Cheryl Willard - Lee College

FACULTY LEARNING COMMUNITY
TEACHING PORTFOLIO
Cheryl Willard
Fall 2006

Table of Contents
Page Nos.
Syllabus ...................................................................................................... 1 – 4
Reflective Thinking Statements ................................................................. 5 – 6
Critical Thinking Concepts & Practices
• Considering the Opposite Point of View ............................................. 7 – 9
• Correlation ≠ Causation ....................................................................... 10 – 12
• Thinking Critically with Psychological Science ................................. 13 – 17
• Building Up and Applying Operant Conditioning Principles ........... 18 – 24
• Building an Argument through Reasoned Judgment ........................... 25 – 27
• Avoiding Assimilation Bias ................................................................. 28 – 30
Active Learning Statement ............................................................................ 31
• Memory ................................................................................................ 32 – 33
• Simulated Experiment ............................................................................ 34
• The “B” Test of Intelligence ................................................................... 35
References ...................................................................................................... 36

PSYC 2301.M05 - INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Spring 2007
Instructor: Cheryl A. Willard, Ed.S. Website: http://www.lee.edu/~cwillard/
Office: Social Sciences Bldg., No. 230 Office Phone: 281-425-6370
E-mail: cwillard@lee.edu
Office Hours: MON/WED 4:30–5:30 p.m..,
TUES/THURS 10:00 a.m.–Noon, and by appointment
Division Secretary: Marian Stein Telephone: 281-425-6371 Fax: 281-425-6510
Division Chair: Steve Showalter Telephone: 281-425-6372 E-mail: sshowalt@lee.edu
REQUIRED MATERIALS:
Textbook: Exploring Psychology, 6 th ed., Myers, David G. (2005).
Website: http://www.worthpublishers.com/exploring6e/
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
Introduction to Psychology is a survey course of the major concepts, theories,
terminology, issues, and research findings of the various sub-fields in psychology. Some of
the areas that psychologists study include: cognition and learning, emotion, lifespan
development, social influences, personality, psychological disorders, and the biological bases
of thinking, feeling, and behaving.
As the subject matter of this course is approached, special emphasis will be placed on
critical thinking. Critical thinking will be discussed in more detail as the course progresses,
but some of the skills involved include: making inferences based on evidence and logic;
identifying underlying assumptions; analyzing both evidence and counter-evidence;
examining different points of view fair-mindedly; and, being reflective about one’s own
thought processes. Thus, this course involves more than memorizing facts and information.
You will be asked to actually engage your mind in assessing that information.
There are many benefits to be derived from well-developed critical thinking skills.
Learning to become aware of tendencies to make immediate, unexamined responses to
situations and to instead weigh and examine alternatives will help you to make thoughtful,
well-reasoned decisions that can affect your career, your family, and your future.
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
1. To become knowledgeable in the basic content areas of psychology.
2. To learn about the history of psychology and the major contributors to the discipline.
3. To be able to distinguish between the major perspectives (biological, psychoanalytical,
behavioral, cognitive, and sociocultural) as applied to human thought and behavior.
4. To develop an understanding of the scientific methods used in psychological research.
5. To be able to apply psychological concepts to everyday life.
6. To recognize how the actions and thoughts of individuals are influenced by the social and
cultural environment.
7. To gain understanding of self and others.
8. To develop a view of the complexity of human behavior from multiple perspectives.
9. To strengthen your ability to think critically about the course material.
10. Increased tolerance of ambiguity since cause-and-effect explanations of human behavior
are often tentative.
1

REQUIREMENTS:
1. QEP Assessments. In compliance with Lee College’s Quality Enhancement Plan (QEP),
pre- and post-testing of reading and critical thinking skills is required. The California
Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST) and the Nelson Denny Reading Test are the
assessments that will be used. You will be given an appointment with the testing center
for their administration. If it is impossible for you to take the test at the assigned time,
you will need to make arrangements with the testing center for another time and let me
know what arrangements have been made. The pre-tests must be taken no later than
Friday, Feb. 2 nd . The same set-up will apply to the post-tests which must be taken
between Mon., April 16 th and Friday, May 4 th . These tests are required for this course
and failure to take them during the specified times will result in your being withdrawn
from the course. However, please be assured that your grade will in no way be
affected by your scores on these tests. In addition, another short survey, called the
Community College Survey of Student Engagement (CCSSE) will be administered during
class sometime during the course of the semester.
2. Exams: Four exams will be administered during the course, one following each unit of
material. Exams will be both multiple-choice and essay, and will cover both lecture and
chapter assignments. A study guide will be provided for each test for the purpose of
helping to focus your attention on important concepts, terms, and theories.
Students are required to take all four tests. If an emergency arises that prevents class
attendance on exam day, make-up exams can only be taken the week before finals. It is
the student’s responsibility to make arrangements with the instructor if an exam is missed.
Failure to take an exam will result in a “0” for that particular test.
3. Critical Thinking and Active Learning Exercises. Learning occurs best when you are
actively engaged with the subject matter. Consequently, several critical thinking and
hands-on exercises are built into the course. Some will be conducted in class and some
will be take-home assignments. Points will be earned for both. Points earned for the inclass
activities CANNOT BE MADE UP if you are absent or late to class. The take-home
assignments must be turned in by their due dates. Late assignments will not be accepted.
4. Attendance, Tardiness, and Withdrawal. Class attendance is an important part of your
learning experience and is therefore expected. Research shows that one of the best
predictors of grades is regular class attendance. In addition to missing out on lectures and
class discussion, your grade may also be affected by excessive absences and tardies
because you may miss out on active learning points which cannot be “made-up” at a later
time. If you miss class, it is your responsibility to inquire about any assignments that
were given on that day.
If you decide to drop the course, it is your responsibility to complete a drop form and
turn it in at the Lee College records office prior to the drop deadline of Thurs., April 13 th .
If you simply quit coming to class and do not complete the drop form, a grade of “F” will
be received. At the instructor’s discretion, you may be dropped for nonattendance after
three unexcused absences. If you arrive late to class, it is your responsibility to let the
instructor know at the end of class that you are present. Otherwise, you will be counted
as being absent.
2

5. Library Scavenger Hunt. For this assignment, you will become more familiar with the
Lee College Library by locating various elements and documents. The separate “fill-inthe-blank”
handout is due at the time of the first exam. These will not be returned. One
point per day will be deducted from late library hunt papers.
6. Academic Integrity. Honest, mature, and ethical behaviors are expected in this class.
Cheating on exams, plagiarism, and other forms of academic dishonesty will not be
tolerated (see the Academic Honesty Code outlined in the Lee College Catalog).
GRADES:
Grades will be based on a distribution of points earned for your library assignment, exams,
and critical thinking/active learning exercises and assignments. The following guidelines will
be used to determine your grade:
90 – 100% = A; 80 – 89% = B; 70 – 79% = C; 60 – 69%= D; 0 – 59% = F
Minimum passing grade will be no less than 60% of the points possible.
CIVILITY IN THE CLASSROOM:
It is my responsibility to ensure a civil classroom atmosphere, one in which respect
among classmates is maintained. This also includes establishing an environment in which
attention and energy are focused on teaching and learning. Research has shown that certain
behaviors can have a detrimental effect upon learning. Please be aware of the following
behaviors so you can avoid engaging in them. Also know that if you decide to engage in
these behaviors, it will be my responsibility to ask you to stop:
• Allowing your cell phone to ring in class
• Disrupting class with distracting noises or by having private chats with classmates.
• Arriving to class late or leaving early.
• Packing up to go 5 minutes before the end of class.
• Showing disrespect for others’ opinions.
• Using tobacco products in class.
Also be aware that during exams, cell phones may not be visible, and ball caps must be
removed or worn backwards.
3

COURSE SCHEDULE
UNIT I
Ch 1 - Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
Ch 2 - Neuroscience and Behavior
Ch 3 – The Nature and Nurture of Behavior
Wed.,
Ch 6 – States of Consciousness
UNIT II
Ch 7 – Learning
Ch 8 – Memory
Ch 9 – Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
UNIT III
Ch 4 – The Developing Person
Ch 10 - Motivation
Ch 15 – Social Psychology
UNIT IV
Ch 12 – Personality
Ch 13 - Psychological Disorders
Ch 14 - Therapy
Target
Test Date
Feb. 7 th
Mon.,
March 19 th
Wed.,
April 11 th
Final Exam
Mon., May 7 th
5:45p.m.
Students with a documented disability (to include any physical, emotional, or learning
disability) may arrange accommodations only through the Disability Services Office in
the Counseling Center at Lee College. Your instructor will work with this office to
ensure that your rights are met. The Counselor for Students with Disabilities is Dr.
Rosemary Coffman and may be reached in the Counseling Center or by calling 281-425-
6384 or by e-mail at rcoffman@lee.edu.
4

Reflective Thinking Statement No. 1
Categorical Thinking
Cognitive science tells us that humans are pre-wired to attempt to make sense out of
their world in order to make it more manageable and predictable (and hence, less frightening).
At the same time, the world is complicated and ever-changing with new understandings
replacing old, and break-through discoveries revealing facts previously unknown.
Additionally, there is often not a single straight-forward causal explanation for how a
particular element of the world operates. This is no less true when is comes to human
behavior which is often multiply determined.
While the complexity of life demands broad and diverse thought processes, the
economy of the brain streamlines information so that we tend to think both categorically and
in terms of our already existing beliefs about the world (Macrae & Bodenhausen, 2001).
Although this strategy may have the evolutionary advantage of allowing us to quickly assess a
situation, it can also have the undesirable consequences of distorting reality so that it
conforms to our pre-existing schemas and explanatory categories.
Several of the exercises and assignments described herein are designed to assist
students in examining their automatic assumptions of causation and the kinds of inferences
drawn based on immediate, unexamined reactions. The objective of these exercises is the
development of a more conscious, deliberate approach to analyzing human behavior that is
less dependent on the automaticity of categorical thinking. If successful, students can learn to
broaden their perspectives so that their responses to situations are thoughtful and wellreasoned.
Not only will this help to strengthen their academic performance, but it will also
enable them to make better decisions that will influence their jobs, their relationships, their
citizenship, and their future endeavors.
5

Reflective Statement No. 2:
Collaborative Learning
A Russian psychologist, named Lev Vygotsky, is known for his work on cognitive
development. His work is generally applied to the development of children but I believe
aspects of his work applies equally well to college students. Vygotsky’s view is that
cognitive development is facilitated by a mentor who serves as a scaffold that provides
temporary structure as problem-solving skills are cultivated in the student. The mentor
intervenes when necessary and withholds assistance as the student becomes more competent.
Eventually, the scaffolding can be removed as the student internalizes the processes involved
in accomplishing the task. Central to Vygotsky’s theory is the zone of proximal development,
which is a span that begins with the student’s actual development level – with what has
already been mastered. The zone ends with an upper limit of what the student is capable of.
Vygotsky believed that the optimal assistance by a mentor would be that which is just slightly
higher than the student’s current development level.
I believe there are several implications as applied to college students. One, it seems
important to build the kind of relationship with students that encourages their active
participation and communication. In this way, the instructor can intervene to assist with
clarity, accuracy, depth, precision, and other complexities of thought. This may be done
through Socratic questioning, thus providing structure as the students’ critical thinking skills
are being developed.
As pertaining to Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development, students
obviously have different zones. Our students vary widely, coming from diverse backgrounds
with different levels of skills and abilities. Vygotsky’s approach suggests that you have to be
sensitive to where each student is because learning beyond the upper limit of their zone is not
possible; it’s beyond their limit. Over time, of course, the entire zone moves forward. But
only if the student has had the chance to achieve the tasks within their capabilities.
The fact that students’ ability levels vary can be problematic in the college classroom.
Classes generally operate under the assumption that students are on the same level, and so the
same requirements and standards are applied to all students. The resources are not present
that would first, allow for assessments of each student’s level, and second, to tailor individual
assignments to match those levels. However, it seems that varying the type and difficulty
level of assignments might be a way to capture the various levels of more students, and that is
what I have attempted to do. Some of my assignments show students how to build up an
understanding of a complicated topic through a logical step-by-step process. Others require
students to reason through and assess the strengths and weaknesses of different points of
view. As instructors model critical thinking, fashion assignments which build on these skills,
and foster collaborative, interactive relationships with students, perhaps their zones of
proximal development will gradually move forward. That is the hope.
6

Critical Thinking Concept #1:
Considering the Opposite Point of View
Students come to the classroom with definite opinions and theories of their own, many
of which are grounded in neither adequate reasoning nor scientific understanding. Nor can it
be assumed that simply presenting corrective information will be sufficient for students to be
swayed. In fact, several studies have shown that people tend to cling to their beliefs despite
evidence to the contrary, a phenomenon referred to as belief perseverance (Myers, 2005, p.
301)
A technique called “counterattitudinal advocacy” has shown some promise in reducing
erroneous beliefs (Miller, Wozniak, Rust, Miller, & Slezak, 1996). This approach involves an
assignment wherein students are asked to write an essay explaining why a position that is
counter to their own point of view might be true. It has been suggested that the resulting
attitude change can be explained by Leon Festinger’s concept of cognitive dissonance, an
uncomfortable tension that results when two thoughts or cognitions are in conflict. In this
case, students are espousing a belief in one direction and at the same time generating an
argument in the opposite direction. People are motivated to reduce this unpleasant cognitive
state and one way that this can be done is to change the original position, thus resolving the
conflict.
The following assignment for this critical thinking concept will help students to
consider alternate points of view, giving a less biased consideration of important
psychological phenomena. It will also give students the opportunity to practice making sound
arguments based on reason and scientific evidence.
7

Practice #1:
Considering the Opposite Point of View
At the beginning of the semester, students will complete a “Fact or Falsehood”
questionnaire (see next page) containing items about which students often have erroneous
ideas (e.g., “Advertisers are able to shape our buying habits through subliminal messages”).
They will indicate whether they believe the item to be true or false and the degree to which
they agree or disagree with the item on a scale from 1 to 6. Afterward, I will assess the
questionnaires and make note of those items with which students’ opinions were the most
incompatible with existing scientific knowledge as indicated by their ratings (e.g., Agree or
Strongly Agree).
In the last two weeks of the semester, after relevant content has been covered and
students have been exposed to critical and scientific thinking, they will be given a take-home
assignment in which they will write an essay on one of the above topics supporting a position
opposite of their own. The topics will be pre-assigned to students based on their responses to
the questionnaire but they will be allowed to choose from among three. According to Miller
et. al. (1996), the technique is most effective if students have an element of free choice in the
assignment. The instructions for writing the assignment will be as follows:
Choose one of the topics below and write a persuasive essay in support of
the position. Support the position with as many valid arguments as you
can think of using both your textbook and other outside sources to reinforce
your case. Essays should be type-written – one page in length, one-inch
margins (top, bottom, right, and left), double-spaced, Times New Roman, 12-
point font. Use a second page to document all of the sources that you used,
including your textbook, internet sources, and other books or journals.
During the last class day, I will again administer the “Fact or Falsehood” questionnaire
noting any change in beliefs and paying special attention to the items for which students had
written an essay. This will provide an informal assessment the effectiveness of this technique
to alter students’ mistaken beliefs.
8

Fact or Falsehood
To the left of each item below, circle whether you believe the statement to be true or false. In the
space on the right, indicate the strength of your belief according to the following scale:
Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4 5 6
T F 1. Advertisers are able to shape our buying habits through subliminal
messages.
T F 2. Most people would do serious harm to an innocent person if
instructed to do so by an authority figure.
T F 3. People are LESS likely to help another person when they are alone
than when other people are around.
T F 4. The polygraph has proved to be extremely effective in
detecting lies.
_______
_______
_______
_______
T F 5. Opposites attract. _______
T F 6. Homosexuality is usually not something that is freely chosen
and therefore not easily changed.
T F 7. Hypnosis enables people to recover accurate memories as far back
as birth, a phenomenon called age regression.
T F 8. Most psychologists believe that dreams provide a key to
understanding our underlying inner conflicts.
T F 9. Mental illness is not uncommon; in fact, about 1 in 6
Americans suffer from a clinically significant mental disorder.
_______
_______
_______
_______
T F 10. Spanking is one of the most effective forms of discipline. _______
T F 11. Our memory works much like a video camera, accurately
recording our experiences in our brain.
_______
T F 12. A schizophrenic is someone who has multiple personalities. _______
Critical Thinking Concept
9

Critical Thinking Concept #2:
Correlation ≠ Causation
Correlation research examines the relationship between two variables. A positive
relationship exists if high scores on one variable are related to high scores on
the other (or if low scores are related to low scores). An example of a positive
correlation would be the amount of time spent studying and scores on an exam.
A negative relationship exists if high scores on one variable are related to low
scores on the other, such as the relationship between the amount of alcohol
consumed and physical coordination skills.
An advantage of the correlation method of research is that it allows for prediction. If
there is a strong correlation between two variables, then knowing the value on one variable
allows us to predict the other. I could predict, for example, that a student who seldom attends
class will do poorly on an exam because there is a negative correlation between class absences
and course grades. However, knowing that a relationship exists does not prove that one variable
is the “cause” of the other. Correlation suggests the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but
it’s possible that other non-obvious factors may be involved. For example, a negative correlation
has been demonstrated between self-esteem and depression (Myers, 2005). However, the
sources and direction of causation are unknown.
Depression may cause
Low self-esteem may cause
low self-esteem
depression
Self-esteem and depression may influence
each other in a reciprocal fashion
Brain chemistry may cause both
Distressing events may cause both
Depression
low self-esteem
and
depression
low self-esteem
and
depression
low self-esteem
Inferences refer to conclusions or judgments that are made about one thing based on the
observations of something else (Paul & Elder, 2006). This exercise is designed to help students
reason through correlation studies so that the inferences made are logical and justified by the
research methodology.
10

Practice #2:
Correlation ≠ Causation
Demonstrating that a correlation exists does not prove that changes in one variable are the causes
of changes in the other. A cause-effect relationship between the two variables may or may not
exist. Other factors which are undetected may be influencing both variables.
For example: A study reports a positive correlation between juvenile delinquency and parental
rejection.
Explanation 1: Parental rejection causes juvenile delinquency.
Explanation 2: Bad behavior in the juvenile causes the parents to be rejecting.
Explanation 3: Poor socioeconomic living conditions generates frustration and anguish
which influence both parental rejection and juvenile delinquency.
For the studies described below, suggest two possible causal explanations while keeping in mind
different pathways of causation:
1. Studies have shown a negative correlation between depression and levels of serotonin.
Explanation 1:
___________________________________________________________
Explanation 2: ___________________________________________________________
2. A study found a negative correlation between alcohol consumption and memory.
Explanation 1: ___________________________________________________________
Explanation 2: ___________________________________________________________
3. A positive correlation was shown to exist between caffeine consumption and level of
stress.
Explanation 1: ___________________________________________________________
Explanation 2: ___________________________________________________________
4. A college professor found a negative correlation between class absences and course
grades.
Explanation 1: ___________________________________________________________
Explanation 2: ___________________________________________________________
5. Studies show that the more psychology courses students take during their college years,
the higher their scores on measures of interpersonal sensitivity (i.e., a positive
correlation).
Explanation 1: ___________________________________________________________
Explanation 2: ___________________________________________________________
11

Key for Correlation ≠ Causation
Answers will vary, but here are some possible causal explanations:
1. Studies have shown a negative correlation between depression and levels of serotonin.
Explanation 1: Low levels of serotonin cause depression.
Explanation 2: Depression causes low levels of serotonin.
Explanation 3: Stressful life events influence both brain chemistry and depression.
2. A study found a negative correlation between alcohol consumption and memory.
Explanation 1: Alcohol causes memory impairment.
Explanation 2: Drinking and partying reduces the amount of sleep one gets which is
related to low scores on memory tests.
3. A positive correlation was shown to exist between caffeine consumption and level of
stress.
Explanation 1: Daily stressors lead people to consume more caffeine.
Explanation 2: Caffeine causes people to make more minor errors and thus experience
more stress.
Explanation 3: Number of hours spent at work in a week independently lead people to
consume more caffeine and to experience more stress.
4. A college professor found a negative correlation between class absences and course
grades.
Explanation 1: A high number of classes (and corresponding missed information) cause
lower grades.
Explanation 2: Students with jobs or other responsibilities find it difficult to make it to
class or to find time to study.
5. Studies show that the more psychology courses students take during their college years,
the higher their scores on measures of interpersonal sensitivity (i.e., a positive
correlation).
Explanation 1: Psychology courses cause people to have greater sensitivity.
Explanation 2: People who have had traumatic life experiences tend to show greater
sensitivity and to take more psychology courses.
Explanation 3: People with greater interpersonal sensitivity take more psychology
courses.
12

Critical Thinking Concept #3:
Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
This exercise involves the use of several elements of critical thought, including questioning
one’s assumptions, making logical inferences, and using data and scientific concepts to
support one’s reasoning. The exercise was located in The Critical Thinking Companion by
Halonen and Gray (2001). Slight modifications were made.
Without effective critical thinking abilities, we could easily fall prey to questionable
claims about the causes of behavior, such as this sampling of headlines from tabloid papers over
the last few years:
“Wiggling Your Ears Makes You Smarter”
“Woman’s Head Explodes During Psychic Trance”
“Belly Button Shape Reveals Your Character”
“Eating Bananas Increases Your Bust Size”
Psychological reasoning is an important intellectual ability, whether we are selecting a
product for purchase or exercising our citizens’ rights by deciding which candidate will get our
vote. Understanding the principles of critical thinking in psychology should enable us not only
to create and defend our opinions more effectively but also to challenge arguments that are
invalid.
The primary emphasis of this type of thinking is one question: “What’s your evidence?”
Psychological research design teaches us to examine claims about behavior and to consider
alternative explanations. What other variables might account for the relationship being claimed?
By applying the following experiment-based principles of psychological reasoning, we can
protect ourselves against invalid claims.
1. Don’t expect simple cause-and-effect relationships. They rarely exist in relation to
behavior, so a skeptical or disbelieving stance is generally the safest response to
simplistic claims about the causes of behavior.
2. Don’t settle for cause-and-effect statements without sufficient evidence. Remember that
question: “What’s your evidence?” Is the evidence objective (derived from systematic,
unbiased, and well-controlled observation) or subjective (influenced by personal
experiences, characteristics, and biases)? Personal testimony is particularly problematic,
especially when the enthusiastic advocate is being paid for it.
3. Don’t confuse interpretation of behavior with behavior itself. People often embellish
their observation of behavior with statements about the meaning of the behavior. They
then report their conclusions about the behavior instead of describing the behavior they
observed. For example, on witnessing a professor’s late arrival to class, we might leap to
the conclusion that she is busy or disrespectful or scatter-brained rather than sticking to
the facts. The observable behavior is arriving late to class. Invalid claims may report
interpretations or judgments about a behavior rather than focusing on a description of
behavior without interpretation.
13

4. Don’t mistake correlation for causation. It is easy to come to the wrong conclusion
about what causes behavior. Sometimes what appears to be a strong cause-effect
relationship may be an illusion. For example, let’s examine the first statement in the
roster of tabloid headlines – “Wiggling Your Ears Makes You Smarter.” Digging
underneath this headline, you may discover that the writer swears by ear wiggling as a
method of increasing intelligence. His evidence? He wiggled his ears all the way
through his college admission test and his score was in a top percentile. This silly
example demonstrates that the occurrence of two variables close together in time (for
example, ear wiggling and intelligent performance during test taking) can sometimes be
interpreted as causal. (Even smart people make this error!) Clearly, other variables could
have led to the writer’s performance on his admission test.
5. Do look for experimental comparisons that involve control conditions. Controlled
comparison is the key to ruling out alternative explanations that make some claims
implausible or unbelievable. We may never know the real cause for some effect unless
we perform systematic study on the proposed relations to determine whether there is any
other way to account for observed changes in behavior. Psychological research is heavily
biased toward experiments in which controlled comparisons can reduce alternative
explanations.
6. Do examine how behaviors are defined or operationalized. Definitions can be very
slippery, as anyone who has gone to a hair stylist and asked for “just a little” hair
trimming knows. Precision in definitions is even more important in psychological
research. Some cause-effect claims may seem very compelling until you require precise
definition of the terms used in the claim.
14

Practice #3:
Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
For each of the claims described below, decide how well each of them stands up to the principles
outlined above. Identify the principle involved and give a brief statement of explanation. For
example:
Halloween Wisdom
A psychologist strongly endorses the traditional children’s practice of trick-or-treat at
Halloween. In a video produced by a leading U.S. candy company, he suggests that trick-ortreat
rituals help children overcome common childhood fears. The psychologist also
mentions that chocolate candies are probably the most beneficial treats to give because they
contain a chemical that promotes the release of neurotransmitters involved in promoting
pleasurable moods.
Principle 2: Don’t settle for cause-effect statements without sufficient evidence. What is the
psychologist’s evidence? Even though a person’s credentials seem impressive, we should
not suspend appropriate criteria in evaluating a cause-effect claim.
Principle 5: Do look for experimental comparisons that involve control conditions. Did a
well-designed study with control conditions lead to these conclusions?
Your Turn!
The Tanned Rock Queen
A famous female rock star encourages you to join a new tanning salon and shows you her tan
marks to prove the salon’s effectiveness.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
The Moralizer
A local politician suggests that heavy metal music is responsible for increasing violence
among teenagers and proposes that all such music be banned.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
The Laundry
A photogenic child wallows in a mud puddle in a TV advertisement. The smiling (and rich)
Mom who wants to try out the effectiveness of her new detergent rips the child’s shirt in half
and launders one half in her old detergent and the other half in the new detergent. The half
laundered in the new product is substantially cleaner.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
15

The New Car
A pleasant announcer promises you that your social life will have lots of pizzazz if you buy
his company’s new car – the Pizzazz-mobile.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
One Bad Apple
The president of the most successful company in town has developed some strong
preferences in her hiring practices. She had a bad experience with a graduate of your college
three years ago. As a result, the company will no longer employ anyone graduating from
your college, even though the legality of this practice seems questionable.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
The Blind Date
Your friend sets you up with a blind date. He describes your date as someone who has strong
interests in the environment. At the start of the evening, your date proposes a walk along the
beach and during that walk, picks up cans and shoves them into a backpack. You conclude
that the rumored interest in environmental issues is true.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
The Burglars
A recent newspaper reporter speculated that a full moon may have an enhancing effect on
criminal behavior because crimes, especially breaking and entering, seem to increase
dramatically when the moon is full. The reporter cited interviews with several leading
mental health specialists who have noted a “full moon effect” in other areas of mental health
management.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
16

Key for Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
The Tanned Rock Queen
Principle 2: Don’t settle for cause-effect statements without sufficient evidence.
Personal testimony is not effective evidence even when it is given by someone famous.
How do you know the rock star isn’t fresh from a cruise to the Caribbean?
The Moralizer
Principle 1: Don’t expect simple cause-effect relationships. Violence is a complicated
behavior that has multiple causes.
Principle 4: Don’t mistake correlation for causation. Two alternative explanations are:
1) that heavy metal music reflects a violent culture rather than causing violence within
the culture, and 2) that both heavy metal music and violence are caused by other
variables.
The Laundry
Principle 5: Do look for experimental comparisons that involve control conditions.
Although television Moms do demonstrate questionable reality testing, this test included
good controls in design; if all conditions were equal, the experiment should provide valid
evidence that the new detergent is more effective.
The New Car
Principle 6: Do examine how behaviors are defined or operationalized. Just what does
“pizzazz” mean? How does the company operationally define the goal? Will you have
more dates? More intense contacts with loan officers? More challenges to drag race?
More speeding tickets?
One Bad Apple
Principle 2: Don’t settle for cause-effect statements without sufficient evidence.
Subjective experience with one representative of a group is likely to be insufficient in
making judgments about all the representatives of a group. Beware of making
generalized conclusions about groups based on experience with one representative. This
is sometimes referred to as the “N of 1” error, when N represents sample size.
The Blind Date
Principle 3: Don’t confuse interpretations of behavior with behavior itself. Recycling
discarded cans on a date could represent a serious commitment to the environment, but it
could also mean that your date is just broke (or cheap). Remember to distinguish actual
behavior from the inferences or conclusions you draw about the behavior.
Burglars
Principle 4: Don’t mistake correlation for causation. Even though a “full moon effect”
may be an appealing explanation for unlawful or extraordinary behavior, there is a
simpler and more plausible explanation than unexplained lunar forces. A full moon may
provide more light, enabling burglars to see better and to break in more easily.
17

Critical Thinking Concept #4:
Building Up and Applying Operant Conditioning Principles
Richard Paul and Linda Elder (2006) discuss the importance of the accurate use of
concepts in our reasoning. If concepts are not properly understood, then errors in reasoning
come about. Operant conditioning concepts are often difficult for students to grasp. The
terminology used is counter to students’ intuitive sense of these terms. It also takes practice to
know how to use these concepts correctly.
There will be two assignments focusing on operant conditioning. The first will help
students build their understanding of operant conditioning concepts through a logical step-bystep
process. It will be done individually as a homework assignment. Once the concepts are
understood, they can then be applied to everyday situations, which will be the focus of the
second assignment. Students will discuss their responses to this assignment in a small group
which will give them another opportunity to process the principles of operant conditioning.
18

Practice #4:
Understanding Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner described a type of learning called operant conditioning, the main
assumption of which is that behavior is shaped by its consequences. In other words, it is the
consequence that follows a behavior that will determine whether a person is likely to continue
that behavior or not. Skinner identified four main types of consequences, as follows:
Positive reinforcement - a stimulus that, when presented, strengthens or maintains a
behavior. If a child receives an allowance for taking out the trash and continues to take out the
trash (i.e., the behavior is maintained), then we know that the allowance was a positive
reinforcer. With positive reinforcement, the person behaves to get something that they want.
Negative reinforcement – a stimulus that, when removed, strengthens or maintains a
behavior. If we take an aspirin and it removes our headache, and we continue to take aspirin
when we have a headache, then we know that the headache was a negative reinforcer (i.e., a
stimulus that was removed and which strengthened our behavior of taking aspirin). With
negative reinforcement, the person behaves to get away from something that they don’t want.
Positive punishment – a stimulus that, when presented, weakens or eliminates a
behavior. A person who receives a $125 ticket for speeding and thereafter no longer speeds has
been influenced by positive punishment.
Negative punishment – a stimulus that, when removed, weakens or eliminates a
behavior. A teenager stays out too late and her father takes away the keys to her car. If she no
longer stays out past her curfew, then her behavior has been influenced by negative punishment.
How to think about positive and negative. DO NOT THINK OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
IN TERMS OF GOOD AND BAD. That is an incorrect understanding when applied to
conditioning principles. If you go to a doctor and have a test run for cancer and it comes back
positive, that is not a “good” outcome because it indicates the presence of cancerous cells. It
would be preferable for the test to come back negative because that would indicate the absence
of cancerous cells. In the same way with operant conditioning, if a stimulus is “presented,” it is
positive; and if a stimulus is “removed” or absent, it is negative.
How to think about reinforcement and punishment. When trying to decide if a stimulus is a
reinforcement or a punishment, always look at the effects on behavior. Reinforcement (both
positive and negative) strengthens behavior, making it more likely to occur. Punishment
weakens or stops a behavior.
Rules for analyzing cases. The following questions will help to determine which type of
consequence is being described.
• What behavior in the case described was strengthened or weakened?
• Was the behavior strengthened? (If yes, then the consequence involves either positive or
negative reinforcement). Or, was the behavior weakened or eliminated? (If yes, then the
consequence involves either positive or negative punishment).
• What was the consequence that followed the behavior in the case described?
• Was the consequence presented or removed? If presented, then either positive
reinforcement or positive punishment is involved. If removed, then either negative
reinforcement or negative punishment is involved.
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Read each of the following scenarios and, while referring to the above rules for analyzing the
cases, answer the related questions.
Example
Billy likes to camp out in the backyard. He camped out on every Friday during the month of
June. The last time he camped out, some older kids snuck up to his tent while he was sleeping
and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy has not camped out for three weeks.
1. What behavior was changed? Camping out
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? Weakened
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? Cold water being thrown on him
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? Presented
5. This is an example of: Positive punishment
Your Turn!
A. Your spouse withdraws attention from you each time you begin criticizing his/her
cooking. Eventually, you stop criticizing your spouse’s cooking.
1. What behavior changed? _____________________________________________
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? _____________________________
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? ______________________________
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? _____________________________
5. This is an example of: _______________________________________________
B. Every time Madge raises her hand in class she is called on. She raised her hand 3 times
during the first class, 3 times in the second, and 4 times during the last class.
1. What behavior changed? _____________________________________________
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? _____________________________
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? ______________________________
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? _____________________________
5. This is an example of: _______________________________________________
20

C. Frank, an air traffic controller, has learned that running after work reduces his level
of stress. He now runs two mile every day.
1. What behavior changed? _____________________________________________
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? _____________________________
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? ______________________________
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? _____________________________
5. This is an example of: _______________________________________________
D. Peter’s teacher refused to let him go outside during recess because of his constant
intrusions into his classmates conversations. Peter is now quiet when others are
talking.
1. What behavior changed? _____________________________________________
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? _____________________________
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? ______________________________
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? _____________________________
5. This is an example of: _______________________________________________
E. Janette, your teenage daughter, was ridiculed at school for wearing a particular style
of shirt. Now she no longer wears that style of shirt at school.
1. What behavior changed? _____________________________________________
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? _____________________________
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? ______________________________
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? _____________________________
5. This is an example of: _______________________________________________
F. Your car has a red flashing light that blinks annoyingly if you start the car without
buckling your seat belt. To avoid these annoying lights, you now buckle your seat belt
when you first get into your car.
1. What behavior changed? _____________________________________________
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? _____________________________
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? ______________________________
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? _____________________________
5. This is an example of: _______________________________________________
21

Practice #5:
Applying Operant Conditioning Principles
Answer these questions individually. Afterward, compare and discuss your individual answers
with group members.
1. Suppose your boyfriend/girlfriend has the annoying habit of chewing his/her food with
his/her mouth open. Using operant conditioning principles, how might you help change that
behavior?
2. You have a history of neglecting your homework for parties with your friends. As a result,
your grades are really suffering. You want to change your behavior. Using operant
conditioning principles, how can you help yourself study more and party less?
22

Key for Understanding Operant Conditioning
A. Your spouse withdraws attention from you each time you begin criticizing his/her
cooking. Eventually, you stop criticizing your spouse’s cooking.
1. What behavior changed? Criticizing spouse’s cooking
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? Weakened
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? Spouse withdraws attention
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? Attention is removed
5. This is an example of: Negative punishment
B. Every time Madge raises her had in class she is called on. She raised her hand 3 times
during the first class, 3 times in the second, and 4 times during the last class.
1. What behavior changed? Raising hand
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? Strengthened
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? She is called on
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? Attention is presented
5. This is an example of: Positive reinforcement
C. Frank, an air traffic controller, has learned that running after work reduces his level
of stress. He now runs two mile every day.
1. What behavior changed? Running
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? Strengthened
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? Reduces level of stress
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? Stress is removed
5. This is an example of: Negative reinforcement
D. Peter’s teacher refused to let him go outside during recess because of his constant
intrusions into his classmates conversations. Peter is now quiet when others are
talking.
1. What behavior changed? Intrusions into conversations
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? Weakened
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? Can’t go outside
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? Outdoor activity was removed
5. This is an example of: Negative punishment
E. Janette, your teenage daughter, was ridiculed at school for wearing a particular style
of shirt. Now she no longer wears that style of shirt at school.
1. What behavior changed? Wearing a certain shirt
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? Weakened
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? Being ridiculed
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? Presented
5. This is an example of: Positive punishment
23

F. Your car has a red flashing light that blinks annoyingly if you start the car without
buckling your seat belt. To avoid these annoying lights, you now buckle your seat belt
when you first get into your car.
1. What behavior changed? Buckling seat belt
2. Was the behavior strengthened or weakened? Strengthened
3. What was the consequence of the behavior? Annoying lights are avoided
4. Was the consequence presented or removed? Removed
5. This is an example of: Negative reinforcement
24

Critical Thinking Concept #5:
Building an Argument through Reasoned Judgment
Abraham Maslow, a humanistic psychologist, developed a theory of human motivation
based on needs. He arranged these needs into a hierarchy according to their strength. From
strongest to weakest, the needs include: physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and
love needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs.
Maslow, who did much of his work in the 1960’s and 70’s, believed that thus far,
psychology had focused too much on abnormality and emotional disturbance at the expense of
more positive human qualities. He also had great admiration for two individuals that he believed
possessed many virtuous qualities, psychologist, Max Wertheimer, and anthropologist, Ruth
Benedict (Levy, 1997). After learning that Wertheimer and Benedict shared many traits in
common, Maslow went on a quest to seek out others with similar attributes. He then developed a
profile identifying the characteristics of what he considered to be healthy, fully-functioning
human beings, which he referred to as self-actualizers.
In developing his theory, Maslow did not systematically collect data and analyze it
scientifically. One of the main criticisms of his theory is that the criteria he used for choosing
self-actualizers were based on his own subjective values of the qualities he admired in people
rather than being based on objective standards.
One of my concerns about the way in which students reason is that they sometimes base
their opinions on the way they think that people should operate instead of using facts and logic to
build their arguments. It is true that, in psychology, not all questions can be answered by known
facts because in many cases, the jury is still out. Single causes and simple facts are rarely
sufficient in explaining complex human behavior. However, Elder and Paul (1997) point out that
judgments about phenomena are not limited to just facts and opinions. They offer a third
category, reasoned judgment, which is based on relevant evidence, sound reasoning, and
consideration of multiple points of view when interpreting the facts.
The following assignment is designed to assist students in using reasoned judgment to
build an argument about one aspect of Maslow’s theory. It requires providing reasons, both for
and against, a position as well as rating the strength of those reasons, showing that not all reasons
are equally good. Students will additionally draw a conclusion based on their analyses of the
question.
25

Practice #6:
Building an Argument through Reasoned Judgment
Psychologist, Abraham Maslow included in his hierarchy of needs love and belonging. Do you
agree that people need to have affectionate and intimate relationships with other people?
1. Give three reasons that support this conclusion.
a)
b)
c)
2. Rate each reason as weak, moderate, strong, or very strong.
Rating for a:
Rating for b:
Rating for c:
3. Give three counterarguments against this conclusion.
a)
b)
c)
4. Rate each counterargument as weak, moderate, strong, or very strong.
Rating for a:
Rating for b:
Rating for c:
5. List any qualifiers (limitations on the reasons for or against – for example some evidence
may be restricted to early childhood).
26

6. What is your conclusion? Are your reasons and counterarguments directly related to your
conclusion? Explain.
7. What is the overall strength of your argument: weak, moderate, strong, or very strong.
27

Critical Thinking Concept #6:
Avoiding Assimilation Bias
Schemas are perceptual frameworks, or categories, that help us to keep our knowledge
about the world organized. Psychologist, Jean Piaget, suggested that two complimentary
processes are at work as we form various schemata: assimilation, which is fitting new
information in to an already existing schema; and, accommodation, which is changing or
revising our schemas in the face of new evidence.
Assimilation is necessary because it allows us to catalog and make connections between
what would otherwise be an overwhelming amount of information. However, we sometimes
encounter experiences that don’t fit our existing schemas. In such cases, if we would put aside
our preconceived notions and make the necessary accommodations in our schemas in order to
allow for a correction of the facts, we would be in good shape. This is what good scientists do.
If a theory does not adequately explain observed phenomena, they will change their theory to fit
the facts (rather than interpreting the facts to fit the theory).
So, are people in general good scientists in this respect? The research suggests not.
Studies show that people tend to distort, overlook, or discard information that is incongruent with
their schemas, exhibiting a bias in the direction of assimilation rather than resolving the
discrepancy through accommodation (Levy, 2003).
Psychotherapists often identify themselves as being associated with a particular
theoretical orientation which guides their understanding and treatment of their clients. These
theoretical lenses can produce the same kinds of cognitive distortions and selective
interpretations as any other schemas.
The assignment which follows will give students some practice with changing schematic
lenses, thus providing the opportunity for a more balanced and less biased approach for
understanding the complexity of human behavior.
28

Practice #7:
Avoiding Assimilation Bias
Imagine that you are a practicing therapist and a client visits your office with concerns about
feeling depressed. For each of the theoretical orientations below, briefly describe how that
perspective would explain the cause of the concern, what approaches to treatment would be used,
and some of the advantages and disadvantages of using that approach.
For Example, Psychoanalysis
CAUSE: The cause of the depression would be traced back to early losses and childhood
fixations, and also unconscious conflicts that continue to influence adult decisions.
TREATMENT: Treatment would consist of techniques that would bring this unconscious
material to the surface of consciousness, including free association, dream interpretation,
analysis of resistance, and analysis of transference.
ADVANTAGES: Having greater control over one’s life by increasing self-awareness and
insight into problems.
DISADVANTAGES: Length of time and expense of treatment; also, the possibility of an
anti-female bias.
Behavior Therapy
CAUSE:___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
TREATMENT:______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
ADVANTAGES:____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
DISADVANTAGES:_________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
(Continued on next page)
29

Cognitive Therapy
CAUSE:___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
TREATMENT:______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
ADVANTAGES:____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
DISADVANTAGES:_________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Person-Centered Therapy
CAUSE:___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
TREATMENT:______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
ADVANTAGES:____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
DISADVANTAGES:_________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Drug Therapy
CAUSE:___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
TREATMENT:______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
ADVANTAGES:____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
DISADVANTAGES:_________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
This assignment was adapted from Levy (2003) and Halonen & Gray (2001).
30

Active Learning Statement
After the nightmare that was my first semester of teaching, which was strictly contentoriented,
I quickly adopted an active learning approach in the classroom where students are
doing more than listening to me lecture. Lectures continue to be an important component of my
courses, but in addition, on most days students are required to interact in some say with the
topics of the lectures.
According to Bonwell and Eison (1991), course content is learned equally well through
lecturing and active learning strategies. However, active learning was reported to be more
effective than lecture in promoting thinking and writing skills. Moreover, I know from my own
students’ evaluations and their participation in class that they enjoy the active learning exercises
and find them to be helpful in processing the concepts that they are learning.
Following are a few of the active learning strategies that have been well-received by
students.
31

Practice #8:
Memory
When discussing memory, I usually include about three short hands-on demonstrations, such as
the following:
• Depth of processing versus shallow processing of material is shown by giving students a list
of words with some directions at the top. This list of words is the same but there are two
different sets of directions. The directions for one half of the class (side A) instructs students
to rate the pleasantness of the words on a scale from 1 to 5. The directions for the other half
of the room (side B) instructs students to count the number of letters each word contains.
Students are unaware of the different sets of instructions and are asked to turn their lists over
when finished. I briefly distract students from the list while I talk about other aspects of
memory. After a couple of minutes, I ask students to write down as many of the words from
the list that they can remember. They then count the number of words recalled and I write
these numbers on the board, first asking side A. I then draw a line on the board to separate
these scores from the scores for side B and I make a prediction based on what I know about
how memory works. The prediction stated is that “this half of the room [motioning to side A]
was able to remember more words than this half of the room [motioning to side B]. I then
proceed to ask the side B students how many words they were able to recall and I write these
numbers on the board on the other side of the line.
This exercise has never failed and students are always amazed when one half of the class
remembers far more words than the other half. The discussion which follows focuses on why
this transpired and the fact that side A had to process the words at a deeper level than did side
B. This is because they had to think about the meaning of the words before they could rate
their pleasantness, whereas side B only had to engage in the mindless activity of counting the
number of letters the words contained. The importance of analyzing and understanding the
meaning of concepts (referred to as “elaborative rehearsal”) in order to encode them at a
deeper level in memory (as opposed to mindlessly memorizing definitions or only skimming
material) is then discussed. Students are asked their ideas about ways in which they can
engage in elaborative rehearsal. Many of the hands-on activities described herein are, in fact,
such methods.
• The serial position effect is the tendency to remember more items from the beginning and end
of a list and fewer items from the middle. This is demonstrated by simply reading a list of
words to students and then asking them to write down all the words they remember. The
words remembered tends to fit the pattern dictated by the serial position effect. The ensuing
class discussion is focused on the cognitive processes involved in why this pattern occurs.
32

• To demonstrate the capacity of short term memory and how it is measured, I read an
increasingly long series of digits to the class, such as the those listed below:
7
92
783
5697
43821
531684
8695137
71938426
152846732
9437216985
37148913246
After each series that is read, students write down as many numbers that they can remember
in the correct order. Usually, between 5 and 9 digits can be recalled. This exercise brings
home the point that the capacity of short term memory for most people is 7±2 items.
33

Practice #9:
Simulated Experiment
For this activity, an experiment is simulated in the classroom. I ask for a volunteer who
is willing to balance a bottle on the forefinger of both their right and left hands and to spell
words at the same time. I ask the volunteer to step out of the room while I state the hypothesis
that “Balancing durations will shorten more in the right hand than the left with the introduction
of a verbal task.”
In this type of research design, the subject serves as his/her own control. There is first a
silent condition when the student just balances the bottle without spelling words. The student is
timed and baseline balancing durations are established and recorded for both the right and left
hands, one hand at a time. The student then balances the bottle again, separately, in both the
right and left hands while words are pronounced for her/him to spell. The entire sequence is then
repeated again.
While I average the scores and calculate differences to determine whether or not the
hypothesis was confirmed, the students respond independently in writing to the following
questions:
• Why does the hypothesis make sense? [At this point, we have talked about both
research methods and structures and functions of the brain, including cross laterality
(the fact that the left hemisphere of the brain controls the right side of the body and
the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body), and the language centers
being located in the left hemisphere. When the volunteer is spelling words and
balancing at the same time in his/her left hand, the right hemisphere is simply doing
the balancing. However, when the volunteer is spelling words and balancing at the
same time in his/her right hand, the left hemisphere is both balancing and has the
added burden of the verbal task, creating greater neural interference with balancing in
the right hand].
• What was the independent variable? [The verbal task]
• What was the dependent variable? [Balancing durations]
• If this were an actual experiment, what extraneous variables would have to be
controlled? [There are many, some of which include: sample size, noise and other
distractions, and difficulty level of the words]
34

Practice #10:
The “B” Test of Intelligence
The “B” test of intelligence is used as a stimulus for discussing test construction and the
criteria for determining the quality of a test, namely, standardization, reliability, and validity. In
addition, it demonstrates the method of correlation which is discussed in a previous class.
I inform students that I have written an intelligence test and instruct them to take out a
piece of scratch paper and to get ready to write. I then say to students, “When I say go, with
your non-dominate hand, write the capital letter “B” as may times as you can. Go.” Students are
given 30 seconds to write the letter “B.”
When asked, students are not convinced that this is a good measure of intelligence and
discussion is focused on why not and what would be needed for it to “measure up.” I point out
that I think it’s a reliability test. To demonstrate test-retest reliability, I give students the same
instructions to write the capital letter “B” with their non-dominant hand for the same length of
time. I then put students’ sets of test scores on the board so that they can see the similarity of the
scores for each administration of the test. Additionally, I show them the actual correlation
between the scores that I have calculated for another class, which is usually greater than r =
+.85, showing high reliability.
When asked, students are still not convinced of the worthiness of the test even if it is
reliable. Through prompts and questions, the focus of discussion turns to the tests lack of
standardization procedures and its failure to meet the criterion of validity (unless intelligence is
defined in terms of ambidexterity which is probably what the test actually measures).
35

References
Bonwell, C.C., & Eison, J.A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED340272)
Elder, L., & Paul, R. (1997). Critical thinking: Crucial distinctions for questioning. Journal of
Developmental Education, 26 (2), 34-35. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
EJ582341)
Halonen, J., & Gray, C. (2001). The critical thinking companion for introductory psychology
(2 nd ed.). New York: Worth.
Levy, D.A. (1997). Tools of critical thinking: Metathoughts for psychology. Long Grove, IL:
Waveland Press.
Macrae, C.N., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2001). Social cognition: Categorical person perception.
British Journal of Psychology, 92, 239-255.
Miller, R.L., Wozniak, W.J., Rust, M.R., Miller, B.R., & Slezak, J. (1996). Counterattitudinal
advocacy as a means of enhancing instructional effectiveness: How to teach students what
they do not want to know. Teaching of Psychology, 4, 215-219.
Myers, D.G. (2005). Exploring Psychology (6 th ed.). New York: Worth.
Paul, R. & Elder, L. (2006). Critical thinking: Learning the tools the best thinkers use. New
Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
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