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ience hot dry periods in late spring and summer and has not been a viable alternative in most parts of northern Europe, although this may change with global warming. FUTURE STRATEGIES The most promising new method of growth control of fruit trees involves use of molecular biology techniques to genetically modify scions and/or rootstocks. Some work along these lines is already quite advanced in the USA, where peach scions with modified growth habit have been produced by genetic manipulation. Apples containing a dwarfing gene have also been produced but not released to commerce. More recently, there are reports that the gene responsible for dwarfing in apple rootstocks has been identified in separate studies in New Zealand and the USA. Isolation of the columnar gene could also prove of great interest, should this prove possible in the future. The success of these techniques will depend to a large extent upon whether the genes can be transferred to other scion cultivars/species and stimulated to express themselves once introduced. This strategy is likely to have minimal commercial impact with a crop such as apple, where adequate and cheap systems of dwarfing already exist. However, if it were possible to transfer dwarfing genes into pear, into vigorous subtropical species or into rootstocks of any crop where dwarfing rootstocks do not exist then the commercial impact could be great. Genetic manipulation may also be used to improve tree yields and/or fruit quality. Most recent effort has focused on the production of apples that are capable of longer periods of storage, although work on self fertility and other fruit traits is also in progress. Unfortunately, consumer opinion is currently very much against use of genetic manipulation in food crops and unless these attitudes change the markets are unlikely to accept fruits from GMO crops. In the future it may be necessary to put much more effort into mechanization of fruit production, if Europe is to compete effectively with production centres in Asia in supplying the multiple retailers. Mechanization of pruning, thinning and harvesting of conventional tree shapes are all now possible but prohibitively expensive. Only by changing the traditional tree architecture will it be possible to mechanize tree fruit production with more simple and less expensive machines. Trees that are grown as V systems, Eurospindles or as columnars are much more amenable to mechanization than trees of conventional architecture. For the production of high value fruits (e.g. sweet cherries and peaches), especially when produced ‘out of season’, growing the trees beneath some form of permanent or temporary protective covers can currently prove economically viable. Such covers protect the crop from bad weather conditions and generally improve fruit quality. However, as the large multiple retailers develop suppliers in many countries in both hemispheres, it is probable that the value of fruits produced at times of the year traditionally considered ‘out of season’ will diminish making production under glass or polythene structures prohibitively expensive. REFERENCES Ferree, D.C. and Warrington, I.J. 2003. Apples: Botany, Production and Uses. CABI Publishing. Tromp, J., Webster, A.D. and Wertheim, S.J. 2005. Fundamentals of Temperate Zone Tree Fruit Production. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Tony Webster Dr. Tony Webster is a specialist in temperate tree fruits, especially apples, pears, plums and cherries and has conducted extensive research on rootstocks, control of tree growth, cropping, and thinning. Dr. Webster was a Senior scientist employed at East Malling Research Station (later HRI) for 29 years but is now retired. Dr. Webster has been Chairman of the ISHS Working Group on Rootstocks within the Fruit Section and presently serves as Chair of the Section Pome and Stone Fruits. CONTACT Dr. A.D. (Tony) Webster, I, Pine Grove Maidstone, Kent, ME14 2AJ, UK, Phone: (0044) 1622 682862 or Bassurels, 48400, Florac, France, Phone: (0033) 04 66 60 34 44. Email: twebster@pinegro.u-net.com ActaHort CD-rom Order your own tailor made Acta Horticulturae library in CD-rom format and include any Acta Horticulturae ever published For details logon to: www.ishs.org/acta ISHS • 26
HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE NEWS Diversifying the Intensive Cereal Cropping Systems of the Indo-Ganges through Horticulture M.L. Jat, Raj K. Gupta, Olaf Erenstein and Rodomiro Ortiz Intensive cereal-based cropping systems are central to food security and reducing poverty in Asia, which still has the largest number of poor people in the world. Yet these irrigated and highly productive systems are subject to significant and increasing forces of change. On the supply side they face serious natural resource management problems, including the unsustainable exploitation of water and soils, inefficient use of chemical inputs, and emerging or worsening disease and pest problems. On the demand side they are being transformed by market forces and changing consumer demands. Both thrusts imply an increasing role for horticulture and the present paper explores some of the implications based on on-going work in the Indo-Gangetic plains of South Asia. The “Green Revolution” has boosted cereal productivity in South Asia, especially for rice and wheat. This contributed to a 170% increase in cereal production over the last 40 years, whereas cereal area increased with only 10% (Table 1). Production of horticultural crops increased even more significantly (on a percentage), albeit from a lower base. The horticultural increase was however primarily through area increase (Table 1). Another important difference is the driving force behind the increase in production. The increase in cereal crops was largely needed to feed a rapidly growing population, with per capita intake only increasing 10% over 40 years (Table 2). The increase in horticultural crops was largely due to changing diets, implying significant increases in per capita consumption of roots and tubers (namely potato), vegetables and fruits (Table 2). Among the major farming systems of South Asia are those based on rice-wheat cropping (19% of arable land in the region). The ricewheat farming system is characterized by a summer (monsoon) paddy rice crop followed by an irrigated wheat crop in the dry winter, and sometimes a short spring vegetable crop. These intensive cereal-based systems typically also include vegetables (including potatoes) and livestock (especially for dairy). This cropping system comprises the Indus plains in Pakistan and North-Western India, and the Gangetic Plains in Northern India, Nepal’s terrai and the northeast of Bangladesh (Fig. 1). The rice-wheat cropping pattern has been practiced by farmers in Asia for more than 1,000 years. Today the rice-wheat cropping systems in Figure 1. The intensive rice-wheat cropping systems in the Indo-Ganges (South Asia). Pakistan Rice-wheat zones India Nepal Bangladesh the Indo-Ganges cover about 14 million ha, of which in excess of 3/4 are under irrigation. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a relatively homogenous ecological region in terms of vegetation. While in the western part wheat is the dominating crop, rice is the dominant crop in the eastern part. A third of the total South Asian population lives in this sub-region, making it one of the most densely populated areas of the world (see Table 3 for India). More than half the population is engaged in agriculture. With 2/5 of the cultivated land of South Asia, this sub-region provides the bulk of food grains to the population. Table 1. Area, yield, production, and aggregate change over time by type of food crop in South Asia in early 1960s and early 21st century. Source: FAO. South Asia comprises Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives Islands, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Group Aggregate 40 year change Early 1960s 1 Early 21st Century 2 (% over 1960) Area Yield Production Area Yield Production Area Yield Production (million ha) (t/ha) (million t) (million ha) (t/ha) (million t) (million ha) (t/ha) (million t) Cereals 112.5 1.02 114.3 123.8 2.48 306.5 10.0 143.8 168.2 Pulses 26.5 0.50 13.3 24.4 0.60 14.7 -8.1 19.6 10.0 Oilseeds 27.4 0.14 3.9 38.6 0.25 9.6 40.9 75.5 148.1 Vegetables & melons 3.3 6.46 21.3 7.6 11.37 86.0 129.8 76.0 303.7 Fruits 2.2 7.44 16.5 5.1 10.82 54.9 128.5 45.4 232.4 Roots & tubers 1.0 7.11 7.2 2.3 17.53 40.6 129.3 146.4 464.4 Nuts 0.2 0.54 0.1 0.8 0.68 0.6 254.1 26.0 346.2 1 3-year average: 1961-1963 2 3-year average: 2002-2004 CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE •VOL 46 • NUMBER 3 • 2006 • 27
Page 1 and 2: Chronica HORTICULTURAE Volume 46 -
Page 3 and 4: NEWS FROM THE BOARD An Exercise in
Page 5 and 6: esearch led to new technologies for
Page 7 and 8: on Asian Plants in 2002. Dr. Lee ha
Page 9 and 10: The ISHS General Assembly in Seoul
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