting. <strong>The</strong>y started to accentuate <strong>the</strong> visual aspect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> advertisement. With <strong>the</strong><br />
expansion <strong>of</strong> colour printing and colourful posters <strong>the</strong> streets began to revel in<br />
colours. <strong>The</strong>se posters were ancestors to our modern billboards.<br />
As <strong>the</strong> economy and <strong>the</strong> trade were expanding during <strong>the</strong> 19 th century, <strong>the</strong><br />
need for <strong>advertising</strong> grew. Gradually, <strong>advertising</strong> transformed into a modern, more<br />
scientific and sophisticated conception. New visual techniques have been launched.<br />
Not only <strong>the</strong> content <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> message is important, but also <strong>the</strong> form. <strong>The</strong> creativity <strong>of</strong><br />
copywriters, who are finding new ways, leads to <strong>the</strong> richness <strong>of</strong> various forms <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>advertising</strong>.<br />
1.3 Types <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong><br />
According to Ge<strong>of</strong>frey Leech (Leech 1972), most frequent and important type<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> is “‘commercial consumer <strong>advertising</strong>’: <strong>advertising</strong> directed<br />
towards a mass audience <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> promoting sales <strong>of</strong> a commercial product or<br />
service. It is <strong>the</strong> kind which uses most money, pr<strong>of</strong>essional skill, and <strong>advertising</strong><br />
space in this country.” (‘this country’, here: Great Britain). Example:<br />
“Plump it up. New volume boost liquid lip colour. Paints lips <strong>with</strong> a high shine<br />
lacquer finish. Feel <strong>the</strong> tingling sensation as formula begins to work.”<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r type <strong>of</strong> commercial <strong>advertising</strong> is ‘prestige <strong>advertising</strong>’. Here <strong>the</strong><br />
name and <strong>the</strong> positive image <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> company are advertised ra<strong>the</strong>r than a product or a<br />
service. Example:<br />
“<strong>The</strong> America’s Cup: <strong>the</strong> oldest and most coveted trophy in <strong>the</strong> world <strong>of</strong><br />
sailing. Its organizers have entrusted once again <strong>the</strong> vital timing <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> races to<br />
Omega, a company whose experience in watchmaking and sports timekeeping<br />
dates back over 150 years…to <strong>the</strong> very origins <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> America’s Cup itself.”<br />
15
We may mention ‘industrial or trade <strong>advertising</strong>’, where a company<br />
advertises its products or services to o<strong>the</strong>r firms, so <strong>the</strong> communication is between<br />
equals. <strong>The</strong>y both (copywriter and <strong>the</strong> reader) have as an interest as a particular<br />
knowledge about <strong>the</strong> product advertised. <strong>The</strong>refore, “industrial <strong>advertising</strong> typically<br />
lays greater emphasis on factual information than prestige and consumer <strong>advertising</strong><br />
and less emphasis on <strong>the</strong> persuasive elements.” (Vestergaard and Schroder 1985: 2)<br />
Example:<br />
“You can trust Trenkwalder. We can search for and find <strong>the</strong> right pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
challenge for your career. We <strong>of</strong>fer you:<br />
• Advice about <strong>the</strong> employment market<br />
• An analysis <strong>of</strong> your personal career opportunities, taking into account your<br />
knowledge, your experience and your preferences”<br />
As an example <strong>of</strong> non-commercial <strong>advertising</strong>, we may mention appeals<br />
from associations and societies whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>ir purposes are charity or political<br />
propaganda:<br />
“Thanks to <strong>the</strong> World Food Programme, this little girl in Mozambique knows<br />
she won’t go hungry today.”<br />
We can classify <strong>the</strong> types <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> also according to <strong>the</strong> type <strong>of</strong> medium:<br />
TV, radio, brochures, leaflets, magazines, newspapers and o<strong>the</strong>r printed material<br />
<strong>advertising</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Internet and Direct Mail <strong>advertising</strong>, outdoor <strong>advertising</strong>, etc.<br />
16
2 ADVERTISING AS KIND OF COMMUNICATION<br />
According to Widdowson, human <strong>language</strong> “serves as a means <strong>of</strong> cognition<br />
and communication: it enables us to think for ourselves and to cooperate <strong>with</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
people in our community.” (Widdowson 2000: 3). It follows that <strong>advertising</strong> is a kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> communication between <strong>the</strong> creator <strong>of</strong> advertisement (in fact, <strong>the</strong> copywriter who<br />
substitutes <strong>the</strong> producer/seller and transfers his ideas into advertisements), and <strong>the</strong><br />
consumer.<br />
2.1 <strong>The</strong> process <strong>of</strong> communication<br />
Now we will describe <strong>the</strong> communication process in general.<br />
Communication is <strong>the</strong> process between at least two sides – <strong>the</strong> addresser (transmitter –<br />
speaker or writer) and <strong>the</strong> addressee (receiver – listener or reader). Between <strong>the</strong>se two<br />
participants, <strong>the</strong> coded meaning (information) is transmitted through <strong>the</strong><br />
communication channel. Each communication is proceeding in given context or<br />
situation. <strong>The</strong> communication process is represented in <strong>the</strong> following picture:<br />
Picture 1: <strong>the</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> communication process (Vestergaard and Schroder 1985: 16)<br />
From this graphic representation we can clearly see that, in case <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>,<br />
“<strong>the</strong> addresser is <strong>the</strong> copywriter, and <strong>the</strong> addressee is <strong>the</strong> reader, <strong>the</strong> meaning<br />
transmitted is about <strong>the</strong> product (more specifically, an attempt to make <strong>the</strong> reader buy<br />
<strong>the</strong> product), <strong>the</strong> code (in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> press <strong>advertising</strong>) is <strong>language</strong> and some sort <strong>of</strong><br />
visual code, <strong>the</strong> channel consists <strong>of</strong> printed publications, and <strong>the</strong> context will include<br />
such features as <strong>the</strong> reader’s total situation (does he have <strong>the</strong> product already? can he<br />
afford it? etc.), <strong>the</strong> publication in which <strong>the</strong> advertisement appears, and last but not<br />
17
least <strong>the</strong> knowledge that <strong>the</strong> text is and advert.” (Leech 1974: 49, in: Vestergaard and<br />
Schroder 1985: 15). From this we conclude that <strong>advertising</strong> is a kind <strong>of</strong><br />
communication <strong>with</strong> its own principles. <strong>The</strong> addresser is a producer – a company that<br />
tries to persuade <strong>the</strong> addressee – a consumer - to buy a product. <strong>The</strong> code <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong> has to be known by all participants <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> communication.<br />
<strong>The</strong> information communicated by <strong>the</strong> advertisement is not discussing<br />
everything about <strong>the</strong> product. It is incomplete because <strong>the</strong>re is no space enough to<br />
describe <strong>the</strong> product into details. <strong>The</strong> information only contains what <strong>the</strong> producer<br />
thinks <strong>the</strong> consumer needs to know. It always contains <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product and<br />
usually <strong>the</strong> information how it can benefit <strong>the</strong> customer.<br />
Angela Goddard emphasizes <strong>the</strong> idea <strong>of</strong> narrator and narratees. She says<br />
that <strong>the</strong> writer is <strong>the</strong> person who constructs <strong>the</strong> text in reality (in <strong>advertising</strong> texts, <strong>the</strong><br />
real writers are <strong>the</strong> copywriters and artists who work in an <strong>advertising</strong> agency’s<br />
creative department), while <strong>the</strong> narrator is <strong>the</strong> storyteller <strong>with</strong>in <strong>the</strong> text. Copywriters<br />
can construct all sorts <strong>of</strong> different narrators to convey to us <strong>the</strong> message, for example,<br />
a female writer can construct a male narrator, or an adult writer can construct a child<br />
narrator:<br />
“ “She’s got more than me, mum.” ”<br />
Narratees are, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, people who appear to being addressed. In fact, in<br />
<strong>advertising</strong> communication a narratee is not a certain person, but at least a target<br />
group, or a whole public.<br />
“<strong>The</strong> widest address forms to be given to a narratee in an advertisement are: a)<br />
no address form at all (0) or b) ‘you’ (or <strong>the</strong> possessive form, ‘your’). In both <strong>the</strong>se<br />
cases, any person reading <strong>the</strong> advert can feel addressed by it and not excluded from<br />
<strong>the</strong> communication.” (Goddard 1998: 31). <strong>The</strong> widely used pronoun ‘your’<br />
symbolizes <strong>the</strong> closeness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product to <strong>the</strong> consumer.<br />
A narrator might be:<br />
o <strong>The</strong> first person singular narrator ‘I’ – a character in <strong>the</strong> story<br />
itself; this kind <strong>of</strong> text sounds more personally; <strong>the</strong> narrator talks to<br />
us:<br />
“I’m a big looser.”<br />
“ “I am unique. Moissanite is me.” ”<br />
18
o <strong>The</strong> first person plural narrator ‘We’ – This may evoke <strong>the</strong><br />
effect <strong>the</strong> whole company or association talks to <strong>the</strong> narratee. It<br />
makes a corporate impression:<br />
“We bring Olympic energy to your home.”<br />
o <strong>The</strong> third person omniscient narrator ‘He’, ‘She’, ‘It’, ‘<strong>The</strong>y’<br />
or ‘0’– it is ‘an observer’ <strong>of</strong> events, telling us about actions or<br />
product:<br />
“In <strong>the</strong>ir eyes, <strong>the</strong>y can tug forever.”<br />
“Stop seeing broken hair everywhere.”<br />
“One just right for you.”<br />
2.2 Verbal and non-verbal communication in <strong>advertising</strong><br />
In this branch, various media embody <strong>the</strong> communication channel, for<br />
example billboards, radio, cinema and television, web banners and web popups,<br />
skywriting, press (magazines, newspapers, printed leaflets), advertisements in public<br />
transport, floating <strong>advertising</strong> on blips and balloons, illuminated signs, and many<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r possibilities to promote <strong>the</strong> product in public.<br />
In most cases <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>, we use verbal <strong>language</strong> for express ideas <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
accompanied by a picture or symbol, music, some kind <strong>of</strong> computer animation or<br />
video related to <strong>the</strong> verbal text. Verbal <strong>language</strong> is concerned <strong>with</strong> words; it is not a<br />
synonym for oral or spoken <strong>language</strong>. Non-verbal (wordless) message can be sent or<br />
received “through any sensory channel - visual perception, sound, smell, touch, taste;<br />
through gesture, body <strong>language</strong> or posture, facial expressions and eye gaze; object<br />
communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture; symbols and<br />
infographics; prosodic features <strong>of</strong> speech such as intonation and stress and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
paralinguistic features <strong>of</strong> speech such as voice quality, emotion and speaking style”<br />
(http://www.wikipedia.org/).<br />
<strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> non-verbal communication, also called para<strong>language</strong>, is inevitable<br />
part <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>. <strong>The</strong>re are many examples <strong>of</strong> use <strong>of</strong> non-verbal <strong>language</strong><br />
in <strong>advertising</strong>: web banners <strong>of</strong> bright colours moving quickly in front <strong>of</strong> our eyes, a<br />
romantic music in an advertisement for a new women’s perfume and a fragrant stripe<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same inside <strong>the</strong> Cosmopolitan magazine, surprised face <strong>of</strong> a woman who has<br />
19
just found a fantastic washing powder and a mild voice <strong>of</strong> a young man in radio<br />
<strong>advertising</strong> for an insurance company. A nice example <strong>of</strong> facial gestures expressing<br />
<strong>the</strong> smell and taste in printed <strong>advertising</strong> is included in <strong>the</strong> supplement A ( 1 ).<br />
It depends on media used whe<strong>the</strong>r verbal, non-verbal or both communications<br />
are used in particular advertisement.<br />
2.3 Public versus word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth communication <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong><br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r question is whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>advertising</strong> is public (non-personal) or private<br />
(personal) communication.<br />
“Private communication is a process which involves a known number <strong>of</strong><br />
persons who are well-known to each o<strong>the</strong>r” (Vestergaard and Schroder 1985: 13) and,<br />
on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, public communication is defined as communication between <strong>the</strong><br />
addresser and anonymous public - like in literature, film, press and <strong>advertising</strong>. (See<br />
Vestergaard and Schroder). It follows that <strong>advertising</strong> is one-way public<br />
communication, because anonymous public cannot answer <strong>the</strong> copywriter back and<br />
cannot express <strong>the</strong>ir opinion. <strong>The</strong> feedback is missing. However, each seller would<br />
confirm that <strong>the</strong> best for his or her business is word-<strong>of</strong>-mouth <strong>advertising</strong>. <strong>The</strong><br />
customers, employees, and friends – <strong>the</strong>y all can be propagators, whe<strong>the</strong>r in positive<br />
or negative sense. Many copywriters are completely sure that this is <strong>the</strong> most<br />
important kind <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>.<br />
20
3 TEXT OF ADVERTISING AND ITS STRUCTURE<br />
Text is a structured unit consisting <strong>of</strong> smaller units. It is “a stretch <strong>of</strong> <strong>language</strong><br />
which makes coherent sense in <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> its units. It may be spoken or written; it<br />
may be as long as a book or as short as a cry for help.” (Quirk et al. 1990: 434).<br />
Advertising, if we mean <strong>the</strong> verbal one, is a type <strong>of</strong> text. We can find <strong>advertising</strong> texts<br />
in printed materials or, in spoken form, broadcasted by radio or TV. In printed<br />
<strong>advertising</strong>, <strong>the</strong> text may serve only for catching <strong>the</strong> reader’s attention, provide<br />
information about <strong>the</strong> product or serve as an anchorage (<strong>the</strong> link between <strong>the</strong> image<br />
and its context; some guidance to <strong>the</strong> reader) for <strong>the</strong> image.<br />
3.1 Cohesion <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> text<br />
To achieve <strong>the</strong> unity, continuity and fluency <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text, “English sentences<br />
can be linked in various ways, among which repetition <strong>of</strong> an element and back<br />
reference by means <strong>of</strong> pronouns are among <strong>the</strong> more important.” (Halliday and Hasan<br />
1976, in: Vestergaard and Schroder 1985: 18). O<strong>the</strong>r techniques are also used to join<br />
sentences toge<strong>the</strong>r, for example, we use synonymy, place and time relaters,<br />
determiners, pro-forms (pronouns, pro-verbs, o<strong>the</strong>r pro-forms), ellipsis, enumeration,<br />
parallelism (repetition <strong>of</strong> sentence structure), conjunctions and various transitions. All<br />
<strong>the</strong>se ‘sentence signals’ refer back or forward to neighboring sentences. This principle<br />
is called cohesion. Widdowson defines cohesion as “<strong>the</strong> ties that connect up units <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong> to form text. (…) <strong>The</strong> repeated pattern provides a kind <strong>of</strong> texture to <strong>the</strong> text,<br />
sets up a kind <strong>of</strong> connection or cohesion across <strong>the</strong> sentences.” (Widdowson 2000:<br />
125, 38). Here we give an example <strong>of</strong> cohesion in <strong>advertising</strong> text:<br />
“<strong>The</strong> starting point <strong>of</strong> a great soup, casserole, or risotto is simple, well-made<br />
stock. Knorr Simply Stock is just that. Made from natural ingredients, <strong>with</strong> no<br />
artificial colours, flavours or preservatives, it’s a great way <strong>of</strong> enhancing <strong>the</strong><br />
flavour <strong>of</strong> your dishes.”<br />
We see here that <strong>the</strong> main subject that everything derives from is Knorr Simply Stock.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> first sentence, it is expressed by <strong>the</strong> identification attribute ‘simple, well-made<br />
stock’, in <strong>the</strong> second sentence by <strong>the</strong> pronoun ‘that’ and in <strong>the</strong> last sentence by <strong>the</strong><br />
21
pronoun ‘it’. All are cohesion devices used for prevent unnecessary repetition in <strong>the</strong><br />
text. We can see in this advertisement also ano<strong>the</strong>r feature typical for <strong>advertising</strong>, and<br />
that is cataphora: first <strong>the</strong> description <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product, later on <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product<br />
is mentioned. It is because <strong>the</strong> sellers want to induce <strong>the</strong> favourable impression that<br />
<strong>the</strong> product is <strong>the</strong> solution for given situation.<br />
We can observe cohesion not only at <strong>the</strong> level beyond sentences but also<br />
<strong>with</strong>in sentences. This is achieved by use <strong>of</strong> coordination and subordination <strong>of</strong><br />
clauses:<br />
“Peter is tired. He wants to sleep a lot.”<br />
We can connect <strong>the</strong>se two clauses into one sentence:<br />
“Peter is tired, so he wants to sleep a lot.”<br />
Coordination is especially important cohesional factor in <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
are three types <strong>of</strong> coordination – linking (use <strong>of</strong> coordinating conjunctions and, or,<br />
so, but), parataxis (“short, simple clauses, <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>with</strong>out <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> conjunctions and<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten sharing <strong>the</strong> same subject” (http://www.wikipedia.org/); “it is applying to <strong>the</strong><br />
omission <strong>of</strong> both coordinate and subordinate conjunctions, and to clauses and phrases<br />
both.”(https://lists.usm.maine.edu/) and apposition (“two elements are placed side by<br />
side, <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> second element serving to define or modify <strong>the</strong> first.”<br />
(http://www.wikipedia.org/)). Leech says, that in some cases, copywriters show<br />
tendencies to use<br />
1. Coordination in places, where subordination would have made <strong>the</strong> relationship<br />
between clauses more explicit, and<br />
2. Non-linking coordination (parataxis and apposition) in preference to linking<br />
coordination. (Leech 1972: 143)<br />
He demonstrates <strong>the</strong> first case on <strong>the</strong> following example:<br />
“Just water it on, and weeds shoot up, <strong>the</strong>n curl and <strong>with</strong>er away.”<br />
This is an imperative linked to an affirmative clause. It might be paraphrased by a<br />
sentence <strong>with</strong> a conditional clause:<br />
“If you just water it on, weeds shoot up, <strong>the</strong>n curl and <strong>with</strong>er away.”<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is also a type <strong>of</strong> sentence in <strong>advertising</strong>, which consists <strong>of</strong> a pair <strong>of</strong> imperative<br />
clauses in apposition:<br />
“Be sure <strong>of</strong> yourself. Use Body Mist, <strong>the</strong> perfumed deodorant.”<br />
This, too, might have been expressed by a subordinate clause:<br />
“To be sure <strong>of</strong> yourself, use Body Mist, <strong>the</strong> perfumed deodorant.”<br />
22
In press <strong>advertising</strong>, we can observe noun group parataxis for example in <strong>the</strong> listing <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> addresses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> firm:<br />
“New York – Paris – London”.<br />
Parataxis <strong>of</strong> adjective groups is also common and serves <strong>the</strong> same kind <strong>of</strong> purpose as<br />
<strong>the</strong> listing <strong>of</strong> pre-modifying adjectives in a noun group. (See Leech 1972: 147) (here:<br />
noun/adjective group = noun/adjective phrase). Following example is a parataxis <strong>of</strong><br />
separate adjectives:<br />
“New. Better. Happier.”<br />
According to <strong>the</strong>se examples we can suppose, that <strong>the</strong> headline<br />
“Thinking larger. Moving faster.”<br />
is <strong>the</strong> example <strong>of</strong> verb phrase parataxis.<br />
<strong>The</strong> apposition <strong>of</strong> two noun groups is a construction highly represented in<br />
advertisement <strong>language</strong>. Usually <strong>the</strong> product name precedes <strong>the</strong> noun group, which<br />
describes it, but <strong>the</strong> reverse order also occurs:<br />
“Neotec. <strong>The</strong> only tripod <strong>with</strong> built-in zoom.”<br />
We can observe <strong>the</strong> tendency to cut up <strong>the</strong> sentences in places where linking<br />
conjunctions, commas or dashes usually appear:<br />
“After 173 years, we know quite a bit about diamonds. But love is still a<br />
complete mystery.”<br />
“It’s just ano<strong>the</strong>r Renault. Reliable. Technically superior. Best in its class. Just<br />
like every o<strong>the</strong>r Renault we make.”<br />
We could remake <strong>the</strong>se two advertisements:<br />
“After 173 years, we know quite a bit about diamonds, but love is still a<br />
complete mystery.”<br />
“It’s just ano<strong>the</strong>r Renault – reliable, technically superior and best in its class –<br />
just like every o<strong>the</strong>r Renault we make.”<br />
3.2 Informational structure <strong>with</strong>in <strong>the</strong> text – <strong>the</strong>me and rheme<br />
<strong>The</strong> textual structure can be studied not only from <strong>the</strong> point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
connection <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sentences to make up a text, but we can also consider it from <strong>the</strong><br />
23
informational point <strong>of</strong> view. It means, how we can structure units <strong>of</strong> information<br />
<strong>with</strong>in <strong>the</strong> sentences.<br />
Units <strong>of</strong> information can be placed in various ways, according to <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir prominence. In case <strong>of</strong> sentence where unmarked end-focus principle is<br />
applied, <strong>the</strong> RHEME (also called new, focal element; comment) is <strong>the</strong> informationally<br />
most prominent element <strong>of</strong> a tone group containing <strong>the</strong> new information, while <strong>the</strong><br />
THEME (also called given, non-focal element; topic) is <strong>the</strong> least prominent element<br />
containing given information, which is assumed to be known from <strong>the</strong> former text or<br />
from <strong>the</strong> context. <strong>The</strong> most important information goes at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> statement and<br />
<strong>the</strong> least important one, by contrast, at <strong>the</strong> beginning, functioning only for<br />
“announcing that <strong>the</strong> starting point <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> message is established” (Quirk et al. 1972:<br />
397). In following example, (and in most cases), <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>me is <strong>the</strong> subject <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
sentence, while <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sentence is rheme. <strong>The</strong> hearer or reader usually expects<br />
this unmarked form:<br />
“I wrote Ann a letter.”<br />
We put <strong>the</strong> characteristic accent (intonational nucleus) on <strong>the</strong> last stressed<br />
syllable <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tone group. “It is natural to place <strong>the</strong> new information after providing a<br />
context <strong>of</strong> given information, so we can regard focus (identified prosodically) as most<br />
naturally and normally occurring at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> informational unit.” (Quirk et al. 1972:<br />
398). In this case, <strong>the</strong> subject ‘I’ is <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>me; <strong>the</strong> rheme is <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sentence<br />
increasing <strong>the</strong> communicative dynamism from ‘ wrote Ann a’ towards <strong>the</strong> last word<br />
‘letter’.<br />
This occurs very frequently also in <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>, where copywriters<br />
are in <strong>the</strong> habit <strong>of</strong> making short but condensed sentences. This evokes <strong>the</strong> impression<br />
<strong>of</strong> much new and important information <strong>with</strong>in a short text. This technique saw its<br />
‘boom’ in <strong>the</strong> 1960s.<br />
Copywriters try to remove verbs at all, or to remove finite verbs and replace<br />
<strong>the</strong>m by <strong>the</strong>ir non-finite forms, eliminate pronouns and create as short sentences as<br />
possible in order to “cut up <strong>the</strong> sentences into more information units”, so that <strong>the</strong><br />
same sequence <strong>of</strong> words will contain more focal elements ra<strong>the</strong>r than one. (See<br />
Vestergaard and Schroder 1985: 23). Following advertisements <strong>of</strong>fer examples:<br />
“Solgar ingredients are selected on quality. Not price.”<br />
“Take <strong>the</strong> World. Touched by THAI.”<br />
“DVD triple boxsets. From £15.97. Typical. 3 for <strong>the</strong> price <strong>of</strong> 1.”<br />
24
“Jeans that fit. Beautifully.”<br />
Now we will consider <strong>the</strong> fourth example as a single utterance:<br />
“Jeans that fit beautifully.”<br />
This does not mean <strong>the</strong> same as <strong>the</strong> original text. “<strong>The</strong> original asserts that <strong>the</strong>se are<br />
jeans that fit (implying <strong>the</strong>y fit well), presenting <strong>the</strong> verb "fit" as new information,<br />
<strong>the</strong>n following up <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r new information that <strong>the</strong> jeans fit beautifully. In <strong>the</strong><br />
revised version, only "beautifully" is new information. Additionally, by segmenting<br />
<strong>the</strong> first utterance in <strong>the</strong> original as "Jeans that fit", <strong>the</strong> advertisement authors create<br />
<strong>the</strong> implication that <strong>the</strong>re may be jeans that do not fit (well).”<br />
(http://www.stanford.edu/class/linguist34/Unit_02/given-new.htm)<br />
<strong>The</strong>se advertisements reflect <strong>the</strong> quest to make <strong>the</strong> text more dynamic; <strong>the</strong><br />
utterances are organized into smaller units to underline <strong>the</strong> content <strong>of</strong> each. In each<br />
group, <strong>the</strong>re is new information, a new rheme, each containing its own nuclear accent.<br />
Nowadays, copywriters still remain creating text <strong>with</strong> short sentences full <strong>of</strong><br />
important information about <strong>the</strong> product. However, many <strong>advertising</strong> texts are more<br />
compact; <strong>the</strong> text is an integrated unit, ordinary connected whole ra<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>n some<br />
unnatural sequence <strong>of</strong> phrases. In <strong>the</strong> supplement A, we <strong>of</strong>fer <strong>the</strong> reader an example<br />
<strong>of</strong> an advertisement showing, how copywriters today compose <strong>the</strong> texts even into<br />
short narrations ( 2 ).<br />
25
4 LINGUISTIC MEANS USED IN ADVERTISING LANGUAGE<br />
Leech in his book (Leech 1972: 25) writes, that <strong>the</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong><br />
belongs to so called ‘loaded <strong>language</strong>’. Wikipedia defines it as “<strong>the</strong> writing or<br />
speech, which implies an accusation <strong>of</strong> demagoguery or <strong>of</strong> pandering to <strong>the</strong><br />
audience.” Leech says that loaded <strong>language</strong> has <strong>the</strong> aim to change <strong>the</strong> will, opinions,<br />
or attitudes <strong>of</strong> its audience. He claims that <strong>advertising</strong> differs from o<strong>the</strong>r types <strong>of</strong><br />
loaded <strong>language</strong> (such as political journalism and religious oratory) in having a very<br />
precise material goal – changing <strong>the</strong> mental disposition to reach <strong>the</strong> desired kind <strong>of</strong><br />
behaviour – buying a particular kind <strong>of</strong> product.<br />
To persuade people to buy <strong>the</strong> product is <strong>the</strong> main purpose <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong>.<br />
Among such great competition, <strong>the</strong> producer wants to demonstrate <strong>the</strong> uniqueness <strong>of</strong><br />
his product. He wants to differentiate it from <strong>the</strong> rest. He is trying to find new<br />
techniques <strong>of</strong> advertisement. Also, <strong>the</strong> advertisement texts must be more attractive<br />
and more unexpected. <strong>The</strong>y must catch <strong>the</strong> attention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> audience and <strong>the</strong>n identify<br />
<strong>the</strong> product. Copywriters create uncommon, surprising, interesting texts <strong>with</strong> catchy<br />
slogans or phrases. <strong>The</strong> reader or listener must give it some thought and <strong>the</strong> result is<br />
manipulation <strong>with</strong> him in order to buy <strong>the</strong> product. Leech sets following principles <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>advertising</strong> texts: Attention value, Readability (by means <strong>of</strong> simple, personal, and<br />
colloquial style), Memorability (most important in <strong>the</strong> process <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> is to<br />
remember <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product) and Selling power (Leech 1972: 27). <strong>The</strong> last<br />
principle is crucial. David Ogilvy (Ogilvy 1985: 7) in his book says:<br />
“I do not regard <strong>advertising</strong> as entertainment or an art form, but as a medium <strong>of</strong><br />
information. When I write an advertisement, I don’t want you to tell me that you find<br />
it ‘creative’. I want you to find it so interesting that you buy <strong>the</strong> product.”<br />
We may identify <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> as a type <strong>of</strong> discourse, because “it can tell us a<br />
good deal about our own society and our own psychology (…) Discourse is text and<br />
context toge<strong>the</strong>r.” (Cook 1996: 2-5). We could analyze <strong>the</strong> whole discourse <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>advertising</strong>, it means “<strong>the</strong> interaction <strong>of</strong> all elements that participate in <strong>advertising</strong><br />
discourse: participants, function, substance, pictures, music, a society, para<strong>language</strong>,<br />
<strong>language</strong>, a situation, o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>advertising</strong> and o<strong>the</strong>r discourse.” Although such analysis<br />
would be complete, it would be very difficult to elaborate it in such limited space. For<br />
26
that reason, in this work we will analyze <strong>the</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> from <strong>the</strong><br />
linguistic, especially phonological, lexical and morphological, syntactic and semantic<br />
point <strong>of</strong> view. We will provide examples and describe <strong>the</strong> most commonly used<br />
linguistic devices and figures <strong>of</strong> speech in <strong>advertising</strong> printed text.<br />
4.1 Phonological aspect<br />
Advertising <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong>ten uses <strong>the</strong> techniques similar to those in poetic texts.<br />
<strong>The</strong> advantage <strong>of</strong> so-called mnemonic devices (rhyme, rhythm, alliteration and<br />
assonance) is <strong>the</strong> mnemotechnical effect. It guarantees that <strong>the</strong> receiver <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
advertisement better remembers <strong>the</strong> text and recalls it at <strong>the</strong> right moment.<br />
4.1.1 Rhyme<br />
Rhyme is a pattern <strong>of</strong> “identity <strong>of</strong> sound between words or verse-lines<br />
extending from <strong>the</strong> end to <strong>the</strong> last fully accented vowel and not fur<strong>the</strong>r.” (Concise<br />
Oxford English Dictionary 2004). Rhyme refers to sounds, not spelling. It is<br />
commonly found in jingles, slogans and headlines, like in this one:<br />
“Eukanuba gives <strong>the</strong>ir teeth <strong>the</strong> strength <strong>the</strong>y need.”<br />
4.1.2 Rhythm<br />
<strong>The</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> is to be catchy and easy to remember. One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
devices how copywriters can reach it is to use prosodic features – intonation, rhythm<br />
and lexical stress - because <strong>the</strong>y have a great emotional and mnemonic effect. Even<br />
<strong>the</strong> scientists cannot explain why has rhythm and repetition so powerful attraction on<br />
human mind. Some suggest that it recalls <strong>the</strong> regular sound <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r’s heartbeat<br />
in <strong>the</strong> womb (Langer 1967: 324; Stetson 1951, in: Cook 1996: 120) or o<strong>the</strong>r compare<br />
it to <strong>the</strong> dances <strong>of</strong> ritual magic (Olson, 1950, in: Cook 1996: 120), that <strong>the</strong>y have an<br />
enhancing effect on neuronal circuits in <strong>the</strong> brain (Newman 1986, in: Cook 1996:<br />
120).<br />
Copywriters <strong>of</strong>ten use <strong>language</strong> <strong>with</strong> rhythmical arrangement. <strong>The</strong> listener or<br />
reader need not notice it and he perceives it only subconsciously. <strong>The</strong> result is, that<br />
<strong>the</strong> text is memorable and linguistically neat. If <strong>the</strong> rhythm has some regularity, it is<br />
called metre. “Metre is a pattern composed <strong>of</strong> rhythm groups (feet) consisting <strong>of</strong><br />
27
similar or identical patterns <strong>of</strong> stressed and unstressed syllables. (…) Metrical scheme<br />
may easily pass unnoticed.)” (Leech 1972: 186). English poetry has various types <strong>of</strong><br />
metrical feet. Among <strong>the</strong> most important belong an iamb (an unstressed syllable<br />
followed by a stressed syllable: x / ), a trochee (a stressed syllable followed by an<br />
unstressed one: / x ), a dactyl (a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed<br />
syllables: / x x ), a spondee (consisting <strong>of</strong> two stressed syllables: / / ), a pyrrhic<br />
(two unstressed syllables: x x ), and an anapest (two unstressed syllables followed<br />
by a stressed one: x x / ). Advertisement slogans <strong>of</strong>ten benefit from <strong>the</strong> metrical<br />
regularity:<br />
“Flatter your figure <strong>with</strong> Dietrim.” This slogan is composed <strong>of</strong> three dactyls.<br />
/ x x / x x / x x<br />
'flæ/t(r) j(r) 'fI/g(r) wI 'daI//trIm<br />
4.1.3 Alliteration<br />
Alliteration can be defined as “literary technique, in which successive words<br />
(more strictly, stressed syllables) begin <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> same consonant sound or letter.”<br />
(http://www.wikipedia.org/). It is widely used in <strong>advertising</strong> slogans. <strong>The</strong>re are 20<br />
consonant sounds in English, but those that are made by stopping <strong>the</strong> air-stream<br />
completely (p, b, m, n, t, d, k and g) are according to Greg Myers (Myers 1997) most<br />
used, because stand out more than o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
“Performance. Prestige. Passion for Innovation.”<br />
4.1.4 Assonance<br />
Assonance is a linguistic device, in which <strong>the</strong> same vowel in successive<br />
stressed syllables creates a vowel harmony. It is not so obvious type <strong>of</strong> scheme as<br />
alliteration.<br />
“How much reality can you handle?”<br />
4.1.5 Graphic aspect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text<br />
We will not devote ourselves to <strong>the</strong> graphic aspect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> text into<br />
details, but we will draw attention to <strong>the</strong> most important ways in which <strong>the</strong> letters can<br />
be presented. It does not have anything <strong>with</strong> sounds. It deals only <strong>with</strong> graphic<br />
elaboration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text. Almost all printed advertisements exploit from <strong>the</strong> fact <strong>of</strong><br />
being printed. Copywriters have to decide how to make <strong>the</strong> layout. <strong>The</strong> selection <strong>of</strong><br />
28
script, its colour, type and size is <strong>the</strong> inevitable part <strong>of</strong> making a good advertisement.<br />
However, not only this may contribute to <strong>the</strong> final effect. <strong>The</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r possibilities are:<br />
o Unpredictable spelling <strong>of</strong> words (“Beanz Meanz Heinz”, “4ever”,<br />
“Bar B Q”, “süper”, etc.)<br />
o Higher frequency <strong>of</strong> low-frequent letters that produce<br />
outstanding sounds (‘X’ is very popular: “Xerox”, “Botox” and use<br />
<strong>of</strong> palato-alveolar consonants /t/, //, /d /).<br />
o Unexpected print <strong>of</strong> letters - whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> size or <strong>the</strong>ir shape is<br />
similar to some object and this object replaces <strong>the</strong> letter.<br />
o Acronyms and initialisms <strong>with</strong> graphic exploitation – <strong>the</strong> letters<br />
<strong>of</strong> abbreviation create <strong>the</strong> first letters <strong>of</strong> words. <strong>The</strong> effect is<br />
highlighted by means <strong>of</strong> colour, size or layout:<br />
“XTROVERT. XPLOSIVE. LOVE THE COLOUR. COLOR XXL”<br />
Examples <strong>of</strong> in an interesting way printed texts are provided in <strong>the</strong> supplement A<br />
( 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ).<br />
4.1.6 Transliteration<br />
Using <strong>of</strong> transliteration in advertisement is not so frequent, but when occurred,<br />
it makes a positive result. It definitely attracts reader’s attention. Transliteration<br />
means <strong>the</strong> transformation <strong>of</strong> foreign words into English. Usually <strong>the</strong> spelling <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
foreign word is different but <strong>the</strong> pronunciation in <strong>the</strong>se special cases is <strong>the</strong> same as<br />
English:<br />
“BE COINTREAUVERSIAL.” (here: COINTREAU is <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> French<br />
alcoholic drink)<br />
4.1.7 Homophones<br />
In English, <strong>the</strong>re are many words that sound <strong>the</strong> same but are spelled<br />
differently. Linguists call <strong>the</strong>m homophones. Copywriters use homophony to create<br />
puns in <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>. This kind <strong>of</strong> play works best in print. As <strong>the</strong> fantastic<br />
example we show following example:<br />
“Sainsbury’s have discovered that <strong>the</strong> finest whisky is kept under loch and<br />
quay.” (Myers : 43).<br />
29
Myers says: “<strong>The</strong> spelling and pictures make us think <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> relevant Scottish<br />
meanings first, but we must also recall <strong>the</strong> idiomatic phrase that fits in <strong>the</strong> sentence,<br />
lock and key. (…) Each <strong>of</strong> two interpretations – as spelling or as sound – has some<br />
support.”<br />
4.2 Lexical and morphological aspect<br />
This part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> work will be concerned <strong>with</strong> typical characteristics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
vocabulary <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> and most commonly used figures <strong>of</strong> speech.<br />
4.2.1 Verb phrase<br />
<strong>The</strong>re exist two types <strong>of</strong> structure <strong>of</strong> verb phrase: finite verb phrase and nonfinite<br />
verb phrase. <strong>The</strong> first one is “a verb phrase in which <strong>the</strong> first or only word is a<br />
finite verb (it has <strong>the</strong> tense contrast, person and number concord <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject), <strong>the</strong><br />
rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phrase (if any) consisting <strong>of</strong> nonfinite verbs. (…) <strong>The</strong> infinitive, <strong>the</strong> –ing<br />
participle and <strong>the</strong> –ed participle are <strong>the</strong> non-finite forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verb.” (Quirk et al.<br />
1990: 41). In <strong>advertising</strong>, “verbal groups are mostly <strong>of</strong> maximum simplicity,<br />
consisting <strong>of</strong> only one word.” (Leech 1972: 121). It is obvious by a quick look<br />
through our <strong>advertising</strong> material in research part that <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> finite verb<br />
phrases are ei<strong>the</strong>r simple present forms (to satisfy <strong>the</strong> customer’s desire for <strong>the</strong> present<br />
state <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product and its implication <strong>of</strong> universality and timelessness) or else simple<br />
imperatives. Phrasal verbs are also used. According to Leech, passive voice occurs<br />
very sporadically and so does <strong>the</strong> application <strong>of</strong> auxiliary verbs. Two auxiliary verbs<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used in <strong>advertising</strong> are <strong>the</strong> future auxiliary ‘will’, because it evokes <strong>the</strong><br />
impression <strong>of</strong> ‘promise’ and <strong>the</strong> modal auxiliary ‘can’. If an animate subject precedes<br />
<strong>the</strong> verb ‘can’, (in most cases ‘you’ = ‘customer’ ‘you can…’), <strong>the</strong> consumer is told<br />
that <strong>the</strong> product gives him or her <strong>the</strong> ‘ability’ to do this or that. If an inanimate subject<br />
(in most cases <strong>the</strong> brand-name e.g. ‘Nivea peeling can…’) precedes ‘can’, <strong>the</strong><br />
consumer is told what ‘possibilities’ <strong>the</strong> product <strong>of</strong>fers. (See Leech 1972: 125).<br />
4.2.2 Noun phrase<br />
In general, noun phrases in advertisements are far more complex than verb<br />
phrases. In <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>, <strong>the</strong> interesting part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> noun phrase is <strong>the</strong> pre-<br />
30
modifying part, which is usually very complex and is characterized by certain unusual<br />
structural features. <strong>The</strong> complexity <strong>of</strong> pre-modification is based on <strong>the</strong> effort to catch,<br />
describe and specify <strong>the</strong> properties <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product in attractive way:<br />
“First automatic chronograph <strong>with</strong> a 72-hour power-reserve and patented<br />
compression push-buttons. Mechanical automatic movement 751, made inhouse.”<br />
Here <strong>the</strong> only verb is <strong>the</strong> verb ‘make’ in passive voice.<br />
In many cases, whole <strong>advertising</strong> text does not contain any verb; it consists<br />
only <strong>of</strong> noun phrases. Inside <strong>the</strong> noun phrase, clusters <strong>of</strong> two, three or more adjectives<br />
are possible:<br />
“Gingery Fudgy Nutty Creamy Mischievous Mouthfuls.”<br />
A word ‘fudgy’ is a neologism created by copywriters. Normally it is a noun and it<br />
does not exist in form <strong>of</strong> an adjective.<br />
High number <strong>of</strong> genitives occurs in names <strong>of</strong> manufacturer, names <strong>of</strong> time and<br />
names <strong>of</strong> towns.<br />
“Bigham’s gourmet canapés”<br />
“Britain’s No.1”<br />
4.2.3 Adjectives<br />
While reading <strong>the</strong> advertisement, <strong>the</strong> reader may notice <strong>the</strong> hyperbolic<br />
character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>language</strong>. This exaggeration causes increased number <strong>of</strong><br />
comparative and superlative adjectives. <strong>The</strong> product is better, nicer, newer, and<br />
tighter and <strong>the</strong> customer is happier and more satisfied. <strong>The</strong> product <strong>of</strong>fers more<br />
information, more entertainment, more comfort, more than any o<strong>the</strong>r product. We<br />
may observe in our list <strong>of</strong> advertisements that gradable adjectives (<strong>the</strong>y describe<br />
qualities that can be measured in degrees; <strong>the</strong>y can be used in comparative or<br />
superlative forms) outnumber non-gradable adjectives (“<strong>the</strong>y describe qualities that<br />
are completely present or completely absent; <strong>the</strong>y do not occur in comparative and<br />
superlative forms, and cannot be used <strong>with</strong> adverbs such as very or extremely,<br />
because we don’t usually imagine degrees <strong>of</strong> more or less <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> quality being<br />
described.”<br />
(http://www.onestopenglish.com/teacher_support/ask/Grammar/grammar15.htm), e.g.<br />
biological, school, telephonic.)<br />
31
Epi<strong>the</strong>t is a descriptive word or phrase, which “emphasizes particular characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> described object or event and concretizes its idea, eventually expresses author’s<br />
evaluative and emotional attitude.” (Slovník literární teorie 1997, in: mejrková<br />
2000: 91). <strong>The</strong>re are two types <strong>of</strong> epi<strong>the</strong>ts: epi<strong>the</strong>t constans (commonly used<br />
stereotyped collocation, e.g. heavy rain, bright day) and epi<strong>the</strong>t ornans (decorative). In<br />
<strong>advertising</strong>, most widely used are epi<strong>the</strong>ts like fresh, new, gentle, creamy, silky,<br />
delicious, beautiful, ideal, excellent, unforgettable, eternal, etc., and, accordingly, <strong>the</strong><br />
gradational forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
4.2.4 Numerals<br />
In many advertisements, we can see <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> numerals. It is necessary if <strong>the</strong><br />
copywriters want to define <strong>the</strong> characteristics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product exactly. Numerals are<br />
used to define quantity <strong>of</strong> various aspects, for example percentage <strong>of</strong> some substance<br />
in a product, number <strong>of</strong> years in connection to <strong>the</strong> length <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tradition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
product, <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> satisfied customers, etc.<br />
4.2.5 Foreign words<br />
Foreign words are used in advertisements to emphasize <strong>the</strong> origin <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
product or exclusiveness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product in relation to particular country:<br />
“La crème de la crème <strong>of</strong> lipcolour.”<br />
French word ‘crème’ evokes <strong>the</strong> impression <strong>of</strong> good-class French cosmetics. Even<br />
more, <strong>the</strong> phrase ‘crème de la crème’ is taken from French and it means ‘<strong>the</strong> best<br />
people or things <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir kind’ (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 2001).<br />
4.2.6 Intertextuality<br />
Intertextuality is “<strong>the</strong> way in which one text echoes or refers to ano<strong>the</strong>r text. It<br />
means that, for example an advertisement:<br />
“To be in Florida in winter, or not to be in Florida in winter”<br />
would contain an intertextual reference to a key speech in Shakespeare’s Hamlet.<br />
Intertextuality can operate at many different levels <strong>of</strong> <strong>language</strong>, from phonological<br />
and lexical references in titles and slogans to visual aspects such as layouts and<br />
images. (…) Intertextuality can be an important component <strong>of</strong> and advert’s meaning,<br />
in that <strong>the</strong> original text being referred to establish a message, which <strong>the</strong> second text<br />
can <strong>the</strong>n use and elaborate on. (…) For intertextuality to work completely, readers<br />
32
have to be able to remember <strong>the</strong> original advert and place <strong>the</strong> reference being<br />
established. But if <strong>the</strong>y don’t, it doesn’t matter too much, for <strong>the</strong> contemporary advert<br />
will simply be enigmatic…” (Goddard 1998: 124)<br />
In <strong>advertising</strong>, <strong>the</strong> intertextuality is used in such conditions, where <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
justifiable supposition that <strong>the</strong> original text is well-known among people. “Tyto texty<br />
(jsou-li krátké) nebo jejich prvky (v pípad vtích celk) se bu doslova citují, aneb<br />
– astji – se modifikují. Pozmují se ovem tak, aby odkaz k pvodnímu textu<br />
zstal zejm a aby se text a jeho kontext vnímateli vybavil. Na základ tohoto<br />
kritéria se nkdy rozliuje citát, kter je doslovnou reprodukcí podkladového textu<br />
a bvá, nikoli vak nutn, vyznaen v novém textu uvozovkami, a aluze (z latinského<br />
alludere = zahrávat si), která je jen narákou, poukazem k njakému podkladovému<br />
textu.” (mejrková 2000: 169-191).<br />
Svtla mejrková fur<strong>the</strong>r presents various ways how intertextuality can be<br />
used in <strong>advertising</strong>. It can be based on:<br />
o Fixed phrases, idioms and collocations (“A SMOOTH MOVE<br />
HAIR REMOVAL FROM HEAD-TO-TOE”),<br />
o Biblical sentences (“Do unto you as you would have o<strong>the</strong>rs do unto<br />
you. Toyota.” <strong>The</strong> original statement says: “Do unto o<strong>the</strong>rs as you<br />
would have <strong>the</strong>m do unto you”),<br />
o Quotation <strong>of</strong> famous people or employees <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> company,<br />
o Statements <strong>of</strong> historical persons (“iThink, <strong>The</strong>refore iMac.” ‘I am’<br />
is replaced by ‘iMac’. <strong>The</strong> original phrase is a philosophical<br />
statement by René Descartes: “I think, <strong>the</strong>refore I am.”; a phrase<br />
used by Julius Caesar “Veni, vidi, video.”)<br />
o Proverbs and sayings,<br />
o Names <strong>of</strong> literary works, films, or television programmes (“Not<br />
trying it would be a Greek tragedy”),<br />
o Quotations from songs and fairy tales,<br />
o Mixing <strong>of</strong> various styles - e-mail, letter, interview, telephonic<br />
conversation, recipe, etc. (“Pleased to meet you”).<br />
As example <strong>of</strong> intertextuality in visual aspect, see <strong>the</strong> advertisement in <strong>the</strong><br />
supplement A <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> diploma <strong>the</strong>sis ( 8 ).<br />
33
4.2.7 Formation <strong>of</strong> new words and phrases<br />
In English, <strong>the</strong>re exist many different ways <strong>of</strong> adding new words to <strong>the</strong><br />
vocabulary. Advertising texts take advantage <strong>of</strong> using made-up or adapted words and<br />
expressions in order to support <strong>the</strong> creative aspect <strong>of</strong> advertisement and its attraction.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> text, <strong>of</strong> course, occur words formed by affixation, compounding, conversion,<br />
shortening, blending, and back-formation and by o<strong>the</strong>r ways <strong>of</strong> creating new words.<br />
<strong>The</strong> readers even needn’t notice such words, because <strong>the</strong>y sound familiar and ordinary<br />
to <strong>the</strong>m. However, if a new word is ‘deviated’ (it is accommodated somehow to <strong>the</strong><br />
context <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> text), it becomes striking and interesting for <strong>the</strong> reader. Let<br />
us introduce you a few examples:<br />
We can find new words and phrases formed by compounding. Very striking<br />
feature <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong> is a variety <strong>of</strong> “lexical units, where each unit is<br />
consisting <strong>of</strong> two or more bases (roots)” (Kvetko 2001: 40) <strong>The</strong>y are called compound<br />
words. A compound word may be characterized by its inseparability (it cannot be<br />
interrupted by ano<strong>the</strong>r word), semantic unity, morphological and syntactic functioning<br />
and certain phonetical and graphic features. (See Kvetko 2001: 40).<br />
Examples <strong>of</strong> compounds are: breakfast, hard-working, double-click, <strong>with</strong>in,<br />
fine-tune, airship, world-wide, etc. Compounds may be <strong>of</strong> two types: coordinative<br />
(south-west) and subordinative. Subordinative compounds are divided into 1.<br />
Germanic type = determinant + determinatum (e.g. highway) and 2. French type =<br />
determinatum + determinant (e.g. snow-white). (See Kvetko 2001: 43)<br />
<strong>The</strong> creativity <strong>of</strong> copywriters goes beyond <strong>the</strong> normal frequency <strong>of</strong> compounds<br />
used in o<strong>the</strong>r types <strong>of</strong> discourse. Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> intentions to render in best possible<br />
way <strong>the</strong> product, various compounds are used and created (e.g. good-as-homemade,<br />
Jus-Rol, pain-relieving, state-<strong>of</strong>-<strong>the</strong>-art, hand-crafted, head-to-toe, one-<strong>of</strong>-a-kind,<br />
platinum-inlayed, all-new, front-facing, touch-sensitive, built-in).<br />
Affixation is ano<strong>the</strong>r “very effective process <strong>of</strong> building new words by adding<br />
an established prefix or suffix to <strong>the</strong> existing base. (…) It is a most productive process<br />
<strong>of</strong> creating new words in English.” (Kvetko 2001: 35). A suffix occurs after and a<br />
prefix occurs before <strong>the</strong> base. “A suffix usually changes not only <strong>the</strong> lexical meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> a word but also its word class” (Kvetko 2001: 36), e.g.: to read (V) a reader (N);<br />
a friend (N) friendly (Adv); a clock (N) clockwise (Adv, Adj); to differ (V) <br />
different (Adj) differential (Adj). “A prefix usually changes or concretizes <strong>the</strong><br />
34
lexical meaning <strong>of</strong> a word and only rarely word class.” (Kvetko 2001: 38), e.g.<br />
nonsmokers, dislike, rebuild, postwar, autobiography, antinuclear, hypersensitive.<br />
<strong>The</strong> following examples show <strong>the</strong> creativity <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>: “provodkative,<br />
cookability” (Cook 1996: 140), anti-aging, jewel-like, Casiology.<br />
Shortening in general is “a process in which part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original word is taken<br />
away. It expresses <strong>the</strong> trend <strong>of</strong> Modern English towards monosyllabism.” (Kvetko<br />
2001: 47). Shortening contains clipping, acronyms and initialisms. Clipping is “a<br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> a word to a shorter form. It is a cutting <strong>of</strong>f one or more syllables <strong>of</strong> a<br />
word.” (Kvetko 2001: 47), e.g. fan (fanatic), gym (gymnastics), bus (omnibus), exam<br />
(examination), taxi (taxicab), phone (telephone), mobile (mobile phone), fridge<br />
(refrigerator), lab (laboratory), photo (photography). Acronyms are words formed<br />
from <strong>the</strong> initials <strong>of</strong> expressions consisting one or more word and read as ordinary<br />
words, e.g. NATO, UNESCO, AIDS. Initialisms are abbreviations <strong>with</strong> alphabetical<br />
reading, e.g. VIP, XXL, TV, PC. We have already mentioned <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> taking<br />
advantage <strong>of</strong> acronyms and initialisms in connection <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> graphic layout (See p.<br />
30 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> diploma <strong>the</strong>sis).<br />
Blending is similar process to shortening, combined <strong>with</strong> fusing <strong>the</strong> elements<br />
<strong>of</strong> two different words, e.g. smog (smoke + fog), vegeburger (vegetarian +<br />
hamburger), motel (motorway + hotel), brunch (breakfast + lunch), tellyphone<br />
(television + telephone).<br />
“<strong>The</strong> process <strong>of</strong> coining new words in a different part <strong>of</strong> speech <strong>with</strong>out<br />
adding any derivative elements is called conversion.” (Kvetko 2001: 44) <strong>The</strong> two<br />
words differ in meaning and syntactic function <strong>with</strong>in <strong>the</strong> sentence. <strong>The</strong> major types<br />
<strong>of</strong> conversion are: <strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> verbs from nouns: a call to call; nouns from<br />
verbs: to walk a walk; adjectives from nouns: an orange orange and nouns from<br />
phrasal verbs: to make up a make-up. (See Kvetko 2001). Conversion is more<br />
productive in some <strong>language</strong>s than in o<strong>the</strong>rs; in English, it is a fairly productive<br />
process. In <strong>advertising</strong>, application <strong>of</strong> puns created by conversion is <strong>of</strong>ten very<br />
resourceful. <strong>The</strong> most frequent strategy is to replace a word (<strong>of</strong> any word class) <strong>with</strong> a<br />
brand name (N), so <strong>the</strong> brand name acquires syntactic features <strong>of</strong> original fictive<br />
word. This tendency is still used after a hundred years:<br />
“Get that Pepsi feeling.” ‘Pepsi’ is <strong>the</strong> adjective<br />
“TDK it.” ‘TDK’ is <strong>the</strong> verb<br />
“Let’s go Kroegering.” ‘Kroegering’ is <strong>the</strong> verb (to ‘kroeger’)<br />
35
Conversion may be used not only <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> association <strong>with</strong> brand names. Here is an<br />
example <strong>of</strong> advertisement for Penguin books situated on railway platforms. (Myers<br />
1997: 65):<br />
“Book at any station.”<br />
Book is both <strong>the</strong> verb (‘reserve a ticket’) and <strong>the</strong> noun (‘a a written work published<br />
and dedicated to reading.’). <strong>The</strong> picture <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> trademark Penguin at a station links <strong>the</strong><br />
two.<br />
4.2.8 Idiomatic constructions<br />
“An idiom is an expression (i.e. term or phrase) whose meaning cannot be<br />
deduced from <strong>the</strong> literal definitions and <strong>the</strong> arrangement <strong>of</strong> its parts, but refers instead<br />
to a figurative meaning that is known only through conventional use. In linguistics,<br />
idioms are figures <strong>of</strong> speech that contradict <strong>the</strong> principle <strong>of</strong> compositionality (<strong>the</strong><br />
principle, which tells that <strong>the</strong> meaning <strong>of</strong> a complex expression is determined by <strong>the</strong><br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> its constituent expressions and <strong>the</strong> rules used to combine <strong>the</strong>m.).”<br />
(http://www.wikipedia.org/). Idioms have multiword character, <strong>the</strong>y are fixed and<br />
<strong>the</strong>y have common figurative meaning. <strong>The</strong> phrase ‘to be in <strong>the</strong> same boat’ has <strong>the</strong><br />
literal meaning ‘to be in <strong>the</strong> same boat’, and also <strong>the</strong> idiomatic figurative meaning ‘to<br />
be in <strong>the</strong> same difficult situation’. We write more about figurative meaning in a part<br />
Semantic aspect.<br />
A proverb is a type <strong>of</strong> idiomatic construction. It is “a well-known phrase or<br />
sentence that gives advice or says something that is generally true.” (Oxford<br />
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 2001), e.g.: ‘Too many cooks spoil <strong>the</strong> broth.’ means<br />
that if too many people are involved in something, it will not be well done.<br />
Copywriters use idioms and proverbs in advertisements, because <strong>the</strong>se<br />
constructions are familiar to most potential customers in a society. <strong>The</strong> idiom or a<br />
proverb in a text may be used <strong>with</strong>out formal changes, or in a creative way, where an<br />
element <strong>of</strong> a proverb or idiom is slightly changed or replaced by ano<strong>the</strong>r word to<br />
create a pun and, consequently, a connection <strong>with</strong> a product. If <strong>the</strong> picture<br />
accompanies <strong>the</strong> text, <strong>the</strong> picture usually does not represent <strong>the</strong> figurative - and, <strong>of</strong><br />
course - correct and common meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> idiom, but it represents <strong>the</strong> image and<br />
representation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> literal meanings <strong>of</strong> its constituents ( 9 ):<br />
36
“Challenge us – and get yourself a bigger slice <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cake.” (Siemens<br />
Financial Services)<br />
An idiom ‘a bigger slice <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cake’ means a share <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> available money or benefits<br />
that you believe you have a right to. A picture represents two happy young women<br />
eating a cake.<br />
4.2.9 Collocations<br />
A collocation is “a combination <strong>of</strong> words in a <strong>language</strong>, that happens very<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten and more frequently than would happen by chance.” (Oxford Advanced<br />
Learner’s Dictionary 2001). Collocations are used in advertisements, however <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
<strong>with</strong>out any deviation or play on words and for <strong>the</strong> reader it is <strong>of</strong>ten imperceptible.<br />
We <strong>of</strong>fer here an example <strong>of</strong> and advertisement <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> deviated collocation:<br />
“Do you believe in love at first touch?”<br />
<strong>The</strong> original collocation sounds ‘love at first sight’, but this advertisement emphasizes<br />
a “sleek stainless steel body” <strong>of</strong> a mobile phone.<br />
4.3 Syntactic aspect<br />
4.3.1 Sentence types<br />
We may distinguish four sentence types: declaratives, interrogatives,<br />
imperatives and exclamatives. Following definitions <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m are quoted from<br />
Quirk et al. 1990: 231. “Declaratives are sentences in which it is normal for <strong>the</strong><br />
subject to be present and to precede <strong>the</strong> verb. Interrogatives are sentences, which are<br />
formally marked in one <strong>of</strong> two ways: yes-no interrogatives (an operator is placed in<br />
front <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject), and wh-interrogatives (an interrogative wh-element is positioned<br />
initially and <strong>the</strong>re is generally subject-operator inversion). Imperatives are sentences,<br />
which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb has <strong>the</strong> base form.<br />
Exclamatives are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how,<br />
usually <strong>with</strong> subject-verb order.”<br />
To <strong>the</strong>se types <strong>of</strong> sentences are normally associated four discourse functions:<br />
statements, questions, directives and exclamations. However, <strong>the</strong> association<br />
37
etween syntactic type and discourse function does not always match, as <strong>the</strong><br />
following case shows:<br />
“Give me a glass <strong>of</strong> water.” is an imperative, a directive.<br />
“Could you give me a glass <strong>of</strong> water?” is an interrogative, but semantically it<br />
is a directive, more precisely an indirect command.<br />
A statement can also function as an indirect command: “I’m thirsty.”<br />
So can exclamations: “What a fresh cold water!”<br />
Because most advertisements approximate to every-day conversation, <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
relatively free selection <strong>of</strong> sentence types. Leech <strong>of</strong>fers us <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research<br />
dealt <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> sentence types in English <strong>advertising</strong>: “…in <strong>the</strong> television<br />
sample, over one in thirty major independent clauses were interrogative, and over one<br />
in four major independent clauses were imperative.”<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, according to <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research, we can say, that <strong>the</strong> second most<br />
widely used sentence type after declarative type are <strong>the</strong> imperative clauses.<br />
However, this research does not say anything about <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> direct and<br />
indirect commands. We cannot identify <strong>the</strong> imperative sentence type <strong>with</strong> discourse<br />
function. Imperative is not <strong>the</strong> same as directive. We may say that <strong>the</strong> imperative is<br />
always a directive but a directive need not necessarily be an imperative.<br />
Copywriters use imperatives, because it creates a sense <strong>of</strong> “one person is<br />
talking to ano<strong>the</strong>r (…) because all ads are urging us to some action.” Leech<br />
establishes certain groups <strong>of</strong> verbal items, which are especially frequent in imperative<br />
clauses:<br />
Items, which have to do <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> acquisition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product: get, buy, ask<br />
for, choose, etc.<br />
Items, which have to do <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> consumption or use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product: have,<br />
try, use, enjoy, etc.<br />
Items, which act as appeals for notice: look, see, watch, remember, make<br />
sure, etc.<br />
“Prohibitive warnings are very infrequent. (…) Only about one imperative in fifty is<br />
accompanied by a negative form.” (Leech 1972: 111)<br />
Myers accentuates <strong>the</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> ‘please’ in imperative sentences and lack <strong>of</strong><br />
politeness. “One explanation may be that in our culture we cut out <strong>the</strong> politeness<br />
devices if we are asking somebody to do something that benefits <strong>the</strong> hearer, not <strong>the</strong><br />
speaker, like in phrase “Take a seat.” ” (Myers 1997: 48)<br />
38
Why do advertisements use questions? It is for <strong>the</strong> same reason as why <strong>the</strong>y<br />
use commands: it evokes <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> personal communication in <strong>the</strong> reader. It causes<br />
that <strong>the</strong> reader cooperates <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> text having his own individual situation in mind.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> copywriters cannot expect <strong>the</strong> direct answer and feedback (as we have<br />
mentioned in section about public communication above), <strong>the</strong>y expect <strong>the</strong> readers to<br />
answer <strong>the</strong>mselves silently. Ano<strong>the</strong>r reason is <strong>the</strong> presupposition. Presuppositions<br />
are present in any communication and many questions presuppose something. Here<br />
comes an example <strong>of</strong> it:<br />
“Why do leading beauty experts and models use and recommend Perfectil?”<br />
In this case, we can deduce and belief from <strong>the</strong> content <strong>of</strong> this advertisement that<br />
beauty experts and models use and recommend Perfectil.<br />
In <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>, presupposition is very frequent way <strong>of</strong> expressing <strong>the</strong><br />
content. Advertisers ra<strong>the</strong>r use presupposition than assertion because it is much easier<br />
to deny an assertion than a presupposition:<br />
<strong>The</strong> statement “Leading beauty experts and models use and recommend<br />
Perfectil.” one may oppose: “I don’t believe. No way.” But in question mentioned<br />
above, <strong>the</strong> receiver is unconsciously led to believe that <strong>the</strong> content is truthful and that<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are no doubts about <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong>y use and recommend it. Ano<strong>the</strong>r example <strong>of</strong><br />
presupposition is following:<br />
“Just <strong>the</strong> touch <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> button gives you voice control <strong>of</strong> your music, climate<br />
control and your Bluetooth hands-free phone.”<br />
It presupposes that <strong>the</strong> car will certainly have got a button, radio player, air-condition<br />
and hands-free set and that everything will be able to be controlled by voice.<br />
Angela Goddard writes that presupposition is “all about reading between lines;<br />
since this is, as it suggests, a hidden process, it is very interesting to advertisers, as we<br />
can be taking in all sorts <strong>of</strong> assumptions <strong>with</strong>out consciously paying attention to<br />
<strong>the</strong>m.” (Goddard 1998: 125)<br />
In advertisements, <strong>the</strong>re are <strong>of</strong>ten cases where <strong>the</strong> question is stated as kind <strong>of</strong> a<br />
‘problem’ and <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> text <strong>of</strong>fers an answer – ‘a solution’ for <strong>the</strong> problem:<br />
“Got wedding on <strong>the</strong> brain? Time to visit our new website.”<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r typical type <strong>of</strong> question used in <strong>advertising</strong> is rhetorical question. It<br />
assumes only one possible answer:<br />
“What more could anyone ask from a Clarins gift?”<br />
<strong>The</strong> implied answer to this is “Of course, nothing.”<br />
39
<strong>The</strong>re is one o<strong>the</strong>r sentence type plentifully presented in advertisements –<br />
exclamatives. <strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> exclamation marks is very liberal and widespread. (We may<br />
notice that exclamation marks are more frequently used in exclamations than in<br />
imperatives in English; that is why it is called ‘exclamation mark’ and not ‘imperative<br />
mark’; while in Slovak <strong>the</strong> exclamation mark is more <strong>of</strong>ten used in imperatives than<br />
in English.)<br />
“And, it’s already wrapped!”<br />
Exclamations may have <strong>the</strong> sentence structure as simple statements, but <strong>the</strong><br />
exclamation mark tells us to read <strong>the</strong>m emphatically.<br />
4.3.2 Sentence structure<br />
In this part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> work, we shall focus our attention on <strong>the</strong> structure <strong>of</strong> sentences<br />
in <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>. We will mention <strong>the</strong> most important structural tendencies<br />
used by copywriters.<br />
4.3.2.1 Schematic pattering<br />
<strong>The</strong> formal schemes can be represented in various ways. Parallelism is one <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> schematic pattering. It can be defined as “repetition <strong>of</strong> formal patterns”<br />
(Leech 1972: 186). Parallelism means <strong>the</strong> parallel presentation <strong>of</strong> two or more than<br />
two similar or relevant ideas in similar structural forms. It is a rhetorical device<br />
heightening <strong>the</strong> emotional tone <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> message and its importance. We <strong>of</strong>fer here an<br />
example <strong>of</strong> parallelism <strong>of</strong> clause <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> same structural pattern:<br />
“Tips for a good night’s sleep: - Drink less caffeine.<br />
- Take warm baths.<br />
- Arrange your insurance <strong>with</strong> NFU<br />
Mutual.”<br />
Each clause has <strong>the</strong> same idea and structure beginning <strong>with</strong> verb in imperative<br />
following by direct object. <strong>The</strong> typography and layout <strong>of</strong>ten contributes to <strong>the</strong> text; in<br />
this case, each clause is printed in separate line. <strong>The</strong> last clause makes up a semantic<br />
and formal parallel to first two clauses. Parallelism is <strong>of</strong>ten accompanied by<br />
- anaphora – “<strong>the</strong> repetition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same word or group <strong>of</strong> words at <strong>the</strong><br />
beginning <strong>of</strong> several consecutive sentences or verses to emphasize an<br />
40
image or a concept” (http://www.wikipedia.org/):<br />
“Explore <strong>the</strong> hills. Explore <strong>the</strong> rivers. Explore <strong>the</strong> mountains. Explore <strong>the</strong><br />
sea.”<br />
- epiphora - “<strong>the</strong> repetition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same word or words at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong><br />
successive phrases, clauses or sentences.” (http://www.wikipedia.org/)<br />
“See new. Hear new. Feel new.”<br />
We suppose that an antimetabole is ano<strong>the</strong>r form <strong>of</strong> schematic pattering. It is<br />
defined as “<strong>the</strong> repetition <strong>of</strong> words in successive clauses, but in reverse grammatical<br />
order, e.g. ‘I know what I like, and I like what I know’.” (http://www.wikipedia.org/):<br />
“Instead <strong>of</strong> moving <strong>the</strong> furniture around, why not move around <strong>the</strong> furniture?”<br />
Schematic pattering occurs in all levels <strong>of</strong> <strong>language</strong>. Anaphora, epiphora,<br />
alliteration, assonance and anti<strong>the</strong>sis also belong to techniques <strong>of</strong> schematic pattering.<br />
4.3.2.2 Ellipsis<br />
Ellipsis belongs to cohesive devices and it is defined as “<strong>the</strong> omission <strong>of</strong> part<br />
<strong>of</strong> a structure.” (Goddard 1998: 123). Ellipsis in <strong>advertising</strong> is used for many<br />
purposes:<br />
For economical reasons; to save space and money because words cost<br />
money.<br />
Guy Cook (Cook 1996: 170) gives following example <strong>of</strong> anaphoric textual ellipsis:<br />
“When Lisa made a surprise visit, you didn’t have time to worry about spotted<br />
glasses. Fortunately, you didn’t have to. Cascade. Because you don’t have<br />
time for spots.”<br />
<strong>The</strong> second orthographic sentence contains ellipsis:<br />
Fortunately, you didn’t have to Ø Ø Ø Ø<br />
= Fortunately, you didn’t have to worry about spotted glasses.<br />
<strong>The</strong> ellipted elements correspond to <strong>the</strong> preceding sentence. Repetition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
elements would be needless. <strong>The</strong>re is ellipsis also in <strong>the</strong> last two orthographic<br />
sentences ‘Cascade’ (a single word) and ‘Because <strong>of</strong> you don’t have time for spots’ (a<br />
subordinate clause). Cook suggests: “In <strong>the</strong> latter case, a main clause seems to have<br />
been ellipted in entirety. But <strong>the</strong> missing elements are by no means clear.” <strong>The</strong> main<br />
clause we can only deduce.<br />
41
It may be started <strong>with</strong><br />
“You ought to use Cascade…<br />
“You ought to buy Cascade… …because you don’t have time for spots.”<br />
“We recommend Cascade…<br />
“To avoid drawing attention to features <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> message which do not serve<br />
<strong>the</strong> advertiser’s interest” (Cook 1996: 169)<br />
To create a sense <strong>of</strong> informality. Ellipsis is normally used in spoken<br />
<strong>language</strong>, in face-to-face casual communication. Ellipsis in <strong>advertising</strong><br />
creates an effect <strong>of</strong> closeness <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> reader and conversational tone;<br />
sometimes suggests immediacy.<br />
In <strong>advertising</strong>, we can find many examples <strong>of</strong> situational ellipsis <strong>of</strong><br />
interrogative clauses:<br />
“Expecting guests?”<br />
In this case, we can observe <strong>the</strong> omission <strong>of</strong> subject and operator:<br />
= “(Are you) expecting guests?”<br />
It creates proximity and intimacy. “…it is indicative <strong>of</strong> shared knowledge<br />
and interests, (…) it suggests a trusting relationship, in which people<br />
assume a desire to understand on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir interlocutor.” (Cook<br />
1996: 171). “…people who know each o<strong>the</strong>r well don’t need to be all that<br />
explicit about <strong>the</strong>ir meanings, because <strong>the</strong>y know <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r person will fill<br />
in <strong>the</strong> gap as a result <strong>of</strong> shared knowledge and shared history.” (Goddard<br />
1998: 42):<br />
“Nespresso. What else?”<br />
This is <strong>the</strong> advertisement headline for a c<strong>of</strong>fee. Everybody may recognize that <strong>the</strong><br />
person, who asks <strong>the</strong> question, is a waitress in a café. <strong>The</strong> whole utterance may be<br />
“You’ll take Nespresso. What else would you like to drink?” It is clear to everybody<br />
that ‘What else’ means that <strong>the</strong>y can order something more.<br />
<strong>The</strong> intention to make short dynamic slogans leads to <strong>the</strong> tendency to use <strong>the</strong><br />
symbol <strong>of</strong> colon between two noun phrases:<br />
“Summer 2005: True Bronze.”<br />
We can complete <strong>the</strong> expression <strong>with</strong> deduced words:<br />
“In summer 2005, <strong>with</strong> Clinique cosmetics you may take pleasure in true<br />
bronze skin.”<br />
42
4.3.2.3 Incomplete sentences<br />
In <strong>advertising</strong> text, one can read whole advertisement <strong>with</strong>out coming across a<br />
main verb. <strong>The</strong>re is a widely spread tendency to punctuate phrases. One reason is, that<br />
<strong>the</strong> reader <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> advertisement turns to <strong>the</strong> visual layout, which provides him many<br />
clues to correct interpretation, so <strong>the</strong> explicit structure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sentence is not so<br />
important. A L’OREAL advertisement text ( 10 ) says:<br />
“Revolutionary lift. Revolutionary results. REVITALIFT DOUBLE LIFTING.<br />
Intense Re-Tightening Gel + Anti-Wrinkle Treatment.”<br />
It is accompanied not only by <strong>the</strong> picture, but also by <strong>the</strong> body copy explaining <strong>the</strong><br />
phrases above. We can supply more possibilities in <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phrases, for<br />
example:<br />
“If you /For those who want/need a revolutionary lift <strong>of</strong> your skin and to see<br />
revolutionary results, try/buy Revitalift Double Lifting Intense Re-Tightening<br />
Gel and Anti-Wrinkle Treatment.”<br />
“<strong>The</strong> effect is to suggest that we already have <strong>the</strong>se desires, that <strong>the</strong>y are completing<br />
our own thoughts.” (Myers 1997: 56)<br />
Following advertisement shows <strong>the</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> linking verb:<br />
“<strong>The</strong> curls <strong>of</strong> your dreams. Now available when you’re awake.”<br />
We may connect <strong>the</strong>se two incomplete sentences <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> linking verb ‘are’. In this<br />
case, <strong>the</strong> verb can be clearly deduced from <strong>the</strong> context and integrated, but <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
cases where <strong>the</strong> tense and aspect are not so definite. Ano<strong>the</strong>r reason for omitting verbs<br />
is that <strong>the</strong>re is no importance to define nei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> tense nor <strong>the</strong> aspect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verb or it<br />
would be cumbersome.<br />
4.4 Semantic aspect<br />
Each linguistic expression has its literal meaning. Literal meaning denotes<br />
what it means according to common or dictionary usage (or more exactly, what “<strong>the</strong><br />
reader is most likely to assign to a word or phrase if he or she knows nothing about<br />
<strong>the</strong> context in which it is to be used.” (http://www.wikipedia.org/)). <strong>The</strong> same<br />
linguistic expression, however, may have also its figurative meaning. It connotes<br />
43
additional layers <strong>of</strong> meaning and evokes associations; for example, <strong>the</strong> word<br />
‘pr<strong>of</strong>essional’ has connotations <strong>of</strong> skill and excellence. It is not possible to give an<br />
exhaustive account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> connotations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> expression, because connotative<br />
meanings, which have been evoked in an individual, depend on people’s entire<br />
previous experiences and on conventions <strong>of</strong> community. <strong>The</strong>refore, <strong>the</strong> connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same expression will differ slightly from person to person. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong><br />
same denotations can have different connotations in different context. Vestergaard<br />
and Schroder (Vestergaard and Schroder 1985) believe that in <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>,<br />
<strong>the</strong> most frequent word for ‘acquisition <strong>of</strong> product’ is ‘get’, and not ‘buy’, because<br />
‘buy’ has some unpleasant connotations, like ‘money’ and <strong>the</strong> parting <strong>with</strong> it.<br />
For people, associations are very powerful, so <strong>the</strong> advertisers pay attention to<br />
this aspect <strong>of</strong> <strong>language</strong>. <strong>The</strong>y play <strong>with</strong> colours, because colours may have various<br />
positive or negative connotations: innocence / snow / ice / race, and o<strong>the</strong>rs for white;<br />
passion / blood / stop signal /fire for red; etc. <strong>The</strong>y must be careful about <strong>the</strong> target<br />
group, because each culture may have different connotations to <strong>the</strong> same expressions:<br />
in Chinese and Indian tradition, white is <strong>the</strong> color <strong>of</strong> mourning, death, and ghosts. In<br />
India, white also stands for peace and purity. Red colour in Eastern European<br />
countries may have slightly negative connotation in relation to <strong>the</strong> identification <strong>of</strong><br />
communism <strong>with</strong> "socialist" red.<br />
A trope is “a word or phrase that is used in a way that is different from its<br />
usual meaning in order to create a particular mental image or effect.” (Oxford<br />
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 2001). It is a figurative expression. In this part, we<br />
give a list <strong>of</strong> most important tropes used in <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong>: personification,<br />
simile, hyperbole, metaphor and metonymy. In relation to semantic aspect <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>language</strong>, we define also anti<strong>the</strong>sis, polysemy, and homonymy.<br />
4.4.1 Personification<br />
Personification is a term used mainly in literature to name <strong>the</strong> figure <strong>of</strong> speech,<br />
which “involves directly speaking <strong>of</strong> an inanimate object, or an abstract concept, as if<br />
it were a living entity, <strong>of</strong>ten one <strong>with</strong> specifically human attributes. <strong>The</strong>se attributes<br />
may include sensations, emotions, desires, physical gestures and expressions, and<br />
powers <strong>of</strong> speech, among o<strong>the</strong>rs.” (http://www.wikipedia.org/). <strong>The</strong> readers <strong>of</strong><br />
advertisements usually do not register or realize that <strong>the</strong>re is used personification in<br />
<strong>the</strong> text. It is used very widely – in all <strong>the</strong> expressions like “…(name <strong>of</strong> a facial<br />
44
crème) gives you silky skin”, “…(name <strong>of</strong> a product) fulfills your wishes” or “Dirty<br />
kitchen? Nothing cleans it up like … (name <strong>of</strong> a cleaner)” are on <strong>the</strong> base <strong>of</strong><br />
personification <strong>of</strong> a brand name: a cleaner ‘cleans’, but even thought, cleaning is an<br />
activity proper to human beings.<br />
4.4.2 Simile<br />
Simile is defined as “a direct, expressed comparison between two things<br />
essentially unlike each o<strong>the</strong>r, but resembling each o<strong>the</strong>r in at least one way.”<br />
(http://home.cfl.rr.com/eghsap/apterms.html).<br />
Usually, similes are marked by use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> words ‘like’, ‘than’, ‘as’ or ‘as if’.<br />
We may also find comparative constructions used when comparing two things or two<br />
situations: “as…as”, “so…as”.<br />
“Ibuleve gel as fast & effective as pills? Now <strong>the</strong>re’s clinical evidence.”<br />
“Breakfast <strong>with</strong>out orange juice is like a day <strong>with</strong>out sunshine.” (Myers<br />
1997: 125)<br />
4.4.3 Hyperbole<br />
A hyperbole is “<strong>the</strong> deliberate use <strong>of</strong> overstatement or exaggeration to achieve<br />
emphasis. Businessmen and manufacturers use <strong>the</strong> figure <strong>of</strong> speech to advertise <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
goods in as attractive a way as possible.”mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm<br />
(http://www.<strong>language</strong>inindia.com/march2005/<strong>advertising</strong>englishhongkong1.html):<br />
“No o<strong>the</strong>r pain-relieving gel works like Deep Relief.”<br />
“<strong>The</strong> best just got bigger!”<br />
“<strong>The</strong> number one to Eastern Europe.”<br />
4.4.4 Metaphor<br />
A metaphor is very difficult issue to define and <strong>the</strong>re are many ways how to<br />
define it. We shall introduce here a definition <strong>of</strong> metaphor from Oxford Advanced<br />
Learner’s Dictionary: it is “a word or phrase used in an imaginative way to describe<br />
sb/sth else, in order to show that <strong>the</strong> two things have <strong>the</strong> same qualities and to make<br />
<strong>the</strong> description more powerful.” Lak<strong>of</strong>f and Johnson in <strong>the</strong>ir book (Lak<strong>of</strong>f and<br />
Johnson 1980) define metaphor as “statements and/or pictures which cause a receiver<br />
to experience one thing in terms <strong>of</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r.”, for example:<br />
“Clearly, Mo<strong>the</strong>r Nature is a romantic.”<br />
45
A single metaphor may be worth <strong>of</strong> a hundred words <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> text. It has<br />
an interesting value and stimulates <strong>the</strong> curiosity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reader about <strong>the</strong> product. In<br />
<strong>advertising</strong>, a metaphor usually creates a comparison between <strong>the</strong> product or service<br />
and some o<strong>the</strong>r quality <strong>the</strong> advertiser wishes to be associated <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> product or<br />
service advertised:<br />
“One touch. One light, effortless touch and she realized freedom was<br />
something you feel.”<br />
This advertisement is for Revlon face powder. <strong>The</strong> sentence indicates that <strong>the</strong> freedom<br />
is actually <strong>the</strong> powder, because when you put <strong>the</strong> powder on your face, you will feel<br />
free.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are two types <strong>of</strong> metaphor: verbal and visual. Visual metaphors do not<br />
relate only to words, but <strong>the</strong>y depict relationships between a product or service and<br />
some object or visual element <strong>with</strong> qualities that <strong>the</strong> advertiser wishes to attribute to<br />
<strong>the</strong> product or service. In print <strong>advertising</strong>, visual metaphor is widely used, because it<br />
takes advantage from <strong>the</strong> possibility to accompany <strong>the</strong> text by <strong>the</strong> image (or vice<br />
versa). <strong>The</strong> following advertisement for deodorant clear stick would be<br />
incomprehensible <strong>with</strong>out <strong>the</strong> picture explanation ( 11 ):<br />
“AVOID UNWANTED CHRISTMAS DECORATIONS.”<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r advertisement for Austrian Airlines ( 12 ) says:<br />
“<strong>The</strong> number one to Eastern Europe.”<br />
A picture <strong>of</strong> caviar on a plate designed in a way that each small ball <strong>of</strong> caviar<br />
represents one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> European destinations makes <strong>the</strong> parallel between <strong>the</strong> caviar (it<br />
connotes luxury) and luxurious airlines.<br />
<strong>The</strong> picture <strong>of</strong> woman <strong>with</strong> a scarf ‘knitted’ from pills makes <strong>the</strong> relation<br />
between <strong>the</strong> pills Redoxon – all day defence ( 13 ):<br />
“Keep yourself covered all day.”<br />
Advertisements for perfumes <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>with</strong>out <strong>the</strong> body text but <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> picture<br />
<strong>of</strong> a young beautiful model in light transparent dress use a metaphorical implication: a<br />
perfume will ‘cover’ you in <strong>the</strong> same way like <strong>the</strong> dress gently covers <strong>the</strong> woman in<br />
<strong>the</strong> picture.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are cases, in which a famous person stands for and represents <strong>the</strong> whole<br />
brand. <strong>The</strong> qualities <strong>of</strong> him or her are attributed or aligned <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> qualities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
46
product, as in <strong>the</strong> following advertisement for charm bracelet. Sasha Cohen, a famous<br />
figure skater, represents <strong>the</strong> unstoppable quality and charm <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product:<br />
“UNSTOPPABLE Charm SASHA COHEN HAS IT. So does her Citizen<br />
Eco-Drive.”<br />
<strong>The</strong> simplest <strong>advertising</strong> phrase pattern is <strong>the</strong> pattern <strong>of</strong> a brand name (one element)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> additional phrase in apposition (second element). It creates a metaphorical<br />
parallelism between a product and a feature or quality to which is compared:<br />
“Infusium 23. A remedy for your hair.”<br />
4.4.5 Metonymy<br />
A metonymy is “<strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a single characteristic to identify a more complex<br />
entity. (…) It is extremely common for people to take one well-understood or easy-toperceive<br />
aspect <strong>of</strong> something and use that aspect to stand ei<strong>the</strong>r for <strong>the</strong> thing as a<br />
whole or for some o<strong>the</strong>r aspect or part <strong>of</strong> it.” (http://www.wikipedia.org/)<br />
Wikipedia <strong>of</strong>fers some clear, commonly used examples <strong>of</strong> metonymy: ‘<strong>The</strong><br />
press’ for <strong>the</strong> news media, ‘Wall Street’ for <strong>the</strong> American financial industry, ‘<strong>The</strong><br />
Crown’ for <strong>the</strong> British monarchy. Among o<strong>the</strong>r examples belong following sentences:<br />
‘He reads Shakespeare.’ (= his books), ‘I drink Champagne’ (= a drink), etc.<br />
In advertisements, an associated word <strong>of</strong>ten expresses <strong>the</strong> whole group: ‘I like<br />
Volvo’ (= Volvo cars), ‘woman is an uncharted territory’ (= all <strong>the</strong> women), ‘a<br />
fragrance <strong>of</strong> Sabatiny’ (= perfumes made by Sabatiny).<br />
4.4.6 Anti<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
“Anti<strong>the</strong>sis is a figure <strong>of</strong> speech, which uses <strong>the</strong> same or similar structure to<br />
express two opposite ideas so as to achieve <strong>the</strong> effects <strong>of</strong> emphasizing <strong>the</strong> meaning<br />
and <strong>the</strong> contrast. <strong>The</strong> figure has <strong>the</strong> characteristics <strong>of</strong> harmonious combination <strong>of</strong><br />
sound and rhyme, balanced syllables, sharp rhythm and compendiousness. <strong>The</strong><br />
combination <strong>of</strong> pleasant senses <strong>of</strong> vision and hearing <strong>of</strong>ten stimulates <strong>the</strong> good<br />
feelings <strong>of</strong> readers and arouses consumers' buying desire.”mmmmmmmmmmmm<br />
(http://www.<strong>language</strong>inindia.com/march2005/<strong>advertising</strong>englishhongkong1.html)<br />
Anti<strong>the</strong>sis relates to words, clauses or sentences. It is based on antonyms<br />
(words <strong>of</strong> opposite meaning) or opposite ideas:<br />
“Talks inside. Shouts outside. New 2006 Fiesta.”<br />
“Imagine a mini phone <strong>with</strong> maximum style and design.”<br />
47
“Feel <strong>the</strong> surge <strong>of</strong> calm.”<br />
4.4.7 Polysemy and homonymy<br />
According to Ladislav Trup, <strong>the</strong>re is a difference between polysemy and<br />
homonymy from <strong>the</strong> point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> etymology. A homonym is a lexeme, which has<br />
<strong>the</strong> same pronunciation and spelling as ano<strong>the</strong>r lexeme, but a different meaning, so<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is no semantic connection between <strong>the</strong> two lexemes, only phonological one<br />
(Trup 1999: 90). For example, ‘seal’ = 1. Sea animal (N), 2. A piece <strong>of</strong> wax on letters<br />
and boxes (N); ‘fair’ = 1. Treating people equally (Adj), 2. A market at which animals<br />
were sold. (N).<br />
A polyseme is a lexeme <strong>with</strong> two or more multiple, related meanings, so <strong>the</strong><br />
connection is not only phonological, but also semantic. <strong>The</strong> additional meaning/-s are<br />
derived from <strong>the</strong> original meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lexeme: ‘seal’ = 1. A piece <strong>of</strong> wax on letters<br />
and boxes (N), 2. To close an envelope (V); ‘fair’ = 1. Animal market (N), 2. An<br />
event at which people, business, etc. show and sell <strong>the</strong>ir goods (N).<br />
It is usually very difficult to define, which <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> meanings is original and<br />
which are derived. Often it is difficult even to define whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> meanings are related<br />
or not. <strong>The</strong> following <strong>advertising</strong> shows an example <strong>of</strong> a polyseme ( 14 ):<br />
“To tackle weeds permanently you have to get to <strong>the</strong> Root <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> problem.”<br />
A picture shows <strong>the</strong> root <strong>of</strong> a plant in detail. <strong>The</strong> first meaning <strong>of</strong> ‘root’ is ‘<strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong><br />
a plant that grows under <strong>the</strong> ground, and <strong>the</strong> second meaning, which is related to <strong>the</strong><br />
first one by <strong>the</strong> value <strong>of</strong> ‘something substantial’ means ‘<strong>the</strong> main cause <strong>of</strong> a problem<br />
or difficult situation.’ In addition, <strong>the</strong> collocation ‘to get to <strong>the</strong> root <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> problem’<br />
has here both literal meaning (‘to get under <strong>the</strong> ground and get rid <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> root <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
problem = weed’) and figurative meaning (‘to find out <strong>the</strong> cause <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> problem’).<br />
48
5 RESEARCH PART<br />
5.1 <strong>The</strong> aims <strong>of</strong> research<br />
<strong>The</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> practical research analysis is to determine <strong>the</strong> use rate <strong>of</strong> linguistic<br />
means used in <strong>advertising</strong> slogans, even in relation to product specialization.<br />
5.2 Hypo<strong>the</strong>ses and questions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research<br />
1. What is <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> slogans containing ellipsis?<br />
2. What is <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> slogans containing phrasal verb?<br />
3. What is <strong>the</strong> percentage <strong>of</strong> slogans containing parallelism?<br />
4. On <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> observation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research sample, we suppose, that <strong>the</strong> most<br />
widely used sentence type is <strong>the</strong> imperative sentence type and <strong>the</strong> second most widely<br />
used is <strong>the</strong> declarative sentence type.<br />
5. On <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> Leech’s ideas (p. 30 <strong>of</strong> this work) we suppose, that <strong>the</strong> most<br />
widely used auxiliary verbs are ‘can’ and ‘will’.<br />
6. On <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> observation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research sample, we suppose, that <strong>the</strong><br />
majority <strong>of</strong> verbs is finite.<br />
7. On <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> Leech’s ideas (p. 30 <strong>of</strong> this work) we suppose, that <strong>the</strong><br />
majority <strong>of</strong> finite verbs is in present simple form (due <strong>of</strong> timelessness <strong>of</strong> present<br />
tense) and <strong>the</strong> second are future forms <strong>of</strong> verbs (due to promise something).<br />
8. On <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> observation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research sample, we suppose, that <strong>the</strong><br />
majority <strong>of</strong> slogans are <strong>of</strong> third person omniscient narrator.<br />
9. Because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fact, that advertisements usually describe qualities that can be<br />
measured in degrees, we suppose that <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> adjectives are gradable.<br />
10. On <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> observation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research sample, we suppose, that after<br />
basic form <strong>of</strong> adjectives (majority) <strong>the</strong> second most widely used form is comparative<br />
form.<br />
11. Slogans <strong>of</strong> which product specialization mostly use comparative adjectives?<br />
12. Slogans <strong>of</strong> which product specialization mostly use superlative adjectives?<br />
49
13. On <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fact that jewelry slogans put <strong>the</strong>ir attention to long-lasted<br />
tradition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir products (expressed in number <strong>of</strong> years), we suppose that <strong>the</strong><br />
majority <strong>of</strong> numerals are used specially in jewelry slogans.<br />
14. Which <strong>of</strong> three tropes (metaphor, personification, polysemy/homonymy) is<br />
most widely used in <strong>advertising</strong> slogans and in which product specialization?<br />
5.3 Research sample<br />
We observed <strong>the</strong> slogans from 270 random advertisements from <strong>the</strong> sample <strong>of</strong><br />
48 different copies (25 titles) <strong>of</strong> English-writing magazines from UK, USA and<br />
Slovakia. <strong>The</strong> sample did not contain newspapers. <strong>The</strong> magazines were <strong>of</strong> various<br />
types: political, technical, business-oriented, nature-oriented, cooking-oriented,<br />
women magazines, tabloids and scientific.<br />
5.4 Research methods and process <strong>of</strong> research<br />
First we wrote out <strong>the</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> slogans and collected <strong>the</strong> research material.<br />
Once completed <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong> slogans, we made a linguistic analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m and<br />
determined <strong>the</strong> linguistic means used in each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m (p. 51 – 71). We made an<br />
overall observation and stated questions and hypo<strong>the</strong>ses. <strong>The</strong>n we produced a table <strong>of</strong><br />
attributes for exact enumeration <strong>of</strong> linguistic means (supplement B). This table was<br />
<strong>the</strong> basis for <strong>the</strong> measurable evidence. From <strong>the</strong> table we could make <strong>the</strong> general<br />
statistics and consequently generate graphs and interpret data. <strong>The</strong> interpretations and<br />
explanations <strong>of</strong> graphs are on pages 72 – 76.<br />
50
Photography<br />
1. CATCH EVERY MOMENT.<br />
Imp.<br />
Olympus camera<br />
2. Winning results, time after time.<br />
idiom ‘time after time’ = on many or all occasions; Nph; comma is<br />
used unnecessarily; non-grad Adj<br />
Pentax camera<br />
3. Cameras at <strong>the</strong> ready, <strong>the</strong> 2004 Photo Award is here!<br />
ellipsis ‘Have <strong>the</strong> cameras at <strong>the</strong> ready’; idiom ‘at <strong>the</strong> ready’ = ready<br />
for immediate use; exclamation; clipping<br />
Panasonic<br />
4. THE TOUGHER THE BETTER..<br />
idiom ‘<strong>the</strong>…<strong>the</strong>…’; 2x grad Adj in comparative form<br />
Lowepro bags<br />
5. meet <strong>the</strong> king <strong>of</strong> prints<br />
Imp.; graphics; metaphor: ‘king’ = <strong>the</strong> best + visual metaphor:<br />
picture <strong>of</strong> Elvis Presley (king <strong>of</strong> music); assonance <strong>of</strong> /i/; hyperbole<br />
Photobox online<br />
laboratory<br />
6. Perfect Pictures Posted Pronto<br />
ellipses <strong>of</strong> verb ‘Pictures are Posted’; non-fin. V; alliteration <strong>of</strong> /p/;<br />
rhythm; ‘pronto’ (informal); non-grad Adj<br />
Photobox online<br />
laboratory<br />
7. Photospeed. Inspiring perfection.<br />
apposition; parataxis; metaphor: ‘Photospeed is perfection’; 2x Nph;<br />
grad Adj in basic form<br />
Photospeed<br />
8. Expanding your creativity <strong>with</strong> Interfit.<br />
Dec.; non-finite V<br />
Interfit<br />
9. <strong>The</strong> route to better photography<br />
Nph; metaphor; grad Adj. in comparative form; ‘photography’ =<br />
metonymy for all photographs<br />
Sekonic<br />
10. Sharing Your Passion For Photography<br />
Dec.; ellipses <strong>of</strong> subject and verb ‘We are/Elinchrom is sharing…’;<br />
non-finite V; sound //<br />
elinchrom<br />
11. You can CANON<br />
Dec.; AuxV; conversion <strong>with</strong> brand name<br />
Canon<br />
12. JESSOPS. NO. 1 IN PHOTOGRAPHY<br />
apposition; parataxis; metaphor; 2x Nph; Num<br />
JESSOPS<br />
13. make <strong>the</strong> paper work better<br />
Imp.; assonance <strong>of</strong> /ei/; personification ‘paper to work’; grad Adj in<br />
comparative form<br />
Imajet paper<br />
14. NEOTEC. THE ONLY TRIPOD WITH BUILT-IN ZOOM.<br />
apposition; parataxis; metaphor; 2x Nph; non-grad Adj + compound<br />
Adj.; hyperbole<br />
NEOTEC<br />
15. 15 When you only get one chance, take it <strong>with</strong> Fujifilm.<br />
Imp.; ‘get one chance’ = collocation; ellipsis ‘chance to take a<br />
photo’; cohesion it a) take it – chance (idiom) b) take it – photo;<br />
finV; present; active<br />
Fujifilm<br />
16. “It’s <strong>the</strong> abstract in nature that fascinates me – <strong>the</strong> ability to make<br />
you see things completely anew.” Daren Seymour<br />
quotation; intertextuality<br />
Fujifilm<br />
51
Good Food<br />
17. GET HEALTHIER WITH 5 MINUTES OF CRUNCHES EVERY<br />
DAY.<br />
Imp.; grad Adj in comparative form; Num; metonymy – ‘crunches =<br />
eating crunches’<br />
Ryvita<br />
18. Solgar ingredients are selected on quality. Not price.<br />
Dec.; parataxis; fin. V; passive; present; new rheme<br />
Solgar<br />
19. Waitrose. <strong>The</strong> best <strong>of</strong> everything this Christmas.<br />
apposition; parataxis; metaphor; 2x Nph; grad Adj in superlative form;<br />
hyperbole<br />
Waitrose<br />
champagne<br />
20. expecting guests?<br />
Bigham’s gourmet canapés … just pop <strong>the</strong>m in <strong>the</strong> oven for 10<br />
minutes, relax & wait for <strong>the</strong> doorbell to ring!<br />
Int.; ellipsis ‘Are you expecting…’; non-finV; ellipsis – ‘Take<br />
Bigham’s gourmet canapés and <strong>the</strong>n just pop <strong>the</strong>m…’; genitive; grad<br />
Adj in basic form; 3x Imp.; cohesion ‘<strong>the</strong>m’; Num; metaphor –<br />
ringing doorbell = guests; hyperbole<br />
Bigham<br />
21. Real stock. Real simple. Knorr Simply Stock is just that.<br />
Nph; AdjPh; metaphor; parataxis; anaphora; parallelism; Dec.;<br />
present; finV; active; hyperbole<br />
Knorr<br />
22. If your kitchen costs less you can work less.<br />
Dec.; 2x present; 2x finV; 2x active; 2x grad Adj in comparative<br />
form.; AuxV; logical implication<br />
IKEA<br />
23. Live your life, love your home.<br />
parallelism; 2x Imp.; alliteration <strong>of</strong> /l/; rhythm; metaphor: If you love<br />
your home and live your life, IKEA is for you.<br />
IKEA<br />
24. Life shouldn’t be this easy. 2 – tronic fingertip gears. Convenient gear<br />
changing that’s always <strong>with</strong>in reach. Also <strong>with</strong> electric sliding doors.<br />
From only £10.850.<br />
Dec.; AuxV; parataxis; 2x Nph; Num; 2x compound Adj; 4x non-grad<br />
Adj; grad Adj in basic form; finV; present; active; ‘<strong>with</strong>in reach’ =<br />
collocation; hyperbole<br />
Peugeot<br />
25. Burgundy. <strong>The</strong> home <strong>of</strong> Pinot Noir.<br />
apposition; parataxis; metaphor; 2x Nph; metonymy – ‘Pinot Noir’<br />
stands for all Burgundy wines<br />
Burgundy wine<br />
26. Jus-Rol TM Jus delicious. Cook this simple but stunning recipe in jus Jus-Rol ready<br />
20 minutes.<br />
ellipsis – ‘Jus Rol are Jus delicious.’; unpredictable spelling <strong>of</strong> ‘just’;<br />
pun <strong>of</strong> a brand name; Imp.; 2x epi<strong>the</strong>t; sound <strong>of</strong> /s/; Num; hyperbole;<br />
3x grad Adj in basic form<br />
pastry sheets<br />
27. <strong>The</strong> ideal Christmas present. (And, it’s already wrapped!)<br />
Treat yourself to something special, try Wyke Farms Farmhouse<br />
Cheddar.<br />
Nph; 2x grad Adj in basic form; parataxis; Dec.; exclamation; present;<br />
passive; finV; 2x Imp.; hyperbole; rhyme; rhythm<br />
WYKE FARMS<br />
28. It’s never just ano<strong>the</strong>r day.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; hyperbole; metaphor<br />
Arniston Bay<br />
wine<br />
52
29. 1000 years <strong>of</strong> heritage Arniston Bay<br />
wine<br />
Num; Nph<br />
30. SPANISH CLEMENTINES ARE NATURE’S SWEETS.<br />
ALL THE GOODNESS OF THE SPANISH SUN IN ITS OWN<br />
PHONE LITTLE WRAPPER.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; non-grad Adj; 2x metaphor; genitive;<br />
epi<strong>the</strong>t; grad Adj in basic form; ellipsis <strong>of</strong> verb ‘<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Spanish sun is<br />
in…’; clipping<br />
31. 1 AROMA GENEROSO Bertolli sauce<br />
Nph; foreign word; epi<strong>the</strong>t<br />
32. Talks inside. Shouts outside. New 2006 Fiesta. Ford<br />
2x Dec.; parataxis; parallelism; anti<strong>the</strong>sis; ellipsis ‘It talks…’; 2x<br />
finV; 2x active; 2x present; grad Adj. in basic form; Num<br />
33. Oh! that’s smart! Oh! that’s delicious! Oh! that’s quick! Samsung oven<br />
6x exclamation.; 3x finV; 3x present; 3x active; 3x grad Adj in basic<br />
form; parallelism, anaphora<br />
34. Get juicing <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> Magimix Le duo Magimix juicer<br />
Imp.; conversion: ‘juice’ (N) new word ‘to juice’ (V)<br />
35. Potty about food? a Gastronaut<br />
book<br />
Int.; ellipsis ‘Are you potty…’; grad Adj in basic form<br />
36. It is a pleasure to eat good meat. Campbell’s<br />
Dec.; finV; active; present; non-finV; rhyme ‘eat – meat’; grad Adj in<br />
basic form<br />
37. Simply süper for süpper parties! Available in Sainsburys, Tesco and<br />
Computer act!ve<br />
Waitrose and o<strong>the</strong>r Gü-d supermarkets.<br />
53<br />
GÜ chocolate<br />
puds<br />
Dec.; exclamation; 2x ellipsis ‘It is simply/ It is available …’;<br />
unpredictable spelling ‘süper’for ‘super’ + ‘Gü-d’ for ‘good’ –<br />
adapted acc. to brand name GÜ<br />
38. BioFresh & NoFrost – a cool combination Liebherr fridge<br />
‘cool’ – homonymy/polysemy 1. very cold, 2. non-problematic, great;<br />
2x Nph; metaphor<br />
39. EAT TO YOUR HEART’S CONTENT… Mornflake<br />
idiom = as much as you want; Imp.<br />
40. Enjoy more <strong>of</strong> your favourite entertainment. MESH computers<br />
Imp.; grad Adj in comparative form; grad Adj in basic form<br />
41. .euphoria. STRATO is giving away 100.000 .eu Domains Europe<br />
wide!<br />
STRATO<br />
webmaster<br />
Nph; unpredictable spelling; personification ‘Strato is giving away’;<br />
PhrV ‘give away’ = as a gift; Num; non-grad Adj; compound; Dec.;<br />
exclamation; finV; present, active<br />
42. Clear Picture, Clean Sound – PureAV AV home cinema<br />
3x Nph; parallelism; alliteration in /kl/; metaphor; 3x grad Adj in<br />
basic form
43. Sony recommends Windows XP for Business.<br />
More than you’d expect<br />
Gardeners’ World<br />
Less than you thought<br />
54<br />
Sony<br />
2x Dec.; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x active; anti<strong>the</strong>sis; parallelism;<br />
comparison; 2x grad Adj in comparative form; ellipsis ‘It is more<br />
than…and less…’; AuxV<br />
44. <strong>the</strong> biggest brands at low low prices dabs.com<br />
Nph; grad Adj in superlative form; hyperbole; grad Adj in basic<br />
form; pleonasm<br />
45. 16 Tiny dots. Astonishing detail. Canon<br />
2x NPh; alliteration in /t/ and /d/; 2x grad Adj in basic form<br />
46. 14 To tackle weeds permanently you have to get to <strong>the</strong> Root <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
problem.<br />
non-finV; Dec.; AuxV; poysemy –root; collocation ‘get to <strong>the</strong> root <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> problem’; metaphor – ‘problem’ = ‘weeds’<br />
Bayer Garden<br />
47. <strong>The</strong> Iron Rose<br />
connotation ‘iron’ = ‘very strong and resistant’ like if it were from<br />
iron; Nph<br />
Bayer Garden<br />
48. Gladiators <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> garden, advance and choose your weapons.<br />
addressing; metaphor – ‘gladiators’ are ‘brushcutters’; 2x Imp.;<br />
metaphor – ‘weapons’ = good knives, for example<br />
Efco brushcutter<br />
49. Pr<strong>of</strong>essional results start <strong>with</strong> STIHL.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; grad Adj in basic form<br />
STIHL<br />
50. <strong>The</strong> complete range <strong>of</strong> versatile master gardeners<br />
Nph; 3x grad Adj in basic form; metaphor – ‘gardener’ = tractor<br />
tractors<br />
51. 17 Looks different works better. Viking 6 series. Easy start, quick<br />
finish.<br />
Dec.; ellipsis ‘It looks… and works…’; parataxis; 2x finV; present;<br />
active; 2x parallelism; anti<strong>the</strong>sis; 3x Nph; 3x grad Adj in basic form;<br />
grad Adj in comparative form; visual metaphor: a goat <strong>with</strong> a missile<br />
on its back<br />
Viking mower<br />
52. Not trying it would be a Greek tragedy.<br />
non-finV; AuxV; Dec.; intertextuality<br />
CARTE D’OR<br />
icecream<br />
53. aD’ORABLE<br />
a word pun<br />
CARTE D’OR<br />
54. No o<strong>the</strong>r pain-relieving gel works like Deep Relief.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; hyperbole; compound Adj<br />
Deep Relief<br />
55. Let’s get composting.<br />
Imp.; collocation ‘get + V-ing’ = to do it now<br />
56. Food for Thought! Blueberries and strawberries to grow at home!<br />
2x exclamation; idiom ‘food for thought’ = ‘an idea that makes you<br />
think seriously and carefully’, non-finV; idiom ‘at home’<br />
57. John Deer. Nothing Runs Like A Deer.<br />
apposition; Nph; hyperbole; Dec.; finV; active; present;<br />
personification ‘Deer runs’; metonymy – ‘a Deer’ for John Deer<br />
mowers; figurative mean. ‘Nothing runs like a deer’ (animal +<br />
mower)<br />
John Deere<br />
mower
58. 18 Pressed on Boxford Farm, Suffolk.<br />
Dec.; non-finV; visual simile ‘pressed’ like flowers are pressed<br />
Copella Apple<br />
juice<br />
59. Wyevale blooms in summertime<br />
graphics: i in ‘summertime’ in form <strong>of</strong> a flower; Dec.; finV; present;<br />
active; personification ‘Wyevale blooms’<br />
Wyevale<br />
60. <strong>The</strong> 4head Garden <strong>of</strong> Dreams<br />
unpredictable spelling; 4head = forehead + for head; epi<strong>the</strong>t; Nph<br />
natural headache<br />
treatment<br />
61. Ibuleve gel as fast & effective as pills? Now <strong>the</strong>re’s clinical Ibuleve<br />
eve<br />
Reveal<br />
evidence.<br />
Ellipsis ‘Is Ibuleve…’; Int.; simile; 2x grad Adj in basic form; Dec.;<br />
finV; present; active; non-grad Adj<br />
62. Is <strong>the</strong>re an easier way to get my prescriptions? Boots<br />
Int. rhetorical; grad Adj in comparative form; 1 st narr.; finV; present;<br />
active<br />
63. Superior from every angle greenhouses<br />
ellipsis ‘It is/ <strong>The</strong>y are superior…’; polysemy – ‘angle’ a) a position<br />
from which you look at sth b) a particular way <strong>of</strong> presenting or<br />
thinking about situation; non-grad Adj; hyperbole<br />
64. Flatter your figure <strong>with</strong> Dietrim Vitabiotics<br />
Imp.; rhythm; alliteration in /f/. Vitabiotics – blending <strong>of</strong> ‘vitamins’ +<br />
‘antibiotics’<br />
65. We know it’s <strong>the</strong> best. But don’t just take our word for it.<br />
Dec.; 1<br />
Nivea visage<br />
st Pl narr.; 2x finV; present; active; grad Adj in superlative<br />
form; a dot where comma would be more appropriate; collocation<br />
‘take our word for it’ = believe us; negat. Imp.; 2x present;2x active<br />
66. “She’s got more than me, mum.”<br />
Aunt Bessie<br />
Aunt Bessie’s Crispy Roast Potatoes.<br />
intertextuality – dialogue <strong>of</strong> mo<strong>the</strong>r and child; 1 st Sg narr.; genitive; 2x<br />
grad Adj in basic form; Nph; ‘crispy’ – (approving)<br />
67. Not sure how to help build your baby’s natural defenses if you’re not<br />
breast feeding?<br />
55<br />
Cow&Gate milk<br />
for babies<br />
Int.; ellipsis ‘Are you…’; genitive; compound Adj; non-finV; finV;<br />
present; active<br />
68. Gingery Fudgy nutty creamy mischievous mouthfuls. chocolate<br />
Nph; parataxis; ‘fudgy’ – neologism; 5x epi<strong>the</strong>t; 5x grad Adj in basic<br />
form<br />
69. Obeys when spoken to (unlike most blokes). New 2006 Fiesta. Ford<br />
Dec.; ellipsis ‘It obeys…’; finV; present; active; ‘bloke’ – a man<br />
(informal); Nph; personification ‘a car obeys’; Num; epi<strong>the</strong>t<br />
70. In <strong>the</strong>ir eyes, <strong>the</strong>y can tug forever. Eukanuba gives <strong>the</strong>ir teeth <strong>the</strong><br />
strength <strong>the</strong>y need.<br />
2x Dec.; AuxV; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x active; rhyme ‘teeth – need’;<br />
rhythm; collocation ‘in <strong>the</strong>ir eyes’ = to see <strong>the</strong> situation from <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
point <strong>of</strong> view; personification ‘Eukanuba gives’; ‘<strong>the</strong>y need’ – a) <strong>the</strong>y<br />
= dogs b) <strong>the</strong>y = teeth<br />
Eukanuba
71. Anchor: Incredible Spreadable Anchor<br />
Spreadable<br />
a word pun: affixation ‘to spread’ ‘spreadable’, original phrase:<br />
‘Incredible edible’; ellipsis ‘Anchor is…’Nph; AdjPh<br />
THE WEEK<br />
72. TAKES YOU MILES AWAY IN SECONDS.<br />
Dec.; ellipsis ‘It/Lexus takes…’; personification ‘Lexus takes’; idiom<br />
‘to be miles away’ = figurative: to be thinking deeply about sth and<br />
not aware about <strong>of</strong> what is happening around you. + literal: miles<br />
away = very far; finV; present; active<br />
LEXUS<br />
73. 19 We have hidden 400 CDs in this picture. Guess where?<br />
Dec.; 1<br />
BANG &<br />
OLUFSEN<br />
st Pl narr.; finV; pres. perf.; active; Num; inicialism; Imp.;<br />
visual metaphor – mp3 system is able to compile 400 CDs <strong>of</strong> music<br />
74. First to bring broadband internet to your seat.<br />
First to give you access to your network in flight.<br />
First to let you follow your team at 35.000 feet.<br />
Lufthansa<br />
VOGUE<br />
All for this one moment.<br />
75.<br />
parallelism; anaphora; ellipsis ‘Lufthansa is/ We are <strong>the</strong> first…’; 3x<br />
non-finV; non-grad Adj; collocation ‘in flight’ = when it is flying;<br />
‘follow your team’ = figurative: watch <strong>the</strong> match <strong>of</strong> your favourite<br />
team; Num; hyperbole; ellipsis ‘Lufthansa does all for…’; graphics<br />
<strong>the</strong> bigger <strong>the</strong>y are, <strong>the</strong> longer <strong>the</strong>y take<br />
idiom ‘<strong>the</strong>…<strong>the</strong>…’; 2x grad Adj in comparative form; Dec.; 2x finV;<br />
present; active; parallelism<br />
bmi small British<br />
airline<br />
76. PETER’S SCANNER. MICHAEL’S COPIER. MARY’S FAX<br />
MACHINE. EVERYBODY’S HP COLOR LASERJET.<br />
parallelism; 4x genitive; 5x Nph; graphics<br />
hp<br />
77. Fight wrinkles! Renew collagen in just 48 hours. Lancôme<br />
2x Imp.; exclamation; hyperbole; Num<br />
78. Yes. Great skin can be created. Clinique<br />
79.<br />
exclamation; grad Adj in basic form; epi<strong>the</strong>t; AuxV; Dec.<br />
What extraordinary love looks like.<br />
Int.; (<strong>the</strong> question mark is missing); grad Adj in basic form; epi<strong>the</strong>t;<br />
simile ‘extraordinary love looks like Cartier’; finV; present; active;<br />
figurative: ‘love looks’<br />
Cartier<br />
80. This year, old man winter will be conquered by a little squirt.<br />
Dec.; grad Adj in basic form; metaphor: ‘winter’ = old man; AuxV;<br />
metaphor: ‘a little squirt’ = body lotion<br />
Olay body lotion<br />
81. love this skin you are in<br />
Imp. or ellipsis ‘You should/may/etc. love…’; rhyme ‘skin – in’;<br />
rhythm<br />
Olay<br />
82. <strong>The</strong> new Chevy HHR is pro<strong>of</strong> that cool can be useful & useful can be<br />
cool.<br />
Dec.; epi<strong>the</strong>t; 3x grad Adj in basic form; antimetabole; 2x AuxV<br />
Chevrolet<br />
56
83. THE WORLD’S BEST COSMOPOLITAN STARTS WITH GREY GREY GOOSE<br />
GOOSE L’ORANGE.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; grad Adj in superlative form; genitive;<br />
metonymy: ‘cosmopolitan’ stands for all cosmopolitans (name <strong>of</strong><br />
alcoholic long-drink); ellipsis ‘starts <strong>with</strong> adding grey…’<br />
vodka<br />
84. Pro<strong>of</strong>…not promises.<br />
ellipsis ‘It’s/ Give me a pro<strong>of</strong>, not …”; logical anti<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
EA anti-aging<br />
treatment<br />
85. reveal your glimmering blond highlights<br />
Imp.; 2x grad Adj in basic form; epi<strong>the</strong>t<br />
Pantene<br />
86. discover your jewel-like brunette<br />
Imp.; affixation<br />
Pantene<br />
87. needle or not? How do you plump your lips? Lose <strong>the</strong> needle. (No<br />
needles. No waiting. No kidding.)<br />
non-finV; 2x Int.; finV; present; active; Imp.; <strong>the</strong> needle = metonymy<br />
for ‘plastic operations’; parallelism; anaphora<br />
LIPFUSION XL<br />
88. Give a new woman to your husband. You.<br />
Imp.; epi<strong>the</strong>t; grad Adj in basic form; a dot used where a dash would<br />
be appropriate<br />
Guitay body<br />
optimizer<br />
89. <strong>The</strong> curls <strong>of</strong> your dreams. Now available when you’re awake.<br />
Nph; ellipsis <strong>of</strong> verb ‘…dreams are now…’; grad Adj in basic form;<br />
finV; present; active; unconventional collocation ‘<strong>the</strong> curls are<br />
available’<br />
OUIDAD<br />
90. IN CASE OF FIRE STOP, DROP & ROLL AROUND. fire spicy<br />
cinnamon chewing gum<br />
3x Imp.; PhrV ‘roll around’ = to be laughing so much that you can<br />
hardly control yourself.; Nph; 2x grad Adj in basic form; non-grad<br />
Adj; Picture shows two people rolling on <strong>the</strong> floor.<br />
Dentyne<br />
91. Discover <strong>the</strong> secret for truly radiant skin.<br />
Imp.; metaphor: ‘secret’ = Aveeno; grad Adj in basic form; epi<strong>the</strong>t<br />
Aveeno<br />
92. Cure for <strong>the</strong> wintertime blues.<br />
metaphor; Nph; non-grad Adj<br />
essie nail polish<br />
93. Mountains have crumbled. Glaciers have melted. Continents have<br />
drifted. Diamonds remain <strong>the</strong> same. Clearly, Mo<strong>the</strong>r Nature is a<br />
romantic.<br />
5x Dec.; parallelism; 3x pres. perf.; active; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x<br />
active; parataxis; metaphor<br />
jewelry<br />
94. Celebrate your past, present & future <strong>with</strong> one thing on Earth as A DIAMOND IS<br />
timeless as love.<br />
Imp.; simile; metaphor: ‘one thing’ is ‘a diamond jewel’; Num<br />
FOREVER<br />
95. 6 Navigating <strong>the</strong> LAND OF CREDIT <strong>with</strong> Citi Simplicity. IT’S<br />
SIMPLY THE CARD THAT TREATS YOU RIGHT.<br />
non-finV; rhyme ‘city – simplicity’; 2x Dec.; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x<br />
active; rhyme ‘card – right’; rhythm; personification ‘a card treats’;<br />
picture <strong>of</strong> ‘<strong>the</strong> land <strong>of</strong> credit’<br />
credit card<br />
96. <strong>The</strong> Address.<br />
Nph<br />
Armani Hotel<br />
Dubai<br />
97. New level <strong>of</strong> radiance, revealed.<br />
Dec.; ellipsis ‘radiance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> skin is/has been revealed’; non-finV;<br />
epi<strong>the</strong>t<br />
Clinique<br />
57
98. winter rescue<br />
Nph; metaphor; non-grad Adj<br />
Pantene<br />
99. Gorgeous makes EFFORT look effortless.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; non-finV; epi<strong>the</strong>t; 2x grad Adj in basic<br />
form<br />
Jaguar<br />
100. <strong>The</strong> new rush.<br />
Nph; metaphor; epi<strong>the</strong>t; grad Adj in basic form; polysemy: ‘rush’ =<br />
a) fast movement b) sudden demand for goods<br />
Land Rover<br />
101. 20 THE FEMINE MYSTIINT. STILL UNCHARTED TERRITORY.<br />
2x Nph; ellipsis ‘…mystique is still…’; non-grad Adj; metaphor:<br />
‘femine mystique = uncharted territory’<br />
ROLEX<br />
102. Redken reinvents hairspray.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; affixation; assonance <strong>of</strong> /e/;<br />
personification ‘Redken reinvents’<br />
Redken<br />
103. Ever think you’d see “beautiful” and ”heels” in <strong>the</strong> same sentence?<br />
Moisturizer actually heals dry skin so even your roughest parts get<br />
Jergens<br />
noticed.<br />
Int.; ellipsis ‘Do you ever…’; grammar deviation; AuxV;<br />
personification ‘moisturizer heals’; Dec.; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x<br />
active; homonymy: ‘heel’ + ‘heal’; metaphor: ‘roughest parts’ =<br />
‘heels’; 2x grad Adj in basic form; grad Adj in superlative form<br />
104. Euphoria. Live <strong>the</strong> dream. Calvin Klein<br />
fragrance<br />
apposition; Nph; metaphor: ‘Calvin Keil fragrance provokes<br />
euphoria and <strong>with</strong> this fragrance you will live your dream’;<br />
parataxis; Imp.<br />
105. it’s a mousse revolution! matte-perfect foundation <strong>with</strong> an amazing<br />
air-s<strong>of</strong>t feel<br />
Dec.; exclamation; finV; present; active; non-grad Adj; conversion:<br />
‘a mousse’ (N) a new word ‘mousse’ (Adj); 2x compound Adj;<br />
epi<strong>the</strong>t; metaphor: ‘make-up’ = ‘revolution’<br />
106. Dear Ketel One Drinker<br />
Not everyone likes Ketel One<br />
<strong>The</strong>n again, not everyone’s tried it.<br />
58<br />
Maybelline<br />
make-up<br />
Ketel One vodka<br />
intertextuality – a letter<br />
107. Britain’s No.1 beauty brand arrives in America Boots online<br />
cosmetics<br />
personification: ‘brand arrives’; metaphor: ‘Boots’ = ‘No.1.beauty<br />
brand’; genitive; Num; grad Adj in basic form<br />
108. Picture your Perfect LVI Smile <strong>The</strong> LVI Smile<br />
dentist<br />
Imp.; alliteration <strong>of</strong> /p/; polysemy: ‘picture’ = a) imagine b) to show<br />
in photograph; conversion – a brand name is used in a place <strong>of</strong><br />
Adjective. <strong>The</strong> adjective may be ‘white’, ‘nice’, ‘beautiful’, etc.; 2x<br />
non-grad Adj<br />
109. lift your spirits. BE COINTREAUVERSIAL Cointreau<br />
alcoholic drink<br />
2x Imp.; ‘lift’ = synonym <strong>of</strong> ‘raise’; homonymy: ‘spirits’ – a) a<br />
person’s feeling or state <strong>of</strong> mind b) ‘spirit’ as a strong alcoholic<br />
drink; idiom: figurative meaning: ‘raise sb’s spirits’ = to make sb<br />
feel more cheerful or brave + literal meaning: ‘raise <strong>the</strong> glasses <strong>with</strong><br />
alcohol drink’; transliteration; grad Adj in basic form
110. Vogue. TAKES LONDON TO NEW YORK<br />
Nph; ellipses ‘It takes London…’; apposition; personification: ‘Vogue<br />
takes’; metonymy: ‘London’ = England, ‘New York’ = USA; Dec.;<br />
finV; present; active<br />
Vogue<br />
111. REVEAL NEW SKIN.<br />
Imp.; epi<strong>the</strong>t; grad Adj in basic form<br />
ROC<br />
112. Instant lash extensions! Extend lashes up to 60%.<br />
Nph; exclamation; 2x non-grad Adj; Imp.; Num<br />
Lancôme<br />
113. More defined. More conditioned. More beautiful lashes.<br />
More Than Mascara<br />
Estee Lauder<br />
<strong>with</strong> more black impact<br />
114.<br />
2x Dec.; Nph; parallelism; parataxis; anaphora; 2x non-finV; ellipsis:<br />
‘You will have more…’, ‘It’s more than mascara’; grad Adj in basic<br />
form; comparison; non-grad Adj<br />
Saks love art for art’s sake. Saks 5 th Dec.; finV; present; active; collocation ‘art for art’ sake’ = because <strong>of</strong><br />
value art has, not because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> advantages it may brings; similarity<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> phonic aspect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> words ‘Saks’ and ‘sake’<br />
Avenue<br />
online store<br />
115. DESIGN LIP PERFECTION IN ONE COAT. LASTING.<br />
Lancôme lipstick<br />
LUSCIOUS. SENSATIONAL EFFECTS.<br />
116.<br />
Imp.; parataxis; non-grad Adj; alliteration <strong>of</strong> /l/; ellipsis ‘…coat and<br />
make lasting, luscious and sensational …’; 3x grad Adj in basic form<br />
New. Perfectly Real Compact Makeup. Believably perfect.<br />
epi<strong>the</strong>t; parataxis; 3x grad Adj in basic form; Nph; hyperbole;<br />
pleonasm – unnecessary words ‘perfectly, perfect’; affixation<br />
‘perfectly’ + ‘believably’; non-grad Adj<br />
Clinique<br />
117. RÉNERGIE MICROLIFT. 25,000 MICROLIFTS FOR VISIBLE Lancôme<br />
RESULTS. My skin is tighter. Firmer. More defined.<br />
apposition; Num; 2x Nph; affixation ‘micro-‘; metaphor: ‘microlifts’<br />
= microelements, which tighten <strong>the</strong> skin’; Dec.; 1 st Sg narr.; finV;<br />
present; active; parataxis; 2x grad Adj in comparative form; non-finV<br />
118. La crème de la crème <strong>of</strong> lipcolour. L’Oreal<br />
Nph; <strong>the</strong> phrase ‘crème de la crème’ is taken from French and it<br />
means ‘<strong>the</strong> best people or things <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir kind; compound N<br />
119. GET IT FIRST. GET IT FAST. shopvogue.com<br />
graphics: I in form <strong>of</strong> lipstick; 2x Imp.; parallelism; anaphora;<br />
hyperbole<br />
120. DON’T JUST APPLY! STYLE YOUR LASHES! UP TO A 65%<br />
LIFT. A BOLDLY THICKENED LOOK.<br />
59<br />
Maybelline<br />
mascara<br />
2x Imp. negat.; ellipsis ‘…apply, but style…’; Nph; Num; ellipsis ‘It<br />
is up to… for a boldly thickened/ and have a boldly…’; parataxis;<br />
compound Adj ‘boldly thickened’<br />
121. Escape from toxic town Noxzema cleaner<br />
Imp.; metaphor: ‘to escape from toxic town’ = to use Noxzema<br />
cleaner and feel clean as escaped from dirty place<br />
122. MORE THAN A FASHION STATEMENT. A CULTURE. THE<br />
CULTURE OF COLOR.<br />
ellipsis: ‘It’s more than a fashion statement. It’s a culture.’; new<br />
rheme: ‘…<strong>of</strong> color’ – emphasis; parataxis; metaphor: ‘O.P.I. is <strong>the</strong><br />
culture <strong>of</strong> color.’; comparison<br />
O.P.I. nail polish
123. Stop seeing broken hair everywhere.<br />
Imp.; rhyme ‘hair – everywhere’; grad Adj in basic form<br />
Pantene<br />
124. Flirting <strong>with</strong> an idea <strong>of</strong> an eye lift?<br />
Int.; ellipsis ‘Are you flirting…’; non-finV; PhrV ‘flirt <strong>with</strong>’ = to think<br />
about but not very seriously’<br />
OLAY eye lifting<br />
serum<br />
125. A SMOOTH MOVE HAIR REMOVAL FROM HEAD-TO-TOE<br />
Nph; compound Adj ‘smooth move’; non-grad Adj; assonance <strong>of</strong> /u:/;<br />
idiom ‘from head to toe’ = covering all your body – here used<br />
unnecessarily <strong>with</strong> hyphens<br />
Surgi Wax<br />
126. Serious Dark Circles?<br />
ellipsis ‘Have you got/ Are you afraid <strong>of</strong> serious…’; 2x grad Adj in<br />
basic form; Nph; sound <strong>of</strong> /s/; rhythm<br />
Hylexin<br />
127. Shine on.<br />
Imp.; PhrV ‘shine on’ does not exist, but <strong>the</strong> preposition ‘on’ evokes <strong>the</strong><br />
idea that sth starts or continues, similarly like ‘go on’, ‘switch on’ <br />
‘Shine on your hair’<br />
hair treatment<br />
128. Your Life. Your Car. Connected.<br />
2x Nph; parataxis; parallelism; anaphora; non-finV; ellipsis: ‘Your life<br />
and your car are connected.’<br />
Acura car<br />
129. Why ask your doctor about BOTOX Cosmetic?<br />
Int.; non-finV<br />
130. Finally, a paste that does more than just talk about whitening.<br />
Nph; finV; present; active; comparison; hyperbole; non-finV;<br />
personification: ‘a paste that talks’<br />
Rembrandt tooth<br />
paste<br />
131. Infusium 23. A remedy for your hair.<br />
apposition; 2x Nph; metaphor<br />
132. My clo<strong>the</strong>s don’t stink.<br />
Dec.; 1<br />
Nicoderm CQ<br />
plaster<br />
st Sg narr.; presupposition that her clo<strong>the</strong>s stank before<br />
133. “Do unto you as you would have o<strong>the</strong>rs do unto you.”<br />
intertextuality - a command based on words <strong>of</strong> Jesus in <strong>the</strong> Sermon on<br />
<strong>the</strong> Mount: “All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you,<br />
do ye even so to <strong>the</strong>m.” saying: “Do unto o<strong>the</strong>rs as you would have<br />
<strong>the</strong>m do unto you”<br />
Toyota<br />
134. Twice <strong>the</strong> lashes… for eyes that smile.<br />
ellipsis <strong>of</strong> verb ‘Make twice <strong>the</strong> lashes for …’; metaphor: ‘eyes smile’;<br />
assonance <strong>of</strong> /ai/<br />
Max Factor<br />
135. 171 years <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fering very small objects that express very large Tacori jewelry<br />
emotions.<br />
Nph; Num; anti<strong>the</strong>sis; 2x grad Adj in basic form; parallelism; metaphor:<br />
‘small objects that express emotion’ = jewelry; figurative: ‘objects<br />
express emotions’<br />
136. I am timeless, not a trend. <strong>The</strong> Concord<br />
Saratoga watch<br />
Dec.; 1 st Sg narr.; logical anti<strong>the</strong>sis; non-grad Adj; metaphor: those, who<br />
wear Saratoga watch is timeless, not only a trend, which passes away<br />
137. Men will melt. Elizabeth Arden<br />
fragrance for<br />
women<br />
Dec.; AuxV; assonance <strong>of</strong> /e/<br />
60
138. Was <strong>the</strong>re beauty before <strong>the</strong>re were beauty products?<br />
Int.; finV; past; active<br />
Evian<br />
139. NOT MANY THINGS KNOCK YOU OUT LIKE MIGRAINE<br />
BUT YOU CAN KNOCK OUT A MIGRAINE WITH RELPAX.<br />
Dec.; PhrV ‘knock sb out’ = 1. (informal) to surprise sb 2. to make sb<br />
very tired 3. to defeat sb; figurative: ‘migraine knock you out’; AuxV;<br />
antimetabole<br />
Relpax<br />
140. <strong>The</strong> first creme that renews your skin during <strong>the</strong> night.<br />
Nph; hyperbole; personification: ‘crème renews’<br />
Nivea<br />
141. FRÏS lime<br />
graphics: I letter has two green dots ‘created’ from limes; <strong>the</strong><br />
pronunciation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> name is /freeze/: evokes <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> refreshing<br />
cold alcoholic drink<br />
Frïs Vodka<br />
142. Shake up your night.<br />
Imp.; phrV ‘shake up’ - it relates to a) drink <strong>of</strong> Bacardi (literal) b) <strong>the</strong><br />
night (figurative) ‘to move’<br />
Bacardi Limón<br />
143. cool just got hot<br />
Dec.; finV; past; active; 2x grad Adj in basic form; anti<strong>the</strong>sis; rhyme<br />
‘got – hot’<br />
hot. diamonds<br />
144. Dirty mouth? Nothing cleans it up like Orbit.<br />
Nph; ellipsis ‘Have you got dirty…’; hyperbole; Dec.; finV; present;<br />
active; PhrV ‘clean up’= to remove dirt; personification: ‘Orbit cleans<br />
sth up’<br />
Orbit<br />
145. Little. <strong>The</strong> next big thing. Meet iPod mini.<br />
Nph; parataxis; ellipsis ‘<strong>The</strong> fact that it is little is <strong>the</strong> next big…’; 2x<br />
grad Adj in basic form; anti<strong>the</strong>sis; Imp.<br />
Apple<br />
146. Protect. Bodify. Beautify.<br />
3x non-finV; parataxis; affixation = a neologism ‘bodify’ made as<br />
parallel to ‘beautify’ (to make sb beautiful) – it means ‘to make your<br />
body being a nice body (again); a body what it should be like’<br />
Redken<br />
147. “I’m a big loser.” Whoopi Goldberg<br />
intertextuality – quotation by W.G.; Dec.; 1<br />
Slim Fast<br />
st Sg narr.; anti<strong>the</strong>sis; ‘big<br />
loser’ here means that she lost weight and she is <strong>the</strong>refore ‘a big’ –<br />
enthusiastic real woman<br />
148. Smooth Move.<br />
Nph; grad Adj in basic form; rhythm; assonance <strong>of</strong> /u:/<br />
Veet.<br />
149. After almost two centuries, we’ve found more than a few ways to say Bailey Banks &<br />
“I love you.”<br />
Dec.; 1<br />
Biddle jewelry<br />
st Pl narr.; finV; pres. perf.; active; Num; comparison; allusion<br />
on <strong>the</strong> tradition; metaphor: ‘ways to say I love you’ = to give a jewel<br />
to sb as a present’<br />
150. “I am uniInt.” Moissanite is me.<br />
2x Dec.; 1<br />
jewelry<br />
st Sg narr.; intertextuality – quotation; 2x finV; present;<br />
active; grad Adj in basic form; metaphor: I am moissanite; logical<br />
implication: Moissanite is unique<br />
151. Brings out <strong>the</strong> glow.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; PhrV ‘bring out’ = to produce; polysemy:<br />
‘glow’ = a) <strong>the</strong> pink colour in your face b) a feeling <strong>of</strong> pleasure and<br />
satisfaction’; personification: Olay brings both<br />
OLAY<br />
152. Got wedding on <strong>the</strong> brain? Time to visit our new website.<br />
Int.; finV; present; active; ellipsis ‘Have you got…’; idiom ‘Have sth<br />
on <strong>the</strong> brain’ = to think about sth all <strong>the</strong> time; Nph; ellipsis ‘It’s<br />
time…’; non-finV; epi<strong>the</strong>t; grad Adj in basic form<br />
Brides<br />
61
153. Light. Loose. Layered. John Frieda<br />
parataxis; 2x grad Adj in basic form; non-finV; alliteration <strong>of</strong> /l/<br />
154. Your heart should race from being in love, not from a diet pill. online advice<br />
service<br />
Dec.; AuxV; collocation ‘in love’ – sth healthy; metonymy: ‘a diet<br />
pill’ for a diet – sth unhealthy – logical anti<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
<strong>The</strong> Scientist<br />
155. 21 Growing excellence… eBioscience present IL-17, IL-23, IL-27<br />
Nph; grad Adj in basic form; metaphor: a new products IL-17, IL-23,<br />
IL-27 are excellence; visual metaphor: a big tree (is matured but still<br />
grows); Dec.; finV; present; active<br />
eBioscience<br />
156. BD Photosflow. Phospho-Specific Flow Cytometry Reagents<br />
apposition; 2x Nph; inicialism; 2x compound Adj ‘phosphospecific’<br />
+ ‘flow cytometry’; 2x non-grad Adj<br />
BD cell analysis<br />
157. Thinking Larger. Moving Faster.<br />
2x Dec.; 2x non-finV; parataxis; parallelism; 2x grad Adj in<br />
comparative form<br />
exelixis.com<br />
work <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
158. Now! Real-Time PCR results in under 40 minutes! Applied<br />
Biosystems<br />
2x exclamation; ellipsis ‘…results are/ can be set in under…’; Num;<br />
159. No Contaminating Ig Bands!<br />
Nph; exclamation; grad Adj in basic form; inicialism<br />
eBioscience<br />
160. delivery>purification>analysis>detection<br />
4x Nph; parataxis<br />
BIORAD<br />
161. FOR EVERY ACTION THERE’S A<br />
SIMULTANEOUS<br />
OLYMPUS<br />
Science<br />
ACTIONREACTION<br />
intertextuality – Isaac Newton’s third law <strong>of</strong> motion says: “For every<br />
action, <strong>the</strong>re is an equal and opposite reaction.”; Dec.; finV; present;<br />
active; graphics<br />
162. <strong>The</strong> best just got bigger. Invitrogen gel<br />
Dec.; finV; past; active; hyperbole; grad Adj in superlative form;<br />
grad Adj in comparative form<br />
163. We’re all ears! Free Technical Assistance For expert solutions Cole -Parmer<br />
Dec.; exclamation; 1 st Pl narr.; idiom: ‘be all ears’ = to be waiting<br />
<strong>with</strong> interest to hear what sb has to say; parataxis; Nph; 2x grad Adj<br />
in basic form; non-grad Adj<br />
164. <strong>The</strong> complete blotting solution is easy to spot. BIORAD protein<br />
blotting<br />
equipment<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; grad Adj in basic form; non-grad Adj; ‘to<br />
blot’ = to make spots – ‘easy to spot’ = to notice; visual metaphor: a<br />
ladybird.<br />
62
Scientific American<br />
165. Plastic optical filter networks in tomorrow’s cars will put more<br />
pleasure in <strong>the</strong> road ahead.<br />
Dec.; 3x non-grad Adj; genitive; AuxV; personification + figurative:<br />
‘networks put’; metonymy: ‘road’ = all roads<br />
166. This innovative technology can watch <strong>the</strong> human brain at work –<br />
using only light…<br />
Dec.; AuxV; personification: ‘technology can watch’; grad Adj in<br />
basic form; non-grad Adj; metonymy: ‘brain’ = ‘brains’; dash<br />
functions as <strong>the</strong> way to make more focal elements; non-finV<br />
Business Journal Slovakia<br />
63<br />
HAMAMATSU<br />
HAMAMATSU<br />
167. Your World <strong>of</strong> Certainty Allianz<br />
Nph; metaphor: Allianz is your certainty; idiom ‘world <strong>of</strong> certainty’ =<br />
to emphasize how much certainty <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>with</strong> Allianz<br />
168. Who will pay for Your healthcare? Union<br />
Int.; AuxV; rhyme ‘pay – care’; compound N<br />
169. Pleased to meet you AQUACITY<br />
congress services<br />
intertextuality – a collocation, phrase said by introducing;<br />
personification: Aquacity welcomes you<br />
170. You are on <strong>the</strong> right way Crown Plaza<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; visual metaphor: picture <strong>of</strong> compass;<br />
ellipsis ‘…way to Crown Plaza’<br />
171. Blazing speed. Cool price. Copy. Print. Scan. Fax. Get it Done. Xerox<br />
2x Nph; 2x epi<strong>the</strong>t; 2x grad Adj in basic form; parataxis; 5x Imp.<br />
172. We bring olympic energy to your home Slovakia Olympic<br />
Team &<br />
Západoslovenská<br />
Energetika<br />
Dec.; 1 st Pl narr.; finV; present; active; non-grad Adj; ‘olympic<br />
energy’ – epi<strong>the</strong>t + metaphor = from Olympic Games; metonymy:<br />
‘home’ = ‘all homes’<br />
173. We want you to be <strong>the</strong> best in your business. ORANGE<br />
Dec.; 1 st Pl narr.; finV. present; active; non-finV; grad Adj in<br />
superlative form; alliteration <strong>of</strong> /b/<br />
174. Always aim for technical perfection. Toshiba<br />
ellipsis ‘<strong>The</strong>re’s always…’; non-grad Adj<br />
175. Thanks to T-Mobile you can always have <strong>of</strong>fice in your pocket. T-Mobile<br />
Dec.; idiom ‘Thanks to sb’ = sth has happened because <strong>of</strong> sb/sth;<br />
AuxV; hyperbole; metaphor: ‘<strong>of</strong>fice’ = mobile phone; idiom ‘to have<br />
sth in your pocket’ = figurative: to be certain to win sth + literal: to<br />
have mobile in your pocket; idiom ‘be in sb’s pocket’ = to be<br />
controlled – we can say that you can control your <strong>of</strong>fice if your<br />
mobile phone is in your pocket
<strong>The</strong> Economist<br />
176. A partner to design & integrate your global network end-to-end. verizon business<br />
Nph; metaphor: ‘verizon business is a partner’; 2x non-finV; idiom<br />
‘end to end’ = in a line, <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> ends touching; unnecessary use <strong>of</strong><br />
hyphens; grad Adj in basic form;<br />
177. At Cardif, you are not just a number CARDIF<br />
insurance<br />
company<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; figurative: ‘to be just a number’ = not to<br />
treat <strong>with</strong> sb like a person, only like a registration number; picture <strong>of</strong><br />
people <strong>with</strong> numbers on <strong>the</strong>ir clo<strong>the</strong>s<br />
178. On a quest for <strong>the</strong> right values? We Hear You Huawei<br />
Int.; ellipsis ‘Do you go/ Are you on …’; grad Adj in basic form; Dec.;<br />
1 st Pl narr.; finV; present; active<br />
179. Game, set, history. Rolex watch<br />
intertextuality – ‘Game, set, match’ = parts <strong>of</strong> tennis match; it is used<br />
here because Rolex watch are worn by tennis players; 3x Nph<br />
DigitAll<br />
180. imagine touching beauty. Samsung phone<br />
Imp.; metaphor: ‘to touch beauty’ = to touch Samsung mobile phone<br />
181. imagine wearing your favourite music. Samsung mp3<br />
player<br />
Imp.; grad Adj in basic form; figurative: parallel ‘wear clo<strong>the</strong>s/<br />
perfume, etc. - wear music’<br />
182. imagine an LCD-HDTV that reflects your unique style. Samsung<br />
Imp.; inicialism; finV; present; active; figurative: ‘TV reflects’; grad<br />
Adj in basic form<br />
183. Rock On. Samsung phone<br />
<strong>with</strong> music<br />
Imp.; PhrV ‘rock on’ does not exist, but <strong>the</strong> preposition ‘on’ evokes<br />
<strong>the</strong> idea that sth starts or continues, similarly like ‘go on’, ‘switch on’<br />
‘Rock on’ = homonymy/ polysemy 1. start to dance to rock music<br />
2. shock sb 3. move gently from side to side<br />
184. <strong>The</strong> right thing says everything. Samsung phone<br />
intertextuality – evokes <strong>the</strong> saying; Dec.; finV; present; active;<br />
personification: ‘Thing says’; epiphora ‘thing – (every)thing’; visual<br />
metaphor: ‘right thing’ = Samsung mobile phone<br />
185. <strong>The</strong> world’s fastest-moving brand is still on <strong>the</strong> move. Samsung<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; genitive; compound Adj; grad Adj in<br />
superlative form; idiom ‘be on <strong>the</strong> move’ = 1. be travelling between<br />
one place and ano<strong>the</strong>r (figurative: Samsung products are distributed to<br />
whole world); 2. to be going somewhere (figurative: Samsung<br />
develops) 3. to become active<br />
Nature<br />
186. “All truths are easy to understand once <strong>the</strong>y are discovered; <strong>the</strong> point<br />
is to discover <strong>the</strong>m.” Galileo Galilee<br />
intertextuality – quotation <strong>of</strong> famous scientist<br />
64<br />
Shimadzu
187. Faster protein purification? It’s not rocket science.<br />
Int.; ellipsis ‘Do you want/need a faster…’; grad Adj in comparative<br />
form; non-grad Adj.; Dec.; finV; present; active; idiom ‘It’s not rocket<br />
science’ = if something is not rocket science, it is not very<br />
complicated or difficult to understand. This idiom is normally used in<br />
<strong>the</strong> negative.<br />
(http://www.usingenglish.com/reference/idioms/rocket+science.html)<br />
GE<br />
188. Achieve Beadlytenment<br />
Imp. or ellipsis ‘To achieve…’; affixation + neologism: ‘beadlyte<br />
(brand name) + -ment (suffix; <strong>the</strong> action or result <strong>of</strong>)<br />
Beadlyte research<br />
products<br />
189. “<strong>The</strong> ability to perceive or think differently is more important than <strong>the</strong> Shimadzu<br />
Newsweek<br />
knowledge gained.” David Bohm<br />
190.<br />
intertextuality – quotation <strong>of</strong> famous scientist<br />
Everybody, really everybody is welcome to Sunday Brunch!<br />
Dec.; exclamation; finV; present; active; hyperbole; blending ‘brunch<br />
= breakfast + lunch); non-grad Adj; this advertisement was written<br />
also in Slovak and German <strong>language</strong> to emphasize that everybody is<br />
welcome<br />
Radisson SAS<br />
191. R&D Systems Reagents. Making discoveries happen for over 25<br />
years.<br />
Nph; apposition; non-finV; Num; ellipsis ‘Regents are making…’<br />
R&D<br />
192. How can we produce more energy but lower carbon emissions? Livio<br />
Accattatis has an answer.<br />
Int.; AuxV; 1<br />
Shell<br />
st Pl narr.; anti<strong>the</strong>sis; grad Adj in comparative form; nongrad<br />
Adj.; metonymy: a name <strong>of</strong> a person from Shell company<br />
represents <strong>the</strong> whole company; finV; present; active<br />
193. Simplicity is making hospitals feel less like hospitals.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; figurative: ‘simplicity is making’;<br />
personification: ‘hospitals feel <strong>the</strong>mselves like hospitals’; grad Adj in<br />
comparative form; simile<br />
Philips<br />
equipment<br />
194. pr<strong>of</strong>ession: pilot career: actor<br />
4x Nph; parataxis; use <strong>of</strong> colons; ellipsis ‘His pr<strong>of</strong>ession is pilot and<br />
his career is actor’; picture <strong>of</strong> John Travolta wearing Breitling watch –<br />
a famous person represents <strong>the</strong> brand – logical implication: only<br />
famous people wear Breitling watch, so if you wear Breitling watch,<br />
you will certainly be/you certainly are famous, too<br />
Breitling<br />
navitimer<br />
195. Heavy industries<br />
Happy industries<br />
2x Nph; parataxis; 2x grad Adj in basic form; parallelism; epiphora<br />
Hyundai<br />
196. Make <strong>the</strong> right connections<br />
Imp.; grad Adj in basic form; poysemy: ‘connection’ = 1. literal: a<br />
point, especially in an electrical system (here: telegraphing system)<br />
where two parts connect 2. figurative: a person or an organization that<br />
you know and that can help or advise you in your social or<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional life<br />
Telecom<br />
65
197. YOU CAN LOOK FOR OIL AT GREAT DEPTHS WITHOUT<br />
DISTURBING THE NEIGHBOURS<br />
Dec.; AuxV; PhrV ‘look for’ = to try to find sth; grad Adj in basic<br />
form; metonymy: ‘depths’ = deep parts; non-finV; visual metaphor:<br />
picture <strong>of</strong> marine animals (= neighbours) in <strong>the</strong> closeness to <strong>the</strong><br />
divers in <strong>the</strong> sea ‘<strong>with</strong>out disturbing <strong>the</strong> neighbours’ = protecting<br />
marine life<br />
TOTAL<br />
198. Smile! You are in Spain<br />
Nph; exclamation; Dec.; finV, present; active<br />
Iberia<br />
199. Simplicity is a lamp <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> power to purify water.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; metaphor ‘simplicity is a lamp’; nonfinV<br />
Philips<br />
200. I am my music. Nokia N series. See new. Hear new. Feel new.<br />
Dec.; 1<br />
Nokia<br />
st Sg narr.; finV; present; active; metaphor: ‘I am music’;<br />
Nph; 3x Imp.; parallelism; epiphora; assonance <strong>of</strong> /i:/<br />
201. image is everything<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; metaphor<br />
Toshiba TV<br />
202. Refresh your Soul in Seoul<br />
Imp.; figurative: ‘make new thoughts, feelings and improve your<br />
state <strong>of</strong> mind’; a word pun<br />
Hiseoul<br />
203. Exploring <strong>the</strong> world for gas to warm your winter<br />
2x non-finV; ellipsis ‘We are exploring …’<br />
TOTAL<br />
204. Xerox Colour. It makes business sense.<br />
apposition; graphics; Dec.; finV; present; active; sound <strong>of</strong> /s/;<br />
personification: ‘Xerox makes sense’; idiom ‘to make sense’ = to<br />
give meaning<br />
Xerox<br />
205. Performance. Prestige. Passion for Innovation.<br />
3x Nph; alliteration <strong>of</strong> /p/; parataxis; sound <strong>of</strong> //; metaphor:<br />
Breitling watch is prestige<br />
Breitling watch<br />
206. Nespresso. What else?<br />
intertextuality – dialogue in a cafe<br />
c<strong>of</strong>fee<br />
207. 22 Take <strong>the</strong> World. Touched by THAI.<br />
Imp.; non-finV; ellipsis; parataxis; rhyme ‘by – Thai’; visual<br />
metaphor: ‘Take <strong>the</strong> world touched by Thai’– take <strong>the</strong> postcard <strong>with</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> photo <strong>of</strong> world places, where Thai has <strong>the</strong> destination’<br />
Thai airway<br />
208. “A dandy on <strong>the</strong> boulevards (…) strolling at leisure until his Breguet, Breguet watch<br />
ever vigilant, reminds him it is midday.”<br />
Alexander Pushkin ‘Eugen Onegin’ 1829<br />
intertextuality – quotation from a novel; it represents tradition <strong>of</strong><br />
Breguet; Num<br />
209. “He drew out <strong>the</strong> most delicious thin watch that Breguet had ever<br />
made. Fancy, it is eleven o’clock, I was up early.”<br />
Honoré de Balzac ‘Eugénie Grandet’ 1833<br />
intertextuality – quotation from a novel; it represents tradition <strong>of</strong><br />
Breguet; Num; past perf.<br />
Breguet watch<br />
210. Hit a hole-in-one. Hit <strong>the</strong> right impression.<br />
2x Imp.; metaphor between a hole-in-one (an occasion in golf when<br />
a player hits <strong>the</strong> ball from <strong>the</strong> tee into <strong>the</strong> hole using only one shot –<br />
<strong>the</strong> best alternative) and Nokia mobile phone – also <strong>the</strong> best<br />
alternative, both a hole-in-one and Nokia phone make a right<br />
impression; picture shows a hand worn in a golf glove catching a<br />
phone<br />
Nokia phone<br />
66
211. It’s just ano<strong>the</strong>r Renault. Reliable. Technically superior. Best in its<br />
class. Just like every o<strong>the</strong>r Renault we make.<br />
Dec.; 2x finV; present; active; parataxis; apposition; grad Adj in basic<br />
form; non-grad Adj; grad Adj in superlative form; metonymy:<br />
‘Renault’ for all Renault cars; simile; 1<br />
Renault<br />
st Pl narr.<br />
212. Hospitality that knows no borders<br />
Nph; finV; present; active; personification: ‘Hospitality knows’;<br />
‘borders’ –<strong>the</strong> line that divide countries nikko hotels are in many<br />
countries and in each country <strong>the</strong> stuff <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hotels is hospitable<br />
nikko hotels<br />
213. Feel <strong>the</strong> surge <strong>of</strong> calm<br />
Imp.; logical anti<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
Lexus<br />
Geographical<br />
214. Explore <strong>the</strong> hills<br />
Explore <strong>the</strong> rivers<br />
Explore <strong>the</strong> mountains<br />
Explore <strong>the</strong> sea<br />
Explore <strong>the</strong> moors<br />
Explore yourself.<br />
More<br />
Explore plas y brenin.<br />
67<br />
national<br />
mountain center<br />
plas y brenin<br />
7x Imp.; parallelism; anaphora<br />
215. Fujifilmed. Award grabbed by crab snap. Fujifilm<br />
2x non-finV; neologism: ‘Fujifilmed’ = brand name + conversion<br />
from N to V; Dec.; word puns; sounds <strong>of</strong> /æp/; visual metaphor: a<br />
picture <strong>of</strong> crab, which has won <strong>the</strong> award; polysemy: ‘to snap’ = 1. if<br />
an animal (here: a crab) bites sb/sth rapidly 2. to take a photograph;<br />
‘to grab’ – means <strong>the</strong> same as snap, but it is related to humans<br />
216. IT TAKES A BRAVE MAN TO VENTURE DEEP INTO THE<br />
JUNGLE. IT TAKES A SPECIAL KIND OF IDIOT TO OPEN THE<br />
SUNROOF.<br />
Nissan New<br />
Patrol<br />
2x Dec.; 2x finV; present; active; parallelism; anaphora; 2x grad Adj<br />
in basic form; 2x non-finV<br />
217. SCOTT SPIKER SHOOTS THE WORLD WITH A SIGMA LENS SIGMA<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> famous pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
photographer represents <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> brand<br />
218. Would you put dandruff in this picture? head & shoulders<br />
Int. rhetorical; AuxV<br />
219. Save up to price on Oral B toothbrushes. Boots<br />
Imp.; PhrV; Num<br />
220. A STROKE OF GENIUS TO MULTILIGHT YOUR HAIR GARNIER<br />
non-finV; ellipsis ‘It’s/Get/Try a stroke…’; collocation + metaphor:<br />
‘stroke <strong>of</strong> genius’, here: ‘genius’ = brush for dying hair ‘stroke <strong>of</strong><br />
brush’; compound V<br />
221. That’s a great Christmas in <strong>the</strong> bag. Hair cosmetic<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; hyperbole; grad Adj in basic form;<br />
metaphor: ‘Christmas’ = cosmetic<br />
222. XTROVERT. XPLOSIVE. LOVE THE COLOUR. COLOR XXL Schwartzkopf<br />
graphics; inicialism; unpredictable spelling; parataxis; Imp.;<br />
alliteration <strong>of</strong> /x/
New!<br />
223. 23 Spring water <strong>with</strong> a splash <strong>of</strong> fruit. Robinsons<br />
Nph; non-grad Adj; layout: splash <strong>of</strong> water in shape <strong>of</strong> face <strong>with</strong><br />
fruit eyes<br />
224. 24 <strong>The</strong>re’s only one naughty thing in Dolmio and that’sa Papa! DOLMIO<br />
Bolognese<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; Num; grad Adj in basic form; dialect;<br />
familiar words; visual metaphor: a man has his finger in a pot <strong>with</strong><br />
Dolmio sauce, trying it his finger = only naughty thing; Dolmio is<br />
<strong>with</strong>out any harmful substances<br />
ES magazine<br />
225. If <strong>the</strong> world <strong>of</strong> culture is your choice, your world is Madrid.<br />
Dec.; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x active; metaphor: ‘world <strong>of</strong> culture’ is<br />
Madrid<br />
Turismo Madrid<br />
226. MUJI Xmas<br />
intertextuality – ‘Merry Christmas’ – a greeting used at Christmas;<br />
unpredictable spelling; conversion: brand name (N) stands for Adj<br />
Muji online shop<br />
227. <strong>The</strong> Legend is Back.<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; intertextuality<br />
ORIS watch<br />
228. UNSTOPPABLE Charm SASHA COHEN HAS IT. So does her watch<br />
ELLE<br />
Citizen Eco-Drive<br />
229.<br />
Nph; non-grad Adj; homonymy: ‘charm’ = 1. <strong>the</strong> power <strong>of</strong> attracting<br />
people, 2. a small object worn on a chain or bracelet; <strong>the</strong> characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> a famous figure skater (‘unstoppable charm’) represents <strong>the</strong> quality<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x active<br />
How will you keep your Gold safe?<br />
Int.; AuxV; visual metaphor: a picture <strong>of</strong> Gold bread in a safe;<br />
copywriters took advantage from <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> bread<br />
KINGSMILL<br />
Gold bread<br />
230. IT’S YOUR WATCH THAT SAYS MOST ABOUT WHO YOU<br />
ARE.<br />
Dec.; 3x finV; 3x present; 3x active; personification: ‘watch says’<br />
SEIKO<br />
231. DARE TO GO THERE. 12 TIMES MORE VOLUME! L’OREAL<br />
Imp.; non-finV; sound <strong>of</strong> /e/; Num; exclamation<br />
232. “Who says you can’t look as young as you feel?” Christey Brinkley OLAY<br />
intertextuality – quotation <strong>of</strong> famous person<br />
233. 25 <strong>The</strong> silky feel <strong>of</strong> olay bar OLAY<br />
Nph; grad Adj in basic form; visual metaphor: a picture <strong>of</strong> silky<br />
gown you will feel as silky when you wash <strong>with</strong> Olay bar as you<br />
feel when you wear a silky gown<br />
234. PLUMP IT UP RIMMEL<br />
lipstick<br />
Imp.; PhrV ‘plump up’ = to make sth larger<br />
235. HOW DO YOU DEFINE eternity?<br />
Int.; finV; present; active<br />
68
236. After 173 years, we know quite a bit about diamonds. But love is Bailey Banks &<br />
still a complete mystery.<br />
2x Dec.; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x active; Num; 1<br />
Bidle<br />
st Pl narr.; metaphor:<br />
‘love is mystery’<br />
237. Your shade. Your finish. Your match.<br />
3x Nph; parallelism; anaphora; parataxis<br />
Estee Lauder<br />
238. that’s why I bluefly.com<br />
Dec.; finV; present; active; 1<br />
bluefly.com<br />
online shop<br />
st Sg narr.; rhythm ‘I – (blue)fly’;<br />
graphics; neologism: conversion – verb is replaced by brand name<br />
239. New LAY’S Dips (Finally, dips worthy <strong>of</strong> LAY’S chips)<br />
Nph; 2x genitive; epi<strong>the</strong>t; 2x grad Adj in basic form; rhythm ‘dips –<br />
chips’; ellipsis ‘dips are worthy <strong>of</strong>…’<br />
LAY’S Dips<br />
240. Do you believe in love at first touch?<br />
Int.; finV; present; active; collocation ‘love at first sight’ is deviated<br />
to make <strong>the</strong> relation <strong>with</strong> <strong>the</strong> material <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product; metaphor:<br />
Nokia phone is love at first sight (touch)<br />
Nokia<br />
241. Real People. Real Jewelry.<br />
2x Nph; anaphora; parallelism; 2x grad Adj in basic form<br />
Danecraft<br />
242. 26 You never actually own a Patek Philippe. You merely look after it Patek Philippe<br />
for <strong>the</strong> next generation.<br />
2x Dec.; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x active; metonymy: ‘Patek Philippe’<br />
= watch Patek Philippe; PhrV ‘look after’ = to take care <strong>of</strong> sth; ‘next<br />
generation’ = your children<br />
watch<br />
you magazine<br />
243. <strong>The</strong> digital camera that takes pictures as easily as it takes <strong>the</strong> plunge.<br />
Nph; non-grad Adj; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x active; simile; figurative:<br />
‘camera takes pictures’; collocation: ‘to take pictures’ = to<br />
photograph; idiom ‘take <strong>the</strong> plunge’ = to decide to do sth important or<br />
difficult, especially after thinking about it for a longer time;<br />
personification: ‘camera takes <strong>the</strong> plunge’<br />
PENTAX<br />
244. YOU MAKE UP YOUR EYES, MAKE UP YOUR LIPS, NOW IMEDEEN<br />
heat<br />
MAKE UP YOUR AGE<br />
2x Dec.; Imp.; parallelism; 3x PhrV ‘make up’ = homonym: 1. to put<br />
cosmetics on sb’s face, 2. to form sth<br />
245. Summer 2005: True Bronze. CLINIQUE<br />
bronzing gel<br />
2x Nph; Num; grad Adj in basic form; ellipsis ‘In summer 2005 you<br />
may have <strong>with</strong> Clinique cosmetics true bronze skin<br />
246. Best before: 1908 food<br />
grad Adj in superlative form; Num; ellipsis<br />
247. tellyphone Nokia TV in<br />
mobile phone<br />
Nph; blending: ‘television’ + ‘telephone’<br />
248. PRINTS AS REAL AS LIFE hp<br />
Nph; simile; grad Adj in basic form<br />
69
249. CASIOLOGY CASIO<br />
Nph; affixation, neologism: ‘Casiology’ = brand name + suffix –logy<br />
(a science or subject <strong>of</strong> study)<br />
WALLPAPER<br />
250. Instead if moving <strong>the</strong> furniture around, why not move around <strong>the</strong> Dyson vacuum<br />
furniture?<br />
Int.; 2x non-finV; antimetabole<br />
cleaner<br />
251. A bank <strong>of</strong> ideas<br />
Nph; metaphor: Investec is a bank <strong>of</strong> ideas; a bank provides money,<br />
Investec provides services<br />
Investec<br />
252. First Class ESPRESSO EXPERIENCE.<br />
Nph; 2x non-grad Adj; sound <strong>of</strong> /s/; metaphor: Lavazza is first class<br />
experience<br />
LAVAZZA<br />
253. IO, COMANDANTE DEL TEMPO Panerai watch<br />
Nph; apposition; intertextuality – quotation; foreign words; 1 st Sg narr.<br />
254. For inside. For outside. For ever.<br />
parataxis; parallelism; anaphora; anti<strong>the</strong>sis; ‘for inside’ = at home, ‘for<br />
outside’ = at <strong>the</strong> gate<br />
SSS SIEDLE<br />
door<br />
communication<br />
255. Merry Kissmas.<br />
intertextuality - – ‘Merry Christmas’ – a greeting used at Christmas;<br />
unpredictable spelling; visual metaphor: a picture shows two Alessi<br />
bottle-openers kissing<br />
Alessi<br />
TIME<br />
256. Your boss changed <strong>the</strong> meeting. Your client changed <strong>the</strong> deadline.<br />
Your wife changed her mind.<br />
Now change to an airline <strong>with</strong> more departures.<br />
70<br />
Scandinavian<br />
Airlines<br />
257.<br />
3x Dec.; Imp.; parallelism; anaphora; 3x finV; past; active; idiom<br />
‘change sb’s mind’ = change <strong>the</strong> decision or opinion; metaphor:<br />
‘boss, client; wife’ = your everyday life; ‘airline’ = at least one good<br />
thing, escape from problems<br />
“We cannot hang up on <strong>the</strong> world” Kathryn Walker<br />
intertextuality – quotation <strong>of</strong> employee – she represents <strong>the</strong> thoughts<br />
<strong>of</strong> whole company<br />
hp<br />
258. Kediaman Kedua-ku – <strong>The</strong> Malaysian phrase for My Second Home Tourism<br />
Malaysia<br />
Nph; foreign words; apposition; non-grad Adj<br />
259. 9 Challenge us – and get yourself a bigger slice <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cake.<br />
Imp.; 1<br />
Siemens<br />
st Pl narr.; idiom ‘a bigger slice <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cake’ = a share <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
benefits or available money that you believe you have a right to; grad<br />
Adj in comparative form<br />
260. Slow down. Pleasure up.<br />
2x Imp.; 2x PhrV<br />
Camel<br />
261. “Time is <strong>the</strong> lens through which dreams are captured.” Francis Ford<br />
Coppola.<br />
intertextuality – quotation <strong>of</strong> famous person<br />
Blancpain watch
262. <strong>The</strong> better <strong>the</strong> competition. <strong>The</strong> better <strong>the</strong> tyre. <strong>The</strong> better for you.<br />
idiom ‘<strong>the</strong>…<strong>the</strong>…’ is deviated in a way that three, not two elements<br />
are in relation; parataxis; parallelism; 3x grad Adj in comparative<br />
form<br />
Bridgestone<br />
263. aim: zero emissions<br />
2x Nph; ellipsis: ‘<strong>the</strong> aim is zero emissions’; colon; Num<br />
TOYOTA<br />
264. When we look into <strong>the</strong> future, we have hers in mind.<br />
Dec.; 1<br />
Siemens<br />
st Pl narr.; 2x finV; 2x present; 2x active; idiom ‘in mind’ = to<br />
be thinking <strong>of</strong><br />
265. This time <strong>the</strong> marathon will end in <strong>the</strong> place where it all started.<br />
Dec.; AuxV; finV; past; active; anti<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
A<strong>the</strong>ns 2004<br />
266. 3 years <strong>of</strong> preparation 550 experts 36 nationalities 17 races 17 Toyota<br />
precious lessons ONE AIM<br />
6x Nph; Num; parallelism; grad Adj in basic form; parataxis; 6x<br />
metaphor: Toyota = 3 years <strong>of</strong> prep.; Toyota = 550 experts; etc.<br />
267. networks shaping cities<br />
networks shaping events<br />
network shaping deals<br />
one network connects <strong>the</strong>m all<br />
71<br />
Orange<br />
3x Dec.; 3x non-finV; finV; present; active; Num; ellipsis <strong>of</strong> verb<br />
‘networks are shaping…’; anaphora<br />
268. Watch us. Toyota<br />
Imp.; idiom ‘Watch it’ = used as a warning to sb to be careful, here:<br />
deviated to ‘watch us’ = Be careful <strong>of</strong> us; 1 st Pl narr.<br />
269. FLAGS-A-WAVING. PEOPLE-A-DANCING. IT’S GOING TO BE<br />
SOME BIRTHDAY PARTY.<br />
Tourism<br />
Malaysia<br />
unpredictable spelling: ‘Flags are waving’; parataxis; 2x Dec.; 2x<br />
finV; 2x present; 2x active; non-grad Adj; intention to imitate<br />
informal <strong>language</strong><br />
270. Small seeds generate big ideas. CNN<br />
Dec.; anti<strong>the</strong>sis; 2x grad Adj in basic form; metaphor: ‘seeds’ =<br />
attempts, ideas
5.5 Results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research<br />
1. 20 % <strong>of</strong> all slogans (54/270) contains ellipsis, it means that on average a fifth<br />
<strong>of</strong> slogans uses ellipsis.<br />
2. 7 % <strong>of</strong> all slogans (18/270) contains phrasal verb, it means that on average a<br />
fifteenth <strong>of</strong> slogans uses phrasal verb.<br />
3. 11 % <strong>of</strong> all slogans (29/270) contains parallelism, it means that on average a<br />
ninth <strong>of</strong> slogans uses parallelism.<br />
4. Our assumption was not correct. <strong>The</strong> most widely used sentence type is not <strong>the</strong><br />
imperative one, as we supposed, but <strong>the</strong> declarative one (120/227). <strong>The</strong> second are<br />
imperatives (85/227), <strong>the</strong>n interrogatives (22/227). <strong>The</strong>re were 130 noun phrases in<br />
research sample. Exclamative sentences did not occur in <strong>the</strong> sample, although<br />
exclamations occurred.<br />
37%<br />
10%<br />
sentence types<br />
53%<br />
Graph 1: sentence types<br />
72<br />
Declaratives<br />
Imperatives<br />
Interrogatives<br />
5. Our assumption was correct. <strong>The</strong> most widely auxiliary verbs are ‘can’ (11/23)<br />
and ‘will’ (6/23). <strong>The</strong> following are ‘would’ (4/23), ‘should’ (1/23) and negative form<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘should’ (1/23).<br />
4<br />
6<br />
1<br />
1<br />
auxiliary verbs<br />
11<br />
Graph 2: auxiliary verbs<br />
can<br />
will<br />
w ould<br />
should<br />
should not
6. Our assumption was correct. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> verbs is finite (114/163), <strong>the</strong> rest<br />
is non-finite (49/163).<br />
30%<br />
finiteness <strong>of</strong> verbs<br />
70%<br />
Graph 3: finiteness <strong>of</strong> verbs<br />
73<br />
finite verbs<br />
non-finite verbs<br />
7. Our assumption was correct. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> finite verbs are in present simple<br />
form; <strong>the</strong> second most widely used are future forms ‘will’, <strong>the</strong>n past simple, present<br />
perfect and one case <strong>of</strong> past perfect.<br />
5%<br />
4%<br />
1%<br />
4%<br />
tense/aspect<br />
86%<br />
Graph 4: tense/aspect <strong>of</strong> verbs<br />
present simple<br />
future 'w ill'<br />
past simple<br />
present perfect<br />
past perfect<br />
8. Our assumption was correct. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> slogans are <strong>of</strong> omniscient 3 rd<br />
person narrator (249/270), <strong>the</strong>n 1 st person plural narrator (13/270) and 1 st person<br />
singular narrator (9/270).<br />
3%<br />
5%<br />
92%<br />
narrator<br />
Graph 5: narrator<br />
3rd person narrator<br />
1st Sg narrator<br />
1st Pl narrator
9. Our assumption was correct. 76 % (140/185) adjectives were gradable and<br />
24 % (45/185) adjectives were non-gradable.<br />
24%<br />
gradability <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
76%<br />
Graph 6: gradability <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
74<br />
gradable adjectives<br />
non-gradable<br />
adjectives<br />
10. Our assumption was correct. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> gradable adjectives occur in<br />
basic form (104/140), <strong>the</strong> second group are adjectives in comparative form (26/140)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> third group are superlative adjectives (10/140).<br />
19%<br />
7%<br />
form <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
74%<br />
Graph 7: form <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
basic form<br />
comparative form<br />
superlative form<br />
11. Comparative adjectives are mostly used by slogans for technique product<br />
specialization (16/26).<br />
comparative adjectives - distribution<br />
10<br />
Graph 8: comparative adjectives - distribution<br />
16<br />
technique<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r
12. Superlative adjectives are mostly used by slogans for food (3/10) and cosmetic<br />
(2/10) product specialization.<br />
superlative adjectives - distribution<br />
1<br />
1<br />
1<br />
1<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
Graph 9: superlative adjectives - distribution<br />
75<br />
food<br />
cosmetics<br />
online shops<br />
pharmacy<br />
services<br />
technique<br />
automobile<br />
13. Our assumption was not correct. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> numerals are not used by<br />
slogans for jewelry product specialization, but by slogans for automobiles. Numerals<br />
indicate parameters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vehicles and years <strong>of</strong> production.<br />
0,50<br />
0,40<br />
0,30<br />
0,20<br />
0,10<br />
0,00<br />
occurance <strong>of</strong> linguistic means in individual branches<br />
metaphor idiom personification polys/homon Num<br />
Graph 10: occurrence <strong>of</strong> linguistic means in individual branches<br />
technique<br />
cosmetics<br />
food<br />
services<br />
jew elry<br />
automobiles
14. From <strong>the</strong> graph 10 and 11 we can see that in <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>the</strong> most widely used<br />
trope is metaphor (metaphor: 75/270; personification: 24/270; polysemy/homonymy:<br />
9/270). Metaphor is mostly used by slogans for jewelry (9 in 21 jewelry slogans<br />
contain metaphor.). Personification is mostly used by automobile slogans;<br />
polysemy/homonymy is mostly used by jewelry slogans. Idioms are mostly used by<br />
automobile and technique slogans.<br />
0,50<br />
0,40<br />
0,30<br />
0,20<br />
0,10<br />
0,00<br />
popularity and use <strong>of</strong> linguistic means by individual branches<br />
technique cosmetics food services jew elry automobiles<br />
Graph 11: popularity and use <strong>of</strong> linguistic means by individual branches<br />
76<br />
metaphor<br />
idiom<br />
personification<br />
polys/homon<br />
Num
6 CONCLUSION<br />
In <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>oretical part, we approached <strong>advertising</strong> as a type <strong>of</strong> communication<br />
between producer and consumer <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> product. We analyzed and described basic<br />
principles <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> printed texts. <strong>The</strong> <strong>the</strong>oretical part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> diploma <strong>the</strong>sis<br />
provided an analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>language</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> and served as a basis for <strong>the</strong> research<br />
part. To be able to make analysis <strong>of</strong> slogans in such extent, we had to include all <strong>the</strong><br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>language</strong> – from phonological to semantic aspect.<br />
<strong>The</strong> results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research confirmed <strong>the</strong> correctness <strong>of</strong> 6 in 8 hypo<strong>the</strong>ses and<br />
disproved <strong>the</strong> correctness <strong>of</strong> 2 in 8. We shall briefly <strong>of</strong>fer <strong>the</strong> results <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> research:<br />
• On average, every fifth slogan contains ellipsis.<br />
• On average, every fifteenth slogan contains phrasal verb.<br />
• On average, every ninth slogan contains parallelism.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> most widely sentence type is declarative (53 %).<br />
• <strong>The</strong> most widely used auxiliary verbs are ‘can’ and ‘will’.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> verbs are finite (70 %).<br />
• <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> finite verbs are in present simple form (86 %).<br />
• <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> slogans are <strong>of</strong> third person narrator (92 %).<br />
• <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> adjectives are gradable (76 %).<br />
• <strong>The</strong> second most widely used form <strong>of</strong> adjectives is comparative form<br />
(19 %).<br />
• Comparative adjectives are mostly used in slogans for technique<br />
product specialization.<br />
• Superlative adjectives are mostly used in slogans for food product<br />
specialization.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> numerals are used in slogans for automobile product<br />
specialization.<br />
• From <strong>the</strong> 3 tropes (metaphor; personification; polysemy/homonymy),<br />
metaphor is most popular among slogans and it is most widely used in<br />
slogans for jewelry product specialization.<br />
77
• Personification is mostly used by automobile slogans;<br />
polysemy/homonymy is mostly used by jewelry slogans. Idioms are<br />
mostly used by automobile and technique slogans.<br />
By <strong>the</strong> research we also discovered that <strong>the</strong> writers <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> texts <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
use words like ‘new’ (+ words containing ‘new’: anew, renew) (16 times/sample),<br />
‘just’ (12), ‘perfect’ (+ perfection, perfectly) (8), ‘real’ (+ really) (8), ‘better’ (7),<br />
‘best’ (7), ‘first’ (7), ‘right’ (6), ‘only’ (5), ‘complete’ (+ completely) (5).<br />
<strong>The</strong> values, which express <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> pronoun ‘you’ (27 times) and possessive<br />
form ‘your’ (57 times) in research sample confirm <strong>the</strong> intention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> copywriters to<br />
come closer to <strong>the</strong> consumer and evoke <strong>the</strong> feeling <strong>of</strong> intimacy.<br />
<strong>The</strong> correctness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> Vestergaard and Schroder (p. 44) has been in<br />
our research certified. We have found 11 cases <strong>of</strong> using <strong>the</strong> verb ‘get’, but any case <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb ‘buy’.<br />
We observed that <strong>the</strong> informal style <strong>of</strong> <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong> predominates over<br />
<strong>the</strong> formal style. We found <strong>the</strong> formal style <strong>of</strong> writing only in scientific and business<br />
types <strong>of</strong> magazines. In scientific magazines, <strong>the</strong>re occurred advertisements for a<br />
specific group <strong>of</strong> people – scientists, doctors, physicists; <strong>the</strong> vocabulary was technical<br />
and incomprehensible for common people. <strong>The</strong> linguistic means were <strong>the</strong> same in all<br />
types <strong>of</strong> magazines.<br />
We hope that <strong>the</strong> diploma <strong>the</strong>sis will contribute to <strong>the</strong> present knowledge<br />
about <strong>advertising</strong> <strong>language</strong> and will introduce new facts, findings and observations on<br />
such creative and extremely interesting discourse. We believe that it will be useful<br />
and contributing for all who are interested in English <strong>language</strong> and its multiplicity.<br />
78
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
MONOGRAPHS:<br />
COOK, Guy. 1996 [1992]. <strong>The</strong> Discourse <strong>of</strong> Advertising. London: Routledge<br />
COWIE, A. P. et al. 1991 [1983]. Oxford Dictionary <strong>of</strong> Current Idiomatic English.<br />
Vol. 2 English Idioms. Oxford: Oxford University Press<br />
MEJRKOVÁ, Svtla. 2000. Reklama v etin. Praha: Leda<br />
DOPJEROVÁ-DANTHINE, Mária. 2002. Anglické idiómy pod lupou. Bratislava:<br />
Remedium<br />
GODDARD, Angela. 1998. <strong>The</strong> Language <strong>of</strong> Advertising. Written texts. London:<br />
Routledge<br />
HALLIDAY, M. A. K., HASAN, R. 1976. Cohesion in English. (English Language<br />
Series). London: Longman<br />
HORNBY, A. S. et al. 2001. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. <strong>The</strong> 6 th edition.<br />
Oxford: Oxford University Press<br />
KVETKO, Pavol. 2001. Essentials <strong>of</strong> Modern English Lexicology. Bratislava<br />
LAKOFF, George, JOHNSON, Mark. 1980. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: <strong>The</strong><br />
University <strong>of</strong> Chicago.<br />
LEECH, Ge<strong>of</strong>frey, N. 1972 [1966]. English in Avertising: A Linguistic Study <strong>of</strong><br />
Advertising in Great Britain (English Language Series). London: Longman<br />
MYERS, Greg. 1997 [1994]. Words in Ads. London: Hodder Arnold<br />
OGILVY, David. 1985. Ogilvy on Advertising. Vancouver: Vintage<br />
79
PAVLÍK, Radoslav. 2000. Phonetics and Phonology <strong>of</strong> English. A <strong>The</strong>oretical<br />
Introduction. Bratislava: Pedagogická fakulta Univerzity Komenského<br />
PICKETT, J. P. et al. 2000. <strong>The</strong> American Heritage Dictionary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> English<br />
Language. <strong>The</strong> 4 th edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin<br />
PRESSON, Leslie, LAPICK, John. 1997. A Dictionary <strong>of</strong> Homophones. New York:<br />
Barron’s<br />
QUIRK, Randolph, GREENBAUM, Sidney et al. 1990. A Student’s Grammar <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
English Language. Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd.<br />
SOANES, C., STEVENSON, A. 2004. Concise Oxford English Dictionary. <strong>The</strong> 11 th<br />
edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press<br />
TRUP, Ladislav. 1999. panielska lexikológia. Banská Bystrica: Univerzita Mateja<br />
Bela, Filologická fakulta<br />
VESTERGAARD, Torben, SCHRODER, Kim. 1985. <strong>The</strong> Language <strong>of</strong> Advertising.<br />
New York: Basil Blackwell Inc.<br />
WIDDOWSON, H.G. 2000 [1996]. Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press<br />
MAGAZINES:<br />
BBC Gardeners’ World Magazine. June 2006. UK<br />
Business Journal Slovakia. February 2006, June 2006, July – August 2006. Slovak<br />
Republic<br />
Computer Active. May 2006. UK<br />
DigitAll. fall 2003, spring 2005, summer 2005, winter 2005. Samsung brand magazine<br />
80
ELLE. November 2005. UK<br />
ES Magazine. December 2005, UK.<br />
eve. February 2006. UK<br />
Geographical. April 2003, December 2004. UK<br />
Good Food. February 2005, January 2006. UK<br />
Heat. December 2005. UK<br />
More. December 2005. UK<br />
Nature. May 2006, June 2006. Harvard University Press, USA<br />
New. November 2005. UK<br />
Newsweek. February 2006, March 2006, May 2006, June 2006, July 2006. USA<br />
Photography. September 2004. UK<br />
Reveal. December 2005. USA<br />
Science. June 2006. UK<br />
Scientific American. July 2006. USA<br />
<strong>The</strong> Economist. July 2006. UK<br />
<strong>The</strong> Scientist. November 2005, December 2005, April 2006. UK<br />
<strong>The</strong> Week. October 2005, March 2006<br />
81
Time. May 2003, July 2003, September 2003. UK<br />
Vogue. January 2004, January 2005, February 2005, March 2005, May 2006, June<br />
2006. UK<br />
Wallpaper. July – August 2005, December – January 2005 – 2006. UK<br />
You magazine. June 2005. UK<br />
THE INTERNET RESOURCES:<br />
http://home.cfl.rr.com/eghsap/apterms.html<br />
http://mktg-sun.wharton.upenn.edu/<strong>advertising</strong>/dictionary/h.htm<br />
http://www.investorwords.com/129/<strong>advertising</strong>.html<br />
http://www.<strong>language</strong>inindia.com/march2005/<strong>advertising</strong>englishhongkong1.html<br />
http://www.motto.com/glossary.html<br />
http://www.onestopenglish.com/teacher_support/ask/Grammar/grammar15.htm<br />
http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOflinguisticTerms/Index.htm<br />
http://www.stanford.edu/class/linguist34/Unit_02/given-new.htm<br />
http://www.<strong>the</strong>freedictionary.com<br />
http://www.wikipedia.org/<br />
https://lists.usm.maine.edu/<br />
82
SUPPLEMENT A<br />
Review <strong>of</strong> print advertisements
1 (see: p. 20)
2 (see: p. 25)
3 (see: p. 29)<br />
4 (see: p. 29)
5 (see: p. 29)<br />
6 (see: p. 29)
7 (see: p. 29)
8 (see: p. 33)
9 (see: p. 36)<br />
10 (see: p. 43)
11 (see: p. 46)<br />
12 (see: p. 46)
13 (see: p. 46)<br />
14 (see: p. 48)
15 (see: supplement A)<br />
16 (see: supplement A)
17 (see: supplement A)<br />
18 (see: supplement A)
19 (see: supplement A)<br />
20 (see: supplement A)
21 (see: supplement A)<br />
22 (see: supplement A)
23 (see: supplement A)<br />
24 (see: supplement A)
25 (see: supplement A)<br />
26 (see: supplement A)
SUPPLEMENT B<br />
Table <strong>of</strong> attributes
No. <strong>of</strong> slogan<br />
slogan type<br />
No. <strong>of</strong><br />
slogan finiteness narrator Adj grad<br />
Dec.<br />
Imp.<br />
Int.<br />
finV<br />
non-finV<br />
1st Sg<br />
1st Pl<br />
Nph<br />
ellipsis<br />
PhrV<br />
AuxV<br />
grad<br />
non-grad<br />
comparat.<br />
Adj.<br />
form<br />
superlat.<br />
Num<br />
parallelism<br />
compound<br />
personification<br />
metaphor<br />
polys/homon<br />
idiom<br />
1 T 1<br />
2 T 1 1<br />
3 T 1 1<br />
4 Cl 2 1<br />
5 S 1 1<br />
6 S 1<br />
7 T 2 1<br />
8 T 1<br />
9 T 1 1 1<br />
10 T 1<br />
11 T 1 1<br />
12 T 2 1 1<br />
13 T 1 1 1 1<br />
14 T 2 1 1 1<br />
15 T 1 1 1 1<br />
16 T<br />
17 F 1 1 1 1<br />
18 F 1<br />
19 F 2 1 1 1<br />
20 F 3 1 1 2 1 1 1<br />
21 F 1 1 1 1 1<br />
22 H 1 2 1 2 2<br />
23 H 2 1 1<br />
24 A 1 1 2 1 1 4 1 2<br />
25 F 2 1<br />
26 F 1 1 3 1<br />
27 F 1 2 1 2 2<br />
28 F 1 1 1<br />
29 F 2 1<br />
30 F 1 1 1 1 1 2<br />
31 F 2<br />
32 A 2 2 1 1 1 1<br />
33 T 3 3 1<br />
34 T 1<br />
35 P 1 1 1<br />
36 F 1 1 1 1<br />
37 F 1 2<br />
38 T 2 1 1<br />
39 F 1 1<br />
40 T 1 2 1<br />
41 S 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
42 T 3 3 1 1<br />
43 T 2 2 1 1 2 1<br />
44 O 1 2 2 1<br />
45 T 2 2<br />
46 Ph 1 1 1 1<br />
47 Ph 1<br />
48 T 2 2<br />
49 T 1 1 1 1<br />
50 T 1 3 1<br />
51 T 1 2 3 1 4 2 1<br />
52 F 1 1 1<br />
53 F<br />
54 Ph 1 1 1<br />
55 T 1<br />
56 F 1 2<br />
57 T 1 1 1 1<br />
58 F 1 1<br />
59 Ph 1 1<br />
60 Ph 1 1<br />
61 Ph 1 1 1 1 2 1<br />
62 O 1 1 1<br />
63 H 1 1 1 1<br />
64 Ph 1<br />
65 C 1 1 2 1 1<br />
66 F 1 1 2<br />
67 F 1 1 1 1 1<br />
68 F 1 5<br />
69 A 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
70 F 2 2 1 1<br />
71 F 1 1 1<br />
72 A 1 1 1 1 2<br />
73 T 1 1 1 2 1 1<br />
74 S 3 2 1 1 1<br />
75 S 1 2 2 1 1<br />
76 T 5 1<br />
77 C 2 1<br />
78 C 1 1 1<br />
79 C 1 1 1<br />
80 C 1 1 1 2<br />
81 C<br />
82 A 1 2 3<br />
83 F 1 1 1 1<br />
84 C 1<br />
85 C 1 2<br />
86 C 1<br />
87 C 1 2 1 1 1
88 C 1 1<br />
89 C 1 1 1 1<br />
90 F 3 1 1 2 1<br />
91 C 1 1 1<br />
92 C 1 1 1<br />
93 J 5 2 1 1<br />
94 J 1 1 1<br />
95 S 2 2 1 1<br />
96 S 1<br />
97 C 1 1 1<br />
98 C 1 1 1<br />
99 A 1 1 1 2<br />
100 A 1 1 1<br />
101 J 2 1 1 1<br />
102 C 1 1 1<br />
103 C 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 1<br />
104 C 1 1 1<br />
105 C 1 1 1 2 1<br />
106 F<br />
107 C 1 1 1 1<br />
108 S 1 1 1<br />
109 F 2 1 1 1<br />
110 P 1 1 1 1<br />
111 C 1 1<br />
112 C 1 1 2 1<br />
113 C 2 2 1 1 1 1 1<br />
114 O 1 1<br />
115 C 1 1 3 1 2<br />
116 C 1 3 1<br />
117 C 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1<br />
118 C 1 1<br />
119 O 2 1<br />
120 C 2 1 2 1 1<br />
121 C 1 1<br />
122 C 1 1<br />
123 C 1 1<br />
124 C 1 1 1 1<br />
125 C 1 1 1 1<br />
126 C 1 1 1<br />
127 C 1 1<br />
128 A 1 2 1 1<br />
129 C 1 1<br />
130 C 1 1 1 1<br />
131 C 2 1<br />
132 Ph 1 1<br />
133 A
134 C 1 1<br />
135 J 1 1 1 1 1<br />
136 J 1 3 1 1 1<br />
137 C 1 1<br />
138 F 1 1<br />
139 Ph 1 1 1<br />
140 C 1 1<br />
141 F<br />
142 F 1 1<br />
143 J 1 1 2<br />
144 F 1 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
145 T 1 1 2<br />
146 C<br />
147 Ph 1 1<br />
148 C 1 1<br />
149 J 1 1 1 1 1<br />
150 J 2 2 1 1 1<br />
151 C 1 1 1 1 1<br />
152 O 1 1 1 1 2 1 1<br />
153 C 1 2<br />
154 O 1 1<br />
155 T 1 1 1 1 2 2<br />
156 T 2 2 2<br />
157 S 2 2 2 1<br />
158 T 1 1<br />
159 T 1 1<br />
160 T 4 1<br />
161 T 1 1<br />
162 Ph 1 1 2 1<br />
163 S 1 1 1 2 1<br />
164 T 1 1 1 1 1<br />
165 T 1 1 3 1<br />
166 T 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
167 S 1 1 1<br />
168 S 1 1 1<br />
169 S 1<br />
170 S 1 1 1 1<br />
171 T 5 2 2<br />
172 S 1 1 1 1 1<br />
173 S 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
174 T 1 1<br />
175 T 1 1 1 3<br />
176 S 2 1 1 1 1<br />
177 S 1 1<br />
178 S 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
179 J 3
180 T 1 1<br />
181 T 1 1<br />
182 T 1 1 1<br />
183 T 1 1 1<br />
184 T 1 1 1 1<br />
185 T 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
186 T<br />
187 T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
188 T 1 1<br />
189 T<br />
190 S 1 1 1<br />
191 T 1 1 1 1<br />
192 T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
193 T 1 1 1 1 1<br />
194 J 4 1<br />
195 A 2 2 1<br />
196 S 1 1<br />
197 S 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
198 S 1 1 1<br />
199 T 1 1 1 1<br />
200 T 1 3 1 1 1 1 1<br />
201 T 1 1 1<br />
202 S 1<br />
203 S 2 1<br />
204 T 1 1 1 1<br />
205 J 3 1<br />
206 F<br />
207 S 1 1 1 1<br />
208 J 1<br />
209 J 1<br />
210 T 2 1<br />
211 A 1 2 1 2 1 1<br />
212 S 1 1 1<br />
213 A 1<br />
214 S 7 1<br />
215 T 1 2 1 1<br />
216 A 2 2 2 2 1<br />
217 T 1 1<br />
218 C 1 1<br />
219 O 1 1 1<br />
220 C 1 1 1 1<br />
221 C 1 1 1 1<br />
222 C 1<br />
223 F 1 1<br />
224 F 1 1 1 1 1<br />
225 S 1 2 1
226 O<br />
227 J 1 1<br />
228 J 1 1 1 1<br />
229 F 1 1 1<br />
230 J 1 3 1<br />
231 C 1 1 1<br />
232 C<br />
233 C 1 1 1<br />
234 C 1 1<br />
235 C 1 1<br />
236 J 2 2 1 1 1<br />
237 C 1 1<br />
238 O 1 1 1<br />
239 F 1 1 2<br />
240 T 1 1 1<br />
241 J 2 2 1<br />
242 J 2 2 1<br />
243 T 2 1 1 1 1<br />
244 C 2 1 3 1<br />
245 C 2 1 1 1<br />
246 F 1 1 1<br />
247 T 1<br />
248 T 1 1<br />
249 T 1<br />
250 T 1 2<br />
251 S 1 1<br />
252 F 1 2 1<br />
253 J 1 1<br />
254 T 1<br />
255 H 1<br />
256 S 3 1 3 1 1 1<br />
257 T<br />
258 S 1 1<br />
259 T 1 1 1 1 1<br />
260 To 2 2<br />
261 J<br />
262 T 3 3 1 1<br />
263 A 2 1 1<br />
264 T 1 2 1 1<br />
265 S 1 1 1<br />
266 A 6 1 1 1 1<br />
267 S 3 1 3 1 1<br />
268 A 1 1 1<br />
269 S 2 2 1<br />
270 S 1 2 1<br />
0 120 85 22 114 49 9 13 130 54 18 24 140 45 26 10 32 29 16 24 75 9 27