Adoption of Improved Sorghum and Pearl Millet ... - Icrisat

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

Citation: Monyo ES, Ngereza J, Mgonja MA, Rohrbach DD, Saadan HM, and Ngowi P. 2004. 

Adoption of improved sorghum and pearl millet technologies in Tanzania. PO Box 776, 

Bulawayo, Zimbabwe: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics. 28 pp. 

Abstract 

Sorghum and pearl millet are important food crops in Tanzania, particularly in the drier areas. 

ICRISAT and the national research program have developed several improved varieties of both 

crops, of which five (3 sorghum, 2 pearl millet) have been released during the period 1986- 

1999. This publication describes on-station and on-farm performance of the new varieties, 

results from detailed adoption surveys conducted in 2001, and efforts to multiply and distribute 

seed through conventional as well as new, innovative means. 

Improved varieties occupy approximately 36% of Tanzania’s sorghum area and 29% of its pearl 

millet area. They are widely popular mainly for their early maturity (and thus drought 

tolerance) and high yield, 10 to 38% higher than local landraces. Adoption has been stimulated 

by interventions by ICRISAT, NGOs, and other partners, to strengthen local seed systems and 

community-based seed production; and by the efforts of the national extension service to make 

farmers aware of the new varieties. 

The surveys also examined the variety evaluation criteria used by farmers. Farmers identified 

positive and negative traits in each variety, providing a valuable guide to setting priorities for 

plant breeding research. 

This publication is an output of research conducted under the SADC/ICRISAT 

Sorghum and Millet Improvement Program, funded by the United States Agency for 

International Development (USAID).

Adoption of Improved Sorghum and Pearl Millet 

Technologies in Tanzania 

ES Monyo, J Ngereza, MA Mgonja, DD Rohrbach, 

HM Saadan, and P Ngowi 

ICRISAT 

International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics 

PO Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe 

2004

ES Monyo, MA Mgonja, DD Rohrbach 

J Ngereza, HM Saadan 

About the authors 

ICRISAT, PO Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe 

Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, 

Dept of Research and Development, 

PO Box 2066, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

P Ngowi ICRISAT, DCT Mackay House, PO Box 15, 

Dodoma, Tanzania 

© 2002 by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics 

All rights reserved. Except for short passages for the purposes of criticism or review, no part of this 

publication may be reproduced, stored in retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or by any means, 

electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission from ICRISAT. It 

is hoped this copyright declaration will not diminish bonafide use of research findings in agricultural 

research and development. 

The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of ICRISAT. The designations 

employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion 

whatsoever on the part of ICRISAT concerning the legal status of any country, city, territory or area, or of 

its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Where trade names are use, 

this does not constitute endorsement of or discrimination against any product by the Institute.

Contents 

Sorghum and pearl millet production in Tanzania ........................................ 1 

Crop varieties……………………………… .................................................. 5 

Results from on-station and on-farm trials ................................................... 5 

Adoption surveys ......................................................................................... 7 

Seed production and distribution of improved varieties............................... 8 

Adoption of improved sorghum varieties ................................................... 10 

Adoption of improved pearl millet varieties ............................................... 12 

Grain yields from the new varieties ........................................................... 13 

Farmers’ varietal preferences ..................................................................... 14 

Future research strategies .......................................................................... 17 

Priority areas for sorghum and millet research in Tanzania ......................... 18 

References ................................................................................................. 19 

Annex 1. Improved varieties released in Tanzania ...................................... 20

Sorghum and Pearl Millet Production in Tanzania 

Sorghum and millets are important food crops in Tanzania. They are widely grown in three of the 

country’s six zones, ie the Central, Western, and Lake Zones. In other zones cultivation is more 

localized but is nevertheless important in some districts, particularly in the Southern Zone. 

Sorghum and millet are the main food security cereals in the central high plateau (Singida 

and Dodoma), and second in importance only to maize in the Western, Lake, and Southern 

Zones (Anonymous 1988). The major production areas (Fig 1) are Dodoma and Singida in the 

Central Zone; Tabora in the Western Zone; Shinyanga, Mwanza and Mara in the Lake Zone; and 

Lindi and Mtwara regions in the Southern Zone. 

Dodoma, Singida, Shinyanga, Mwanza and Mara account for most of the national sorghum 

area while Dodoma, Singida, Shinyanga and Tabora account for a large proportion of millet area 

(Tables 1 and 2). The figures for millet combine pearl and finger millet. The latter accounts for 

approximately one-third of the total, and is grown mostly in Rukwa, Mara and Kilimanjaro. 

Figure 1. Importance of sorghum and millet in Tanzania’s farming systems. (Note: Kilimanjaro 

data are mainly finger millet.) 

1

Table 1. Sorghum area (‘000 ha) in Tanzania, by zone and region, 3-year averages. 

91/92 to 93/94 94/95 to 96/97 97/98 to 99/00 Mean, 1990s 

Northern Zone 

Arusha 19 10 20 16.25 

Kilimanjaro 1 3 6 3.19 

Eastern Zone 

Coast/DSM 5 9 25 12.83 

Morogoro 32 39 21 30.54 

Tanga 1 7 17 8.35 

Central Zone 

Dodoma 110 93 103 102.09 

Singida 75 61 59 65.15 

Southern Zone 

Iringa 23 24 35 27.11 

Lindi 28 28 32 29.39 

Mbeya 13 17 18 16.06 

Mtwara 23 35 34 30.60 

Rukwa 8 9 6 7.40 

Ruvuma 4 4 3 3.48 

Lake Zone 

Kagera 18 18 17 17.69 

Mara 43 34 49 42.33 

Mwanza 97 107 54 85.98 

Shinyanga 122 115 118 118.42 

Western Zone 

Kigoma 7 7 14 8.88 

Tabora 38 41 34 37.54 

Total 667.3 661.67 664.7 664.55 

Sources: Crop Monitoring and Early Warning Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. 1994/95 data from National Sample Census of Agriculture Data 

Maize is the dominant crop nationally (Fig 2) – even in traditionally sorghum-growing areas, 

it may replace sorghum in seasons of good rainfall. Farmers in these areas normally sow maize; if 

they suspect the season will be poor, they quickly sow sorghum as well. Maize is sown with the 

first rains in November. If January rainfall is good, farmers concentrate their efforts on maize, 

rather than sorghum. But if January rainfall is poor, they quickly expand the area sown to 

sorghum or millet. During the 1990s for example, sorghum area varied from 594,000 ha (the 

year when maize plantings were highest) to a peak of 738,000 ha. Millet area was even more 

variable, fluctuating between 196,000 and 473,000 ha (Fig 2). 

Sorghum and millets are grown in low-potential areas unsuitable for maize or other cereals. 

Consequently, sorghum/millet yields are lower than maize yields – 1.36 t ha -1 for maize, 

compared to 0.98 t ha -1 for sorghum and 0.79 t ha -1 for pearl millet, averaged over the 1990s 

(Fig 3). Nevertheless, these are good average yields compared to elsewhere in Africa. In 

particular, sorghum yields in Tanzania are among the highest in Africa, except for South Africa 

where the reported national average is 2.1 t ha -1 (because of a large commercial farming sector 

growing hybrid sorghum with high inputs). 

While maize is planted over larger areas, it is important to note that sorghum and millets 

account for over 25% of the total cereals production in Tanzania (Fig 4), and are extremely 

important for food security, particularly in the drier areas. 

2

Table 2. Millet area (‘000 ha) in Tanzania, by zone and region, 3-year averages. 

91/92 to 93/94 94/95 to 96/97 97/98 to 99/00 Mean, 1990s 

Northern Zone 

Arusha 6 2.9 6.7 5.25 

Kilimanjaro 70 34 4.7 35.97 

Eastern Zone 

Morogoro 0.1 2.2 1.2 1.16 

Central Zone 

Dodoma 129 125 64.3 105.98 

Singida 42 52 37.5 43.95 

Southern Zone 

Iringa 0.2 2.1 3.7 1.98 

Mbeya 1.5 12.9 16.2 10.21 

Mtwara 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.92 

Rukwa 39 41.8 29 36.55 

Ruvuma 2.9 2.8 3.7 3.13 

Lake Zone 

Kagera 0.6 0.6 0.4 0.53 

Mara 22.4 23.6 22 22.67 

Mwanza 12.6 11.8 11.3 11.89 

Shinyanga 43.7 43.5 25.4 37.52 

Western Zone 

Kigoma 1.9 1.8 2.4 2.04 

Tabora 17 19.3 9.3 15.31 

Total 389.7 376.8 238.6 335.08 



Figure 2. Area planted to major cereals in Tanzania, 1990s. 

3

Sources: Crop Monitoring and Early Warning Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. 

1994/95 data from National Sample Census of Agriculture Data 

Pearl millet yields estimated using data from major production areas – Dodoma, Shinyanga, Singida and Tabora. National statistics combine pearl and 

finger millet 

Figure 3. Yields of major cereals in Tanzania, 1990s. 

Sources: Crop Monitoring and Early Warning Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. 

1994/95 data from National Sample Census of Agriculture Data 

Figure 4. Production of the major cereals in Tanzania during the 1990s. 

4

Crop Varieties 

Many farmers grow local landraces that are tall and late-maturing. Late maturity is a serious 

concern in the drier regions (the main production areas), where frequent drought spells occur, 

resulting in very low grain yields. The National Sorghum and Millet Improvement Program 

(NSMIP), in collaboration with the SADC/ICRISAT Sorghum and Millet Improvement 

Program (SMIP), have developed several new varieties that mature earlier and give higher yields 

than landraces – the yield advantage is more pronounced in seasons of poor rainfall. SMIP has 

taken the major responsibility for providing improved germplasm, while NSMIP has led 

country-wide efforts for multilocational evaluation of this germplasm, compiling and presenting 

the data to the national variety release committee. This has led to the release of three sorghum 

varieties – Tegemeo (1986), Pato (1995), and Macia (1999) – and two pearl millet varieties, 

Okoa and Shibe (1994, see Annex 1). These were the first new releases in over a decade. Only 

three improved varieties had been released earlier: sorghums Lulu and Serena in the 1970s, and 

pearl millet Serere 17 in the late 1960s. 

Results From On-Station and On-Farm Trials 

On-station trials, sorghum 

Table 3 shows the results of on-station testing. The three new released varieties were compared 

to other elite germplasm, across two seasons: 1992/93 (poor rainfall, low yields) and 1993/94 

(good season with generally high yields). The new varieties gave grain yields ranging from 1.5 to 

4.6 t ha -1 , with Macia giving the highest. Recommendation for release was based on data from onstation 

trials at Ilonga, Hombolo, Ukiriguru, Tumbi, Gairo, Ifakara, and Naliendele. 

Supplemental data were also available from on-farm testing sites from villages in Same district. 

On-farm trials, sorghum 

The varieties were evaluated at ten unreplicated sites in Same district (Table 4). During these 

evaluations farmers were most impressed by the earliness and yield of Macia and Pato; both 

varieties are similar in duration to Tegemeo, with which farmers are already familiar. Farmers 

invariably ranked Macia first because it combined earliness and a much shorter plant type, which 

is preferred because of the ease of bird scaring. The three varieties are considerably earlier than 

local landraces: 64-68 days to reach half bloom, compared to 85 days for landraces. 

Table 3. Sorghum grain yields in on-station trials, 1992/93 and 1993/94 seasons. 

Yield advantage over 

Yield (t ha -1 ) No. of sites local variety 

92/93 93/94 Mean* 

Macia 1.70 4.60 2.34 9 139% 

Pato 1.60 4.40 2.22 9 126% 

Tegemeo 1.50 4.20 2.10 9 114% 

Local variety* 0.98 

* Long-term average for respective area 

5

On-station trials, pearl millet 

The new pearl millet varieties have been widely tested and compared with the released variety 

Serere 17 and local varieties across several sites in the country (Table 5). Recommendation for 

release was based on data from 17 on-station trials at Ilonga, Hombolo, Ukiriguru, and Lubaga. 

Supplementary data were also available from on-farm testing sites from villages in Dodoma and 

Singida regions. 

On-farm trials, pearl millet 

The varieties were evaluated at 21 unreplicated sites across five villages in three districts – 

Dodoma Rural, Singida Rural, and Iramba (Table 6). During these evaluations farmers were most 

impressed by the earliness, head length, and yield of Okoa. All farmers ranked Okoa and Shibe 

first and second respectively, because both were visibly superior to the local varieties used as 

controls. Okoa gave the highest grain yield (2.31 t ha -1 ), followed by Shibe (1.85 t ha -1 ). Serere 

17 and the local variety gave 1.62 t ha -1 . Okoa and Shibe have the same tillering ability; the 

former’s yield superiority is likely due to its greater average ear length. 

Table 4. Sorghum variety performance in on-farm trials, Same district, 1995/96 season. 

Yield advantage 

Days to flowering Plant height (cm) Mean grain yield (t ha -1 ) over local variety 

Pato 68 179 2.13 117% 

Tegemeo 67 162 1.97 101% 

Macia 64 130 1.50 53% 

Local variety 85 0.98 

Pato, Tegemeo: data from 2 seasons, 10 unreplicated environments. Macia: data from 1 season, 3 unreplicated environments 

Local variety data are long-term average for respective area 

Table 5. Pearl millet grain yields (t ha -1 ) in on-station trials, 1991/92 to 1994/95. 

Yield advantage 

91/92 92/93 93/94 94/95 Mean No. of sites over local variety 

Okoa 1.91 2.61 2.12 1.92 2.14 14 48% 

Shibe 1.69 2.15 1.90 2.07 1.98 17 37% 

Serere 17 1.17 1.67 1.29 1.59 1.43 17 – 1.4% 

Local variety 1.20 1.68 1.24 1.67 1.45 17 

Table 6. Pearl millet variety performance in on-farm trials, Dodoma, Singida, and Iramba districts, 1993/94 

season. 

Plant height Panicle length Mean grain yield Yield advantage 

Days to flowering (cm) (cm) (t ha -1 ) over local variety 

Okoa 62 198 43 2.31 42% 

Shibe 67 214 39 1.85 14% 

Serere 17 53 175 24 1.62 0% 

Local variety 67 211 36 1.62 

Flowering, plant height, panicle length, and yield based on average of 17, 11, 16, and 21 unreplicated environments respectively 

6

Adoption Surveys 

A formal survey was conducted during March-May 2001 to evaluate the acceptability of the new 

varieties among a cross-section of small-scale farming households in Tanzania. Farmers were 

asked about crop performance as evidenced by the 1999/2000 harvest. Interviewers also 

examined the variety evaluation criteria used by farmers, and whether farmers understood the 

differences between the new varieties. 

The survey was carried out during the main rain season 2000/01, when sorghum and millet 

in the survey areas was at the milky dough to maturity stages. Thus, the survey team were able 

to observe both local and improved sorghum and millets on farmers’ fields. 

Sampling procedure 

A random sample of farmers was chosen from the nine major sorghum-growing regions: 

Dodoma, Singida, Tabora, Shinyanga, Mwanza, Mara, Lindi, Mtwara, and Arusha. In each region, 

government authorities provided a list of districts where sorghum/millets are grown. Districts 

were selected at random from this list. Three districts were selected in Mwanza, and two 

districts each from Dodoma, Singida, Shinyanga, Lindi, and Mtwara. In Tabora, Mara, and 

Arusha regions, where sorghum/millet is more localized, one district per region was selected. 

In each of the selected districts, two villages were randomly selected from a long list (provided 

by district agricultural authorities) of villages that are potentially sorghum/millets producers. 

In each village thus selected, eight small-scale farm households were selected at random 

from census lists of the farmers in the village. In Kondoa district more households were sampled 

because one of the villages selected was predominantly pearl millet growing, so it was decided to 

sample an extra village. 

The total primary sample was 267 households (Table 7). Adoption was estimated from this 

sample. 

Table 7. Number of farm households sampled in the sorghum/millets adoption survey, 2001. 

Region District Number of farmers 

Arusha Babati 16 

Dodoma Kondoa 24 

Dodoma Rural 16 

Lindi Nachingwea 16 

Lindi Rural 16 

Mara Bunda 17 

Mtwara Masasi 16 

Mtwara Rural 16 

Mwanza Kwimba 17 

Magu 16 

Misungwi 17 

Shinyanga Shinyanga Rural 16 

Meatu 16 

Singida Iramba 16 

Singida Rural 16 

Tabora Igunga 16 

Total sample 267 

7

Fluctuations in planted area 

Survey results indicate that for the seasons 1999/2000 and 2000/01, the total national area 

under improved sorghum varieties remained constant at approximately 244,000 ha, though 

Dodoma and Mwanza recorded a combined decline of about 13,000 ha. This decline is explained 

by large requirements of sorghum seed for the 2000/01 season for Tabora, Lindi, and Arusha 

regions which had suffered serious drought during 1999/2000 and were targets for relief seed 

distribution. As a result, less seed was available for distribution in Dodoma and Mwanza. Much 

of the seed that went into these areas was produced by farmer groups in Dodoma sponsored by 

the NGO, CCT/DCT (Christian Council of Tanzania / Diocese of Central Tanganyika). 

Seed Production and Distribution of Improved Varieties 

During the 1990s, national sorghum area averaged 664,550 ha. Millet area averaged 223,400 

ha, and is estimated to be split as two-thirds pearl millet and one-third finger millet. Many 

farmers involved in on-farm trials in the early 1990s raised concerns about the non-availability 

of improved seed. At that time the estimated area under improved sorghum and millet 

varieties in Tanzania was less than 5%. In response, the National Sorghum and Millet 

Improvement Program (NSMIP) and SADC/ICRISAT SMIP provided financial support to 

organize the first seed production and distribution strategy meeting in Nov 1995. The meeting 

brought together a wide range of key players in the seed chain. A basic model for sorghum and 

pearl millet seed production was developed and agreed to by all participants. The model 

included the following aspects: 

• Certified seed may be produced by multiplying foundation seed. Alternatively, “Quality 

declared” seed may be produced by multiplying certified seed. 

• In either case, formal and informal seed producers must obtain source seed (foundation or 

certified grade) from a recognized agency. 

• All seed growers should register with the Tanzania Official Seed Certification Agency (TOSCA) 

and submit to field and seed inspection for certification. 

• Only seed certified by TOSCA may be labeled and sold or distributed to farmers. 

To improve seed availability, NSMIP worked with several organizations to promote on-farm 

seed production. The participating institutions included Mvumi Rural Training Centre (MRTC) 

which operates in Mvumi division (Dodoma Rural); Lay Volunteers International Aid Agency in 

Kongwa district; and CCT, which supports on-farm seed production of maize, sorghum, and 

millet in seven drought-prone regions. 

During the 1996/97 cropping season NSMIP, in collaboration with SMIP, undertook to 

produce large quantities of foundation seed at Ilonga Research Centre. SMIP provided both 

financial assistance and technical support. Nearly 30 tons of seed was harvested – 25 t of Pato, 

2.5 t of Okoa, 800 kg of Shibe, and 500 kg of Serere 17. Macia was sown to obtain seed for 

promotion programs in the Central and Northern Zones. In addition to seed produced at Ilonga, 

SMIP delivered to Tanzania 3 tons each of Pato and Okoa, produced at Matopos, Zimbabwe. 

This seed was sent to boost stocks in anticipation of severe drought in 1997/98. Most of the 

seed was distributed in Dodoma, Singida, and Shinyanga regions. Funds from seed sales were 

used to support NSMIP’s research activities in the country. 

8

Small-scale farmers registered under CCT as seed associations 

The CCT/ DCT farmer groups operate in three villages in Dodoma region. Each group has 20 to 

45 members, about one-third of whom are women. During 1999 the three groups, under the 

leadership of DCT, were able to contribute 229 tons of sorghum seed, which was purchased for 

relief distribution. The following year the same groups, with support from FAO and Norwegian 

People’s Aid, an NGO based in Dodoma, supplied 197 tons of sorghum seed for national 

drought relief (Table 8). 

Seed dissemination through rural primary schools 

In this innovative approach, implemented by ICRISAT and its partners in Tanzania, primary 

schools in rural communities are used as centers for seed multiplication and distribution. The 

selected schools were already involved in a school-feeding program initiated by CCT. The 

schools are located in drought-prone areas, where it is particularly important to introduce 

improved varieties of drought-tolerant crops such as sorghum and pearl millet. 

Schools were used as a seed distribution channel for several reasons. They are located in 

poor rural areas where many children, unable to continue their education, take up farming after 

primary school. Thus the project benefits children as well as their parents; while the schools 

benefit from the proceeds of seed sales. Agriculture is part of the curriculum, teachers are in 

place, and the schools already grow crops to feed their students. Thus, the project would be 

building on an existing foundation. 

One hundred schools in Dodoma and Singida districts were selected as pilot areas for the 

1999/2000 season. Schools had typically over 500 students each. They were located within 15- 

20 km of each other, so that farmers could access seed without having to travel long distances. 

Agricultural teachers in the selected schools were provided with some basic training on seed 

multiplication and quality control. Each school was provided with seed enough to plant one 

hectare: 0.5 ha each of sorghum variety Pato and pearl millet Okoa. 

Table 8. Seed (tons) of improved sorghum and pearl millet varieties distributed in Tanzania, 1997 to 2000, 

excluding farmer-to-farmer exchange. 

Planting season ICRISAT Government Primary schools CCT Private seed companies Total 

Sorghum 

1997 0.1 25 – – 25 50.1 

1998 3.0 – – – 40 43.0 

1999 – 11 – 229 65 305.0 

2000 – 10 22 197 268 497.0 

Total 3.1 46 22 426 398 895.1 

Pearl millet 

1997 0.1 3.8 – – – 3.9 

1998 3.0 – – – – 3.0 

1999 – 5 – 8 – 13.0 

2000 – – 18.5 – – 18.5 

Total 3.1 8.8 18.5 8 – 38.4 

ICRISAT: seed multiplied in Zimbabwe, supplied to Tanzania to replenish national breeder seed stocks that had lost purity 

Government: breeder/foundation seed produced at research stations (mainly Ilonga) and Foundation Seed Farm, Msimba 

CCT: Christian Council of Tanzania 

9

In the 2000 season, the schools contributed a total of 40.5 tons of seed to the national seed 

system (Table 8). By 2002 the scheme had expanded to include schools from three more 

districts – Shinyanga, Igunga, and Same. 

Government-supported on-farm seed production program 

The Tanzanian government has signed a bilateral project with the Danish government, under 

which the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) will provide support for onfarm 

seed production, under the Agricultural Sector Program Support. A few qualified, 

experienced farmers in each target village will be selected, trained, and supported for seed 

production. They will then sell this seed to neighboring farmers. The program will also support 

breeder seed production at research stations. This nationwide program is being implemented by 

the Seed Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. The pilot 3-year phase targets 

three districts – Dodoma, Mpwapwa, and Kondoa. Dodoma and Mpwapwa lie in the Central 

Zone, where sorghum and millet are major crops; sorghum/millet seed production will therefore 

be an important element of the program. 

Results from seed production initiatives 

As a direct consequence of the three programs described above, over 900 tons of seed – 895 t of 

improved sorghum varieties and 38 t of improved pearl millet varieties – have been distributed 

to farmers in the past 4 years. Efforts have focused on sorghum, rather than millet, primarily 

because NGO support has been more forthcoming for sorghum. This emphasis on sorghum is 

also reflected in the survey results, which show that extension efforts have played the major role 

in disseminating new sorghum varieties. In contrast, pearl millet varieties have spread largely 

through farmer-to-farmer seed exchange. 

Adoption of Improved Sorghum Varieties 

The proportion of farmers who are aware of the new sorghum varieties ranges from about 16% in 

Lindi (Southern Zone) to as high as 80% in Dodoma (Central Zone). Similarly, the proportion of 

farmers who had grown these varieties ranged from 6% in Lindi to 62% in Dodoma (Table 9). To 

estimate adoption country-wide, data from each region was weighted by the share of the region 

in national sorghum area (eg, higher weightage for Dodoma and Shinyanga). We estimate that 

approximately 36% of national sorghum area is under improved varieties (Table 10). 

Pato was released in 1995; it has taken about six years to reach these levels of adoption. As 

a result of seed systems development in the Central Zone, and national drought relief efforts, 

Macia, the most recent release, is also becoming popular with farmers. Extrapolation of survey 

data, using weighted averages, indicates that over half the sorghum farmers in Tanzania have had 

experience growing Serena, a brown, high-tannin variety which became very unpopular and was 

finally rejected by farmers for food uses, although it is still widely grown for brewing. Over 45% 

of farmers have had experience with Tegemeo (released in 1986), and over 43% with Pato. 

The survey also showed that the national extension service is the most effective vehicle for 

disseminating information about new sorghum and pearl millet varieties. For example, among 

Pato growers, over 67% reported they had learned about the variety through the extension 

10

service. Other sources of information were other farmers, researchers, and NGOs (Table 11). 

As a result of the seed systems work and extension promotion, by the 1999/00 season, 22% of 

sorghum growers in Tanzania were planting Pato; 13% were growing Tegemeo, 13% were 

growing Serena. The following season, the proportion of Pato farmers had increased to 28%, 

followed by Serena (16%) at the expense of a slight drop in Tegemeo (11%). However, about 

half of all sorghum farmers continue to maintain their local landrace varieties. 

In general, adoption of improved sorghum and millet varieties is higher in drier areas 

(Table 12). This is largely because development and seed distribution efforts have concentrated 

on these areas, rather than on higher-rainfall regions like Arusha. 

Table 9. Percentage of farmers who are aware of, or have grown, the new sorghum varieties, 2001. 

Aware of improved variety(ies), % Have grown improved variety(ies), % 

Dodoma 79.5 61.5 

Singida 60.0 38.1 

Tabora 60.0 35.0 

Shinyanga 63.1 45.0 

Mwanza 50.5 42.0 

Mara 45.6 47.1 

Lindi 15.7 6.3 

Mtwara 28.1 20.3 

Arusha 36.0 29.2 

Weighted mean* 56.8 42.3 

* Weighted in terms of number of farmers, ie number of farmers sampled in the region as a proportion of total sorghum farmers in the sample 

Table 10. Area (‘000 ha) planted to improved sorghum varieties by region, based on 2001 adoption survey. 

Other major Other minor % area under 

production production improved 

Dodoma Singida Shinyanga Mwanza areas areas Total varieties* 

Planted area 97 60 121 73 158 165 664 36 

Improved varieties 46 18 50 37 53 40 244 

Local varieties 51 42 71 36 105 115 420 

* Weighted in terms of area, ie sorghum area in the region as a proportion of national sorghum area 

Table 11. Percentage of farmers learning about the improved sorghum variety Pato from different 

sources, 2001. 

Extension Other farmers Other sources 

Dodoma 82.1 17.9 0 

Mara 50.0 50.0 0 

Mtwara 100.0 0 0 

Mwanza 90.9 0 9.1 

Shinyanga 70.8 12.5 16.7 

Singida 48.0 44.0 8.0 

Tabora 66.7 33.3 0 

Weighted mean* 67.2 18.1 6.2 


11

Adoption of Improved Pearl Millet Varieties 

The proportion of farmers who are aware of the new pearl millet varieties, ranges from just 2% 

in the Lake Zone (Mwanza) to 44% in the Central Zone (Dodoma). The proportion of farmers 

who have grown these varieties ranges from zero in Mwanza to 33% in Dodoma. To estimate 

nation-wide adoption rates, the survey results were weighted against the national pearl millet 

area. We estimate that approximately 29% of the country’s pearl millet area is sown to improved 

varieties (Tables 13, 14). 

Okoa, released in 1994, is already more popular with farmers than Serere 17, which was 

released in the late 1960s. Over 30% of Tanzania’s pearl millet farmers have grown Okoa, 

compared to 11% for Serere 17. Serere 17 is an extra-early variety. It matures when no other 

grain is available in the fields, and the maturity stage coincides with the annual movement of 

quelea birds across the Rift Valley. Farmers growing Serere 17 in Dodoma and Singida 

sometimes suffer 100% crop loss as a result of bird damage. This variety has essentially been 

rejected by farmers in most parts of Tanzania, except Shinyanga, where some farmers still 

Table 12. Percentage of farmers planting alternative sorghum varieties, 1999/00 and 2000/01 seasons. 

Weighted 

Dodoma Singida Tabora Shinyanga Mwanza Mara Lindi Mtwara Arusha mean* 

1999/2000 

Pato 77.5 19.4 12.5 34.4 12.0 0.0 0.0 3.1 0.0 22.34 

Tegemeo 32.5 12.9 6.3 18.8 16.0 5.9 0.0 9.4 18.8 13.30 

Serena 7.5 6.5 25.0 21.9 30.0 29.4 0.0 0.0 6.3 13.01 

Lulu 5.0 0.0 0.0 28.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.77 

Macia 2.5 0.0 12.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.10 

Local 50.0 77.4 87.5 37.5 28.0 100.0 100.0 93.8 81.3 47.61 

2000/01 

Pato 70.0 35.5 37.5 53.1 12.0 0.0 3.0 3.1 0.0 27.60 

Tegemeo 37.5 12.9 0.0 9.4 14.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.8 11.00 

Serena 10.0 12.9 37.5 34.4 30.0 11.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.69 

Lulu 10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 24.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.64 

Macia 12.5 0.0 6.3 3.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.80 

Local 47.5 83.9 81.3 53.1 38.0 100.0 100.0 93.8 81.3 51.60 

* Weighted in terms of planted area, ie sorghum area in the region as a proportion of national sorghum area 

Table 13. Area (‘000 ha) planted to improved pearl millet varieties by region, based on 2001 adoption 

survey. 

% area under 

improved 

Dodoma Singida Shinyanga Tabora Other regions Total varieties* 

Planted area** 99.8 43.6 38 15.2 138.4 335 29 

Improved varieties 42.1 13.3 22.4 0 22.4 100.2 

Local varieties 57.7 30.3 15.6 15.2 116.1 234.9 

* Weighted in terms of area, ie sorghum area in the region as a proportion of national sorghum area 

** Includes finger millet area. Therefore, adoption rate may have been under-estimated 

12

grow it. The local landraces are late-maturing and therefore vulnerable to end-of-season 

drought, but avoid the peak of the quelea birds. Okoa is intermediate in maturity – at least 

three weeks earlier than most local landraces but still able to avoid excessive quelea damage. 

Shibe, released at the same time as Okoa, remains unknown to farmers. This variety was 

developed from a Dodoma landrace, and is thus similar to landraces in maturity and physical 

characteristics. Many farmers who received the seed from relief organizations or government 

programs have been unable to differentiate it from their local landraces, and may not even 

realize they are in fact growing Shibe. Adoption of Shibe is therefore likely to be underreported. 

Diffusion patterns in pearl millet were different from those in sorghum. Nearly as many 

farmers learned about the new variety Okoa from extension officers as from other farmers 

(Table 15). This is probably because pearl millet variety adoption has been due to farmers 

exchanging seed among themselves. NGO- or government-supported seed multiplication 

groups have shown little interest in pearl millet; seed has come from farmers and from the 

primary schools program. 

Grain Yields from the New Varieties 

The survey asked farmers to estimate planted area and yield of their crops. Their yield estimates 

are very rough and based on bags per acre or number of 20-liter buckets. These were converted 

into tons per hectare for reporting purposes. Adoption data were collected and averaged across 

Table 14. Proportion of farmers planting alternative pearl millet varieties, 1999/00 and 2000/01 seasons. 

Dodoma Singida Tabora Shinyanga Mwanza Mara Lindi Mtwara Arusha 

(n=40) (n=31) (n=16) (n=32) (n=50) (n=16) (n=33) (n=32) (n=16) 

2000/01 

Okoa 27.5 29.0 – – – – – – – 

Shibe – 3.2 – – – – – – – 

Local 55.0 52.0 – 21.0 20.0 – – – – 

1999/2000 

Okoa 40.0 29.0 – – – – – – – 

Shibe – 3.2 – – – – – – – 

Local 40.0 57.0 – 15.0 24.0 – – – 43.8 

– = no response 

Table 15. Percentage of farmers learning about the improved pearl millet variety Okoa from different 

sources, 2001. 

Extension Other farmers Research Other 

Dodoma 58.1 38.7 3.2 – 

Singida 47.6 42.8 4.8 4.8 

Shinyanga 50.0 50.0 – – 

Weighted mean* 41.6 32.3 2.3 0.9 


13

two seasons: 1998/99 (poor season, long dry spells, below-normal harvests) and 1999/2000, 

which was a normal season. Farmers reported that Pato gave the highest yields. Across the two 

seasons, yields were Pato 1.2 t ha -1 , followed by Tegemeo 0.98 and Serena 0.82 t ha -1 , compared 

to an average of 0.62 t ha -1 from the local varieties used as controls (Table 16). 

Data are not reported for two other improved varieties, Lulu and Macia, which are grown by 

less than 5% of farmers nationally and are confined to one or two regions only. Macia was 

released only in 1999, and little seed has been distributed. Lulu is an old variety released in the 

1960s; seed is no longer maintained by the national seed service and is available only from other 

farmers. 

Pearl millet is grown mostly in Dodoma, Singida, Shinyanga, and Tabora. The two varieties 

with significant adoption are Okoa and Serere 17. Adoption of Shibe, released 6 years ago, is 

very limited; although adoption may be under-reported, as discussed above. Farmers reported 

that Okoa gave the highest yield, 1 t ha -1 (Table 16). Serere 17 yielded significantly less than 

local landraces, largely because of its vulnerability to birds. This variety has essentially been 

rejected for this reason, and is now found only in parts of Singida and Shinyanga. In these areas, 

there has been considerable introgression (due to natural cross-pollination) of Serere with local 

landraces, thus delaying its maturity and reducing its vulnerability to bird damage. 

Overall, the new sorghum and pearl millet varieties outyielded local landraces by 10 to 38%, 

under farmer management conditions. 

Farmers’ Varietal Preferences 


In order to understand variety-preference criteria, farmers were asked what they liked most 

about each sorghum variety they were growing (Table 17). 

Farmers growing improved varieties (Pato, Tegemeo, Macia, Serena, Lulu), almost without 

exception, cited one or both of two traits – early maturity and drought tolerance (which are in 

fact closely related). These two traits, as well as good taste and high yield, were the 

characteristics farmers most liked in these varieties. Farmers were impressed by early maturity 

Table 16. Average yield (t ha -1 ) from improved and local varieties based on survey data, 2000/01 cropping 

season. 

Variety 

Mean ± SD 


Pato (n=42) 1.2 ± 0.91 

Tegemeo (n=27) 0.98 ± 0.55 

Serena (n=30) 0.82 ± 0.62 

Local (n=131) 0.62 ± 0.54 

Mean (n=230) 0.75 ± 0.50 


Okoa (n=21) 1.0 ± 0.63 

Serere 17 (n=8) 0.52 ± 0.35 

Local (n=32) 0.91 ± 0.72 

Mean (n=61) 0.81 ± 0.56 

14

and drought tolerance for two reasons. One, early varieties provide food during the traditional 

“hunger period” just before the normal harvest – the majority of farmers in sorghum-growing 

areas run out of grain before the next harvest. Two, the rain season often ends early in areas 

where sorghum and millet are grown; and a 3- or 4-month crop ensures that at least some grain 

will be harvested. 

Farmers who grew landraces cited different traits. They considered yield, taste and drought 

resistance to be the most important traits in landraces. 

For each variety, improved as well as local, farmers were asked what traits, in their opinion, 

needed to be improved (Table 17). Bird damage was the most commonly cited, followed by field 

pests and storage pests. Late maturity was cited as an important negative trait among landraces. 

Table 17. Most important positive and negative traits in sorghum varieties, as cited by farmers, 2001. 

Variety Positive traits % of farmers citing Negative traits % of farmers citing 

Pato (n=80) Early maturity 74.4 Bird damage 79.1 

Drought resistance 47.7 Field insect pests (stemborers) 58.1 

Good taste 47.7 Storage pests 51.2 

High yield 46.5 Diseases (particularly leaf blight) 37.2 

Big grain 29.1 Other 8.1 

Big head 11.6 

Tegemeo (n=90) Early maturity 56.6 Bird damage 77.8 

Drought resistance 49.5 Field insect pests 57.6 

High yield 45.5 Storage pests 47.5 

Good taste 34.3 Disease problem in field 39.4 

Big grain 27.3 Other 9.1 

Big head 14.1 

Macia (n=9) Good taste 55.6 Field insect pests 55.6 


Drought resistance 33.3 Bird damage 44.4 

Early maturity 11.1 Other 11.1 

Serena (n=119) Early maturity 53.1 Field insect pests 50.8 

Drought resistance 50.8 Bird damage 49.2 


Disease problem in field 31.3 

Poor taste 10.2 

Lulu (n=82) Drought resistance 51.8 Bird damage 51.8 

Early maturity 34.1 Field insect pests 37.6 


High yield 22.4 Disease problem in field 29.4 

Big grain 21.2 

Other varieties (n=189) High yield 66.7 Bird damage 56.3 

Good taste 56.3 Late maturity 46.4 


Bird resistance 37.5 Storage pests 38.0 

Early maturity 30.2 Disease problem in field 26.0 

Other 25.5 Drought tolerance 21.4 

Big head 24.5 

15

Serena is a high-tannin variety. This trait gives it good bird resistance but makes it 

unpalatable for food use. Pato appears to be susceptible to stem borer infestation and leaf blight 

disease – which is cause for concern since the variety is very widely grown in Tanzania. Macia 

seemed to be less vulnerable, and could be promoted as a replacement for Pato in areas where 

leaf blight is a serious problem, while breeders continue their efforts to identify a resistant 

variety. In some areas where Macia had been adopted, it appeared more susceptible to kernel 

smut than either Tegemeo or Pato. This could be a problem with Macia in future. But it should 

be noted that farmers’ identification of positive and negative traits in Macia is less reliable than 

their responses for other varieties, because very few Macia growers were interviewed. 

Farmers were also asked what they found most disappointing in the new varieties. There 

were no major complaints, although it is likely that many farmers who did not want to comment 

negatively gave no response. (We feel susceptibility to pests may be a potential problem.) The 

biggest disappointment, as cited by farmers, was non-availability of seed at the community 

level. This problem was cited by 17-46% of the farmers who grew improved varieties (but only 

6% of Macia growers, probably because the variety was at the earliest stages of diffusion, and 

being grown only by “targeted” farmers). Some farmers considered seed unavailability to be a 

more serious problem than the observed disease and pest problems. 


Positive and negative traits were similar to those cited for sorghum (Table 18). Farmers who grew 

improved varieties (Okoa, Shibe, Serere) cited early maturity as the most important positive 

trait. Those who grew landraces cited good taste. 

Table 18. Most important positive and negative traits in pearl millet varieties, as cited by farmers, 2001. 

Variety Positive traits % of farmers citing Negative traits % of farmers citing 

Okoa (n=35) Early maturity 85.7 Bird damage 71.4 

High yield 42.9 Field insect pests 62.9 

Good taste 34.3 Disease problem in field 40.0 

Big grain 28.6 Storage pests 31.4 

Drought resistance 25.7 

Shibe (n=3) Early maturity 33.3 Field insect pests 33.3 

Big grain 33.3 Storage pests 33.3 

High yield 33.3 Bird damage 33.3 

Serere 17 (n=16) Early maturity 93.8 Bird damage 93.8 



High yield 43.8 

Local (n=80) Good taste 66.3 Bird damage 85.0 


High yield 38.8 Low yield 25.0 

Early maturity 32.5 Late maturity 22.5 

Storage pest resistance 20.0 Storage pests 21.3 

16

As discussed earlier, the early maturity of Serere 17, which farmers appreciate, has in fact 

become the reason for its rejection. Responses on Shibe should be interpreted with caution 

because of the very small number of respondents. 

When asked about traits that need improvement, the majority of farmers complained about 

losses due to birds. This is a serious problem with all varieties, and particularly Serere 17. Other 

problems included field insect pests and storage pests. As with sorghum, the local landraces 

appeared to be less susceptible to storage pests. 

Again, as with sorghum, there were no serious complaints about the worst traits in improved 

pearl millet varieties. But in contrast with sorghum, there were relatively few complaints about 

unavailability of seed. About 13% of Okoa growers, and a smaller proportion of growers of other 

improved varieties, cited this problem. This is partly because these varieties are still new. Many 

farmers have grown them for just 1-3 seasons. As they gain experience with the varieties, more 

feedback is expected. Non-availability of seed was not cited as a serious problem, because 

farmers are used to getting pearl millet seed from their neighbors, not buying it from 

commercial outlets. When the seed system for pearl millet becomes more effective and farmers 

realize they can demand pearl millet seed as they do for sorghum and other cereals, we believe 

the issue of seed availability will be raised, just as it has been for sorghum. 

Future Research Strategies 

The survey results show that although the recently released improved varieties are generally 

acceptable, farmers have identified problems – susceptibility to bird damage, storage pests, and 

diseases, and inappropriate grain quality for traditional food uses (Leuschner et al. 2000, Letayo 

et al. 1996, Monyo et al. 1996a,b). This lends support to the view that Participatory Plant 

Breeding – participation of farmers in the actual technology development process – would 

greatly improve the efficiency and value of research products. 

Experiences from elsewhere in Southern Africa have shown that active farmer participation 

in technology development can result in widespread adoption of improved varieties suited to 

local conditions (Monyo et al. 1996a,b, 2001a,b, Ipinge et al. 1996, Ipinge and Monyo 1999, 

Rorhbach et al. 1999). ICRISAT, in collaboration with national research institutes, has helped 

pioneer this approach in Southern Africa. This has enabled breeders to tap indigenous 

knowledge, better understand and quantify farmers’ preferences for specific grain and plant 

traits, and incorporate these preferences into new varieties (Heinrich et al. 2000, Ipinge and 

Monyo 1999). This work was pivotal in the rapid adoption of improved pearl millet varieties in 

Namibia, where 50% of national pearl millet area is sown to improved varieties, and the rate of 

return to investments in pearl millet R&D is as high as 60% (Rohrbach et al. 1999). 

The Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security is undergoing organizational restructuring. 

Commodity research under the Tanzania Agricultural Research Program (TARP II) is now 

conducted based on zonal priorities. Six of the country’s seven research zones have ranked 

sorghum/millet research as first or second priority. With a client-oriented approach in each 

zone, in the coming years these small grains will have a great impact in semi-arid areas 

throughout Tanzania (Saadan and Mndolwa 1999). 

17

Priority Areas for Sorghum and Millet Research in Tanzania 

Variety development 

• Participatory plant breeding with farmers and the private sector 

• Improvement in specific varieties as requested by farmers, eg Wajita for Mara region 

• Screening for drought and Striga tolerance 

• Screening for disease and insect pest resistance 

• Germplasm maintenance 

• Breeder seed production. 

Attention to these issues will ensure that the next generation of varieties addresses the 

identified shortcomings of the currently available varieties (Table 19). Participatory breeding 

will ensure that farmers’ preferences are taken on board. Known bird-resistant landrace 

varieties like Wajita will be improved for earliness and other desirable agronomic traits while 

retaining their resistance to birds. Issues of drought and Striga will be addressed. The finding 

that Pato is highly susceptible to leaf blight is of concern; efforts will be directed towards rapid 

multiplication of Macia, a newly released, farmer-preferred variety which is less sensitive to leaf 

blight. Leaf blight screening will be added to the breeding program. The susceptibility of Macia 

to kernel smut will be studied further. 

Seed production and distribution 

Efforts will target both the formal and informal seed sectors, particularly building capacity of 

farmer groups to produce quality seed, assisting them to establish seed distribution networks, 

and linking them to private seed companies as contract seed growers. 

Technology transfer 

Greater efforts will be made to stimulate adoption of available, proven technologies. Priority 

areas will include: on-farm verification and popularization of newly released varieties and 

associated crop management recommendations, including appropriate plant population, legume 

intensification, soil fertility management, soil water management, and integrated pest 

management. 

Table 19. Main traits requiring improvement in sorghum varieties, as cited by % of farmers, 2001. 

Pato (n=80) Tegemeo (n=90) Serena (n=119) Local varieties (n=189) 

Bird damage 79% Bird damage 78% Bird damage 49% Bird damage 56% 

Field insects 58% Field insects 58% Field insects 51% Field insects 46% 

Storage pests 51% Storage pests 47% Storage pests 42% Storage pests 38% 

Diseases 38% Diseases 39% Diseases 31% Diseases 26% 

18

References 

Anonymous. 1988. Recommendations for improved production of sorghum in Tanzania. PO Box 2066, 

Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Agricultural Research Organization, Department of Research and Training. 32 pp. 

Heinrich GM, Monyo ES, Nkhori S and Obilana AB. 2000. Enhancing farmer participation in cultivar 

development: a primer for sorghum and pearl millet breeders in SADC. Developed from a Workshop on 

Farmer Participation in Sorghum and Pearl Millet Breeding, 25-27 Apr 1995, Omahenene, Namibia. 

Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: ICRISAT. 32 pp. 

Ipinge SA and Monyo ES. 1999. Participatory approaches and the use of farmer knowledge to improve 

pearl millet in Namibia. Pages 12-17 in Proceedings of the Workshop on Farmer Participation in Pearl 

Millet Breeding and Farmer-based Seed Production Systems in Namibia, 23-27 Mar 1998, Oshakati, 

Namibia (Heinrich GM, ed). PO Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe: SADC/ICRISAT Sorghum and Millet 

Improvement Program. 

Ipinge SA, Lechner WR and Monyo ES. 1996. Farmer participation in the evaluation of priority plant and 

grain traits on station, the case of pearl millet in Namibia. Pages 35-42 in Drought tolerant crops for 

southern Africa: proceedings of the SADC/ICRISAT Regional Sorghum and Pearl Millet Workshop, 25-29 

July 1994 (Leuschner K and Manthe CS, eds). Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: ICRISAT. 

Letayo EA, Saadan HM, Mndolwa SI, Gupta SC and Monyo ES. 1996. Evaluation of performances and 

farmer preference for pearl millet varieties in Tanzania. Pages 65-70 in Drought tolerant crops for southern 

Africa: proceedings of the SADC/ICRISAT Regional Sorghum and Pearl Millet Workshop, 25-29 July 

1994 (Leuschner K and Manthe CS, eds). Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: ICRISAT. 

Leuschner K, Monyo ES, Chinhema E, Tembo E and Martin D. 2000. Pearl millet grain hardness in relation 

to resistance to Sitophilus oryzea (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). African Crop Science Journal 8(1):77-83. 

Monyo ES, Ipinge SA, Chinhema E and Heinrich GM. 2001a. Results and impact of participatory plant 

breeding: the case of pearl millet breeding in Namibia. Pages 202-211 in Participatory plant breeding and 

rural development. Cali, Colombia: Participatory Research and Gender Analysis Program, International 

Institute for Tropical Agriculture. 

Monyo ES, Ipinge SA, Heinrich GM and Chinhema E. 2001b. Participatory breeding: does it make a 

difference? Lessons from Namibian pearl millet farmers. Pages 198-207 in Assessing the impact of 

participatory research and gender analysis (Lilja N, Ashby JA and Sperling L, eds). Cali, Colombia: 

Participatory Research and Gender Analysis Program, International Institute for Tropical Agriculture. 

Monyo ES, Ipinge SA, Mndolwa SI, Mangombe N and Chintu EM. 1996a. The potential of local 

landraces in pearl millet improvement. Pages 153-162 in Drought tolerant crops for southern Africa: 

proceedings of the SADC/ICRISAT Regional Sorghum and Pearl Millet Workshop, 25-29 July 1994 

(Leuschner K and Manthe CS, eds). Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: ICRISAT. 

Monyo ES, Rohrbach DD and Osmanzai M. 1996b. Crop breeding for sustainable farming systems: the 

case of pearl millet in Zimbabwe. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture 35(4):348-364. 

Rohrbach DD, Lechner WR, Ipinge SA and Monyo ES. 1999. Impact from investments in crop breeding: the case 

of Okashana 1 in Namibia. Impact Series no. 4. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: ICRISAT. 48 pp. 

Saadan HM and Mndolwa SI. 1999. Overview of sorghum and millet research in Tanzania. Pages 33-38 in 

Seed systems, higher productivity, and commercialization: prospects for sorghum and millets in Tanzania. 

Proceedings of a Stakeholder Review and Planning Workshop, 25-26 Nov 1998, Kibaha, Tanzania (Monyo 

ES, Saadan HM and Mgonja MA, eds). PO Box 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe: ICRISAT. 

19

Annex 1. Improved Varieties Released in Tanzania 

Tegemeo (2K x 17/B/1) 

Open-pollinated (pure line) sorghum variety, selected at Ilonga from a cross with pedigree 2K x 

17/B/1. Released in 1986. 

Plant characteristics 

- height 1.4-1.7 m, semi-dwarf 

- tan-colored plant 

- medium-sized, semi-upright leaves 

- semi-compact, medium-sized panicle, good panicle exsertion, 10-15 cm 

- fair tillering, 1-2 tillers/plant 

- medium to late duration, 80-85 days to 50% heading, 135-140 days to maturity 

Grain characteristics 

- creamy white, medium-sized grain 

- hard, corneous grain, 3.5 on a 1-5 scale (5=hardest) 

- straw-colored glume 

- testa (seed coat) absent 

- tannin content zero 

- milling quality fairly good, 78% flour yield, white flour 

- malting quality poor, 20.12 SDU value 

Adaptation. Adapted to loam and sandy-loam soils in intermediate- to long-season areas 

(120-150 days) in central Tanzania with average rainfall of 450-600 mm. However, it is fairly 

susceptible to molding during late rains. 

Yield potential. 2.5-4.0 t ha -1 

Utilization. Food and livestock feed: flour used for porridge (ugali), grain in poultry feed. 

Spillover. Potential for spillover to other areas/countries is limited; restricted to the central 

plateau of Tanzania. Susceptibility to bird damage and Striga has limited large-scale adoption in 

the Western and Lake Zones. 

Pato (SDS 2293-6) 

Open-pollinated (pure line) sorghum variety selected from an introduced germplasm IS 23496 

indexed as SDS 2293-6 in Matopos. Released in 1995. 


- height 1.9-2.4 m, semi-tall to tall, with thick stem 

- purple-colored plant 

- medium-sized, drooping leaves 

- medium-sized, semi-open panicle, short bulky heads, fair panicle exsertion, 6-10 cm 

- fair tillering, 1-2 tillers/plant 

- vigorous seedlings, non-lodging 

- medium to late duration, 80-90 days to 50% flower, 130-140 days to maturity 

20


- bold, creamy white grain with purple specks 

- hard, corneous grain, 3.7 on a 1-5 scale (5 = hardest) 

- black glumes, very conspicuous 



- milling quality excellent, 88% flour yield, flour and food quality superior to the older 

variety Tegemeo, well accepted in Tanzania 

- malting quality fairly good, 36 SDU value 

Adaptation. Adapted to loamy and sandy-loam soils of dry central and eastern Tanzania, with 

intermediate season (120-150 days) and rainfall average of 450-600 mm. Resistant to lodging 

and to most common leaf and head diseases, but susceptible to leaf blight and stem borers. 

Yield potential. 3-5 t ha -1 

Utilization. Flour used in porridge, grain for malting and brewing for opaque beer, stems as silage for 

cattle feed. 

Spillover. Good potential for spillover, eg grain and malt in other areas of Tanzania, and as silage 

in Zimbabwe because of its high green biomass. 

Macia (SDS 3220) 

Open-pollinated (pure line) sorghum variety selected from pedigree M 91057 introduced by 

SMIP from ICRISAT India as segregating line, indexed as SDS 3220. Released in 1999. 


- height 1.3-1.5 m, dwarf to semi-dwarf, with thick stem 

- tan-colored plant 

- broad drooping leaves, stay green at maturity and after harvest 

- semi-compact, large, bulbous panicles, good panicle exsertion, 10-15 cm 

- mostly non-tillering, average of 1.2 tillers/plant 

- early to medium duration, 60-65 days to 50% heading, 115-120 days to maturity 


- creamy white, medium-sized grain, 

- hard, corneous grain, 3.8 on a 1-5 scale (5 = hardest) 

- small, inconspicuous, straw to pink-colored glume, easily threshable 



- milling quality excellent, 80% flour yield, white flour 

- malting quality very good, 42.6 SDU value 

Adaptation. Drought resistant, adapted to loam, sandy-loam and sandy soils in short-season areas 

(

susceptible to kernel smut. Has the stay green trait for drought resistance, crop residue is 

suitable for silage. 

Yield potential. 3-6 t ha -1 

Utilization. Multiple food uses: in porridge, in composite flour for bread (20% sorghum, 80% 

wheat); in biscuits and pasta (50% sorghum, 50% wheat flour). In livestock feed, especially 

poultry. Crop residue for silage. 

Spillover. Very widely adapted, fits into agroecologies of dry central and northern Tanzania, 

southern and western Zimbabwe, northern South Africa, Namibia, Angola, southern 

Mozambique and the Horn of Africa (Eritrea, Somalia, parts of Kenya). 

Okoa (TSPM 91018) 

Pearl millet variety released for general cultivation in Tanzania in 1994. 


- height 1.0-2.8 m, medium to tall 

- dark green plant 

- green, medium-sized leaves 

- long, loose, non-bristled, cylindrical panicles with characteristic basal bracts (in 5% of plants) 

- 2-3 effective tillers/plant 

- ear length 34-55 cm 

- free threshability 

- early maturing; flowers in 59-65 days, matures in 87-92 days 


- straw to cream-colored grain, obovate in shape 

- intermediate to hard grain, medium to large size, 1000-seed mass 12-13 g 

- grain size: 66% of grains are medium (1.7-2.6 mm), rest are large (>2.6 mm) 

- seed cover exposed 

- green-colored glume, turning straw-colored at maturity 

- anther color mixed, cream and purple 


Adaptation. Widely adapted, suitable for all pearl millet areas in Tanzania, appreciated for its 

early maturity, drought tolerance, large seeds, and long panicles. It has also performed fairly well 

in trials in Zambia, Mozambique, and Malawi. In Zimbabwe, it is vulnerable to terminal drought 

(although it was originally developed from Zimbabwean germplasm). Resistant to downy 

mildew, resistant to smut and ergot (


- height 2.1-2.3 m, tall 

- dark green plant 

- green, medium-sized leaves 

- 2-3 effective tillers/plant 

- candle-shaped, compact to semi-compact head 

- anther color mixed, cream and purple 

- ear length 37-43 cm 

- free threshability 

- medium duration, flowers in 60-72 days, matures in 90-100 days 


- light gray colored grain, oblanceolate in shape 

- grain hardness medium to hard, medium sized, 1000-seed mass 8.3-9.0 g 

- grain size: 88% of grains are medium (1.7-2.6 mm) 

- seed cover exposed 

- glume color mixed; green and purple, turning straw and purple at maturity 


Adaptation. Widely adapted throughout the millet-growing areas of Tanzania, because it was 

derived from local germplasm. Being photoperiod-sensitive, it is not adapted to other SADC 

countries, where the season ends before flowering is complete. Resistant to downy mildew, 

tolerant of smut (

About ICRISAT 

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is a non-profit, nonpolitical, 

international organization for science-based agricultural development. ICRISAT conducts 

research on sorghum, pearl millet, chickpea, pigeonpea and groundnut – crops that support the livelihoods 

of the poorest of the poor in the semi-arid tropics encompassing 48 countries. ICRISAT also shares 

information and knowledge through capacity building, publications and ICTs. Established in 1972, it is one 

of 15 Centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). 

Contact information: 

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24–2004

Adoption of Improved Sorghum and Pearl Millet ... - Icrisat

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