Handbook of Surveillance Technologies (3rd Ed) - The Real Faces of ...

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Handbook of Surveillance Technologies At the same time, computer chips were becoming smaller and more powerful which made it possible to develop lower-cost desktop-sized computers. In military and large corporate circles, visionary computer engineers began to develop networking and time-share systems, the seed that grew into the ARPANET and, eventually, the Internet. The Mid-1960s - Vietnam, Freedom of Information, and the Space Race It’s not clear how much of the social revolution and activism that occurred in the 1960s was due to increased news coverage and television viewing, but clearly it was an era of significant scrutiny of government by the populace. Student council meetings at universities in the 1980s were generally poorly attended, often less than a dozen students showed up to express their views. In contrast, in the sixties, as much as 80% of a student body might show up for meetings, with megaphones broadcasting debates to thousands of attendees. Public demand for information increased, and voters assumed a more active role in monitoring government officials. Government became more responsive and open to public opinion and thus, in 1966, the U.S. enacted the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA). This provided individuals with the right, enforceable in a court of law, to request access to records held by federal agencies upon submitting a written request. The scope of the act, as it was written, was limited by nine exemptions and three exclusions. Despite the exemptions, the FOIA became a driving force for democracy. As government surveillance activities spread, so did those of the public. In 1966, there were other changes, as well. U.S. Coast Guard cutters were dispatched to aid Army and Naval surveillance forces involved in the Vietnam conflict. The U.S. Supreme Court granted the FBI greater leeway to investigate civil rights crimes and, in 1968, the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act paved the way for FBI use of electronic surveillance to investigate specific violations. The FBI was concerned about terrorist activities and used investigative personnel and counterintelligence programs (COINTELPRO) to counteract these activities. However, Hoover is said to have discouraged intrusive methods such as wiretapping (see Chapter 2 for contradictions to this claim). These were eventually forbidden unless specifically permitted under the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act. In the late 1960s, geosynchronous satellites heralded a new communications era. Data could be gathered or bounced off other satellites, worldwide without cables. By 1968, the U.S. was launching communications intelligence (COMINT) satellites specifically designed to carry out surveillance. From this point on, both government and amateur satellite technologies developed rapidly. The following year, the Department of Defense (DoD) commissioned the ARPANET, the forerunner of the public Telenet network that was implemented in the mid-1970s. In April 1971, J. Edgar Hoover formally terminated COINTELPRO operations. 4.f. Nationalization, Computerization, and Government Scandals Establishing Research and Technology Labs In the 1970s, a number of government departments established or upgraded laboratories to accommodate advancements in science and electronics. U.S. Customs established a Research Laboratory to develop new analytical methods and evaluate new instrumentation for use by Field Laboratories. The Laboratory would help maintain analytical uniformity among Field Labs and liaise with other federal enforcement and technological agencies. It would further provide assistance to drug-screening and canineenforcement programs. 40
Chapter 1 - Introduction & Overview Increased High Tech Emphasis. Left: U.S. Customs Commissioner Kelly and Senator Campbell discussing high technology in law enforcement at a Senate Treasury Technology briefing and exhibit in Washington, D.C. Right: After a Customs canine made a positive hit on the hull of a ship inspected for drugs, the hull was drilled. The dust drawn out on the drill bit was placed in a chemical detector where it turned blue, testing positive for cocaine. Sixty-five kilos were subsequently seized from the vessel. [U.S. Customs news photos by James Tourtellotte, released.] National Intelligence and Personal Computers In September 1971, the Kenbak-1, the first digital microcomputer, was advertised in Scientific American. The age of personal computers had begun, but few people noticed until the Altair was showcased in Popular Electronics and other magazines, three and a half years later. Up to this time, the NSA was specifically concerned with communications intelligence (COMINT), a subset of signals intelligence (SIGINT) which also includes electronic intelligence (ELINT) and telemetry intelligence (TELINT), which means that COMINT, as defined by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), was limited in scope. However, there were even further stipulations incorporated into the administrative definitions for COMINT that restricted the NSA’s jurisdiction beyond a general definition of COMINT. In order to understand why the Intelligence Community was criticized for stepping outside its mandate over the next several decades, it should be understood that the general meaning of INTs, and the NSA-prescribed meaning of INTs, are not the same. The general definition of COMINT encompasses all kinds of communications (not just foreign). However, the NSA definitions for various types of intelligence stipulated limitations to their use, as this NSA definition for COMINT (communications intelligence) illustrates: COMINT in the early 1970s was defined as the collection and processing of “foreign communications” and was even further defined as restricted to communications that were “encrypted or intended to be encrypted.” It did not include “unencrypted written communications, except ... [those] which have been encrypted or are intended for subsequent encryption.” The NSA specifications for COMINT also explicitly excluded the interception of public broadcasts, except for “encrypted or ‘hidden meaning’ passages in such broadcasts.” These distinctions, in effect in the early 1970s, became important on several occasions in the 1990s, when NSA activities related to satellite and computer-network surveillance were questioned. They form the foundation for NSA statements that NSA personnel operate according to very specific guidelines. In December 1971, NSA jurisdiction increased. The Department of Defense issued a Directive prescribing the “authorities, functions, and responsibilities of the National Security Agency (NSA) and the Central Security Service (CSS).” This document identified the NSA as responsible for providing “the Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) mission of the United States 41
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Index Section Surveillance Technolo
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American Intelligence Journal 94 Am
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lack hole 669 black light 619, 640,
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chemical weapons 57 Chemical Weapon
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CODIS 849 DNA 815, 817 entomology 7
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energy 626 spectrum 295, 356, 419 e
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Franklin, Rosalind E. 832 fraud 54,
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hypothermia 70 HySub 262 I IANA 993
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keylogger 983 key pad 154 keystroke
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Middle East 21 MiG 384 migration 63
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India 209 underground 208 nuclear w
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Privacy for Consumers and Workers A
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eplication 114, 120 Repository of S
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sniffer 74, 692, 726, 779, 788 soap
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Surveillance Towed Array Sensor 253
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U.S. Office of Naval Research 218,
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wire gauge 113 wireless 107, 113, 1
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